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why is the golden bridge called the golden bridge | Golden Gate Bridge - wikipedia
The Golden Gate Bridge is a suspension bridge spanning the Golden Gate, the one - mile - wide (1.6 km) strait connecting San Francisco Bay and the Pacific Ocean. The structure links the American city of San Francisco, California -- the northern tip of the San Francisco Peninsula -- to Marin County, carrying both U.S. Route 101 and California State Route 1 across the strait. The bridge is one of the most internationally recognized symbols of San Francisco, California, and the United States. It has been declared one of the Wonders of the Modern World by the American Society of Civil Engineers.
The Frommer 's travel guide describes the Golden Gate Bridge as "possibly the most beautiful, certainly the most photographed, bridge in the world. '' At the time of its opening in 1937, it was both the longest and the tallest suspension bridge in the world, with a main span of 4,200 feet (1,280 m) and a total height of 746 feet (227 m).
Before the bridge was built, the only practical short route between San Francisco and what is now Marin County was by boat across a section of San Francisco Bay. A ferry service began as early as 1820, with a regularly scheduled service beginning in the 1840s for the purpose of transporting water to San Francisco.
The Sausalito Land and Ferry Company service, launched in 1867, eventually became the Golden Gate Ferry Company, a Southern Pacific Railroad subsidiary, the largest ferry operation in the world by the late 1920s. Once for railroad passengers and customers only, Southern Pacific 's automobile ferries became very profitable and important to the regional economy. The ferry crossing between the Hyde Street Pier in San Francisco and Sausalito in Marin County took approximately 20 minutes and cost US $1.00 per vehicle, a price later reduced to compete with the new bridge. The trip from the San Francisco Ferry Building took 27 minutes.
Many wanted to build a bridge to connect San Francisco to Marin County. San Francisco was the largest American city still served primarily by ferry boats. Because it did not have a permanent link with communities around the bay, the city 's growth rate was below the national average. Many experts said that a bridge could not be built across the 6,700 ft (2,042 m) strait, which had strong, swirling tides and currents, with water 372 ft (113 m) deep at the center of the channel, and frequent strong winds. Experts said that ferocious winds and blinding fogs would prevent construction and operation.
Although the idea of a bridge spanning the Golden Gate was not new, the proposal that eventually took hold was made in a 1916 San Francisco Bulletin article by former engineering student James Wilkins. San Francisco 's City Engineer estimated the cost at $100 million, which would have been $2.12 billion in 2009, and impractical for the time. He asked bridge engineers whether it could be built for less. One who responded, Joseph Strauss, was an ambitious engineer and poet who had, for his graduate thesis, designed a 55 - mile - long (89 km) railroad bridge across the Bering Strait. At the time, Strauss had completed some 400 drawbridges -- most of which were inland -- and nothing on the scale of the new project. Strauss 's initial drawings were for a massive cantilever on each side of the strait, connected by a central suspension segment, which Strauss promised could be built for $17 million.
Local authorities agreed to proceed only on the assurance that Strauss would alter the design and accept input from several consulting project experts. A suspension - bridge design was considered the most practical, because of recent advances in metallurgy.
Strauss spent more than a decade drumming up support in Northern California. The bridge faced opposition, including litigation, from many sources. The Department of War was concerned that the bridge would interfere with ship traffic. The navy feared that a ship collision or sabotage to the bridge could block the entrance to one of its main harbors. Unions demanded guarantees that local workers would be favored for construction jobs. Southern Pacific Railroad, one of the most powerful business interests in California, opposed the bridge as competition to its ferry fleet and filed a lawsuit against the project, leading to a mass boycott of the ferry service.
In May 1924, Colonel Herbert Deakyne held the second hearing on the Bridge on behalf of the Secretary of War in a request to use federal land for construction. Deakyne, on behalf of the Secretary of War, approved the transfer of land needed for the bridge structure and leading roads to the "Bridging the Golden Gate Association '' and both San Francisco County and Marin County, pending further bridge plans by Strauss. Another ally was the fledgling automobile industry, which supported the development of roads and bridges to increase demand for automobiles.
The bridge 's name was first used when the project was initially discussed in 1917 by M.M. O'Shaughnessy, city engineer of San Francisco, and Strauss. The name became official with the passage of the Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District Act by the state legislature in 1923, creating a special district to design, build and finance the bridge. San Francisco and most of the counties along the North Coast of California joined the Golden Gate Bridge District, with the exception being Humboldt County, whose residents opposed the bridge 's construction and the traffic it would generate.
Strauss was chief engineer in charge of overall design and construction of the bridge project. However, because he had little understanding or experience with cable - suspension designs, responsibility for much of the engineering and architecture fell on other experts. Strauss 's initial design proposal (two double cantilever spans linked by a central suspension segment) was unacceptable from a visual standpoint. The final graceful suspension design was conceived and championed by Leon Moisseiff, the engineer of the Manhattan Bridge in New York City.
Irving Morrow, a relatively unknown residential architect, designed the overall shape of the bridge towers, the lighting scheme, and Art Deco elements, such as the tower decorations, streetlights, railing, and walkways. The famous International Orange color was originally used as a sealant for the bridge. The US Navy had wanted it to be painted with black and yellow stripes to ensure visibility by passing ships.
Senior engineer Charles Alton Ellis, collaborating remotely with Moisseiff, was the principal engineer of the project. Moisseiff produced the basic structural design, introducing his "deflection theory '' by which a thin, flexible roadway would flex in the wind, greatly reducing stress by transmitting forces via suspension cables to the bridge towers. Although the Golden Gate Bridge design has proved sound, a later Moisseiff design, the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge, collapsed in a strong windstorm soon after it was completed, because of an unexpected aeroelastic flutter. Ellis was also tasked with designing a "bridge within a bridge '' in the southern abutment, to avoid the need to demolish Fort Point, a pre -- Civil War masonry fortification viewed, even then, as worthy of historic preservation. He penned a graceful steel arch spanning the fort and carrying the roadway to the bridge 's southern anchorage.
Ellis was a Greek scholar and mathematician who at one time was a University of Illinois professor of engineering despite having no engineering degree. He eventually earned a degree in civil engineering from the University of Illinois prior to designing the Golden Gate Bridge and spent the last twelve years of his career as a professor at Purdue University. He became an expert in structural design, writing the standard textbook of the time. Ellis did much of the technical and theoretical work that built the bridge, but he received none of the credit in his lifetime. In November 1931, Strauss fired Ellis and replaced him with a former subordinate, Clifford Paine, ostensibly for wasting too much money sending telegrams back and forth to Moisseiff. Ellis, obsessed with the project and unable to find work elsewhere during the Depression, continued working 70 hours per week on an unpaid basis, eventually turning in ten volumes of hand calculations.
With an eye toward self - promotion and posterity, Strauss downplayed the contributions of his collaborators who, despite receiving little recognition or compensation, are largely responsible for the final form of the bridge. He succeeded in having himself credited as the person most responsible for the design and vision of the bridge. Only much later were the contributions of the others on the design team properly appreciated. In May 2007, the Golden Gate Bridge District issued a formal report on 70 years of stewardship of the famous bridge and decided to give Ellis major credit for the design of the bridge.
The Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District, authorized by an act of the California Legislature, was incorporated in 1928 as the official entity to design, construct, and finance the Golden Gate Bridge. However, after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the District was unable to raise the construction funds, so it lobbied for a $30 million bond measure. The bonds were approved in November 1930, by votes in the counties affected by the bridge. The construction budget at the time of approval was $27 million. However, the District was unable to sell the bonds until 1932, when Amadeo Giannini, the founder of San Francisco -- based Bank of America, agreed on behalf of his bank to buy the entire issue in order to help the local economy.
Construction began on January 5, 1933. The project cost more than $35 million, ($493 million in 2016 dollars) completing ahead of schedule and $1.3 million under budget. The Golden Gate Bridge construction project was carried out by the McClintic - Marshall Construction Co., a subsidiary of Bethlehem Steel Corporation founded by Howard H. McClintic and Charles D. Marshall, both of Lehigh University.
Strauss remained head of the project, overseeing day - to - day construction and making some groundbreaking contributions. A graduate of the University of Cincinnati, he placed a brick from his alma mater 's demolished McMicken Hall in the south anchorage before the concrete was poured. He innovated the use of movable safety netting beneath the construction site, which saved the lives of many otherwise - unprotected ironworkers. Of eleven men killed from falls during construction, ten were killed on February 17, 1937, when the bridge was near completion when the net failed under the stress of a scaffold that had fallen. The workers ' platform that was attached to a rolling hanger on a track collapsed when the bolts that were connected to the track were too small and the amount of weight was too great to bear. The platform fell into the safety net, but was too heavy and the net gave way. Two out of the twelve workers survived the 200 - foot (61 m) fall into the icy waters, including the 37 - year - old foreman, Slim Lambert. Nineteen others who were saved by the net over the course of construction became members of their Half Way to Hell Club.
The project was finished and opened May 27, 1937. The Bridge Round House diner was then included in the southeastern end of the Golden Gate Bridge, adjacent to the tourist plaza which was renovated in 2012. The Bridge Round House, an Art Deco design by Alfred Finnila completed in 1938, has been popular throughout the years as a starting point for various commercial tours of the bridge and an unofficial gift shop. The diner was renovated in 2012 and the gift shop was then removed as a new, official gift shop has been included in the adjacent plaza.
During the bridge work, the Assistant Civil Engineer of California Alfred Finnila had overseen the entire iron work of the bridge as well as half of the bridge 's road work. With the death of Jack Balestreri in April 2012, all workers involved in the original construction are now deceased.
The bridge - opening celebration began on May 27, 1937 and lasted for one week. The day before vehicle traffic was allowed, 200,000 people crossed either on foot or on roller skates. On opening day, Mayor Angelo Rossi and other officials rode the ferry to Marin, then crossed the bridge in a motorcade past three ceremonial "barriers '', the last a blockade of beauty queens who required Joseph Strauss to present the bridge to the Highway District before allowing him to pass. An official song, "There 's a Silver Moon on the Golden Gate '', was chosen to commemorate the event. Strauss wrote a poem that is now on the Golden Gate Bridge entitled "The Mighty Task is Done. '' The next day, President Roosevelt pushed a button in Washington, D.C. signaling the official start of vehicle traffic over the Bridge at noon. As the celebration got out of hand there was a small riot in the uptown Polk Gulch area. Weeks of civil and cultural activities called "the Fiesta '' followed. A statue of Strauss was moved in 1955 to a site near the bridge.
In May 1987, as part of the 50th anniversary celebration, the Golden Gate Bridge district again closed the bridge to automobile traffic and allowed pedestrians to cross the bridge. However, this celebration attracted 750,000 to 1,000,000 people, and ineffective crowd control meant the bridge became congested with roughly 300,000 people, causing the center span of the bridge to flatten out under the weight. Although the bridge is designed to flex in that way under heavy loads, and was estimated not to have exceeded 40 % of the yielding stress of the suspension cables, bridge officials stated that uncontrolled pedestrian access was not being considered as part of the 75th anniversary on Sunday, May 27, 2012, because of the additional law enforcement costs required "since 9 / 11 ''.
A pedestrian poses at the old railing on opening day, 1937
Opening of the Golden Gate Bridge
Official invitation to the opening of the bridge. This copy was sent to the City of Seattle
Until 1964, the Golden Gate Bridge had the longest suspension bridge main span in the world, at 4,200 feet (1,300 m). Since 1964 its main span length has been surpassed by ten bridges; it now has the second - longest main span in the United States, after the Verrazano - Narrows Bridge in New York City. The total length of the Golden Gate Bridge from abutment to abutment is 8,981 feet (2,737 m).
The Golden Gate Bridge 's clearance above high water averages 220 feet (67 m) while its towers, at 746 feet (227 m) above the water, were the world 's tallest on a suspension bridge until 1993 when it was surpassed by the Mezcala Bridge, in Mexico.
The weight of the roadway is hung from 250 pairs of vertical suspender ropes, which are attached to two main cables. The main cables pass over the two main towers and are fixed in concrete at each end. Each cable is made of 27,572 strands of wire. The total length of galvanized steel wire used to fabricate both main cables is estimated to be 80,000 miles (130,000 km).
The bridge has approximately 1,200,000 total rivets.
The color of the bridge is officially an orange vermilion called international orange. The color was selected by consulting architect Irving Morrow because it complements the natural surroundings and enhances the bridge 's visibility in fog. Aesthetics was the foremost reason why the first design of Joseph Strauss was rejected. Upon re-submission of his bridge construction plan, he added details, such as lighting, to outline the bridge 's cables and towers. In 1999, it was ranked fifth on the List of America 's Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects.
The bridge was originally painted with red lead primer and a lead - based topcoat, which was touched up as required. In the mid-1960s, a program was started to improve corrosion protection by stripping the original paint and repainting the bridge with zinc silicate primer and vinyl topcoats. Since 1990, acrylic topcoats have been used instead for air - quality reasons. The program was completed in 1995 and it is now maintained by 38 painters who touch up the paintwork where it becomes seriously corroded.
A view of the Golden Gate Bridge from the Marin Headlands on a foggy morning at sunrise
View of the northern tower of the bridge
Most maps and signage mark the bridge as part of the concurrency between U.S. Route 101 and California State Route 1. Although part of the National Highway System, the bridge is not officially part of California 's Highway System. For example, under the California Streets and Highways Code § 401, Route 101 ends at "the approach to the Golden Gate Bridge '' and then resumes at "a point in Marin County opposite San Francisco ''. The Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District has jurisdiction over the segment of highway that crosses the bridge instead of the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans).
The movable median barrier between the lanes is moved several times daily to conform to traffic patterns. On weekday mornings, traffic flows mostly southbound into the city, so four of the six lanes run southbound. Conversely, on weekday afternoons, four lanes run northbound. During off - peak periods and weekends, traffic is split with three lanes in each direction.
From 1968 to 2015, opposing traffic was separated by small, plastic pylons, and during that time, there were 16 fatalities resulting from 128 head - on collisions. To improve safety, the speed limit on the Golden Gate Bridge was reduced from 50 to 45 mph (80 to 72 km / h) on October 1, 1983. Although there had been discussion concerning the installation of a movable barrier since the 1980s, only in March 2005 did the Bridge Board of Directors commit to finding funding to complete the $2 million study required prior to the installation of a movable median barrier. Installation of the resulting barrier was completed on January 11, 2015, following a closure of 45.5 hours to private vehicle traffic, the longest in the bridge 's history. The new barrier system, including the zipper trucks, cost approximately $30.3 million to purchase and install.
The bridge is popular with pedestrians and bicyclists, and was built with walkways on either side of the six vehicle traffic lanes. Initially, they were separated from the traffic lanes by only a metal curb, but railings between the walkways and the traffic lanes were added in 2003, primarily as a measure to prevent bicyclists from falling into the roadway.
The main walkway is on the eastern side, and is open for use by both pedestrians and bicycles in the morning to mid-afternoon during weekdays (5 am to 3: 30 pm), and to pedestrians only for the remaining daylight hours (until 6 pm, or 9 pm during DST). The eastern walkway is reserved for pedestrians on weekends (5 am to 6 pm, or 9 pm during DST), and is open exclusively to bicyclists in the evening and overnight, when it is closed to pedestrians. The western walkway is open only for bicyclists and only during the hours when they are not allowed on the eastern walkway.
Bus service across the bridge is provided by two public transportation agencies: San Francisco Muni and Golden Gate Transit. Muni offers Saturday and Sunday service on the Marin Headlands Express bus line, and Golden Gate Transit runs numerous bus lines throughout the week. The southern end of the bridge, near the toll plaza and parking lot, is also accessible daily from 5: 30 a.m. to midnight by Muni line 28. The Marin Airporter, a private company, also offers service across the bridge between Marin County and San Francisco International Airport.
A visitor center and gift shop, dubbed the "Bridge Pavilion '', is located on the San Francisco side of the bridge, adjacent to the southeast parking lot. It opened in 2012, in time for the bridge 's 75th anniversary celebration. A cafe, outdoor exhibits, and restroom facilities are located nearby. On the Marin side of the bridge, only accessible from the northbound lanes, is the H. Dana Bower Rest Area and Vista Point, named after the first landscape architect for the California Division of Highways.
Lands and waters under and around the bridge are homes to varieties of wildlife such as bobcats and sea lions. Three species of cetaceans that had been absent in the area for many years show recent recoveries / (re) colonizations vicinity to the bridge, and researchers study them to strengthen protections, concerning actions by public and recommending to watch whales either from the bridge and nearby, or to use a local whale watching operator.
The last of the construction bonds were retired in 1971, with $35 million in principal and nearly $39 million in interest raised entirely from bridge tolls.
In November 2006, the Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District recommended a corporate sponsorship program for the bridge to address its operating deficit, projected at $80 million over five years. The District promised that the proposal, which it called a "partnership program, '' would not include changing the name of the bridge or placing advertising on the bridge itself. In October 2007, the Board unanimously voted to discontinue the proposal and seek additional revenue through other means, most likely a toll increase.
In an effort to save $19.2 million over the following 10 years, the Golden Gate District voted in January 2011 to eliminate all toll takers by 2012 and use only open road tolling. Subsequently, this was delayed and toll taker elimination occurred in March 2013. The cost savings have been revised to $19 million over an eight - year period. In addition to the FasTrak electronic toll collection system, the Golden Gate District implemented the use of license plate tolling (branded as "Pay - by - Plate ''), and also a one time payment system for drivers to pay before or after their trip on the bridge. Twenty - eight positions were eliminated as part of this plan.
On April 7, 2014, the toll for users of FasTrak was increased from $5 to $6, while the toll for drivers using either the license plate tolling or the one time payment system was raised from $6 to $7. Bicycle, pedestrian, and northbound motor vehicle traffic remain toll free. For vehicles with more than two axles, the toll rate is $7 per axle for those using license plate tolling or the one time payment system, and $6 per axle for FasTrak users. During peak traffic hours, carpool vehicles carrying two or more people and motorcycles pay a discounted toll of $4; drivers must have Fastrak to take advantage of this carpool rate. The Golden Gate Transportation District then planned to increase the tolls by 25 cents in July 2015, and then by another 25 cents each of the next three years.
In March 2008, the Golden Gate Bridge District board approved a resolution to start congestion pricing at the Golden Gate Bridge, charging higher tolls during the peak hours, but rising and falling depending on traffic levels. This decision allowed the Bay Area to meet the federal requirement to receive $158 million in federal transportation funds from USDOT Urban Partnership grant. As a condition of the grant, the congestion toll was to be in place by September 2009.
The first results of the study, called the Mobility, Access and Pricing Study (MAPS), showed that a congestion pricing program is feasible. The different pricing scenarios considered were presented in public meetings in December 2008.
In August 2008, transportation officials ended the congestion pricing program in favor of varying rates for metered parking along the route to the bridge including on Lombard Street and Van Ness Avenue.
The Golden Gate Bridge is the second-most used suicide site / suicide bridge in the world, after the Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge. The deck is about 245 feet (75 m) above the water. After a fall of four seconds, jumpers hit the water at around 75 mph or about 120 km / h. Most of the jumpers die from impact trauma. About 5 % of the jumpers survive the initial impact but generally drown or die of hypothermia in the cold water.
After years of debate and over an estimated 1,500 deaths, suicide barriers began to be installed in April 2017. Construction will take approximately four years at a cost of over $200 million.
Since its completion, the Golden Gate Bridge has been closed because of weather conditions only three times: on December 1, 1951, because of gusts of 69 mph (111 km / h); on December 23, 1982, because of winds of 70 mph (113 km / h); and on December 3, 1983, because of wind gusts of 75 mph (121 km / h).
An anemometer, placed midway between the two towers on the west side of the bridge, has been used to measure wind speeds. Another anemometer was placed on one of the towers.
Modern knowledge of the effect of earthquakes on structures led to a program to retrofit the Golden Gate to better resist seismic events. The proximity of the bridge to the San Andreas Fault places it at risk for a significant earthquake. Once thought to have been able to withstand any magnitude of foreseeable earthquake, the bridge was actually vulnerable to complete structural failure (i.e., collapse) triggered by the failure of supports on the 320 - foot (98 m) arch over Fort Point. A $392 million program was initiated to improve the structure 's ability to withstand such an event with only minimal (repairable) damage. One challenging undertaking is completing this program without disrupting traffic. A complex electro - hydraulic synchronous lift system was custom built for construction of temporary support towers and a series of intricate lifts, transferring the loads from the existing bridge onto the temporary supports. This was completed with engineers from Balfour Beatty and Enerpac, accomplishing this task without disrupting day - to - day San Francisco commuter traffic. The retrofit was planned to be completed in 2012.
The former elevated approach to the Golden Gate Bridge through the San Francisco Presidio, known as Doyle Drive, dated to 1933 and was named after Frank P. Doyle, President and son of the founder of the Exchange Bank in Santa Rosa, and the man who, more than any other person, made it possible to build the Golden Gate Bridge. The highway carried about 91,000 vehicles each weekday between downtown San Francisco and the North Bay and points north. The road was deemed "vulnerable to earthquake damage '', had a problematic 4 - lane design, and lacked shoulders, and a San Francisco County Transportation Authority study recommended that it be replaced. Construction on the $1 billion replacement, temporarily known as the Presidio Parkway, began in December 2009. The elevated Doyle Drive was demolished on the weekend of April 27 -- 30, 2012, and traffic used a part of the partially completed Presidio Parkway, until it was switched onto the finished Presidio Parkway on the weekend of July 9 -- 12, 2015. As of May 2012, an official at Caltrans said there is no plan to permanently rename the portion known as Doyle Drive.
As a prominent American landmark, the Golden Gate Bridge has been used in numerous media which includes books, films and video games.
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who sings rock me gently rock me slowly | Rock Me Gently (Andy Kim song) - Wikipedia
"Rock Me Gently '' was a Billboard # 1 hit song for Andy Kim in 1974.
The Canadian singer, who had achieved several hits from 1968 to 1971, had not had a Top 100 single since September 1971, and had been without a record label since early 1973. Nevertheless, he said in a 1974 interview, "I never mentally admitted defeat in spite of three years off the charts. '' He formed his own label, Ice Records, and personally financed the recording session that produced "Rock Me Gently ''. He could afford to record only two sides, and deciding the second side was good enough to be an A-Side, he put an instrumental of Rock Me Gently on its B - Side.
The single impressed Capitol Records executives, who signed Kim to a deal. "Rock Me Gently '' debuted on the Hot 100 on June 22, 1974, and took 14 weeks to reach # 1 on September 28. It also rose to # 2 on the UK Singles Chart, and # 10 in Ireland, and remains his only charting song in either the UK or Ireland. Even the instrumental B - Side received substantial airplay on R&B stations. It would be Kim 's last top 10 hit in either country.
Part of the song was used in a 1970s UK TV commercial for Lever Brothers ' Jif cleaning cream, using the lyric "When Jif 's your cleaner - Tough dirt goes - Away so gently - And it shows - Your home has never been loved like this before ''.
The song resurfaced in 2008 in a television commercial for Jeep Liberty. It was also played at the end (and titles) of season 4 finale of Ray Donovan.
In 1989, Canadian country singer Michelle Wright released a version as a single on her debut album, Do Right By Me. It reached # 7 on the Canadian RPM country singles chart.
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the words under god in the pledge of allegiance | Pledge of Allegiance (United States) - wikipedia
The Pledge of Allegiance of the United States is an expression of allegiance to the Flag of the United States and the republic of the United States of America. It was originally composed by Captain George Thatcher Balch, a Union Army Officer during the Civil War and later a teacher of patriotism in New York City schools. The form of the pledge used today was largely devised by Francis Bellamy in 1892, and formally adopted by Congress as the pledge in 1942. The official name of The Pledge of Allegiance was adopted in 1945. The most recent alteration of its wording came on Flag Day in 1954, when the words "under God '' were added.
Congressional sessions open with the recital of the Pledge, as do many government meetings at local levels, and meetings held by many private organizations. All states except Hawaii, Iowa, Vermont and Wyoming require a regularly - scheduled recitation of the pledge in the public schools, although the Supreme Court has ruled in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette that students can not be compelled to recite the Pledge, nor can they be punished for not doing so. In a number of states, state flag pledges of allegiance are required to be recited after this.
The United States Flag Code says:
The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag -- "I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all. '' -- should be rendered by standing at attention facing the flag with the right hand over the heart. When not in uniform men should remove any non-religious headdress with their right hand and hold it at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart. Persons in uniform should remain silent, face the flag, and render the military salute. Members of the Armed Forces not in uniform and veterans may render the military salute in the manner provided for persons in uniform.
The Pledge of Allegiance, as it exists in its current form, was composed in August 1892 by Francis Bellamy (1855 -- 1931), who was a Baptist minister, a Christian socialist, and the cousin of socialist utopian novelist Edward Bellamy (1850 -- 1898). There did exist a previous version created by Rear Admiral George Balch, a veteran of the Civil War, who later become auditor of the New York Board of Education. Balch 's pledge, which existed contemporaneously with the Bellamy version until the 1923 National Flag Conference, read:
We give our heads and hearts to God and our country; one country, one language, one flag!
Balch was a proponent of teaching children, especially those of immigrants, loyalty to the United States, even going so far as to write a book on the subject and work with both the government and private organizations to distribute flags to every classroom and school. Balch 's pledge, which predates Bellamy 's by 5 years and was embraced by many schools, by the Daughters of the American Revolution until the 1910s, and by the Grand Army of the Republic until the 1923 National Flag Conference, is often overlooked when discussing the history of the Pledge. Bellamy, however, did not approve of the pledge as Balch had written it, referring to the text as "too juvenile and lacking in dignity. '' The Bellamy "Pledge of Allegiance '' was first published in the September 8 issue of the popular children 's magazine The Youth 's Companion as part of the National Public - School Celebration of Columbus Day, a celebration of the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus 's arrival in the Americas. The event was conceived and promoted by James B. Upham, a marketer for the magazine, as a campaign to instill the idea of American nationalism in students and to sell flags to public schools. According to author Margarette S. Miller, this campaign was in line both with Upham 's patriotic vision as well as with his commercial interest. According to Miller, Upham "would often say to his wife: ' Mary, if I can instill into the minds of our American youth a love for their country and the principles on which it was founded, and create in them an ambition to carry on with the ideals which the early founders wrote into The Constitution, I shall not have lived in vain. ' ''
Bellamy 's original Pledge read:
I pledge allegiance to my Flag and the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.
The Pledge was supposed to be quick and to the point. Bellamy designed it to be recited in 15 seconds. As a socialist, he had initially also considered using the words equality and fraternity but decided against it, knowing that the state superintendents of education on his committee were against equality for women and African Americans.
Francis Bellamy and Upham had lined up the National Education Association to support the Youth 's Companion as a sponsor of the Columbus Day observance and the use in that observance of the American flag. By June 29, 1892, Bellamy and Upham had arranged for Congress and President Benjamin Harrison to announce a proclamation making the public school flag ceremony the center of the Columbus Day celebrations. This arrangement was formalized when Harrison issued Presidential Proclamation 335. Subsequently, the Pledge was first used in public schools on October 12, 1892, during Columbus Day observances organized to coincide with the opening of the World 's Columbian Exposition (the Chicago World 's Fair), Illinois.
In his recollection of the creation of the Pledge, Francis Bellamy said, "At the beginning of the nineties patriotism and national feeling was (sic) at a low ebb. The patriotic ardor of the Civil War was an old story... The time was ripe for a reawakening of simple Americanism and the leaders in the new movement rightly felt that patriotic education should begin in the public schools. '' James Upham "felt that a flag should be on every schoolhouse, '' so his publication "fostered a plan of selling flags to schools through the children themselves at cost, which was so successful that 25,000 schools acquired flags in the first year (1892 - 93).
As the World 's Columbian Exposition was set to celebrate the 400th anniversary the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas, Upham sought to link the publication 's flag drive to the event, "so that every school in the land... would have a flag raising, under the most impressive conditions. '' Bellamy was placed in charge of this operation and was soon lobbying "not only the superintendents of education in all the States, but (he) also worked with governors, Congressmen, and even the President of the United States. '' The publication 's efforts paid off when Benjamin Harrison declared Wednesday October 12, 1892, to be Columbus Day for which The Youth 's Companion made "an official program for universal use in all the schools. '' Bellamy recalled that the event "had to be more than a list of exercises. The ritual must be prepared with simplicity and dignity. ''
Edna Dean Proctor wrote an ode for the event, and "There was also an oration suitable for declamation. '' Bellamy held that "Of course, the nub of the program was to be the raising of the flag, with a salute to the flag recited by the pupils in unison. '' He found "There was not a satisfactory enough form for this salute. The Balch salute, which ran, "I give my heart and my hand to my country, one country, one language, one flag, '' seemed to him too juvenile and lacking in dignity. '' After working on the idea with Upham, Bellamy concluded, "It was my thought that a vow of loyalty or allegiance to the flag should be the dominant idea. I especially stressed the word ' allegiance '... Beginning with the new word allegiance, I first decided that ' pledge ' was a better school word than ' vow ' or ' swear '; and that the first person singular should be used, and that ' my ' flag was preferable to ' the. ' '' Bellamy considered the words "country, nation, or Republic, '' choosing the last as "it distinguished the form of government chosen by the founding fathers and established by the Revolution. The true reason for allegiance to the flag is the Republic for which it stands. '' Bellamy then reflected on the sayings of Revolutionary and Civil War figures, and concluded "all that pictured struggle reduced itself to three words, one Nation indivisible. ''
Bellamy considered the slogan of the French Revolution, Liberté, égalité, fraternité ("liberty, equality, fraternity ''), but held that "fraternity was too remote of realization, and... (that) equality was a dubious word. '' Concluding "Liberty and justice were surely basic, were undebatable, and were all that any one Nation could handle. If they were exercised for all. they involved the spirit of equality and fraternity. ''
After being reviewed by Upham and other members of The Youth 's Companion, the Pledge was approved and put in the official Columbus Day program. Bellamy noted that, "In later years the words ' to my flag ' were changed to ' to the flag of the United States of America ' because of the large number of foreign children in the schools. '' Bellamy disliked the change, as "it did injure the rhythmic balance of the original composition. ''
In 1906, The Daughters of the American Revolution 's magazine, The American Monthly, listed the "formula of allegiance '' as being the Balch Pledge of Allegiance, which reads:
I pledge allegiance to my flag, and the republic for which it stands. I pledge my head and my heart to God and my country. One country, one language and one flag.
In subsequent publications of the Daughters of the American Revolution, such as in 1915 's "Proceedings of the Twenty - Fourth Continental Congress of the Daughters of the American Revolution '' and 1916 's annual "National Report, '' the Balch Pledge, listed as official in 1906, is now categorized as "Old Pledge '' with Bellamy 's version under the heading "New Pledge. '' However, the "Old Pledge '' continued to be used by other organizations until the National Flag Conference established uniform flag procedures in 1923.
In 1923, the National Flag Conference called for the words "my Flag '' to be changed to "the Flag of the United States, '' so that new immigrants would not confuse loyalties between their birth countries and the US. The words "of America '' were added a year later. Congress officially recognized the Pledge for the first time, in the following form, on June 22, 1942:
I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.
Louis Albert Bowman, an attorney from Illinois, was the first to suggest the addition of "under God '' to the pledge. The National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution gave him an Award of Merit as the originator of this idea. He spent his adult life in the Chicago area and was chaplain of the Illinois Society of the Sons of the American Revolution. At a meeting on February 12, 1948, he led the society in reciting the pledge with the two words "under God '' added. He said that the words came from Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address. Although not all manuscript versions of the Gettysburg Address contain the words "under God '', all the reporters ' transcripts of the speech as delivered do, as perhaps Lincoln may have deviated from his prepared text and inserted the phrase when he said "that the nation shall, under God, have a new birth of freedom. '' Bowman repeated his revised version of the Pledge at other meetings.
In 1951, the Knights of Columbus, the world 's largest Catholic fraternal service organization, also began including the words "under God '' in the Pledge of Allegiance. In New York City, on April 30, 1951, the board of directors of the Knights of Columbus adopted a resolution to amend the text of their Pledge of Allegiance at the opening of each of the meetings of the 800 Fourth Degree Assemblies of the Knights of Columbus by addition of the words "under God '' after the words "one nation. '' Over the next two years, the idea spread throughout Knights of Columbus organizations nationwide. On August 21, 1952, the Supreme Council of the Knights of Columbus at its annual meeting adopted a resolution urging that the change be made universal, and copies of this resolution were sent to the President, the Vice President (as Presiding Officer of the Senate), and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. The National Fraternal Congress meeting in Boston on September 24, 1952, adopted a similar resolution upon the recommendation of its president, Supreme Knight Luke E. Hart. Several State Fraternal Congresses acted likewise almost immediately thereafter. This campaign led to several official attempts to prompt Congress to adopt the Knights of Columbus policy for the entire nation. These attempts were eventually a success.
At the suggestion of a correspondent, Representative Louis C. Rabaut (D - Mich.), of Michigan sponsored a resolution to add the words "under God '' to the Pledge in 1953.
Before February 1954, no endeavor to get the pledge officially amended had succeeded. The final successful push came from George MacPherson Docherty. Some American presidents honored Lincoln 's birthday by attending services at the church Lincoln attended, New York Avenue Presbyterian Church by sitting in Lincoln 's pew on the Sunday nearest February 12. On February 7, 1954, with President Eisenhower sitting in Lincoln 's pew, the church 's pastor, George MacPherson Docherty, delivered a sermon based on the Gettysburg Address entitled "A New Birth of Freedom. '' He argued that the nation 's might lay not in arms but rather in its spirit and higher purpose. He noted that the Pledge 's sentiments could be those of any nation: "There was something missing in the pledge, and that which was missing was the characteristic and definitive factor in the American way of life. '' He cited Lincoln 's words "under God '' as defining words that set the US apart from other nations.
President Eisenhower had been baptized a Presbyterian very recently, just a year before. He responded enthusiastically to Docherty in a conversation following the service. Eisenhower acted on his suggestion the next day and on February 8, 1954, Rep. Charles Oakman (R - Mich.), introduced a bill to that effect. Congress passed the necessary legislation and Eisenhower signed the bill into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954. Eisenhower said:
From this day forward, the millions of our school children will daily proclaim in every city and town, every village and rural school house, the dedication of our nation and our people to the Almighty... In this way we are reaffirming the transcendence of religious faith in America 's heritage and future; in this way we shall constantly strengthen those spiritual weapons which forever will be our country 's most powerful resource, in peace or in war.
The phrase "under God '' was incorporated into the Pledge of Allegiance on June 14, 1954, by a Joint Resolution of Congress amending § 4 of the Flag Code enacted in 1942.
On October 6, 1954, the National Executive Committee of the American Legion adopted a resolution, first approved by the Illinois American Legion Convention in August 1954, which formally recognized the Knights of Columbus for having initiated and brought forward the amendment to the Pledge of Allegiance.
Even though the movement behind inserting "under God '' into the pledge might have been initiated by a private religious fraternity and even though references to God appear in previous versions of the pledge, author Kevin M. Kruse asserts that this movement was an effort by corporate America to instill in the minds of the people that capitalism and free enterprise were heavenly blessed. Kruse acknowledges the insertion of the phrase was influenced by the push - back against atheistic communism during the Cold War, but argues the longer arc of history shows the conflation of Christianity and capitalism as a challenge to the New Deal played the larger role.
Swearing of the Pledge is accompanied by a salute. An early version of the salute, adopted in 1887, known as the Balch Salute, which accompanied the Balch pledge, instructed students to stand with their right hand outstretched toward the flag, the fingers of which are then brought to the forehead, followed by being placed flat over the heart, and finally falling to the side.
In 1892, Francis Bellamy created what was known as the Bellamy salute. It started with the hand outstretched toward the flag, palm down, and ended with the palm up. Because of the similarity between the Bellamy salute and the Nazi salute, which was adopted in Germany later, the US Congress stipulated that the hand - over-the - heart gesture as the salute to be rendered by civilians during the Pledge of Allegiance and the national anthem in the US would be the salute to replace the Bellamy salute. Removal of the Bellamy salute occurred on December 22, 1942, when Congress amended the Flag Code language first passed into law on June 22, 1942. Attached to bills passed in Congress in 2008 and then in 2009 (Section 301 (b) (1) of title 36, United States Code), language was included which authorized all active duty military personnel and all veterans in civilian clothes to render a proper hand salute during the raising and lowering of the flag, when the colors are presented, and during the National Anthem.
A musical setting for "The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag '' was created by Irving Caesar, at the suggestion of Congressman Louis C. Rabaut whose House Resolution 243 to add the phrase "under God '' was signed into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954.
The composer, Irving Caesar, wrote and published over 700 songs in his lifetime. Dedicated to social issues, he donated all rights of the musical setting to the U.S. government, so that anyone can perform the piece without owing royalties.
It was sung for the first time on the floor of the House of Representatives on Flag Day, June 14, 1955 by the official Air Force choral group the "Singing Sergeants ''. A July 29, 1955 House and Senate resolution authorized the U.S. Government Printing Office to print and distribute the song sheet together with a history of the pledge.
Other musical versions of the Pledge have since been copyrighted, including by Beck (2003), Lovrekovich (2002 and 2001), Roton (1991), Fijol (1986), and Girardet (1983).
In 1940, the Supreme Court, in Minersville School District v. Gobitis, ruled that students in public schools, including the respondents in that case -- Jehovah 's Witnesses who considered the flag salute to be idolatry -- could be compelled to swear the Pledge. In 1943, in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, the Supreme Court reversed its decision. Justice Robert H. Jackson, writing for the 6 to 3 majority, went beyond simply ruling in the precise matter presented by the case to say that public school students are not required to say the Pledge on narrow grounds, and asserted that such ideological dogmata are antithetical to the principles of the country, concluding with:
If there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation, it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion or force citizens to confess by word or act their faith therein. If there are any circumstances which permit an exception, they do not now occur to us.
In a later case, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals held that students are also not required to stand for the Pledge.
Requiring or promoting of the Pledge on the part of the government has continued to draw criticism and legal challenges on several grounds.
One objection is that a democratic republic built on freedom of dissent should not require its citizens to pledge allegiance to it, and that the First Amendment to the United States Constitution protects the right to refrain from speaking or standing, which itself is also a form of speech in the context of the ritual of pledging allegiance. Another objection is that the people who are most likely to recite the Pledge every day, small children in schools, can not really give their consent or even completely understand the Pledge they are making. Another criticism is that a government requiring or promoting the phrase "under God '' violates protections against the establishment of religion guaranteed in the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.
In 2004, linguist Geoffrey Nunberg said the original supporters of the addition thought that they were simply quoting Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address, but to Lincoln and his contemporaries, "under God '' meant "God willing '', so they would have found its use in the Pledge of Allegiance grammatically incorrect and semantically odd.
Prominent legal challenges were brought in the 1930s and 1940s by Jehovah 's Witnesses, a denomination whose beliefs preclude swearing loyalty to any power other than God, and who objected to policies in public schools requiring students to swear an oath to the flag. They said requiring the pledge violated their freedom of religion guaranteed by the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment. The first case was in 1935, when two children, Lillian and William Gobitas, ages ten and twelve, were expelled from the Minersville, Pennsylvania, public schools that year for failing to salute the flag and recite the Pledge of Allegiance.
In a 2002 case brought by atheist Michael Newdow, whose daughter was being taught the Pledge in school, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled the phrase "under God '' an unconstitutional endorsement of monotheism when the Pledge was promoted in public school. In 2004, the Supreme Court heard Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow, an appeal of the ruling, and rejected Newdow 's claim on the grounds that he was not the custodial parent, and therefore lacked standing, thus avoiding ruling on the merits of whether the phrase was constitutional in a school - sponsored recitation. On January 3, 2005, a new suit was filed in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of California on behalf of three unnamed families. On September 14, 2005, District Court Judge Lawrence Karlton ruled in their favor. Citing the precedent of the 2002 ruling by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, Judge Karlton issued an order stating that, upon proper motion, he would enjoin the school district defendants from continuing their practices of leading children in pledging allegiance to "one Nation under God. ''
A 2005 Bill, H.R. 2389, to prohibit the Supreme Court 's and most federal courts from considering any legal challenges to the government 's requiring or promoting of the Pledge of Allegiance, died in the Senate after having passed in the House. This action is viewed in general as court stripping by Congress of the constitutional power of the judiciary. Even if a similar bill is enacted, its practical effect may not be clear: proponents of the bill have said that it is a valid exercise of Congress 's power to regulate the jurisdiction of the federal courts under Article III, Section 2 of the Constitution, but opponents say Congress does not have the authority to prevent the Supreme Court from hearing claims based on the Bill of Rights, since this can only be done through Constitutional Amendment. Judges and legal analysts have said that if Congress can remove from the judicial branch the ability to determine if legislation is constitutional, the US separation of powers would be disturbed, or rendered non-functional.
Mark J. Pelavin, former Associate Director of the Religious Action Center of Reform Judaism, said of court stripping in regard to the Pledge of Allegiance that:
Today 's House adoption of the so - called "Pledge Protection Act '' is a shameful effort to strip our federal courts of their ability to uphold the rights of all Americans. By removing the jurisdiction of federal courts, including the Supreme Court, from cases involving the Pledge, this legislation sets a dangerous precedent: threatening religious liberty, compromising the vital system of checks and balances upon which our government was founded, and granting Congress the authority to strip the courts ' jurisdiction on any issue it wishes. Today, the issue was the Pledge of Allegiance, but tomorrow it could be reproductive rights, civil rights, or any other fundamental concern.
In 2006, in the Florida case Frazier v. Alexandre, a federal district court in Florida ruled that a 1942 state law requiring students to stand and recite the Pledge of Allegiance violates the First and Fourteenth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution. As a result of that decision, a Florida school district was ordered to pay $32,500 to a student who chose not to say the pledge and was ridiculed and called "unpatriotic '' by a teacher.
In 2009, a Montgomery County, Maryland, teacher berated and had school police remove a 13 - year - old girl who refused to say the Pledge of Allegiance in the classroom. The student 's mother, assisted by the American Civil Liberties Union of Maryland, sought and received an apology from the teacher, as state law and the school 's student handbook both prohibit students from being forced to recite the Pledge.
On March 11, 2010, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the words "under God '' in the Pledge of Allegiance in the case of Newdow v. Rio Linda Union School District. In a 2 -- 1 decision, the appellate court ruled that the words were of a "ceremonial and patriotic nature '' and did not constitute an establishment of religion. Judge Stephen Reinhardt dissented, writing that "the state - directed, teacher - led daily recitation in public schools of the amended ' under God ' version of the Pledge of Allegiance... violates the Establishment Clause of the Constitution. ''
On November 12, 2010, in a unanimous decision, the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit in Boston affirmed a ruling by a New Hampshire lower federal court which found that the pledge 's reference to God does not violate non-pledging students ' rights if student participation in the pledge is voluntary. A United States Supreme Court appeal of this decision was denied on June 13, 2011.
In September 2013, a case was brought before the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, arguing that the pledge violates the Equal Rights Amendment of the Constitution of Massachusetts. In May 2014, Massachusetts ' highest court ruled that the pledge does not discriminate against atheists, saying that the words "under God '' represent a patriotic, not a religious, exercise.
In February 2015 New Jersey Superior Court Judge David F. Bauman dismissed a lawsuit, ruling that "... the Pledge of Allegiance does not violate the rights of those who do n't believe in God and does not have to be removed from the patriotic message. '' The case against the Matawan - Aberdeen Regional School District had been brought by a student of the district and the American Humanist Association that argued that the phrase "under God '' in the pledge created a climate of discrimination because it promoted religion, making non-believers "second - class citizens. '' In a twenty - one page decision, Bauman wrote, "Under (the association members ') reasoning, the very constitution under which (the members) seek redress for perceived atheistic marginalization could itself be deemed unconstitutional, an absurd proposition which (association members) do not and can not advance here. '' Bauman said the student could skip the pledge, but upheld a New Jersey law that says pupils must recite the pledge unless they have "conscientious scruples '' that do not allow it. He noted, "As a matter of historical tradition, the words ' under God ' can no more be expunged from the national consciousness than the words ' In God We Trust ' from every coin in the land, than the words ' so help me God ' from every presidential oath since 1789, or than the prayer that has opened every congressional session of legislative business since 1787. ''
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3. in the mahabharata who was the eldest of all the pandavas | Pandava - Wikipedia
In the Mahabharata, a Hindu epic text, the Pandavas are the five acknowledged sons of Pandu, by his two wives Kunti and Madri, who was the princess of Madra. Their names are Yudhishthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva. All five brothers were married to the same woman, Draupadi.
Together the brothers fought and prevailed in a great war against their cousins the Kauravas, which came to be known as the Kurukshetra War.
The word Pandava is derived from their father 's name, Pandu (Sanskrit: पाण्डु) and means "descendants (sons) of Pandu ''. The other epithets of the Pandava group are:
The story begins with the introduction of the brothers ' parents. Amongst the primary antagonists was Duryodhana (loosely translated as "unconquerable ''), cousin to the Pandavas. He was the eldest of 100 brothers known as the Kauravas, who were born to Dhritarashtra, the blind king of Hastinapura, and his queen Gandhari, princess of Gandhara.
The Pandavas were born to Pandu and his wives, Kunti and Madri by the boon given to Kunti by Durvasa, that she could have a son by any god whom she respects without having any marital affair. After Madri 's marriage, Pandu voluntary renounced royal life as penance for having accidentally killed the sage Rishi Kindama and his wife. At his death, Rishi Kindama cursed Pandu that he would surely die if he attempted to have sexual relationships with his wives. Because of this curse, Kunti had to use her boon to get sons. She bore him three sons: Yudhishthira by the god of Dharma, Bhima by the god of Wind, and Arjuna by Lord Indra. At the request of Pandu she shared this boon with Madri to get her sons, the twins Nakula and Sahadeva from the divine Ashvin twins.
After the death of Pandu and Madri 's sati, Kunti brought the Pandavas back to Hastinapur. As children, the Pandavas and Kauravas often played together. However, Bhima (one of the Pandavas) was always at odds with the Kauravas, particularly with Duryodhana, who refused to accept the Pandavas as his kin. This usually led to much tension between the cousins. Insecure and jealous, Duryodhana harboured intense hatred for the five brothers throughout his childhood and youth, and following the advice of his maternal uncle Shakuni, often plotted to get rid of them to clear his path to the lordship of the Kuru Dynasty.
This plotting took a grave turn when Dhritarashtra had to relent to the will of the masses and rightfully appointed his nephew Yudhishthira as crown prince. This went against the personal ambitions of both father and son (Dhritarashtra and Duryodhana) and drove Duryodhana into such a rage that he enthusiastically agreed to an evil ploy by Shakuni to murder Yudhishthira. Shakuni commissioned the construction of a palace in Varnavrata, secretly built by incorporating flammable materials into the structure, most notably the lacquer known as lac. This palace was known as Lakshagraha. Duryodhana then successfully lobbied Dhritarashtra to send Yudhishthira to represent the royal household in Varnavrata during the celebrations of Shiva Mahotsava. The plan was to set the palace on fire during the night while Yudhishthira would likely be asleep. Yudhishthira left for Varnavrata, accompanied by his four brothers and their mother Kunti. Fortunately for them, the plan was discovered by their paternal uncle Vidura, who was very loyal to them and an extraordinarily wise man. In addition, Yudhishthira had been forewarned about this plot by a hermit who came to him and spoke of an imminent disaster. Vidura arranged for a tunnel to be secretly built for the Pandavs to safely escape the palace as it was set afire.
After their flight from the palace, the five brothers lived in the forests for some time disguised as Brahmins. They heard from a group of travelling sages about a contest (Swayamvara) being held in the Kingdom of Panchala that offered the princess Draupadi 's hand in marriage to the winner. The Swayamvara turned out to rely on the skills of archery, and Arjuna, who was a peerless archer, entered the competition and won. When the brothers took Draupadi to introduce her to their mother, they announced to Kunti that they had arrived with excellent alms. Kunti was busy with some work, and replied without turning to look at Draupadi (who was the alms referred to) ordering the brothers to share the alms equally amongst the five of them. Even when uttered erroneously, their mother 's word was supreme for the Pandavas, and they agreed to share the princess, who was subsequently married to all five brothers.
When Dhritarashtra heard that the five brothers were alive, he invited them back to the kingdom. However, in their absence, Duryodhana had succeeded in being made the crown prince. Upon the return of the Pandavas, the issue of returning Yudhishthira 's crown to him was raised. Dhritarashtra led the subsequent discussions into ambiguity and agreed to a partition of the kingdom "to do justice to both crown princes ''. He retained the developed Hastinapur for himself and Duryodhana and gave the barren, arid and hostile lands of Khandavaprastha to the Pandavas. The Pandavas successfully developed their land and built a great and lavish city, which was considered comparable to the heavens, and thus came to be known as Indraprastha.
Reeling under the loss of half the lands of his future kingdom, Duryodhana 's jealousy and rage were further fueled by the Pandavas ' success and prosperity. Eventually Shakuni sired yet another ploy and got Duryodhana to invite the Pandavas over to his court for a game of dice (gambling). Shakuni was a master at gambling and owned a pair of dice which magically did his bidding. Owing to this, bet after bet, Yudhishthira lost all of his wealth, and eventually his kingdom, in the game. He was then enticed by Duryodhana and Shakuni to place his brothers as bets. Yudhishthira fell for it and put his brothers on stake, losing them too. He then placed himself as a bet and lost again. Duryodhana now played another trick and told Yudhishthira that he still had his wife Draupadi to place as a bet and if Yudhishthira won, he would return everything to the Pandavas. Yudhishthira fell for the ruse and bet Draupadi, losing her too. At this point Duryodhana ordered that Draupadi, who was now a slave to him, be brought to the court. None of the Pandavas fought for their wife 's honour. Duryodhana 's younger brother Dushasana dragged Draupadi to the royal court, pulling her by her hair, insulting her dignity and asserting that she, like the Pandava brothers, was now their servant. This caused immense anguish to all the great warriors seated in the court, but each of them, namely, Bhishma (grandsire of the clan), Dronacharya (teacher / guru of Kauravas and Pandavas) and Kripacharya except Vidura remained silent. Duryodhana then ordered Dushasana to disrobe Draupadi before everyone, as a slave girl has no rights. The elders and warriors in audience were shocked but did not intervene. As Dushasana began to disrobe her, she prayed to God to protect her honour, and Lord Krishna protected her by providing her garments an unending length. Finally, as the blind king Dhritharasthra realized that this humiliation could prompt Draupadi to curse his sons, he intervened, apologizing to Draupadi for the behaviour of his sons, and turned the winnings of dice game back over to the Pandava brothers, releasing them from the bondage of slavery.
Incensed at the loss of all that he had won, Duryodhana threatened suicide and coerced his father into inviting the Pandavas for one last round of gambling, the terms of which were that the loser would be condemned to 12 years of exile into forests and a 13th year to be spent incognito, and if the cover be blown during the 13th year, another cycle of 13 years would ensue. Obeying their uncle 's orders, the Pandavas played the round and again lost to Shakuni 's cheating. However, this time, their patience had been nearly pushed to its edge. During the 12 years of exile in the forest, they prepared for war. Arjuna performed penance and won the entire gamut of celestial weapons (Divyasatras) as boons from the Gods. They spent the 13th year masquerading as peasants in the service of the royal family of Virata, the king of Matsya. Upon completion of the terms of the last bet, the Pandavas returned and demanded that their kingdom be rightfully returned to them. Duryodhana refused to yield Indraprastha. For the sake of peace and to avert a disastrous war, Krishna proposed that if Hastinapur agrees to give the Pandavas only five villages, they would be satisfied and would make no more demands. Duryodhana vehemently refused, commenting that he would not part even with land as much as the point of a needle. Thus the stage was set for the great war, for which the epic of Mahabharata is known most of all.
The war was intense and lasted 18 days, over the course of which both parties worked around, bent and even broke rules of warfare. At the end, all 100 Kaurava brothers and their entire army was slain, with only four surviving on their side. The Pandavas too lost several allies but the five brothers survived. After having won the war Yudhishthira was crowned the king.
The Pandavas ruled Hastinapur for 36 years and established a righteous kingdom. Shortly after the death of Lord Krishna, they all decided that the time had come for them to renounce the world, as the age of Kali yuga had started.
So the five Pandavas and Draupadi left to the path of liberation. For this purpose they all climbed Mount Kailash, which leads to the Swarga Loka. Unfortunately on their way, all except Yudhisthira slipped and died one by one. Yudhisthira was accompanied by a dog who was none other than Lord Yama himself.
The first to die was Draupadi; she was imperfect because she preferred Arjuna over her other husbands. Then it was Sahadeva, imperfect because he was smug about his knowledge. He was followed by Nakula, imperfect because he was arrogant about his good looks. Then fell Arjuna, imperfect because he was always jealous of other archers. Next was Bhima, imperfect because he was a glutton. Only the eldest Pandava, Yudhisthira, reached the door of Swarga Loka, carried on Lord Indra 's chariot. On reaching Heaven he did not find either his virtuous brothers or his wife Draupadi. Instead he saw Karna, Bhishma, Dronacharya etc. and their sons.
He wanted an explanation from Lord Yama, the lord of death. Lord Yama explained that the Kauravas had been allowed into heaven because they died as warriors on the battlefield. This earned them so much merit and credit that it wiped out all their debts. Yudhisthira demanded to know where his brothers and his wife were. He was then taken to hell. Lord Yama explained that they were experiencing the reactions of their actions but it was temporary. Once the debt had been repaid, they would join them in Swarga. Yudhisthira loyally met his brothers, but the sight and sound of gore and blood horrified him. Though initially he was tempted to flee, he mastered himself and remained after hearing the voices of his beloved brothers and Draupadi calling out to him, asking him to stay with them in their misery. Yudhisthira decided to remain, ordering the divine charioteer to return. He preferred to live in hell with good people than in a heaven of his enemies. Eventually this turned out to be another illusion to test him.
Krishna, being a well wisher of the Pandavas, helped them in various ways during the time of their ordeals.
The first three of the Pandavas were the sons of Kunti, a Yadava and Pandu 's first wife. The younger two were the sons of Madri, Pandu 's second wife. Since Pandu had been cursed to die if ever he had intercourse with a woman, the actual fatherhood of the children is traditionally attributed to various gods, in virtue of a boon that Kunti had received from the sage Durvasa and had transferred to Madri. Thus -
(Karna was also born of Kunti and was a son of Surya, the solar God).
The Pandava brothers were collectively married to Draupadi. On one occasion, Draupadi was kidnapped and abducted from a hermitage in the forest by the wicked king Jayadratha. When her husbands learned of the crime, they came in hot pursuit. Seeing them approach, Jayadratha asked Draupadi to describe them. Angrily, Draupadi told the king his time was up and that the knowledge would do him no good. She then proceeded to give the description. (Mahabharat, Book III: Varna Parva, Section 268.)
Harivamsa Purana (8th century CE) narrates the Jain version of their story.
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when was malaria eradicated from the united states | National malaria eradication program - wikipedia
In the United States, the National Malaria Eradication Program (NMEP) was launched on 1 July 1947. This federal program -- with state and local participation -- had succeeded in eradicating malaria in the United States by 1951.
Prior to the establishment of the NMEP, malaria had been endemic across much of the United States. By the 1930s, it had become concentrated in 13 southeastern states. (For example, in the Tennessee River Valley it had a prevalence of about 30 % in 1933.)
A national malaria eradication effort was originally proposed by Louis Laval Williams. The NMEP was directed by the federal Communicable Disease Center (now the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, or CDC) created in 1946 and based in Atlanta, Georgia. It was a cooperative undertaking by federal, state and local health agencies. The Program had evolved from the Office of Malaria Control in War Areas, which had been created in 1942 to suppress malaria near military bases in the United States during World War II. The CDC 's first director -- Justin M. Andrews -- was also Georgia 's chief malariologist.
The new agency was a branch of the U.S. Public Health Service and Atlanta was chosen as its headquarters because malaria was locally endemic. Offices were located on the sixth floor of the Volunteer Building on Peachtree Street. With an annual budget of about $1 million, some 59 % of its personnel were engaged in mosquito abatement and habitat control. Among its 369 employees, the main jobs at CDC at this time were entomology and engineering. In 1946, there were only seven medical officers on duty and an early organization chart was drawn, somewhat fancifully, in the shape of a mosquito.
During the CDC 's first few years, more than 6,500,000 homes were sprayed with the insecticide DDT. DDT was applied to the interior surfaces of rural homes or entire premises in counties where malaria was reported to have been prevalent in recent years. In addition, wetland drainage, removal of mosquito breeding sites, and DDT spraying (occasionally from aircraft) were all pursued. In 1947, some 15,000 malaria cases were reported. By the end of 1949, over 4,650,000 housespray applications had been made and the United States was declared free of malaria as a significant public health problem. By 1950, only 2,000 cases were reported. By 1951, malaria was considered eliminated altogether from the country and the CDC gradually withdrew from active participation in the operational phases of the program, shifting its interest to surveillance. In 1952, CDC participation in eradication operations ceased altogether.
A major international effort along the lines of the NMEP -- the Global Malaria Eradication Programme (1955 -- 1969), administered by the World Health Organization -- was unsuccessful.
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who played chewbacca in star wars new hope | Peter Mayhew - wikipedia
Peter Mayhew (born 19 May 1944) is an English - American actor who is best known for playing Chewbacca in the Star Wars film series.
Mayhew was born on 19 May 1944 in Barnes, South West London, where he was also raised. His height is not a product of gigantism -- "I do n't have the big head '' -- but of a connective tissue disorder called Marfan syndrome. His peak height was 7 feet 3 inches (221 cm).
Mayhew got his first acting job in 1976 when the producers of Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger discovered him from a photograph in a newspaper article about men with large feet, and cast him in the role of the minotaur.
When casting his first Star Wars film, producer George Lucas needed a tall actor who could fit the role of the hairy alien Chewbacca. He originally had in mind 6 - foot - 6 - inch (1.98 m) bodybuilder David Prowse, but instead Prowse chose to play Darth Vader. This led Lucas on a search which turned up Mayhew, who was working as an orderly and says that all he had to do to be cast in the role of Chewbacca was stand up.
Mayhew has played Chewbacca in five Star Wars films: the original trilogy (Star Wars, The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi), Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith and Star Wars: The Force Awakens. He played the role in the 1978 television film Star Wars Holiday Special and in an appearance on The Muppet Show. He also recorded dialogue for the Star Wars: The Clone Wars Season 3 finale episode "Wookiee Hunt ''.
Mayhew plays the role in commercials and in hospital appearances for sick children and has made numerous appearances as Chewbacca outside the Star Wars films. Mayhew as Chewbacca was honoured with a Lifetime Achievement Award at the MTV Film Awards 1997. He was additionally honoured at the release of the new PlayStation Portable where he dressed as Chewbacca and held up the new PSP slim version.
He has made other media appearances without the Chewbacca costume. He appeared on NBC 's Identity, where his identity was based on the fact that he played Chewbacca and was a frequent guest in the early days of Slice of SciFi.
While Mayhew portrayed Chewbacca in Star Wars: The Force Awakens, he was not in Star Wars: The Last Jedi but was listed in the credits as ' Chewbacca Consultant '.. Mayhew retired from playing Chewbacca due to health issues. Joonas Suotamo, who split time with Mayhew on Star Wars: The Force Awakens, took over portraying Chewbacca.
Outside Star Wars, Mayhew has appeared in the 1978 horror film Terror, directed by Norman J. Warren. In the English version of Dragon Ball GT: A Hero 's Legacy, he provided the voice for Susha. He also appeared in Yesterday Was a Lie.
Mayhew has written two books for younger audience: "Growing Up Giant '' which explains that being different is a strength instead of a weakness and anti-bullying book for children "My Favorite Giant ''.
Mayhew lives with his wife Mary Angela ("Angie '') in Boyd, Texas and is a business owner. He became a naturalised citizen of the United States in 2005 at a ceremony in Arlington, Texas. In an interview with the Fort Worth Star - Telegram he joked that he did not get a medal at this ceremony either, a reference to the Star Wars scene in which Luke and Han get medals but Chewbacca does not. Mayhew noted in an MTV interview that although Chewbacca does not get a medal in the film, he does get the last line, when he roars.
Mayhew underwent double knee replacement surgery in 2013. In January 2015, Mayhew was briefly hospitalised near his home in Texas, due to a bout of pneumonia.
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what event causes the senate to repeal the tonkin gulf resolution | Gulf of Tonkin resolution - wikipedia
The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution or the Southeast Asia Resolution, Pub. L. 88 -- 408, 78 Stat. 384, enacted August 10, 1964, was a joint resolution that the United States Congress passed on August 7, 1964, in response to the Gulf of Tonkin incident.
It is of historical significance because it gave U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson authorization, without a formal declaration of war by Congress, for the use of conventional military force in Southeast Asia. Specifically, the resolution authorized the President to do whatever necessary in order to assist "any member or protocol state of the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty ''. This included involving armed forces.
It was opposed in the Senate only by Senators Wayne Morse (D - OR) and Ernest Gruening (D - AK). Senator Gruening objected to "sending our American boys into combat in a war in which we have no business, which is not our war, into which we have been misguidedly drawn, which is steadily being escalated ''. (Tonkin Gulf debate 1964) The Johnson administration subsequently relied upon the resolution to begin its rapid escalation of U.S. military involvement in South Vietnam and open warfare between North Vietnam and the United States.
The USS Maddox, a U.S. destroyer, was conducting a DESOTO patrol in the waters of the Gulf of Tonkin on August 2, 1964, when it reported being attacked by three North Vietnamese Navy torpedo boats from the 135th Torpedo Squadron, which were attempting to close their range on Maddox for effective torpedo fire (1,000 yards was maximum effective range for the torpedoes) Maddox fired over 280 5 - inch shells and the boats expended their 6 torpedoes (all misses) and some 14.5 - mm machinegun fire. Breaking contact, the combatants commenced going their separate ways, when the three torpedo boats, T - 333, T - 336, and T - 339 were then attacked by four USN F - 8 Crusader jet fighter bombers from the aircraft carrier USS Ticonderoga. The Crusaders reported no hits with their Zuni rockets, but scored hits on all three torpedo boats with their 20 - mm cannons, damaging all three boats. Two days later on August 4, Maddox and the destroyer Turner Joy both reported to be under attack again, by North Vietnamese torpedo boats; during this alleged engagement, Turner Joy fired approximately 220 3 - inch & 5 - inch shells at radar controlled surface targets. Hanoi subsequently insisted that it had not launched a second attack. A later investigation by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee revealed that Maddox had been on an electronic intelligence (DESOTO) mission. It also learned that the U.S. Naval Communication Center in the Philippine Islands, in reviewing the ships ' messages, had questioned whether any second attack had actually occurred. In 2005, an internal National Security Agency historical study was declassified; it concluded that Maddox had engaged the North Vietnamese Navy on August 2, but that there may not have been any North Vietnamese Naval vessels present during the engagement of August 4. The report stated:
It is not simply that there is a different story as to what happened; it is that no attack happened that night. (...)
In truth, Hanoi 's navy was engaged in nothing that night but the salvage of two of the boats damaged on August 2. In 1965, President Johnson commented privately: "For all I know, our Navy was shooting at whales out there. ''
Within hours, President Johnson ordered the launching of retaliatory air strikes (Operation Pierce Arrow) on the bases of the North Vietnamese torpedo boats and announced, in a television address to the American public that same evening, that U.S. naval forces had been attacked. Johnson requested approval of a resolution "expressing the unity and determination of the United States in supporting freedom and in protecting peace in southeast Asia '', stating that the resolution should express support "for all necessary action to protect our Armed Forces '', but repeated previous assurances that "the United States... seeks no wider war ''. As the nation entered the final three months of political campaigning for the 1964 elections (in which Johnson was standing for election), the president contended that the resolution would help "hostile nations... understand '' that the United States was unified in its determination "to continue to protect its national interests ''.
On August 6, U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara testified before a joint session of the Senate Foreign Relations and Armed Services committees. He stated that Maddox had been "carrying out a routine mission of the type we carry out all over the world at all times '' and denied that it had been in any way involved in South Vietnamese patrol boat raids on the offshore islands of Hon Me and Hon Nieu on the nights of July 30 and July 31. The administration did not, however, disclose that the island raids, although separate from the mission of Maddox, had been part of a program of clandestine attacks on North Vietnamese installations called Operation Plan 34A. These operations were carried out by U.S. - trained South Vietnamese commandos under the control of a special operations unit of the U.S. Military Assistance Command, Vietnam called the Studies and Operations Group.
After fewer than nine hours of committee consideration and floor debate, Congress voted, on August 10, 1964, on a joint resolution authorizing the president "to take all necessary steps, including the use of armed force, to assist any member or protocol state of the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty requesting assistance in defense of its freedom ''. (H.J. RES 1145 1964) The unanimous affirmative vote in the House of Representatives was 416 -- 0. (However, Republican Congressman Eugene Siler of Kentucky, who was not present but opposed the measure, was "paired '' with another member who favored the resolution -- i.e., his opposition was not counted, but the vote in favor was one less than it would have been.) The Senate conferred its approval by a vote of 88 -- 2. Some members expressed misgivings about the measure, but in the end, Democratic Senators Wayne Morse of Oregon and Ernest Gruening of Alaska cast the only nay votes. At the time, Senator Morse warned that "I believe this resolution to be a historic mistake. ''
By 1967, the rationale for what had become a costly U.S. involvement In the Vietnam War was receiving close scrutiny. With opposition to the war mounting, a movement to repeal the resolution -- which war critics decried as having given the Johnson administration a "blank check '' -- began to gather steam.
An investigation by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee revealed that Maddox had been on an electronic intelligence collection mission off the North Vietnamese coast. It also learned that the U.S. Naval Communication Center in the Philippine Islands, in reviewing ships ' messages, had questioned whether any second attack had actually occurred.
The administration of President Richard Nixon, which took office in January 1969, initially opposed repeal, warning of "consequences for Southeast Asia (that) go beyond the war in Vietnam ''. In 1970 the administration began to shift its stance. It asserted that its conduct of operations in Southeast Asia was based not on the resolution but was a constitutional exercise of the President 's authority, as Commander in Chief of U.S. military forces, to take necessary steps to protect American troops as they were gradually withdrawn (the U.S. had begun withdrawing its forces from Vietnam in 1969 under a policy known as "Vietnamization '').
Mounting public opinion against the war eventually led to the repeal of the resolution, which was attached to the Foreign Military Sales Act that Nixon signed in January 1971. Seeking to restore limits on presidential authority to engage U.S. forces without a formal declaration of war, Congress passed the War Powers Resolution in 1973, over Nixon 's veto. The War Powers Resolution, which is still in effect, sets forth certain requirements for the President to consult with Congress in regard to decisions that engage U.S. forces in hostilities or imminent hostilities.
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who is the bad guy in lord of the rings | Sauron - wikipedia
Sauron / ˈsaʊrɒn / is the title character and main antagonist of J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings.
In the same work, he is identified as the Necromancer, mentioned in Tolkien 's earlier novel The Hobbit. In Tolkien 's The Silmarillion (published posthumously by Tolkien 's son Christopher Tolkien), he is also described as the chief lieutenant of the first Dark Lord, Morgoth. Tolkien noted that the Ainur, the "angelic '' powers of his constructed myth, "were capable of many degrees of error and failing '', but by far the worst was "the absolute Satanic rebellion and evil of Morgoth and his satellite Sauron ''.
The Ainulindalë, the cosmological myth prefixed to The Silmarillion, explains how the supreme being Eru initiated his creation by bringing into being innumerable spirits, "the offspring of his thought '', who were with him before anything else had been made. The being later known as Sauron originated among these as an "immortal (angelic) spirit ''. In his origin, Sauron therefore perceived the Creator directly. As Tolkien noted: "Sauron could not, of course, be a ' sincere ' atheist. Though one of the minor spirits created before the world, he knew Eru, according to his measure. ''
In the terminology of Tolkien 's invented language of Quenya, these angelic spirits were called Ainur. Those who entered the physical world were called Valar, especially the most powerful ones. The lesser Ainur who entered the world, of whom Sauron was one, were called Maiar. In Tolkien 's letters, the author noted that Sauron "was of course a ' divine ' person (in the terms of this mythology; a lesser member of the race of Valar) ''. Tolkien noted that he was of a "far higher order '' than the Maiar who later came to Middle - earth as the Wizards Gandalf, Radagast, and Saruman. As created by Eru, the Ainur were all good and uncorrupt, as Elrond stated in The Lord of the Rings: "Nothing is evil in the beginning. Even Sauron was not so. ''
Rebellion originated with the Vala Melkor (as Morgoth was called before he turned to darkness). According to a story meant as a parable of events beyond Elvish comprehension, Eru let his spirit - children perform a great Music, the Music of the Ainur, developing a theme revealed by Eru himself. For a while the cosmic choir made wondrous music, but then Melkor tried to increase his own glory by weaving into his song thoughts and ideas that were not in accordance with the original theme. "Straightway discord arose around him, and many that sang nigh him grew despondent... but some began to attune their music to his rather than to the thought which they had at first. ''
The discord Melkor created would have dire consequences, as this singing was a kind of template for the world: "The evils of the world were not at first in the great Theme, but entered with the discords of Melkor. '' However, "Sauron was not a beginner of discord; and he probably knew more of the Music than did Melkor, whose mind had always been filled with his own plans and devices. '' Apparently Sauron was not even one of the spirits that immediately began to attune their music to that of Melkor, since it is noted elsewhere that his fall occurred later (see below).
The cosmic Music now represented the conflict between good and evil. Finally, Eru abruptly brought the Song of Creation to an end. To show the spirits, faithful or otherwise, what they had done, Eru gave independent being to the now - marred Music. This resulted in the manifestation of the material World, Eä, where the drama of good and evil would play out and be resolved.
Entering Eä at the beginning of time, the Valar and Maiar tried to build and organize the world according to the will of Eru. Each Maia was associated with one of the powerful Valar whom they served; for example, Sauron was prominent among the Maiar who served Aulë the Smith, the great craftsman of the Valar. As a result, Sauron came to possess great knowledge of the physical substances of the world, forging, and all manner of craftsmanship -- emerging as "a great craftsman of the household of Aulë ''. Sauron would always retain the "scientific '' knowledge he derived from the great Vala of Craft: "In his beginning he was of the Maiar of Aulë, and he remained mighty in the lore of that people. '' Sauron 's original Elvish name in Valinor was Mairon (Quenya for "the Admirable ''), but this name was not used anymore after he joined Melkor. In Beleriand he was called in Sindarin Gorthu "Mist of Fear '' and Gorthaur "The Cruel ''. However, during the Second Age Sauron continued to call himself Tar - Mairon (Quenya "King Excellent '').
Melkor opposed the other Valar, who remained faithful to Eru and tried to carry out the Creator 's designs. Within the larger universe, they eventually focused on developing the world of Arda (Earth, or the entire solar system). Around this time, Sauron fell victim to Melkor 's corrupting influence: "In the beginning of Arda, Melkor seduced him to his allegiance. ''
As for Sauron 's motives, Tolkien noted that "it had been his virtue (and therefore also the cause of his fall...) that he loved order and coordination, and disliked all confusion and wasteful friction ''. Thus "it was the apparent will and power of Melkor to effect his designs quickly and masterfully that had first attracted Sauron to him ''.
For a while, Sauron apparently kept up the pretence that he was a faithful servant of the Valar, all the while feeding Melkor information about their doings. Thus, when the Valar made Almaren as their first physical abode in the world, "Melkor knew of all that was done; for even then he had secret friends and spies among the Maiar whom he had converted to his cause, and of these the chief, as after became known, was Sauron. ''
Melkor soon destroyed Almaren, and the Valar established a new abode in the Uttermost West: the Blessed Realm of Valinor. They still did not perceive Sauron 's treachery, for he too became "a being of Valinor ''.
At some point, Sauron left the Blessed Realm and went to Middle - earth, the central continent of Arda, where Melkor had established his stronghold. In one text, Tolkien wrote of Sauron that "in Valinor he had dwelt among the people of the gods, but there Morgoth had drawn him to evil and to his service ''. Sauron deserted his service to the Valar and openly joined their great enemy: "Because of his admiration of Strength he had become a follower of Morgoth and fell with him down into the depths of evil. ''
After joining his new master in Middle - earth, Sauron proved to be a devoted and capable servant: "While Morgoth still stood, Sauron did not seek his own supremacy, but worked and schemed for another, desiring the triumph of Melkor, whom in the beginning he had adored. He thus was often able to achieve things, first conceived by Melkor, which his master did not or could not complete in the furious haste of his malice. '' "In all the deeds of Melkor the Morgoth upon Arda, in his vast works and in the deceits of his cunning, Sauron had a part. ''
In chapter three of The Silmarillion, Tolkien writes that by the time the Elves awoke in the world, Sauron had become Melkor 's lieutenant and was given command over the newly built stronghold of Angband. To protect the Elves, the Valar made war on Melkor and captured him, but could not find Sauron.
Thus, "when Melkor was made captive, Sauron escaped and lay hid in Middle - earth; and it can in this way be understood how the breeding of the Orcs (no doubt already begun) went on with increasing speed ''. In the Blessed Realm, Melkor feigned reform, but eventually escaped back to Middle - earth, holding the Silmarils of Fëanor. By then, Sauron had "secretly repaired Angband for the help of his Master when he returned; and there the dark places underground were already manned with hosts of the Orcs before Melkor came back at last, as Morgoth the Black Enemy ''.
Shortly after the return of Morgoth, the Noldorin Elves also left the Blessed Realm of Valinor in the Uttermost West, against the counsel of the Valar, to wage war on Morgoth, who had stolen the Silmarils. In that war, Sauron served as Morgoth 's chief lieutenant, surpassing all others in rank, such as Gothmog, the Lord of Balrogs. Known as Gorthaur the Cruel, Sauron was at that time a master of illusions and shapeshifting; werewolves and vampires were his servants, chief among them Draugluin, Father of Werewolves, and his vampire herald Thuringwethil.
When Morgoth left Angband to corrupt the newly discovered Men, Sauron directed the war against the Elves. He conquered the Elvish island of Tol Sirion and its watchtower Minas Tirith, so that it became known as Tol - in - Gaurhoth, the Isle of Werewolves.
Ten years later, Finrod Felagund, the king of Nargothrond and former lord of Tol Sirion, came there with Beren and ten Elves, disguised as Orcs. However Sauron had them brought before him. Finrod had a magical battle with Sauron, but was defeated (in part because of the curse of Fëanor). All 12 were thrown into Sauron 's dungeons and the 10 Elves were devoured by wolves. Finrod died fighting a wolf to save Beren.
Soon afterwards Lúthien and Huan the Wolfhound arrived, hoping to rescue Beren. Sauron sent werewolves against them, including their sire Draugluin, but Huan slew them all. Aware of a prophecy to the effect that Huan would be killed by the greatest wolf ever, Sauron himself assumed a monstrous wolf - like form and attacked him. But the prophecy actually applied to the still - unborn Carcharoth, and Sauron could not prevail against Huan, despite transforming into a serpent and his own form.
Eventually, Huan had Sauron by the throat. Lúthien gave Sauron two options: either surrender to her the magical control he had established over Tol - in - Gaurhoth, or have his body destroyed so that his naked ghost would have to endure the scorn of Morgoth. Sauron yielded, and Huan let him go. Lúthien destroyed the tower and rescued Beren from the dungeons.
Sauron fled in the form of a huge vampiric bat, and spent some time as a vampire in the woods of Taur - nu - Fuin. Nothing is told of his subsequent activities in the First Age until the end.
Following the voyage of Eärendil to the Blessed Realm, the Valar finally moved against Morgoth. In the resulting War of Wrath, the Dark Lord was defeated and cast into the Outer Void beyond the world. But "Sauron fled from the Great Battle and escaped ''.
Chastened, Sauron assumed his fairest form and approached Eönwë, emissary of the Valar, who nevertheless could not pardon a Maia like himself. Through Eönwë, Manwë as Lord of the Valar "commanded Sauron to come before him for judgement, but (he) had left room for repentance and ultimate rehabilitation ''. Although Sauron 's repentance before Eönwë was genuine, if out of fear, he was ashamed to return to Valinor and receive a judgement or sentence due to his long service to Morgoth. Furthermore, the influence of his former master was still strong, so he escaped and hid in Middle - earth.
About 500 years into the Second Age, Sauron reappeared. "Bereft of his lord... (he) fell into the folly of imitating him ''. "Very slowly, beginning with fair motives: the reorganizing and rehabilitation of Middle - earth, ' neglected by the gods, ' he becomes a reincarnation of Evil, and a thing lusting for Complete Power '', eventually rising to become "master and god of Men ''.
As for Sauron 's "fair motives '', Tolkien emphasized that at this time he "was not indeed wholly evil, not unless all ' reformers ' who want to hurry up with ' reconstruction ' and ' reorganization ' are wholly evil, even before pride and the lust to exert their will eat them up ''.
"Though the only real good in, or rational motive for, all this ordering and planning and organization was the good of all inhabitants of Arda (even admitting Sauron 's right to be their supreme lord), his ' plans ', the idea coming from his own isolated mind, became the sole object of his will, and an end, the End, in itself... (H) is capability of corrupting other minds, and even engaging their service, was a residue from the fact that his original desire for ' order ' had really envisaged the good estate (especially physical well - being) of his ' subjects '. ''
As part of a plan to seduce the Elves into his service, Sauron assumed a fair appearance as Annatar, "Lord of Gifts '', befriended the Elven - smiths of Eregion, led by Celebrimbor, and counselled them in arts and magic. Sauron hinted that he was an emissary of the Valar, specifically of Aulë, whom the Noldor in Exile held in high regard. Some of the Elves distrusted him, especially Galadriel and Gil - galad, the High King of the Noldor. The Elves in Eregion, however, did not heed their warnings.
With Sauron 's assistance, the Elven - smiths forged the Rings of Power, which conferred great power upon their bearers. He then secretly forged the One Ring in the volcanic Mount Doom in Mordor. This "One Ring to rule them all '' had the power to dominate the other Rings and enslave their wearers to Sauron 's will. The Rings of Power were extremely potent, however; to create an instrument that could dominate even them, Sauron was forced to transfer a great part of his native power into it. Yet "while he wore it, his power on earth was actually enhanced ''.
Sauron 's plan would have succeeded had the Elves not detected his influence when he put on the One Ring. It was then the Elves saw him for who he really was, removed their Rings, and did not use them for as long as Sauron retained the One Ring. Enraged, Sauron initiated a great war and conquered much of the land west of Anduin. The Three Rings, however, had been forged by Celebrimbor himself without Sauron 's help. These rings were saved and remained in the hands of the Elves, specifically Gil - galad, Círdan, and Galadriel.
This began the Dark Years. Sauron overran Eregion, killed Celebrimbor, leader of the Elven - smiths, and seized the Seven and the Nine Rings of Power that had been previously forged with his assistance. Sauron besieged Imladris, battled Moria and Lothlórien, and pushed further into Gil - galad 's realm. The Elves were hard pressed to defend Lindon and the Havens, but in the nick of time the powerful army from Númenor arrived to their aid, defeating Sauron 's forces and driving the remnant back to Mordor. The Númenóreans were descended from the Three Houses of the Edain who helped the Elves in their war against Morgoth. They lived on the island of Númenor in the seas between Middle - earth and Valinor, a reward for their service from the Valar, and theirs was the most powerful kingdom of Men at this time.
In Unfinished Tales, "The History of Galadriel and Celeborn '' states that Sauron and his bodyguard were all that was left of his original army. Gil - galad 's power after the War was such that Sauron was unable to move out of Mordor for some time.
From this time on, Sauron became known as the Dark Lord of Mordor. Sauron fortified Mordor and completed the Dark Tower of Barad - dûr, already centuries in the building. He distributed the remaining rings of the Seven and the Nine to lords of Dwarves and Men. Dwarves proved too resilient to bend to his will, but the Men were enslaved by Sauron as the Nazgûl, his most feared servants. Well aware of the strength of the Númenóreans after his earlier defeat, Sauron withdrew from the coasts and for a long time avoided directly challenging them, although he managed to use some of the Nine rings to snare three of their great lords.
Sauron regained control over most of the creatures that had served Morgoth in the First Age (such as Orcs and Trolls). Sauron also gained power over most of the Men in the East and the South, becoming their god - king.
Toward the end of the Second Age, as the Númenóreans withdrew from the coasts after their people were divided by strife over the fear of death, Sauron began assailing their Middle - earth strongholds and assumed the titles of Lord of the Earth and King of Men.
Toward the end of the Second Age, Ar - Pharazôn, who would turn out to be the last and most powerful of the Númenórean kings, had just ascended to the throne when he was angered by reports of Sauron 's increasing power. In a show of force, Ar - Pharazôn led a massive army to Middle - earth to reassert Númenórean dominance. Sauron, realizing he could not defeat the Númenóreans with military strength, surrendered. Clad in a beautiful incarnation, he came to Ar - Pharazôn 's camp to swear fealty to the king, and allowed himself to be taken as a prisoner to Númenor.
This was part of his plan to corrupt Númenórean civilization from inside. "Sauron 's personal ' surrender ' was voluntary and cunning: he got free transport to Númenor. '' When Ar - Pharazôn in his arrogance took Sauron hostage, he failed to realise with whom he was dealing: Sauron "was of course a ' divine ' person... and thus far too powerful to be controlled in this way. He steadily got Arpharazôn 's (sic) mind under his own control, and in the event corrupted many of the Númenóreans. ''
The Akallabêth, the account of the history of Númenor, does not specifically mention the One Ring much, and it has been suggested that Sauron left it at Barad - dûr before he became a hostage of Ar - Pharazôn. In his letters, however, Tolkien noted that Sauron "naturally had the One Ring, and so very soon dominated the minds and wills of most of the Númenóreans ''. Through the power of the Ring, Sauron soon became an advisor of the king, and he used his influence to undermine the religion of Númenor. He represented Eru as an invention of the Valar that they used to justify their decrees, and substituted the worship of Melkor, with himself as high priest, for that of Eru. The worship of Melkor, with human sacrifice, became mandatory in Númenor.
But there was seen the effect of Melkor upon Sauron: he spoke of Melkor in Melkor 's own terms, as a god, or even as God. This may have been the residue of a state which was in a sense a shadow of good: the ability once in Sauron at least to admire or admit the superiority of a being other than himself... But it may be doubted whether even such a shadow of good was still sincerely operative in Sauron by that time. His cunning motive is probably best expressed thus. To wean one of the God - fearing from their allegiance it is best to propound another unseen object of allegiance and another hope of benefits; propound to him a Lord who will sanction what he desires and not forbid it. Sauron, apparently a defeated rival for world - power, now a mere hostage, can hardly propound himself; but as the former servant and disciple of Melkor, the worship of Melkor will raise him from hostage to high priest.
Besides introducing the worship of Melkor, Sauron also helped the people to design greater engines and amass more wealth, and soon the Númenóreans returned to Middle - earth where they cruelly hunted and enslaved the Men there for eventual sacrifice. While Sauron ruled behind the scenes, Ar - Pharazôn became the mightiest tyrant in the world since Melkor - Morgoth himself.
Ar - Pharazôn, despite his power, eventually became fearful of his approaching death. Sauron convinced the king that he now had the status to take what was rightfully his, and suggested that the Númenóreans send a great armada upon Aman in order to seize immortality by force from the Valar. While he led the King to believe that it was actually possible to conquer the Blessed Realm, Sauron knew well that the godlike Valar would utterly defeat any mortal army. Sauron did expect the Valar to respond by destroying Ar - Pharazôn and his naval might, thus removing Sauron 's greatest obstacle to dominance of Middle - earth. But the Valar had no direct dominance over the Children of Eru, so in the face of this challenge they laid down their guardianship of the world and appealed to Eru for a solution.
Eru 's divine intervention did indeed bury the king 's armies and drown the armada; but Númenor itself was swallowed by the sea, and the Blessed Realm was removed from the physical world. Sauron had not foreseen this, and his body was destroyed in the cataclysm. Having expended much effort in the corruption of Númenor, he was diminished, particularly as he forever lost the ability to take a fair form. Yet his spirit rose out of the abyss, and he was able to carry with him the one thing that mattered most. Wrote Tolkien, "I do not think one need boggle at this spirit carrying off the One Ring, upon which his power of dominating minds now largely depended. ''
In "Akallabêth '', Tolkien wrote that Sauron "took up '' the Ring after his spirit returned to Middle - earth. According to "Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age '', Sauron then realized that Gil - galad 's power had grown great during his absence and now spread across the Misty Mountains and Greenwood the Great, drawing nigh to places that Sauron initially thought secure before leaving for Númenór.
Led by Elendil, nine ships carrying the faithful Númenóreans were saved from the Downfall and escaped the cataclysm. These Númenórean exiles founded the kingdoms of Gondor and Arnor in Middle - earth. At first they believed that Sauron had perished in the Downfall, but it soon became evident that the Dark Lord had returned to Mordor when Mount Doom erupted. The Appendices in The Return of the King recount that while Sauron 's power had not yet been fully rebuilt, he had decided to attack the Númenóreans before they could become too strong in their new realms.
Sauron struck first, capturing Minas Ithil and destroying the White Tree, although Isildur managed to escape down the Anduin and seek Elendil, while Anárion defended Osgiliath and for a time drove Sauron 's forces back to the mountains. In "Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age '' and The Fellowship of the Ring, Tolkien wrote that Elendil and his sons forged the Last Alliance of Elves and Men with Gil - galad, as they realized that unless they united, Sauron would destroy them each individually.
A great battle ensued between the Alliance and the Host of Sauron on the battle plain of Dagorlad. The Alliance emerged victorious and invaded Mordor, laying siege to Barad - dûr for seven years. Finally, Sauron was forced to emerge from his tower and fight against the Last Alliance himself. During the final challenge on the slopes of Mount Doom, Sauron was slain by Gil - galad and Elendil, who themselves perished in the act. When Elendil fell, his sword Narsil broke beneath him. Isildur, Elendil 's surviving son, took up the hilt - shard of Narsil and cut the One Ring from Sauron 's hand. "Then Sauron was for that time vanquished, and he forsook his body, and his spirit fled far away and hid in waste places. ''
Elrond and Círdan, Gil - galad 's lieutenants, urged Isildur to destroy the Ring by casting it into Mount Doom, but he refused and kept it for his own: "This I will have as weregild for my father 's death, and my brother 's. Was it not I that dealt the Enemy his death - blow? ''
The traumatic loss of the Ring greatly weakened Sauron; he spent the first thousand years of the Third Age as a shapeless, dormant evil. Nonetheless, his servants were involved in several events that gradually weakened the Númenórean exile kingdoms, although it is unclear if Sauron was actively involved in directing them.
A few years after the War of the Last Alliance, Isildur 's army, while marching to Rivendell, was ambushed and overwhelmed by a band of Orcs in what became known as the Disaster of the Gladden Fields. Isildur put on the Ring and attempted to escape by swimming across Anduin, but the Ring -- which had a will of its own and a desire to return to Sauron -- slipped from his finger. He was spotted and killed by Orc archers. The Ring would remain lost beneath the water for about 2461 years (from year 2 of the Third Age until Déagol found it in 2463).
Around the year 1050, a shadow of fear fell on the forest later called Mirkwood. As would later become known, this was the first sign of Sauron 's remanifestation, but for many years he was not recognized. He was known (as in The Hobbit) as the Necromancer. He established a stronghold called Dol Guldur, "Hill of Sorcery '', in the southern part of the forest not far from Lórien.
Shortly after the shadow fell upon the forest, the Valar sent five Maiar to oppose this growing power. They took the form of Wizards, the most prominent being Gandalf and Saruman. By about 1100, "the Wise '' (the Wizards and the chief Elves) became aware that an evil power had made a stronghold at Dol Guldur. Initially it was assumed that this was one of the Nazgûl rather than Sauron himself. About the year 1300, the Nazgûl did indeed reappear. In the ensuing centuries, the chief of the Nazgûl, the Witch - king of Angmar, repeatedly attacked the northern realm of Arnor, first in 1409 and finally overrunning and effectively destroying the realm in 1974. Though driven from the north in the following year by the Elves and forces from Gondor, the Witch - king retreated to Mordor and gathered the Nazgûl there. In 2000, the Nazgûl issued from Mordor to besiege the city of Minas Ithil in the mountains bordering Mordor. The city fell in 2002, and became known as Minas Morgul. With the city the Nazgûl also captured the palantír of Minas Ithil, one of the seven seeing stones that Elendil 's people had brought with them from Númenor at the eve of the Downfall.
As the power of Dol Guldur grew, the Wise came to suspect that the controlling force behind the Witch - king and the other Nazgûl was indeed their original master, Sauron. In 2063, Gandalf went to Dol Guldur and made the first attempt to learn the truth, but Sauron retreated and hid in the East. It would be almost 400 years before he returned to his stronghold in Mirkwood, and his identity remained undetermined.
Sauron finally reappeared with increased strength in 2460. About the same time, the long - lost Ruling Ring was finally recovered from the River Anduin, found by a Stoor Hobbit named Déagol. Déagol 's friend and relative Sméagol coveted the Ring and killed Déagol to get it, and was swiftly corrupted by it. Banished by his family, Smeagol took the Ring, which he called his "Precious ''. His life unnaturally prolonged by the Ring, he hid in the Misty Mountains for centuries, becoming further corrupted and eventually degenerating into the creature Gollum.
In 2850, Gandalf made a second attempt to spy out Dol Guldur. Stealing into the stronghold, he was finally able to confirm the identity of its lord. He reported this to the White Council of Elves and Wizards, but Saruman, hoping to acquire the One Ring for himself, dissuaded the Council from acting against Sauron.
Eventually, the Wise put forth their might and drove Sauron from Mirkwood in 2941. During the White Council 's delay he had, however, prepared his next move, and was willing to abandon Dol Guldur.
Just before Sauron fled Dol Guldur, the hobbit Bilbo Baggins, on an improbable adventure with a party of Dwarves, stumbled across the Ring deep within the Misty Mountains. After his quest was over, Bilbo brought the Ring back to Hobbiton in the Shire. Decades later, he passed it on to his heir, Frodo.
By then, Sauron 's power had recovered to the point that he was able to extend his will over Middle - earth. The Eye of Sauron, as his attention and force of will was perceived, became a symbol of oppression and fear. Following his expulsion from Dol Guldur, he returned to Mordor in 2942, openly declared himself nine years later, and started raising Barad - dûr anew. In preparation for a final war against Men and Elves, he bred armies of monstrous orcs, known as Uruks.
The three volumes of The Lord of the Rings tell the story of Sauron 's last attempt at achieving world dominion, as the Third Age reached its climax in the years 3018 and 3019.
In The Fellowship of the Ring, Gandalf deduced that the ring that Bilbo had found in Gollum 's cave was indeed Sauron 's lost Master - ring. He informed Frodo about the true nature of the heirloom Bilbo had left for him, and its terrible potential if Sauron should ever regain it: "The Enemy still lacks one thing to give him strength and knowledge to beat down all resistance, break the last defences, and cover all the lands in a second darkness. He lacks the One Ring... So he is seeking it, seeking it, and all his thought is bent on it. ''
Gandalf went to Saruman for advice, but discovered that he had been corrupted by his long studies of Sauron. Using the palantír in the tower of Orthanc, Saruman was now in communication with the Dark Lord and acted as his ally, though he also secretly hoped to take the Ring for himself and use its power to supplant Sauron. Gandalf was held captive atop Orthanc for a time, but soon escaped with the help of one of the giant Eagles of Manwë.
Having captured and tortured Gollum, Sauron learned that the Ring had been found by a Hobbit named "Baggins ''. Sauron sent the Nazgûl to the Shire, Bilbo 's home, where they found that both Bilbo and Frodo had left. The Nazgûl pursued and nearly killed Frodo, but they were defeated near Rivendell by the Elf - lord Glorfindel and by Aragorn, Isildur 's heir, whom Gandalf had sent to protect the Hobbits.
In Rivendell, Elrond convened a high council of the peoples of Middle - earth to decide how to handle the crisis. The council determined that the Ring must be destroyed where it was forged, since it was utterly impervious to any other flame than the volcanic fires at its place of making, Orodruin. Frodo and Sam joined the Fellowship of the Ring, accepting the council 's mission to cast it into the volcano. The Fellowship was eventually broken when one of its members, Boromir, tried to take the Ring from Frodo; in the ensuing chaos, Boromir was killed by Orcs, and Frodo and Sam went out on their own toward Mordor.
In The Two Towers, Saruman used his own army on Sauron 's behalf and invaded Rohan. Gandalf, Théoden King of Rohan, and the Ents, led by Treebeard, finally defeated Saruman 's forces. His stronghold at Isengard was overthrown and Saruman left trapped within the Tower of Orthanc. Thus, one of Sauron 's most powerful allies was neutralized.
During Saruman 's confrontation with Gandalf, the palantír of Orthanc fell into the hands of the Fellowship, and Gandalf handed it over to Aragorn. In The Return of the King, Aragorn used it to show himself to Sauron (who still controlled another Seeing Stone, presumably the one captured from Minas Ithil centuries earlier). Aragorn was leading Sauron to think that he now had the Ring and was preparing to turn its power against its maker. The Dark Lord was troubled by this revelation, and therefore attacked sooner than he had planned by sending an army to overthrow Minas Tirith, capital of Gondor. (See Battle of the Pelennor Fields)
Immediately after the huge army left Mordor from the fortress of Minas Morgul, which was formerly Minas Ithil, Frodo and Sam attempted to enter Mordor through the pass of Cirith Ungol in the mountains above. They had been previously met by Gollum, whom Sauron had earlier released from captivity. For a while, Gollum had acted as a guide for Frodo and Sam. However, he finally betrayed them to Shelob -- a monstrous, spider - like creature that guarded the pass. (Sauron is said to have called Shelob his "cat '', sending her the occasional prisoner to be devoured.)
In the end, Sam drove off both Gollum and Shelob, but Frodo had been stung by Shelob and appeared to have died from her venom. The Orcs found Frodo 's body and stripped him of his gear, but Sam (thinking his friend dead) had already secured the Ring. Frodo regained consciousness and was freed from the orcs by Sam, and the two started the grueling journey across the plains of Mordor towards Mount Doom.
Aragorn marched on the Black Gate of Mordor with 7,000 men, knowing this force was far too small to actually defeat Sauron, but intending to cause a diversion to draw Sauron 's armies away while Frodo and Sam journeyed to Mount Doom. After a brief encounter with the Mouth of Sauron, the battle was joined and went very poorly for the outnumbered Gondor / Rohan armies. Now wrongly convinced that Aragorn had the Ring, Sauron apparently reacted just as Gandalf had thought he would: "I will crush him, and what he has taken in his insolence shall be mine again for ever. ''
Even as the Captains of the West were about to be utterly defeated by the superior might of Sauron 's grand armies, Frodo reached his goal, entering the fiery interior of Mount Doom. However, his will failed at the last moment; unable to resist the growing power of the Ring, he put it on his finger and claimed it for his own. Sauron was instantly aware of him, and his gaze turned immediately to the Door in the Mountain. Recalling his remaining Nazgûl from the ongoing battle, he commanded them to hasten to Mount Doom in a desperate attempt to secure the Ring. It was too late, however: Gollum attacked Frodo, bit the Ring from his finger, then lost his footing and fell with the Ring into the fire. With "a roar and a great confusion of noise '', the One Ring perished along with all the power Sauron had invested in it. Tolkien later commented in one of his letters that Gollum 's convenient slip was an immediate intervention by Eru himself: Gollum 's fate was "bound up with that of the ring '', as Gandalf predicted in the Mines of Moria.
At the Ring 's destruction, Sauron 's power was immediately broken and his form in Middle - earth was destroyed. His departing spirit towered above Mordor like a black cloud, but was blown away by a powerful wind from the West (the direction of the Blessed Realm and the Valar). His vast empires collapsed, his armies were defeated, the Dark Tower of Barad - dûr crumbled and the Nazgûl were consumed in a hail of fire from the Mountain as they flew towards it trying to save the Ring. Sauron himself was crippled beyond repair, putting an end to his long reign of terror.
Gandalf had predicted what the destruction of the Ring would mean to Sauron: "If it is destroyed, then he will fall, and his fall will be so low that none can foresee his arising ever again. For he will lose the best part of the strength that was native to him in his beginning, and all that was made or begun with that power will crumble, and he will be maimed for ever, becoming a mere spirit of malice that gnaws itself in the shadows, but can not again grow or take shape. And so a great evil of this world will be removed. ''
In some of Tolkien 's notes, it is said that Sauron 's original name was Mairon or "the admirable '', "but this was altered after he was suborned by Melkor. But he continued to call himself Mairon the Admirable, or Tar - Mairon "King Excellent '', until after the downfall of Númenor. ''
The name Sauron (from an earlier form Thauron) originates from the adjective saura "foul, putrid '' in Tolkien 's invented language of Quenya, and can be translated as "the Abhorred '' or "the Abomination ''. In Sindarin (another Elf - language created by Tolkien) he is called Gorthaur, "the Abhorred Dread '' or "the Dread Abomination ''. He is also called the Nameless Enemy. The Dúnedain (the descendants of the Númenóreans) call him "Sauron the Deceiver '' due to his role in the Downfall of Númenor and the forging of the Rings of Power. In the Númenórean (Adûnaic) tongue he was also known as Zigûr, The Wizard.
His two most common titles, the "Dark Lord of Mordor '' and the "Lord of the Rings '', appear only a few times in The Lord of the Rings. His other titles or variants thereof include "Base Master of Treachery '', "The Great Deceiver '', the "Dark Lord '', the "Dark Power '', "Lord of Barad - dûr '', the "Red Eye '', the "Ring - maker '' and the "Sorcerer ''.
In the First Age (as detailed in The Silmarillion) he was called the "Lord of Werewolves '' of Tol - in - Gaurhoth. In the Second Age he assumed the name Annatar, which means "Lord of Gifts '', and Aulendil, meaning "Friend of Aulë '', as well as Artano, meaning "High - Smith '', with which he assumed a new identity and tricked the Elves into working with him to create the Rings. In the Third Age he was known for a time as the Necromancer of Dol Guldur because his true identity was still unknown.
Nowhere does Tolkien provide a detailed description of Sauron 's appearance during any of his incarnations.
According to The Silmarillion, Sauron was initially able to change his appearance at will. In the beginning he assumed a beautiful form, but after switching his allegiance to Morgoth, he took a sinister shape. In the First Age, Gorlim was at one point brought into "the dreadful presence of Sauron '', but the only concrete hint about his appearance is a reference to his daunting eyes.
As part of a plan to destroy Huan, Sauron took the form of the greatest werewolf in Middle - earth 's history. When the plan backfired, he assumed a serpent - like form, and finally changed back "from monster to his own accustomed form ''. The implication is that his "accustomed form '' was not, at least, overtly monstrous. It is understood to have been humanoid.
Sauron took a beautiful appearance once again at the end of the First Age in an effort to charm Eönwë, near the beginning of the Second Age when appearing as Annatar to the Elves, and again near the end of the Second Age when corrupting the men of Númenor.
One version of the story describes, in general terms, the impression Sauron made on the Númenóreans. He appeared "as a man, or one in man 's shape, but greater than any even of the race of Númenor in stature... And it seemed to men that Sauron was great, though they feared the light of his eyes. To many he appeared fair, to others terrible; but to some evil. ''
Like Morgoth, Sauron eventually lost the ability to change his physical form (his hröa). After the destruction of his fair form in the fall of Númenor, Sauron was unable to take a pleasing appearance or veil his power again. Thereafter, at the end of the Second Age and again in the Third, he always took the shape of a terrible dark lord. His first incarnation after the Downfall of Númenor was extremely hideous, "an image of malice and hatred made visible ''. Isildur recorded that Sauron 's hand "was black, and yet burned like fire... ''. Gil - galad perished from Sauron 's heat.
In one of his letters Tolkien states that Sauron had a physical form in the Third Age:
... in a tale which allows the incarnation of great spirits in a physical and destructible form their power must be far greater when actually physically present... Sauron should be thought of as very terrible. The form that he took was that of a man of more than human stature, but not gigantic.
J.R.R. Tolkien: Artist and Illustrator includes a watercolour illustration of Sauron made by Tolkien himself (shown at the top of the article). It appears to show a moment in the book occurring immediately after the destruction of the Ring, when the armies of the West saw a towering, dark shape above Mordor, stretching out a threatening arm towards them before the figure dissolved.
Since the illustration refers to a more - or-less visionary moment and is moreover highly sketchy (a second sketch of Sauron 's arm appears beneath the arm itself), the image should not necessarily be pressed too hard for details about Sauron 's appearance. The head, right arm and upper torso of an apparently humanoid figure are seen. The arm is black, the rest of the body is grey, except for a red eye. No other facial features can be made out. A series of spikes are visible on Sauron 's head, possibly suggesting a crown. The mountains of Mordor are seen under the outstretched arm, confirming the enormous size of Sauron 's final apparition.
Throughout The Lord of the Rings, "the Eye '' (the Red Eye, the Evil Eye, the Lidless Eye, the Great Eye) is the image most often associated with Sauron. Sauron 's Orcs bore the symbol of the Eye on their helmets and shields, and referred to him as the "Eye '' because he did not allow his name to be written or spoken, according to Aragorn (a notable exception to this rule was his emissary, the Mouth of Sauron). Also, the Lord of the Nazgûl threatened Éowyn with torture before the "Lidless Eye '' at the Battle of the Pelennor Fields.
Frodo had a vision of the Eye in the Mirror of Galadriel:
The Eye was rimmed with fire, but was itself glazed, yellow as a cat 's, watchful and intent, and the black slit of its pupil opened on a pit, a window into nothing.
Later, Tolkien writes as if Frodo and Sam really glimpse the Eye directly. The mists surrounding Barad - dûr are briefly withdrawn, and:
one moment only it stared out... as from some great window immeasurably high there stabbed northward a flame of red, the flicker of a piercing Eye... The Eye was not turned on them, it was gazing north... but Frodo at that dreadful glimpse fell as one stricken mortally.
This raises the question of whether an "Eye '' was Sauron 's actual manifestation, or whether he had a body beyond the Eye. Gollum (who was tortured by Sauron in person) tells Frodo that Sauron has, at least, a "Black Hand '' with four fingers. The missing finger was cut off when Isildur took the Ring, and the finger was still missing when Sauron reappeared centuries later.
Tolkien writes in The Silmarillion that "the Eye of Sauron the Terrible few could endure '' even before his body was lost in the War of the Last Alliance.
In the draft text of the climactic moments of The Lord of the Rings, "the Eye '' stands for Sauron 's very person, with emotions and thoughts:
The Dark Lord was suddenly aware of him (Frodo), the Eye piercing all shadows... Its wrath blazed like a sudden flame and its fear was like a great black smoke, for it knew its deadly peril, the thread upon which hung its doom... (I) ts thought was now bent with all its overwhelming force upon the Mountain... ''
Christopher Tolkien comments: "The passage is notable in showing the degree to which my father had come to identify the Eye of Barad - dûr with the mind and will of Sauron, so that he could speak of ' its wrath, its fear, its thought '. In the second text... he shifted from ' its ' to ' his ' as he wrote out the passage anew. ''
Most adaptations of the story to visual media depict the Eye as visibly present. The film adaptations directed by Peter Jackson depict the Eye of Sauron as an all - seeing eye, and his prequel adaptation shows it as an extended aura about Sauron 's spiritual essence, which is a silhouette of his physical form and appears as the eye 's slit pupil.
Since the earliest versions of The Silmarillion legendarium as detailed in the History of Middle - earth series, Sauron underwent many changes. The prototype or precursor Sauron - figure was a giant monstrous cat, the Prince of Cats. Called Tevildo, Tifil and Tiberth among other names, this character played the role later taken by Sauron in the earliest version of the story of Beren and Tinúviel in The Book of Lost Tales. The Prince of Cats was later replaced by Thû, the Necromancer. The name was then changed to Gorthû, Sûr, and finally to Sauron. Gorthû, in the form Gorthaur remained in The Silmarillion; both Thû and Sauron name the character in the Lay of Leithian.
The story of Beren and Lúthien also features the heroic hound Huan and involved the subtext of cats versus dogs in its earliest form. Later the cats were changed to wolves or werewolves, with the Sauron - figure becoming the Lord of Werewolves.
Prior to the publication of The Silmarillion (1977), Sauron 's origins and true identity were unclear to those without full access to Tolkien 's notes. In early editions of Robert Foster 's The Complete Guide to Middle - earth, Sauron is described as "probably of the Eldar elves ''. Yet there were other critics who essentially hit the mark. As early as 1967, W.H. Auden conjectured that Sauron might have been a Vala, long before it became known that Tolkien had indeed described him as "a lesser member of the race of Valar '' (see full quote above).
In film versions of The Lord of the Rings, Sauron has been portrayed as either a humanoid creature (as in Ralph Bakshi 's 1978 animated version, The Lord of the Rings) or a physical, disembodied Eye (as in the 1980 animated The Return of the King), or both.
This last option is shown in the 2001 -- 2003 film trilogy directed by Peter Jackson, with Sauron voiced by Alan Howard. Here, Sauron is shown to have a large humanoid form during the forging of the Ring and up to his losing it, then being "limited '' to the disembodied Eye form throughout the rest of the storyline. The 2014 video game Middle - earth: Shadow of Mordor presents a related version of this premise. In the game, he regains his physical form sometime after his defeat at Dol Guldur, losing it once more. This depiction preserves continuity with Jackson 's film adaptations, at least -- if not with Tolkien canon.
Though the 1978 animated film and the 2001 live - action film both contain a prologue featuring the forging of the Rings of Power, the War of the Elves and Sauron goes unmentioned and the films jump straight to the much later War of the Last Alliance. In both, Sauron does not have the form he wore as "Annatar '' when he forges the One Ring, but rather the one reflecting his identity as Dark Lord, and he is defeated by Isildur alone.
In Jackson 's series, Sauron is originally portrayed as a towering "black knight '' wielding a huge black mace (reminiscent of Tolkien 's descriptions as well as conceptual artist John Howe 's illustrations of Morgoth); in this form, he is portrayed by Sala Baker. While Tolkien never specifically discussed the type of armour, Sauron is shown in spiky plate armour of very high quality: it has very ornate filigree but is also quite functional. In the DVD commentary, the production team explained their intent was to represent Sauron 's great skill as a craftsman and ring - maker: Sauron was originally a maia spirit in service to the smith - vala Aulë, and thus was very wise in the lore of physical construction. Sauron may have fallen from his previously angelic state, but a shadow of his great skill in forging and construction remains, even though it has been twisted to making weapons of war. Thus they chose to depict Sauron as wearing frightening, but very high quality and ornate armour of his own creation. Sauron 's body disintegrates with explosive force after Isildur cuts off the Ring with the hilt - shard of the sword Narsil. Sauron 's spiritual essence remained intact as it eventually consolidates into the Eye of Sauron by the time of Barad - dûr 's restoration, stationing himself between the twin horn - like spires above the tower to scan Mordor like a searchlight. The effect in Mordor is seen as a red beam that moves across the land, forever probing. It also seems to be visible to Frodo (and to see him in turn) any time that he is wearing the Ring. Pippin has a brief encounter with the Eye, after gazing into the palantír of Orthanc. In the extended edition of The Return of the King, Sauron 's humanoid form appears when Aragorn looks into the palantír. When the Ring is destroyed, the Eye of Sauron collapses in on itself, causing a massive shock wave that destroys his entire kingdom.
In earlier versions of Jackson 's script, Sauron does indeed "come forth '' at Aragorn 's challenge, and does battle with him: The extra materials published together with the extended DVD version of the third movie indicate as much. Scenes of the fight were shot, but later this idea was discarded and was replaced by a scene (in the extended version) where Aragorn kills the "Mouth of Sauron '' (a representative of Sauron) before fighting a Mordor troll. In fact, the footage of the battle with the troll was the same footage of Aragorn fighting Sauron, with the CGI troll mapped over a painted - out Sauron, as seen in the DVD special features. In this abandoned scene, when Sauron first emerges from the Black Gate, he appears in his fair and seductive form as "Annatar the Lord of Gifts '', trying to entice Aragorn and the other leaders with offers of peace and dominion. When they reject him, he reverts to his true form, as seen in the prologue. Jackson said he removed the scene when he realized it was too much of a departure from the source material and thematically missed the point: the battle was supposed to be a selfless sacrifice by Aragorn and his army, and making it into a duel between Aragorn and Sauron made it more about personal glory. Sauron appears as The Necromancer (a figure only incidentally mentioned by Gandalf in the original novel) and one of the main antagonists in Jackson 's The Hobbit film adaptations where he is portrayed through voice and motion capture by Benedict Cumberbatch. The Necromancer appears briefly in The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey when Radagast the Brown enters Dol Guldur. In The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug, Jackson moves Gandalf 's decisive expedition to Dol Guldur forward in time to coincide with the Quest of Erebor. Sauron appears an amorphous entity of shadowy mist floating around in the ruins before he assumes his semi-physical form, and then manifests the Eye of Sauron while capturing Gandalf. In The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies, and the extended edition of The Desolation of Smaug, Sauron is shown to have been behind Smaug 's actions as part of a grand scheme to restore the Kingdom of Angmar. However, the actions of Thorin Oakenshield and company forces Sauron to dispatch his Orc army to capture Erebor. During the third film, as his Orc army is nearing Erebor, Sauron appears before the White Council after they battle the nine Nazgûl and rescue Gandalf from Dol Guldur. He is rendered formless by Galadriel, who uses Eärendil 's Light to banish him and the Nazgûl back to Mordor.
Sauron appears in merchandise of the Jackson films, including computer and video games. These include The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle - earth II (where he was voiced by Fred Tatasciore), The Lord of the Rings: Tactics, and The Lord of the Rings: The Third Age.
Sauron also appears as a playable character in the game The Lord of the Rings: Conquest, voiced by Jon Olson.
Sauron is a playable character in Lego The Lord of the Rings. His Necromancer form is playable in Lego The Hobbit.
He is further alluded to in Middle - earth: Shadow of Mordor as the Black Hand of Sauron, the aspect of himself that resided within the hand cut off by Isildur during the War of the Last Alliance. While Sauron was voiced by Steven Blum, the Black Hand of Sauron was voiced by Nolan North. Sauron returns in the sequel Middle - earth: Shadow of War.
Sauron appears as a boss in Lego Dimensions with the voice provided by Steve Blum once again. He is one the villains serving Lord Vortech, and he takes over Superman 's hometown, Metropolis. He is stopped by Batman, Gandalf, and Wyldstyle, with Gandalf noting that his power is significantly decreased since he is not in his home realm, and is cleansed of the Locate Keystone. Similar to the movie, his armour crumbles up when he is defeated. The only difference is that he crumbles into a cube that is teleported back to Lord Vortech 's lair.
The Lego Batman Movie portrays Sauron in his eye form, voiced by comedian Jemaine Clement. He appears as one of the villains imprisoned in the Phantom Zone who join with Joker to take over Gotham City. The Eye of Sauron causes mayhem in the city by spreading lava, and supports the takeover by being able to find anyone anywhere. He is accidentally destroyed by fire blast from the Kraken from Clash of the Titans when it was trying to shoot down the Batwing. Joker was devastated at this loss while Kraken sheepishly slips away quoting "Nothing to see here. ''
The Eye of Sauron is mentioned in The Stand, a post-apocalyptic novel written by Stephen King. The villain Randall Flagg possesses an astral body in the form of an "Eye '' akin to the Lidless Eye. The novel itself was conceived by King as a "fantasy epic like The Lord of the Rings, only with an American setting ''. The idea of Sauron as a sleepless eye that watches and seeks the protagonists also influenced King 's epic fantasy series The Dark Tower; its villain, the Crimson King, is a similarly disembodied evil presence whose icon is also an eye.
In the Marvel Comics Universe, the supervillain Sauron, an enemy of the X-Men, names himself after the Tolkien character.
In the comic series Fables, by Bill Willingham, one character is called "The Adversary '', an ambiguous figure of immense evil and power believed to be responsible for much of the misfortune in the Fables ' overall history. Willingham has stated "The Adversary '', in name and in character, was inspired by Sauron.
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daddy long legs that looks like a wasp | Crane fly - wikipedia
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Crane fly is a common name referring to any member of the insect family Tipulidae, of the order Diptera, true flies in the superfamily Tipuloidea. Cylindrotominae, Limoniinae, and Pediciinae have been ranked as subfamilies of Tipulidae by most authors, though occasionally elevated to family rank. In the most recent classifications, only Pediciidae is now ranked as a separate family, due to considerations of paraphyly. In colloquial speech, crane flies are sometimes known as mosquito hawks or daddy longlegs, a term also used to describe opiliones or the family Pholcidae, both of which are arachnids. The larvae of crane flies are known commonly as leatherjackets.
Crane flies are found worldwide, though individual species usually have limited ranges. They are most diverse in the tropics, and are also common in northern latitudes and high elevations.
The Tipulidae is one of the largest groups of flies, including over 15,000 species and subspecies in 525 genera and subgenera. Most crane flies were described by the entomologist Charles Paul Alexander, a fly specialist, in over 1000 research publications.
The adult crane fly, resembling an oversized mosquito, has a slender body and stilt - like legs that are deciduous, easily coming off the body. The wingspan is generally about 1.0 to 6.5 cm, though some species of Holorusia can reach 11 cm. The antennae have up to 19 segments. It is also characterized by a V - shaped suture on the back of the thorax and by its wing venation. The rostrum is long; in some species it is as long as the head and thorax together.
Tipulidae are large to medium - sized flies (7 -- 35 mm) with elongated legs, wings, and abdomen. Their colour is yellow, brown or grey. Ocelli are absent. The rostrum (a snout) is short to very short with a beak - like point called the nasus (rarely absent). The apical segment of the maxillary palpi is flagelliform and much longer than the subapical segment. The antennae have 13 segments (exceptionally 14 -- 19). These are whorled, serrate, or ctenidial. There is a distinct V - shaped suture between the mesonotal prescutum and scutum (near the level of the wing bases). The wings are monochromatic, longitudinally striped or marbled. In females the wings are sometimes rudimentary. The sub-costal vein (Sc) joins through Sc2 with the radial vein, Sc1 is at most a short stump. There are four, rarely (when R2 is reduced) three branches of the radial vein merging into the alar margin. The discoidal wing cell is usually present. The wing has two anal veins. Sternite 9 of the male genitalia has, with few exceptions, two pairs of appendages. Sometimes appendages are also present on sternite 8. The female ovipositor has sclerotized valves and the cerci have a smooth or dentate lower margin. The valves are sometimes modified into thick bristles or short teeth.
Tipulinae
Dolichopezinae
The larva is elongated, usually cylindrical. The posterior two - thirds of the head capsule is enclosed or retracted within the prothoracic segment. The larva is metapneustic (with only one pair of spiracles, these on the anal segment of the abdomen), but often with vestigial lateral spiracles (rarely apneustic). The head capsule is sclerotized anteriorly and deeply incised ventrally and often dorsolaterally. The mandibles are opposed and move in the horizontal or oblique plane. The abdominal segments have transverse creeping welts. The terminal segments of the abdomen are glabrous, often partially sclerotized and bearing posterior spiracles. The spiracular disc is usually surrounded by lobe - like projections and anal papillae or lobes.
Crane fly molting
The adult female usually contains mature eggs as she emerges from her pupa, and often mates immediately if a male is available. Males also search for females by walking or flying. Copulation takes a few minutes to hours and may be accomplished in flight. Adults have a lifespan of 10 to 15 days. The female immediately oviposits, usually in wet soil or mats of algae. Some lay eggs on the surface of a water body or in dry soils, and some reportedly simply drop them in flight. Most crane fly eggs are black in color. They often have a filament, which may help anchor the egg in wet or aquatic environments.
Crane fly larvae (leatherjackets) have been observed in many habitat types on dry land and in water, including marine, brackish, and fresh water. They are cylindrical in shape, but taper toward the front end, and the head capsule is often retracted into the thorax. The abdomen may be smooth, lined with hairs, or studded with projections or welt - like spots. Projections may occur around the spiracles. Larvae may eat algae, microflora, and living or decomposing plant matter, including wood. Some are predatory.
Larval habitats include all kinds of freshwater, semiaquatic environments. Some Tipulinae, including Dolichopeza Curtis, are found in moist to wet cushions of mosses or liverworts. Ctenophora Meigen species are found in decaying wood or sodden logs. Nephrotoma Meigen and Tipula Linnaeus larvae are found in dry soils of pasturelands, lawns, and steppe. Tipulidae larvae are also found in rich organic earth and mud, in wet spots in woods where the humus is saturated, in leaf litter or mud, decaying plant materials, or fruits in various stages of putrefaction.
Larvae can be important in the soil ecosystem, because they process organic material and increase microbial activity. Larvae and adults are also valuable prey items for many animals, including insects, spiders, fish, amphibians, birds, and mammals.
The larvae of some species consume other living aquatic insects and invertebrates, which could potentially include mosquito larvae. Many adults, however, have such short lifespans that they do not eat at all.
Despite widely held beliefs that adult crane flies (or "mosquito hawks '') prey on mosquito populations, the adult crane fly is anatomically incapable of killing or consuming other insects.
The common European crane fly, Tipula paludosa, and the marsh crane fly, T. oleracea, are agricultural pests in Europe. Crane fly larvae of economic importance live in the top layers of soil where they feed on the roots, root hairs, crown, and sometimes the leaves of crops, stunting their growth or killing the plants. They are pests on a variety of commodities. Since the late 1900s, T. paludosa and T. oleracea have become invasive in the United States. The larvae have been observed on many crops, including vegetables, fruits, cereals, pasture, lawn grasses, and ornamental plants.
In 1935, Lord 's Cricket Ground in London was among venues affected by leatherjackets. Several thousand were collected by ground staff and burned, because they caused bald patches on the wicket and the pitch took unaccustomed spin for much of the season.
The phylogenetic position of the Tipulidae remains uncertain. The classical viewpoint that they are an early branch of Diptera -- perhaps (with the Trichoceridae) the sister group of all other Diptera -- is giving way to modern views that they are more highly derived. This is thanks to evidence from molecular studies, which is consistent with the more derived larval characters similar to those of ' higher ' Diptera. The Pediciidae and Tipulidae are sister groups (the "limoniids '' are a paraphyletic clade) and the Cylindrotominae appear to be a relict group that was much better represented in the Tertiary. Tipulidae probably evolved from ancestors in the Upper Jurassic, the Architipulidae.
Numerous other common names have been applied to the crane fly. Many of the names are more or less regional in the U.S., including mosquito hawk, mosquito eater, gallinipper, and gollywhopper. They are also known as daddy longlegs around the world, not to be confused with daddy - long - legs that refers to arachnids of the order Opiliones or the family Pholcidae. The larvae of crane flies are known commonly as leatherjackets.
There is an enduring urban legend that crane flies are the most venomous insects in the world, but have no ability to administer the venom. This is not true. The myth likely arose due to their being confused with the cellar spider as they are also informally called "daddy longlegs '', and although the spider does possess venom, this has also been debunked.
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who wrote the music to a star is born 2018 | A Star Is Born (2018 soundtrack) - wikipedia
A Star Is Born is the soundtrack album to the 2018 musical film of the same name, performed by its stars Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper. It was released on October 5, 2018, by Interscope Records. Gaga and Cooper collaborated on the soundtrack album with an assortment of country musicians, including Lukas Nelson, who also stars in the film as a member of Cooper 's band. For the more pop - oriented songs on the soundtrack, Gaga teamed up with recurring collaborator DJ White Shadow. The soundtrack also includes contributions from Jason Isbell, Mark Ronson, Diane Warren, and Andrew Wyatt of Miike Snow. Commercially, it has topped the charts in Australia, Canada, the Czech Republic, Ireland, New Zealand, Scotland, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
In March 2015, Warner Bros. announced that Bradley Cooper was in talks to make his directorial debut with A Star Is Born, the fourth remake of the 1937 film of the same name. Lady Gaga was officially attached to the film in August 2016, with the studio green - lighting the project to begin production in early 2017. Cooper plays Jackson Maine, "a veteran country singer who discovers and eventually falls in love with a struggling singer - songwriter named Ally, played by Gaga. '' Gaga "helped inform Cooper 's performance as a musician ''.
Cooper spent two - and - a-half years prepping for the film and determining what kind of musician his character would be. He worked with a number of musicians and vocal coach Roger Love. Cooper said, "by the end he just kind of started developing into his own sort of creation. If I had another year of prep, it would have been complete rock, but now it 's some sort of hybrid. ''
Cooper described the soundtrack "an evolution, like the story. '' Gaga and Cooper were writing songs for the soundtrack during filming, leading to "so many different incarnations of each song. '' Cooper added that "the music really became a character in the movie. There is no lyric that 's ever in any point of the movie that does n't have exactly to do with where one of them is or hopes to be or regrets being. That was our launching pad and then it was just about discovering what songs fit in the right places. '' Jason Isbell wrote a song for Cooper 's character, which became "the sword with which a lot of the music spawned from (Cooper) ''. Isbell sent the song through Dave Cobb, a Nashville - based producer with whom Cooper had been collaborating.
Cooper approached Lukas Nelson (son of country music singer Willie Nelson) after seeing him perform at Desert Trip in October 2016 and asked him to work on the film as a music consultant. Nelson said he began "writing songs for the movie, just for the heck of it, and sending them over to the producer, and they started liking them. Then Lady Gaga came by and I met her and we clicked. We became good friends, and we started writing together. '' Gaga, in turn, provided backing vocals on two tracks on Nelson 's self - titled album released in 2017. Nelson and his band, Lukas Nelson & Promise of the Real, appear in the film as Cooper 's backing band.
Gaga reunited with producer Mark Ronson and songwriter Hillary Lindsey, who had both contributed to her previous studio album Joanne (2016). She worked with recurring collaborator DJ White Shadow on the soundtrack 's more pop - oriented numbers performed by her character Ally. Much of the album was recorded live on set, at Gaga 's insistence.
Billboard described the soundtrack as "integral to the plotline '', adding that "many of the lyrics are about wanting and longing for change, but noting the struggle. Some express the great love and beautiful bond the booze - addled rock star (Jackson Maine, played by Cooper) and neophyte singer - songwriter (Ally, played by Lady Gaga) have for each other '', and concluding that "the music stands up, movie or no movie. They are timeless, emotional, gritty and earnest. They sound like songs written by artists who, quite frankly, are supremely messed up but hit to the core of the listener. ''
The soundtrack 's track list and release date were announced on August 30, 2018. Interscope Records tweeted that the album "features 19 songs in a wide range of musical styles + 15 dialogue tracks that will take you on a journey that mirrors the experience of seeing the film. '' Its track "Shallow '' was released on September 27 as the album 's lead single.
The soundtrack received positive response from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album has an average score of 78, based on 8 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. In a positive review, The Washington Post called the soundtrack a "five - star marvel '' and stated that it is a possible contender to win a Grammy Award. Ben Beaumont - Thomas of The Guardian gave the album a positive review, acknowledging "Bradley Cooper shows he can sing as well as act and direct '', but that "it is Lady Gaga 's pop prowess that lifts each track, be it spectacular piano ballads or heart - rending duets ''
In a positive review, Stephen Thomas Erlewine, writing for AllMusic, said "All the songs make sense narratively and on their own, so they hold together well and would amount to a first - rate soundtrack '', but criticized the dialogue included in the album. Rolling Stone 's Brittany Spanos gave the soundtrack four stars out of a possible five, saying "The music Gaga helps write for this stretch in Ally 's career... is gorgeous -- romantic without being trite and powerful. '' Nick Reilly of NME complimented the album 's "emotionally charged songs that feel entirely appropriate for this heartfelt tale of doomed romance '', adding that the album is "one of the best Hollywood soundtracks of recent years. ''
Writing for The Daily Telegraph, Neil McCormick gave the album a moderately positive review, saying the soundtrack was enjoyable, but criticized the "slightly awkward journey from rock balladry to slickly superficial pop '' and stated that "there is also a weird disconnect as the soundtrack shifts gear to anodyne modern pop ''. Jeremy Winograd of Slant Magazine, in a mixed review, was critical of the album, saying "There 's undoubtedly a strong 10 - song album lodged at the core of A Star Is Born, but unlike the film, wherein an outsized sense of sentimentality is rendered affecting by the more grounded performances, there 's not nearly enough substance here to justify all the bombast. ''
A Star Is Born opened atop the US Billboard 200 with 231,000 album - equivalent units, including 162,000 pure album sales. It had the biggest overall sales week for a soundtrack in over three years, and is Gaga 's fifth US number - one album as well as Cooper 's first. Gaga extended her record as the female artist with the most chart - topping albums during the 2010s, breaking her tie with Taylor Swift. Beside its pure album sales, A Star Is Born earned 37,000 in stream - equivalent units and 32,000 from track - equivalent units. The soundtrack spent a second week at number one there with 143,000 album - equivalent units (86,000 being pure sales), and became Gaga 's second album to top the chart for two consecutive weeks after Born This Way (2011). It then held the country 's summit for a third week in a row with 109,000 equivalent units (61,000 pure sales), becoming the first soundtrack since High School Musical 2 in 2007 to top the chart for its first three weeks. Additionally it became Gaga 's longest running chart - topping album in the country.
A Star Is Born entered at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart, selling 18,000 equivalent units, earning the top sales and digital song download honors and the seventh highest on - demand streams for the week. The soundtrack was Gaga 's third album to reach the summit in the nation and her first since Born This Way. The soundtrack held the top position for the next week, with another 12,000 equivalent units and was also the top - selling album. It had an 11 % increase in sales during the third week and remained atop the charts, selling close to 14,000 equivalent units. Like in the United States, the soundtrack became Gaga 's longest running chart - topping album in Canada for Gaga.
In the United Kingdom, A Star Is Born faced competition from Twenty One Pilots ' fifth studio album, Trench, with the midweek chart suggesting the latter to emerge as the top album. A Star Is Born pulled ahead at the last moment according to Alan Jones from Music Week, and debuted atop the UK Albums Chart with 31,816 units (including 6,178 from stream - equivalent units). It became Gaga 's fourth album to reach number one in the nation and first since Artpop (2013), as well as Cooper 's first entry on the chart. The soundtrack was then displaced by Jess Glynne 's Always In Between the following week, and it fell to number two, selling 24,732 equivalent units. For the week ending November 1, 2018, the soundtrack moved back atop the chart with 24,982 copies sold (including 6,645 from sales - equivalent streams). "Shallow '' also reached the top of the UK Singles Chart that week, making Gaga and Cooper score an Official UK Chart double, this being Gaga 's third time to do so.
A Star Is Born opened at number one in Ireland and Scotland, and was Gaga 's third number one in the former. During its third week atop the Irish chart, the soundtrack attained its highest sales tally. In France, the soundtrack sold 8,700 units and debuted at number seven on the SNEP Albums Chart, and held the same position the next week with another 8,000 units. In Australia, A Star Is Born entered at number three on the ARIA Albums Chart, giving Gaga her seventh top 10 album in the country and her sixth to reach the top three. Two weeks later, the soundtrack reached the top of the charts, becoming Gaga 's third album to reach the Australian charts summit after The Fame Monster and Born This Way. The soundtrack debuted at number six in the New Zealand Albums Chart, and after two weeks reached the top.
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where are the allegheny mountains on a map | Allegheny Mountains - wikipedia
The Allegheny Mountain Range / ælɪˈɡeɪni /, informally the Alleghenies and also spelled Alleghany and Allegany, is part of the vast Appalachian Mountain Range of the Eastern United States and Canada and posed a significant barrier to land travel in less technologically advanced eras. The barrier range has a northeast -- southwest orientation and runs for about 400 miles (640 km) from north - central Pennsylvania, through western Maryland and eastern West Virginia, to southwestern Virginia.
The Alleghenies comprise the rugged western - central portion of the Appalachians. They rise to approximately 4,862 feet (1,483 m) in northeastern West Virginia. In the east, they are dominated by a high, steep escarpment known as the Allegheny Front. In the west, they slope down into the closely associated Allegheny Plateau, which extends into Ohio and Kentucky. The principal settlements of the Alleghenies are Altoona, State College, and Johnstown, Pennsylvania; and Cumberland, Maryland.
The name is derived from the Allegheny River, which drains only a small portion of the Alleghenies in west - central Pennsylvania. The meaning of the word, which comes from the Lenape (Delaware) Indians, is not definitively known but is usually translated as "fine river ''. A Lenape legend tells of an ancient tribe called the "Allegewi '' who lived on the river and were defeated by the Lenape. Allegheny is the early French spelling (as in Allegheny River, which was once part of New France), and Allegany is closer to the early English spelling (as in Allegany County, Maryland, Allegany County, New York, or Alleghany County, Virginia).
The word "Allegheny '' was once commonly used to refer to the whole of what are now called the Appalachian Mountains. John Norton used it (spelled variously) around 1810 to refer to the mountains in Tennessee and Georgia. Around the same time, Washington Irving proposed renaming the United States either "Appalachia '' or "Alleghania ''. In 1861, Arnold Henry Guyot published the first systematic geologic study of the whole mountain range. His map labeled the range as the "Alleghanies '', but his book was titled On the Appalachian Mountain System. As late as 1867, John Muir -- in his book A Thousand Mile Walk to the Gulf -- used the word "Alleghanies '' in referring to the southern Appalachians.
There was no general agreement about the "Appalachians '' versus the "Alleghanies '' until the late 19th century.
From northeast to southwest, the Allegheny Mountains run about 400 miles (640 km). From west to east, at their widest, they are about 100 miles (160 km).
Although there are no official boundaries to the Allegheny Mountains region, it may be generally defined to the east by the Allegheny Front; to the north by the Susquehanna River valley; and to the south by the New River valley. To the west, the Alleghenies grade down into the dissected Allegheny Plateau (of which they are sometimes considered to be a part). The westernmost ridges are considered to be the Laurel Highlands and Chestnut Ridge in Pennsylvania, and Laurel Mountain and Rich Mountain in West Virginia.
The mountains to the south of the Alleghenies -- the Appalachians in westernmost Virginia, eastern Kentucky, and eastern Tennessee -- are the Cumberlands. The Alleghenies and the Cumberlands both constitute part of the Ridge and Valley Province of the Appalachians.
The eastern edge of the Alleghenies is marked by the Allegheny Front, which is also sometimes considered the eastern terminus of the Allegheny Plateau. This great escarpment roughly follows a portion of the Eastern Continental Divide in this area. A number of impressive gorges and valleys drain the Alleghenies: to the east, Smoke Hole Canyon (South Branch Potomac River), and to the west the New River Gorge and the Blackwater and Cheat Canyons. Thus, about half the precipitation falling on the Alleghenies makes its way west to the Mississippi and half goes east to Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic seaboard.
The highest ridges of the Alleghenies are just west of the Front, which has an east / west elevational change of up to 3,000 feet (910 m). Absolute elevations of the Allegheny Highlands reach nearly 5,000 feet (1,500 m), with the highest elevations in the southern part of the range. The highest point in the Allegheny Mountains is Spruce Knob (4,863 ft / 1,482 m), on Spruce Mountain in West Virginia. Other notable Allegheny highpoints include Thorny Flat on Cheat Mountain (4,848 ft / 1478 m), Bald Knob on Back Allegheny Mountain (4,842 ft / 1476 m), and Mount Porte Crayon (4,770 ft / 1,454 m), all in West Virginia; Dans Mountain (2,898 ft / 883m) in Maryland, Backbone Mountain (3360 ft / 1024 m), the highest point in Maryland; Mount Davis (3,213 ft / 979 m), the highest point in Pennsylvania, and the second highest, Blue Knob (3,146 ft / 959 m).
There are very few sizable cities in the Alleghenies. The four largest are (in descending order of population): Altoona, State College, Johnstown (all in Pennsylvania) and Cumberland (in Maryland). In the 1970s and ' 80s, the Interstate Highway System was extended into the northern portion of the Alleghenies, and the region is now served by a network of federal expressways -- Interstates 80, 70 / 76 and 68. Interstate 64 traverses the southern extremity of the range, but the Central Alleghenies (the "High Alleghenies '' of eastern West Virginia) have posed special problems for highway planners owing to the region 's very rugged terrain and environmental sensitivities (see Corridor H.) This region is still served by a rather sparse secondary highway system and remains considerably lower in population density than surrounding regions.
In the telecommunications field, a unique impediment to development in the central Allegheny region is the United States National Radio Quiet Zone (NRQZ), a large rectangle of land -- about 13,000 square miles (34,000 km) -- that straddles the border area of Virginia and West Virginia. Created in 1958 by the Federal Communications Commission, the NRQZ severely restricts all omnidirectional and high - power radio transmissions, although cell phone service is allowed throughout much of the area.
Much of the Monongahela (West Virginia), George Washington (West Virginia, Virginia) and Jefferson (Virginia) National Forests lie within the Allegheny Mountains. (No part of the wooded Alleghenies in Maryland or Pennsylvania, however, is managed by the U.S. Forest Service.) The Alleghenies also include a number of federally designated wilderness areas, such as the Dolly Sods Wilderness, Laurel Fork Wilderness, and Cranberry Wilderness in West Virginia.
The mostly completed Allegheny Trail, a project of the West Virginia Scenic Trails Association since 1975, runs the length of the range within West Virginia. The northern terminus is at the Mason -- Dixon line and the southern is at the West Virginia - Virginia border on Peters Mountain.
The bedrock of the Alleghenies is mostly sandstone and metamorphosed sandstone, quartzite, which is extremely resistant to weathering. Prominent beds of resistant conglomerate can be found in some areas, such as the Dolly Sods. When it weathers, it leaves behind a pure white quartzite gravel. The rock layers of the Alleghenies were formed during the Appalachian orogeny.
Because of intense freeze - thaw cycles in the higher Alleghenies, there is little native bedrock exposed in most areas. The ground surface usually rests on a massive jumble of sandstone rocks, with air space between them, that are gradually moving down - slope. The crest of the Allegheny Front is an exception, where high bluffs are often exposed.
Mineral springs in the High Alleghenies attracted Native Americans and 18th century white settlers and provided a modest incentive to the local economy. The spas developing around these geological features include celebrated resorts that continue to cater to an exclusive clientele, such as The Greenbrier (White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia; hotel built 1858) and The Homestead (Hot Springs, Virginia; original lodge built 1766).
The High Alleghenies are noted for their forests of red spruce, balsam fir, and mountain ash, trees typically found much farther north. Hardwood forests also include yellow birch, sugar and red maple, eastern hemlock, and black cherry. American beech, pine and hickory can also be found. The forests of the entire region are now almost all second - or third - growth forests, the original trees having been removed in the late 19th and (in West Virginia) early 20th centuries. The wild onion known as the ramp (Allium tricoccum) is also present in the deeper forests.
Certain isolated areas in the High Alleghenies are well known for their open expanses of sphagnum bogs and heath shrubs (e.g., Dolly Sods, Cranberry Glades). Many plant communities are indeed similar to those of sea - level eastern Canada. But the ecosystems within the Alleghenies are remarkably varied. In recent decades, the many stages of ecologic succession throughout the area have made the region one of enduring interest to botanists.
The larger megafauna which once inhabited the High Alleghenies -- elk, bison, mountain lion -- were all exterminated during the 19th century. They survived longer in this area, however, than in other parts of the eastern United States. Naturalist John James Audubon reported that by 1851 a few eastern elk (Cervus canadensis canadiensis) could still be found in the Alleghany Mountains but that by then they were virtually gone from the remainder of their range. Mammals in the Allegheny region today include whitetail deer, chipmunk, raccoon, skunk, groundhog, opossum, weasel, field mouse, flying squirrel, cottontail rabbit, gray foxes, red foxes, gray squirrels, red squirrels and a cave bat. Bobcat, snowshoe hare, wild boar and black bear and coyote are also found in the forests and parks of the Alleghenies. Mink and beaver are much less often seen.
These mountains and plateau have over 20 species of reptiles represented as lizard, skink, turtle and snake. Some of the icterid birds visit the mountains as well as the hermit thrush and wood thrush. North American migrant birds live throughout the mountains during the warmer seasons. Occasionally, osprey and eagles can be found nesting along the streams. The hawks and owls are the most common birds of prey.
The water habitats of the Alleghenies hold 24 families of fish. Amphibian species number about 21, among them hellbenders, lungless salamanders, and various toads and frogs. The Alleghenies provide habitat for about 54 species of common invertebrate. These include Gastropoda, slugs, leech, earthworms and grub worm. Cave crayfish (Cambarus nerterius) live alongside a little over seven dozen cave invertebrates.
The indigenous people inhabiting the Allegheny Mountains emerged from the greater region 's archaic and mound building cultures, particularly the Adena and Eastern Woodland peoples with a later Hopewellian influence. These Late Middle Woodland culture people have been called the Montaine (c. A.D. 500 to 1000) culture. Their neighbors, the woodland Buck Garden culture, lived in the western valleys of the central Allegheny range. The Montaine sites extend from the tributaries of the upper Potomac River region south to the New River tributaries. These also were influenced by the earlier Armstrong culture of the more southwestern portions northern sub-range of the Ouasioto (Cumberland) Mountains and by the more easterly Virginia Woodland people. The Late Woodland Montaine were less influenced by Hopewellian trade from Ohio, although similarly polished stone tools have been found among the Montaine sites in the Tygart Valley. Small groups of Montaine people appear to have lingered much beyond their classically defined period in parts of the most mountainous valleys.
The watershed of the Monongahela River is within the northwestern Alleghenies, and it is from it that the Monongahela culture takes its name. The Godwin - Portman site (36AL39) located in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, had a possible Fort Ancient (c. AD 850 to 1680) presence during the 15th century. Washington Boro ceramics have been found on the Barton (18AG3) and Llewellyn (18AG26) sites in Maryland on the northeastern slopes of the late Susquehannock sequence. The early Monongahela (c. AD 900 to 1630) are called the Drew Tradition in Pennsylvania. According to Richard L. George: "I believe that some of the Monongahela were of Algonquin origin... Other scholars have suggested that Iroquoian speakers were interacting with Late Monongahela people, and additional evidence is presented to confirm this. I conclude that the archaeologically conceived term, Monongahela, likely encompasses speakers of several languages, including Siouan. '' According to Dr Maslowski of West Virginia in 2009: "The New River Drainage and upper Potomac represents the range of the Huffman Phase (Page) hunting and gathering area or when it is found in small amounts on village sites, trade ware or Page women being assimulated into another village (tribe). '' Finally, according to Prof Potter of Virginia, they (the people represented by the Huffman Phase of Page pottery) had occupied the eastern slopes of the Alleghenies on the upper Potomac to the northern, lower Shenandoah Valley region before the A.D. 1300 Luray Phase (Algonquian) peoples ' "invasion ''. It is thought that these ancient Alleghenians were pushed from the classic Huffman Phase of the eastern slopes of the Alleghenies to the Blue Ridge Mountains in western Virginia, which was eastern Siouan territory.
In 1669, John Lederer and members of his party became the first Europeans to crest the Blue Ridge Mountains and the first to see the Shenandoah Valley and the Allegheny Mountains beyond.
The proto - historic Alleghenies can be exampled by the earliest journals of the colonists. According to Batts and Fallows ' September, 1671 Expedition, they found Mehetan Indians of Mountain "Cherokee - Iroquois '' mix on the New River tributaries. This journal does not identify the "Salt Village '', but, that the "Mehetan '' were associated with these and today thought to be "Monetons '', Siouans. However, this journal does not identify the "Salt Village '' below the Kanawha Falls, but, that simply the "Mehetan '' were associated with these. He explained, below the "Salt Villages '', a mass of hostile Indians had, implied, arrived and some believe these to be "Shanwans '' of Vielles Expedition of 1692 ~ 94, ancient Shawnee. In 1669, John Lederer of Maryland for the Virginia Colony and the Tennessee Cherokee had visited the mouth of the Kanawha and reported no hostilities on the lower streams of the Alleghenies. The Mohetan representative through a Siouan translator explained to Mr Batts and Mr Fallon, Colonel Abraham Woods explorers 1671 - 2, that he (Moheton Native American) could not say much about the people below the "Salt Village '' because they (Mountain Cherokee) were not associated with them. The Mohetan was armed by this time of 1671 for the Mohetan Representative was given several pouches of ammunition for his and the other 's weapons as a token of friendship. Somebody had already been trading within the central Alleghenies before the Virginians historical record begins in the Allegheny Mountains. Some earlier scholars found evidence these Proto - historics were either Cistercians of Spanish Ajacan Occuquan outpost on the Potomac River or Jesuits and their Kahnawake Praying Indians (Mohawk) on the Riviere de la Ronceverte. The "Kanawha Madonna '' may date from this period or earlier. Where the New River breaks through Peters ' Mountain, near Pearisburg Virginia the 1671 journal mentions the "Moketans had formerly lived ''.
According to a number of early 17th century maps, the Messawomeake or "Mincquas '' (Dutch) occupied the northern Allegheny Mountains. The "Shatteras '' (an ancient Tutelo) occupied the Ouasioto Mountains and the earliest term Canaraguy (Kanawhans otherwise Canawest) on the 1671 French map occupied the southerly Alleghenies. They were associated with the Allegheny "Cherokee '' and Eastern Siouan as trade - movers and canoe transporters. The Calicuas, an ancient most northern Cherokee, migrated or was pushed from the Central Ohio Valley onto the north eastern slopes of the Alleghenies of the ancient Messawomeake, Iroquois tradesmen to 1630s Kent Island, by 1710 maps. Sometime before 1712, the Canawest ("Kanawhans '' - "Canallaway '' - "Canaragay '') had moved to the upper Potomac and made a Treaty with the newly established trading post of Fort Conolloway which would become a part of western Maryland during the 1740s.
Prior to European exploration and settlement, trails through the Alleghenies had been transited for many generations by American Indian tribes such as the Iroquois, Shawnee, Delaware, Catawba and others, for purposes of trade, hunting and, especially, warfare. Western Virginia "Cherokee '' were reported at Cherokee Falls, today 's Valley Falls of the Tygart Valley. Indian trader Charles Poke 's trading post dates from 1731 with the Calicuas of Cherokee Falls still in the region from the previous century.
The "London Scribes '' (The Crown 's taxation records) vaguely mentions the colonial Alleghenian location of only a few other early colonial trading locations. A general knowledge of these few outposts are more of traditional telling of some local people. However, an example is the "Van Metre '' trading house mentioned in an earlier edition of the "Wonderful West Virginia Magazine '' being on the South Branches of the upper reaches of the Potomac. Another very early trading house appears on a lower Greenbrier Valley map during the earlier decades of the 18th century.
As early as 1719, new arrivals from Europe began to cross the lower Susquehanna River and settle illegally in defiance of the Board of Property in Pennsylvania, on un-warranted land of the northeastern drainage rivers of the Allegheny Mountains. Several Indian Nations requested the removal of "Maryland Intruders ''. Some of these moved onward as territory opened up beyond the Alleghenies.
The first permanent European settlers west of the Alleghenies have traditionally been considered to have been two New Englanders: Jacob Marlin and Stephen Sewell, who arrived in the Greenbrier Valley in 1749. They built a cabin together at what would become Marlinton, West Virginia, but after disputing over religion, Sewell moved into a nearby hollowed - out sycamore tree. In 1751, surveyor John Lewis (father of Andrew Lewis) discovered the pair. Sewell eventually settled on the eastern side of Sewell Mountain, near present - day Rainelle, West Virginia. They may well have been the first to settle what was then called the "western waters '' -- i.e., in the regions where streams flowed westward to the Gulf of Mexico rather than eastward to the Atlantic.
Among the first whites to penetrate into the Allegheny Mountains were surveyors attempting to settle a dispute over the extent of lands belonging to either Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron or to the English Privy Council. An expedition of 1736 by John Savage established the location of the source of the North Branch Potomac River. In March 1742, a frontiersman named John Howard -- along with his son and others -- had been commissioned by Governor Gooch to explore the southwest of Virginia as far as the Mississippi River. Following Cedar Creek through the Natural Bridge, they floated in buffalo - skin boats down the New, Coal, Kanawha, and Ohio Rivers to the Mississippi. Although captured by the French before he reached Natchez, Howard was eventually released and (in 1745) was interviewed by Fairfax. Howard 's description of the South Branch Potomac River resulted in the definite decision by Fairfax to secure his lands in the region. An expedition under Peter Jefferson and Thomas Lewis in the following year emplaced the "Fairfax Stone '' at the source of the North Branch and established a line of demarcation (the "Fairfax Line '') extending from the stone south - east to the headwaters of the Rappahannock River. Lewis ' journal of that expedition provides a valuable view of the Allegheny country before its settlement. Jefferson and Joshua Fry 's "Fry - Jefferson Map '' of 1751 accurately depicted the Alleghenies for the first time. In the following decades, pioneer settlers arrived in the Alleghenies, especially during Colonial Virginia 's Robert Dinwiddie era (1751 -- 58). These included squatters by the Quit - rent Law. Some had preceded the official surveyors using a "hack on the tree and field of corn '' marking land ownership approved by the Virginia Colonial Governor who had to be replaced with Governor John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore.
Trans - Allegheny travel had been facilitated when a military trail -- Braddock Road -- was blazed and opened by the Ohio Company in 1751. (It followed an earlier Indian and pioneer trail known as Nemacolin 's Path.) Braddock Road connected Cumberland, Maryland (the upper limit of navigation on the Potomac River) and the forks of the Ohio River (the future Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania). It received its name from the British leader of the French and Indian War (1754 -- 63), General Edward Braddock, who led the ill - fated Braddock expedition four years later.
In addition to the war, hunting and trading with Indians were primary motivations for white movement across the mountains. Permanent white settlement of the northern Alleghenies was facilitated by the explorations and stories of such noted Marylanders as the Indian fighter and trader Thomas Cresap (1702 -- 90) and the backwoodsman and hunter Meshach Browning (1781 -- 1859). In the late 18th century, a massive migration to the Monongahela River basin took place over three main routes: along the old Braddock Road via Winchester, Virginia; through the Shenandoah Valley to the head of the Cheat River and from there to the Monongahela; and along the Lincoln Highway to Ligonier, Pennsylvania, and thence along Jacob 's Creek to the Monongahela. These immigrants were predominantly Scotch - Irish, German, and, to a lesser extent, British stock.
The Braddock Road was superseded by the Cumberland Road -- also called the National Road -- one of the first major improved highways in the United States to be built by the federal government. Construction began in 1811 at Cumberland and the road reached Wheeling, Virginia (now West Virginia) on the Ohio River in 1818. Just to the south, the state - funded Staunton and Parkersburg Turnpike was constructed to provide a direct route for the settlements of the Shenandoah Valley to the Ohio River by way of the Tygart Valley and Little Kanawha Rivers. Planned and approved in 1826 and completed in 1848, the Staunton and Parkersburg was maintained by fees (tolls) collected at toll houses placed at regular intervals.
Construction on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad began at Baltimore in 1828; the B&O traversed the Alleghenies, changing the economy and society of the Mountains forever. The B&O had reached Martinsburg, (West) Virginia by May 1842, Hancock, (West) Virginia, by June, Cumberland, Maryland, on November 5, 1842, Piedmont, (West) Virginia on July 21, 1851, and Fairmont, (West) Virginia on June 22, 1852. (It finally reached its Ohio River terminus at Wheeling, (West) Virginia on January 1, 1853.)
The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal -- also begun in 1828, but at Georgetown -- was also a public work of enormous economic and social significance for the Alleghenies. It approached Hancock, Maryland by 1839. From the beginning, the B&O Railroad and the C&O Canal operated in bitter legal and commercial competition with one another as they vied for rights to the narrow strips of land along the Potomac. When the Canal finally reached Cumberland in 1850, the Railroad had already arrived eight years before. Debt - ridden, the Canal company dropped its plan to continue construction of the next 180 miles (290 km) of the Canal into the Ohio Valley. The company had long realized -- especially with the difficult experience of digging the Paw Paw Tunnel -- that the original plan of construction over the mountains and all the way down the Youghiogheny River to Pittsburgh was "wildly unrealistic ''.
Public works financed at the state level were not lacking during this period. The Main Line of Public Works was a railroad and canal system across southern Pennsylvania between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh. Built between 1826 and 1834 by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, it included the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad, the Allegheny Portage Railroad and the Pennsylvania Canal system.
Lying astride the border separating the Union and Confederacy, the Alleghenies were among the areas most directly affected by the American Civil War (1861 -- 1865). One of the earliest campaigns of the War was fought for control of the Staunton and Parkersburg Turnpike and for the access it provided to the B&O Railroad. The Battle of Rich Mountain (July 11, 1861) gave the Federals control of the turnpike, of Tygart 's Valley, and of all of the territory of western Virginia to the north and west, including the railroad. (Union General George McClellan 's victory in this theater would ultimately bring him promotion to commander the Army of the Potomac.) The Federals fortified at Cheat Summit, and the Confederates established strongholds at Camp Bartow and Camp Allegheny. Here they faced each other warily through the fall of 1861 and the following winter. General Robert E. Lee 's attempt to attack Cheat Summit Fort (September 12 -- 15, 1861) and Federal attempts to attack Bartow and Allegheny, all failed to change the strategic stalemate. Finally, the harsh, high elevation winter achieved what the troops had failed to accomplish, and in the spring of 1862 both armies moved on down the pike to the Battle of McDowell (May 8, 1862), and then on to fight what became General Stonewall Jackson 's Shenandoah Valley Campaign (spring 1862). Two years later, much of this contested area (along with much else) became part of the new state of West Virginia. The very rugged terrain of the Alleghenies was not at all amenable to a large - scale maneuver war and so the actions that the area witnessed for the remainder of the conflict were generally guerrilla in nature.
With the further spread of the railroad networks in the 1890s and early 1900s, many new towns developed and thrived in the Alleghenies. The lumbering and coal industries that boomed in the wake of the railroads brought a measure of prosperity to the region, but most of the revenues flowed out of the mountains to the cities of the eastern seaboard where the captains of industry were headquartered. This inequity created a bitter legacy that would last for generations and form the foundation of the mountaineers ' poverty and the area 's immense environmental degradation.
The most momentous disaster to afflict the people of the Alleghenies was the Johnstown Flood -- locally known as the "Great Flood of 1889 '' -- which occurred on May 31 of that year after the catastrophic failure of the South Fork Dam on the Little Conemaugh River 14 miles (23 km) upstream of the town of Johnstown, Pennsylvania. The dam broke after several days of extremely heavy rainfall, unleashing 20 million tons of water (18 million cubic meters) from the reservoir known as Lake Conemaugh. (This body of water had been built as part of the Main Line of Public Works, then abandoned.) With a flow rate that temporarily equalled that of the Mississippi River, the flood killed 2,209 people and caused US $17 million of damage (about $425 million in 2012 dollars). The American Red Cross, led by Clara Barton and with 50 volunteers, undertook a major disaster relief effort. Support for victims came from all over the United States and 18 foreign countries. After the flood, survivors suffered a series of legal defeats in their attempts to recover damages from the dam 's owners. Public indignation at that failure prompted the development in American law changing a fault - based regime to strict liability.
In the 1920s and ' 30s, Allegheny highways were extensively paved to provide access for automobiles.
From the 1950s to 1992, the United States government maintained a top secret continuity program known as Project Greek Island at The Greenbrier hotel in the Alleghenies of southern West Virginia.
In 1963, Dr. Martin Luther King referenced the Alleghenies -- among several in an evocative list of mountains -- in his famous "I Have a Dream '' speech, when he said "Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania! ''
The Flight 93 National Memorial is located at the site of the crash of United Airlines Flight 93 -- which was hijacked in the September 11 attacks -- in Stonycreek Township, Pennsylvania, about 2 miles (3.2 km) north of Shanksville. The memorial honors the passengers and crew of Flight 93, who stopped Al - Qaeda terrorists from reaching their intended target.
Cumberland, Maryland with Wills Mountain and the Cumberland Narrows in the background.
North Fork Mountain, West Virginia, looking south
Blue Knob, Pennsylvania, the northernmost 3,000 footer in the Alleghenies.
The Homestead, Hot Springs, Virginia has catered to spa enthusiasts since 1766.
Shenandoah Mountain, at the easternmost limit of the Alleghenies.
Laurel Mountain, West Virginia, at the westernmost limit of the Alleghenies.
Allegheny Mountain Tunnel, through Allegheny Mountain, services Interstate 76 in Pennsylvania.
New River Gorge, Section of the cliff at Endless Wall cliff.
Germany Valley, a scenic upland valley of eastern West Virginia.
The grand hotel at The Greenbrier, White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia, was built in 1858.
The Blackwater Canyon, a rugged gorge in eastern West Virginia.
A Norfolk Southern train at Horseshoe Curve near Altoona, Pennsylvania.
Cheat Canyon, in Coopers Rock State Forest, northeastern West Virginia.
Dolly Sods Wilderness, West Virginia: View from atop Breathed Mountain.
Eastern entrance to the Paw Paw Tunnel on the C&O Canal towpath in Maryland.
Altoona, Pennsylvania viewed from atop Brush Mountain.
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who sings a heart is a house for love | A Heart is a House for Love - wikipedia
"A Heart Is a House for Love '' (title often confused with "A Heart Is A House Of Love '') is a 1991 hit soul and R&B song composed by Tristin Sigerson, Davitt Sigerson, and Bob Thiele and recorded by The Dells. It was originally featured in the movie and soundtrack album The Five Heartbeats (which is loosely based on the real lives of male soul groups such as The Dells). The song originally only climbed to number 94 on the R&B / Hip Hop section of the Billboard American charts, but peaked at number thirteen after the release of the movie. It was The Dells ' most successful hit of the 1990s. It was also their last hit single to reach the top 20 of any Billboard Chart.
The song was originally featured in the 1991 feature film The Five Heartbeats, which follows the lives of the fictional singing group of the same name. In the scene the song is featured in, the group is about to perform in a Battle of the Bands when the announcer, a cousin of another musician in the competition, tells them backstage that a new house rule demands they use a piano player hired by the owners of the building. The members of the group have not practiced with the piano player, and quickly realize this will harm their performance. The announcer then goads the audience into booing and throwing objects at the Heartbeats as they perform. Duck, tired of his music being altered, throws the piano player off the stage and plays in his own style. The crowd soon applauds as The Heartbeats perform together and the group wins the contest.
The movie version and the single version are different. In the film only the first verse and some of the chorus are sung before Duck interrupts the house piano player; the characters then continue to perform a cappella followed by improvised vocals accompanied by a beat created by the audience. The single features no a cappella vocals and follows a more traditional and contemporary style. There are three verses in the single leading to the outro (which includes the chorus sung with instrumentals). The instruments of the single version include heavy percussion and a light guitar melody.
The music video features the members of The Dells, who recorded both the single featured in the music video and the version featured in the movie. In the music video the group is seen in a music video recording their song, interrupted by flashbacks including clips from the movie and album covers from both the Dells and the fictional group The Five Heartbeats. One of the flashbacks shows the lead singer singing and cleaning with a woman and then spontaneously stripping off his clothes as she does the same. Although black and white clips are shown of the fictional Five Heartbeats, none of the choreography is featured. Instead the audience witnesses an aged appearance of the Dells who stand still while singing the song and attempt to imitate the clapping and snapping portrayed in the movie.
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who is listed on the vietnam war memorial | Vietnam Veterans Memorial - wikipedia
Vietnam Veterans Memorial
The Vietnam Veterans Memorial is a 2 - acre (8,000 m2) U.S. national memorial in Washington, D.C. It honors service members of the U.S. armed forces who fought in the Vietnam War, service members who died in service in Vietnam / South East Asia, and those service members who were unaccounted for (missing in action, MIA) during the war.
Its construction and related issues have been the source of controversies, some of which have resulted in additions to the memorial complex. The memorial currently consists of three separate parts: the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Wall, completed first and the best - known part of the memorial; the Three Servicemen Memorial, and the Vietnam Women 's Memorial.
The main part of the memorial, which was completed in 1982, is in Constitution Gardens adjacent to the National Mall, just northeast of the Lincoln Memorial. The memorial is maintained by the U.S. National Park Service, and receives around 3 million visitors each year. The Memorial Wall was designed by American architect Maya Lin. In 2007, it was ranked tenth on the "List of America 's Favorite Architecture '' by the American Institute of Architects. As a National Memorial, it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
The Memorial Wall is made up of two 246 - foot - 9 - inch (75.21 m) long gabbro walls, etched with the names of the servicemen being honored in 144 panels of horizontal rows with regular typeface and spacing. The walls are sunken into the ground, with the earth behind them. At the highest tip (the apex where they meet), they are 10.1 feet (3.1 m) high, and they taper to a height of 8 inches (200 mm) at their extremities. Symbolically, this is described as a "wound that is closed and healing ''. The stone for the 144 panels was quarried in Bangalore, India.
When a visitor looks upon the wall, his or her reflection can be seen simultaneously with the engraved names, which is meant to symbolically bring the past and present together. One wall points toward the Washington Monument, the other in the direction of the Lincoln Memorial, meeting at an angle of 125 ° 12 ′. Each wall has 72 panels, 70 listing names (numbered 1E through 70E and 70W through 1W) and two very small blank panels at the extremities. There is a pathway along the base of the Wall where visitors may walk.
The wall originally listed 57,939 names when it was dedicated in 1982; but other names have since been added and as of May 2017 there were 58,318 names, including eight women. The number of names on the wall is different than the official number of U.S. Vietnam War deaths, which is 58,220. The names inscribed are not a complete list of those who are eligible for inclusion as some were omitted at the request of their families.
Directories containing all of the names are located on nearby podiums at both ends of the monument where visitors may locate specific names.
The memorial has had some unforeseen maintenance issues. In 1984 cracks were detected in the marble and, as a result, two of the panels were temporarily removed in 1986 for study. More cracks were discovered in 2010. There are many theories about the cause of the cracks, and one often forwarded is that thermal cycling is to blame. In 1990, the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Fund purchased several blank panels to use in case any were ever destroyed. They placed them in storage at Quantico Marine Base. Two of the blank panels were shattered by the 2011 Virginia earthquake.
On the memorial are the names of service members classified as "declared dead '' (as the memorial contains names of individuals that died of circumstances other than KIA (Killed in Action), including murder, jeep accidents, drowning, heart attack, tiger attack, snake bites, etc.) and the names of those whose status is unknown, which typically means "missing in action '' (MIA). The names are inscribed in Optima typeface. Information about rank, unit, and decorations is not given.
Those who are declared dead are denoted by a diamond, and those who are status unknown are denoted with a cross. When the death of one who was previously missing is confirmed, a diamond is superimposed over the cross. If the missing were to return alive, which has never occurred to date, the cross is to be circumscribed by a circle.
The earliest date of eligibility for a name to be included on the memorial is November 1, 1955, which corresponds to President Eisenhower deploying the Military Assistance Advisory Group to train the Army of the Republic of Vietnam. The last date of eligibility is May 15, 1975, which corresponds to the final day of the Mayaguez incident (1). There are circumstances that allow for a name to be added to the memorial, but the death must be directly attributed to a wound received within the combat zone while on active duty. In such cases, the determination is made by the Department of Defense. In these cases, the name is added according to the date of injury -- not the date of death. The names are listed in chronological order, starting at the apex on panel 1E in July 8, 1959, moving day by day to the end of the eastern wall at panel 70E, which ended on May 25, 1968, starting again at panel 70W at the end of the western wall which completes the list for May 25, 1968, and returning to the apex at panel 1W in 1975. There are some deaths that predate July 8, 1959 including the death of Richard B. Fitzgibbon Jr. in 1956.
The names of 32 men were erroneously included in the memorial, and while those names remain on the wall, they have been removed from the databases and printed directories. The extra names resulted from a deliberate decision to err on the side of inclusiveness, with 38 questionable names being included. One person, whose name was added as late as 1992, had gone AWOL immediately upon his return to the United States after his second completed tour of duty. His survival only came to the attention of government authorities in 1996. These survivor names could be removed if the panel their name is on is replaced in the future.
A short distance away from the wall is another Vietnam memorial, a bronze statue named The Three Servicemen (sometimes called The Three Soldiers). The statue depicts three soldiers, purposefully identifiable as European American, African American, and Hispanic American. In their final arrangement, the statue and the Wall appear to interact with each other, with the soldiers looking on in solemn tribute at the names of their fallen comrades. The distance between the two allows them to interact while minimizing the effect of the addition on Lin 's design.
The Vietnam Women 's Memorial is a memorial dedicated to the women of the United States who served in the Vietnam War, most of whom were nurses. It serves as a reminder of the importance of women in the conflict. It depicts three uniformed women with a wounded soldier. It is part of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial, and is located on National Mall in Washington, D.C., a short distance south of The Wall, north of the Reflecting Pool.
A memorial plaque, authorized by Pub. L. 106 -- 214, was dedicated on November 10, 2004, at the northeast corner of the plaza surrounding the Three Soldiers statue to honor veterans who died after the war as a direct result of injuries suffered in Vietnam, but who fall outside Department of Defense guidelines. The plaque is a carved block of black granite, 3 by 2 feet (0.91 by 0.61 m), inscribed "In memory of the men and women who served in the Vietnam War and later died as a result of their service. We honor and remember their sacrifice. ''
Ruth Coder Fitzgerald, founder of The Vietnam War In Memory Memorial Plaque Project, worked for years and struggled against opposition to have the In Memory Memorial Plaque completed. The organization was disbanded, but their web site is maintained by the Vietnam War Project at Texas Tech University.
Visitors to the Wall will take a piece of paper and place it over a name on the wall and rub wax crayon or graphite pencil over it as a memento of their loved ones. This is called "rubbing ''.
Visitors to the memorial began leaving sentimental items at the memorial at its opening. One story claims that this practice began during construction, when a Vietnam veteran threw the Purple Heart his brother received posthumously into the concrete of the memorial 's foundation. Several thousand items are left at the memorial each year. The largest item left at the memorial was a sliding glass storm door with a full - size replica "tiger cage ''. The door was painted with a scene in Vietnam and the names of U.S. POWs and MIAs from the conflict. Other items left include a Harley - Davidson motorcycle with the license plate HERO, a plain brown teddy bear which was dressed by other unconnected visitors, a 6 ' abstract sculpture titled "After the Holocaust '', and an experimental W.R. Case "jungle survival knife '' of which only 144 were made.
On April 27, 1979, four years after the Fall of Saigon, The Vietnam Veterans Memorial Fund, Inc. (VVMF), was incorporated as a non-profit organization to establish a memorial to veterans of the Vietnam War. Much of the impetus behind the formation of the fund came from a wounded Vietnam veteran, Jan Scruggs, who was inspired by the film The Deer Hunter, with support from fellow Vietnam veterans such as retired Navy chaplain Arnold Resnicoff. Eventually, $8.4 million was raised by private donations.
A year later, a site near the Lincoln Memorial was chosen and authorized by Congress on the site of a demolished World War I Munitions Building. Congress announced that the winner of a design competition will design the park. By the end of the year 2,573 registered for the design competition with a prize of $20,000. On March 30, 1981, 1,421 designs were submitted. The designs were displayed at an airport hangar at Andrews Air Force Base for the selection committee, in rows covering more than 35,000 square feet (3,300 m) of floor space. Each entry was identified by number only, to preserve the anonymity of their authors. All entries were examined by each juror; the entries were narrowed down to 232, then 39. Finally, the jury selected entry number 1026, designed by Maya Lin.
The selected design was very controversial, in particular its unconventional design, its black color and its lack of ornamentation. Some public officials voiced their displeasure, calling the wall "a black gash of shame. '' Two prominent early supporters of the project, H. Ross Perot and James Webb, withdrew their support once they saw the design. Said Webb, "I never in my wildest dreams imagined such a nihilistic slab of stone. '' James Watt, Secretary of the Interior under President Ronald Reagan, initially refused to issue a building permit for the memorial due to the public outcry about the design. Since its early years, criticism of the Memorial 's design faded. In the words of Scruggs, "It has become something of a shrine. ''
Negative reactions to Maya Lin 's design created a controversy; a compromise was reached by commissioning Frederick Hart (who had placed third in the original design competition) to produce a bronze figurative sculpture in the heroic tradition. Opponents of Lin 's design had hoped to place this sculpture of three soldiers at the apex of the wall 's two sides. Lin objected strenuously to this, arguing that this would make the soldiers the focal point of the memorial, and her wall a mere backdrop. A compromise was reached, and the sculpture was placed off to one side to minimize the impact of the addition on Lin 's design. On October 13, 1982, the U.S. Commission of Fine Arts approved the erection of a flagpole to be grouped with sculptures.
On March 11, 1982, the revised design was formally approved, and on March 26, 1982, ground was formally broken. Stone for the wall came from Bangalore, Karnataka, India. It was chosen because of its reflective quality and also because of opposition to Swedish and Canadian stone, as those countries were destinations for draft evaders. Stone cutting and fabrication was done in Barre, Vermont. The typesetting of the original 57,939 names on the wall was performed by Datalantic in Atlanta, Georgia. Stones were then shipped to Memphis, Tennessee where the names were etched. The etching was completed using a photoemulsion and sandblasting process. The negatives used in the process are in storage at the Smithsonian Institution.
The memorial was dedicated on November 13, 1982, after a march to its site by thousands of Vietnam War veterans. About two years later the Three Soldiers statue was dedicated.
Since 1982, over 400 names have been added to the memorial, but not necessarily in chronological order. Some were men who died in Vietnam but were left off the list due to clerical errors. Others died after 1982, and their deaths were determined by the Department of Defense to be the direct result of their Vietnam service. For those who died during the war, their name is placed in a position that relates to their date of death. For those who died after the war, their name is placed in a position that relates to the date of their injury. Because space is usually not available in the exact right place, names are places as close to their correct chronological position as possible, but usually not in the exact spot. The order could be corrected as panels are replaced.
Furthermore, over 100 names have been identified as misspelled. In some cases, the correction could be done in place. In others, the name had to be chiseled again elsewhere, moving them out of chronological order. Others have remained in place, with the misspelling, at the request of their family.
The Women 's Memorial was designed by Glenna Goodacre for the women of the United States who served in the Vietnam War. The original winning entry of the Women 's Memorial design contest was deemed unsuitable. Glenna Goodacre 's entry received an honorable mention in the contest and she was asked to submit a modified maquette (design model). Goodacre 's original design for the Women 's Memorial statue included a standing figure of a nurse holding a Vietnamese baby, which although not intended as such, was deemed a political statement, and it was asked that this be removed. She replaced them with a figure of a kneeling woman holding an empty helmet. On November 11, 1993, the Vietnam Women 's Memorial was dedicated. There is a smaller replica of that memorial at Vietnam Veterans Memorial State Park in Angel Fire, New Mexico.
On November 10, 2000, a memorial plaque, authorized by Pub. L. 106 -- 214, honoring veterans who died after the war as a direct result of injuries suffered in Vietnam, but who fall outside Department of Defense guidelines was dedicated. Ruth Coder Fitzgerald, founder of The Vietnam War In Memory Memorial Plaque Project, worked for years and struggled against opposition to have the In Memory Memorial Plaque completed. The organization was disbanded, but their web site is maintained by the Vietnam War Project at Texas Tech University.
In 2003, after some years of lobbying, the National Park Service and the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Fund won permission from Congress to build The Education Center at The Wall. This 37,000 - square - foot (3,400 m), two - story museum, located belowground just west of the Maya Lin - designed memorial, highlights the history of the Vietnam War and the multiple design competitions and artworks which make up the Vietnam Veterans Memorial, Vietnam Women 's Memorial, and the Memorial Plaque. The center will also provide biographical details on and photographs of many of the 58,000 names listed on the Wall as well as the more than 6,600 servicemembers killed since 2001 fighting the War on Terror. The $115 - million museum will be jointly operated by the Park Service and the Fund. Groundbreaking for the project occurred in November 2012, with the center expected to open in 2020.
Items left at the Vietnam Veterans Memorial are collected by National Park Service employees and transferred to the NPS Museum Resource Center, which catalogs and stores all items except perishable organic matter (such as fresh flowers) and unaltered U.S. flags. The flags are redistributed through various channels.
From 1992 to 2003, selected items from the collection were placed on exhibit at the Smithsonian Institution 's National Museum of American History as "Personal Legacy: The Healing of a Nation '' including the Medal of Honor of Charles Liteky, who renounced it in 1986 by placing the medal at the memorial in an envelope addressed to then - President Ronald Reagan.
There are several transportable replicas of the Vietnam Veteran 's Memorial created so those who are not able to travel to Washington, D.C., would be able to simulate an experience of visiting the Wall.
Located at 200 S. 9th Ave in Pensacola, FL the first permanent replica of the National Vietnam Memorial was unveiled on October 24, 1992. Now known as "Wall South, '' the half - size replica bears the names of all Americans killed or missing in Southeast Asia and is updated each Mother 's Day. It is the centerpiece of Veterans Memorial Park Pensacola, a five - and - one - half acre site overlooking Pensacola Bay, which also includes a World War I Memorial, a World War II Memorial, a Korean War Memorial, a Revolutionary War Memorial and a running series of plaques to honor local warriors who have fallen in the Global War on Terror. There is also a Purple Heart Memorial, a Marine Corps Aviation Bell Tower and a monument to the submarine lifeguards who rescued Navy pilots in World War II. A Global War on Terror Memorial is planned to be completed in 2017 and will include an artifact from the World Trade Center as a component of the sculpture.
Located in Fox Park in Wildwood, New Jersey, The Wildwoods Vietnam Memorial Wall was unveiled and dedicated on May 29, 2010. The memorial wall is an almost half - size granite replica of the National Vietnam Memorial, and the only permanent memorial north of the nation 's capital.
Located 401 East Ninth Street in Winfield, Kansas. Plans for the Vietnam War Memorial in Winfield began in 1987 when friends who had gathered for a class reunion wanted to find a way to honor their fallen classmates. The project quickly grew from honoring only Cowley County servicemen to representing all 777 servicemen and nurses from Kansas who lost their lives or are missing in action from the Vietnam War. The memorial is a replica of the Vietnam War memorial in Washington D.C. It was also created as a tribute to servicemen and nurses who served in any world war.
Located at Freedom Park in South Sioux City, Nebraska exists a half - scale replica of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial wall that duplicates the original design in Washington, DC. Dedicated in 2014, the 250 foot wall is constructed with black granite mined from the same quarry in India as the original memorial wall and bears the names of the 58,000 US servicemen who lost their lives in the Vietnam War.
The first US memorial to an ongoing war, the Northwood Gratitude and Honor Memorial in Irvine, California, is modeled on the Vietnam Veterans memorial in that it includes a chronological list of the dead engraved in dark granite. As the memorialized wars (in Iraq and Afghanistan) have not concluded, the Northwood Gratitude and Honor Memorial will be updated yearly. It has space for about 8000 names, of which 5,714 were engraved as of the Dedication of the Memorial on November 14, 2010.
There have been hundreds of incidents of vandalism at the memorial wall. Some of the most notable cases are
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who invented the telephone and in what year | Invention of the telephone - wikipedia
The invention of the telephone was the culmination of work done by many individuals, and involved an array of lawsuits founded upon the patent claims of several individuals and numerous companies.
The concept of the telephone dates back to the string telephone or lover 's telephone that has been known for centuries, comprising two diaphragms connected by a taut string or wire. Sound waves are carried as mechanical vibrations along the string or wire from one diaphragm to the other. The classic example is the tin can telephone, a children 's toy made by connecting the two ends of a string to the bottoms of two metal cans, paper cups or similar items. The essential idea of this toy was that a diaphragm can collect voice sounds from the air, as in the ear, and a string or wire can transmit such collected voice sounds for reproduction at a distance. One precursor to the development of the electromagnetic telephone originated in 1833 when Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Eduard Weber invented an electromagnetic device for the transmission of telegraphic signals at the University of Göttingen, in Lower Saxony, helping to create the fundamental basis for the technology that was later used in similar telecommunication devices. Gauss 's and Weber 's invention is purported to be the world 's first electromagnetic telegraph.
In 1840, American Charles Grafton Page passed an electric current through a coil of wire placed between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. He observed that connecting and disconnecting the current caused a ringing sound in the magnet. He called this effect "galvanic music ''.
Innocenzo Manzetti considered the idea of a telephone as early as 1844, and may have made one in 1864, as an enhancement to an automaton built by him in 1849.
Charles Bourseul was a French telegraph engineer who proposed (but did not build) the first design of a "make - and - break '' telephone in 1854. That is about the same time that Meucci later claimed to have created his first attempt at the telephone in Italy.
Bourseul explained: "Suppose that a man speaks near a movable disc sufficiently flexible to lose none of the vibrations of the voice; that this disc alternately makes and breaks the currents from a battery: you may have at a distance another disc which will simultaneously execute the same vibrations... It is certain that, in a more or less distant future, speech will be transmitted by electricity. I have made experiments in this direction; they are delicate and demand time and patience, but the approximations obtained promise a favourable result. ''
The Reis transmitter was very difficult to operate, since the relative position of the needle and the contact were critical to the device 's operation. This can be called a "telephone '', since it did transmit voice sounds electrically over distance, but was hardly a commercially practical telephone in the modern sense, as it failed to reliably transmit a good copy of any supplied sound.
Thomas Edison tested the Reis equipment and found that "single words, uttered as in reading, speaking and the like, were perceptible indistinctly, notwithstanding here also the inflections of the voice, the modulations of interrogation, wonder, command, etc., attained distinct expression. ''
Prior to 1847, the Reis device was tested by the British company Standard Telephones and Cables (STC). The results also confirmed it could faintly transmit and receive speech. At the time STC was bidding for a contract with Alexander Graham Bell 's American Telephone and Telegraph Company, and the results were covered up by STC 's chairman Sir Frank Gill to maintain Bell 's reputation.
An early voice communicating device was invented around 1854 by Antonio Meucci, who called it a telettrofono. In 1871 Meucci filed a caveat at the US Patent Office. His caveat describes his invention, but does not mention a diaphragm, electromagnet, conversion of sound into electrical waves, conversion of electrical waves into sound, or other essential features of an electromagnetic telephone.
The first American demonstration of Meucci 's invention took place in Staten Island, New York in 1854. In 1860, a description of it was reportedly published in an Italian - language New York newspaper, although no known copy of that newspaper issue or article has survived to the present day. Meucci claimed to have invented a paired electromagnetic transmitter and receiver, where the motion of a diaphragm modulated a signal in a coil by moving an electromagnet, although this was not mentioned in his 1871 U.S. patent caveat. A further discrepancy observed was that the device described in the 1871 caveat employed only a single conduction wire, with the telephone 's transmitter - receivers being insulated from a ' ground return ' path.
In the 1880s Meucci was credited with the early invention of inductive loading of telephone wires to increase long - distance signals. Unfortunately, serious burns from an accident, a lack of English, and poor business abilities resulted in Meucci 's failing to develop his inventions commercially in America. Meucci demonstrated some sort of instrument in 1849 in Havana, Cuba, however this may have been a variant of a string telephone that used wire. Meucci has been further credited with invention of an anti-sidetone circuit. However, examination showed that his solution to sidetone was to maintain two separate telephone circuits, and thus use twice as many transmission wires. The anti-sidetone circuit later introduced by Bell Telephone instead cancelled sidetone through a feedback process.
An American District Telegraph (ADT) laboratory reportedly lost some of Meucci 's working models, his wife reportedly disposed of others and Meucci, who sometimes lived on public assistance, chose not to renew his 1871 teletrofono patent caveat after 1874.
A resolution was passed by the United States House of Representatives in 2002 that said Meucci did pioneering work on the development of the telephone. The resolution said that "if Meucci had been able to pay the $10 fee to maintain the caveat after 1874, no patent could have been issued to Bell. ''
The Meucci resolution by the US Congress was promptly followed by a Canada legislative motion by Canada 's 37th Parliament, declaring Alexander Graham Bell as the inventor of the telephone. Others in Canada disagreed with the Congressional resolution, some of whom provided criticisms of both its accuracy and intent.
A retired director general of the Telecom Italia central telecommunications research institute (CSELT), Basilio Catania, and the Italian Society of Electrotechnics, "Federazione Italiana di Elettrotecnica '', have devoted a Museum to Antonio Meucci, constructing a chronology of his invention of the telephone and tracing the history of the two legal trials involving Meucci and Alexander Graham Bell.
They claim that Meucci was the actual inventor of the telephone, and base their argument on reconstructed evidence. What follows, if not otherwise stated, is a résumé of their historic reconstruction.
The above information was published in the Scientific American Supplement No. 520 of December 19, 1885, based on reconstructions produced in 1885, for which there was no contemporary pre-1875 evidence. Meucci 's 1871 caveat did not mention any of the telephone features later credited to him by his lawyer, and which were published in that Scientific American Supplement, a major reason for the loss of the ' Bell v. Globe and Meucci ' patent infringement court case, which was decided against Globe and Meucci. See Antonio Meucci -- Patent caveat, for the full printed text of his 1871 teletrofono patent caveat.
Around 1870 Mr. C.F. Varley, F.R.S., a well - known English electrician, patented a number of variations on the audio telegraph based on Reis ' work. He never claimed or produced a device capable of transmitting speech, only pure tones.
Around 1874 Poul la Cour, a Danish inventor, experimented with audio telegraphs on a telegraph line between Copenhagen and Fredericia in Jutland. His experiment used a vibrating tuning - fork to interrupt the line current, which, after traversing the line passed through an electromagnet that acted upon the tines of another tuning - fork, making it resonate at the same pitch of the transmitting fork. Moreover, the hums were also recorded on paper by turning the electromagnetic receiver into a relay, which actuated a Morse code printer by means of a local battery. Again, la Cour made no claims of transmitting voice, only pure tones.
Elisha Gray, of Highland Park, Illinois (near Chicago) also devised a tone telegraph of this kind about the same time as La Cour. In Gray 's tone telegraph, several vibrating steel reeds tuned to different frequencies interrupted the current, which at the other end of the line passed through electromagnets and vibrated matching tuned steel reeds near the electromagnet poles. Gray 's ' harmonic telegraph, ' with vibrating reeds, was used by the Western Union Telegraph Company. Since more than one set of vibration frequencies -- that is to say, more than one musical tone -- can be sent over the same wire simultaneously, the harmonic telegraph can be utilized as a ' multiplex ' or many - ply telegraph, conveying several messages through the same wire at the same time. Each message can either be read by an operator by the sound, or from different tones read by different operators, or a permanent record can be made by the marks drawn on a ribbon of travelling paper by a Morse recorder. On July 27, 1875, Gray was granted U.S. patent 166,096 for "Electric Telegraph for Transmitting Musical Tones '' (the harmonic)
On February 14, 1876, at the US Patent Office, Gray 's lawyer filed a patent caveat for a telephone on the very same day that Bell 's lawyer filed Bell 's patent application for a telephone. The water transmitter described in Gray 's caveat was strikingly similar to the experimental telephone transmitter tested by Bell on March 10, 1876, a fact which raised questions about whether Bell (who knew of Gray) was inspired by Gray 's design or vice versa. Although Bell did not use Gray 's water transmitter in later telephones, evidence suggests that Bell 's lawyers may have obtained an unfair advantage over Gray.
Alexander Graham Bell is the inventor of the first practical telephone. The classic story of him saying "Watson, come here! I want to see you! '' is a well - known part of the history of the telephone. This showed that the telephone worked, but it was a short - range phone. Bell was the first to obtain a patent, in 1876, for an "apparatus for transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically '', after experimenting with many primitive sound transmitters and receivers. Bell was also an astute and articulate businessman with influential and wealthy friends.
As Professor of Vocal Physiology at Boston University, Bell was engaged in training teachers in the art of instructing deaf mutes how to speak, and experimented with the Leon Scott phonautograph in recording the vibrations of speech. This apparatus consists essentially of a thin membrane vibrated by the voice and carrying a light - weight stylus, which traces an undulatory line on a plate of smoked glass. The line is a graphic representation of the vibrations of the membrane and the waves of sound in the air.
This background prepared Bell for work with spoken sound waves and electricity. He began his experiments in 1873 - 1874 with a harmonic telegraph, following the examples of Bourseul, Reis, and Gray. Bell 's designs employed various on - off - on - off make - break current - interrupters driven by vibrating steel reeds which sent interrupted current to a distant receiver electro - magnet that caused a second steel reed or tuning fork to vibrate.
During a June 2, 1875, experiment by Bell and his assistant Thomas Watson, a receiver reed failed to respond to the intermittent current supplied by an electric battery. Bell told Watson, who was at the other end of the line, to pluck the reed, thinking it had stuck to the pole of the magnet. Mr. Watson complied, and to his astonishment Bell heard a reed at his end of the line vibrate and emit the same timbre of a plucked reed, although there was no interrupted on - off - on - off currents from a transmitter to make it vibrate. A few more experiments soon showed that his receiver reed had been set in vibration by the magneto - electric currents induced in the line by the motion of the distant receiver reed in the neighborhood of its magnet. The battery current was not causing the vibration but was needed only to supply the magnetic field in which the reeds vibrated. Moreover, when Bell heard the rich overtones of the plucked reed, it occurred to him that since the circuit was never broken, all the complex vibrations of speech might be converted into undulating (modulated) currents, which in turn would reproduce the complex timbre, amplitude, and frequencies of speech at a distance.
After Bell and Watson discovered on June 2, 1875, that movements of the reed alone in a magnetic field could reproduce the frequencies and timbre of spoken sound waves, Bell reasoned by analogy with the mechanical phonautograph that a skin diaphragm would reproduce sounds like the human ear when connected to a steel or iron reed or hinged armature. On July 1, 1875, he instructed Watson to build a receiver consisting of a stretched diaphragm or drum of goldbeater 's skin with an armature of magnetized iron attached to its middle, and free to vibrate in front of the pole of an electromagnet in circuit with the line. A second membrane - device was built for use as a transmitter. This was the "gallows '' phone. A few days later they were tried together, one at each end of the line, which ran from a room in the inventor 's house, located at 5 Exeter Place in Boston, to the cellar underneath. Bell, in the work room, held one instrument in his hands, while Watson in the cellar listened at the other. Bell spoke into his instrument, "Do you understand what I say? '' and Mr. Watson answered "Yes ''. However, the voice sounds were not distinct and the armature tended to stick to the electromagnet pole and tear the membrane.
Because of illness and other commitments, Bell made little or no telephone improvements or experiments for eight months until after his U.S. patent 174,465 was published.
The first successful bi-directional transmission of clear speech by Bell and Watson was made on March 10, 1876, when Bell spoke into the device, "Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you. '' and Watson answered. Bell tested Gray 's liquid transmitter design in this experiment, but only after Bell 's patent was granted and only as a proof of concept scientific experiment to prove to his own satisfaction that intelligible "articulate speech '' (Bell 's words) could be electrically transmitted. Because a liquid transmitter was not practical for commercial products, Bell focused on improving the electromagnetic telephone after March 1876 and never used Gray 's liquid transmitter in public demonstrations or commercial use.
Bell 's telephone transmitter (microphone) consisted of a double electromagnet, in front of which a membrane, stretched on a ring, carried an oblong piece of soft iron cemented to its middle. A funnel - shaped mouthpiece directed the voice sounds upon the membrane, and as it vibrated, the soft iron "armature '' induced corresponding currents in the coils of the electromagnet. These currents, after traversing the wire, passed through the receiver which consisted of an electromagnet in a tubular metal can having one end partially closed by a thin circular disc of soft iron. When the undulatory current passed through the coil of this electromagnet, the disc vibrated, thereby creating sound waves in the air.
This primitive telephone was rapidly improved. The double electromagnet was replaced by a single permanently magnetized bar magnet having a small coil or bobbin of fine wire surrounding one pole, in front of which a thin disc of iron was fixed in a circular mouthpiece. The disc served as a combined diaphragm and armature. On speaking into the mouthpiece, the iron diaphragm vibrated with the voice in the magnetic field of the bar - magnet pole, and thereby caused undulatory currents in the coil. These currents, after traveling through the wire to the distant receiver, were received in an identical apparatus. This design was patented by Bell on January 30, 1877. The sounds were weak and could only be heard when the ear was close to the earphone / mouthpiece, but they were distinct.
The first long distance telephone call was made on August 10, 1876, by Bell from the family homestead in Brantford, Ontario, to his assistant located in Paris, Ontario, some 10 miles (16 km) apart.
Bell exhibited a working telephone at the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia in June 1876, where it attracted the attention of Brazilian emperor Pedro II plus the physicist and engineer Sir William Thomson (who would later be ennobled as the 1st Baron Kelvin). In August 1876 at a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Thomson revealed the telephone to the European public. In describing his visit to the Philadelphia Exhibition, Thomson said, "I heard (through the telephone) passages taken at random from the New York newspapers: ' S.S. Cox Has Arrived ' (I failed to make out the S.S. Cox); ' The City of New York ', ' Senator Morton ', ' The Senate Has Resolved To Print A Thousand Extra Copies ', ' The Americans In London Have Resolved To Celebrate The Coming Fourth Of July! ' All this my own ears heard spoken to me with unmistakable distinctness by the then circular disc armature of just such another little electro - magnet as this I hold in my hand. ''
Only a few months after receiving U.S. Patent No. 174465 in the beginning of March 1876, Bell conducted three important tests of his new invention and telephone technology after returning to his parents ' home at Melville House (now the Bell Homestead National Historic Site) for the summer.
In the first test call on August 3, 1876, Alexander Graham 's uncle, Professor David Charles Bell, spoke to him from the Brantford telegraph office, reciting lines from Shakespeare 's Hamlet ("To be or not to be... ''). The young inventor, positioned at the A. Wallis Ellis store in the neighbouring community of Mount Pleasant, received and may possibly have transferred his uncle 's voice onto a phonautogram, a drawing made on a pen - like recording device that could produce the shapes of sound waves as waveforms onto smoked glass or other media by tracing their vibrations.
The next day on August 4 another call was made between Brantford 's telegraph office and Melville House, where a large dinner party exchanged "... speech, recitations, songs and instrumental music ''. To bring telephone signals to Melville House, Alexander Graham audaciously "bought up '' and "cleaned up '' the complete supply of stovepipe wire in Brantford. With the help of two of his parents ' neighbours, he tacked the stovepipe wire some 400 metres (a quarter mile) along the top of fence posts from his parents ' home to a junction point on the telegraph line to the neighbouring community of Mount Pleasant, which joined it to the Dominion Telegraph office in Brantford, Ontario.
The third and most important test was the world 's first true long - distance telephone call, placed between Brantford and Paris, Ontario on August 10, 1876. For that long - distance call Alexander Graham Bell set up a telephone using telegraph lines at Robert White 's Boot and Shoe Store at 90 Grand River Street North in Paris via its Dominion Telegraph Co. office on Colborne Street. The normal telegraph line between Paris and Brantford was not quite 13 km (8 miles) long, but the connection was extended a further 93 km (58 miles) to Toronto to allow the use of a battery in its telegraph office.
Scientific American described the three test calls in their September 9, 1876, article, "The Human Voice Transmitted by Telegraph ''. Historian Thomas Costain referred to the calls as "the three great tests of the telephone ''. One Bell Homestead reviewer wrote of them, "No one involved in these early calls could possibly have understood the future impact of these communication firsts ''.
A later telephone design was publicly exhibited on May 4, 1877, at a lecture given by Professor Bell in the Boston Music Hall. According to a report quoted by John Munro in Heroes of the Telegraph:
Going to the small telephone box with its slender wire attachments, Mr. Bell coolly asked, as though addressing some one in an adjoining room, "Mr. Watson, are you ready! '' Mr. Watson, five miles away in Somerville, promptly answered in the affirmative, and soon was heard a voice singing "America ''. (...) Going to another instrument, connected by wire with Providence, forty - three miles distant, Mr. Bell listened a moment, and said, "Signor Brignolli, who is assisting at a concert in Providence Music Hall, will now sing for us. '' In a moment the cadence of the tenor 's voice rose and fell, the sound being faint, sometimes lost, and then again audible. Later, a cornet solo played in Somerville was very distinctly heard. Still later, a three - part song came over the wire from Somerville, and Mr. Bell told his audience "I will switch off the song from one part of the room to another, so that all can hear. '' At a subsequent lecture in Salem, Massachusetts, communication was established with Boston, eighteen miles distant, and Mr. Watson at the latter place sang "Auld Lang Syne '', the National Anthem, and "Hail Columbia '', while the audience at Salem joined in the chorus.
Bell did for the telephone what Henry Ford did for the automobile. Although not the first to experiment with telephonic devices, Bell and the companies founded in his name were the first to develop commercially practical telephones around which a successful business could be built and grow. Bell adopted carbon transmitters similar to Edison 's transmitters and adapted telephone exchanges and switching plug boards developed for telegraphy. Watson and other Bell engineers invented numerous other improvements to telephony. Bell succeeded where others failed to assemble a commercially viable telephone system. It can be argued that Bell invented the telephone industry. Bell 's first intelligible voice transmission over an electric wire was named an IEEE Milestone.
Elisha Gray recognized the lack of fidelity of the make - break transmitter of Reis and Bourseul and reasoned by analogy with the lover 's telegraph, that if the current could be made to more closely model the movements of the diaphragm, rather than simply opening and closing the circuit, greater fidelity might be achieved. Gray filed a patent caveat with the US patent office on February 14, 1876, for a liquid microphone. The device used a metal needle or rod that was placed -- just barely -- into a liquid conductor, such as a water / acid mixture. In response to the diaphragm 's vibrations, the needle dipped more or less into the liquid, varying the electrical resistance and thus the current passing through the device and on to the receiver. Gray did not convert his caveat into a patent application until after the caveat had expired and hence left the field open to Bell.
When Gray applied for a patent for the variable resistance telephone transmitter, the Patent Office determined "while Gray was undoubtedly the first to conceive of and disclose the (variable resistance) invention, as in his caveat of 14 February 1876, his failure to take any action amounting to completion until others had demonstrated the utility of the invention deprives him of the right to have it considered. ''
Thomas Alva Edison took the next step in improving the telephone with his invention in 1878 of the carbon grain "transmitter '' (microphone) that provided a strong voice signal on the transmitting circuit that made long - distance calls practical. Edison discovered that carbon grains, squeezed between two metal plates, had a variable electrical resistance that was related to the pressure. Thus, the grains could vary their resistance as the plates moved in response to sound waves, and reproduce sound with good fidelity, without the weak signals associated with electromagnetic transmitters.
The carbon microphone was further improved by Emile Berliner, Francis Blake, David E. Hughes, Henry Hunnings, and Anthony White. The carbon microphone remained standard in telephony until the 1980s, and is still being produced.
Additional inventions such as the call bell, central telephone exchange, common battery, ring tone, amplification, trunk lines, wireless phones, etc. were made by various engineers who made the telephone the useful and widespread apparatus it is now.
The telephone exchange was an idea of the Hungarian engineer Tivadar Puskás (1844 -- 1893) in 1876, while he was working for Thomas Edison on a telegraph exchange. Puskás was working on his idea for an electrical telegraph exchange when Alexander Graham Bell received the first patent for the telephone. This caused Puskás to take a fresh look at his own work and he refocused on perfecting a design for a telephone exchange. He then got in touch with the U.S. inventor Thomas Edison who liked the design. According to Edison, "Tivadar Puskas was the first person to suggest the idea of a telephone exchange ''.
Bell has been widely recognized as the "inventor '' of the telephone outside of Italy, where Meucci was championed as its inventor. In the United States, there are numerous reflections of Bell as a North American icon for inventing the telephone, and the matter was for a long time non-controversial. In June 2002, however, the United States House of Representatives passed a symbolic bill recognizing the contributions of Antonio Meucci "in the invention of the telephone '' (not "for the invention of the telephone ''), throwing the matter into some controversy. Ten days later the Canadian parliament countered with a symbolic motion conferring official recognition for the invention of the telephone to Bell.
Champions of Meucci, Manzetti, and Gray have each offered fairly precise tales of a contrivance whereby Bell actively stole the invention of the telephone from their specific inventor. In the 2002 congressional resolution, it was inaccurately noted that Bell worked in a laboratory in which Meucci 's materials had been stored, and claimed that Bell must thus have had access to those materials. Manzetti claimed that Bell visited him and examined his device in 1865. And it is alleged that Bell bribed a patent examiner, Zenas Wilber, not only into processing his application before Gray 's, but allowing a look at his rival 's designs before final submission.
One of the valuable claims in Bell 's 1876 U.S. Patent 174,465 was claim 4, a method of producing variable electric current in a circuit by varying the resistance in the circuit. That feature was not shown in any of Bell 's patent drawings, but was shown in Elisha Gray 's drawings in his caveat filed the same day, February 14, 1876. A description of the variable resistance feature, consisting of seven sentences, was inserted into Bell 's application. That it was inserted is not disputed. But when it was inserted is a controversial issue. Bell testified that he wrote the sentences containing the variable resistance feature before January 18, 1876, "almost at the last moment '' before sending his draft application to his lawyers. A book by Evenson argues that the seven sentences and claim 4 were inserted, without Bell 's knowledge, just before Bell 's application was hand carried to the Patent Office by one of Bell 's lawyers on February 14, 1876.
Contrary to the popular story, Gray 's caveat was taken to the US Patent Office a few hours before Bell 's application. Gray 's caveat was taken to the Patent Office in the morning of February 14, 1876, shortly after the Patent Office opened and remained near the bottom of the in - basket until that afternoon. Bell 's application was filed shortly before noon on February 14 by Bell 's lawyer who requested that the filing fee be entered immediately onto the cash receipts blotter and Bell 's application was taken to the Examiner immediately. Late in the afternoon, Gray 's caveat was entered on the cash blotter and was not taken to the Examiner until the following day. The fact that Bell 's filing fee was recorded earlier than Gray 's led to the myth that Bell had arrived at the Patent Office earlier. Bell was in Boston on February 14 and did not know this happened until later. Gray later abandoned his caveat and did not contest Bell 's priority. That opened the door to Bell being granted US patent 174465 for the telephone on March 7, 1876.
In 1906 the citizens of the City of Brantford, Ontario, Canada and its surrounding area formed the Bell Memorial Association to commemorate the invention of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell in July 1874 at his parent 's home, Melville House, near Brantford. Walter Allward 's design was the unanimous choice from among 10 submitted models, winning the competition. The memorial was originally to be completed by 1912 but Allward did not finish it until five years later. The Governor General of Canada, Victor Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire, ceremoniously unveiled the memorial on October 24, 1917.
Allward designed the monument to symbolize the telephone 's ability to overcome distances. A series of steps lead to the main section where the floating allegorical figure of Inspiration appears over a reclining male figure representing Man, discovering his power to transmit sound through space, and also pointing to three floating figures, the messengers of Knowledge, Joy, and Sorrow positioned at the other end of the tableau. Additionally, there are two female figures mounted on granite pedestals representing Humanity positioned to the left and right of the memorial, one sending and the other receiving a message.
The Bell Telephone Memorial 's grandeur has been described as the finest example of Allward 's early work, propelling the sculptor to fame. The memorial itself has been used as a central fixture for many civic events and remains an important part of Brantford 's history, helping the city style itself as ' The Telephone City '.
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how long does it take for a horse to run the kentucky derby | Kentucky Derby - wikipedia
The Kentucky Derby / ˈdɜːrbi /, is a horse race that is held annually in Louisville, Kentucky, United States, on the first Saturday in May, capping the two - week - long Kentucky Derby Festival. The race is a Grade I stakes race for three - year - old Thoroughbreds at a distance of one and a quarter miles (2 km) at Churchill Downs. Colts and geldings carry 126 pounds (57 kilograms) and fillies 121 pounds (55 kilograms).
The race is often called "The Run for the Roses '' for the blanket of roses draped over the winner. It is also known in the United States as "The Most Exciting Two Minutes In Sports '' or "The Fastest Two Minutes in Sports '' in reference to its approximate duration. It is the first leg of the American Triple Crown and is followed by the Preakness Stakes, then the Belmont Stakes. Unlike the Preakness and Belmont Stakes, which took hiatuses in 1891 -- 1893 and 1911 -- 1912, respectively, the Kentucky Derby has been run every consecutive year since 1875. The Derby, Preakness and Belmont all were run even every year throughout both World Wars, when the Olympics and nearly all professional sports seasons were canceled, due to the fact that nearly all the athletes enlisted. A horse must win all three races to win the Triple Crown. In the 2015 listing of the International Federation of Horseracing Authorities (IFHA), the Kentucky Derby tied with the Whitney Handicap as the top Grade 1 race in the United States outside the Breeders ' Cup races.
The attendance at the Kentucky Derby ranks first in North America and usually surpasses the attendance of all other stakes races including the Preakness Stakes, Belmont Stakes, and the Breeders ' Cup.
In 1872, Col. Meriwether Lewis Clark, Jr., grandson of William Clark of the Lewis and Clark expedition, traveled to England, visiting Epsom in Surrey where The Derby had been running annually since 1780. From there, Clark went on to Paris, France, where in 1863, a group of racing enthusiasts had formed the French Jockey Club and had organized the Grand Prix de Paris at Longchamp, which at the time was the greatest race in France.
Returning home to Kentucky, Clark organized the Louisville Jockey Club for the purpose of raising money to build quality racing facilities just outside the city. The track would soon become known as Churchill Downs, named for John and Henry Churchill, who provided the land for the racetrack. Officially, the racetrack was incorporated as Churchill Downs in 1937.
The Kentucky Derby was first run at 1 1 / 2 miles (12 furlongs; 2.4 km) the same distance as the Epsom Derby. The distance was changed in 1896 to its current 1 1 / 4 miles (10 furlongs; 2 km). On May 17, 1875, in front of an estimated crowd of 10,000 people, a field of 15 three - year - old horses contested the first Derby. Under jockey Oliver Lewis, a colt named Aristides, who was trained by future Hall of Famer Ansel Williamson, won the inaugural Derby. Later that year, Lewis rode Aristides to a second - place finish in the Belmont Stakes.
Although the first race meeting proved a success, the track ran into financial difficulties and in 1894 the New Louisville Jockey Club was incorporated with new capitalization and improved facilities. Despite this, the business floundered until 1902 when Col. Matt Winn of Louisville put together a syndicate of businessmen to acquire the facility. Under Winn, Churchill Downs prospered and the Kentucky Derby then became the preeminent stakes race for three - year - old thoroughbred horses in North America.
Thoroughbred owners began sending their successful Derby horses to compete later in the Preakness Stakes at the Pimlico Race Course, in Baltimore, Maryland, followed by the Belmont Stakes in Elmont, New York. The three races offered large purses and in 1919 Sir Barton became the first horse to win all three races. However, the term Triple Crown did n't come into use for another eleven years. In 1930, when Gallant Fox became the second horse to win all three races, sportswriter Charles Hatton brought the phrase into American usage. Fueled by the media, public interest in the possibility of a "superhorse '' that could win the Triple Crown began in the weeks leading up to the Derby. Two years after the term was coined, the race, which had been run in mid-May since inception, was changed to the first Saturday in May to allow for a specific schedule for the Triple Crown races. Since 1931, the order of Triple Crown races has been the Kentucky Derby first, followed by the Preakness Stakes and then the Belmont Stakes. Prior to 1931, eleven times the Preakness was run before the Derby. On May 12, 1917 and again on May 13, 1922, the Preakness and the Derby were run on the same day. On eleven occasions the Belmont Stakes was run before the Preakness Stakes.
On May 16, 1925, the first live radio broadcast of the Kentucky Derby was originated by WHAS and was also carried by WGN in Chicago. On May 7, 1949, the first television coverage of the Kentucky Derby took place, produced by WAVE - TV, the NBC affiliate in Louisville. This coverage was aired live in the Louisville market and sent to NBC as a kinescope newsreel recording for national broadcast. On May 3, 1952, the first national television coverage of the Kentucky Derby took place, aired from then - CBS affiliate WHAS - TV. In 1954, the purse exceeded $ 100,000 for the first time. In 1968, Dancer 's Image became the first (and to this day the only) horse to win the race and then be disqualified after traces of phenylbutazone, an analgesic and anti-inflammatory drug, were found in the horse 's urinalysis; Forward Pass won after a protracted legal battle by the owners of Dancer 's Image (which they lost). Forward Pass thus became the eighth winner for Calumet Farm. Unexpectedly, the regulations at Kentucky thoroughbred race tracks were changed some years later, allowing horses to run on phenylbutazone. In 1970, Diane Crump became the first female jockey to ride in the Derby, finishing 15th aboard Fathom.
The fastest time ever run in the Derby was set in 1973 at 1: 59.4 minutes when Secretariat broke the record set by Northern Dancer in 1964. Not only has Secretariat 's record time yet to be topped, in the race itself, he did something unique in Triple Crown races: each successive quarter, his times were faster. Though times for non-winners were not recorded, in 1973 Sham finished second, two and a half lengths behind Secretariat in the same race. Using the thoroughbred racing convention of one length equaling one - fifth of a second to calculate Sham 's time, he also finished in under two minutes. Another sub-two - minute finish, only the third, was set in 2001 by Monarchos at 1: 59.97.
In 2005, the purse distribution for the Derby was changed, so that horses finishing fifth would henceforth receive a share of the purse; previously only the first four finishers did so.
Since the Kentucky Derby is the biggest race in the world, millions of people from around the world bet at various live tracks and online sportsbooks. In 2017, a crowd of 158,070 watched Always Dreaming win the Derby, making it the seventh biggest attendance in the history of the racetrack. The track reported a wagering total of $209.2 million from all the sources on all the races on the Kentucky Derby Day program. It was a 9 percent increase compared to the total of $192.6 million in 2016 and an increase of 8 percent over the previous record set in 2015 of $194.3 million. TwinSpires, a platform for betting online and a partner of the Kentucky Derby and the Breeders ' Cup, recorded $32.8 million in handle on the Churchill Down races for the Kentucky Derby Day program. This was a 22 percent increase over the preceding year. On the Kentucky Derby race alone, the handle of TwinSpires was $20.1 million, which is a 22 percent rise compared to the prior year.
The race often draws celebrities. HM Queen Elizabeth II, on a visit to the United States, joined the racegoers at Churchill Downs in 2007.
The 2004 Derby marked the first time that jockeys -- as a result of a court order -- were allowed to wear corporate advertising logos on their clothing.
Norman Adams has been the designer of the Kentucky Derby Logo since 2002. On February 1, 2006, the Louisville - based fast - food company Yum! Brands, Inc. announced a corporate sponsorship deal to call the race "The Kentucky Derby presented by Yum! Brands. '' In 2018, Woodford Reserve replaced Yum Brands as the presenting sponsor.
In addition to the race itself, a number of traditions play a large role in the Derby atmosphere. The mint julep -- an iced drink consisting of bourbon, mint, and a sugar syrup -- is the traditional beverage of the race. The historic drink can be served in an ice - frosted silver julep cup, but most Churchill Downs patrons sip theirs from souvenir glasses (first offered in 1939 and available in revised form each year since) printed with all previous Derby winners. Also, burgoo, a thick stew of beef, chicken, pork, and vegetables, is a popular Kentucky dish served at the Derby.
The infield -- a spectator area inside the track -- offers general admission prices but little chance of seeing much of the race, particularly prior to the jumbotron installation in 2014. Instead, revelers show up in the infield to party with abandon. By contrast, "Millionaire 's Row '' refers to the expensive box seats that attract the rich, the famous and the well - connected. Women appear in fine outfits lavishly accessorized with large, elaborate hats. Following the Call to the Post, as the horses are paraded before the grandstands, the University of Louisville Cardinal Marching Band plays Stephen Foster 's "My Old Kentucky Home, '' a tradition which began in 1921. The event attracts spectators from a large area, flying in hundreds of private aircraft to Louisville International Airport.
The Derby is frequently referred to as "The Run for the Roses, '' because a lush blanket of 554 red roses is awarded to the Kentucky Derby winner each year. The tradition originated in 1883 when New York socialite E. Berry Wall presented roses to ladies at a post-Derby party that was attended by Churchill Downs founder and president, Col. M. Lewis Clark. This gesture is believed to have led Clark to the idea of making the rose the race 's official flower. However, it was not until 1896 that any recorded account referred to roses being draped on the Derby winner. The Governor of Kentucky awards the garland and the Kentucky Derby Trophy. Pop vocalist Dan Fogelberg composed the song "Run for the Roses '' which was released in time for the 1980 running of the race.
"Riders Up! '' is the traditional command from the Paddock Judge for jockeys to mount their horses in advance of the upcoming race. Since 2012, it was recited by a dignitary or celebrity attendee.
In the weeks preceding the race, numerous activities are held for the Kentucky Derby Festival. Thunder Over Louisville -- an airshow and fireworks display -- generally begins the festivities in earnest two weeks prior to the Derby.
Speed record:
Margin of Victory:
Most wins by a jockey:
Most wins by a trainer:
Most wins by an owner:
Longest shot to win the Derby:
Miscellaneous:
designates a Triple Crown Winner. designates a filly.
Legend -- ₩ = Triple Crown winners, ♥ = Filly
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i can't help falling in love with you song in movie | Ca n't Help Falling in Love - wikipedia
"Ca n't Help Falling in Love '' is a pop ballad originally recorded by American singer Elvis Presley and published by Gladys Music, Presley 's publishing company. It was written by Hugo Peretti, Luigi Creatore and George David Weiss. The melody is based on "Plaisir d'amour '', a popular romance by Jean - Paul - Égide Martini (1784). It was featured in Presley 's 1961 film, Blue Hawaii. During the following four decades, it was recorded by numerous other artists, including Tom Smothers, Swedish pop group A-Teens, and the British reggae group UB40, whose 1993 version topped the U.S. and UK charts.
Elvis Presley 's version of the song topped the British charts in 1962. The single is certified Platinum by the RIAA, for US sales in excess of one million copies. In the United States, the song peaked at # 2 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and went to # 1 on the Adult Contemporary chart for six weeks.
During Presley 's late 1960s and 1970s live performances, the song was performed as the show 's finale. Most notably, it was also sung in the live segment of his 1968 NBC television special, and as the closer for his 1973 Global telecast, Aloha from Hawaii. A version with a faster arrangement was used as the closing for Presley 's final TV special, Elvis in Concert.
In addition to "Blue Hawaii '', the song has appeared in several films and TV shows, including:
In 1993, British reggae band UB40 recorded the song as the first single from their 1993 album Promises and Lies. The song was released in May 1993, in the majority of countries worldwide. It eventually climbed to # 1 on the US Billboard Hot 100 after debuting at # 100, and remained there for seven weeks. It was also # 1 in the United Kingdom, Austria, Netherlands, Sweden, Australia, and New Zealand.
The song appears on the soundtrack of the movie Sliver, the trailer for Fools Rush In and an episode of Hindsight. In the US, and on the Sliver soundtrack, the song title was listed as "Ca n't Help Falling in Love, '' rather than what appeared on the record sleeve. The single version of the song also has a slightly different backing rhythm and melody.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
The song was the A-Teens 's first single from their first extended play Pop ' til You Drop!, as well as for the Lilo & Stitch movie soundtrack, which was originally scheduled to include several Presley tracks, the A-Teens picking it for inclusion in the soundtrack. It was later also featured as a bonus track on their third studio album, New Arrival for the European market. The video had thus tremendous exposure on several television channels, with the A-Teens eventually including the song in their third album. As a result, the song had two music videos, one to promote the Disney movie, the other for the album. It is also shown in the teen pop compilation album, Disney Girlz Rock.
The song did not chart in the United States but reached No. 12 in Sweden, No. 16 in Argentina, and No. 41 in Australia. Despite the success of the song overseas, it failed to attract the rest of the Latin American public, due to the fact that there was a Spanish version of the song, performed by the Argentine group, Bandana. In addition, the A-Teens ' version of the song was overshadowed by the promotion of Bandana 's version.
The video was directed by Gregory Dark and filmed in Los Angeles, California. It had two different versions. The "Disney Version '', as the fans named it, features scenes of the movie, and also new scenes of the A-Teens with beach costumes. The "A-Teens Version '' of the video, features the A-Teens on the white background with different close - ups and choreography, and scenes with puppies and different costumes.
Tracks marked + are not A-Teens tracks.
European 2 - track CD single
European / Australian CD maxi
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what is the role of the director in theatre | Theatre director - wikipedia
A theatre director or stage director is an instructor in the theatre field who oversees and orchestrates the mounting of a theatre production (a play, an opera, a musical, or a devised piece of work) by unifying various endeavours and aspects of production. The director 's function is to ensure the quality and completeness of theatre production and to lead the members of the creative team into realizing their artistic vision for it. The director therefore collaborates with a team of creative individuals and other staff, coordinating research, stagecraft, costume design, props, lighting design, acting, set design, stage combat, and sound design for the production. If the production he or she is mounting is a new piece of writing or a (new) translation of a play, the director may also work with the playwright or translator. In contemporary theatre, after the playwright, the director is generally the primary visionary, making decisions on the artistic concept and interpretation of the play and its staging. Different directors occupy different places of authority and responsibility, depending on the structure and philosophy of individual theatre companies. Directors use a wide variety of techniques, philosophies, and levels of collaboration.
In ancient Greece, the birthplace of European drama, the writer bore principal responsibility for the staging of his plays. Actors were generally semi-professionals, and the director oversaw the mounting of plays from the writing process all the way through to their performance, often acting in them too, as Aeschylus for example did. The author - director would also train the chorus, sometimes compose the music, and supervise every aspect of production. The fact that the director was called didaskalos, the Greek word for "teacher, '' indicates that the work of these early directors combined instructing their performers with staging their work.
In medieval times, the complexity of vernacular religious drama, with its large scale mystery plays that often included crowd scenes, processions and elaborate effects, gave the role of director (or stage manager or pageant master) considerable importance. A miniature by Jean Fouquet from 1460 (pictured) bears one of the earliest depictions of a director at work. Holding a prompt book, the central figure directs, with the aid of a long stick, the proceedings of the staging of a dramatization of the Martyrdom of Saint Apollonia. According to Fouquet, the director 's tasks included overseeing the erecting of a stage and scenery (there were no permanent, purpose - built theatre structures at this time, and performances of vernacular drama mostly took place in the open air), casting and directing the actors (which included fining them for those that infringed rules), and addressing the audience at the beginning of each performance and after each intermission.
From Renaissance times up until the 19th century, the role of director was often carried by the actor - manager. This would usually be a senior actor in a troupe who took the responsibility for choosing the repertoire of work, staging it and managing the company. This was the case for instance with Commedia dell'Arte companies and English actor - managers like Colley Cibber and David Garrick.
The modern theatre director can be said to have originated in the staging of elaborate spectacles of the Meininger Company under George II, Duke of Saxe - Meiningen. The management of large numbers of extras and complex stagecraft matters necessitated an individual to take on the role of overall coordinator. This gave rise to the role of the director in modern theatre, and Germany would provide a platform for a generation of emerging visionary theatre directors, such as Erwin Piscator and Max Reinhardt. Simultaneously, Constantin Stanislavski, principally an actor - manager, would set up the Moscow Art Theatre in Russia and similarly emancipate the role of the director as artistic visionary.
The French regisseur is also sometimes used to mean a stage director, most commonly in ballet. A more common term for theatre director in French is metteur en scène.
Post World War II, the actor - manager slowly started to disappear, and directing become a fully fledged artistic activity within the theatre profession. The director originating artistic vision and concept, and realizing the staging of a production, became the norm rather than the exception. Great forces in the emancipation of theatre directing as a profession were notable 20th - century theatre directors like Vladimir Nemirovich - Danchenko, Vsevolod Meyerhold, Yevgeny Vakhtangov, Michael Chekhov, Yuri Lyubimov (Russia), Orson Welles, Peter Brook, Peter Hall (Britain), Bertolt Brecht (Germany), Giorgio Strehler and Franco Zeffirelli (Italy).
A cautionary note was introduced by the famed director Sir Tyrone Guthrie who said "the only way to learn how to direct a play, is... to get a group of actors simple enough to allow you to let you direct them, and direct ''.
A number of seminal works on directing and directors include Toby Cole and Helen Krich 's 1972 Directors on Directing: A Sourcebook of the Modern Theatre, Edward Braun 's 1982 book The Director and the Stage: From Naturalism to Growtowski and Will 's The Director in a Changing Theatre (1976).
Because of the relatively late emergence of theatre directing as a performing arts profession when compared with for instance acting or musicianship, a rise of professional vocational training programmes in directing can be seen mostly in the second half of the 20th century. Most European countries nowadays know some form of professional directing training, usually at drama schools or conservatoires, or at universities. In Britain, the tradition that theatre directors emerge from degree courses (usually in English literature) at the Oxbridge universities has meant that for a long time, professional vocational training did not take place at drama schools or performing arts colleges, although an increase in training programmes for theatre directors can be witnessed since the 1970s and 1980s. In American universities, the seminal directing program at the Yale School of Drama produced a number of pioneering directors with D.F.A. (Doctor of Fine Arts) and M.F.A. degrees in Drama (rather than English) who contributed to the expansion of professional resident theaters in the 1960s and 1970s. In the early days such programmes typically led to the staging of one major thesis production in the third (final) year. At the University of California, Irvine, Keith Fowler (a Yale D.F.A. and ex-producer of two LORT companies) led for many years a graduate programme based on the premise that directors are autodidacts who need as many opportunities to direct as possible. Under Fowler, graduate student directors would stage between five and ten productions during their three - year residencies, with each production receiving detailed critiques.
As with many other professions in the performing arts, theatre directors would often learn their skills "on the job ''; to this purpose, theatres often employ trainee assistant directors or have in - house education schemes to train young theatre directors. Examples are the Royal National Theatre in London, which frequently organizes short directing courses, or the Orange Tree Theatre and the Donmar Warehouse on London 's West End, which both employ resident assistant directors on a one - year basis for training purposes.
Directing is an artform that has grown with the development of theatre theory and theatre practice. With the emergence of new trends in theatre, so too have directors adopted new methodologies and engaged in new practices.
Once a show has opened (premiered before a regular audience), theatre directors are generally considered to have fulfilled their function. From that point forward the stage manager is left in charge of all essential concerns.
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where does death and the maiden take place | Death and the Maiden (play) - wikipedia
Death and the Maiden is a 1990 play by Chilean playwright Ariel Dorfman. The world premiere was staged at the Royal Court Theatre in London on 9 July 1991, directed by Lindsay Posner. It had one reading and one workshop production prior to its world premiere.
The time is the present and the place, a country that is probably Chile but could be any country that has given itself a democratic government just after a long period of dictatorship.
Paulina Salas is a former political prisoner in an unnamed Latin American country who had been raped by her captors, led by a sadistic doctor whose face she never saw. The rapist doctor played Schubert 's composition Death and the Maiden during the act of rape; hence the play 's title.
Years later, after the (also unnamed) repressive regime has fallen, Paulina lives in an isolated country house with her husband, Gerardo Escobar. When Gerardo comes back from a visit to the president, he gets a flat tire. A stranger named Dr. Miranda stops to assist him. Dr. Miranda drives Gerardo home and later in the night he returns. Paulina recognizes Miranda 's voice and mannerism as that of her rapist, and takes him captive in order to put him on trial and extract a confession from him.
Unconvinced of his guilt, Gerardo acts as Roberto Miranda 's lawyer and attempts to save his life. After hearing the full story of her captivity from Paulina, Gerardo formulates a confession with Roberto to appease Paulina 's madness and set her free from her past.
Paulina records the entire confession and has Roberto write it out and sign it. She sends Gerardo out to get Roberto 's car so he can go home. While they are alone for the last time, Paulina accuses Roberto of being unrepentant and guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.
Throughout the play it is uncertain whether details are evidence of Roberto 's guilt or Paulina 's paranoia. At the end of the play it is unclear who is innocent.
Death and the Maiden had a reading at the Institute for Contemporary Art in London on 30 November 1990:
A workshop production was staged and opened in Santiago, Chile, on 10 March 1991:
Death and the Maiden had its world premiere at The Royal Court Upstairs on 9 July 1991:
With the same cast and director, it transferred to the Mainstage at The Royal Court on 4 November 1991.
The American Broadway premiere of Death and the Maiden opened at the Brooks Atkinson Theatre on 17 March 1992, produced by Roger Berlind, Gladys Nederlander and Frederick Zollo, in association with Thom Mount and Bonnie Timmermann:
Indian premiere of Death and the Maiden (in Hindi) opened at India Habitat Centre New Delhi on 17 February 2002, produced by Asmita Theatre, translation by Shalini Vatsa.
Death and the Maiden returns to London 's West End 20 years since it first premiered at the Royal Court Theatre. The much awaited return was in 2011 at the Harold Pinter Theatre.
in iran yazd 2014 Death and the Maiden Director: Mohsen sadeghian on 4 November 2015 Assistant director and stage manager: Ferdows Yazdi Player:
particular version of this play was held in 2010 in Haifa, directed by Juliano Mer Khamis (who was assassinated few months later). The two main characters were played by Clara Khoury and Saleh Bakri.
in 2015 "Death and the Maiden '' is being staged as a co-production between Melbourne Theatre Company (18 July - 22 August) and the Sydney Theatre Company (2 September - 17 October). Susie Porter (Puberty Blues (TV series)) to play Paulina with Eugene Gilfedder (The Effect) as the man whose voice might be his undoing.
In 1994, Roman Polanski directed a film of the work, starring Sigourney Weaver, Ben Kingsley, and Stuart Wilson.
An opera based on the play has been composed by Jonas Forssell with the libretto by Ariel Dorfman. The world premiere was staged at the Malmö Opera on 20 September 2008.
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cast of i now pronounce chuck & larry | I Now Pronounce You Chuck & Larry - wikipedia
I Now Pronounce You Chuck & Larry is a 2007 American comedy film directed by Dennis Dugan. It stars Adam Sandler and Kevin James as the title characters Chuck and Larry, respectively. The film was released in the United States on July 20, 2007.
Chuck Levine, a womanizing bachelor, and Larry Valentine, a widower struggling to raise his two children, are two veteran New York City firefighters. During a routine sweep of a burned building, a segment of floor collapses on Chuck, but Larry saves his life. Chuck vows to repay Larry in any way possible. Experiencing an epiphany from the incident, Larry tries to increase his life insurance policy, but he runs into difficulties naming his children as primary beneficiaries. He is told he should remarry so his new spouse can be the primary beneficiary; however, no one specifies whom he has to marry.
Inspired by a newspaper article about domestic partnerships, Larry asks Chuck to enter a civil union with him. Although Chuck declines at first, he is reminded of his debt to Larry and finally agrees, entering a domestic partnership and becoming Larry 's primary beneficiary in the event of his death. To their dismay, however, investigators arrive to inquire about their abrupt partnership, suspecting fraud. Chuck and Larry decide to enlist the help of lawyer Alex McDonough, who suggests they get married and move in together to prove they are committed; Chuck reluctantly agrees. The pair travel to Niagara Falls in Canada for a quick same sex marriage at a wedding chapel and begin living together.
At a gay benefit costume party, the partygoers are confronted by homophobic protesters. Chuck is provoked into punching their leader, and the incident is picked up by the local news. With their apparent homosexuality and marriage revealed, Chuck and Larry are heckled, and their fellow FDNY firefighters refuse to work with them. Their only ally is Fred G. Duncan, an angry, intimidating firefighter who comes out to Chuck.
Chuck becomes romantically interested in Alex after the two spend time together, but finds himself unable to get close to her because she thinks he is gay. In another meeting at her apartment, Chuck and Alex are making charm bracelets. They soon kiss, but Alex, still believing Chuck is gay and married, is shocked and immediately distances herself from Chuck. Meanwhile, city agent Clinton Fitzer arrives to investigate the couple, and the strain on both Larry and Chuck causes them to fight. Larry learns about the kiss and confronts Chuck about it, asserting that Chuck 's absence is jeopardizing their ability to maintain the ruse of their relationship. During the argument, Larry reveals that he is still in love with his deceased wife, Paula, and Chuck responds that he needs to move on for the sake of his children. Later that evening, a petition circulates to have Chuck and Larry thrown out of the firehouse. Upon discovering it, a hurtful Larry confronts the crew about personal embarrassments on the job that Chuck and Larry helped them overcome. Afterwards, Chuck and Larry reconcile their differences.
Eventually, numerous women publicly testify to having slept with Chuck in the recent past, and the couple is called into court to defend their marriage against charges of fraud. They are defended by Alex, and their fellow firefighters arrive in support, having realized all that Chuck and Larry have done for them over the years. Fitzer interrogates both men, and eventually demands the pair to kiss to prove that their relationship is physical. Before they do so, Chuck and Larry are interrupted by FDNY Captain Phineas J. Tucker, who reveals their marriage to be a sham and that they are both straight. He then offers to be arrested as well, since he knew about the false relationship but failed to report it. This prompts each of the other firefighters to claim a role in the wedding in a show of solidarity. Chuck, Larry, and the other firefighters are sent to jail, but they are quickly released after negotiating a deal to provide photos for an AIDS research benefit calendar, and Chuck and Larry keep their benefits.
Two months later, Duncan and Alex 's brother, Kevin, are married in Niagara Falls at the same chapel as Chuck and Larry. At the wedding party, Larry moves on from the death of his wife and talks to a new woman, while Alex agrees to a dance with Chuck.
Producer Tom Shadyac had planned this film as early as 1999. I Now Pronounce You Joe and Benny, as the film was then titled, was announced as starring Nicolas Cage and Will Smith with Shadyac directing. In the official trailer, the song "Grace Kelly '' by British pop star, Mika, was included.
Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 14 % of 156 reviews surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the rating is 3.6 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Whether by way of inept comedy or tasteless stereotypes, I Now Pronounce You Chuck & Larry falters on both levels. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 37 out of 100 based on 33 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
USA Today called it "a movie that gives marriage, homosexuality, friendship, firefighters, children and nearly everything else a bad name. '' The Wall St Journal calls it "an insult to gays, straights, men, women, children, African - Americans, Asians, pastors, mailmen, insurance adjusters, firemen, doctors -- and fans of show music. ''
The New York Post called it not an insult to homosexuality but to comedy itself. The Miami Herald was slightly less critical, calling the film "funny in the juvenile, crass way we expect. ''
Nathan Lee from the Village Voice wrote a positive review, praising the film for being "tremendously savvy in its stupid way '' and "as eloquent as Brokeback Mountain, and even more radical. '' Controversial critic Armond White championed the film as "a modern classic '' for its "ultimate moral lesson -- that sexuality has absolutely nothing to do with who Chuck and Larry are as people ''.
Chuck & Larry grossed $34,233,750 and ranked # 1 at the domestic box office in its opening weekend, higher than the other opening wide release that weekend, Hairspray, and the previous weekend 's # 1 film, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. By the end of its run, the film had grossed $120,059,556 domestically and $66,012,658 internationally for a worldwide total of $186,072,214.
The film received eight Golden Raspberry Award nominations including Worst Picture, Worst Actor (Adam Sandler), Worst Supporting Actor (both Kevin James and Rob Schneider), Worst Supporting Actress (Jessica Biel), Worst Director (Dennis Dugan), Worst Screenplay and Worst Screen Couple (Adam Sandler with either Kevin James or Jessica Biel), but failed to win any.
The film was screened prior to release for the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD). GLAAD representative Damon Romine told Entertainment Weekly magazine: "The movie has some of the expected stereotypes, but in its own disarming way, it 's a call for equality and respect ''.
According to Alexander Payne, the writer of an initial draft of the film, Sandler took many liberties with his screenplay, "Sandler - izing '' the film, in his own words. At some point, he did not want his name attached to the project.
Critics have also said the character played by Rob Schneider is a racist caricature and he was also criticized for donning Yellowface.
In November 2007, the producers of the Australian film Strange Bedfellows initiated legal action against Universal Studios for copyright violation. The suit was withdrawn in April 2008 after the producers of Strange Bedfellows received an early draft of Chuck & Larry that predated their film, and they were satisfied that they had not been plagiarized.
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when did the movie lion king come out | The Lion King - wikipedia
The Lion King is a 1994 American animated epic musical film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures. It is the 32nd Disney animated feature film, and the fifth animated film produced during a period known as the Disney Renaissance. The Lion King was directed by Roger Allers and Rob Minkoff, produced by Don Hahn, and has a screenplay credited to Irene Mecchi, Jonathan Roberts, and Linda Woolverton. Its original songs were written by composer Elton John and lyricist Tim Rice, and original scores were written by Hans Zimmer. The film features an ensemble voice cast that includes Matthew Broderick, James Earl Jones, Jeremy Irons, Jonathan Taylor Thomas, Moira Kelly, Nathan Lane, Ernie Sabella, Rowan Atkinson, Robert Guillaume, Madge Sinclair, Whoopi Goldberg, Cheech Marin, and Jim Cummings. The story takes place in a kingdom of lions in Africa and was influenced by William Shakespeare 's Hamlet.
The Lion King tells the story of Simba, a young lion who is to succeed his father, Mufasa, as King of the Pride Lands; however, after Simba 's uncle Scar (Mufasa 's jealous younger brother), murders Mufasa, Simba is manipulated into thinking he was responsible and flees into exile. Upon maturation living with two wastrels, Simba is given some valuable perspective from his childhood friend, Nala, and his shaman, Rafiki, before returning to challenge Scar to end his tyranny and take his place in the Circle of Life as the rightful King.
Development of The Lion King began in 1988 during a meeting between Jeffrey Katzenberg, Roy E. Disney, and Peter Schneider while promoting Oliver & Company in Europe. Thomas Disch wrote a film treatment, and Woolverton developed the first scripts while George Scribner was signed on as director, being later joined by Allers. Production began in 1991 concurrently with Pocahontas, which wound up attracting most of Disney 's top animators. Some time after the staff traveled to Hell 's Gate National Park in Kenya to research on the film 's setting and animals, Scribner left production disagreeing with the decision to turn the film into a musical and was replaced by Minkoff. When Hahn joined the project, he was dissatisfied with the script and the story was promptly rewritten. Nearly 20 minutes of animation sequences were produced at Disney - MGM Studios in Florida. Computer animation was also used in several scenes, most notably in the wildebeest stampede sequence.
The Lion King was released on June 15, 1994, to a positive reaction from critics, who praised the film for its music, story, and animation; it finished its theatrical run as the highest - grossing release of 1994 and the second highest - grossing film of all time. It is also the highest - grossing traditionally animated film of all time. The Lion King garnered two Academy Awards for its achievement in music and the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy. The film has led to many derived works, such as a Broadway adaptation; two direct - to - video follow - ups -- the sequel, The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride (1998), and the prequel / parallel, The Lion King 11⁄2 (2004) --; two television series, Timon and Pumbaa and The Lion Guard; and a 3D re-release, in 2011.
In 2016, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. A CGI remake of the film directed by Jon Favreau is scheduled for a July 19, 2019 release in the United States.
In the Pride Lands of Africa, a lion rules over the animal kingdom from Pride Rock. King Mufasa 's newborn son, Simba, is presented to the assembled animals by Rafiki, a mandrill who serves as shaman and advisor. Mufasa shows young Simba the Pride Lands and explains to him the responsibilities of kingship and the "circle of life '' which connects all living things. Mufasa 's younger brother, Scar, covets the throne and plots to eliminate Mufasa and Simba so he may become king. He tricks Simba and his best friend Nala -- to whom Simba is betrothed -- into exploring a forbidden elephants ' graveyard, where they are attacked by three spotted hyenas who are in league with Scar. Mufasa is alerted to the danger by his majordomo, the hornbill Zazu, and rescues the cubs. Though angry with Simba, Mufasa forgives him and explains that the great kings of the past watch over them from the night sky, from which he will one day watch over Simba.
Scar sets a trap for his brother and nephew, luring Simba into a gorge and having the hyenas drive a large herd of wildebeest into a stampede that will trample him. He informs Mufasa of Simba 's peril, knowing the king will rush to save his son. Mufasa saves Simba but ends up hanging perilously from the gorge 's edge and is betrayed by Scar, who sends him falling to his death. Scar convinces Simba that the tragedy was Simba 's own fault and advises him to flee the kingdom. He orders the hyenas to kill the cub, but Simba escapes. Scar tells the pride that both Mufasa and Simba were killed in the stampede and steps forward as the new king, allowing a large pack of hyenas to live in the Pride Lands.
Simba collapses in a desert and is rescued by Timon and Pumbaa, a meerkat and warthog who are fellow outcasts. Simba grows up in the jungle with his two new friends, living a carefree life under the motto "hakuna matata '' ("no worries '' in Swahili). Now a young adult, Simba rescues Timon and Pumbaa from a hungry lioness who turns out to be Nala. She and Simba reunite and fall in love, and she urges him to return home, telling him the Pride Lands have become a drought - stricken wasteland under Scar 's reign. Feeling guilty over his father 's death, Simba refuses and storms off. He encounters Rafiki, who tells him that Mufasa ' spirit lives on in Simba. Simba is visited by the ghost of Mufasa in the night sky, who tells him he must take his rightful place as king. Realizing he can no longer run from his past, Simba decides to return home.
Aided by his friends, Simba sneaks past the hyenas at Pride Rock and confronts Scar. Scar taunts him over his role in Mufasa 's death and backs him to the edge of the rock, where he reveals to Simba that he murdered Mufasa. Enraged, Simba pins Scar to the ground and forces him to reveal the truth to the rest of the pride. Timon, Pumbaa, Rafiki, Zazu, and the lionesses fend off the hyenas while Scar, attempting to escape, is cornered by Simba at the top of Pride Rock. Scar begs for mercy and attempts to blame the hyenas for his actions; Simba spares his life but orders him to leave the Pride Lands forever. Scar attacks his nephew, but Simba manages to toss him from the top of the rock. Scar survives the fall but is killed by the hyenas, who overheard him betray them to Simba. With his enemies gone, Simba takes over the kingship as the rains begin to fall, restoring life to the land.
Later, with Pride Rock restored to its former glory, Rafiki presents Simba and Nala 's newborn cub to the assembled animals, continuing the circle of life.
The idea for The Lion King was conceived in late 1988 during a conversation between Jeffrey Katzenberg, Roy E. Disney and Peter Schneider on a plane to Europe to promote Oliver & Company. During the conversation, the topic of a story set in Africa came up, and Katzenberg immediately jumped at the idea. The idea was then developed by Walt Disney Feature Animation 's vice president for creative affairs Charlie Fink. Katzenberg decided to add elements involving coming of age and death, and ideas from personal life experiences, such as some of his trials in his bumpy road in politics, saying about the film, "It is a little bit about myself. '' In November of that year Thomas Disch (author of The Brave Little Toaster) wrote a treatment entitled King of the Kalahari, and afterwards, Linda Woolverton spent a year writing drafts of the script, which was titled King of the Beasts and then King of the Jungle. The original version of the film was very different from the final film. The plot was centered in a battle being between lions and baboons with Scar being the leader of the baboons, Rafiki being a cheetah, and Timon and Pumbaa being Simba 's childhood friends. Simba would also not leave the kingdom but become a "lazy, slovenly, horrible character '' due to manipulations from Scar, so Simba could be overthrown after coming of age. By 1990, producer Thomas Schumacher, who had just completed The Rescuers Down Under, decided to attach himself to the project "because lions are cool ''. Schumacher likened the script for King of the Jungle to "an animated National Geographic special ''.
Oliver & Company director George Scribner was the initial director of the film, being later joined by Roger Allers, who was the lead story man on Beauty and the Beast in October 1991. Allers brought with him Brenda Chapman, who would become the head of story. Afterwards, several of the lead crew members, including Allers, Scribner, Hahn, Chapman, and production designer Chris Sanders, took a trip to Hell 's Gate National Park in Kenya, in order to study and gain an appreciation of the environment for the film. After six months of story development work Scribner decided to leave the project, as he clashed with Allers and the producers on their decision to turn the film into a musical, as Scribner 's intention was of making a documentary - like film more focused on natural aspects. Rob Minkoff replaced Scribner, and producer Don Hahn joined the production as Schumacher became only an executive producer due to Disney promoting him to Vice President of Development for Feature Animation. Hahn found the script unfocused and lacking a clear theme, and after establishing the main theme as "leaving childhood and facing up to the realities of the world '', asked for a final retool. Allers, Minkoff, Chapman and Hahn then rewrote the story across two weeks of meetings with directors Kirk Wise and Gary Trousdale, who had just finished Beauty and the Beast. The script also had its title changed from King of the Jungle to The Lion King, as the setting was not the jungle but the savannah.
The Lion King was the first Disney animated feature to be an original story, rather than be based on an already existing work. The filmmakers have said that the story of The Lion King was inspired by the lives of Joseph and Moses, from the Bible, and William Shakespeare 's Hamlet. During the summer of 1992, the team was joined by screenwriter Irene Mecchi, with a second screenwriter, Jonathan Roberts, joining a few months later. Mecchi and Roberts took charge of the revision process, fixing unresolved emotional issues in the script and adding comic business for Pumbaa, Timon, and the hyenas. Lyricist Tim Rice worked closely with the writing team, flying to California at least once a month because his songs needed to work in the narrative continuity. Rice 's lyrics -- which were reworked up to the production 's end -- were pinned to the storyboards during development. Rewrites were frequent, with animator Andreas Deja saying that completed scenes would be delivered, only for the response to be that parts needed to be reanimated because of dialog changes.
The voice actors were chosen for how they fit and could add to the characters -- for instance, James Earl Jones was cast because the directors found his voice "powerful '' and similar to a lion 's roar. Jones commented that during the years of production, Mufasa "became more and more of a dopey dad instead of (a) grand king ''.
Nathan Lane originally auditioned for Zazu, and Ernie Sabella, for one of the hyenas. Upon meeting each other at the recording studio, the actors, who at the time both co-starred in Guys and Dolls, were asked to record together as hyenas. The directors laughed at their performance and decided to cast them as Timon and Pumbaa. For the hyenas, the original intention was to reunite Cheech & Chong, but while Cheech Marin accepted to play Banzai, Tommy Chong was unavailable. Thus his role was changed into a female hyena, Shenzi, who was voiced by Whoopi Goldberg.
Matthew Broderick was cast as adult Simba early during production, and during the three years of voice acting only recorded with another actor once, and only discovered Moira Kelly voiced Nala at the premiere. English actors Tim Curry and Malcolm McDowell were originally considered for the role of Scar, however, Curry left the role due to Home Alone 2: Lost in New York, and it was ultimately won by English actor Jeremy Irons. Irons had at first refused the role due to not being comfortable going from the dramatic performance as Claus von Bülow in Reversal of Fortune to a comedic role. But once he came in, Irons ' performance even inspired the writers to incorporate more of his acting as von Bülow -- adding one of that character 's lines, "You have no idea '' -- and animator Andreas Deja to watch both Reversal of Fortune and Damage to pick up Irons 's facial traits and tics.
The development of The Lion King coincided with that of Pocahontas, which most of the animators of Walt Disney Feature Animation decided to work on instead, believing it would be the more prestigious and successful of the two. The story artists also did not have much faith in the project, with Chapman declaring she was reluctant to accept the job "because the story was n't very good '', and writer Burny Mattinson saying to co-worker Joe Ranft "I do n't know who is going to want to watch that one. '' Most of the leading animators either were doing their first major work supervising a character, or had much interest in animating an animal. Thirteen of these supervising animators, both in California and in Florida, were responsible for establishing the personalities and setting the tone for the film 's main characters. The animation leads for the main characters included Mark Henn on young Simba, Ruben A. Aquino on adult Simba, Andreas Deja on Scar, Aaron Blaise on young Nala, Anthony DeRosa on adult Nala, and Tony Fucile on Mufasa. Nearly 20 minutes of the film, including the "I Just Ca n't Wait to Be King '' sequence, were animated at the Disney - MGM Studios facility. More than 600 artists, animators, and technicians contributed to The Lion King. Weeks before the film was to be released, the 1994 Northridge earthquake shut down the studio and required the animators to finish their work from home.
The character animators studied real - life animals for reference, as was done for the 1942 Disney film Bambi. Jim Fowler, renowned wildlife expert, visited the studios on several occasions with an assortment of lions and other savannah inhabitants to discuss behavior and help the animators give their drawings authenticity. The animators also studied animal movements at the Miami MetroZoo under guidance from wildlife expert Ron Magill. The Pride Lands are modeled on the Kenyan national park visited by the crew. Varied focal lengths and lenses were employed to differ from the habitual portrayal of Africa in documentaries -- which employ telephoto lenses to shoot the wildlife from a distance. The epic feel drew inspiration from concept studies by artist Hans Bacher -- which, following Scribner 's request for realism, tried to depict effects such as lens flare -- and the works of painters Charles Marion Russell, Frederic Remington and Maxfield Parrish. Because the characters were not anthropomorphized, all the animators had to learn to draw four - legged animals, and the story and character development was done through use of longer shots following the characters.
Computers helped the filmmakers present their vision in new ways. For the "wildebeest stampede '' sequence, several distinct wildebeest characters were created in a 3D computer program, multiplied into hundreds, cel shaded to look like drawn animation, and given randomized paths down a mountainside to simulate the real, unpredictable movement of a herd. Five specially trained animators and technicians spent more than two years creating the two - and - a-half - minute stampede. The CAPS helped simulate camera movements such as tracking shots, and was employed in coloring, lighting, and particle effects.
Lyricist Tim Rice, who was working with composer Alan Menken on songs for Aladdin, was invited to write the songs, and accepted on the condition of finding a composing partner. As Menken was unavailable, the producers accepted Rice 's suggestion of Elton John, after Rice 's invitation of ABBA fell through due to Benny Andersson being busy with the musical Kristina från Duvemåla. John expressed an interest in writing "ultra-pop songs that kids would like; then adults can go and see those movies and get just as much pleasure out of them '', mentioning a possible influence of The Jungle Book, where he felt the "music was so funny and appealed to kids and adults ''.
John and Rice wrote five original songs for the film ("Circle of Life '', "I Just Ca n't Wait to Be King '', "Be Prepared '', "Hakuna Matata '' and "Can You Feel the Love Tonight ''), with John 's performance of "Can You Feel the Love Tonight '' playing over the end credits. The IMAX and DVD releases added another song, "The Morning Report '', based on a song discarded during development that eventually featured in the live musical version of The Lion King. The score was composed by Hans Zimmer, who was hired based on his work in two films in African settings, The Power of One and A World Apart, and supplemented the score with traditional African music and choir elements arranged by Lebo M. Zimmer 's partners Mark Mancina and Jay Rifkin helped with arrangements and song production.
The Lion King original motion picture soundtrack was released by Walt Disney Records on July 13, 1994. It was the fourth - best - selling album of the year on the Billboard 200 and the top - selling soundtrack. It is the only soundtrack for an animated film to be certified Diamond (10 × platinum) by the Recording Industry Association of America. Zimmer 's complete instrumental score for the film was never originally given a full release, until the soundtrack 's commemorative 20th anniversary re-release in 2014. The Lion King also inspired the 1995 release Rhythm of the Pride Lands, with eight songs by Zimmer, Mancina, and Lebo M.
The use of the song "The Lion Sleeps Tonight '' in a scene with Timon and Pumbaa led to disputes between Disney and the family of South African Solomon Linda, who composed the song (originally titled "Mbube '') in 1939. In July 2004, Linda 's family filed suit, seeking $1.6 million in royalties from Disney. In February 2006, Linda 's heirs reached a legal settlement with Abilene Music, who held the worldwide rights and had licensed the song to Disney for an undisclosed amount of money.
For The Lion King 's first film trailer, Disney opted to feature a single scene, the entire opening sequence with the song "Circle of Life ''. Buena Vista Pictures Distribution president Dick Cook said the decision was made for such an approach because "we were all so taken by the beauty and majesty of this piece that we felt like it was probably one of the best four minutes of film that we 've seen '', and Don Hahn added that "Circle of Life '' worked as a trailer as it "came off so strong, and so good, and ended with such a bang ''. The trailer was released in November 1993, accompanying The Three Musketeers in theaters, as only a third of The Lion King had been completed. Audience reaction was enthusiastic, causing Hahn to have some initial concerns as he became afraid of not living up to the expectations raised by the preview. Prior to the film 's release, Disney did 11 test screenings.
Upon release, The Lion King was accompanied by an extensive marketing campaign which included tie - ins with Burger King, Mattel, Kodak, Nestlé and Payless ShoeSource, and various merchandise, accounting 186 licensed products. In 1994, Disney earned approximately $1 billion with products based on the film, with $214 million for Lion King toys during Christmas 1994 alone.
The Lion King was first released on VHS and laserdisc in the United States on March 3, 1995, under Disney 's "Masterpiece Collection '' video series. The VHS tape contained a special preview for Walt Disney Pictures ' then - upcoming animated film Pocahontas, in which the title character (voiced by Judy Kuhn) sings the musical number "Colors of the Wind ''. In addition, Deluxe Editions of both formats were released. The VHS Deluxe Edition included the film, an exclusive lithograph of Rafiki and Simba (in some editions), a commemorative "Circle of Life '' epigraph, six concept art lithographs, another tape with the half - hour TV show The Making of The Lion King, and a certificate of authenticity. The CAV laserdisc Deluxe Edition also contained the film, six concept art lithographs and The Making of The Lion King, and added storyboards, character design artwork, concept art, rough animation, and a directors ' commentary that the VHS edition did not have, on a total of four double sided discs. The VHS tape quickly became the best - selling videotape of all time: 4.5 million tapes were sold on the first day and ultimately sales totaled more than 30 million before these home video versions went into moratorium in 1997.
On October 7, 2003, the film was re-released on VHS and released on DVD for the first time, titled The Lion King: Platinum Edition, as part of Disney 's Platinum Edition line of animated classic DVDs. The DVD release featured two versions of the film on the first disc, a remastered version created for the 2002 IMAX release and an edited version of the IMAX release purporting to be the original 1994 theatrical version. A second disc, with bonus features, was also included in the DVD release. The film 's soundtrack was provided both in its original Dolby 5.1 track and in a new Disney Enhanced Home Theater Mix, making this one of the first Disney DVDs so equipped. By means of seamless branching, the film could be viewed either with or without a newly created scene -- a short conversation in the film replaced with a complete song ("The Morning Report ''). A Special Collector 's Gift Set was also released, containing the DVD set, five exclusive lithographed character portraits (new sketches created and signed by the original character animators), and an introductory book entitled The Journey. The Platinum Edition of The Lion King featured changes made to the film during its IMAX re-release, including re-drawn crocodiles in the "I Just Ca n't Wait to Be King '' sequence as well as other alterations. More than two million copies of the Platinum Edition DVD and VHS units were sold on the first day of release. A DVD boxed set of the three The Lion King films (in two - disc Special Edition formats) was released on December 6, 2004. In January 2005, the film, along with the sequels, went back into moratorium.
Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the Diamond Edition of The Lion King on October 4, 2011. This marks the time that the film has been released in high - definition Blu - ray and on Blu - ray 3D. The initial release was produced in three different packages: a two - disc version with Blu - ray and DVD; a four - disc version with Blu - ray, DVD, Blu - ray 3D, and digital copy; and an eight - disc box set that also includes the sequels The Lion King 2: Simba 's Pride and The Lion King 11⁄2. A standalone single - disc DVD release also followed on November 15, 2011. The Diamond Edition topped the Blu - ray charts with over 1.5 million copies sold. The film sold 3.83 million Blu - ray units in total, leading to a $101.14 million income.
The Lion King was once again released to home media as part of the Walt Disney Signature Collection; first released on Digital HD on August 15, 2017 and on Blu - ray and DVD on August 29, 2017.
The Lion King earned $422,783,777 in North America and an $545,700,000 in other territories for a worldwide total of $968,483,777. It is currently the 29th highest - grossing film, the seventh highest - grossing animated film of all time worldwide and the third highest - grossing film of Walt Disney Animation Studios (behind Frozen and Zootopia). The film was also the highest - grossing motion picture of 1994 worldwide. After its initial run, having earned $763.4 million, it ranked as the second - highest - grossing film of all time worldwide, behind Jurassic Park. It held the record for the highest - grossing animated feature film (in North America, outside North America, and worldwide) until it was surpassed by the computer animated Finding Nemo (2003), Shrek 2 (2004), Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs (2009), and Toy Story 3 (2010) prior to the 2011 re-release. With the earnings of the 3D run, The Lion King surpassed all the aforementioned films but Toy Story 3 to rank as the second - highest - grossing animated film worldwide -- later downgraded to sixth after Frozen (2013), Minions (2015), and Zootopia (2016) -- and it remains the highest - grossing hand - drawn animated film. It is also the biggest animated movie of the last 50 years in terms of estimated attendance.
The Lion King had a limited release in North America on June 15, 1994, playing in only two theaters, El Capitan Theater in Los Angeles and Radio City Music Hall in New York City. It still earned $1,586,753 across the weekend of June 17 -- 19, standing at the tenth place of the box office ranking. The average of $793,377 per theater stands as the largest ever achieved during a weekend. The wide release followed on June 24, 1994, in 2,550 screens. The digital surround sound of the film led many of those theaters to implement Dolby Laboratories ' newest sound systems. The Lion King grossed $40.9 million -- which at the time was the fourth biggest opening weekend earning ever and the highest sum for a Disney film -- to top the weekend box office. It also earned a rare "A + '' rating from CinemaScore. By the end of its theatrical run, in spring 1995, it had earned $312,855,561, being the second - highest - grossing 1994 film in North America behind Forrest Gump. Outside North America, it earned $455.8 million during its initial run, for a worldwide total of $768.6 million. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 74 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run.
The film was re-issued on December 25, 2002 for IMAX and large - format theaters. Don Hahn explained that eight years after The Lion King got its original release, "there was a whole new generation of kids who have n't really seen it, particularly on the big screen. '' Given the film had already been digitally archived during production, the restoration process was easier, while also providing many scenes with enhancements that covered up original deficiencies. An enhanced sound mix was also provided to, as Hahn explained, "make the audience feel like they 're in the middle of the movie. '' On its first weekend, The Lion King made $2.7 million from 66 locations, a $27,664 per theater average. This run ended with $15,686,215 on May 30, 2003.
In 2011, The Lion King was converted to 3D for a two - week limited theatrical re-issue and subsequent 3D Blu - ray release. The film opened at the number one spot on Friday, September 16, 2011 with $8.9 million and finished the weekend with $30.2 million, ranking number one at the box office. This made The Lion King the first re-issue release to earn the number - one slot at the American weekend box office since the re-issue of Return of the Jedi in March 1997. The film also achieved the fourth - highest September opening weekend of all time. It held off very well on its second weekend, again earning first place at the box office with a 27 percent decline to $21.9 million. Most box - office observers had expected the film to fall about 50 percent in its second weekend and were also expecting Moneyball to be at first place.
After its initial box - office success, many theaters decided to continue to show the film for more than two weeks, even though its 3D Blu - ray release was scheduled for two - and - a-half weeks after its theatrical release. In North America, the 3D re-release ended its run in theaters on January 12, 2012 with a gross $94,242,001. Outside North America, it earned $83,400,000. The successful 3D re-release of The Lion King made Disney and Pixar plan 3D theatrical re-releases of Beauty and the Beast, Finding Nemo, Monsters, Inc., and The Little Mermaid during 2012 and 2013. However, none of the re-releases of the first three films achieved the enormous success of The Lion King 3D and theatrical re-release of The Little Mermaid was ultimately cancelled. In 2012, Ray Subers of Box Office Mojo wrote that the reason why the 3D version of The Lion King succeeded was because, "the notion of a 3D re-release was still fresh and exciting, and The Lion King (3D) felt timely given the movie 's imminent Blu - ray release. Audiences have been hit with three 3D re-releases in the year since, meaning the novelty value has definitely worn off. ''
The Lion King was released to critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 91 %, based on 113 reviews, with an average rating of 8.3 out of 10. It also ranked 56th on their "Top 100 Animation Movies ''. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Emotionally stirring, richly drawn, and beautifully animated, The Lion King stands tall within Disney 's pantheon of classic family films. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 83 out of 100, based on 14 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a rare "A + '' grade.
Roger Ebert gave it 3 1 / 2 out of 4 - stars and called the film "a superbly drawn animated feature '' and, in his print review wrote, "The saga of Simba, which in its deeply buried origins owes something to Greek tragedy and certainly to Hamlet, is a learning experience as well as an entertainment. '' On the television program Siskel & Ebert, the film was praised but received a mixed reaction when compared to previous Disney films. Ebert and his partner Gene Siskel both gave the film a "Thumbs Up '' but Siskel said that it was not as good as earlier films such as Beauty and the Beast and was "a good film, not a great one ''. Hal Hinson of The Washington Post called it "an impressive, almost daunting achievement '' and felt that the film was "spectacular in a manner that has nearly become commonplace with Disney 's feature - length animations '', but was less enthusiastic toward the end of his review saying, "Shakespearean in tone, epic in scope, it seems more appropriate for grown - ups than for kids. If truth be told, even for adults it is downright strange. ''
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly praised the film, writing that it "has the resonance to stand not just as a terrific cartoon but as an emotionally pungent movie ''. Rolling Stone film critic Peter Travers praised the film and felt that it was "a hugely entertaining blend of music, fun and eye - popping thrills, though it does n't lack for heart ''. James Berardinelli from ReelViews praised the film saying, "With each new animated release, Disney seems to be expanding its already - broad horizons a little more. The Lion King is the most mature (in more than one sense) of these films, and there clearly has been a conscious effort to please adults as much as children. Happily, for those of us who generally stay far away from ' cartoons ', they have succeeded. ''
Some reviewers still had problems with the film 's narrative. The staff of TV Guide wrote that while The Lion King was technically proficient and entertaining, it "offers a less memorable song score than did the previous hits, and a hasty, unsatisfying dramatic resolution. '' The New Yorker 's Terrence Rafferty considered that despite the good animation, the story felt like "manipulat (ing) our responses at will '', as "Between traumas, the movie serves up soothingly banal musical numbers and silly, rambunctious comedy ''.
The Lion King received four Golden Globe and Academy Award nominations. The film would go on to win two Golden Globes; for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy and Best Original Score, as well as two Academy Awards, for Best Original Score (Hans Zimmer) and Best Original Song with "Can You Feel the Love Tonight '' by Elton John and Tim Rice. The songs "Circle of Life '' and "Hakuna Matata '' were also nominated. "Can You Feel the Love Tonight '' also won the Grammy Award for Best Male Vocal Performance. The Lion King also won Annie Awards for Best Animated Feature, Best Achievement in Voice Acting (for Jeremy Irons) and Best Individual Achievement for Story Contribution in the Field of Animation.
At the Saturn Awards, the film was nominated in two categories, Best Fantasy Film and Best Performance by a Younger Actor although it did not win in either category. The film also received two nominations at the British Academy Film Awards, for Best Sound as well as the Anthony Asquith Award for Film Music although it lost in both categories to Speed and Backbeat respectively. The film received two BMI Film & TV Awards for Film Music and Most Performed Song with "Can You Feel the Love Tonight. '' At the 1995 MTV Movie Awards, the film received nominations for Best Villain and Best Song, though it lost in both categories. The Lion King won the Kids ' Choice Award for Favorite Movie at the 1995 Kids ' Choice Awards.
In 2008, The Lion King was ranked as the 319th greatest film ever made by Empire magazine, and in June 2011, TIME named it one of "The 25 All - TIME Best Animated Films ''. In June 2008, the American Film Institute listed The Lion King as the fourth best film in the animation genre in its AFI 's 10 Top 10 list, having previously put "Hakuna Matata '' as 99th on its AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs ranking.
In 2016, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
Certain elements of the film were considered to bear a resemblance to a 1960s Japanese anime television series, Jungle Emperor (known as Kimba the White Lion in the United States), with characters having similar analogues, and various individual scenes being similar in composition to the show. Matthew Broderick believed initially that he was, in fact, working on an American version of Kimba since he was familiar with the Japanese original. However, The Lion King director, Roger Allers, claimed he was unfamiliar with the show:
The whole time I worked on The Lion King the name of that show never came up. At least I never heard it. I had never seen the show and really only became aware of it as Lion King was being completed, and someone showed me images of it. I worked with George Scribner and Linda Woolverton to develop the story in the early days but then left to help out on Aladdin. If one of them were familiar with Kimba they did n't say. Of course, it 's possible... Many story ideas developed and changed along the way, always just to make our story stronger. I could certainly understand Kimba 's creators feeling angry if they felt we had stolen ideas from them. If I had been inspired by Kimba I would certainly acknowledge my inspiration. All I can offer is my respect to those artists and say that their creation has its loyal admirers and its assured place in animation history.
Co-director Rob Minkoff also stated that he was unfamiliar with it: "I know for a fact that (Kimba) has never been discussed as long as I 've been on the project... In my experience, if Disney becomes aware of anything like that, they say you will not do it. People are claiming copyright infringement all the time. '' He also stated that whenever a story is based in Africa, it is "not unusual to have characters like a baboon, a bird or hyenas. '' Yoshihiro Shimizu, of Tezuka Productions, which created Kimba the White Lion, has refuted rumors that the studio was paid hush money by Disney but explains that they rejected urges from within the industry to sue because, "we 're a small, weak company. It would n't be worth it anyway... Disney 's lawyers are among the top twenty in the world! ''
Protests were raised against one scene where it appears as if the word "SEX '' might have been embedded into the dust flying in the sky when Simba flops down, which conservative activist Donald Wildmon asserted was a subliminal message intended to promote sexual promiscuity. One of the animators, Tom Sito, has stated that the letters spell "SFX '' (a common abbreviation for "special effects ''), not with an "E '' instead of the "F '', and were intended as an innocent "signature '' created by the effects animation team.
Hyena biologists protested against the animal 's portrayal: one hyena researcher sued Disney studios for defamation of character, and another -- who had organized the animators ' visit to the University of California 's Field Station for Behavioural Research, where they would observe and sketch captive hyenas -- included boycotting The Lion King among the ways it would help preserve hyenas in the wild. The hyenas have also been interpreted to represent an anti-immigrant allegory, where the hyenas would be black and Latino ethnic communities. The film has also been criticised for advancing a fascist narrative in its portrayal of the lion kingdom and the circle of life where "only the strong and the beautiful triumph, and the powerless survive only by serving the strong. ''
The first Lion King - related animated projects involved the characters of Timon and Pumbaa. First, the duo starred in the animated short "Stand by Me '', featuring Timon singing the eponymous song, which was released in 1995 accompanying the theatrical release of Tom and Huck. The duo then received their own animated series, The Lion King 's Timon and Pumbaa, which ran for three seasons and 85 episodes between 1995 and 1999. Ernie Sabella continued to voice Pumbaa, while Timon was voiced by Quinton Flynn and Kevin Schon in addition to Nathan Lane.
Disney released two direct - to - video films related to The Lion King. The first was sequel The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride, released in 1998 on VHS. The film centers around Simba and Nala 's daughter, Kiara, who falls in love with Kovu, a male lion who was raised in a pride of Scar 's followers, the Outsiders. 2004 saw the release of another Lion King film on DVD, The Lion King 11⁄2. It is a prequel in showing how Timon and Pumbaa met each other, and also a parallel in that it also depicts what the characters were retconned to have done during the events of the original movie.
In June 2014, it was announced that a new TV series based on the film would be released called The Lion Guard, featuring Kion, the second - born cub of Simba and Nala. The Lion Guard is a sequel to The Lion King and takes place during the time - gap within The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride. It was first broadcast on Disney Channel as a television film titled The Lion Guard: Return of the Roar in November 2015 before airing as a series on Disney Junior in January 2016.
In September 2016, following the critical and financial success of The Jungle Book, Walt Disney Pictures announced that they were developing a CGI remake of The Lion King by the same name, with Jon Favreau directing. The following month, Jeff Nathanson was hired to write the script for the film. Favreau originally planned shoot it back to back with the sequel to The Jungle Book. However, it was reported in early 2017 that the latter film was put on hold in order for Favreu to instead focus mainly on The Lion King. In February 2017, Favreau announced that Donald Glover had been cast as Simba and that James Earl Jones would be reprising the role of Mufasa. The following month, it was reported that Beyoncé was Favreau 's top choice to voice Nala, but she had not accepted the role yet due to a pregnancy. In April 2017, Billy Eichner and Seth Rogen joined the film as Timon and Pumbaa, respectively. Two months later, John Oliver was cast as Zazu. At the end of July 2017, Beyoncé had reportedly entered final negotiations to play Nala and contribute the soundtrack as well. The following month, Chiwetel Ejiofor entered talks to play Scar. Later on, Alfre Woodard and John Kani joined the film as Sarabi and Rafiki, respectively. On November 1, 2017, Beyoncé and Chiwetel Ejiofor were officially confirmed to voice Nala and Scar, respectively while Hans Zimmer would return to score the film 's music.
Production for the film began in May 2017. It is scheduled for release on July 19, 2019.
Along with the film release, three different video games based on The Lion King were released by Virgin Interactive in December 1994. The main title was developed by Westwood Studios, and published for PC and Amiga computers and the consoles SNES and Sega Mega Drive / Genesis. Dark Technologies created the Game Boy version, while Syrox Developments handled the Master System and Game Gear version. The film and sequel Simba 's Pride later inspired another game, Torus Games ' The Lion King: Simba 's Mighty Adventure (2000) for the Game Boy Color and PlayStation. Timon and Pumbaa also appeared in Timon & Pumbaa 's Jungle Games, a 1995 PC game collection of puzzle games by 7th Level, later ported to the SNES by Tiertex.
The Square Enix series Kingdom Hearts features Simba as a recurring summon, as well as a playable in the Lion King world, known as Pride Lands, in Kingdom Hearts II. There the plotline is loosely related to the later part of the original film, with all of the main characters except Zazu and Sarabi. The Lion King also provides one of the worlds featured in the 2011 action - adventure game Disney Universe, and Simba was featured in the Nintendo DS title Disney Friends (2008).
Walt Disney Theatrical produced a musical stage adaptation of the same name, which premiered in Minneapolis, Minnesota in July 1997, and later opened on Broadway in October 1997 at the New Amsterdam Theatre. The Lion King musical was directed by Julie Taymor and featured songs from both the movie and Rhythm of the Pride Lands, along with three new compositions by Elton John and Tim Rice. Mark Mancina did the musical arrangements and new orchestral tracks. The musical became one of the most successful in Broadway history, winning six Tony Awards including Best Musical, and despite moving to the Minskoff Theatre in 2006, is still running to this day in New York, becoming the third longest - running show and highest grossing Broadway production in history. The show 's financial success led to adaptations all over the world.
The Lion King inspired two attractions retelling the story of the film at Walt Disney Parks and Resorts. The first, "The Legend of the Lion King '', featured a recreation of the film through life - size puppets of its characters, and ran from 1994 to 2002 at Magic Kingdom in Walt Disney World. Another that is still running is the live - action 30 - minute musical revue of the movie, "Festival of the Lion King '', which incorporates the musical numbers into gymnastic routines with live actors, along with animatronic puppets of Simba and Pumba and a costumed actor as Timon. The attraction opened in April 1998 at Disney World 's Animal Kingdom, and in September 2005 in Hong Kong Disneyland 's Adventureland. A similar version under the name "The Legend of the Lion King '' was featured in Disneyland Paris from 2004 to 2009.
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how has the government protected the right to privacy | Right to privacy - wikipedia
The right to privacy is an element of various legal traditions to restrain governmental and private actions that threaten the privacy of individuals. Over 150 national constitutions mention the right to privacy.
Since the global surveillance disclosures of 2013, initiated by ex-NSA employee Edward Snowden, the inalienable human right to privacy has been a subject of international debate. In combating worldwide terrorism, government agencies, such as the NSA, CIA, R&AW and GCHQ, have engaged in mass, global surveillance.
There is now a question as whether the right to privacy act can co-exist with the current capabilities of intelligence agencies to access and analyse virtually in every detail of an individual 's life. A major question is that whether or not the right to privacy needs to be forfeited as part of the social contract to bolster defense against supposed terrorist threats.
Private sector actors could also threaten the right to privacy. Increasingly, questions have arisen about the use of personal data for targeted advertising, sharing data with external parties and reusing personal data within big data by large technology giants, such as Amazon, Apple, Facebook, Google, and Yahoo. These concerns have been strengthened by scandals, revealing that the psychographic company Cambridge Analytica was using personal data, illegitimately obtained through Facebook, to manipulate and influence large groups of people, including during the 2016 US Presidential elections.
State of consideration of constitutional laws and acts formed by sectors and sections
Privacy uses the theory of natural rights, and generally responds to new information and communication technologies. In the United States, an article in the December 15, 1890 issue of the Harvard Law Review, written by attorney Samuel D. Warren and future U.S. Supreme Court Justice, Louis Brandeis, entitled "The Right to Privacy '', is often cited as the first explicit declaration of a U.S. right to privacy. Warren and Brandeis wrote that privacy is the "right to be let alone '', and focused on protecting individuals. This approach was a response to recent technological developments of the time, such as photography, and sensationalist journalism, also known as "yellow journalism ''.
Privacy rights are inherently intertwined with information technology. In his widely cited dissenting opinion in Olmstead v. United States (1928), Brandeis relied on thoughts he developed in his 1890 article The Right to Privacy. But in his dissent, he now changed the focus whereby he urged making personal privacy matters more relevant to constitutional law, going so far as saying "the government (was) identified... as a potential privacy invader. '' He writes, "Discovery and invention have made it possible for the Government, by means far more effective than stretching upon the rack, to obtain disclosure in court of what is whispered in the closet. '' At that time, telephones were often community assets, with shared party lines and the potentially nosey human operators. By the time of Katz, in 1967, telephones had become personal devices with lines not shared across homes and switching was electro - mechanical. In the 1970s, new computing and recording technologies began to raise concerns about privacy, resulting in the Fair Information Practice Principles.
In recent years there has been only few attempts to clearly and precisely define the "right to privacy ''. In 2005, students of the Haifa Center for Law & Technology asserted that in fact the right to privacy "should not be defined as a separate legal right '' at all. By their reasoning, existing laws relating to privacy in general should be sufficient. Other experts, such as William Prosser, have attempted, but failed, to find a "common ground '' between the leading kinds of privacy cases in the court system, at least to formulate a definition. One law school treatise from Israel, however, on the subject of "privacy in the digital environment, '' suggests that the "right to privacy should be seen as an independent right that deserves legal protection in itself. '' It has therefore proposed a working definition for a "right to privacy '':
The right to privacy is our right to keep a domain around us, which includes all those things that are part of us, such as our body, home, property, thoughts, feelings, secrets and identity. The right to privacy gives us the ability to choose which parts in this domain can be accessed by others, and to control the extent, manner and timing of the use of those parts we choose to disclose.
Alan Westin believes that new technologies alter the balance between privacy and disclosure, and that privacy rights may limit government surveillance to protect democratic processes. Westin defines privacy as "the claim of individuals, groups, or institutions to determine for themselves when, how, and to what extent information about them is communicated to others ''. Westin describes four states of privacy: solitude, intimacy, anonymity, reserve. These states must balance participation against norms:
Each individual is continually engaged in a personal adjustment process in which he balances the desire for privacy with the desire for disclosure and communication of himself to others, in light of the environmental conditions and social norms set by the society in which he lives.
Under liberal democratic systems, privacy creates a space separate from political life, and allows personal autonomy, while ensuring democratic freedoms of association and expression.
David Flaherty believes networked computer databases pose threats to privacy. He develops ' data protection ' as an aspect of privacy, which involves "the collection, use, and dissemination of personal information ''. This concept forms the foundation for fair information practices used by governments globally. Flaherty forwards an idea of privacy as information control, "(i) ndividuals want to be left alone and to exercise some control over how information about them is used ''.
Marc Rotenberg has described the modern right to privacy as Fair Information Practices: "the rights and responsibilities associated with the collection and use of personal information. '' Rotenberg emphasizes that the allocation of rights are to the data subject and the responsibilities are assigned to the data collectors because of the transfer of the data and the asymmetry of information concerning data practices.
Richard Posner and Lawrence Lessig focus on the economic aspects of personal information control. Posner criticizes privacy for concealing information, which reduces market efficiency. For Posner, employment is selling oneself in the labour market, which he believes is like selling a product. Any ' defect ' in the ' product ' that is not reported is fraud. For Lessig, privacy breaches online can be regulated through code and law. Lessig claims "the protection of privacy would be stronger if people conceived of the right as a property right '', and that "individuals should be able to control information about themselves ''. Economic approaches to privacy make communal conceptions of privacy difficult to maintain.
There have been attempts to reframe privacy as a fundamental human right, whose social value is an essential component in the functioning of democratic societies. Amitai Etzioni suggests a communitarian approach to privacy. This requires a shared moral culture for establishing social order. Etzioni believes that "(p) rivacy is merely one good among many others '', and that technological effects depend on community accountability and oversight. He claims that privacy laws only increase government surveillance.
Priscilla Regan believes that individual concepts of privacy have failed philosophically and in policy. She supports a social value of privacy with three dimensions: shared perceptions, public values, and collective components. Shared ideas about privacy allows freedom of conscience and diversity in thought. Public values guarantee democratic participation, including freedoms of speech and association, and limits government power. Collective elements describe privacy as collective good that can not be divided. Regan 's goal is to strengthen privacy claims in policy making: "if we did recognize the collective or public - good value of privacy, as well as the common and public value of privacy, those advocating privacy protections would have a stronger basis upon which to argue for its protection ''.
Leslie Regan Shade argues that the human right to privacy is necessary for meaningful democratic participation, and ensures human dignity and autonomy. Privacy depends on norms for how information is distributed, and if this is appropriate. Violations of privacy depend on context. The human right to privacy has precedent in the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights. Shade believes that privacy must be approached from a people - centered perspective, and not through the marketplace.
A right to privacy is explicitly stated under Article 12 of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honor and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.
Although the Constitution does not explicitly include the right to privacy, the Supreme Court has found that the Constitution implicitly grants a right to privacy against governmental intrusion from the First Amendment, Third Amendment, Fourth Amendment, and the Fifth Amendment. This right to privacy has been the justification for decisions involving a wide range of civil liberties cases, including Pierce v. Society of Sisters, which invalidated a successful 1922 Oregon initiative requiring compulsory public education, Griswold v. Connecticut, where a right to privacy was first established explicitly, Roe v. Wade, which struck down a Texas abortion law and thus restricted state powers to enforce laws against abortion, and Lawrence v. Texas, which struck down a Texas sodomy law and thus eliminated state powers to enforce laws against sodomy.
The 1890 Warren and Brandeis article "The Right To Privacy '' is often cited as the first implicit declaration of a U.S. right to privacy. This right is frequently debated. Strict constructionists argue that such right exists (or at least that the Supreme Court has more jurisdiction to protect such a right), while some civil libertarians argue that the right invalidates many types of currently allowed acts not to be surveillance (wiretaps, public cameras film industry, etc.).
Most states of the United States also grant a right to privacy and recognize four torts based on that right:
The four privacy torts above were introduced by William Prosser in his California Law Review article titled "Privacy '' in 1960. Some argue that these torts, along with the "Right to Privacy '' article by Samuel Warren and Louis Brandeis form the basis for modern U.S. privacy legislation.
Also, in some American jurisdictions the use of a person 's name as a keyword under Google 's AdWords for advertising or trade purposes without the person 's consent has raised certain personal privacy concerns.
Right to privacy and social media content laws have been considered and enacted in several states, such as California 's "online erasure '' law protecting minors from leaving a digital trail. However, the United States is still far behind that of European Union countries in protecting privacy online. For example, the "right to be forgotten '' ruling by the EU Court of Justice protects both adults and minors.
A nine - judge bench of the Supreme Court headed by Chief Justice JS Khehar, ruled on August 24, 2017 that the Right to Privacy is a fundamental right for Indian citizens under the Constitution of India (mostly under Article 21 and additionally under Part III rights). Thus no legislation passed by the government can unduly violate it. Specifically, the court adopted the three - pronged test required for encroachment of any Article 21 right -- legality - i.e. through an existing law; necessity, in terms of a legitimate state objective and proportionality, that ensures a rational nexus between the object of the invasion and the means adopted to achieve that object. This clarification was crucial to prevent the dilution of the right in the future on the whims and fancies of the government in power. This ruling by the Supreme Court paved the way for decriminalisation of homosexuality in India on 6 September 2018, thus legalising same - sex sexual intercourse between two consenting adults in private. India is the world 's biggest democracy and with this ruling, it has joined United States, Canada, South Africa, the European Union and the UK in recognizing this fundamental right.
The new data sharing policy of Whatsapp with Facebook after Facebook acquired Whatsapp in 2014 has been challenged in the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court must decide if the right to privacy can be enforced against private entities.
It is often claimed, particularly by those in the eye of the media, that their right to privacy is violated when information about their private lives is reported in the press. The point of view of the press, however, is that the general public have a right to know personal information about those with status as a public figure. This distinction is encoded in most legal traditions as an element of freedom of speech.
Governmental organizations such as the NSA, CIA, and GCHQ amongst others conduct mass surveillance throughout the world. Programs such as PRISM, MYSTIC, and other operations conducted by NATO - member states are capable of collecting a vast quantity of metadata, internet history, and even actual recordings of phone calls from various countries. The existence of programs is justified by their conductors in terms of supposed benefits for defense and law enforcement, however this is also in conflict with the right to privacy established under various treaties, constitutions, and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The argument in favor of privacy has therefore come under a larger opposition to intelligence operations carried out for political purposes, and has become a contentious issue since it undermines the perceived need of nations to spy on the general population in order to maintain their power structures.
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who won the democratic presidential primary in california in 1968 | Democratic party presidential primaries, 1968 - wikipedia
Lyndon B. Johnson
Hubert Humphrey
The 1968 Democratic presidential primaries were the selection process by which voters of the Democratic Party chose its nominee for President of the United States in the 1968 U.S. presidential election. Incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey was selected as the nominee through a series of primary elections and caucuses culminating in the 1968 Democratic National Convention held from August 26 to August 29, 1968, in Chicago, Illinois.
Though President Lyndon B. Johnson had served during two presidential terms, the 22nd Amendment did not disqualify Johnson from running for another term, because he had only served 14 months following John F. Kennedy 's assassination before being sworn in for his ' full ' term in January 1965. As a result, it was widely assumed when 1968 began that President Johnson would be a Democratic nominee, and that he would have little trouble in winning the Democratic nomination.
Despite the growing opposition to Johnson 's policies in Vietnam in both Congress and in the public, no prominent Democratic politician was prepared to run against a sitting President of his own party. Anti-war activists of the new "Dump Johnson movement '' initially approached Senator Robert F. Kennedy of New York, an outspoken critic of Johnson 's policies with a large base of support, for a candidacy, but he declined to run. They then appealed to Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota, who was willing to openly challenge Johnson. Running as an anti-war candidate in the New Hampshire primary, McCarthy hoped to pressure the Democrats into publicly opposing the Vietnam War. Trailing badly in national polls and with little chance to influence delegate selection absent primary wins, McCarthy decided to pour most of his resources into New Hampshire, the first state to hold a primary election. He was boosted by thousands of young college students who volunteered throughout the state, who shaved their beards and cut their hair to be "Clean for Gene. ''
On March 12, McCarthy won 42 % of the primary vote to Johnson 's 49 %, an extremely strong showing for such a challenger, and one which gave McCarthy 's campaign legitimacy and momentum. In a surprise move on March 16, Robert F. Kennedy renounced his earlier support for Johnson and proclaimed his candidacy. McCarthy and his supporters viewed this as opportunism, creating a lasting enmity between the campaigns.
Johnson was now faced with two strong primary challenges. In declining health and facing bleak political forecasts in the upcoming primaries, Johnson concluded that he could not win the nomination without a major political and personal struggle. On March 31, 1968, at the end of a televised address regarding the War, the President shocked the nation by announcing that he would not seek re-election. By withdrawing from the race, he could avoid the stigma of defeat and could keep control of the party machinery to support Hubert Humphrey, his loyal Vice President. As the year developed, it also became clear that Johnson believed he could secure his place in the history books by ending the war before the election in November, thus giving Humphrey the boost he would need to win.
With Johnson 's withdrawal, the New Deal Coalition effectively dissolved into support for different candidates:
After Johnson 's withdrawal, Vice President Hubert Humphrey announced his candidacy on April 27. Kennedy was successful in four state primaries (Indiana, Nebraska, South Dakota, and California) and McCarthy won six (Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Oregon, New Jersey, and Illinois); however, in primaries where they campaigned directly against one another, Kennedy won three primaries (Indiana, Nebraska, and California) and McCarthy won one (Oregon). Humphrey did not compete in the primaries, leaving favorite sons to collect favorable surrogates, notably Senator George A. Smathers from Florida, Senator Stephen M. Young from Ohio, and Governor Roger D. Branigin of Indiana.
Humphrey 's campaign concentrated on winning the delegates in non-primary states, where party leaders controlled the delegate votes. Kennedy defeated Branigin and McCarthy in the Indiana primary, and then defeated McCarthy in the Nebraska primary. However, McCarthy upset Kennedy in the Oregon primary.
After Kennedy 's defeat in Oregon, the California primary was seen as crucial to both Kennedy and McCarthy. McCarthy stumped the state 's many colleges and universities, where he was treated as a hero for being the first presidential candidate to oppose the war. Kennedy campaigned in the ghettos and barrios of the state 's larger cities, where he was mobbed by enthusiastic supporters. Kennedy and McCarthy engaged in a television debate a few days before the election; it was generally considered a draw. On June 4, Kennedy defeated McCarthy in California, 46 % to 42 %, and also won the South Dakota primary held the same day. McCarthy refused to withdraw from the presidential race and made it clear that he would contest Kennedy in the upcoming New York primary, where McCarthy had much support from antiwar activists in New York City.
After giving his victory speech at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles, Kennedy was shot in the kitchen service pantry in the early morning of June 5. A Palestinian immigrant with Jordanian citizenship named Sirhan Sirhan was arrested. Kennedy died 26 hours later.
At the moment of Kennedy 's death, the delegate totals were:
Only 14 states held primaries at this time (California, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Massachusetts, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Wisconsin, and West Virginia) in addition to Washington, D.C.
Results by winners:
Total popular vote:
Johnson / Humphrey surrogates:
minor candidates and write - ins:
Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota
Senator Robert Kennedy of New York
President Lyndon B. Johnson
Vice President Hubert Humphrey
Senator Stephen Young of Ohio
Attorney General Thomas C. Lynch of California
Governor Dan Moore of North Carolina
Senator George Smathers of Florida
Robert Kennedy 's death threw the Democratic Party into disarray. The loss of his campaign, which had relied on his popularity and charisma convincing non-primary delegates to support him at the convention, meant that the anti-war movement was effectively kaput, and that Humphrey would be the prohibitive favorite for the nomination. Some of Kennedy 's support went to McCarthy, but many of Kennedy 's delegates, remembering their bitter primary battles with McCarthy, rallied around the late - starting candidacy of Senator George McGovern of South Dakota, a Kennedy supporter in the spring primaries. However, by dividing the antiwar votes at the Democratic Convention, it made it easier for Humphrey to gather the delegates he needed to win the nomination.
When the 1968 Democratic National Convention opened in Chicago, thousands of young antiwar activists from around the nation gathered in the city to protest the Vietnam War. In a clash which was covered on live television, Americans were shocked to see Chicago Police officers brutally beating anti-war protesters. While the protesters chanted "the whole world is watching '', the police used clubs and tear gas to beat back the protesters, leaving many of them bloody and dazed. The tear gas even wafted into numerous hotel suites; in one of them Vice President Humphrey was watching the proceedings on television. Meanwhile, the convention itself was marred by the strong - arm tactics of Chicago 's mayor Richard J. Daley (who was seen on television angrily cursing Connecticut senator Abraham Ribicoff, who made a speech at the convention denouncing the excesses of the Chicago police in the riots).
In the end, the nomination itself was anticlimactic, with Vice President Humphrey handily beating McCarthy and McGovern on the first ballot. The convention then chose Senator Edmund Muskie of Maine as Humphrey 's running mate. However, the tragedy of the antiwar riots crippled the Humphrey campaign from the start, and it never fully recovered. (White, pgs. 377 - 378;)
Source: Keating Holland, "All the Votes... Really, '' CNN
Hubert Humphrey
Robert Kennedy
Eugene McCarthy
George McGovern (during convention)
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common comorbid disorders diagnosed with major depressive disorder include | Major depressive disorder - Wikipedia
Major depressive disorder (MDD), also known simply as depression, is a mental disorder characterized by at least two weeks of low mood that is present across most situations. It is often accompanied by low self - esteem, loss of interest in normally enjoyable activities, low energy, and pain without a clear cause. People may also occasionally have false beliefs or see or hear things that others can not. Some people have periods of depression separated by years in which they are normal while others nearly always have symptoms present. Major depressive disorder can negatively affect a person 's personal, work, or school life, as well as sleeping, eating habits, and general health. Between 2 -- 7 % of adults with major depression die by suicide, and up to 60 % of people who die by suicide had depression or another mood disorder.
The cause is believed to be a combination of genetic, environmental, and psychological factors. Risk factors include a family history of the condition, major life changes, certain medications, chronic health problems, and substance abuse. About 40 % of the risk appears to be related to genetics. The diagnosis of major depressive disorder is based on the person 's reported experiences and a mental status examination. There is no laboratory test for major depression. Testing, however, may be done to rule out physical conditions that can cause similar symptoms. Major depression should be differentiated from sadness, which is a normal part of life and is less severe. The United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommends screening for depression among those over the age 12, while a prior Cochrane review found that the routine use of screening questionnaires have little effect on detection or treatment.
Typically, people are treated with counseling and antidepressant medication. Medication appears to be effective, but the effect may only be significant in the most severely depressed. It is unclear whether medications affect the risk of suicide. Types of counseling used include cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and interpersonal therapy. If other measures are not effective electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) may be tried. Hospitalization may be necessary in cases with a risk of harm to self and may occasionally occur against a person 's wishes.
Major depressive disorder affected approximately 216 million people (3 % of the world 's population) in 2015. The percentage of people who are affected at one point in their life varies from 7 % in Japan to 21 % in France. Lifetime rates are higher in the developed world (15 %) compared to the developing world (11 %). It causes the second most years lived with disability after low back pain. The most common time of onset is in a person in their 20s and 30s. Females are affected about twice as often as males. The American Psychiatric Association added "major depressive disorder '' to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM - III) in 1980. It was a split of the previous depressive neurosis in the DSM - II which also encompassed the conditions now known as dysthymia and adjustment disorder with depressed mood. Those currently or previously affected may be stigmatized.
Major depression significantly affects a person 's family and personal relationships, work or school life, sleeping and eating habits, and general health. Its impact on functioning and well - being has been compared to that of other chronic medical conditions such as diabetes.
A person having a major depressive episode usually exhibits a very low mood, which pervades all aspects of life, and an inability to experience pleasure in activities that were formerly enjoyed. Depressed people may be preoccupied with, or ruminate over, thoughts and feelings of worthlessness, inappropriate guilt or regret, helplessness, hopelessness, and self - hatred. In severe cases, depressed people may have symptoms of psychosis. These symptoms include delusions or, less commonly, hallucinations, usually unpleasant. Other symptoms of depression include poor concentration and memory (especially in those with melancholic or psychotic features), withdrawal from social situations and activities, reduced sex drive, irritability, and thoughts of death or suicide. Insomnia is common among the depressed. In the typical pattern, a person wakes very early and can not get back to sleep. Hypersomnia, or oversleeping, can also happen. Some antidepressants may also cause insomnia due to their stimulating effect.
A depressed person may report multiple physical symptoms such as fatigue, headaches, or digestive problems; physical complaints are the most common presenting problem in developing countries, according to the World Health Organization 's criteria for depression. Appetite often decreases, with resulting weight loss, although increased appetite and weight gain occasionally occur. Family and friends may notice that the person 's behavior is either agitated or lethargic. Older depressed people may have cognitive symptoms of recent onset, such as forgetfulness, and a more noticeable slowing of movements. Depression often coexists with physical disorders common among the elderly, such as stroke, other cardiovascular diseases, Parkinson 's disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Depressed children may often display an irritable mood rather than a depressed mood, and show varying symptoms depending on age and situation. Most lose interest in school and show a decline in academic performance. They may be described as clingy, demanding, dependent, or insecure. Diagnosis may be delayed or missed when symptoms are interpreted as normal moodiness.
Major depression frequently co-occurs with other psychiatric problems. The 1990 -- 92 National Comorbidity Survey (US) reports that half of those with major depression also have lifetime anxiety and its associated disorders such as generalized anxiety disorder. Anxiety symptoms can have a major impact on the course of a depressive illness, with delayed recovery, increased risk of relapse, greater disability and increased suicide attempts. There are increased rates of alcohol and drug abuse and particularly dependence, and around a third of individuals diagnosed with ADHD develop comorbid depression. Post-traumatic stress disorder and depression often co-occur. Depression may also coexist with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), complicating the diagnosis and treatment of both. Depression is also frequently comorbid with alcohol abuse and personality disorders.
Depression and pain often co-occur. One or more pain symptoms are present in 65 % of depressed patients, and anywhere from 5 to 85 % of patients with pain will be suffering from depression, depending on the setting; there is a lower prevalence in general practice, and higher in specialty clinics. The diagnosis of depression is often delayed or missed, and the outcome can worsen if the depression is noticed but completely misunderstood.
Depression is also associated with a 1.5 - to 2-fold increased risk of cardiovascular disease, independent of other known risk factors, and is itself linked directly or indirectly to risk factors such as smoking and obesity. People with major depression are less likely to follow medical recommendations for treating and preventing cardiovascular disorders, which further increases their risk of medical complications. In addition, cardiologists may not recognize underlying depression that complicates a cardiovascular problem under their care.
The cause of major depressive disorder is unknown. The biopsychosocial model proposes that biological, psychological, and social factors all play a role in causing depression. The diathesis -- stress model specifies that depression results when a preexisting vulnerability, or diathesis, is activated by stressful life events. The preexisting vulnerability can be either genetic, implying an interaction between nature and nurture, or schematic, resulting from views of the world learned in childhood.
Childhood abuse, either physical, sexual or psychological, are all risk factors for depression, among other psychiatric issues that co-occur such as anxiety and drug abuse. Childhood trauma also correlates with severity of depression, lack of response to treatment and length of illness. However, some are more susceptible to developing mental illness such as depression after trauma, and various genes have been suggested to control susceptibility.
The 5 - HTTLPR, or serotonin transporter promoter gene 's short allele has been associated with increased risk of depression. However, since the 1990s results have been inconsistent, with three recent reviews finding an effect and two finding none. Other genes that have been linked to a gene - environment interaction include CRHR1, FKBP5 and BDNF, the first two of which are related to the stress reaction of the HPA axis, and the latter of which is involved in neurogenesis.
Depression may also come secondary to a chronic or terminal medical condition such as HIV / AIDS, or asthma and may be labeled "secondary depression ''. It is unknown if the underlying diseases induce depression through effect on quality of life, of through shared etiologies (such as degeneration of the basal ganglia in parkinson 's disease or immune dysregulation in asthma). Depression may also be iatrogenic (the result of healthcare), such as drug induced depression. Therapies associated with depression include interferon therapy, beta - blockers, Isotretinoin, contraceptives, cardiac agents, anticonvulsants, antimigraine drugs, antipsychotics, and hormonal agents agents such as gonadotropin - releasing hormone agonist. Drug abuse in early age is also associated with increased risk of developing depression later in life. Depression that occurs as a result of pregnancy is called postpartum depression, and is thought to be the result of hormonal changes associated with pregnancy. Seasonal affective disorder, a type of depression associated with seasonal changes in sunlight, is thought to be the result of decreased sunlight.
The pathophysiology of depression is not yet understood, but the current theories center around monoaminergic systems, the circadian rhythm, immunological dysfunction, HPA axis dysfunction and structural or functional abnormalities of emotional circuits.
The monoamine theory, derived from the efficacy of monoaminergic drugs in treating depression, was the dominant theory until recently. The theory postulates that insufficient activity of monoamine neurotransmitters is the primary cause of depression. Evidence for the monoamine theory comes from multiple areas. Firstly, acute depletion of tryptophan, a necessary precursor of serotonin, a monoamine, can cause depression in those in remission or relatives of depressed patients; this suggests that decreased serotonergic neurotransmission is important in depression. Secondly, the correlation between depression risk and polymorphisms in the 5 - HTTLPR gene, which codes for serotonin receptors, suggests a link. Third, decreased size of the locus coeruleus, decreased activity of tyrosine hydroxylase, increased density of alpha - 2 adrenergic receptor, and evidence from rat models suggest decreased adrenergic neurotransmission in depression. Furthermore, decreased levels of homovanillic acid, altered response to dextroamphetamine, responses of depressive symptoms to dopamine receptor agonists, decreased dopamine receptor D1 binding in the striatum, and polymorphism of dopamine receptor genes implicate dopamine in depression. Lastly, increased activity of monoamine oxidase, which degrades monoamines, has been associated with depression. However, this theory is inconsistent with the fact that serotonin depletion does not cause depression in healthy persons, the fact that antidepressants instantly increase levels of monoamines but take weeks to work, and the existence of atypical antidepressants which can be effective despite not targeting this pathway. One proposed explanation for the therapeutic lag, and further support for the deficiency of monoamines, is a desensitization of self - inhibition in raphe nuclei by the increased serotonin mediated by antidepressants. However, disinhibition of the dorsal raphe has been proposed to occur as a result of decreased serotonergic activity in tryptophan depletion, resulting in a depressed state mediated by increased serotonin. Further countering the monoamine hypothesis is the fact that rats with lesions of the dorsal raphe are not more depressive that controls, the finding of increased jugular 5 - HIAA in depressed patients that normalized with SSRI treatment, and the preference for carbohydrates in depressed patients. Already limited, the monoamine hypothesis has been further oversimplified when presented to the general public.
Immune system abnormalities have been observed, including increased levels of cytokines involved in generating sickness behavior (which shares overlap with depression). The effectiveness of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and cytokine inhibitors in treating depression, and normalization of cytokine levels after successful treatment further suggest immune system abnormalities in depression.
HPA axis abnormalities have been suggested in depression given the association of CRHR1 with depression and the increased frequency of dexamethasone test non-suppression in depressed patients. However, this abnormality is not adequate as a diagnosis tool, because its sensitivity is only 44 %. These stress - related abnormalities have been hypothesized to be the cause of hippocampal volume reductions seen in depressed patients. Furthermore, a meta - analysis yielded decreased dexamethasone suppression, and increased response to psychological stressors. Further abnormal results have been obscured with the cortisol awakening response, with increased response being associated with depression.
Theories unifying neuroimaging findings have been proposed. The first model proposed is the "Limbic Cortical Model '', which involves hyperactivity of the ventral paralimbic regions and hypoactivity of frontal regulatory regions in emotional processing. Another model, the "Corito - Striatal model '', suggests that abnormalities of the prefrontal cortex in regulating striatal and subcortical structures results in depression. Another model proposes hyperactivity of salience structures in identifying negative stimuli, and hypoactivity of cortical regulatory structures resulting in a negative emotional bias and depression, consistent with emotional bias studies.
A diagnostic assessment may be conducted by a suitably trained general practitioner, or by a psychiatrist or psychologist, who records the person 's current circumstances, biographical history, current symptoms, and family history. The broad clinical aim is to formulate the relevant biological, psychological, and social factors that may be impacting on the individual 's mood. The assessor may also discuss the person 's current ways of regulating mood (healthy or otherwise) such as alcohol and drug use. The assessment also includes a mental state examination, which is an assessment of the person 's current mood and thought content, in particular the presence of themes of hopelessness or pessimism, self - harm or suicide, and an absence of positive thoughts or plans. Specialist mental health services are rare in rural areas, and thus diagnosis and management is left largely to primary - care clinicians. This issue is even more marked in developing countries. The mental health examination may include the use of a rating scale such as the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression or the Beck Depression Inventory or the Suicide Behaviors Questionnaire - Revised. The score on a rating scale alone is insufficient to diagnose depression to the satisfaction of the DSM or ICD, but it provides an indication of the severity of symptoms for a time period, so a person who scores above a given cut - off point can be more thoroughly evaluated for a depressive disorder diagnosis. Several rating scales are used for this purpose.
Primary - care physicians and other non-psychiatrist physicians have more difficulty with underrecognition and undertreatment of depression compared to psychiatric physicians, in part because of the physical symptoms that often accompany depression, in addition to the many potential patient, provider, and system barriers that the authors describe. A review found that non-psychiatrist physicians miss about two - thirds of cases, though this has improved somewhat in more recent studies.
Before diagnosing a major depressive disorder, in general a doctor performs a medical examination and selected investigations to rule out other causes of symptoms. These include blood tests measuring TSH and thyroxine to exclude hypothyroidism; basic electrolytes and serum calcium to rule out a metabolic disturbance; and a full blood count including ESR to rule out a systemic infection or chronic disease. Adverse affective reactions to medications or alcohol misuse are often ruled out, as well. Testosterone levels may be evaluated to diagnose hypogonadism, a cause of depression in men. Vitamin D levels might be evaluated, as low levels of vitamin D have been associated with greater risk for depression.
Subjective cognitive complaints appear in older depressed people, but they can also be indicative of the onset of a dementing disorder, such as Alzheimer 's disease. Cognitive testing and brain imaging can help distinguish depression from dementia. A CT scan can exclude brain pathology in those with psychotic, rapid - onset or otherwise unusual symptoms. In general, investigations are not repeated for a subsequent episode unless there is a medical indication.
No biological tests confirm major depression. Biomarkers of depression have been sought to provide an objective method of diagnosis. There are several potential biomarkers, including Brain - Derived Neurotrophic Factor and various functional MRI techniques. One study developed a decision tree model of interpreting a series of fMRI scans taken during various activities. In their subjects, the authors of that study were able to achieve a sensitivity of 80 % and a specificity of 87 %, corresponding to a negative predictive value of 98 % and a positive predictive value of 32 % (positive and negative likelihood ratios were 6.15, 0.23, respectively). However, much more research is needed before these tests could be used clinically.
The most widely used criteria for diagnosing depressive conditions are found in the American Psychiatric Association 's revised fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM - IV - TR), and the World Health Organization 's International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD - 10), which uses the name depressive episode for a single episode and recurrent depressive disorder for repeated episodes. The latter system is typically used in European countries, while the former is used in the US and many other non-European nations, and the authors of both have worked towards conforming one with the other.
Both DSM - IV - TR and ICD - 10 mark out typical (main) depressive symptoms. ICD - 10 defines three typical depressive symptoms (depressed mood, anhedonia, and reduced energy), two of which should be present to determine depressive disorder diagnosis. According to DSM - IV - TR, there are two main depressive symptoms -- depressed mood and anhedonia. At least one of these must be present to make a diagnosis of major depressive episode.
Major depressive disorder is classified as a mood disorder in DSM - IV - TR. The diagnosis hinges on the presence of single or recurrent major depressive episodes. Further qualifiers are used to classify both the episode itself and the course of the disorder. The category Depressive Disorder Not Otherwise Specified is diagnosed if the depressive episode 's manifestation does not meet the criteria for a major depressive episode. The ICD - 10 system does not use the term major depressive disorder but lists very similar criteria for the diagnosis of a depressive episode (mild, moderate or severe); the term recurrent may be added if there have been multiple episodes without mania.
A major depressive episode is characterized by the presence of a severely depressed mood that persists for at least two weeks. Episodes may be isolated or recurrent and are categorized as mild (few symptoms in excess of minimum criteria), moderate, or severe (marked impact on social or occupational functioning). An episode with psychotic features -- commonly referred to as psychotic depression -- is automatically rated as severe. If the patient has had an episode of mania or markedly elevated mood, a diagnosis of bipolar disorder is made instead. Depression without mania is sometimes referred to as unipolar because the mood remains at one emotional state or "pole ''.
DSM - IV - TR excludes cases where the symptoms are a result of bereavement, although it is possible for normal bereavement to evolve into a depressive episode if the mood persists and the characteristic features of a major depressive episode develop. The criteria have been criticized because they do not take into account any other aspects of the personal and social context in which depression can occur. In addition, some studies have found little empirical support for the DSM - IV cut - off criteria, indicating they are a diagnostic convention imposed on a continuum of depressive symptoms of varying severity and duration: Excluded are a range of related diagnoses, including dysthymia, which involves a chronic but milder mood disturbance; recurrent brief depression, consisting of briefer depressive episodes; minor depressive disorder, whereby only some symptoms of major depression are present; and adjustment disorder with depressed mood, which denotes low mood resulting from a psychological response to an identifiable event or stressor.
The DSM - IV - TR recognizes five further subtypes of MDD, called specifiers, in addition to noting the length, severity and presence of psychotic features:
In 2016, the United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommended screening in the adult populations with evidence that it increases the detection of people with depression and with proper treatment improves outcomes. They recommend screening in those between the age of 12 to 18 as well.
A Cochrane review from 2005 found screening programs do not significantly improve detection rates, treatment, or outcome.
To confirm major depressive disorder as the most likely diagnosis, other potential diagnoses must be considered, including dysthymia, adjustment disorder with depressed mood, or bipolar disorder. Dysthymia is a chronic, milder mood disturbance in which a person reports a low mood almost daily over a span of at least two years. The symptoms are not as severe as those for major depression, although people with dysthymia are vulnerable to secondary episodes of major depression (sometimes referred to as double depression). Adjustment disorder with depressed mood is a mood disturbance appearing as a psychological response to an identifiable event or stressor, in which the resulting emotional or behavioral symptoms are significant but do not meet the criteria for a major depressive episode. Bipolar disorder, also known as manic -- depressive disorder, is a condition in which depressive phases alternate with periods of mania or hypomania. Although depression is currently categorized as a separate disorder, there is ongoing debate because individuals diagnosed with major depression often experience some hypomanic symptoms, indicating a mood disorder continuum. Further differential diagnoses involve chronic fatigue syndrome.
Other disorders need to be ruled out before diagnosing major depressive disorder. They include depressions due to physical illness, medications, and substance abuse. Depression due to physical illness is diagnosed as a Mood disorder due to a general medical condition. This condition is determined based on history, laboratory findings, or physical examination. When the depression is caused by a medication, drug of abuse, or exposure to a toxin, it is then diagnosed as a specific mood disorder (previously called Substance - induced mood disorder in the DSM - IV - TR).
Preventative efforts may result in decreases in rates of the condition of between 22 and 38 %. Eating large amounts of fish may also reduce the risk.
Behavioral interventions, such as interpersonal therapy and cognitive - behavioral therapy, are effective at preventing new onset depression. Because such interventions appear to be most effective when delivered to individuals or small groups, it has been suggested that they may be able to reach their large target audience most efficiently through the Internet.
However, an earlier meta - analysis found preventive programs with a competence - enhancing component to be superior to behavior - oriented programs overall, and found behavioral programs to be particularly unhelpful for older people, for whom social support programs were uniquely beneficial. In addition, the programs that best prevented depression comprised more than eight sessions, each lasting between 60 and 90 minutes, were provided by a combination of lay and professional workers, had a high - quality research design, reported attrition rates, and had a well - defined intervention.
The Netherlands mental health care system provides preventive interventions, such as the "Coping with Depression '' course (CWD) for people with sub-threshold depression. The course is claimed to be the most successful of psychoeducational interventions for the treatment and prevention of depression (both for its adaptability to various populations and its results), with a risk reduction of 38 % in major depression and an efficacy as a treatment comparing favorably to other psychotherapies.
The three most common treatments for depression are psychotherapy, medication, and electroconvulsive therapy. Psychotherapy is the treatment of choice (over medication) for people under 18. The UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) 2004 guidelines indicate that antidepressants should not be used for the initial treatment of mild depression, because the risk - benefit ratio is poor. The guidelines recommend that antidepressants treatment in combination with psychosocial interventions should be considered for:
The guidelines further note that antidepressant treatment should be continued for at least six months to reduce the risk of relapse, and that SSRIs are better tolerated than tricyclic antidepressants.
American Psychiatric Association treatment guidelines recommend that initial treatment should be individually tailored based on factors including severity of symptoms, co-existing disorders, prior treatment experience, and patient preference. Options may include pharmacotherapy, psychotherapy, exercise, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) or light therapy. Antidepressant medication is recommended as an initial treatment choice in people with mild, moderate, or severe major depression, and should be given to all patients with severe depression unless ECT is planned.
Treatment options are much more limited in developing countries, where access to mental health staff, medication, and psychotherapy is often difficult. Development of mental health services is minimal in many countries; depression is viewed as a phenomenon of the developed world despite evidence to the contrary, and not as an inherently life - threatening condition. A 2014 Cochrane review found insufficient evidence to determine the effectiveness of psychological versus medical therapy in children.
Physical exercise is recommended for management of mild depression, and has a moderate effect on symptoms. Exercise has also been found to be effective for (unipolar) major depression. It is equivalent to the use of medications or psychological therapies in most people. In older people it does appear to decrease depression. Exercise may be recommended to people who are willing, motivated, and physically healthy enough to participate in an exercise program as treatment.
There is a small amount of evidence that skipping a night 's sleep may improve depressive symptoms, with the effects usually showing up within a day. This effect is usually temporary. Besides sleepiness, this method can cause a side effect of mania or hypomania.
In observational studies smoking cessation has benefits in depression as large as or larger than those of medications.
Besides exercise, sleep and diet may play a role in depression, and interventions in these areas may be an effective add - on to conventional methods.
Psychotherapy can be delivered to individuals, groups, or families by mental health professionals. A 2015 review found that cognitive behavioral therapy appears to be similar to antidepressant medication in terms of effect. A 2012 review found psychotherapy to be better than no treatment but not other treatments. With more complex and chronic forms of depression, a combination of medication and psychotherapy may be used. A 2014 Cochrane review found that work - directed interventions combined with clinical interventions helped to reduce sick days taken by people with depression.
Psychotherapy has been shown to be effective in older people. Successful psychotherapy appears to reduce the recurrence of depression even after it has been terminated or replaced by occasional booster sessions.
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) currently has the most research evidence for the treatment of depression in children and adolescents, and CBT and interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) are preferred therapies for adolescent depression. In people under 18, according to the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, medication should be offered only in conjunction with a psychological therapy, such as CBT, interpersonal therapy, or family therapy. Cognitive behavioral therapy has also been shown to reduce the number of sick days taken by people with depression, when used in conjunction with primary care.
The most - studied form of psychotherapy for depression is CBT, which teaches clients to challenge self - defeating, but enduring ways of thinking (cognitions) and change counter-productive behaviors. Research beginning in the mid-1990s suggested that CBT could perform as well as or better than antidepressants in patients with moderate to severe depression. CBT may be effective in depressed adolescents, although its effects on severe episodes are not definitively known. Several variables predict success for cognitive behavioral therapy in adolescents: higher levels of rational thoughts, less hopelessness, fewer negative thoughts, and fewer cognitive distortions. CBT is particularly beneficial in preventing relapse.
Cognitive behavioral therapy and occupational programs (including modification of work activities and assistance) have been shown to be effective in reducing sick days taken by workers with depression.
Several variants of cognitive behavior therapy have been used in those with depression, the most notable being rational emotive behavior therapy, and mindfulness - based cognitive therapy. Mindfulness based stress reduction programs may reduce depression symptoms. Mindfulness programs also appear to be a promising intervention in youth.
Psychoanalysis is a school of thought, founded by Sigmund Freud, which emphasizes the resolution of unconscious mental conflicts. Psychoanalytic techniques are used by some practitioners to treat clients presenting with major depression. A more widely practiced therapy, called psychodynamic psychotherapy, is in the tradition of psychoanalysis but less intensive, meeting once or twice a week. It also tends to focus more on the person 's immediate problems, and has an additional social and interpersonal focus. In a meta - analysis of three controlled trials of Short Psychodynamic Supportive Psychotherapy, this modification was found to be as effective as medication for mild to moderate depression.
Conflicting results have arisen from studies that look at the effectiveness of antidepressants in people with acute, mild to moderate depression. Stronger evidence supports the usefulness of antidepressants in the treatment of depression that is chronic (dysthymia) or severe.
While small benefits were found, researchers Irving Kirsch and Thomas Moore state they may be due to issues with the trials rather than a true effect of the medication. In a later publication, Kirsch concluded that the overall effect of new - generation antidepressant medication is below recommended criteria for clinical significance. Similar results were obtained in a meta analysis by Fornier.
A review commissioned by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence concluded that there is strong evidence that SSRIs have greater efficacy than placebo on achieving a 50 % reduction in depression scores in moderate and severe major depression, and that there is some evidence for a similar effect in mild depression. Similarly, a Cochrane systematic review of clinical trials of the generic tricyclic antidepressant amitriptyline concluded that there is strong evidence that its efficacy is superior to placebo.
In 2014 the U.S. FDA published a systematic review of all antidepressant maintenance trials submitted to the agency between 1985 and 2012. The authors concluded that maintenance treatment reduced the risk of relapse by 52 % compared to placebo, and that this effect was primarily due to recurrent depression in the placebo group rather than a drug withdrawal effect.
To find the most effective antidepressant medication with minimal side - effects, the dosages can be adjusted, and if necessary, combinations of different classes of antidepressants can be tried. Response rates to the first antidepressant administered range from 50 -- 75 %, and it can take at least six to eight weeks from the start of medication to remission. Antidepressant medication treatment is usually continued for 16 to 20 weeks after remission, to minimize the chance of recurrence, and even up to one year of continuation is recommended. People with chronic depression may need to take medication indefinitely to avoid relapse.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the primary medications prescribed, owing to their relatively mild side - effects, and because they are less toxic in overdose than other antidepressants. People who do not respond to one SSRI can be switched to another antidepressant, and this results in improvement in almost 50 % of cases. Another option is to switch to the atypical antidepressant bupropion. Venlafaxine, an antidepressant with a different mechanism of action, may be modestly more effective than SSRIs. However, venlafaxine is not recommended in the UK as a first - line treatment because of evidence suggesting its risks may outweigh benefits, and it is specifically discouraged in children and adolescents.
For child and adolescent depression, fluoxetine is recommended if medication are used. Fluoxetine; however, appears to have only slight benefit in children, while other antidepressants have not been shown to be effective. There is also insufficient evidence to determine effectiveness in those with depression complicated by dementia. Any antidepressant can cause low serum sodium levels (also called hyponatremia); nevertheless, it has been reported more often with SSRIs. It is not uncommon for SSRIs to cause or worsen insomnia; the sedating antidepressant mirtazapine can be used in such cases.
Irreversible monoamine oxidase inhibitors, an older class of antidepressants, have been plagued by potentially life - threatening dietary and drug interactions. They are still used only rarely, although newer and better - tolerated agents of this class have been developed. The safety profile is different with reversible monoamine oxidase inhibitors such as moclobemide where the risk of serious dietary interactions is negligible and dietary restrictions are less strict.
For children, adolescents, and probably young adults between 18 and 24 years old, there is a higher risk of both suicidal ideations and suicidal behavior in those treated with SSRIs. For adults, it is unclear whether SSRIs affect the risk of suicidality. One review found no connection; another an increased risk; and a third no risk in those 25 -- 65 years old and a decrease risk in those more than 65. A black box warning was introduced in the United States in 2007 on SSRI and other antidepressant medications due to increased risk of suicide in patients younger than 24 years old. Similar precautionary notice revisions were implemented by the Japanese Ministry of Health.
There is some evidence that omega - 3 fatty acids fish oil supplements containing high levels of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) to docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are effective in the treatment of, but not the prevention of major depression. However, a Cochrane review determined there was insufficient high quality evidence to suggest Omega - 3 fatty acids were effective in depression. There is limited evidence that vitamin D supplementation is of value in alleviating the symptoms of depression in individuals who are vitamin D deficient. There is some preliminary evidence that COX - 2 inhibitors have a beneficial effect on major depression. Lithium appears effective at lowering the risk of suicide in those with bipolar disorder and unipolar depression to nearly the same levels as the general population. There is a narrow range of effective and safe dosages of lithium thus close monitoring may be needed. Low - dose thyroid hormone may be added to existing antidepressants to treat persistent depression symptoms in people who have tried multiple courses of medication. Limited evidence suggests stimulants such as amphetamine and modafinil may be effective in the short term, or as add on therapy. Also, it is suggested that folate supplement may have a role in depression management.
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a standard psychiatric treatment in which seizures are electrically induced in patients to provide relief from psychiatric illnesses. ECT is used with informed consent as a last line of intervention for major depressive disorder.
A round of ECT is effective for about 50 % of people with treatment - resistant major depressive disorder, whether it is unipolar or bipolar. Follow - up treatment is still poorly studied, but about half of people who respond relapse within twelve months.
Aside from effects in the brain, the general physical risks of ECT are similar to those of brief general anesthesia. Immediately following treatment, the most common adverse effects are confusion and memory loss. ECT is considered one of the least harmful treatment options available for severely depressed pregnant women.
A usual course of ECT involves multiple administrations, typically given two or three times per week until the patient is no longer suffering symptoms. ECT is administered under anesthetic with a muscle relaxant. Electroconvulsive therapy can differ in its application in three ways: electrode placement, frequency of treatments, and the electrical waveform of the stimulus. These three forms of application have significant differences in both adverse side effects and symptom remission. After treatment, drug therapy is usually continued, and some patients receive maintenance ECT.
ECT appears to work in the short term via an anticonvulsant effect mostly in the frontal lobes, and longer term via neurotrophic effects primarily in the medial temporal lobe.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) or deep transcranial magnetic stimulation is a noninvasive method used to stimulate small regions of the brain. TMS was approved by the FDA for treatment - resistant major depressive disorder in 2008 and as of 2014 evidence supports that it is probably effective. The American Psychiatric Association the Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Disorders, and the Royal Australia and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists have endorsed rTMS for trMDD.
Bright light therapy reduces depression symptom severity, with benefit was found for both seasonal affective disorder and for nonseasonal depression, and an effect similar to those for conventional antidepressants. For non-seasonal depression, adding light therapy to the standard antidepressant treatment was not effective. For non-seasonal depression where light was used mostly in combination with antidepressants or wake therapy a moderate effect was found, with response better than control treatment in high - quality studies, in studies that applied morning light treatment, and with people who respond to total or partial sleep deprivation. Both analyses noted poor quality, short duration, and small size of most of the reviewed studies. There is insufficient evidence for Reiki and dance movement therapy in depression.
Major depressive episodes often resolve over time whether or not they are treated. Outpatients on a waiting list show a 10 -- 15 % reduction in symptoms within a few months, with approximately 20 % no longer meeting the full criteria for a depressive disorder. The median duration of an episode has been estimated to be 23 weeks, with the highest rate of recovery in the first three months.
Studies have shown that 80 % of those suffering from their first major depressive episode will suffer from at least 1 more during their life, with a lifetime average of 4 episodes. Other general population studies indicate that around half those who have an episode recover (whether treated or not) and remain well, while the other half will have at least one more, and around 15 % of those experience chronic recurrence. Studies recruiting from selective inpatient sources suggest lower recovery and higher chronicity, while studies of mostly outpatients show that nearly all recover, with a median episode duration of 11 months. Around 90 % of those with severe or psychotic depression, most of whom also meet criteria for other mental disorders, experience recurrence.
Recurrence is more likely if symptoms have not fully resolved with treatment. Current guidelines recommend continuing antidepressants for four to six months after remission to prevent relapse. Evidence from many randomized controlled trials indicates continuing antidepressant medications after recovery can reduce the chance of relapse by 70 % (41 % on placebo vs. 18 % on antidepressant). The preventive effect probably lasts for at least the first 36 months of use.
Those people experiencing repeated episodes of depression require ongoing treatment in order to prevent more severe, long - term depression. In some cases, people must take medications for long periods of time or for the rest of their lives.
Cases when outcome is poor are associated with inappropriate treatment, severe initial symptoms that may include psychosis, early age of onset, more previous episodes, incomplete recovery after 1 year, pre-existing severe mental or medical disorder, and family dysfunction as well.
Depressed individuals have a shorter life expectancy than those without depression, in part because depressed patients are at risk of dying by suicide. However, they also have a higher rate of dying from other causes, being more susceptible to medical conditions such as heart disease. Up to 60 % of people who die by suicide have a mood disorder such as major depression, and the risk is especially high if a person has a marked sense of hopelessness or has both depression and borderline personality disorder. The lifetime risk of suicide associated with a diagnosis of major depression in the US is estimated at 3.4 %, which averages two highly disparate figures of almost 7 % for men and 1 % for women (although suicide attempts are more frequent in women). The estimate is substantially lower than a previously accepted figure of 15 %, which had been derived from older studies of hospitalized patients.
Depression is often associated with unemployment and poverty. Major depression is currently the leading cause of disease burden in North America and other high - income countries, and the fourth - leading cause worldwide. In the year 2030, it is predicted to be the second - leading cause of disease burden worldwide after HIV, according to the World Health Organization. Delay or failure in seeking treatment after relapse, and the failure of health professionals to provide treatment, are two barriers to reducing disability.
Major depressive disorder affects approximately 216 million people in 2015 (3 % of the global population). The percentage of people who are affected at one point in their life varies from 7 % in Japan to 21 % in France. In most countries the number of people who have depression during their lives falls within an 8 -- 18 % range. In North America, the probability of having a major depressive episode within a year - long period is 3 -- 5 % for males and 8 -- 10 % for females. Major depression to be about twice as common in women as in men, although it is unclear why this is so, and whether factors unaccounted for are contributing to this. The relative increase in occurrence is related to pubertal development rather than chronological age, reaches adult ratios between the ages of 15 and 18, and appears associated with psychosocial more than hormonal factors. Depression is a major cause of disability worldwide.
People are most likely to develop their first depressive episode between the ages of 30 and 40, and there is a second, smaller peak of incidence between ages 50 and 60. The risk of major depression is increased with neurological conditions such as stroke, Parkinson 's disease, or multiple sclerosis, and during the first year after childbirth. It is also more common after cardiovascular illnesses, and is related more to a poor outcome than to a better one. Studies conflict on the prevalence of depression in the elderly, but most data suggest there is a reduction in this age group. Depressive disorders are more common to observe in urban than in rural population and the prevalence is in groups with stronger socioeconomic factors i.e. homelessness.
The Ancient Greek physician Hippocrates described a syndrome of melancholia as a distinct disease with particular mental and physical symptoms; he characterized all "fears and despondencies, if they last a long time '' as being symptomatic of the ailment. It was a similar but far broader concept than today 's depression; prominence was given to a clustering of the symptoms of sadness, dejection, and despondency, and often fear, anger, delusions and obsessions were included.
The term depression itself was derived from the Latin verb deprimere, "to press down ''. From the 14th century, "to depress '' meant to subjugate or to bring down in spirits. It was used in 1665 in English author Richard Baker 's Chronicle to refer to someone having "a great depression of spirit '', and by English author Samuel Johnson in a similar sense in 1753. The term also came into use in physiology and economics. An early usage referring to a psychiatric symptom was by French psychiatrist Louis Delasiauve in 1856, and by the 1860s it was appearing in medical dictionaries to refer to a physiological and metaphorical lowering of emotional function. Since Aristotle, melancholia had been associated with men of learning and intellectual brilliance, a hazard of contemplation and creativity. The newer concept abandoned these associations and through the 19th century, became more associated with women.
Although melancholia remained the dominant diagnostic term, depression gained increasing currency in medical treatises and was a synonym by the end of the century; German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin may have been the first to use it as the overarching term, referring to different kinds of melancholia as depressive states.
Sigmund Freud likened the state of melancholia to mourning in his 1917 paper Mourning and Melancholia. He theorized that objective loss, such as the loss of a valued relationship through death or a romantic break - up, results in subjective loss as well; the depressed individual has identified with the object of affection through an unconscious, narcissistic process called the libidinal cathexis of the ego. Such loss results in severe melancholic symptoms more profound than mourning; not only is the outside world viewed negatively but the ego itself is compromised. The patient 's decline of self - perception is revealed in his belief of his own blame, inferiority, and unworthiness. He also emphasized early life experiences as a predisposing factor. Adolf Meyer put forward a mixed social and biological framework emphasizing reactions in the context of an individual 's life, and argued that the term depression should be used instead of melancholia. The first version of the DSM (DSM - I, 1952) contained depressive reaction and the DSM - II (1968) depressive neurosis, defined as an excessive reaction to internal conflict or an identifiable event, and also included a depressive type of manic - depressive psychosis within Major affective disorders.
In the mid-20th century, researchers theorized that depression was caused by a chemical imbalance in neurotransmitters in the brain, a theory based on observations made in the 1950s of the effects of reserpine and isoniazid in altering monoamine neurotransmitter levels and affecting depressive symptoms. The chemical imbalance theory has never been proven.
The term "unipolar '' (along with the related term "bipolar '') was coined by the neurologist and psychiatrist Karl Kleist, and subsequently used by his disciples Edda Neele and Karl Leonhard.
The term Major depressive disorder was introduced by a group of US clinicians in the mid-1970s as part of proposals for diagnostic criteria based on patterns of symptoms (called the "Research Diagnostic Criteria '', building on earlier Feighner Criteria), and was incorporated into the DSM - III in 1980. To maintain consistency the ICD - 10 used the same criteria, with only minor alterations, but using the DSM diagnostic threshold to mark a mild depressive episode, adding higher threshold categories for moderate and severe episodes. The ancient idea of melancholia still survives in the notion of a melancholic subtype.
The new definitions of depression were widely accepted, albeit with some conflicting findings and views. There have been some continued empirically based arguments for a return to the diagnosis of melancholia. There has been some criticism of the expansion of coverage of the diagnosis, related to the development and promotion of antidepressants and the biological model since the late 1950s.
The term "depression '' is used in a number of different ways. It is often used to mean this syndrome but may refer to other mood disorders or simply to a low mood. People 's conceptualizations of depression vary widely, both within and among cultures. "Because of the lack of scientific certainty, '' one commentator has observed, "the debate over depression turns on questions of language. What we call it -- ' disease, ' ' disorder, ' ' state of mind ' -- affects how we view, diagnose, and treat it. '' There are cultural differences in the extent to which serious depression is considered an illness requiring personal professional treatment, or is an indicator of something else, such as the need to address social or moral problems, the result of biological imbalances, or a reflection of individual differences in the understanding of distress that may reinforce feelings of powerlessness, and emotional struggle.
The diagnosis is less common in some countries, such as China. It has been argued that the Chinese traditionally deny or somatize emotional depression (although since the early 1980s, the Chinese denial of depression may have modified). Alternatively, it may be that Western cultures reframe and elevate some expressions of human distress to disorder status. Australian professor Gordon Parker and others have argued that the Western concept of depression "medicalizes '' sadness or misery. Similarly, Hungarian - American psychiatrist Thomas Szasz and others argue that depression is a metaphorical illness that is inappropriately regarded as an actual disease. There has also been concern that the DSM, as well as the field of descriptive psychiatry that employs it, tends to reify abstract phenomena such as depression, which may in fact be social constructs. American archetypal psychologist James Hillman writes that depression can be healthy for the soul, insofar as "it brings refuge, limitation, focus, gravity, weight, and humble powerlessness. '' Hillman argues that therapeutic attempts to eliminate depression echo the Christian theme of resurrection, but have the unfortunate effect of demonizing a soulful state of being.
Historical figures were often reluctant to discuss or seek treatment for depression due to social stigma about the condition, or due to ignorance of diagnosis or treatments. Nevertheless, analysis or interpretation of letters, journals, artwork, writings, or statements of family and friends of some historical personalities has led to the presumption that they may have had some form of depression. People who may have had depression include English author Mary Shelley, American - British writer Henry James, and American president Abraham Lincoln. Some well - known contemporary people with possible depression include Canadian songwriter Leonard Cohen and American playwright and novelist Tennessee Williams. Some pioneering psychologists, such as Americans William James and John B. Watson, dealt with their own depression.
There has been a continuing discussion of whether neurological disorders and mood disorders may be linked to creativity, a discussion that goes back to Aristotelian times. British literature gives many examples of reflections on depression. English philosopher John Stuart Mill experienced a several - months - long period of what he called "a dull state of nerves '', when one is "unsusceptible to enjoyment or pleasurable excitement; one of those moods when what is pleasure at other times, becomes insipid or indifferent ''. He quoted English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's "Dejection '' as a perfect description of his case: "A grief without a pang, void, dark and drear, / A drowsy, stifled, unimpassioned grief, / Which finds no natural outlet or relief / In word, or sigh, or tear. '' English writer Samuel Johnson used the term "the black dog '' in the 1780s to describe his own depression, and it was subsequently popularized by depression sufferer former British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill.
Social stigma of major depression is widespread, and contact with mental health services reduces this only slightly. Public opinions on treatment differ markedly to those of health professionals; alternative treatments are held to be more helpful than pharmacological ones, which are viewed poorly. In the UK, the Royal College of Psychiatrists and the Royal College of General Practitioners conducted a joint Five - year Defeat Depression campaign to educate and reduce stigma from 1992 to 1996; a MORI study conducted afterwards showed a small positive change in public attitudes to depression and treatment.
Trials are looking at the effects of botulinum toxins on depression. The idea is that the drug is used to make the person look less frowning and that this stops the negative facial feedback from the face. In 2015 it turned out, however, that the partly positive effects that had been observed until then could have been placebo effects.
MDD has been studied by taking MRI scans of patients with depression have revealed a number of differences in brain structure compared to those who are not depressed. Meta - analyses of neuroimaging studies in major depression reported that, compared to controls, depressed patients had increased volume of the lateral ventricles and adrenal gland and smaller volumes of the basal ganglia, thalamus, hippocampus, and frontal lobe (including the orbitofrontal cortex and gyrus rectus). Hyperintensities have been associated with patients with a late age of onset, and have led to the development of the theory of vascular depression.
Depression is especially common among those over 65 years of age and increases in frequency with age beyond this age. In addition the risk of depression increases in relation to the age and frailty of the individual. Depression is one the most important factors which negatively impact quality of life in adults as well as the elderly. Both symptoms and treatment among the elderly differ from those of the rest of the adult populations.
As with many other diseases it is common among the elderly not to present classical depressive symptoms. Diagnosis and treatment is further complicated in that the elderly are often simultaneously treated with a number of other drugs, and often have other concurrent diseases. Treatment differs in that studies of SSRI - drugs have shown lesser and often inadequate effect among the elderly, while other drugs with more clear effects have adverse effects which can be especially difficult to handle among the elderly. Duloxetine is an SNRI - drug with documented effect on recurring depression among the elderly, but has adverse effects in form of dizziness, dryness of the mouth, diarrhea, and constipation.
Problem solving therapy was as of 2015 the only psychological therapy with proven effect, and can be likened to a simpler form of cognitive behavioral therapy. However, elderly with depression are seldom offered any psychological treatment, and the evidence surrounding which other treatments are effective is incomplete. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT or electric - shock therapy) has been used as treatment of the elderly, and register - studies suggest it is effective although less so among the elderly than among the rest of the adult population.
The risks involved with treatment of depression among the elderly as opposed to benefits is not entirely clear. Awaiting more evidence on how depression - treatment among the elderly is best designed it is important to follow up treatment results, and to reconsider changing treatments if it does not help.
Models of depression in animals for the purpose of study include iatrogenic depression models (such as drug induced), forced swim tests, tail suspension test, and learned helplessness models. Criteria frequently used to assess depression in animals include expression of despair, neurovegetative changes, and anhedonia, as many other depressive criteria are untestable in animals such as guilt and suicidality.
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the functional units of the kidney are called the renal pyramids | Kidney - wikipedia
The kidneys are two bean - shaped organs present in left and right sides of the body in vertebrates. They are located at the back of the abdominal cavity. In adults they are about 11 centimetres (4.3 in) in length. They receive blood from the paired renal arteries; blood exits into the paired renal veins. Each kidney is attached to a ureter, a tube that carries excreted urine to the bladder.
The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. Each adult kidney contains around one million nephrons. The nephron utilizes four processes to alter the blood plasma which flows to it: filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and excretion. The kidney participates in the control of the volume of various body fluid compartments, fluid osmolality, acid - base balance, various electrolyte concentrations, and removal of toxins. Filtration occurs in the glomerulus: one - fifth of the blood volume that enters the kidneys is filtered. Examples of substances reabsorbed are solute - free water, sodium, bicarbonate, glucose, and amino acids. Examples of substances secreted are hydrogen, ammonium, potassium and uric acid. The kidneys also carry out functions independent of the nephron. For example, they convert a precursor of vitamin D to its active form, calcitriol; and synthesize the hormones erythropoietin and renin.
Renal physiology is the study of kidney function. Nephrology is the medical specialty which addresses diseases of kidney function: these include chronic kidney disease, nephritic and nephrotic syndromes, acute kidney injury, and pyelonephritis. Urology addresses diseases of kidney (and urinary tract) anatomy: these include cancer, renal cysts, kidney stones and ureteral stones, and urinary tract obstruction.
Procedures used in the management of kidney disease include chemical and microscopic examination of the urine (urinalysis), measurement of kidney function by calculating the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) using the serum creatinine; and kidney biopsy and CT scan to evaluate for abnormal anatomy. Dialysis and kidney transplantation are used to treat kidney failure; one (or both sequentially) of these are almost always used when renal function drops below 15 %. Nephrectomy is frequently used to cure renal cell carcinoma.
In humans, the kidneys are located high in the abdominal cavity, one on each side of the spine, and lie in a retroperitoneal position at a slightly oblique angle. The asymmetry within the abdominal cavity, caused by the position of the liver, typically results in the right kidney being slightly lower and smaller than the left, and being placed slightly more to the middle than the left kidney. The left kidney is approximately at the vertebral level T12 to L3, and the right is slightly lower. The right kidney sits just below the diaphragm and posterior to the liver. The left sits below the diaphragm and posterior to the spleen. On top of each kidney is an adrenal gland. The upper parts of the kidneys are partially protected by the 11th and 12th ribs. Each kidney, with its adrenal gland is surrounded by two layers of fat: the perirenal fat present between renal fascia and renal capsule and pararenal fat superior to the renal fascia.
The kidney is a bean - shaped structure with a convex and a concave border. A recessed area on the concave border is the renal hilum, where the renal artery enters the kidney and the renal vein and ureter leave. The kidney is surrounded by tough fibrous tissue, the renal capsule, which is itself surrounded by perirenal fat, renal fascia, and pararenal fat. The anterior (front) surface of these tissues is the peritoneum, while the posterior (rear) surface is the transversalis fascia.
The superior pole of the right kidney is adjacent to the liver. For the left kidney, it is next to the spleen. Both, therefore, move down upon inhalation.
In adult males, the kidney weighs between 125 and 170 grams. In females the weight of the kidney is between 115 and 155 grams. A Danish study measured the median renal length to be 11.2 cm (4.4 in) on the left side and 10.9 cm (4.3 in) on the right side in adults. Median renal volumes were 146 cm on the left and 134 cm on the right.
The substance, or parenchyma, of the kidney is divided into two major structures: the outer renal cortex and the inner renal medulla. Grossly, these structures take the shape of eight to 18 cone - shaped renal lobes, each containing renal cortex surrounding a portion of medulla called a renal pyramid. Between the renal pyramids are projections of cortex called renal columns. Nephrons, the urine - producing functional structures of the kidney, span the cortex and medulla. The initial filtering portion of a nephron is the renal corpuscle, which is located in the cortex. This is followed by a renal tubule that passes from the cortex deep into the medullary pyramids. Part of the renal cortex, a medullary ray is a collection of renal tubules that drain into a single collecting duct.
The tip, or papilla, of each pyramid empties urine into a minor calyx; minor calyces empty into major calyces, and major calyces empty into the renal pelvis. This becomes the ureter. At the hilum, the ureter and renal vein exit the kidney and the renal artery enters. Hilar fat and lymphatic tissue with lymph nodes surrounds these structures. The hilar fat is contiguous with a fat - filled cavity called the renal sinus. The renal sinus collectively contains the renal pelvis and calyces and separates these structures from the renal medullary tissue.
The kidneys possess no overtly moving structures
The renal circulation supplies the blood to the kidneys via the renal arteries, left and right, which branch directly from the abdominal aorta. Despite their relatively small size, the kidneys receive approximately 20 % of the cardiac output.
Each renal artery branches into segmental arteries, dividing further into interlobar arteries, which penetrate the renal capsule and extend through the renal columns between the renal pyramids. The interlobar arteries then supply blood to the arcuate arteries that run through the boundary of the cortex and the medulla. Each arcuate artery supplies several interlobular arteries that feed into the afferent arterioles that supply the glomeruli.
After filtration occurs, the blood moves through a small network of venules that converge into interlobular veins. As with the arteriole distribution, the veins follow the same pattern: the interlobular provide blood to the arcuate veins then back to the interlobar veins, which come to form the renal vein exiting the kidney for transfusion for blood.
The table below shows the path that blood takes when it travels through the glomerulus, traveling "down '' the arteries and "up '' the veins. However, this model is greatly simplified for clarity and symmetry. Some of the other paths and complications are described at the bottom of the table. The interlobar artery and vein (not to be confused with interlobular) are between two renal lobes, also known as the renal column (cortex region between two pyramids).
The kidney and nervous system communicate via the renal plexus, whose fibers course along the renal arteries to reach each kidney. Input from the sympathetic nervous system triggers vasoconstriction in the kidney, thereby reducing renal blood flow. The kidney also receives input from the parasympathetic nervous system, by way of the renal branches of the vagus nerve; the function of this is yet unclear. Sensory input from the kidney travels to the T10 - 11 levels of the spinal cord and is sensed in the corresponding dermatome. Thus, pain in the flank region may be referred from corresponding kidney.
Renal histology is the study of the microscopic structure of the kidney. Distinct cell types include:
About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and almost 70 % of these genes are expressed in normal, adult kidneys. Just over 300 genes are more specifically expressed in the kidney, with only some 50 genes being highly specific for the kidney. Many of the corresponding kidney specific proteins are expressed in the cell membrane and function as transporter proteins. The highest expressed kidney specific protein is uromodulin, the most abundant protein in urine with functions that prevent calcification and growth of bacteria. Specific proteins are expressed in the different compartments of the kidney with podocin and nephrin expressed in glomeruli, Solute carrier family protein SLC22A8 expressed in proximal tubules, calbindin expressed in distal tubules and aquaporin 2 expressed in the collecting duct cells.
The mammalian kidney develops from intermediate mesoderm. Kidney development, also called nephrogenesis, proceeds through a series of three successive developmental phases: the pronephros, mesonephros, and metanephros. The metanephros are primordia of the permanent kidney.
The microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. It processes the blood supplied to it via filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion; the consequence of those processes is the production of urine.
Filtration, which takes place at the renal corpuscle, is the process by which cells and large proteins are retained while materials of smaller molecular weights are filtered from the blood to make an ultrafiltrate that eventually becomes urine. The kidney generates 180 liters of filtrate a day. The process is also known as hydrostatic filtration due to the hydrostatic pressure exerted on the capillary walls.
Reabsorption is the transport of molecules from this ultrafiltrate and into the peritubular capillary. It is accomplished via selective receptors on the luminal cell membrane. Water is 65 % reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. Glucose at normal plasma levels is completely reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. The mechanism for this is the Na / glucose cotransporter. A plasma level of 350 mg / dL will fully saturate the transporters and glucose will be lost in the urine. A plasma glucose level of approximately 160 is sufficient to allow glucosuria, which is an important clinical clue to diabetes mellitus. Amino acids are reabsorbed by sodium dependent transporters in the proximal tubule. Hartnup disease is a deficiency of the tryptophan amino acid transporter, which results in pellagra.
Secretion is the reverse of reabsorption: molecules are transported from the peritubular capillary through the interstitial fluid, then through the renal tubular cell and into the ultrafiltrate.
The last step in the processing of the ultrafiltrate is excretion: the ultrafiltrate passes out of the nephron and travels through a tube called the collecting duct, which is part of the collecting duct system, and then to the ureters where it is renamed urine. In addition to transporting the ultrafiltrate, the collecting duct also takes part in reabsorption.
The kidney participates in whole - body homeostasis, regulating acid - base balance, electrolyte concentrations, extracellular fluid volume, and blood pressure. The kidney accomplishes these homeostatic functions both independently and in concert with other organs, particularly those of the endocrine system. Various endocrine hormones coordinate these endocrine functions; these include renin, angiotensin II, aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone, and atrial natriuretic peptide, among others.
The kidneys excrete a variety of waste products produced by metabolism into the urine. These include the nitrogenous wastes urea, from protein catabolism, and uric acid, from nucleic acid metabolism. The ability of mammals and some birds to concentrate wastes into a volume of urine much smaller than the volume of blood from which the wastes were extracted is dependent on an elaborate countercurrent multiplication mechanism. This requires several independent nephron characteristics to operate: a tight hairpin configuration of the tubules, water and ion permeability in the descending limb of the loop, water impermeability in the ascending loop, and active ion transport out of most of the ascending limb. In addition, passive countercurrent exchange by the vessels carrying the blood supply to the nephron is essential for enabling this function.
Two organ systems, the kidneys and lungs, maintain acid - base homeostasis, which is the maintenance of pH around a relatively stable value. The lungs contribute to acid - base homeostasis by regulating carbon dioxide (CO) concentration. The kidneys have two very important roles in maintaining the acid - base balance: to reabsorb and regenerate bicarbonate from urine, and to excrete hydrogen ions and fixed acids (anions of acids) into urine.
Maintaining water and salt level of the body. Any significant rise in plasma osmolality is detected by the hypothalamus, which communicates directly with the posterior pituitary gland. An increase in osmolality causes the gland to secrete antidiuretic hormone (ADH), resulting in water reabsorption by the kidney and an increase in urine concentration. The two factors work together to return the plasma osmolality to its normal levels.
ADH binds to principal cells in the collecting duct that translocate aquaporins to the membrane, allowing water to leave the normally impermeable membrane and be reabsorbed into the body by the vasa recta, thus increasing the plasma volume of the body.
There are two systems that create a hyperosmotic medulla and thus increase the body plasma volume: Urea recycling and the ' single effect. '
Urea is usually excreted as a waste product from the kidneys. However, when plasma blood volume is low and ADH is released the aquaporins that are opened are also permeable to urea. This allows urea to leave the collecting duct into the medulla, creating a hyperosmotic solution that "attracts '' water. Urea can then re-enter the nephron and be excreted or recycled again depending on whether ADH is still present or not.
The ' single effect ' describes the fact that the ascending thick limb of the loop of Henle is not permeable to water but is permeable to sodium chloride. This allows for a countercurrent exchange system whereby the medulla becomes increasingly concentrated, but at the same time setting up an osmotic gradient for water to follow should the aquaporins of the collecting duct be opened by ADH.
The kidneys secrete a variety of hormones, including erythropoietin, calcitriol, and renin. Erythropoietin is released in response to hypoxia (low levels of oxygen at tissue level) in the renal circulation. It stimulates erythropoiesis (production of red blood cells) in the bone marrow. Calcitriol, the activated form of vitamin D, promotes intestinal absorption of calcium and the renal reabsorption of phosphate. Renin is an enzyme which regulates angiotensin and aldosterone levels.
Although the kidney can not directly sense blood, long - term regulation of blood pressure predominantly depends upon the kidney. This primarily occurs through maintenance of the extracellular fluid compartment, the size of which depends on the plasma sodium concentration. Renin is the first in a series of important chemical messengers that make up the renin -- angiotensin system. Changes in renin ultimately alter the output of this system, principally the hormones angiotensin II and aldosterone. Each hormone acts via multiple mechanisms, but both increase the kidney 's absorption of sodium chloride, thereby expanding the extracellular fluid compartment and raising blood pressure. When renin levels are elevated, the concentrations of angiotensin II and aldosterone increase, leading to increased sodium chloride reabsorption, expansion of the extracellular fluid compartment, and an increase in blood pressure. Conversely, when renin levels are low, angiotensin II and aldosterone levels decrease, contracting the extracellular fluid compartment, and decreasing blood pressure.
Calculations of kidney performance are an important part of physiology and can be estimated using the calculations below.
The filtration fraction is the amount of plasma that is actually filtered through the kidney. This can be defined using the equation:
FF = GFR / RPF
Normal human FF is 20 %.
Renal clearance is the volume of plasma from which the substance is completely cleared from the blood per unit time.
C = (U) V / P
The kidney is a very complex organ and mathematical modelling has been used to better understand kidney function at several scales, including fluid uptake and secretion.
Kidney disease is an abnormal structure, function or process in the kidney (s). Nephrosis is non-inflammatory nephropathy and nephritis is inflammatory kidney disease. Nephrology is the speciality that deals with kidney function and disease. Medical terms related to the kidneys commonly use terms such as renal and the prefix nephro -. The adjective renal, meaning related to the kidney, is from the Latin rēnēs, meaning kidneys; the prefix nephro - is from the Ancient Greek word for kidney, nephros (νεφρός). For example, surgical removal of the kidney is a nephrectomy, while a reduction in kidney function is called renal dysfunction.
Generally, humans can live normally with just one kidney, as one has more functioning renal tissue than is needed to survive. Only when the amount of functioning kidney tissue is greatly diminished does one develop chronic kidney disease. Renal replacement therapy, in the form of dialysis or kidney transplantation, is indicated when the glomerular filtration rate has fallen very low or if the renal dysfunction leads to severe symptoms.
Dialysis is a treatment that takes over jobs that healthy kidneys normally do. Kidneys are in need of dialysis when approximately 85 % - 90 % of kidney function is lost, in addition to a Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) of less than 15. Dialysis maintains homeostasis by removing excess water and other salts, regulating blood pressure, and maintaining chemical levels within the body. Dialysis is a treatment that does not cure kidney disease, a kidney transplant will cure kidney disease. While a costly procedure, Dialysis has a life expectancy of 5 -- 10 years with patients having lived up to 30 years while receiving treatment. However, patients receiving the dialysis treatments are able to lead normal lives, despite the regular appointments.
Many renal diseases are diagnosed on the basis of a detailed medical history, and physical examination. The medical history takes into account present and past symptoms, especially those of kidney disease; recent infections; exposure to substances toxic to the kidney; and family history of kidney disease.
Kidney function is tested for using blood tests and urine tests. A usual blood test is for urea and electrolytes, known as a U and E. Creatinine is also tested for. Urine tests such as urinalysis can evaluate for pH, protein, glucose, and the presence of blood. Microscopic analysis can also identify the presence of urinary casts and crystals. The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) can be calculated.
Renal ultrasonography is essential in the diagnosis and management of kidney - related diseases. Other modalities, such as CT and MRI, should always be considered as supplementary imaging modalities in the assessment of renal disease.
The role of the renal biopsy is to diagnose renal disease in which the etiology is not clear based upon noninvasive means (clinical history, past medical history, medication history, physical exam, laboratory studies, imaging studies). In general, a renal pathologist will perform a detailed morphological evaluation and integrate the morphologic findings with the clinical history and laboratory data, ultimately arriving at a pathological diagnosis. A renal pathologist is a physician who has undergone general training in anatomic pathology and additional specially training in the interpretation of renal biopsy specimens.
Ideally, multiple core sections are obtained and evaluated for adequacy (presence of glomeruli) intraoperatively. A pathologist / pathology assistant divides the specimen (s) for submission for light microscopy, immunofluorescence microscopy and electron microscopy.
The pathologist will examine the specimen using light microscopy with multiple staining techniques (hematoxylin and eosin / H&E, PAS, trichrome, silver stain) on multiple level sections. Multiple immunofluorescence stains are performed to evaluate for antibody, protein and complement deposition. Finally, ultra-structural examination is performed with electron microscopy and may reveal the presence of electron - dense deposits or other characteristic abnormalities that may suggest an etiology for the patient 's renal disease.
In the majority of vertebrates, the mesonephros persists into the adult, albeit usually fused with the more advanced metanephros; only in amniotes is the mesonephros restricted to the embryo. The kidneys of fish and amphibians are typically narrow, elongated organs, occupying a significant portion of the trunk. The collecting ducts from each cluster of nephrons usually drain into an archinephric duct, which is homologous with the vas deferens of amniotes. However, the situation is not always so simple; in cartilaginous fish and some amphibians, there is also a shorter duct, similar to the amniote ureter, which drains the posterior (metanephric) parts of the kidney, and joins with the archinephric duct at the bladder or cloaca. Indeed, in many cartilaginous fish, the anterior portion of the kidney may degenerate or cease to function altogether in the adult.
In the most primitive vertebrates, the hagfish and lampreys, the kidney is unusually simple: it consists of a row of nephrons, each emptying directly into the archinephric duct. Invertebrates may possess excretory organs that are sometimes referred to as "kidneys '', but, even in Amphioxus, these are never homologous with the kidneys of vertebrates, and are more accurately referred to by other names, such as nephridia. In amphibians, kidneys and the urinary bladder harbour specialized parasites, monogeneans of the family Polystomatidae.
The kidneys of reptiles consist of a number of lobules arranged in a broadly linear pattern. Each lobule contains a single branch of the ureter in its centre, into which the collecting ducts empty. Reptiles have relatively few nephrons compared with other amniotes of a similar size, possibly because of their lower metabolic rate.
Birds have relatively large, elongated kidneys, each of which is divided into three or more distinct lobes. The lobes consists of several small, irregularly arranged, lobules, each centred on a branch of the ureter. Birds have small glomeruli, but about twice as many nephrons as similarly sized mammals.
The human kidney is fairly typical of that of mammals. Distinctive features of the mammalian kidney, in comparison with that of other vertebrates, include the presence of the renal pelvis and renal pyramids and a clearly distinguishable cortex and medulla. The latter feature is due to the presence of elongated loops of Henle; these are much shorter in birds, and not truly present in other vertebrates (although the nephron often has a short intermediate segment between the convoluted tubules). It is only in mammals that the kidney takes on its classical "kidney '' shape, although there are some exceptions, such as the multilobed reniculate kidneys of pinnipeds and cetaceans.
Kidneys of various animals show evidence of evolutionary adaptation and have long been studied in ecophysiology and comparative physiology. Kidney morphology, often indexed as the relative medullary thickness, is associated with habitat aridity among species of mammals and diet (e.g., carnivores have only long loops of Henle).
In ancient Egypt, the kidneys, like the heart, were left inside the mummified bodies, unlike other organs which were removed. Comparing this to the biblical statements, and to drawings of human body with the heart and two kidneys portraying a set of scales for weighing justice, it seems that the Egyptian beliefs had also connected the kidneys with judgement and perhaps with moral decisions.
According to studies in modern and ancient Hebrew, various body organs in humans and animals served also an emotional or logical role, today mostly attributed to the brain and the endocrine system. The kidney is mentioned in several biblical verses in conjunction with the heart, much as the bowels were understood to be the "seat '' of emotion -- grief, joy and pain. Similarly, the Talmud (Berakhoth 61. a) states that one of the two kidneys counsels what is good, and the other evil.
In the sacrifices offered at the biblical Tabernacle and later on at the temple in Jerusalem, the priests were instructed to remove the kidneys and the adrenal gland covering the kidneys of the sheep, goat and cattle offerings, and to burn them on the altar, as the holy part of the "offering for God '' never to be eaten.
In ancient India, according to the Ayurvedic medical systems, the kidneys were considered the beginning of the excursion channels system, the ' head ' of the Mutra Srotas, receiving from all other systems, and therefore important in determining a person 's health balance and temperament by the balance and mixture of the three ' Dosha 's -- the three health elements: Vatha (or Vata) -- air, Pitta -- bile, and Kapha -- mucus. The temperament and health of a person can then be seen in the resulting color of the urine.
Modern Ayurveda practitioners, a practice which is characterized as pseudoscience, have attempted to revive these methods in medical procedures as part of Ayurveda Urine therapy. These procedures have been called "nonsensical '' by skeptics.
The Latin term renes is related to the English word "reins '', a synonym for the kidneys in Shakespearean English (e.g. Merry Wives of Windsor 3.5), which was also the time when the King James Version of the Bible was translated. Kidneys were once popularly regarded as the seat of the conscience and reflection, and a number of verses in the Bible (e.g. Ps. 7: 9, Rev. 2: 23) state that God searches out and inspects the kidneys, or "reins '', of humans, together with the heart.
The kidneys, like other offal, can be cooked and eaten.
Kidneys are usually grilled or sautéed, but in more complex dishes they are stewed with a sauce that will improve their flavor. In many preparations, kidneys are combined with pieces of meat or liver, as in mixed grill. Dishes include the British steak and kidney pie, the Swedish hökarpanna (pork and kidney stew), the French rognons de veau sauce moutarde (veal kidneys in mustard sauce) and the Spanish riñones al Jerez (kidneys stewed in sherry sauce).
Right Kidney
Kidney
Right Kidney
Right kidney
Left kidney
Kidneys
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what are the different kinds of catholic priests | Priesthood in the Catholic Church - wikipedia
The ministerial orders of the Roman Catholic Church (for similar but different rules among Eastern Catholics see Eastern Catholic Church) are those of bishop, presbyter (more commonly called priest in English), and deacon. The ordained priesthood and the common priesthood (or priesthood of all the baptized faithful) are different in function and essence. The Catholic Church teaches that when a man participates in priesthood, he participates in the priesthood of Christ Himself. All men who, through the Sacrament of Holy Orders, have become priests participate in Christ 's priesthood; they act in persona Christi Capitis, in the person of Christ, the Head of His Body, the Church.
Unlike usage in English, "the Latin words sacerdos and sacerdotium are used to refer in general to the ministerial priesthood shared by bishops and presbyters. The words presbyter, presbyterium and presbyteratus refer to priests in the English use of the word or presbyters. '' According to the Annuario Pontificio 2016, as of December 31, 2014, there were 415,792 Catholic priests worldwide, including both diocesan priests and priests in the religious orders. A priest of the regular clergy is commonly addressed with the title "Father '' (abbreviated Fr., in the Roman Catholic and some other Christian churches).
The state of consecrated life or monasticism is a separate, third distinct vocational state from the clergy and the laity. As an overview, there are the members of the laity -- who are married or unmarried, and the clergy -- the bishops, priests, and deacons. Deacons are male and usually belong to the diocesan clergy, but, unlike almost all Latin - rite (Western Catholic) priests and all bishops from Eastern or Western Catholicism, they may marry as laymen before their ordination as clergy.
Members of institutes of consecrated life, or monks, can be either clergy or non-ordained members of the religious order (male or female non-ordained religious are not to be considered laypersons in the strict sense -- they take certain vows and are not free to marry once they have made solemn profession of vows; all female religious are non-ordained, they may be sisters living to some degree of activity in a communal state, or nuns living in cloister or some other type of isolation). The male members of religious orders, whether living in monastic communities or cloistered in isolation, and who are ordained priests or deacons constitute what is called the religious or regular clergy, distinct from the diocesan or secular clergy. Those ordained priests or deacons who are not members of some sort of religious order (secular priests) most often serve as clergy to a specific church or in an office of a specific diocese or in Rome.
The Old Testament describes how God made his people "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation, '' and within the twelve tribes of Israel, the tribe of Levi was chosen to be set apart for the liturgical service of offering sacrifice as priests. The priest was understood as a mediator between God and human beings who offers sacrifices and intercedes for the people.
The New Testament depicts Jesus as the "great high priest '' of the New Covenant who, instead of offering the ritual animal sacrifices prescribed by the Jewish Law, offers himself on the cross as the true and perfect sacrifice. The Catholic priesthood is a participation in this priesthood of Christ, and therefore traces its origins to Jesus Christ himself. Thus, the New Testament says that as high priest, Jesus has made the Church "a kingdom of priests for his God and Father. '' All who are baptized are given a share in the priesthood of Christ; that is, they are conformed to Christ and made capable of offering true worship and praise to God as Christians. "The whole community of believers is, as such, priestly. ''
The ministerial priesthood of Catholic priests and bishops -- what most people think of as "the Catholic priesthood '' -- has a distinct history. This ministerial priesthood is at the service of the priesthood of all believers and involves the direct consecration of a man to Christ through the sacrament of orders, so that he can act in the person of Christ for the sake of the Christian faithful, above all in dispensing the sacraments. It is understood to have begun at the Last Supper, when Jesus Christ instituted the Eucharist in the presence of the Twelve Apostles, commanding them to "do this in memory of me. ''
The Catholic priesthood, therefore, is a share in the priesthood of Christ and traces its historical origins to the Twelve Apostles appointed by Christ. Those apostles in turn selected other men to succeed them as the bishops (episkopoi, Greek for "overseers '') of the Christian communities, with whom were associated presbyters (presbyteroi, Greek for "elders '') and deacons (diakonoi, Greek for "servants ''). As communities multiplied and grew in size, the bishops appointed more and more presbyters to preside at the Eucharist in place of the bishop in the multiple communities in each region. The diaconate evolved as the liturgical assistants of the bishop and his delegate for the administration of Church funds and programmes for the poor. Today, the rank of "presbyter '' is typically what one thinks of as a priest, although technically both a bishop and a presbyter are "priests '' in the sense that they share in Christ 's ministerial priesthood and offer sacrifice to God in the person of Christ.
In the decade of the 2010s, catholic priests as a group garnered public attention due to the numerous cases of sexual abuse of children by catholic clergy being revealed.
The theology of the Catholic priesthood is rooted in the priesthood of Christ and to some degree shares elements of the ancient Hebraic priesthood as well. A priest is one who presides over a sacrifice and offers that sacrifice and prayers to God on behalf of believers. Jewish priesthood which functioned at the temple in Jerusalem offered animal sacrifices at various times throughout the year for a variety of reasons.
In Christian theology, Jesus is the Lamb provided by God himself as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. Before his death on the cross, Jesus celebrated the Passover with his disciples (the Last Supper) and offered blessings over the bread and wine respectively, saying: "Take and eat. This is my body '' and "Drink from this all of you, for this is my blood, the blood of the covenant, poured out for the forgiveness of sins. '' (Matthew 26: 26 -- 28 Jerusalem Bible). The next day Christ 's body and blood were visibly sacrificed on the cross.
Catholics believe that it is this same body, sacrificed on the cross and risen on the third day and united with Christ 's divinity, soul and blood which is made present in the offering of each Eucharistic sacrifice which is called the Eucharist. However, Catholicism does not believe that transubstantiation and the doctrine of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist involves a material change in the ' accidental ' features: i.e. under normal circumstances, scientific analysis of the Eucharistic elements would indicate the physical - material properties of wine and bread.
Thus Catholic priests, in presiding at the Eucharist, join each offering of the Eucharistic elements in union with the sacrifice of Christ. Through their celebration of the Holy Eucharist, they make present the one eternal sacrifice of Christ on the cross.
Catholicism does not teach that Christ is sacrificed again and again, but that "The sacrifice of Christ and the sacrifice of the Eucharist are one single sacrifice. ''. Instead, the Catholic Church holds the Jewish concept of memorial in which "... the memorial is not merely a recollection of past events... these events become in a certain way present and real. '' and thus "... the sacrifice Christ offered once and for all on the cross remains ever present. '' Properly speaking, in Catholic theology, expressed by Saint Thomas Aquinas, "Only Christ is the true priest, the others being only his ministers. '' Thus, Catholic clergy share in the one, unique, Priesthood of Christ.
The Canon law of the Catholic Church holds that the priesthood is a sacred and perpetual vocational state, not just a profession (which is a reason for, and symbolized by, the state of celibacy). There are programs of formation and studies which aim to enable the future priest to effectively serve his ministry. These programs are demanded by canon law (in the Latin rite, canons 232 -- 264) which also refers to the Bishops ' Conferences for local more detailed regulation. As a general rule, education is extensive and lasts at least five or six years, depending on the national Programme of Priestly Formation.
Regardless of where a person prepares for ordination, it includes not only academic but also human, social, spiritual and pastoral formation. The purpose of seminary education is ultimately to prepare men to be pastors of souls. In the end, however, each individual Ordinary (such as a bishop or Superior General) is responsible for the official call to priesthood, and only a bishop may ordain. Any ordinations done before the normally scheduled time (before study completion) must have the explicit approval of the bishop; any such ordinations done more than a year in Holy See.
The Rite of Ordination is what "makes '' one a priest, having already been a deacon and with the minister of Holy Orders being a validly ordained bishop.
The Rite of Ordination occurs within the context of Holy Mass. After being called forward and presented to the assembly, the candidates are interrogated. Each promises to diligently perform the duties of the Priesthood and to respect and obey his ordinary (bishop or religious superior). Then the candidates lie prostrate before the altar, while the assembled faithful kneel and pray for the help of all the saints in the singing of the Litany of the Saints.
The essential part of the rite is when the bishop silently lays his hands upon each candidate (followed by all priests present), before offering the consecratory prayer, addressed to God the Father, invoking the power of the Holy Spirit upon those being ordained.
After the consecratory prayer, the newly ordained is vested with the stole and chasuble of those belonging to the Ministerial Priesthood and then the bishop anoints his hands with chrism before presenting him with the chalice and paten which he will use when presiding at the Eucharist. Following this, the gifts of bread and wine are brought forward by the people and given to the new priest; then all the priests present, concelebrate the Eucharist with the newly ordained taking the place of honour at the right of the bishop. If there are several newly ordained, it is they who gather closest to the bishop during the Eucharistic Prayer.
The laying of hands of the priesthood is found in 1 Timothy 4: 14:
Do not neglect the gift you have, which was conferred on you through the prophetic word with the imposition of hands of the presbyterate. ''
The following is the full text of the Rite during the Mass (after the Prelude, the Introit, the Procession, the Opening Hymn, the Kyrie, the Gloria, the Opening Prayer, and the First and Second Readings and the Gospel have all taken place), taken from a program for an ordination of priests for the Diocese of Peoria in 2015:
The Calling of the Candidates: Those to be ordained are called by name, they stand in their place and answer: "Present ''.
The Presentation of the Priest Candidates:
Vocation Director: Most Reverend Father, Holy Mother Church asks you to ordain these, our brothers, to the responsibility of the Priesthood.
Bishop: Do you know them to be worthy?
Vocation Director: After inquiry among the Christian people and upon the recommendation of those responsible, I testify that they have been found worthy.
Bishop: Relying on the help of the Lord God and our Savior Jesus Christ, we choose these men, our brothers, for the Order of the Priesthood.
All: Thanks be to God. (Applause).
Homily of the Bishop
Promise of the Elect:
Bishop: My dear sons, before you enter the Order of the Priesthood, you must declare before the people of God your intention to undertake this office. Do you resolve, with the help of the Holy Spirit, to discharge without fail the office of Priesthood in the presbyteral rank, as worthy fellow workers with the Order of Bishops in caring for the Lord 's flock?
Elect: I do.
Bishop: Do you resolve to exercise the ministry of the word worthily and wisely, preaching the Gospel and teaching the Catholic faith?
Elect: I do.
Bishop: Do you resolve to celebrate faithfully and reverently, in accord with the Church 's tradition, the mysteries of Christ, especially the Sacrifice of the Eucharist and the Sacrament of Reconciliation, for the glory of God and the sanctification of the Christian people?
Elect: I do.
Bishop: Do you resolve to implore with us God 's mercy upon the people entrusted to your care by observing the command to pray without ceasing?
Elect: I do.
Bishop: Do you resolve to be united more closely every day to Christ the High Priest, who offered himself for us to the Father as a pure Sacrifice, and with him to consecrate yourselves to God for the salvation of all?
Elect: I do, with the help of God.
Promise of Obedience of the Priest Candidates:
Each of the candidates goes to the Bishop and, kneeling before him, places his joined hands between those of the Bishop.
Bishop: Do you promise respect and obedience to me and my successors?
Elect: I do.
Bishop: May God, who has begun this good work in you bring it to fulfillment.
Invitation to Prayer
Litany of the Saints
Laying on of Hands: The Bishop first lays hands on the head of each candidate, followed by the concelebrating priests and all the priests present.
Prayer of Consecration
Investiture with the Stole and Chasuble
Anointing of Hands: The Bishop receives the linen gremial and anoints with Sacred Chrism the palms of each new priest as he kneels before him.
Procession of the Gifts of Bread and Wine by the relatives of the ordained and Offertory Hymn
Presentation of the Gifts
The Bishop stands and gives the kiss of peace to the new priests, followed by the concelebrants and all the priests present. The Liturgy of the Eucharist (the Preparation of the Altar, the Sanctus, the Memorial Acclamation, the Great Amen, the Lamb of God (Agnus Dei), the Communion Antiphon and Hymn, and the Prayer after Communion and Solemn Blessing and Dismissal) then proceeds as normal, with the newly ordained to the immediate right of the Bishop and the other celebrants.
The earliest Christians were Jews and Jewish tradition has always deemed the married state as more spiritual than the celibate state. However Christian tradition places a high valuation on chastity as a special gift of God. The life of a priest involves being conformed to Christ. It is known that the Apostle Peter had a spouse from Gospel stories of Peter 's mother - in - law sick with fever (Matt 8: 14, Mark 1: 29, Luke 4: 38) and from Paul 's mention that Peter took along a believing wife in his ministry (1 Cor 9: 5).
From its beginnings, the idea of clerical celibacy has been contested in canon courts, in theology, and in religious practices. Celibacy for Roman Catholic priests was not mandated under canon law for the universal church until the Second Lateran Council in 1139.
The Council of Elvira in Spain (c. 305 -- 306) was the first council to call for clerical celibacy. In February 385, Pope Siricius wrote the Directa decretal, which was a long letter to Spanish bishop Himerius of Tarragona, replying to the bishop 's requests on various subjects, which had been sent several months earlier to Pope Damasus I. It was the first of a series of documents published by the Church 's magisterium that claimed apostolic origin for clerical celibacy and reminded ministers of the altar of the perpetual continence required.
Within a century of the Great Schism of 1054, the Churches of the East and West arrived at different disciplines as to abstaining from sexual contact during marriage. In the East, candidates for the Priesthood could be married with permission to have regular sexual relations with their wives, but were required to abstain before celebrating the Eucharist. An unmarried person, once ordained, could not marry. Additionally, the Christian East required that, before becoming a bishop, a priest separate from his wife (she was permitted to object), with her typically becoming a nun. In the East, more normally, bishops are chosen from those priests who are monks and are thus unmarried.
In the West, the law of celibacy became mandatory by Pope Gregory VII at the Roman Synod of 1074. This law mandated that, in order to become a candidate for ordination, a man could not be married. The law remains in effect in the Latin Church, although not for those who are priests of the Eastern Catholic Churches, who remain under their own discipline. The issue of mandatory celibacy in the Latin Church continues to be debated.
Three main aspects to the priesthood: offering the Eucharist, hearing confessions, and counseling. Whilst continuing to hold the importance of these three aspects of priesthood, the church now has a significantly broader understanding. Priests are also responsible for daily recitation of the principal and minor offices of the Liturgy of the Hours. Priests are the only ministers of the Sacrament of Penance and Anointing of the Sick. They are the ordinary ministers of Baptism and witnesses to Holy Matrimony.
Worldwide, the number of priests has remained fairly steady since 1970, decreasing by about 5,000. This stagnation is due to a balance of large growth in Africa and Asia and a significant decrease in North America and Europe.
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which legislation was responsible for changing the voting age in the united states course hero | Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act - Wikipedia
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The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, often shortened to the Affordable Care Act (ACA) or nicknamed Obamacare, is a United States federal statute enacted by the 111th United States Congress and signed into law by President Barack Obama on March 23, 2010. The term "Obamacare '' was first used by opponents, then reappropriated by supporters, and eventually used by President Obama himself. Together with the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010 amendment, it represents the U.S. healthcare system 's most significant regulatory overhaul and expansion of coverage since the passage of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965.
The ACA 's major provisions came into force in 2014. By 2016, the uninsured share of the population had roughly halved, with estimates ranging from 20 -- 24 million additional people covered during 2016. The increased coverage was due, roughly equally, to an expansion of Medicaid eligibility and to major changes to individual insurance markets. Both involved new spending, funded through a combination of new taxes and cuts to Medicare provider rates and Medicare Advantage. Several Congressional Budget Office reports said that overall these provisions reduced the budget deficit, that repealing the ACA would increase the deficit, and that the law reduced income inequality by taxing primarily the top 1 % to fund roughly $600 in benefits on average to families in the bottom 40 % of the income distribution. The law also enacted a host of delivery system reforms intended to constrain healthcare costs and improve quality. After the law went into effect, increases in overall healthcare spending slowed, including premiums for employer - based insurance plans.
The act largely retains the existing structure of Medicare, Medicaid, and the employer market, but individual markets were radically overhauled around a three - legged scheme. Insurers in these markets are made to accept all applicants and charge the same rates regardless of pre-existing conditions or sex. To combat resultant adverse selection, the act mandates that individuals buy insurance and insurers cover a list of "essential health benefits ''. However, a repeal of the tax mandate, passed as part of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, will become effective in 2019. To help households between 100 -- 400 % of the Federal Poverty Line afford these compulsory policies, the law provides insurance premium subsidies. Other individual market changes include health marketplaces and risk adjustment programs.
The act has also faced challenges and opposition. The Supreme Court ruled 5 to 4 in 2012 that states could choose not to participate in the ACA 's Medicaid expansion, although it upheld the law as a whole. The federal health exchange, HealthCare.gov, faced major technical problems at the beginning of its rollout in 2013. In 2017, a unified Republican government failed to pass several different partial repeals of the ACA. The law spent several years opposed by a slim plurality of Americans polled, although its provisions were generally more popular than the law as a whole, and the law gained majority support by 2017.
The ACA includes provisions to take effect between 2010 and 2020, although most took effect on January 1, 2014. It amended the Public Health Service Act of 1944 and inserted new provisions on affordable care into Title 42 of the United States Code. Few areas of the US health care system were left untouched, making it the most sweeping health care reform since the enactment of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965. However, some areas were more affected than others. The individual insurance market was radically overhauled, and many of the law 's regulations applied specifically to this market, while the structure of Medicare, Medicaid, and the employer market were largely retained. Most of the coverage gains were made through the expansion of Medicaid, and the biggest cost savings were made in Medicare. Some regulations applied to the employer market, and the law also made delivery system changes that affected most of the health care system. Not all provisions took full effect. Some were made discretionary, some were deferred, and others were repealed before implementation.
The individual mandate was the requirement to buy insurance or pay a penalty for everyone not covered by an employer sponsored health plan, Medicaid, Medicare or other public insurance programs (such as Tricare). Also exempt were those facing a financial hardship or who were members in a recognized religious sect exempted by the Internal Revenue Service.
The mandate and the limits on open enrollment were designed to avoid the insurance death spiral in which healthy people delay insuring themselves until they get sick. In such a situation, insurers would have to raise their premiums to cover the relatively sicker and thus more expensive policies, which could create a vicious cycle in which more and more people drop their coverage.
The purpose of the mandate was to prevent the healthcare system from succumbing to adverse selection, which would result in high premiums for the insured and little coverage (and thus more illness and medical bankruptcy) for the uninsured. Studies by the CBO, Gruber and Rand Health concluded that a mandate was required. The mandate increased the size and diversity of the insured population, including more young and healthy participants to broaden the risk pool, spreading costs. Experience in New Jersey and Massachusetts offered divergent outcomes.
Among the groups who were not subject to the individual mandate are:
On December 20, 2017, the individual mandate was repealed starting in 2019 via the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017.
Households with incomes between 100 % and 400 % of the federal poverty level are eligible to receive federal subsidies for policies purchased via an exchange. Subsidies are provided as an advanceable, refundable tax credits. Additionally, small businesses are eligible for a tax credit provided that they enroll in the SHOP Marketplace. Under the law, workers whose employers offer affordable coverage will not be eligible for subsidies via the exchanges. To be eligible the cost of employer - based health insurance must exceed 9.5 % of the worker 's household income.
a. ^ Note: In 2014, the FPL was $11,800 for a single person and $24,000 for family of four. See Subsidy Calculator for specific dollar amount. b. ^ DHHS and CBO estimate the average annual premium cost in 2014 would have been $11,328 for a family of 4 without the reform.
Established the creation of health insurance exchanges in all fifty states. The exchanges are regulated, largely online marketplaces, administered by either federal or state government, where individuals and small business can purchase private insurance plans.
Setting up an exchange gives a state partial discretion on standards and prices of insurance. For example, states approve plans for sale, and influence (through limits on and negotiations with private insurers) the prices on offer. They can impose higher or state - specific coverage requirements -- including whether plans offered in the state can cover abortion. States without an exchange do not have that discretion. The responsibility for operating their exchanges moves to the federal government.
The risk - corridor program was a temporary risk management device defined under the PPACA section 1342 to encourage reluctant insurers into the "new and untested '' ACA insurance market during the first three years that ACA was implemented (2014 -- 2016). For those years the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) "would cover some of the losses for insurers whose plans performed worse than they expected. Insurers that were especially profitable, for their part, would have to return to HHS some of the money they earned on the exchanges ''
According to an article in Forbes, risk corridors "had been a successful part of the Medicare prescription drug benefit, and the ACA 's risk corridors were modeled after Medicare 's Plan D. '' They operated on the principle that "more participation would mean more competition, which would drive down premiums and make health insurance more affordable '' and "(w) hen insurers signed up to sell health plans on the exchanges, they did so with the expectation that the risk - corridor program would limit their downside losses. '' The risk corridors succeeded in attracting ACA insurers. The program did not pay for itself as planned with "accumulated losses '' up to $8.3 billion for 2014 and 2015 alone. Authorization had to be given so that HHS could pay insurers from "general government revenues ''. Congressional Republicans "railed against '' the program as a ' bailout ' for insurers. Then - Rep. Jack Kingston (R - Ga.), on the Appropriations Committee that funds the Department of Health and Human Services and the Labor Department "(slipped) in a sentence '' -- Section 227 -- in the "massive '' appropriations Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 (H.R. 3547) that said that no funds in the discretionary spending bill "could be used for risk - corridor payments. '' This effectively "blocked the administration from obtaining the necessary funds from other programs '' and placed Congress in a potential breach of contract with insurers who offered qualified health plans, under the Tucker Act as it did not pay the insurers.
On February 10, 2017, in the Moda Health v the US Government, Moda, one of the insurers that struggled financially because of the elimination of the risk corridor program, won a "$214 - million judgment against the federal government ''. On appeal, judge Thomas C. Wheeler stated, "the Government made a promise in the risk corridors program that it has yet to fulfill. Today, the court directs the Government to fulfill that promise. After all, to say to (Moda), ' The joke is on you. You should n't have trusted us, ' is hardly worthy of our great government. ''
Temporary reinsurance for insurance for insurers against unexpectedly high claims was a program that ran from 2014 through 2016. It was intended to limit insurer losses.
Of the three risk management programs, only risk adjustment was permanent. Risk adjustment attempts to spread risk among insurers to prevent purchasers with good knowledge of their medical needs from using insurance to cover their costs (adverse selection). Plans with low actuarial risk compensate plans with high actuarial risk.
ACA revised and expanded Medicaid eligibility starting in 2014. Under the law as written, all U.S. citizens and legal residents with income up to 133 % of the poverty line, including adults without dependent children, would qualify for coverage in any state that participated in the Medicaid program. The federal government paid 100 % of the cost of Medicaid eligibility expansion in participating states in 2014, 2015, and 2016; and will pay 95 % in 2017, 94 % in 2018, 93 % in 2019, and 90 % in 2020 and all subsequent years. The law provides a 5 % "income disregard '', making the effective income eligibility limit for Medicaid 138 % of the poverty level.
However, the Supreme Court ruled in NFIB v. Sebelius that this provision of the ACA was coercive, and that the federal government must allow states to continue at pre-ACA levels of funding and eligibility if they chose.
Spending reductions included a reduction in Medicare reimbursements to insurers and drug companies for private Medicare Advantage policies that the Government Accountability Office and Medicare Payment Advisory Commission found to be excessively costly relative to government Medicare; and reductions in Medicare reimbursements to hospitals that failed standards of efficiency and care.
Income from self - employment and wages of single individuals in excess of $200,000 annually are subject to an additional tax of 0.9 %. The threshold amount is $250,000 for a married couple filing jointly (threshold applies to joint compensation of the two spouses), or $125,000 for a married person filing separately.
In the ACA 's companion legislation, the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010, an additional Medicare tax of 3.8 % was applied to unearned income, specifically the lesser of net investment income or the amount by which adjusted gross income exceeds $200,000 ($250,000 for a married couple filing jointly; $125,000 for a married person filing separately.)
Excise taxes for the Affordable Care Act raised $16.3 billion in fiscal year 2015 (17 % of all excise taxes collected by the Federal Government). $11.3 billion was raised by an excise tax placed directly on health insurers based on their market share. The ACA also includes an excise tax of 40 % ("Cadillac tax '') on total employer premium spending in excess of specified dollar amounts ($10,200 for single coverage and $27,500 for family coverage) indexed to inflation, originally scheduled to take effect in 2018, but delayed until 2020 by the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2016. Annual excise taxes totaling $3 billion were levied on importers and manufacturers of prescription drugs. An excise tax of 2.3 % on medical devices and a 10 % excise tax on indoor tanning services were applied as well.
The State Children 's Health Insurance Program (CHIP) enrollment process was simplified.
Dependents were permitted to remain on their parents ' insurance plan until their 26th birthday, including dependents who no longer live with their parents, are not a dependent on a parent 's tax return, are no longer a student, or are married.
Businesses that employ 50 or more people but do not offer health insurance to their full - time employees pay a tax penalty if the government has subsidized a full - time employee 's healthcare through tax deductions or other means. This is commonly known as the employer mandate. This provision was included to encourage employers to continue providing insurance once the exchanges began operating. Approximately 44 % of the population was covered directly or indirectly through an employer.
The act includes a host of delivery system reforms intended to constrain healthcare costs and improve quality. These include Medicare payment changes to discourage hospital - acquired conditions and readmissions, bundled payment initiatives, the Center for Medicare and Medicaid Innovation, the Independent Payment Advisory Board, and the creation of Accountable care organizations.
Health care cost / quality initiatives including incentives to reduce hospital infections, to adopt electronic medical records, and to coordinate care and prioritize quality over quantity.
The Hospital Readmissions Reduction Program (HRPP) was established as an addition to the Social Security Act, in an effort to reduce hospital readmissions. This program penalizes hospitals with higher than expected readmission rates by decreasing their Medicare reimbursement rate.
The Medicare payment system switched from fee - for - service to bundled payments. A single payment was to be paid to a hospital and a physician group for a defined episode of care (such as a hip replacement) rather than individual payments to individual service providers. In addition, the Medicare Part D coverage gap (commonly called the "donut hole '') was to shrink incrementally, closing completely by January 1, 2020.
The Act allowed the creation of Accountable Care Organizations (ACOs), which are groups of doctors, hospitals and other providers that commit to give coordinated, high quality care to Medicare patients. ACOs were allowed to continue using a fee for service billing approach. They receive bonus payments from the government for minimizing costs while achieving quality benchmarks that emphasize prevention and mitigation of chronic disease. If they fail to do so, they are subject to penalties.
Unlike Health Maintenance Organizations, ACO patients are not required to obtain all care from the ACO. Also, unlike HMOs, ACOs must achieve quality of care goals.
Medicare Part D participants received a 50 % discount on brand name drugs purchased after exhausting their initial coverage and before reaching the catastrophic - coverage threshold. The United States Department of Health and Human Services began mailing rebate checks in 2010. By the year 2020, the donut hole will be completely phased out.
From 2017 onwards, states can apply for a "waiver for state innovation '' that allows them to conduct experiments that meet certain criteria. To obtain a waiver, a state must pass legislation setting up an alternative health system that provides insurance at least as comprehensive and as affordable as ACA, covers at least as many residents and does not increase the federal deficit. These states can be exempt from some of ACA 's central requirements, including the individual and employer mandates and the provision of an insurance exchange. The state would receive compensation equal to the aggregate amount of any federal subsidies and tax credits for which its residents and employers would have been eligible under ACA plan, if they can not be paid under the state plan.
In May 2011, Vermont enacted Green Mountain Care, a state - based single - payer system for which they intended to pursue a waiver to implement. In December 2014, Vermont decided not to continue due to high expected costs.
An individual mandate coupled with subsidies for private insurance as a means for universal healthcare was considered the best way to win the support of the Senate because it had been included in prior bipartisan reform proposals. The concept goes back to at least 1989, when the conservative The Heritage Foundation proposed an individual mandate as an alternative to single - payer health care. It was championed for a time by conservative economists and Republican senators as a market - based approach to healthcare reform on the basis of individual responsibility and avoidance of free rider problems. Specifically, because the 1986 Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act (EMTALA) requires any hospital participating in Medicare (nearly all do) to provide emergency care to anyone who needs it, the government often indirectly bore the cost of those without the ability to pay.
President Bill Clinton proposed a healthcare reform bill in 1993 that included a mandate for employers to provide health insurance to all employees through a regulated marketplace of health maintenance organizations. Republican Senators proposed an alternative that would have required individuals, but not employers, to buy insurance. Ultimately the Clinton plan failed amid an unprecedented barrage of negative advertising funded by politically conservative groups and the health insurance industry and due to concerns that it was overly complex. Clinton negotiated a compromise with the 105th Congress to instead enact the State Children 's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) in 1997.
The 1993 Republican alternative, introduced by Senator John Chafee as the Health Equity and Access Reform Today Act, contained a "universal coverage '' requirement with a penalty for noncompliance -- an individual mandate -- as well as subsidies to be used in state - based ' purchasing groups '. Advocates for the 1993 bill included prominent Republicans such as Senators Orrin Hatch, Chuck Grassley, Bob Bennett and Kit Bond. Of 1993 's 43 Republican Senators, 20 supported the HEART Act. Another Republican proposal, introduced in 1994 by Senator Don Nickles (R - OK), the Consumer Choice Health Security Act, contained an individual mandate with a penalty provision; however, Nickles subsequently removed the mandate from the bill, stating he had decided "that government should not compel people to buy health insurance ''. At the time of these proposals, Republicans did not raise constitutional issues with the mandate; Mark Pauly, who helped develop a proposal that included an individual mandate for George H.W. Bush, remarked, "I do n't remember that being raised at all. The way it was viewed by the Congressional Budget Office in 1994 was, effectively, as a tax. ''
In 2006, an insurance expansion bill was enacted at the state level in Massachusetts. The bill contained both an individual mandate and an insurance exchange. Republican Governor Mitt Romney vetoed the mandate, but after Democrats overrode his veto, he signed it into law. Romney 's implementation of the ' Health Connector ' exchange and individual mandate in Massachusetts was at first lauded by Republicans. During Romney 's 2008 presidential campaign, Senator Jim DeMint praised Romney 's ability to "take some good conservative ideas, like private health insurance, and apply them to the need to have everyone insured ''. Romney said of the individual mandate: "I 'm proud of what we 've done. If Massachusetts succeeds in implementing it, then that will be the model for the nation. ''
In 2007, a year after the Massachusetts reform, Republican Senator Bob Bennett and Democratic Senator Ron Wyden introduced the Healthy Americans Act, which featured an individual mandate and state - based, regulated insurance markets called "State Health Help Agencies ''. The bill initially attracted bipartisan support, but died in committee. Many of the sponsors and co-sponsors remained in Congress during the 2008 healthcare debate.
By 2008 many Democrats were considering this approach as the basis for healthcare reform. Experts said that the legislation that eventually emerged from Congress in 2009 and 2010 bore similarities to the 2007 bill and that it was deliberately patterned after Romney 's state healthcare plan.
Healthcare reform was a major topic during the 2008 Democratic presidential primaries. As the race narrowed, attention focused on the plans presented by the two leading candidates, Hillary Clinton and the eventual nominee, Barack Obama. Each candidate proposed a plan to cover the approximately 45 million Americans estimated to not have health insurance at some point each year. Clinton 's proposal would have required all Americans to obtain coverage (in effect, an individual mandate), while Obama 's proposal provided a subsidy but rejected the use of an individual mandate.
During the general election, Obama said that fixing healthcare would be one of his top four priorities as president. Obama and his opponent, Sen. John McCain, proposed health insurance reforms though they differed greatly. Senator John McCain proposed tax credits for health insurance purchased in the individual market, which was estimated to reduce the number of uninsured people by about 2 million by 2018. Obama proposed private and public group insurance, income - based subsidies, consumer protections, and expansions of Medicaid and SCHIP, which was estimated at the time to reduce the number of uninsured people by 33.9 million by 2018.
After his inauguration, Obama announced to a joint session of Congress in February 2009 his intent to work with Congress to construct a plan for healthcare reform. By July, a series of bills were approved by committees within the House of Representatives. On the Senate side, from June to September, the Senate Finance Committee held a series of 31 meetings to develop a healthcare reform bill. This group -- in particular, Democrats Max Baucus, Jeff Bingaman and Kent Conrad, along with Republicans Mike Enzi, Chuck Grassley and Olympia Snowe -- met for more than 60 hours, and the principles that they discussed, in conjunction with the other committees, became the foundation of the Senate healthcare reform bill.
Congressional Democrats and health policy experts like MIT economics professor Jonathan Gruber and David Cutler argued that guaranteed issue would require both community rating and an individual mandate to ensure that adverse selection and / or "free riding '' would not result in an insurance "death spiral ''. This approach was taken because the president and congressional leaders had concluded that more progressive plans, such as the (single - payer) Medicare for All act, could not obtain filibuster - proof support in the Senate. By deliberately drawing on bipartisan ideas -- the same basic outline was supported by former Senate majority leaders Howard Baker, Bob Dole, Tom Daschle and George J. Mitchell -- the bill 's drafters hoped to garner the votes necessary for passage.
However, following the adoption of an individual mandate, Republicans came to oppose the mandate and threatened to filibuster any bills that contained it. Senate minority leader Mitch McConnell, who led the Republican congressional strategy in responding to the bill, calculated that Republicans should not support the bill, and worked to prevent defections:
It was absolutely critical that everybody be together because if the proponents of the bill were able to say it was bipartisan, it tended to convey to the public that this is O.K., they must have figured it out.
Republican Senators, including those who had supported previous bills with a similar mandate, began to describe the mandate as "unconstitutional ''. Journalist Ezra Klein wrote in The New Yorker that "a policy that once enjoyed broad support within the Republican Party suddenly faced unified opposition. '' Reporter Michael Cooper of The New York Times wrote that: "the provision... requiring all Americans to buy health insurance has its roots in conservative thinking. ''
The reform negotiations also attracted attention from lobbyists, including deals between certain lobby groups and the advocates of the law to win the support of groups that had opposed past reforms, as in 1993. The Sunlight Foundation documented many of the reported ties between "the healthcare lobbyist complex '' and politicians in both parties.
During the August 2009 summer congressional recess, many members went back to their districts and held town hall meetings on the proposals. The nascent Tea Party movement organized protests and many conservative groups and individuals attended the meetings to oppose the proposed reforms. Many threats were made against members of Congress over the course of the debate.
When Congress returned from recess, in September 2009 President Obama delivered a speech to a joint session of Congress supporting the ongoing Congressional negotiations. He acknowledged the polarization of the debate, and quoted a letter from the late Senator Edward "Ted '' Kennedy urging on reform: "what we face is above all a moral issue; that at stake are not just the details of policy, but fundamental principles of social justice and the character of our country. '' On November 7, the House of Representatives passed the Affordable Health Care for America Act on a 220 -- 215 vote and forwarded it to the Senate for passage.
The Senate began work on its own proposals while the House was still working. The United States Constitution requires all revenue - related bills to originate in the House. To formally comply with this requirement, the Senate used H.R. 3590, a bill regarding housing tax changes for service members. It had been passed by the House as a revenue - related modification to the Internal Revenue Code. The bill became the Senate 's vehicle for its healthcare reform proposal, discarding the bill 's original content. The bill ultimately incorporated elements of proposals that were reported favorably by the Senate Health and Finance committees. With the Republican Senate minority vowing to filibuster, 60 votes would be necessary to pass the Senate. At the start of the 111th Congress, Democrats had only 58 votes; the Senate seat in Minnesota ultimately won by Al Franken was still undergoing a recount, while Arlen Specter was still a Republican (he became a Democrat in April, 2009).
Negotiations were undertaken attempting to satisfy moderate Democrats and to bring Republican senators aboard; particular attention was given to Republicans Bennett, Enzi, Grassley and Snowe. On July 7 Franken was sworn into office, providing a potential 60th vote. On August 25 Ted Kennedy -- a longtime healthcare reform advocate -- died. Paul Kirk was appointed as Senator Kennedy 's temporary replacement on September 24.
After the Finance Committee vote on October 15, negotiations turned to moderate Democrats. Majority leader Harry Reid focused on satisfying centrists. The holdouts came down to Joe Lieberman of Connecticut, an independent who caucused with Democrats, and conservative Nebraska Democrat Ben Nelson. Lieberman 's demand that the bill not include a public option was met, although supporters won various concessions, including allowing state - based public options such as Vermont 's Green Mountain Care.
The White House and Reid addressed Nelson 's concerns during a 13 - hour negotiation with two concessions: a compromise on abortion, modifying the language of the bill "to give states the right to prohibit coverage of abortion within their own insurance exchanges '', which would require consumers to pay for the procedure out of pocket if the state so decided; and an amendment to offer a higher rate of Medicaid reimbursement for Nebraska. The latter half of the compromise was derisively termed the "Cornhusker Kickback '' and was repealed in the subsequent reconciliation amendment bill.
On December 23, the Senate voted 60 -- 39 to end debate on the bill: a cloture vote to end the filibuster. The bill then passed, also 60 -- 39, on December 24, 2009, with all Democrats and two independents voting for it, and all Republicans against (except Jim Bunning, who did not vote). The bill was endorsed by the AMA and AARP.
On January 19, 2010, Massachusetts Republican Scott Brown was elected to the Senate in a special election to replace Kennedy, having campaigned on giving the Republican minority the 41st vote needed to sustain Republican filibusters. His victory had become significant because of its effects on the legislative process. The first was psychological: the symbolic importance of losing Kennedy 's traditionally Democratic Massachusetts seat made many Congressional Democrats concerned about the political cost of passing a bill.
Brown 's election meant Democrats could no longer break a filibuster in the Senate. In response, White House Chief of Staff Rahm Emanuel argued that Democrats should scale back to a less ambitious bill; House Speaker Nancy Pelosi pushed back, dismissing Emanuel 's scaled - down approach as "Kiddie Care ''.
Obama remained insistent on comprehensive reform. The news that Anthem Blue Cross in California intended to raise premium rates for its patients by as much as 39 % gave him new evidence of the need for reform. On February 22, he laid out a "Senate - leaning '' proposal to consolidate the bills. He held a meeting with both parties ' leaders on February 25. The Democrats decided that the House would pass the Senate 's bill, to avoid another Senate vote.
House Democrats had expected to be able to negotiate changes in a House -- Senate conference before passing a final bill. Since any bill that emerged from conference that differed from the Senate bill would have to pass the Senate over another Republican filibuster, most House Democrats agreed to pass the Senate bill on condition that it be amended by a subsequent bill. They drafted the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, which could be passed by the reconciliation process.
Per the Congressional Budget Act of 1974, reconciliation can not be subject to a filibuster. But reconciliation is limited to budget changes, which is why the procedure was not used to pass ACA in the first place; the bill had inherently non-budgetary regulations. Although the already - passed Senate bill could not have been passed by reconciliation, most of House Democrats ' demands were budgetary: "these changes -- higher subsidy levels, different kinds of taxes to pay for them, nixing the Nebraska Medicaid deal -- mainly involve taxes and spending. In other words, they 're exactly the kinds of policies that are well - suited for reconciliation. ''
The remaining obstacle was a pivotal group of pro-life Democrats led by Bart Stupak who were initially reluctant to support the bill. The group found the possibility of federal funding for abortion significant enough to warrant opposition. The Senate bill had not included language that satisfied their concerns, but they could not address abortion in the reconciliation bill as it would be non-budgetary. Instead, Obama issued Executive Order 13535, reaffirming the principles in the Hyde Amendment. This won the support of Stupak and members of his group and assured the bill 's passage. The House passed the Senate bill with a 219 -- 212 vote on March 21, 2010, with 34 Democrats and all 178 Republicans voting against it. The next day, Republicans introduced legislation to repeal the bill. Obama signed ACA into law on March 23, 2010. Since passage, Republicans have voted to repeal all or parts of the Affordable Care Act over sixty times; no such attempt by Republicans has been successful. The amendment bill, The Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, cleared the House on March 21; the Senate passed it by reconciliation on March 25, and Obama signed it on March 30.
The law has caused a significant reduction in the number and percentage of people without health insurance. The CDC reported that the percentage of people without health insurance fell from 16.0 % in 2010 to 8.9 % during the January -- June 2016 period. The uninsured rate dropped in every congressional district in the U.S. between 2013 and 2015. The Congressional Budget Office reported in March 2016 that there were approximately 12 million people covered by the exchanges (10 million of whom received subsidies to help pay for insurance) and 11 million made eligible for Medicaid by the law, a subtotal of 23 million people. An additional 1 million were covered by the ACA 's "Basic Health Program, '' for a total of 24 million. CBO also estimated that the ACA would reduce the net number of uninsured by 22 million in 2016, using a slightly different computation for the above figures totaling ACA coverage of 26 million, less 4 million for reductions in "employment - based coverage '' and "non-group and other coverage. ''
The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) estimated that 20.0 million adults (aged 18 -- 64) gained healthcare coverage via ACA as of February 2016, a 2.4 million increase over September 2015. HHS estimated that this 20.0 million included: a) 17.7 million from the start of open enrollment in 2013 -- 2016; and b) 2.3 million young adults aged 19 -- 25 who initially gained insurance from 2010 -- 2013, as they were allowed to remain on their parent 's plans until age 26. Of the 20.0 million, an estimated 6.1 million were aged 19 -- 25. Similarly, the Urban Institute issued a report in December 2016 that said that about 19.2 million non-elderly Americans had gained health insurance coverage from 2010 to 2015. In March 2016, the CBO reported that there were approximately 27 million people without insurance in 2016, a figure they expected would range from 26 -- 28 million through 2026. CBO also estimated the percentage of insured among all U.S. residents would remain at 90 % through that period, 92 -- 93 % excluding unauthorized immigrants.
Those states that expanded Medicaid had a 7.3 % uninsured rate on average in the first quarter of 2016, while those that did not expand Medicaid had a 14.1 % uninsured rate, among adults aged 18 to 64. As of December 2016 there were 32 states (including Washington DC) that had adopted the Medicaid extension, while 19 states had not.
By 2017, nearly 70 % of those on the exchanges could purchase insurance for less than $75 / month after subsidies, which rose to offset significant pre-subsidy price increases in the exchange markets. Healthcare premium cost increases in the employer market continued to moderate. For example, healthcare premiums for those covered by employers rose by 69 % from 2000 -- 2005, but only 27 % from 2010 to 2015, with only a 3 % increase from 2015 to 2016.
The ACA also helps reduce income inequality measured after taxes, due to higher taxes on the top 5 % of income earners and both subsidies and Medicaid expansion for lower - income persons. CBO estimated that subsidies paid under the law in 2016 averaged $4,240 per person for 10 million individuals receiving them, roughly $42 billion. For scale, the subsidy for the employer market, in the form of exempting from taxation those health insurance premiums paid on behalf of employees by employers, was approximately $1,700 per person in 2016, or $266 billion total in the employer market. The employer market subsidy was not changed by the law.
As of August 2016, 15 states operated their own exchanges. Other states either used the federal exchange, or operated in partnership with or supported by the federal government.
As of December 2016 there were 32 states (including Washington DC) that had adopted the Medicaid extension, while 19 states had not. Those states that expanded Medicaid had a 7.3 % uninsured rate on average in the first quarter of 2016, while those that did not expand Medicaid had a 14.1 % uninsured rate, among adults aged 18 to 64. Following the Supreme Court ruling in 2012, which held that states would not lose Medicaid funding if they did n't expand Medicaid under the ACA, several states rejected expanded Medicaid coverage. Over half of the national uninsured population lived in those states. In a report to Congress, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) estimated that the cost of expansion was $6,366 per person for 2015, about 49 percent above previous estimates. An estimated 9 million to 10 million people had gained Medicaid coverage, mostly low - income adults. The Kaiser Family Foundation estimated in October 2015 that 3.1 million additional people were not covered because of states that rejected the Medicaid expansion.
States that rejected the Medicaid expansion could maintain their Medicaid eligibility thresholds, which in many states were significantly below 133 % of the poverty line. Many states did not make Medicaid available to childless adults at any income level. Because subsidies on exchange insurance plans were not available to those below the poverty line, such individuals had no new options. For example, in Kansas, where only able - bodied adults with children and with an income below 32 % of the poverty line were eligible for Medicaid, those with incomes from 32 % to 100 % of the poverty level ($6,250 to $19,530 for a family of three) were ineligible for both Medicaid and federal subsidies to buy insurance. Absent children, able - bodied adults were not eligible for Medicaid in Kansas.
Studies of the impact of state decisions to reject the Medicaid expansion calculated that up to 6.4 million people could fall into this status. The federal government initially paid for 100 % of the expansion (through 2016). The subsidy tapered to 90 % by 2020 and continued to shrink thereafter. Several states argued that they could not afford their 10 % contribution. Studies suggested that rejecting the expansion would cost more than expanding Medicaid due to increased spending on uncompensated emergency care that otherwise would have been partially paid for by Medicaid coverage,
A 2016 study led by Harvard University health economics professor Benjamin Sommers found that residents of Kentucky and Arkansas, which both accepted the Medicaid expansion, were more likely to receive health care services and less likely to incur emergency room costs or have trouble paying their medical bills than before the expansion. Residents of Texas, which did not accept the Medicaid expansion, did not see a similar improvement during the same period. Kentucky opted for increased managed care, while Arkansas subsidized private insurance. The new Arkansas and Kentucky governors have proposed reducing or modifying their programs. Between 2013 and 2015, the uninsured rate dropped from 42 % to 14 % in Arkansas and from 40 % to 9 % in Kentucky, compared with 39 % to 32 % in Texas. Specific improvements included additional primary and preventive care, fewer emergency departments visits, reported higher quality care, improved health, improved drug affordability, reduced out - of - pocket spending and increased outpatient visits, increased diabetes screening, glucose testing among diabetes patients and regular care for chronic conditions.
A 2016 DHHS study found that states that expanded Medicaid had lower premiums on exchange policies, because they had fewer low - income enrollees, whose health on average is worse than that of those with higher income.
The law is designed to pay subsidies in the form of tax credits to the individuals or families purchasing the insurance, based on income levels. Higher income consumers receive lower subsidies. While pre-subsidy prices rose considerably from 2016 to 2017, so did the subsidies, to reduce the after - subsidy cost to the consumer. For example, a study published in 2016 found that the average requested 2017 premium increase among 40 - year - old non-smokers was about 9 percent, according to an analysis of 17 cities, although Blue Cross Blue Shield proposed increases of 40 percent in Alabama and 60 percent in Texas. However, some or all of these costs are offset by subsidies, paid as tax credits. For example, the Kaiser Foundation reported that for the second - lowest cost "Silver plan '' (a plan often selected and used as the benchmark for determining financial assistance), a 40 - year old non-smoker making $30,000 per year would pay effectively the same amount in 2017 as they did in 2016 (about $208 / month) after the subsidy / tax credit, despite large increases in the pre-subsidy price. This was consistent nationally. In other words, the subsidies increased along with the pre-subsidy price, fully offsetting the price increases.
Healthcare premium cost increases in the employer market continued to moderate after the implementation of the law. For example, healthcare premiums for those covered by employers rose by 69 % from 2000 -- 2005, but only 27 % from 2010 to 2015, with only a 3 % increase from 2015 to 2016. From 2008 -- 2010 (before passage of the ACA) health insurance premiums rose by an average of 10 % per year.
Several studies found that the financial crisis and accompanying recession could not account for the entirety of the slowdown and that structural changes likely share at least partial credit. A 2013 study estimated that changes to the health system had been responsible for about a quarter of the recent reduction in inflation. Paul Krawzak claimed that even if cost controls succeed in reducing the amount spent on healthcare, such efforts on their own may be insufficient to outweigh the long - term burden placed by demographic changes, particularly the growth of the population on Medicare.
In a 2016 review of the ACA published in JAMA, Barack Obama himself wrote that from 2010 through 2014 mean annual growth in real per - enrollee Medicare spending was negative, down from a mean of 4.7 % per year from 2000 through 2005 and 2.4 % per year from 2006 to 2010; similarly, mean real per - enrollee growth in private insurance spending was 1.1 % per year over the period, compared with a mean of 6.5 % from 2000 through 2005 and 3.4 % from 2005 to 2010.
While health insurance premium costs have moderated, some of this is because of insurance policies that have a higher deductible, co-payments and out - of - pocket maximums that shift costs from insurers to patients. In addition, many employees are choosing to combine a health savings account with higher deductible plans, making the impact of the ACA difficult to determine precisely.
For those who obtain their insurance through their employer ("group market ''), a 2016 survey found that:
For the "non-group '' market, of which two - thirds are covered by the ACA exchanges, a survey of 2015 data found that:
Insurance coverage helps save lives, by encouraging early detection and prevention of dangerous medical conditions. According to a 2014 study, the ACA likely prevented an estimated 50,000 preventable patient deaths from 2010 to 2013. City University public health professors David Himmelstein and Steffie Woolhandler wrote in January 2017 that a rollback of the ACA 's Medicaid expansion alone would cause an estimated 43,956 deaths annually.
The Federal Reserve publishes data on premature death rates by county, defined as those dying below age 74. According to the Kaiser Foundation, expanding Medicaid in the remaining 19 states would cover up to 4.5 million persons. Since expanding Medicaid expands coverage and expanding coverage reduces mortality, therefore expanding Medicaid reduces mortality by syllogism. Texas, Oklahoma, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Tennessee, Missouri and South Carolina, indicated on the map at right as having many counties with high premature mortality rates could therefore reduce mortality by expanding Medicaid, other things equal.
In March 2018, the CBO reported that the ACA had reduced income inequality in 2014, saying that the law led the lowest and second quintiles (the bottom 40 %) to receive an average of an additional $690 and $560 respectively while causing households in the top 1 % to pay an additional $21,000 due mostly to the net investment income tax and the additional Medicare tax. The law placed relatively little burden on households in the top quintile (top 20 %) outside of the top 1 %.
The CBO reported in several studies that the ACA would reduce the deficit, and that repealing it would increase the deficit. The 2011 comprehensive CBO estimate projected a net deficit reduction of more than $200 billion during the 2012 -- 2021 period: it calculated the law would result in $604 billion in total outlays offset by $813 billion in total receipts, resulting in a $210 billion net deficit reduction. The CBO separately predicted that while most of the spending provisions do not begin until 2014, revenue would exceed spending in those subsequent years. The CBO claimed that the bill would "substantially reduce the growth of Medicare 's payment rates for most services; impose an excise tax on insurance plans with relatively high premiums; and make various other changes to the federal tax code, Medicare, Medicaid, and other programs '' -- ultimately extending the solvency of the Medicare trust fund by 8 years.
This estimate was made prior to the Supreme Court 's ruling that enabled states to opt out of the Medicaid expansion, thereby forgoing the related federal funding. The CBO and JCT subsequently updated the budget projection, estimating the impact of the ruling would reduce the cost estimate of the insurance coverage provisions by $84 billion.
The CBO in June 2015 forecasted that repeal of ACA would increase the deficit between $137 billion and $353 billion over the 2016 -- 2025 period, depending on the impact of macroeconomic feedback effects. The CBO also forecasted that repeal of ACA would likely cause an increase in GDP by an average of 0.7 % in the period from 2021 to 2015, mainly by boosting the supply of labor.
Although the CBO generally does not provide cost estimates beyond the 10 - year budget projection period because of the degree of uncertainty involved in the projection, it decided to do so in this case at the request of lawmakers, and estimated a second decade deficit reduction of $1.2 trillion. CBO predicted deficit reduction around a broad range of one - half percent of GDP over the 2020s while cautioning that "a wide range of changes could occur ''.
The CBO cost estimates were criticized because they excluded the effects of potential legislation that would increase Medicare payments by more than $200 billion from 2010 to 2019. However, the so - called "doc fix '' is a separate issue that would have existed whether or not ACA became law -- omitting its cost from ACA was no different from omitting the cost of other tax cuts.
Uwe Reinhardt, a Princeton health economist, wrote. "The rigid, artificial rules under which the Congressional Budget Office must score proposed legislation unfortunately can not produce the best unbiased forecasts of the likely fiscal impact of any legislation '', but went on to say "But even if the budget office errs significantly in its conclusion that the bill would actually help reduce the future federal deficit, I doubt that the financing of this bill will be anywhere near as fiscally irresponsible as was the financing of the Medicare Modernization Act of 2003. '' Douglas Holtz - Eakin, CBO director during the George W. Bush administration, who later served as the chief economic policy adviser to U.S. Senator John McCain 's 2008 presidential campaign, alleged that the bill would increase the deficit by $562 billion because, he argued, it front - loaded revenue and back - loaded benefits.
Scheiber and Cohn rejected critical assessments of the law 's deficit impact, arguing that predictions were biased towards underestimating deficit reduction. They noted that for example, it is easier to account for the cost of definite levels of subsidies to specified numbers of people than account for savings from preventive healthcare, and that the CBO had a track record of overestimating costs and underestimating savings of health legislation; stating, "innovations in the delivery of medical care, like greater use of electronic medical records and financial incentives for more coordination of care among doctors, would produce substantial savings while also slowing the relentless climb of medical expenses... But the CBO would not consider such savings in its calculations, because the innovations had n't really been tried on such large scale or in concert with one another -- and that meant there was n't much hard data to prove the savings would materialize. ''
In 2010, David Walker, former U.S. Comptroller General then working for The Peter G. Peterson Foundation, stated that the CBO estimates are not likely to be accurate, because they were based on the assumption that the law would not change. The Center on Budget and Policy Priorities objected that Congress had a good record of implementing Medicare savings. According to their study, Congress followed through on the implementation of the vast majority of provisions enacted in the past 20 years to produce Medicare savings, although not the payment reductions addressed by the annual "doc fix ''.
CBO estimated in June 2015 that repealing the ACA would:
In 2015 the Center for Economic and Policy Research found no evidence that companies were reducing worker hours to avoid ACA requirements for employees working over 30 hours per week.
The CBO estimated that the ACA would slightly reduce the size of the labor force and number of hours worked, as some would no longer be tethered to employers for their insurance. Cohn, citing CBO 's projections, claimed that ACA 's primary employment effect was to alleviate job lock: "People who are only working because they desperately need employer - sponsored health insurance will no longer do so. '' He concluded that the "reform 's only significant employment impact was a reduction in the labor force, primarily because people holding onto jobs just to keep insurance could finally retire '', because they have health insurance outside of their jobs.
The employer mandate requires employers meeting certain criteria to provide health insurance to their workers. The mandate applies to employers with more than 50 employees that do not offer health insurance to their full - time workers. Critics claimed that the mandate created a perverse incentive for business to keep their full - time headcount below 50 and to hire part - time workers instead. Between March 2010 and 2014 the number of part - time jobs declined by 230,000, while the number of full - time jobs increased by 2 million. In the public sector full - time jobs turned into part - time jobs much more than in the private sector. A 2016 study found only limited evidence that ACA had increased part - time employment.
Several businesses and the state of Virginia added a 29 - hour - a-week cap for their part - time employees, to reflect the 30 - hour - or - more definition for full - time worker. As of yet, however, only a small percent of companies have shifted their workforce towards more part - time hours (4 % in a survey from the Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis). Trends in working hours and the effects of the Great Recession correlate with part - time working hour patterns. The impact of this provision may have been offset by other factors, including that health insurance helps attract and retain employees, increases productivity and reduces absenteeism; and the lower training and administration costs of a smaller full - time workforce over a larger part - time work force. Relatively few firms employ over 50 employees and more than 90 % of them offered insurance. Workers without employer insurance could purchase insurance on the exchanges.
Most policy analysts (on both right and left) were critical of the employer mandate provision. They argued that the perverse incentives regarding part - time hours, even if they did not change existing plans, were real and harmful; that the raised marginal cost of the 50th worker for businesses could limit companies ' growth; that the costs of reporting and administration were not worth the costs of maintaining employer plans; and noted that the employer mandate was not essential to maintain adequate risk pools. The effects of the provision generated vocal opposition from business interests and some unions not granted exemptions.
A 2013 / 4 survey by the National Association for Business Economics found that about 75 percent of those surveyed said ACA had n't influenced their planning or expectations for 2014, and 85 percent said the law would n't prompt a change in their hiring practices. Some 21 percent of 64 businesses surveyed said that the act would have a harmful effect and 5 percent said it would be beneficial.
From the start of 2010 to November 2014, 43 hospitals in rural areas closed. Critics claimed that the new law caused these hospitals to close. Many of these rural hospitals were built using funds from the 1946 Hill -- Burton Act, to increase access to medical care in rural areas. Some of these hospitals reopened as other medical facilities, but only a small number operated emergency rooms (ER) or urgent care centers.
Between January 2010 and 2015, a quarter of emergency room doctors said they had seen a major surge in patients, while nearly half had seen a smaller increase. Seven in ten ER doctors claimed that they lacked the resources to deal with large increases in the number of patients. The biggest factor in the increased number of ER patients was insufficient primary care providers to handle the larger number of insured patients.
Insurers claimed that because they have access to and collect patient data that allow evaluations of interventions, they are essential to ACO success. Large insurers formed their own ACOs. Many hospitals merged and purchased physician practices. The increased market share gave them more leverage in negotiations with insurers over costs and reduced patient care options.
Prior to the law 's passage, polling indicated the public 's views became increasingly negative in reaction to specific plans discussed during the legislative debate over 2009 and 2010. Polling statistics showed a general negative opinion of the law; with those in favor at approximately 40 % and those against at 51 %, as of October 2013. About 29 % of whites approve of the law, compared with 61 % of Hispanics and 91 % of African Americans. Opinions were divided by age of the person at the law 's inception, with a solid majority of seniors opposing the bill and a solid majority of those younger than forty years old in favor.
Specific elements were popular across the political spectrum, while others, such as the mandate to purchase insurance, were widely disliked. In a 2012 poll 44 % supported the law, with 56 % against. By party affiliation, 75 % of Democrats, 27 % of Independents and 14 % of Republicans favored the law overall. 82 % favored banning insurance companies from denying coverage to people with pre-existing conditions, 61 % favored allowing children to stay on their parents ' insurance until age 26, 72 % supported requiring companies with more than 50 employees to provide insurance for their employees, and 39 % supported the individual mandate to own insurance or pay a penalty. By party affiliation, 19 % of Republicans, 27 % of Independents, and 59 % of Democrats favored the mandate. Other polls showed additional provisions receiving majority support, including the creation of insurance exchanges, pooling small businesses and the uninsured with other consumers so that more people can take advantage of large group pricing benefits and providing subsidies to individuals and families to make health insurance more affordable.
In a 2010 poll, 62 % of respondents said they thought ACA would "increase the amount of money they personally spend on health care '', 56 % said the bill "gives the government too much involvement in health care '', and 19 % said they thought they and their families would be better off with the legislation. Other polls found that people were concerned that the law would cost more than projected and would not do enough to control costs.
Some opponents believed that the reform did not go far enough: a 2012 poll indicated that 71 % of Republican opponents rejected it overall, while 29 % believed it did not go far enough; independent opponents were divided 67 % to 33 %; and among the much smaller group of Democratic opponents, 49 % rejected it overall and 51 % wanted more. In June 2013, a majority of the public (52 -- 34 %) indicated a desire for "Congress to implement or tinker with the law rather than repeal it ''. After the Supreme Court upheld the individual mandate, a 2012 poll held that "most Americans (56 %) want to see critics of President Obama 's health care law drop efforts to block it and move on to other national issues ''. A 2014 poll reported that 48.9 % of respondents had an unfavorable view of ACA vs. 38.3 % who had a favorable view (of more than 5,500 individuals).
A 2014 poll reported that 26 % of Americans support ACA. Another held that 8 % of respondents say that the Affordable Care Act "is working well the way it is ''. In late 2014, a Rasmussen poll reported Repeal: 30 %, Leave as is: 13 %, Improve: 52 %.
In 2015, a CBS News / New York Times poll reported that 47 % of Americans approved the health care law. This was the first time that a major poll indicated that more respondents approved ACA than disapproved of it. The recurring Kaiser Health Tracking Poll from December 2016 reported that: a) 30 % wanted to expand what the law does; b) 26 % wanted to repeal the entire law; c) 19 % wanted to move forward with implementing the law as it is; and d) 17 % wanted to scale back what the law does, with the remainder undecided.
Separate polls from Fox News and NBC / WSJ both taken during January 2017 indicated more people viewed the law favorably than did not for the first time. One of the reasons for the improving popularity of the law is that Democrats who opposed it in the past (many prefer a "Medicare for All '' approach) have shifted their positions since the ACA is under threat of repeal.
A January 2017 Morning Consult poll showed that 35 % of respondents either believed that "Obamacare '' and the "Affordable Care Act '' were different or did not know. Approximately 45 % were unsure whether the "repeal of Obamacare '' also meant the "repeal of the Affordable Care Act. '' 39 % did not know that "many people would lose coverage through Medicaid or subsidies for private health insurance if the A.C.A. were repealed and no replacement enacted, '' with Democrats far more likely (79 %) to know that fact than Republicans (47 %).
A 2017 study found that personal experience with public health insurance programs leads to greater support for the Affordable Care Act, and the effects appear to be most pronounced among Republicans and low - information voters.
The term "Obamacare '' was originally coined by opponents as a pejorative. The term emerged in March 2007 when healthcare lobbyist Jeanne Schulte Scott used it in a health industry journal, writing "We will soon see a ' Giuliani - care ' and ' Obama - care ' to go along with ' McCain - care ', ' Edwards - care ', and a totally revamped and remodeled ' Hillary - care ' from the 1990s ''. According to research by Elspeth Reeve, the expression was used in early 2007, generally by writers describing the candidate 's proposal for expanding coverage for the uninsured. It first appeared in a political campaign by Mitt Romney in May 2007 in Des Moines, Iowa. Romney said, "In my state, I worked on healthcare for some time. We had half a million people without insurance, and I said, ' How can we get those people insured without raising taxes and without having government take over healthcare? ' And let me tell you, if we do n't do it, the Democrats will. If the Democrats do it, it will be socialized medicine; it 'll be government - managed care. It 'll be what 's known as Hillarycare or Barack Obamacare, or whatever you want to call it. ''
By mid-2012, Obamacare had become the colloquial term used by both supporters and opponents. In contrast, the use of "Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act '' or "Affordable Care Act '' became limited to more formal and official use. Use of the term in a positive sense was suggested by Democrat John Conyers. Obama endorsed the nickname, saying, "I have no problem with people saying Obama cares. I do care. ''
In March 2012, the Obama reelection campaign embraced the term "Obamacare '', urging Obama 's supporters to post Twitter messages that begin, "I like # Obamacare because... ''.
In October 2013, the Associated Press and NPR began cutting back on use of the term. Stuart Seidel, NPR 's managing editor, said that the term "seems to be straddling somewhere between being a politically - charged term and an accepted part of the vernacular ''.
On August 7, 2009, Sarah Palin pioneered the term "death panels '' to describe groups that would decide whether sick patients were "worthy '' of medical care. "Death panel '' referred to two claims about early drafts.
One was that under the law, seniors could be denied care due to their age and the other that the government would advise seniors to end their lives instead of receiving care. The ostensible basis of these claims was the provision for an Independent Payment Advisory Board (IPAB). IPAB was given the authority to recommend cost - saving changes to Medicare by facilitating the adoption of cost - effective treatments and cost - recovering measures when the statutory levels set for Medicare were exceeded within any given 3 - year period. In fact, the Board was prohibited from recommending changes that would reduce payments to certain providers before 2020, and was prohibited from recommending changes in premiums, benefits, eligibility and taxes, or other changes that would result in rationing.
The other related issue concerned advance - care planning consultation: a section of the House reform proposal would have reimbursed physicians for providing patient - requested consultations for Medicare recipients on end - of - life health planning (which is covered by many private plans), enabling patients to specify, on request, the kind of care they wished to receive. The provision was not included in ACA.
In 2010, the Pew Research Center reported that 85 % of Americans were familiar with the claim, and 30 % believed it was true, backed by three contemporaneous polls. A poll in August 2012 found that 39 % of Americans believed the claim. The allegation was named PolitiFact 's "Lie of the Year '', one of FactCheck.org 's "whoppers '' and the most outrageous term by the American Dialect Society. AARP described such rumors as "rife with gross -- and even cruel -- distortions ''.
ACA requires members of Congress and their staffs to obtain health insurance either through an exchange or some other program approved by the law (such as Medicare), instead of using the insurance offered to federal employees (the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program).
ACA does not provide benefits to illegal immigrants. It explicitly denies insurance subsidies to "unauthorized (illegal) aliens ''.
One argument against the ACA is that the insurers are leaving the marketplaces, as they can not profitably cover the available pool of customers, which contains too many unhealthy participants relative to healthy participants. A scenario where prices rise, due to an unfavorable mix of customers from the insurer 's perspective, resulting in fewer customers and fewer insurers in the marketplace, further raising prices, has been called a "death spiral. '' During 2017, the median number of insurers offering plans on the ACA exchanges in each state was 3.0, meaning half the states had more and half had fewer insurers. There were five states with one insurer in 2017; 13 states with two; 11 states with three; and the remainder had four insurers or more. Wisconsin had the most, with 15 insurers in the marketplace. The median number of insurers was 4.0 in 2016, 5.0 in 2015, and 4.0 in 2014.
Further, the CBO reported in January 2017 that it expected enrollment in the exchanges to rise from 10 million during 2017 to 13 million by 2027, assuming laws in place at the end of the Obama administration were continued. Following a 2015 CBO report that reached a similar conclusion, Paul Krugman wrote: "But the truth is that this report is much, much closer to what supporters of reform have said than it is to the scare stories of the critics -- no death spirals, no job - killing, major gains in coverage at relatively low cost. ''
Opposition and efforts to repeal the legislation have drawn support from sources that include labor unions, conservative advocacy groups, Republicans, small business organizations and the Tea Party movement. These groups claimed that the law would disrupt existing health plans, increase costs from new insurance standards, and increase the deficit. Some opposed the idea of universal healthcare, viewing insurance as similar to other unsubsidized goods. President Donald Trump has repeatedly promised to "repeal and replace '' it.
As of 2013 unions that expressed concerns about ACA included the AFL - CIO, which called ACA "highly disruptive '' to union health care plans, claiming it would drive up costs of union - sponsored plans; the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, United Food and Commercial Workers International Union, and UNITE - HERE, whose leaders sent a letter to Reid and Pelosi arguing, "ACA will shatter not only our hard - earned health benefits, but destroy the foundation of the 40 - hour work week that is the backbone of the American middle class. '' In January 2014, Terry O'Sullivan, president of the Laborers ' International Union of North America (LIUNA) and D. Taylor, president of Unite Here sent a letter to Reid and Pelosi stating, "ACA, as implemented, undermines fair marketplace competition in the health care industry. ''
In October 2016, Mark Dayton, the governor of Minnesota and a member of the Minnesota Democratic -- Farmer -- Labor Party, said that the ACA had "many good features '' but that it was "no longer affordable for increasing numbers of people '' and called on the Minnesota legislature to provide emergency relief to policyholders. Dayton later said he regretted his remarks after they were seized on by Republicans seeking to repeal the law.
Opponents challenged ACA 's constitutionality in multiple lawsuits on multiple grounds. In National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, the Supreme Court ruled on a 5 -- 4 vote that the individual mandate was constitutional when viewed as a tax, although not under the Commerce Clause.
The Court further determined that states could not be forced to participate in the Medicaid expansion. ACA withheld all Medicaid funding from states declining to participate in the expansion. The Court ruled that this withdrawal of funding was unconstitutionally coercive and that individual states had the right to opt out without losing preexisting Medicaid funding.
In March 2012, the Roman Catholic Church, while supportive of ACA 's objectives, voiced concern through the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops that aspects of the mandate covering contraception and sterilization and HHS 's narrow definition of a religious organization violated the First Amendment right to free exercise of religion and conscience. Various lawsuits addressed these concerns.
On June 25, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 6 -- 3 that federal subsidies for health insurance premiums could be used in the 34 states that did not set up their own insurance exchanges.
In United States House of Representatives v. Price (previously United States House of Representatives v. Burwell) the House sued the administration alleging that the money for premium subsidy payments to insurers had not been appropriated, as required for any federal government spending. The ACA subsidy that helps customers pay premiums was not part of the suit.
Without the cost - sharing subsidies, the government estimated that premiums would increase by 20 percent to 30 percent for silver plans. In 2017, the uncertainty about whether the payments would continue caused Blue Cross Blue Shield of North Carolina to try to raise premiums by 22.9 percent the next year, as opposed to an increase of only 8.8 percent that it would have sought if the payments were assured.
Officials in Texas, Florida, Alabama, Wyoming, Arizona, Oklahoma and Missouri opposed those elements of ACA over which they had discretion. For example, Missouri declined to expand Medicaid or establish a health insurance marketplace engaging in active non-cooperation, enacting a statute forbidding any state or local official to render any aid not specifically required by federal law. Other Republican politicians discouraged efforts to advertise the benefits of the law. Some conservative political groups launched ad campaigns to discourage enrollment.
ACA was the subject of unsuccessful repeal efforts by Republicans in the 111th, 112th, and 113th Congresses: Representatives Steve King (R - IA) and Michele Bachmann (R - MN) introduced bills in the House to repeal ACA the day after it was signed, as did Senator Jim DeMint (R - SC) in the Senate. In 2011, after Republicans gained control of the House of Representatives, one of the first votes held was on a bill titled "Repealing the Job - Killing Health Care Law Act '' (H.R. 2), which the House passed 245 -- 189. All Republicans and 3 Democrats voted for repeal. House Democrats proposed an amendment that repeal not take effect until a majority of the Senators and Representatives had opted out of the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program; Republicans voted down the measure. In the Senate, the bill was offered as an amendment to an unrelated bill, but was voted down. President Obama had stated that he would have vetoed the bill even if it had passed both chambers of Congress.
Following the 2012 Supreme Court ruling upholding ACA as constitutional, Republicans held another vote to repeal the law on July 11; the House of Representatives voted with all 244 Republicans and 5 Democrats in favor of repeal, which marked the 33rd, partial or whole, repeal attempt. On February 3, 2015, the House of Representatives added its 67th repeal vote to the record (239 to 186). This attempt also failed.
Strong partisan disagreement in Congress prevented adjustments to the Act 's provisions. However, at least one change, a proposed repeal of a tax on medical devices, has received bipartisan support. Some Congressional Republicans argued against improvements to the law on the grounds they would weaken the arguments for repeal.
Republicans attempted to defund its implementation, and in October 2013, House Republicans refused to fund the federal government unless accompanied with a delay in ACA implementation, after the President unilaterally deferred the employer mandate by one year, which critics claimed he had no power to do. The House passed three versions of a bill funding the government while submitting various versions that would repeal or delay ACA, with the last version delaying enforcement of the individual mandate. The Democratic Senate leadership stated the Senate would only pass a "clean '' funding bill without any restrictions on ACA. The government shutdown began on October 1. Senate Republicans threatened to block appointments to relevant agencies, such as the Independent Payment Advisory Board and Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services.
During a midnight congressional session starting January 11, 2017, the Senate of the 115th Congress of the United States voted to approve a "budget blueprint '' which would allow Republicans to repeal parts of the law "without threat of a Democratic filibuster. '' The plan, which passed 51 -- 48, is a budget blueprint named by Senate Republicans the "Obamacare ' repeal resolution. ' '' Democrats opposing the resolution staged a protest during the vote.
House Republicans announced their replacement for the ACA, the American Health Care Act, on March 6, 2017. On March 24, 2017 the effort, led by Paul Ryan and Donald Trump, to repeal and replace the ACA failed amid a revolt among Republican representatives.
May 4, 2017, the United States House of Representatives voted to pass the American Health Care Act (and thereby repeal most of the Affordable Care Act) by a narrow margin of 217 to 213, sending the bill to the Senate for deliberation. The Senate Republican leadership announced that Senate Republicans would write their own version of the bill, instead of voting on the House version.
The Senate process began with an unprecedented level of secrecy; Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell named a group of 13 Republican Senators to draft the Senate 's substitute version in private, raising bipartisan concerns about a lack of transparency. On June 22, 2017, Republicans released the first discussion draft for an amendment to the bill, which would rename it to the "Better Care Reconciliation Act of 2017 '' (BCRA). On July 25, 2017, although no amendment proposal had yet garnered majority support, Senate Republicans voted to advance the bill to the floor and begin formal consideration of amendments. Senators Susan Collins and Lisa Murkowski were the only two dissenting Republicans making the vote a 50 -- 50 tie. Vice President Mike Pence then cast the tiebreaking vote in the affirmative.
All specific bills were defeated, however. The revised BCRA failed on a vote of 43 -- 57. A subsequent "Obamacare Repeal and Reconciliation Act '' abandoned the "repeal and replace '' approach in favor of a straight repeal, but failed on a vote of 45 -- 55. Finally, the "Health Care Freedom Act '', nicknamed "skinny repeal '' because it would have made the least change to the ACA, failed by 49 -- 51, with Collins, Murkowski, and Senator John McCain joining all the Democrats and independents in voting against it.
Under both the ACA (current law) and the AHCA, CBO reported that the health exchange marketplaces would remain stable (i.e., no "death spiral ''). However, Republican politicians have taken a variety of steps to undermine it, creating uncertainty that has adversely impacted enrollment and insurer participation while increasing premiums. Insisting the exchanges are in difficulty was also used as an argument for passing reforms such as AHCA or BCRA. Past and ongoing Republican attempts to weaken the law have included, among others:
President Trump announced on October 12, 2017 he would end the smaller of the two types of subsidies under the ACA, the cost sharing reduction (CSR) subsidies. This controversial decision significantly raised premiums on the ACA exchanges along with the premium tax credit subsidies that rise with them, with the CBO estimating a $200 billion increase in the budget deficit over a decade. The reasons for this are complex and require discussion of how the two major subsidies work.
The CSR subsidies are paid to insurance companies to reduce copayments and deductibles for a smaller group of ACA enrollees, those earning less than 250 % of the federal poverty line (FPL). The second and larger type of subsidy, the premium tax credits designed to reduce the post-subsidy cost of monthly premiums, apply to all enrollees earning less than 400 % of the FPL. For scale, during 2017, approximately $7 billion in CSR subsidies will be paid, versus $34 billion for the premium tax credits. A court decision meant that CSR subsidies were treated as discretionary spending, meaning Congress must decide to appropriate funds for them each year. This effectively gave the President the power to end them, as Democrats with a minority in Congress could not appropriate the funds, let alone override his veto of an appropriations bill.
However, the premium tax credits are mandatory spending, meaning all those eligible under the ACA receive them without Congressional appropriation. These adjust with premium increases to limit after - subsidy premium payments by ACA enrollees to a fixed percentage of income. Based on President Trump 's threats to end the CSR payments during early 2017, several insurers and actuarial groups estimated this resulted in a 20 percentage point or more increase in premiums for the 2018 plan year. In other words, premium increases expected to be 10 % or less in 2018 became 28 -- 40 % instead.
The CBO reported in August 2017 (prior to President Trump 's decision) that ending the CSR payments might increase ACA premiums by 20 percentage points or more, with a resulting increase of nearly $200 billion in the budget deficit over a decade, as the premium tax credit subsidies would rise along with premium prices. CBO also estimated that initially up to one million fewer would have health insurance coverage, although more might have it in the long - run as the subsidies expand. CBO expected the exchanges to remain stable (i.e., no "death spiral '' before or after Trump 's action) as the premiums would increase and prices would stabilize at the higher (non-CSR) level.
CBO estimated that of the 12 million with private insurance via the ACA exchanges in 2017, about 10 million receive premium tax credit subsidies and will be shielded from premium increases, as their after - subsidy premiums are limited as a percentage of income under the ACA. However, those 2 million who do not receive subsidies face the brunt of the 20 % + premium increases, without subsidy assistance. This may adversely impact enrollment in 2018 and beyond. Another 13 million who are covered under the ACA 's Medicaid expansion (in the 31 states that chose to expand coverage) should not be directly affected by Trump 's action.
President Trump 's argument that the CSR payments were a "bailout '' for insurance companies and therefore should be stopped, actually results in the government paying more to insurance companies ($200 B over a decade) due to increases in the premium tax credit subsidies.
At various times during and after the ACA debate, Obama stated that "if you like your health care plan, you 'll be able to keep your health care plan ''. However, in fall 2013 millions of Americans with individual policies received notices that their insurance plans were terminated, and several million more risked seeing their current plans cancelled. However, Poltifact cited various estimates that only about 2 % of the total insured population (4 million out of 262 million) received such notices. Obama 's previous unambiguous assurance that consumers ' could keep their own plans became a focal point for critics, who challenged his truthfulness. On November 7, 2013, President Obama stated: "I am sorry that (people losing their plans) are finding themselves in this situation based on assurances they got from me. '' Various bills were introduced in Congress to allow people to keep their plans.
In 2010 small business tax credits took effect. Then Pre-Existing Condition Insurance Plan (PCIP) took effect to offer insurance to those that had been denied coverage by private insurance companies because of a pre-existing condition. By 2011, insurers had stopped marketing child - only policies in 17 states, as they sought to escape this requirement. In National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius decided on June 28, 2012, the Supreme Court ruled that the individual mandate was constitutional when the associated penalties were construed as a tax. The decision allowed states to opt out of the Medicaid expansion.
In 2013, the Internal Revenue Service ruled that the cost of covering only the individual employee would be considered in determining whether the cost of coverage exceeded 9.5 % of income. Family plans would not be considered even if the cost was above the 9.5 % income threshold. In July 2 it was announced the implementation of the employer mandate would be delayed until 2015. The launch for both the state and federal exchanges was troubled due to management and technical failings. HealthCare.gov, the website that offers insurance through the exchanges operated by the federal government, crashed on opening and suffered endless problems. Operations stabilized in 2014, although not all planned features were complete.
The Government Accountability Office released a non-partisan study in 2014 that concluded that the administration did not provide "effective planning or oversight practices '' in developing the ACA website. In Burwell v. Hobby Lobby the Supreme Court exempted closely held corporations with religious convictions from the contraception rule. At the beginning of the 2015, 11.7 million had signed up (ex-Medicaid). By the end of the year about 8.8 million consumers had stayed in the program. The December spending bill delayed the onset of the "Cadillac tax '' on expensive insurance plans by two years, until 2020.
An estimated 9 million to 10 million people had gained Medicaid coverage in 2016, mostly low - income adults. A survey of New York businesses found an increase of 8.5 percent in health care costs, less than the prior year 's survey had expected. The five major national insurers expected to lose money on ACA policies in 2016. One of the causes of insurer losses is the lower income, older and sicker enrollee population. Newly elected Louisiana Governor John Bel Edwards issued an executive order to accept the expansion, becoming the 32nd state to do so. The program was expected to enroll an additional 300,000 Louisianans.
More than 9.2 million people signed up for care on the national exchange (healthcare.gov) for 2017, down some 400,000 from 2016. This decline was due primarily to the election of President Trump. Of the 9.2 million, 3.0 million were new customers and 6.2 million were returning. The 9.2 million excludes the 11 states that run their own exchanges, which have signed up around 3 million additional people. The IRS announced that it would not require that tax returns indicate that a person has health insurance, reducing the effectiveness of the individual mandate, in response to an executive order from President Donald Trump. The CBO reported in March that the healthcare exchanges were expected to be stable. In May the United States House of Representatives voted to repeal the ACA using the American Health Care Act of 2017. The individual mandate was repealed starting in 2019 via the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. The CBO estimated that the repeal would cause 13 million people to lose their health insurance by 2027.
Senator Lamar Alexander and Senator Patty Murray reached a compromise to amend the Affordable Care Act to fund cost cost - sharing reductions. President Trump had stopped paying the cost sharing subsidies and the Congressional Budget Office estimated his action would cost $200 billion, cause insurance sold on the exchange to cost 20 % more and cause one million people to lose insurance. The plan will also provide more flexibility for state waivers, allow a new "Copper Plan '' or catastrophic coverage for all, allow interstate insurance compacts, and redirect consumer fees to states for outreach.
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what is the meaning of the name melanie | Melanie - wikipedia
Melanie is a feminine given name derived from the Greek μελανία (melania), "blackness '' and that from μέλας (melas), meaning "dark ''. Borne in its Latin form by two saints: Melania the Elder and her granddaughter Melania the Younger, the name was introduced to England by the Normans in its French form Melanie. However the name only became common in English usage in the 1930s due to the popularity of Margaret Mitchell 's 1936 novel Gone with the Wind and its 1939 film adaptation, as one of the novel 's main characters was named Melanie Hamilton. The name 's popularity increased until the 1970s, since remaining constant. Melanie was the 80th most popular name for girls born in the United States in 2007 and, as Mélanie, it was the 86th most popular name for girls born in France in 2004.
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who discovers the occurance of oil in assam | Digboi - Wikipedia
Digboi (IPA: ˈdɪgˌbɔɪ) is a town and a town area committee in Tinsukia district in the north - eastern part of the state of Assam, India
Crude oil was discovered here in late 19th century. Digboi is known as the Oil City of Assam where the first oil well in Asia was drilled. The first refinery was started here as early as 1901. Digboi has the oldest oil well in operation. With a significant number of British professionals working for Assam Oil Company until the decade following independence of India, Digboi had a well - developed infrastructure and a number of bungalows unique to the town. It has eighteen holes golf course as part of the Digboi Club. It has guest houses and tourist residential apartments laid on Italian architectural plan to promote tourism in upper Assam.
"Barely seven years after Edwin L. Drake drilled the world 's first oil well in 1859 at Titusville, Pennsylvania, USA, history registered another exploration of the black liquid gold, in the largest continent. More than a century ago, history was made in a remote corner of Assam in the midst of the dense and malaria infested jungles, by a band of intrepid pioneers searching for black gold. In 1867 Italian Engineers, commissioned by the Assam Railways and Trading Company, to build a railway line from Dibrugarh to Margherita (Headquarters of Assam Railways and Trading Company) accidentally discovered oil at Digboi around 10 miles from Margherita. ' Dig boy, dig ', shouted the English engineer, Mr WL Lake, elephants emerging out of the dense forest with oil stains on their feet ''. This is possibly the most distilled -- though fanciful -- version of the legend explaining the siting and naming of Digboi. Two events separated by seven years have become fused, but although neither is likely to be provable, such evidence that does exist appears sufficiently detailed to be credible. Various web sites offer variations on the elephant 's foot story, a consensus of which would be that engineers extending the Dibru - Sadiya railway line to Ledo for the Assam Railways and Trading Company (AR&TC) in 1882 were using elephants for haulage and noticed that the mud on one pachyderm 's feet smelled of oil. Retracing the trail of footprints, they found oil seeping to the surface. One of the engineers, the Englishman Willie Leova Lake, was an ' oil enthusiast ' and persuaded the company to drill a well. Oil India Ltd makes no reference to elephants ' feet in its company history, although on its previous web site the company noted that Lake had noticed "the oil seepages around Borbhil ''. Once the project had been approved, Lake assembled equipment, boilers, and local labour, and engaged elephants to haul the machinery to the site. The first well was started in September 1889, but an encouraging first strike at 178 feet (54 m) turned out to be a small pocket, and drilling recommenced. This continued until November 1890 when the well was completed at a total depth of 662 feet (202 m), and it was during this extended period of drilling that Oil India 's old web site placed the legend of Lake exhorting one or more of his labourers to "Dig, boy! ''
It is said that the town gets its name from the phrase "dig - boy - dig, '' which is what the English told the labourers as they dug for crude oil. The town 's history begins in 1867 when a small group of men from the Assam Railway and Trading Co. found their elephants ' legs soaked in black mud, that smelt somewhat like oil. The men began exploring more, and in 1889, the English started a small oil installation. India (and Asia) obtained its first refinery in Digboi in the year 1901. Assam Oil Company was formed in 1899 to look after the running of the oil business in this area. The Digboi oil field produced close to 7,000 barrels per day (1,100 m / d) of crude oil at its peak, which was during World War II. The field was pushed to produce the maximum amount of oil with little regard to reservoir management; as a result, production started to drop almost immediately after the war. The current production from the Digboi fields is about 240 barrels per day (38 m / d). Over 1,000 wells have been drilled at Digboi -- the first well in 1889 had stuck oil at 178 feet (54 m). In 1989, the Department of Posts, India came out with a stamp commemorating 100 years of the Digboi fields.
Today, though the crude production is not high, Digboi has the distinction of being India 's oldest continuously producing oilfield. Digboi refinery, now a division of Indian Oil Corporation, had a capacity of about 0.65 MMTPA as of 2003.
Digboi is now Headquarter of Assam Oil Division of Indian Oil Corporation Limited. The Earliest recorded to the existence of oil in India is found in the memories and dispatches of the Army Officers who penetrated the jungles of Upper Assam since 1825. Lt. R. Wilcox, Major A. White, Capt. Francis Jenkins, Capt. P.S. Hanney -- they all saw at different times petroleum exuding from banks of the Dihing River. Mr. C.A. Bruce (1828) and Mr. H.B. Medicott (1865) of the Geological Survey of India also saw oil while prospecting for coal in Upper Assam.
Mr. Goodenough of McKillop, Stewart & Co. Calcutta was the first in India to start a systematic programme of drilling for oil in November 1866, at Nahorpung about 30 miles (48 km) south east of Dibgoi, just seven years after the world 's first commercial oil well was drilled in 1859, by Col Edwin L Drake in Pennsylvania, USA. This hand dug well -- the first oil well in India -- was drilled up to 102 feet (31 m) and proved dry. However the second well struck oil at Makum near Tinsukia, about 14 miles (23 km) from Digboi.
In 1939, there was a major labour union strike in the Refinery. The Gandhi Movement of Congress for Indian Independence struggle; backed by labour rights and equality status was headed by Sardar Amar Singh Marwah. The break of the World War II coincided with the Digboi labour strike resulted in harsh steps taken by the British Administrative offices to crush the strike. The Viceroy and the Governor had intervened to bring a settlement adopting sturdy steps were take to crush the union by shooting down of the president of the labour union to be followed by issuing orders of Quit Digboi, Quit Lakhimpur and finally Quit Assam to the leaders of the labour union.
The Digboi Refinery modernization project was taken up in large scale in order to overcome the technological obsolescence of the old refinery. Subsequently, a number of other major projects were undertaken by Assam Oil Division to further revamp and modernise Digboi Refinery. Digboi refinery has been awarded the ISO - 14001 and OHSMC certificate.
Digboi is located at 27 ° 22'48.0 "N 95 ° 37'48.0 '' E. It has an average elevation of 165 metres (541 ft). It is situated 510 km north east of Guwahati.
As of 2011 India census, Digboi has population of 21,736 of which 10,964 are males while 10,772 are females. Population of Children with age of 0 - 6 is 1745 which is 8.03 % of total population of Digboi. Committee, Female Sex Ratio is of 982 against state average of 958. Moreover Child Sex Ratio in Digboi is around 981 compared to Assam state average of 962. Literacy rate of Digboi city is 92.08 % higher than state average of 72.19 %. In Digboi, Male literacy is around 95.09 % while female literacy rate is 89.02 %.
Digboi Oil Town was considered as a separate census town in 2011 India census. The population is largely heterogeneous. Assamese, Bengali, Nepali, Bihari, Marwari communities form the majority. People from various tribes such as the tea - tribes (brought in by the colonial planters as indentured labourers from the Chhotanagpur plateau region), Bodos, Mishings etc. have also made it their home.
As being a small part of the diverse state Assam. It is flooded with assamese culture and heritage. As being colonised by British and rising of industrial era the place have seen adverse changes. Workers, labourers were brought in. Digboi township accounted for diverse group of people that entered in search of livelihood. But the outskirts were still agriculture based. Assam being rich in fertility, tea is produced throughout the place bringing a bright opportunity to the people and the place itself. Yet small people here portrait the picture of the nation itself.
The nearest airport is the Mohanbari Airport, Dibrugarh and the nearest railway junction is the Tinsukia Junction. One can get flight to Dibrugarh from Delhi and Kolkata on daily basis. Also Dibrugarh - New Delhi Rajdhani express runs daily from Dibrugarh via New Tinsukia Junction. There are also proper roadways which link the Digboi Oil town to some other towns like Duliajan, Makum etc. Digboi has got a railway station and it connects well with Guwahati. Digboi can be reached by public transport bus and mini-vans as well. Various companies run bus between Digboi and other neighbouring towns and Guwahati. Rickshaw is the main mode of transport within the city.
Digboi is part of Dibrugarh (Lok Sabha constituency) which is represented by Mr Rameswar Teli of Bharatiya Janata Party.It lies in the Digboi Constituency of the State Assembly where it is represented by Mr. Suren Phukan of Bharatiya Janata Party.
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according to the authors of the text what is a serious technical error in the constitution | Text messaging - wikipedia
Text messaging, or texting, is the act of composing and sending electronic messages, typically consisting of alphabetic and numeric characters, between two or more users of mobile devices, desktops / laptops, or other type of compatible computer. Text messages may be sent over a cellular network, or may also be sent via an Internet connection.
The term originally referred to messages sent using the Short Message Service (SMS). It has grown beyond alphanumeric text to include multimedia messages (known as MMS) containing digital images, videos, and sound content, as well as ideograms known as emoji (happy faces, sad faces, and other icons).
As of 2017, text messages are used by youth and adults for personal, family and social purposes and in business. Governmental and non-governmental organizations use text messaging for communication between colleagues. As with emailing, in the 2010s, the sending of short informal messages has become an accepted part of many cultures. This makes texting a quick and easy way to communicate with friends and colleagues, including in contexts where a call would be impolite or inappropriate (e.g., calling very late at night or when one knows the other person is busy with family or work activities). Like e-mail and voice mail, and unlike calls (in which the caller hopes to speak directly with the recipient), texting does not require the caller and recipient to both be free at the same moment; this permits communication even between busy individuals. Text messages can also be used to interact with automated systems, for example, to order products or services from e-commerce websites, or to participate in online contests. Advertisers and service providers use direct text marketing to send messages to mobile users about promotions, payment due dates, and other notifications instead of using postal mail, email, or voicemail.
The service is referred to by different colloquialisms depending on the region. It may simply be referred to as a "text '' in North America, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and the Philippines, an "SMS '' in most of mainland Europe, or an "MMS '' or "SMS '' in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. The sender of a text message is commonly referred to as a "texter ''.
The electrical telegraph systems, developed in the early 19th century, used simple electrical signals to send text messages. In the late 19th century, the wireless telegraphy was developed using radio waves.
In 1933, the German Reichspost (Reich postal service) introduced the first "telex '' service.
The University of Hawaii began using radio to send digital information as early as 1971, using ALOHAnet. Friedhelm Hillebrand conceptualised SMS in 1984 while working for Deutsche Telekom. Sitting at a typewriter at home, Hillebrand typed out random sentences and counted every letter, number, punctuation, and space. Almost every time, the messages contained fewer than 160 characters, thus giving the basis for the limit one could type via text messaging. With Bernard Ghillebaert of France Télécom, he developed a proposal for the GSM (Groupe Spécial Mobile) meeting in February 1985 in Oslo. The first technical solution evolved in a GSM subgroup under the leadership of Finn Trosby. It was further developed under the leadership of Kevin Holley and Ian Harris (see Short Message Service). SMS forms an integral part of SS7 (Signalling System No. 7). Under SS7, it is a "state '' with a 160 character data, coded in the ITU - T "T. 56 '' text format, that has a "sequence lead in '' to determine different language codes, and may have special character codes that permits, for example, sending simple graphs as text. This was part of ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) and since GSM is based on this, made its way to the mobile phone. Messages could be sent and received on ISDN phones, and these can send SMS to any GSM phone. The possibility of doing something is one thing, implementing it another, but systems existed from 1988 that sent SMS messages to mobile phones (compare ND - NOTIS).
SMS messaging was used for the first time on 3 December 1992, when Neil Papworth, a 22 - year - old test engineer for Sema Group in the UK (now Airwide Solutions), used a personal computer to send the text message "Merry Christmas '' via the Vodafone network to the phone of Richard Jarvis who was at a party in Newbury, Berkshire which had been organised to celebrate the event. Modern SMS text messaging is usually messaging from one mobile phone to another mobile phone. Finnish Radiolinja became the first network to offer a commercial person - to - person SMS text messaging service in 1994. When Radiolinja 's domestic competitor, Telecom Finland (now part of TeliaSonera) also launched SMS text messaging in 1995 and the two networks offered cross-network SMS functionality, Finland became the first nation where SMS text messaging was offered on a competitive as well as on a commercial basis. GSM was allowed in the United States and the radio frequencies were blocked and awarded to US "Carriers '' to use US technology. Hence there is no "development '' in the US in mobile messaging service. The GSM in the US had to use a frequency allocated for private communication services (PCS) -- what the ITU frequency régime had blocked for DECT -- Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications -- 1000 - feet range picocell, but survived. American Personal Communications (APC), the first GSM carrier in America, provided the first text - messaging service in the United States. Sprint Telecommunications Venture, a partnership of Sprint Corp. and three large cable - TV companies, owned 49 percent of APC. The Sprint venture was the largest single buyer at a government - run spectrum auction that raised $7.7 billion in 2005 for PCS licenses. APC operated under the brand name of Sprint Spectrum and launched its service on November 15, 1995 in Washington, D.C. and in Baltimore, Maryland. Vice President Al Gore in Washington, D.C. made the initial phone - call to launch the network, calling Mayor Kurt Schmoke in Baltimore.
Initial growth of text messaging was slow, with customers in 1995 sending on average only 0.4 message per GSM customer per month. One factor in the slow take - up of SMS was that operators were slow to set up charging systems, especially for prepaid subscribers, and to eliminate billing fraud, which was possible by changing SMSC settings on individual handsets to use the SMSCs of other operators. Over time, this issue was eliminated by switch - billing instead of billing at the SMSC and by new features within SMSCs to allow blocking of foreign mobile users sending messages through it. SMS is available on a wide range of networks, including 3G networks. However, not all text - messaging systems use SMS; some notable alternate implementations of the concept include J - Phone 's SkyMail and NTT Docomo 's Short Mail, both in Japan. E-mail messaging from phones, as popularized by NTT Docomo 's i - mode and the RIM BlackBerry, also typically use standard mail protocols such as SMTP over TCP / IP. As of 2007 text messaging was the most widely used mobile data service, with 74 % of all mobile phone users worldwide, or 2.4 billion out of 3.3 billion phone subscribers, at the end of 2007 being active users of the Short Message Service. In countries such as Finland, Sweden and Norway, over 85 % of the population use SMS. The European average is about 80 %, and North America is rapidly catching up with over 60 % active users of SMS by end of 2008. The largest average usage of the service by mobile phone subscribers occurs in the Philippines, with an average of 27 texts sent per day per subscriber.
Text messaging is most often used between private mobile phone users, as a substitute for voice calls in situations where voice communication is impossible or undesirable (e.g., during a school class or a work meeting). Texting is also used to communicate very brief messages, such as informing someone that you will be late or reminding a friend or colleague about a meeting. As with e-mail, informality and brevity have become an accepted part of text messaging. Some text messages such as SMS can also be used for the remote controlling of home appliances. It is widely used in domotics systems. Some amateurs have also built own systems to control (some of) their appliances via SMS. Other methods such as group messaging, which was patented in 2012 by the GM of Andrew Ferry, Devin Peterson, Justin Cowart, Ian Ainsworth, Patrick Messinger, Jacob Delk, Jack Grande, Austin Hughes, Brendan Blake, and Brooks Brasher are used to involve more than two people into a text messaging conversation. A Flash SMS is a type of text message that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox. It can be useful in cases such as an emergency (e.g., fire alarm) or confidentiality (e.g., one - time password).
Short message services are developing very rapidly throughout the world. SMS is particularly popular in Europe, Asia (excluding Japan; see below), United States, Australia and New Zealand and is also gaining influence in Africa. Popularity has grown to a sufficient extent that the term texting (used as a verb meaning the act of mobile phone users sending short messages back and forth) has entered the common lexicon. Young Asians consider SMS as the most popular mobile phone application. Fifty percent of American teens send fifty text messages or more per day, making it their most frequent form of communication. In China, SMS is very popular and has brought service providers significant profit (18 billion short messages were sent in 2001). It is a very influential and powerful tool in the Philippines, where the average user sends 10 -- 12 text messages a day. The Philippines alone sends on average over 1 billion text messages a day, more than the annual average SMS volume of the countries in Europe, and even China and India. SMS is hugely popular in India, where youngsters often exchange lots of text messages, and companies provide alerts, infotainment, news, cricket scores updates, railway / airline booking, mobile billing, and banking services on SMS.
Texting became popular in the Philippines in 1998. In 2001, text messaging played an important role in deposing former Philippine president Joseph Estrada. Similarly, in 2008, text messaging played a primary role in the implication of former Detroit Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick in an SMS sex scandal. Short messages are particularly popular among young urbanites. In many markets, the service is comparatively cheap. For example, in Australia, a message typically costs between A $ 0.20 and $0.25 to send (some prepaid services charge $0.01 between their own phones), compared with a voice call, which costs somewhere between $0.40 and $2.00 per minute (commonly charged in half - minute blocks). The service is enormously profitable to the service providers. At a typical length of only 190 bytes (including protocol overhead), more than 350 of these messages per minute can be transmitted at the same data rate as a usual voice call (9 kbit / s). There are also free SMS services available, which are often sponsored and allow sending SMS from a PC connected to the internet. Mobile service providers in New Zealand, such as Vodafone and Telecom NZ, provide up to 2000 SMS messages for NZ $10 per month. Users on these plans send on average 1500 SMS messages every month. Text messaging has become so popular that advertising agencies and advertisers are now jumping into the text messaging business. Services that provide bulk text message sending are also becoming a popular way for clubs, associations, and advertisers to reach a group of opt - in subscribers quickly.
Research suggests that Internet - based mobile messaging will have grown to equal the popularity of SMS in 2013, with nearly 10 trillion messages being sent through each technology. Services such as Facebook Messenger, WhatsApp and Viber have led to a decline in the use of SMS in parts of the world.
Of many texting trends, a system known as microblogging has surfaced, which consists of a miniaturized blog, inspired mainly by people 's tendency to jot down informal thoughts and post them online. They consist of websites like Twitter and its Chinese equivalent Weibo (微 博). As of 2016, both of these websites were popular.
In some countries, text messages can be used to contact emergency services. In the UK, text messages can be used to call emergency services only after registering with the emergency SMS service. This service is primarily aimed at people who, by reason of disability, are unable to make a voice call. It has recently been promoted as a means for walkers and climbers to call emergency services from areas where a voice call is not possible due to low signal strength. In the US, there is a move to require both traditional operators and Over-the - top messaging providers to support texting to 911. In Asia, SMS is used for tsunami warnings and in Europe, SMS is used to inform individuals of imminent disaster. Since the location of a handset is known, systems can alert everyone in an area that the events has made impossible to pass through e.g. an avalanche. A similar system known as Emergency Alert is used in Australia to notify the public of impending disasters through both SMS and landline phone calls. These messages can be sent based on either the location of the phone or the address to which the handset is registered.
SMS messages are used in some countries as reminders of hospital appointments. Missed outpatient clinic appointments cost the National Health Service (England) more than £ 600 million ($980 million) a year SMS messages are thought to be more cost effective, swifter to deliver, and more likely to receive a faster response than letters. A recent study by Sims and colleagues (2012) examined the outcomes of 24,709 outpatient appointments scheduled in mental health services in South - East London. The study found that SMS message reminders could reduce the number of missed psychiatric appointments by 25 -- 28 %, representing a potential national yearly saving of over £ 150 million.
Short codes are special telephone numbers, shorter than full telephone numbers, that can be used to address SMS and MMS messages from mobile phones or fixed phones. There are two types of short codes: dialing and messaging.
SMS gateway providers facilitate the SMS traffic between businesses and mobile subscribers, being mainly responsible for carrying mission - critical messages, SMS for enterprises, content delivery and entertainment services involving SMS, e.g., TV voting. Considering SMS messaging performance and cost, as well as the level of text messaging services, SMS gateway providers can be classified as resellers of the text messaging capability of another provider 's SMSC or offering the text messaging capability as an operator of their own SMSC with SS7. SMS messaging gateway providers can provide gateway - to - mobile (Mobile Terminated -- MT) services. Some suppliers can also supply mobile - to - gateway (text - in or Mobile Originated / MO services). Many operate text - in services on shortcodes or mobile number ranges, whereas others use lower - cost geographic text - in numbers.
SMS is widely used for delivering digital content, such as news alerts, financial information, pictures, GIFs, logos and ringtones. Such messages are also known as premium - rated short messages (PSMS). The subscribers are charged extra for receiving this premium content, and the amount is typically divided between the mobile network operator and the value added service provider (VASP), either through revenue share or a fixed transport fee. Services like 82ASK and Any Question Answered have used the PSMS model to enable rapid response to mobile consumers ' questions, using on - call teams of experts and researchers. In November 2013, amidst complaints about unsolicited charges on bills, major mobile carriers in the US agreed to stop billing for PSMS in 45 states, effectively ending its use in the United States.
Outside the United States, premium short messages are increasingly being used for "real - world '' services. For example, some vending machines now allow payment by sending a premium - rated short message, so that the cost of the item bought is added to the user 's phone bill or subtracted from the user 's prepaid credits. Recently, premium messaging companies have come under fire from consumer groups due to a large number of consumers racking up huge phone bills. A new type of free - premium or hybrid - premium content has emerged with the launch of text - service websites. These sites allow registered users to receive free text messages when items they are interested in go on sale, or when new items are introduced. An alternative to inbound SMS is based on long numbers (international mobile number format, e.g., + 44 7624 805000, or geographic numbers that can handle voice and SMS, e.g., 01133203040), which can be used in place of short codes or premium - rated short messages for SMS reception in several applications, such as TV voting, product promotions, and campaigns. Long numbers are internationally available, as well as enabling businesses to have their own number, rather than short codes, which are usually shared across a lot of brands. Additionally, Long numbers are non-premium inbound numbers.
The use of text messaging for workplace purposes has grown significantly during the mid-2000s (decade). As companies seek competitive advantages, many employees are using new technology, collaborative applications, and real - time messaging such as SMS, instant messaging, and mobile communications to connect with teammates and customers. Some practical uses of text messaging include the use of SMS for confirming delivery or other tasks, for instant communication between a service provider and a client (e.g., stock broker and investor), and for sending alerts. Several universities have implemented a system of texting students and faculties campus alerts. One such example is Penn State. As text messaging has proliferated in business, so too have regulations governing its use. One regulation specifically governing the use of text messaging in financial - services firms engaged in stocks, equities, and securities trading is Regulatory Notice 07 - 59, Supervision of Electronic Communications, December 2007, issued to member firms by the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority. In 07 - 59, FINRA noted that "electronic communications '', "e-mail '', and "electronic correspondence '' may be used interchangeably and can include such forms of electronic messaging as instant messaging and text messaging. Industry has had to develop new technology to allow companies to archive their employees ' text messages.
Security, confidentiality, reliability and speed of SMS are among the most important guarantees industries such as financial services, energy and commodities trading, health care and enterprises demand in their mission - critical procedures. One way to guarantee such a quality of text messaging lies in introducing SLAs (Service Level Agreement), which are common in IT contracts. By providing measurable SLAs, corporations can define reliability parameters and set up a high quality of their services. Just one of many SMS applications that has proven highly popular and successful in the financial - services industry is mobile receipts. In January 2009, Mobile Marketing Association (MMA) published the Mobile Banking Overview for financial institutions in which it discussed the advantages and disadvantages of mobile channel platforms such as Short Message Services (SMS), Mobile Web, Mobile Client Applications, SMS with Mobile Web and Secure SMS.
Mobile interaction services are an alternative way of using SMS in business communications with greater certainty. Typical business - to - business applications are telematics and Machine - to - Machine, in which two applications automatically communicate with each other. Incident alerts are also common, and staff communications are also another use for B2B scenarios. Businesses can use SMS for time - critical alerts, updates and reminders, mobile campaigns, content and entertainment applications. Mobile interaction can also be used for consumer - to - business interactions, such as media voting and competitions, and for consumer - to - consumer interaction, for example, with mobile social networking, chatting and dating.
Text messaging is widely used on business settings; as well, it is used in a number of civil service and non-governmental organization workplaces. The U.S. And Canadian civil service both adopted Blackberry smartphones in the 2000s.
Group texts involve more than two users. In some cases, when one or more person on the group text is offline, in airplane mode, or has their device shut down, a text being sent to the group may reveal an error message that the text did not go through. Users should rest assured, that all online or available users on the group received the message and that re-sending the message will only result in some participants receiving the message multiple times.
There are a growing number of websites that allow users to send free SMS messages online. Some websites provide free SMS for promoting premium business packages.
Europe follows next behind Asia in terms of the popularity of the use of SMS. In 2003, an average of 16 billion messages were sent each month. Users in Spain sent a little more than fifty messages per month on average in 2003. In Italy, Germany and the United Kingdom, the figure was around 35 -- 40 SMS messages per month. In each of these countries, the cost of sending an SMS message varies from € 0.04 -- 0.23, depending on the payment plan (with many contractual plans including all or a number of texts for free). In the United Kingdom, text messages are charged between £ 0.05 -- 0.12. Curiously, France has not taken to SMS in the same way, sending just under 20 messages on average per user per month. France has the same GSM technology as other European countries, so the uptake is not hampered by technical restrictions.
In the Republic of Ireland, 1.5 billion messages are sent every quarter, on average 114 messages per person per month. In the United Kingdom over 1 billion text messages are sent every week. The Eurovision Song Contest organized the first pan-European SMS voting in 2002, as a part of the voting system (there was also a voting over traditional landline phone lines). In 2005, the Eurovision Song Contest organized the biggest televoting ever (with SMS and phone voting). During roaming, that is, when a user connects to another network in different country from his own, the prices may be higher, but in July 2009, EU legislation went into effect limiting this price to € 0.11.
Mobile - service providers in Finland offer contracts in which users can send 1000 text messages a month for € 10. In Finland, which has very high mobile phone ownership rates, some TV channels began "SMS chat '', which involved sending short messages to a phone number, and the messages would be shown on TV. Chats are always moderated, which prevents users from sending offensive material to the channel. The craze evolved into quizzes and strategy games and then faster - paced games designed for television and SMS control. Games require users to register their nickname and send short messages to control a character onscreen. Messages usually cost 0.05 to 0.86 Euro apiece, and games can require the player to send dozens of messages. In December 2003, a Finnish TV channel, MTV3, put a Santa Claus character on air reading aloud text messages sent in by viewers. On 12 March 2004, the first entirely "interactive '' TV channel, VIISI, began operation in Finland. However, SBS Finland Oy took over the channel and turned it into a music channel named The Voice in November 2004. In 2006, the Prime Minister of Finland, Matti Vanhanen, made the news when he allegedly broke up with his girlfriend with a text message. In 2007, the first book written solely in text messages, Viimeiset viestit (Last Messages), was released by Finnish author Hannu Luntiala. It is about an executive who travels through Europe and India.
In the United States, text messaging is very popular; as reported by CTIA in December 2009, the 286 million US subscribers sent 152.7 billion text messages per month, for an average of 534 messages per subscriber per month. The Pew Research Center found in May 2010 that 72 % of U.S. adult cellphone users send and receive text messages. In the U.S., SMS is often charged both at the sender and at the destination, but, unlike phone calls, it can not be rejected or dismissed. The reasons for lower uptake than other countries are varied. Many users have unlimited "mobile - to - mobile '' minutes, high monthly minute allotments, or unlimited service. Moreover, "push to talk '' services offer the instant connectivity of SMS and are typically unlimited. The integration between competing providers and technologies necessary for cross-network text messaging was not initially available. Some providers originally charged extra for texting, reducing its appeal. In the third quarter of 2006, at least 12 billion text messages were sent on AT&T 's network, up almost 15 % from the preceding quarter. In the U.S., while texting is mainly popular among people from 13 -- 22 years old, it is also increasing among adults and business users. The age that a child receives his / her first cell phone has also decreased, making text messaging a popular way of communicating. The number of texts sent in the US has gone up over the years as the price has gone down to an average of $0.10 per text sent and received. To convince more customers to buy unlimited text messaging plans, some major cellphone providers have increased the price to send and receive text messages from $. 15 to $. 20 per message. This is over $1,300 per megabyte. Many providers offer unlimited plans, which can result in a lower rate per text, given sufficient volume.
Japan was among the first countries to adopt short messages widely, with pioneering non-GSM services including J - Phone 's SkyMail and NTT Docomo 's Short Mail. Japanese adolescents first began text messaging, because it was a cheaper form of communication than the other available forms. Thus, Japanese theorists created the selective interpersonal relationship theory, claiming that mobile phones can change social networks among young people (classified as 13 - to 30 - year - olds). They theorized this age group had extensive but low - quality relationships with friends, and mobile - phone usage may facilitate improvement in the quality of their relationships. They concluded this age group prefers "selective interpersonal relationships in which they maintain particular, partial, but rich relations, depending on the situation. '' The same studies showed participants rated friendships in which they communicated face - to - face and through text messaging as being more intimate than those in which they communicated solely face - to - face. This indicates participants make new relationships with face - to - face communication at an early stage, but use text messaging to increase their contact later on. As the relationships between participants grew more intimate, the frequency of text messaging also increased. However, short messaging has been largely rendered obsolete by the prevalence of mobile Internet e-mail, which can be sent to and received from any e-mail address, mobile or otherwise. That said, while usually presented to the user simply as a uniform "mail '' service (and most users are unaware of the distinction), the operators may still internally transmit the content as short messages, especially if the destination is on the same network.
Text messaging is popular and cheap in China. About 700 billion messages were sent in 2007. Text message spam is also a problem in China. In 2007, 353.8 billion spam messages were sent, up 93 % from the previous year. It is about 12.44 messages per week per person. It is routine that the People 's Republic of China government monitor text messages across the country for illegal content. Among Chinese migrant workers with little formal education, it is common to refer to SMS manuals when text messaging. These manuals are published as cheap, handy, smaller - than - pocket - size booklets that offer diverse linguistic phrases to utilize as messages.
SMS was introduced to selected markets in the Philippines in 1995. In 1998, Philippine mobile - service providers launched SMS more widely across the country, with initial television marketing campaigns targeting hearing - impaired users. The service was initially free with subscriptions, but Filipinos quickly exploited the feature to communicate for free instead of using voice calls, which they would be charged for. After telephone companies realized this trend, they began charging for SMS. The rate across networks is 1 peso per SMS (about US $0.023). Even after users were charged for SMS, it remained cheap, about one - tenth of the price of a voice call. This low price led to about five million Filipinos owning a cell phone by 2001. Because of the highly social nature of Philippine culture and the affordability of SMS compared to voice calls, SMS usage shot up. Filipinos used texting not only for social messages but also for political purposes, as it allowed the Filipinos to express their opinions on current events and political issues. It became a powerful tool for Filipinos in promoting or denouncing issues and was a key factor during the 2001 EDSA II revolution, which overthrew then - President Joseph Estrada, who was eventually found guilty of corruption. According to 2009 statistics, there are about 72 million mobile - service subscriptions (roughly 80 % of the Filipino population), with around 1.39 billion SMS messages being sent daily. Because of the large amount of text messages being sent, the Philippines became known as the "text capital of the world '' during the late 1990s until the early 2000s.
There are three mobile network companies in New Zealand. Spark NZ (formally Telecom NZ), was the first telecommunication company in New Zealand. In 2011, Spark was broken into two companies, with Chorus Ltd taking the landline infrastructure and Spark NZ providing services including over their mobile network. Vodafone NZ acquired mobile network provider Bellsouth New Zealand in 1998 and has 2.32 million customers as of July 2013. Vodafone launched the first Text messaging service in 1999 and has introduced innovative TXT services like Safe TXT and CallMe 2degrees Mobile Ltd launched in August 2009. In 2005, around 85 % of the adult population had a mobile phone. In general, texting is more popular than making phone calls, as it is viewed as less intrusive and therefore more polite.
Text messaging will become a key revenue driver for mobile network operators in Africa over the next couple of years. Today, text messaging is already slowly gaining influence in the African market. One such person used text messaging to spread the word about HIV and AIDS. Also, in September 2009, a multi-country campaign in Africa used text messaging to expose stock - outs of essential medicines at public health facilities and put pressure on governments to address the issue.
The advent of text messaging made possible new forms of interaction that were not possible before. A person may now carry out a conversation with another user without the constraint of being expected to reply within a short amount of time and without needing to set time aside to engage in conversation. With voice calling, both participants need to be free at the same time. Mobile phone users can maintain communication during situations in which a voice call is impractical, impossible, or unacceptable, such as during a school class or work meeting. Texting has provided a venue for participatory culture, allowing viewers to vote in online and TV polls, as well as receive information while they are on the move. Texting can also bring people together and create a sense of community through "Smart Mobs '' or "Net War '', which create "people power ''. Research has also proven that text messaging is somehow making the social distances larger and could be ruining verbal communication skills for many people.
The small phone keypad and the rapidity of typical text message exchanges has caused a number spelling abbreviations: as in the phrase "txt msg '', "u '' (an abbreviation for "you ''), "HMU '', or use of CamelCase, such as in "ThisIsVeryLame ''. To avoid the even more limited message lengths allowed when using Cyrillic or Greek letters, speakers of languages written in those alphabets often use the Latin alphabet for their own language. In certain languages utilizing diacritic marks, such as Polish, SMS technology created an entire new variant of written language: characters normally written with diacritic marks (e.g., ą, ę, ś, ż in Polish) are now being written without them (as a, e, s, z) to enable using cell phones without Polish script or to save space in Unicode messages. Historically, this language developed out of shorthand used in bulletin board systems and later in Internet chat rooms, where users would abbreviate some words to allow a response to be typed more quickly, though the amount of time saved was often inconsequential. However, this became much more pronounced in SMS, where mobile phone users either have a numeric keyboard (with older cellphones) or a small QWERTY keyboard (for 2010s - era smartphones), so more effort is required to type each character, and there is sometimes a limit on the number of characters that may be sent. In Mandarin Chinese, numbers that sound similar to words are used in place of those words. For example, the numbers 520 in Chinese (wǔ èr líng) sound like the words for "I love you '' (wǒ ài nǐ). The sequence 748 (qī sì bā) sounds like the curse "go to hell '' (qù sǐ ba).
Predictive text software, which attempts to guess words (Tegic 's T9 as well as iTap) or letters (Eatoni 's LetterWise) reduces the labour of time - consuming input. This makes abbreviations not only less necessary, but slower to type than regular words that are in the software 's dictionary. However, it makes the messages longer, often requiring the text message to be sent in multiple parts and, therefore, costing more to send. The use of text messaging has changed the way that people talk and write essays, some believing it to be harmful. Children today are receiving cell phones at an age as young as eight years old; more than 35 percent of children in second and third grade have their own mobile phone. Because of this, the texting language is integrated into the way that students think from an earlier age than ever before. In November 2006, New Zealand Qualifications Authority approved the move that allowed students of secondary schools to use mobile phone text language in the end - of - the - year - exam papers. Highly publicized reports, beginning in 2002, of the use of text language in school assignments caused some to become concerned that the quality of written communication is on the decline, and other reports claim that teachers and professors are beginning to have a hard time controlling the problem. However, the notion that text language is widespread or harmful is refuted by research from linguistic experts.
An article in The New Yorker explores how text messaging has anglicized some of the world 's languages. The use of diacritic marks is dropped in languages such as French, as well as symbols in Ethiopian languages. In his book, Txtng: the Gr8 Db8 (which translates as "Texting: the Great Debate ''), David Crystal states that texters in all eleven languages use "lol '' ("laughing out loud ''), "u '', "brb '' ("be right back ''), and "gr8 '' ("great ''), all English - based shorthands. The use of pictograms and logograms in texts are present in every language. They shorten words by using symbols to represent the word or symbols whose name sounds like a syllable of the word such as in 2day or b4. This is commonly used in other languages as well. Crystal gives some examples in several languages such as Italian sei, "six '', is used for sei, "you are ''. Example: dv6 = dove sei ("where are you '') and French k7 = cassette ("casette ''). There is also the use of numeral sequences, substituting for several syllables of a word and creating whole phrases using numerals. For example, in French, a12c4 can be said as à un de ces quatres, "see you around '' (literally: "to one of these four (days) ''). An example of using symbols in texting and borrowing from English is the use of @. Whenever it is used in texting, its intended use is with the English pronunciation. Crystal gives the example of the Welsh use of @ in @ F, pronounced ataf, meaning "to me ''. In character - based languages such as Chinese and Japanese, numbers are assigned syllables based on the shortened form of the pronunciation of the number, sometimes the English pronunciation of the number. In this way, numbers alone can be used to communicate whole passages, such as in Chinese, "8807701314520 '' can be literally translated as "Hug hug you, kiss kiss you, whole life, whole life I love you. '' English influences worldwide texting in variation but still in combination with the individual properties of languages.
American popular culture is also recognized in shorthand. For example, Homer Simpson translates into: ~ (_8 ^ (). Crystal also suggests that texting has led to more creativity in the English language, giving people opportunities to create their own slang, emoticons, abbreviations, acronyms, etc. The feeling of individualism and freedom makes texting more popular and a more efficient way to communicate. Crystal has also been quoted in saying that "In a logical world, text messaging should not have survived. '' But text messaging did n't just come out of nowhere. It originally began as a messaging system that would send out emergency information. But it gained immediate popularity with the public. What followed is the SMS we see today, which is a very quick and efficient way of sharing information from person to person. Work by Richard Ling has shown that texting has a gendered dimension and it plays into the development of teen identity. In addition we text to a very small number of other persons. For most people, half of their texts go to 3 -- 5 other people.
Research by Rosen et al. (2009) found that those young adults who used more language - based textisms (shortcuts such as LOL, 2nite, etc.) in daily writing produced worse formal writing than those young adults who used fewer linguistic textisms in daily writing. However, the exact opposite was true for informal writing. This suggests that perhaps the act of using textisms to shorten communication words leads young adults to produce more informal writing, which may then help them to be better "informal '' writers. Due to text messaging, teens are writing more, and some teachers see that this comfort with language can be harnessed to make better writers. This new form of communication may be encouraging students to put their thoughts and feelings into words and this may be able to be used as a bridge, to get them more interested in formal writing.
Joan H. Lee in her thesis What does txting do 2 language: The influences of exposure to messaging and print media on acceptability constraints (2011) associates exposure to text messaging with more rigid acceptability constraints. The thesis suggests that more exposure to the colloquial, Generation Text language of text messaging contributes to being less accepting of words. In contrast, Lee found that students with more exposure to traditional print media (such as books and magazines) were more accepting of both real and fictitious words. The thesis, which garnered international media attention, also presents a literature review of academic literature on the effects of text messaging on language. Texting has also been shown to have had no effect or some positive effects on literacy. According to Plester, Wood and Joshi and their research done on the study of 88 British 10 -- 12 - year - old children and their knowledge of text messages, "textisms are essentially forms of phonetic abbreviation '' that show that "to produce and read such abbreviations arguably requires a level of phonological awareness (and orthographic awareness) in the child concerned. ''
Texting while driving leads to increased distraction behind the wheel and can lead to an increased risk of an accident. In 2006, Liberty Mutual Insurance Group conducted a survey with more than 900 teens from over 26 high schools nationwide. The results showed that 87 % of students found texting to be "very '' or "extremely '' distracting. A study by AAA found that 46 % of teens admitted to being distracted behind the wheel due to texting. One example of distraction behind the wheel is the 2008 Chatsworth train collision, which killed 25 passengers. The engineer had sent 45 text messages while operating the train. A 2009 experiment with Car and Driver editor Eddie Alterman (that took place at a deserted air field, for safety reasons) compared texting with drunk driving. The experiment found that texting while driving was more dangerous than being drunk. While being legally drunk added four feet to Alterman 's stopping distance while going 70 mph, reading an e-mail on a phone added 36 feet, and sending a text message added 70 feet. In 2009, the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute released the results of an 18 - month study that involved placing cameras inside the cabs of more than 100 long - haul trucks, which recorded the drivers over a combined driving distance of three million miles. The study concluded that when the drivers were texting, their risk of crashing was 23 times greater than when not texting.
Due to the proliferation of smart phone applications performed while walking, "texting while walking '' or "wexting '' is the increasing practice of people being transfixed to their mobile device without looking in any direction but their personal screen while walking. First coined reference in 2015 in New York from Rentrak 's chief client officer when discussing time spent with media and various media usage metrics. Text messaging among pedestrians leads to increased cognitive distraction and reduced situation awareness, and may lead to increases in unsafe behavior leading to injury and death. Recent studies conducted on cell phone use while walking showed that cell phone users recall fewer objects when conversing, walk slower, have altered gait and are more unsafe when crossing a street. Additionally, some gait analyses showed that stance phase during overstepping motion, longitudinal and lateral deviation increased during cell phone operation but step length and clearance did not; a different analysis did find increased step clearance and reduced step length.
It is unclear which processes may be affected by distraction, which types of distraction may affect which cognitive processes, and how individual differences may affect the influence of distraction. Lamberg and Muratori believe that engaging in a dual - task, such as texting while walking, may interfere with working memory and result in walking errors. Their study demonstrated that participants engaged in text messaging were unable to maintain walking speed or retain accurate spatial information, suggesting an inability to adequately divide their attention between two tasks. According to them, the addition of texting while walking with vision occluded increases the demands placed on the working memory system resulting in gait disruptions.
Texting on a phone distracts participants, even when the texting task used is a relatively simple one. Stavrinos et al. investigated the effect of other cognitive tasks, such as engaging in conversations or cognitive tasks on a phone, and found that participants actually have reduced visual awareness. This finding was supported by Licence et al., who conducted a similar study. For example, texting pedestrians may fail to notice unusual events in their environment, such as a unicycling clown. These findings suggest that tasks that require the allocation of cognitive resources can affect visual attention even when the task itself does not require the participants to avert their eyes from their environment. The act of texting itself seems to impair pedestrians ' visual awareness. It appears that the distraction produced by texting is a combination of both a cognitive and visual perceptual distraction. A study conducted by Licence et al. supported some of these findings, particularly that those who text while walking significantly alter their gait. However, they also found that the gait pattern texters adopted was slower and more "protective '', and consequently did not increase obstacle contact or tripping in a typical pedestrian context.
There have also been technological approaches to increase the safety / awareness of pedestrians that are (inattentionally) blind while using a smart phone, e.g., using a Kinect or an ultrasound phone cover as a virtual white cane, or using the built - in camera to algorithmically analyze single, respectively a stream of pictures for obstacles, with Wang et al. proposing to use machine learning to specifically detect incoming vehicles.
Sexting is slang for the act of sending sexually explicit or suggestive content between mobile devices using SMS. A genre of texting, it contains either text, images, or video that is intended to be sexually arousing. A portmanteau of sex and texting, sexting was reported as early as 2005 in The Sunday Telegraph Magazine, constituting a trend in the creative use of SMS to excite another with alluring messages throughout the day.
Although sexting often takes place consensually between two people, it can also occur against the wishes of a person who is the subject of the content. A number of instances have been reported in which the recipients of sexting have shared the content of the messages with others, with less intimate intentions, such as to impress their friends or embarrass their sender. Celebrities such as Miley Cyrus, Vanessa Hudgens, and Adrienne Bailon have been victims of such abuses of sexting. A 2008 survey by The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy and CosmoGirl.com suggested a trend of sexting and other seductive online content being readily shared between teens. One in five teen girls surveyed (22 percent) -- and 11 percent of teen girls aged 13 -- 16 years old -- say they have electronically sent, or posted online, nude or semi-nude images of themselves. One - third (33 percent) of teen boys and one - quarter (25 percent) of teen girls say they were shown private nude or semi-nude images. According to the survey, sexually suggestive messages (text, e-mail, and instant messaging) were even more common than images, with 39 percent of teens having sent or posted such messages, and half of teens (50 percent) having received them. A 2012 study that has received wide international media attention was conducted at the University of Utah Department of Psychology by Donald S. Strassberg, Ryan Kelly McKinnon, Michael Sustaíta and Jordan Rullo. They surveyed 606 teenagers ages 14 -- 18 and found that nearly 20 percent of the students said they had sent a sexually explicit image of themselves via cell phone, and nearly twice as many said that they had received a sexually explicit picture. Of those receiving such a picture, over 25 percent indicated that they had forwarded it to others.
In addition, of those who had sent a sexually explicit picture, over a third had done so despite believing that there could be serious legal and other consequences if they got caught. Students who had sent a picture by cell phone were more likely than others to find the activity acceptable. The authors conclude: "These results argue for educational efforts such as cell phone safety assemblies, awareness days, integration into class curriculum and teacher training, designed to raise awareness about the potential consequences of sexting among young people. '' Sexting becomes a legal issue when teens (under 18) are involved, because any nude photos they may send of themselves would put the recipients in possession of child pornography.
Text messaging has affected students academically by creating an easier way to cheat on exams. In December 2002, a dozen students were caught cheating on an accounting exam through the use of text messages on their mobile phones. In December 2002, Hitotsubashi University in Japan failed 26 students for receiving e-mailed exam answers on their mobile phones. The number of students caught using mobile phones to cheat on exams has increased significantly in recent years. According to Okada (2005), most Japanese mobile phones can send and receive long text messages of between 250 and 3000 characters with graphics, video, audio, and Web links. In England, 287 school and college students were excluded from exams in 2004 for using mobile phones during exams. Some teachers and professors claim that advanced texting features can lead to students cheating on exams. Students in high school and college classrooms are using their mobile phones to send and receive texts during lectures at high rates. Further, published research has established that students who text during college lectures have impaired memories of the lecture material compared to students who do not. For example, in one study, the number of irrelevant text messages sent and received during a lecture covering the topic of developmental psychology was related to students ' memory of the lecture.
Spreading rumors and gossip by text message, using text messages to bully individuals, or forwarding texts that contain defamatory content is an issue of great concern for parents and schools. Text "bullying '' of this sort can cause distress and damage reputations. In some cases, individuals who are bullied online have committed suicide. Harding and Rosenberg (2005) argue that the urge to forward text messages can be difficult to resist, describing text messages as "loaded weapons ''.
When a student sends an email that contains phonetic abbreviations and acronyms that are common in text messaging (e.g., "gr8 '' instead of "great ''), it can influence how that student is subsequently evaluated. In a study by Lewandowski and Harrington (2006), participants read a student 's email sent to a professor that either contained text - messaging abbreviations (gr8, How RU?) or parallel text in standard English (great, How are you?), and then provided impressions of the sender. Students who used abbreviations in their email were perceived as having a less favorable personality and as putting forth less effort on an essay they submitted along with the email. Specifically, abbreviation users were seen as less intelligent, responsible, motivated, studious, dependable, and hard - working. These findings suggest that the nature of a student 's email communication can influence how others perceive the student and their work.
Text messaging has been a subject of interest for police forces around the world. One of the issues of concern to law enforcement agencies is the use of encrypted text messages. In 2003, a British company developed a program called Fortress SMS which used 128 bit AES encryption to protect SMS messages. Police have also retrieved deleted text messages to aid them in solving crimes. For example, Swedish police retrieved deleted texts from a cult member who claimed she committed a double murder based on forwarded texts she received. Police in Tilburg, Netherlands, started an SMS alert program, in which they would send a message to ask citizens to be vigilant when a burglar was on the loose or a child was missing in their neighborhood. Several thieves have been caught and children have been found using the SMS Alerts. The service has been expanding to other cities. A Malaysian -- Australian company has released a multi-layer SMS security program. Boston police are now turning to text messaging to help stop crime. The Boston Police Department asks citizens to send texts to make anonymous crime tips.
Under some interpretations of sharia law, husbands can divorce their wives by the pronouncement of talaq. In 2003, a court in Malaysia upheld such a divorce pronouncement which was transmitted via SMS.
The Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court ruled in 2017 that under the state constitution, police require a warrant before obtaining access to text messages without consent.
Texting has been used on a number of occasions with the result of the gathering of large aggressive crowds. SMS messaging drew a crowd to Cronulla Beach in Sydney resulting in the 2005 Cronulla riots. Not only were text messages circulating in the Sydney area, but in other states as well (Daily Telegraph). The volume of such text messages and e-mails also increased in the wake of the riot. The crowd of 5000 at stages became violent, attacking certain ethnic groups. Sutherland Shire Mayor directly blamed heavily circulated SMS messages for the unrest. NSW police considered whether people could be charged over the texting. Retaliatory attacks also used SMS.
The Narre Warren Incident, when a group of 500 party goers attended a party at Narre Warren in Melbourne, Australia, and rioted in January 2008, also was a response of communication being spread by SMS and Myspace. Following the incident, the Police Commissioner wrote an open letter asking young people to be aware of the power of SMS and the Internet. In Hong Kong, government officials find that text messaging helps socially because they can send multiple texts to the community. Officials say it is an easy way of contacting community or individuals for meetings or events. Texting was used to coordinate gatherings during the 2009 Iranian election protests.
Between 2009 and 2012 the U.S. secretly created and funded a Twitter - like service for Cubans called ZunZuneo, initially based on mobile phone text message service and later with an internet interface. The service was funded by the U.S. Agency for International Development through its Office of Transition Initiatives, who utiliized contractors and front companies in the Cayman Islands, Spain and Ireland. A longer term objective was to organize "smart mobs '' that might "renegotiate the balance of power between the state and society. '' A database about the subscribers was created, including gender, age, and "political tendencies ''. At its peak ZunZuneo had 40,000 Cuban users, but the service closed as financially unsustainable when U.S. funding was stopped.
Text messaging has affected the political world. American campaigns find that text messaging is a much easier, cheaper way of getting to the voters than the door - to - door approach. Mexico 's president - elect Felipe Calderón launched millions of text messages in the days immediately preceding his narrow win over Andres Manuel Lopez Obradór. In January 2001, Joseph Estrada was forced to resign from the post of president of the Philippines. The popular campaign against him was widely reported to have been co-ordinated with SMS chain letters. A massive texting campaign was credited with boosting youth turnout in Spain 's 2004 parliamentary elections. In 2008, Detroit Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick and his Chief of Staff at the time became entangled in a sex scandal stemming from the exchange of over 14,000 text messages that eventually led to his forced resignation, conviction of perjury, and other charges. Text messaging has been used to turn down other political leaders. During the 2004 U.S. Democratic and Republican National Conventions, protesters used an SMS - based organizing tool called TXTmob to get to opponents. In the last day before the 2004 presidential elections in Romania, a message against Adrian Năstase was largely circulated, thus breaking the laws that prohibited campaigning that day. Text messaging has helped politics by promoting campaigns.
On 20 January 2001, President Joseph Estrada of the Philippines became the first head of state in history to lose power to a smart mob. More than one million Manila residents assembled at the site of the 1986 People Power peaceful demonstrations that has toppled the Marcos regime. These people have organized themselves and coordinated their actions through text messaging. They were able to bring down a government without having to use any weapons or violence. Through text messaging, their plans and ideas were communicated to others and successfully implemented. Also, this move encouraged the military to withdraw their support from the regime, and as a result, the Estrada government fell. People were able to converge and unite with the use of their cell phones. "The rapid assembly of the anti-Estrada crowd was a hallmark of early smart mob technology, and the millions of text messages exchanged by the demonstrators in 2001 was, by all accounts, a key to the crowds esprit de corps. ''
Text messaging is a rapidly growing trend in Healthcare. "One survey found that 73 % of physicians text other physicians about work - similar to the overall percentage of the population that texts. '' A 2006 study of reminder messages sent to children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus showed favorable changes in adherence to treatment. A risk is that these physicians could be violating the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act. Where messages could be saved to a phone indefinitely, patient information could be subject to theft or loss, and could be seen by other unauthorized persons. The HIPAA privacy rule requires that any text message involving a medical decision must be available for the patient to access, meaning that any texts that are not documented in an EMR system could be a HIPAA violation.
The excessive use of the thumb for pressing keys on mobile devices has led to a high rate of a form of repetitive strain injury termed "BlackBerry thumb '' (although this refers to strain developed on older Blackberry devices, which had a scroll wheel on the side of the phone). An inflammation of the tendons in the thumb caused by constant text - messaging is also called text - messager 's thumb, or texting tenosynovitis. Texting has also been linked as a secondary source in numerous traffic collisions, in which police investigations of mobile phone records have found that many drivers have lost control of their cars while attempting to send or retrieve a text message. Increasing cases of Internet addiction are now also being linked to text messaging, as mobile phones are now more likely to have e-mail and Web capabilities to complement the ability to text.
Texting etiquette refers to what is considered appropriate texting behavior. These expectations may concern different areas, such as the context in which a text was sent and received / read, who each participant was with when the participant sent or received / read a text message or what constitutes impolite text messages. At the website of The Emily Post Institute, the topic of texting has spurred several articles with the "do 's and dont 's '' regarding the new form of communication. One example from the site is: "Keep your message brief. No one wants to have an entire conversation with you by texting when you could just call him or her instead. '' Another example is: "Do n't use all Caps. Typing a text message in all capital letters will appear as though you are shouting at the recipient, and should be avoided. ''
Expectations for etiquette may differ depending on various factors. For example, expectations for appropriate behavior have been found to differ markedly between the U.S. and India. Another example is generational differences. In The M - Factor: How the Millennial Generation Is Rocking the Workplace, Lynne Lancaster and David Stillman note that younger Americans often do not consider it rude to answer their cell or begin texting in the middle of a face - to - face conversation with someone else, while older people, less used to the behavior and the accompanying lack of eye contact or attention, find this to be disruptive and ill - mannered. With regard to texting in the workplace, Plantronics studied how we communicate at work and found that 58 % of US knowledge workers have increased the use of text messaging for work in the past five years. The same study found that 33 % of knowledge workers felt text messaging was critical or very important to success and productivity at work.
In 2002, an increasing trend towards spamming mobile phone users through SMS prompted cellular - service carriers to take steps against the practice, before it became a widespread problem. No major spamming incidents involving SMS had been reported as of March 2007, but the existence of mobile phone spam has been noted by industry watchdogs including Consumer Reports magazine and the Utility Consumers ' Action Network (UCAN). In 2005, UCAN brought a case against Sprint for spamming its customers and charging $0.10 per text message. The case was settled in 2006 with Sprint agreeing not to send customers Sprint advertisements via SMS. SMS expert Acision (formerly LogicaCMG Telecoms) reported a new type of SMS malice at the end of 2006, noting the first instances of SMiShing (a cousin to e-mail phishing scams). In SMiShing, users receive SMS messages posing to be from a company, enticing users to phone premium - rate numbers or reply with personal information. Similar concerns were reported by PhonepayPlus, a consumer watchdog in the United Kingdom, in 2012.
Concerns have been voiced over the excessive cost of off - plan text messaging in the United States. AT&T Mobility, along with most other service providers, charges texters 20 cents per message if they do not have a messaging plan or if they have exceeded their allotted number of texts. Given that an SMS message is at most 160 bytes in size, this cost scales to a cost of $1,310 per megabyte sent via text message. This is in sharp contrast with the price of unlimited data plans offered by the same carriers, which allow the transmission of hundreds of megabytes of data for monthly prices of about $15 to $45 in addition to a voice plan. As a comparison, a one - minute phone call uses up the same amount of network capacity as 600 text messages, meaning that if the same cost - per - traffic formula were applied to phone calls, cell phone calls would cost $120 per minute. With service providers gaining more customers and expanding their capacity, their overhead costs should be decreasing, not increasing. In 2005, text messaging generated nearly 70 billion dollars in revenue, as reported by Gartner, industry analysts, three times as much as Hollywood box office sales in 2005. World figures showed that over a trillion text messages were sent in 2005.
Although major cellphone providers deny any collusion, fees for out - of - package text messages have increased, doubling from 10 to 20 cents in the United States between 2007 and 2008 alone. On 16 July 2009, Senate hearings were held to look into any breach of the Sherman Antitrust Act. The same trend is visible in other countries, though increasingly widespread flatrate plans, for example in Germany, do make text messaging easier, text messages sent abroad still result in higher costs.
While text messaging is still a growing market, traditional SMS are becoming increasingly challenged by alternative messaging services which are available on smartphones with data connections. These services are much cheaper and offer more functionality like exchanging of multimedia content (e.g. photos, videos or audio notes) and group messaging. Especially in western countries some of these services attract more and more users.
Consumer SMS should not be used for confidential communication. The contents of common SMS messages are known to the network operator 's systems and personnel. Therefore, consumer SMS is not an appropriate technology for secure communications. To address this issue, many companies use an SMS gateway provider based on SS7 connectivity to route the messages. The advantage of this international termination model is the ability to route data directly through SS7, which gives the provider visibility of the complete path of the SMS. This means SMS messages can be sent directly to and from recipients without having to go through the SMS - C of other mobile operators. This approach reduces the number of mobile operators that handle the message; however, it should not be considered as an end - to - end secure communication, as the content of the message is exposed to the SMS gateway provider.
An alternative approach is to use end - to - end security software that runs on both the sending and receiving device, where the original text message is transmitted in encrypted form as a consumer SMS. By using key rotation, the encrypted text messages stored under data retention laws at the network operator can not be decrypted even if one of the devices is compromised. A problem with this approach is that communicating devices needs to run compatible software. Failure rates without backward notification can be high between carriers.. International texting can be unreliable depending on the country of origin, destination and respective operators (US: "carriers ''). Differences in the character sets used for coding can cause a text message sent from one country to another to become unreadable.
The Guinness Book of World Records has a world record for text messaging, currently held by Sonja Kristiansen of Norway. Kristiansen keyed in the official text message, as established by Guinness, in 37.28 seconds. The message is, "The razor - toothed piranhas of the genera Serrasalmus and Pygocentrus are the most ferocious freshwater fish in the world. In reality, they seldom attack a human. '' In 2005, the record was held by a 24 - year - old Scottish man, Craig Crosbie, who completed the same message in 48 seconds, beating the previous time by 19 seconds. The Book of Alternative Records lists Chris Young of Salem, Oregon, as the world - record holder for the fastest 160 - character text message where the contents of the message are not provided ahead of time. His record of 62.3 seconds was set on 23 May 2007.
Elliot Nicholls of Dunedin, New Zealand, currently holds the world record for the fastest blindfolded text messaging. A record of a 160 - letter text in 45 seconds while blindfolded was set on 17 November 2007, beating the old record of 1 - minute 26 seconds set by an Italian in September 2006. Ohio native Andrew Acklin is credited with the world record for most text messages sent or received in a single month, with 200,052. His accomplishments were first in the World Records Academy and later followed up by Ripley 's Believe It Or Not 2010: Seeing Is Believing. He has been acknowledged by The Universal Records Database for the most text messages in a single month; however, this has since been broken twice and as of 2010 was listed as 566607 messages by Fred Lindgren.
In January 2010, LG Electronics sponsored an international competition, the LG Mobile World Cup, to determine the fastest pair of texters. The winners were a team from South Korea, Ha Mok - min and Bae Yeong - ho. On 6 April 2011, SKH Apps released an iPhone app, iTextFast, to allow consumers to test their texting speed and practice the paragraph used by Guinness Book of World Records. As of 2011, best time listed on Game Center for that paragraph is 34.65 seconds.
A few competitions have been held between expert Morse code operators and expert SMS users. Several mobile phones have Morse code ring tones and alert messages. For example, many Nokia mobile phones have an option to beep "SM S '' in Morse code when it receives a short message. Some of these phones could also play the Nokia slogan "Connecting people '' in Morse code as a message tone. There are third - party applications available for some mobile phones that allow Morse input for short messages.
"Tattle texting '' can mean either of two different texting trends:
Many sports arenas now offer a number where patrons can text report security concerns, like drunk or unruly fans, or safety issues like spills. These programs have been praised by patrons and security personnel as more effective than traditional methods. For instance, the patron does n't need to leave his seat and miss the event in order to report something important. Also, disruptive fans can be reported with relative anonymity. "Text tattling '' also gives security personnel a useful tool to prioritize messages. For instance, a single complaint in one section about an unruly fan can be addressed when convenient, while multiple complaints by several different patrons can be acted upon immediately.
In this context, "tattle texting '' refers to an automatic text sent by the computer in an automobile, because a preset condition was met. The most common use for this is for parents to receive texts from the car their child is driving, alerting them to speeding or other issues. Employers can also use the service to monitor their corporate vehicles. The technology is still new and (currently) only available on a few car models.
Common conditions that can be chosen to send a text are:
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who sings moana songs how far i'll go | How Far I 'll Go - wikipedia
"How Far I 'll Go '' is a song from Disney 's 2016 animated feature film Moana. It was written and produced by Lin - Manuel Miranda. The song was performed in the film by American actress and singer Auliʻi Cravalho in her role as Moana. It was released along with the album on November 18, 2016. Canadian singer Alessia Cara also recorded the song for the Moana soundtrack. The song was nominated for Best Original Song at the 89th Academy Awards and Best Original Song at the 74th Golden Globe Awards but lost both to "City of Stars '' from La La Land.
"How Far I 'll Go '' was composed as Moana 's "I Want '' song, following in the long tradition of "I Want '' songs in 1990s Disney animated musicals. It replaced an earlier attempt called "More '', for which the demo version recorded by Marcy Harriell was released as an outtake on the deluxe version of the soundtrack album. Although Miranda has stressed that he is still "very proud of '' the song as a first draft, "More '' was not good enough in retrospect because it merely expressed Moana 's vague desire to see more since she had already figured out everything about the island. In contrast, "How Far I 'll Go '' expresses a deeper, richer message: Moana 's struggle with the irresistible impulse to explore beyond the reef notwithstanding her genuine love for her island, her family, and her people. As Miranda explained to People: "To me that 's much more complicated than, ' I hate it here and I want to get out, '... To say, ' I love it here, I love my parents, but why ca n't I stop walking to the ocean and fantasizing about getting out of here? ' And questioning that instinct? It 's even more confusing. And that 's a valid story too. ''
To make himself write a song more compelling than "More '', Miranda "went method ''. According to Miranda, he locked himself in his childhood bedroom at his parents ' residence for an entire weekend in order to force his mind back to age 16 (the same age as Moana in the film), a time when he was facing what seemed like an "impossible distance '' between the reality of his pleasant middle - class childhood which had no connection to show business whatsoever, and his dreams of a career in show business. He was well aware that he was composing the next Disney "I Want '' song after "Let It Go '' and that whatever he wrote had to be different from "Let It Go ''.
A music video for the song was released on December 12, 2016.
When the movie had its first theater release worldwide, the song numbered 44 versions, including a special Tahitian - language adaptation created specifically for the movie. For promotional purposes, South African singer Lira and Filipino singer and actress Janella Salvador recorded their own English - language versions of the song in order to play them over the end credits on the South African and Filipino release of the film, while Indonesian singer Maudy Ayunda and Malaysian singer Ayda Jebat recorded their own versions of the song respectively in Indonesian and Malaysian language.
On December 15, a 5 - languages mash - up was released online, featuring singers from Southeast Asian countries: Janella Salvador from the Philippines, Maudy Ayunda from Indonesia, Myra Molloy from Thailand, Ayda Jebat from Malaysia and Trần Minh Như from Vietnam. Shortly thereafter, a 24 - languages video was released on Disney 's Vevo channel.
In June 2017, a Māori - language version of the movie, featuring four voice - actors from the original English cast, was announced. Three weeks later, New Zealander Jaedyn Randell was introduced as Moana 's singing voice. The movie was released in September 2017. In the same year, Shruti Rane (Hindi) reprised her role in the Bengali - language version of the movie.
In November 2017, a Hawaiian - language dubbing was announced to be under way, with Auliʻi Cravalho reprising her role as Moana.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Canadian singer and songwriter Alessia Cara recorded "How Far I 'll Go '' for the Moana soundtrack, with the song being released ahead of the soundtrack on October 28, 2016.
Rolling Stone 's Brittany Spanos called the song "inspirational and sweet '' and went on to say "the uplifting song is a perfect fit into the Disney canon, with Cara belting lyrics about persevering to achieve her dreams in spite of her imperfections or detractors. '' US magazine Rap - Up said "the empowering anthem allows the Canadian songstress to deliver outstanding vocals about overcoming adversity to reach for goals '' and labeled it "a song with a message '' and an "emotionally - charged track. '' Taylor Weatherby of Billboard dubbed it a "bouncy, uplifting tune. '' Idolator 's Mike Wass said "the inspiring anthem is the perfect antidote to the general ugliness of 2016 '' and called it "a soaring ballad. ''
The official music video for the song, directed by Aya Tanimura, was released on November 3, 2016. Derek Lawrence of Entertainment Weekly described the video: "The video finds Cara roaming an empty beach as she belts out lyrics that reflect the film 's plot about a young Polynesian girl setting sail for an epic adventure. '' The video was filmed at El Matador Beach in Malibu, California.
In many versions of Moana, Alessia Cara 's version of the song played during the end credits. However, several localized adaptations of Cara 's version of the song were recorded for the end credits of the film as released in certain markets around the world.
Vajèn van den Bosch (nl) (Dutch), Laura Tesoro (Flemish) and Cerise Calixte (French) sang the song both for the end credits and the movie.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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what is the most destructive fire in us history | List of wildfires - wikipedia
This is a list of notable wildfires.
During the 1997 Indonesian forest fires 97,000 km (37,000 sq mi) of forest were destroyed, more than 2.6 gigatonnes of CO was released to the atmosphere. There are other forest fires in Java and Sulawesi on the same year.
Summer 2017 Croatian Wildfires, is a series of wildfires burning in the Istria to the all Way down to Dalmatia. One Wildfire also entered eastern suburbs of Split. The fire also affected islands of Vir, Pag and few other islands
The 1949 Landes Forest Fire burned 50.000 ha of forest land and killed 82 people.
From 2007 - 17, wildfires burned an average of 6.6 and 6.2 million acres / year in the U.S. and Canada, respectively.
(25,900 ha)
(2,023,000 ha)
Cause: drought, high winds, lightning. Forest Fire area burned is an estimation.
(3,280,000 ha)
(6,000 ha)
Some wildfires occurred in Greenland in August 2017.
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who has the record for most consecutive wins in mlb | List of Major League Baseball longest winning streaks - wikipedia
This is a list of the longest team winning streaks or unbeaten streaks in Major League Baseball history. Streaks started at the end of one season are carried over into the following season. The lists below include streaks that consist entirely of regular - season games, streaks from the predecessor National Association (1871 -- 1875), streaks of playoff games and World Series games, and streaks that include both regular - season and postseason games.
The 1916 New York Giants hold the record for the longest unbeaten streak in MLB history at 26, with a tie in - between the 14th and 15th win. The record for the longest winning streak by an American League team is held by the 2017 Cleveland Indians at 22. The Chicago Cubs franchise has won 21 games twice, once in 1880 when they were the Chicago White Stockings and once in 1935.
The longest winning streak consisting only of playoff games stands at 12 consecutive wins, by the 1927, 1928 and 1932 New York Yankees (who swept the World Series all three seasons) and tied by the 1998 -- 99 Yankees. For streaks that have included both regular and postseason games, the 1970 and 1971 Baltimore Orioles hold the top two positions with 17 and 16 consecutive victories, respectively.
Several entries in the table are denoted as including ties. In the early days of baseball, a game that was postponed due to weather or darkness was replayed from the beginning (instead of being resumed from that point), but all statistics from the game were counted. In official records, the game is unofficial but is listed as a tie.
This list contains the top 30 streaks consisting entirely of regular - season games.
Denotes season in which team won a pennant in the American Association
This list contains only the top 10 streaks consisting entirely of postseason games.
This list contains only the top 10 streaks consisting entirely of World Series games.
(tie)
This list includes streaks that involve both regular season games and games which occurred in the postseason.
This list contains only the top 10 streaks consisting entirely of postseason series. For the purpose of this list, one - game wild card matchups, such as the 2012 Cardinals ' win, and the Giants ' wild card wins in 2014 and 2016, are counted.
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who became the first indian to win men's single australian open | 2017 Australian Open -- men 's singles final - wikipedia
The 2017 Australian Open Men 's Singles final was the championship tennis match of the Men 's Singles tournament at the 2017 Australian Open. It was contested between Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal, ranked 17th and 9th in the world respectively. It was their record ninth meeting in a Grand Slam final in their rivalry, and their 1st meeting in a Grand Slam final since the 2011 French Open. In a rematch of the 2009 Australian Open final, which Nadal won in 5 sets, Roger Federer won the duel in 5 sets, beating Nadal for the first time in a Grand Slam since the 2007 Wimbledon final. He also trailed Nadal 3 -- 1 in the final set but won 5 games in a row to win the title. This ended a 6 - match losing streak against Nadal in Grand Slam events. Having lost all of their previous three encounters, this was the first time Federer defeated Nadal at the Australian Open and also marked Federer 's first Grand Slam victory over Nadal outside the grass courts of Wimbledon. Federer extended his record of Grand Slam men 's singles titles to 18 exceeding the previous record of 14 held by Pete Sampras.
Due to their storied rivalry, the advancing age of both players in their respective careers, critical speculation of this being their last Grand Slam finals contest against one another, the potential tennis history made from either victory and subsequent implications for their respective legacies, and the match 's relevance towards popular and critical discussions on either Federer or Nadal being ' the greatest tennis player of all time ', the 2017 Australian Open men 's singles finals match between Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal, referred by the moniker ' Fedal XXXV ', was a ' dream final ' and the most highly anticipated final in not only the tournament 's history, but also in tennis history, and was one of the most important sporting events ever played.
Federer and Nadal 's participation in the 2017 Australian Open marked their major returns from their 2016 seasons that saw sidelining injuries. Federer in particular had not played a tournament since the 2016 Wimbledon semi-final, having aggravated his surgically repaired knee to the extent that he called off the rest of his 2016 season, including missing out the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio that he was keen to compete in for the men 's singles Olympic Gold Medal that eluded him and also playing the highly anticipated mixed doubles pairing with compatriot and fellow tennis great, Martina Hingis. Unable to defend his Cincinnati Open and Swiss Basel Indoors titles and his runner up position at the 2016 US Open, Federer fell from No. 3 to No. 16 at the end of the 2016, dropping out of the top 5 for the first time since March 2014 and dropping out of the top 10 rankings for the first time since 2002. Contrasting Federer 's consistent semi-finals and finals appearances in Grand Slams from 2015 Wimbledon onwards, Nadal failed to make a Grand Slam quarterfinal since the 2015 French Open. His last Grand Slam title win was the 2014 French Open and his last appearance in the Australian Open men 's singles final was against Stan Wawrinka in 2014, which Wawrinka won in four sets. Nadal, however, won the Monte - Carlo Masters title in 2016, while Federer, for the first time since 2000, did not win a tournament title. Prior to the 2017 Australian Open, Nadal had reached the quarterfinals of the 2017 Brisbane International losing to Milos Raonic, while Federer had played in the 2017 Hopman Cup in singles and mixed round robins with Belinda Bencic, winning two and losing one match in both singles and mixed doubles (the Swiss team did not qualify for the final).
En route to the final both Federer and Nadal made exceptional campaigns: Federer scored 3 top - 10 wins, including a 5 - set win over Kei Nishikori in the 4th round, which became Federer 's 200th win over top - 10 players in his career and becoming the first man ever to achieve this feat, and culminated by a 5 - set win in the semifinals over compatriot Stan Wawrinka after surviving a few breaks points in the 5th; Nadal scored 2 top - 10 wins, as well as ending Grigor Dimitrov 's unbeaten 2017 win streak of 10 matches in the semifinals in 4 hours and 56 minutes, after being down 3 -- 4, 15 -- 40 in the 5th set. When top seeds Andy Murray and Novak Djokovic were knocked out early in the draw and both Federer and Nadal made quarter - finals on opposite sides of the draw, the men 's singles final between Federer and Nadal was anticipated early and, when secured, drew immediate attention for being another confrontation between the two perennial archrivals and, more importantly, the potential tennis history made from either victory and the subsequent implications upon both players ' respective legacies. Both men made note of the passage of time of their respective careers since their last Grand Slam final meeting and respective struggles, simultaneously acknowledging and embracing the present significance and the magnitude of their upcoming match.
Federer 's entry in the 2017 Australian Open already drew substantial and critical media attention due to his 6 - month layoff from his knee injury, his continued years - long quest for his 18th singles major, and his consistent form and reflected appearances in two semi-finals and two finals in four previous Grand Slam tournaments despite his advancing age. The 2017 Australian Open men 's singles final between perennial archrivals Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal further developed from that attention and the match was immediately regarded by fans, fellow tennis contemporaries, pundits and analysts, and the media as a ' dream final ' and, more importantly, a match of historical significance for both players, as agreed by many past legends such as Andy Roddick and Pam Shriver as well as renowned tennis analyst Mary Carillo. Due to their respective ages of 35 and 30, the increasing number of years since their last respective Grand Slam title wins, and the perceived declines from their prime sporting years which saw some critics voicing opinions that neither player would ever win a singles major again, it was critically speculated that the 2017 Australian Open men 's singles final may mark the last time that Federer and Nadal would meet and contest each other in a Grand Slam final. Furthermore, many other pundits and analysts also agreed that this match could very well prove who between Federer and Nadal would be popularly and critically viewed as the "greatest tennis player of all time ''. Federer held the all - time count of men 's singles of Grand Slam titles at 17, while Nadal held the second all - time count of 14 tied with Pete Sampras and a dominant head - to - head 23 -- 11 record against Federer. The 2017 Australian Open men 's singles final would either see Federer breaking his historic all - time record of 17 men 's Grand Slam singles titles, or, Nadal with 15 Grand Slam singles titles that would break the tie between himself and Sampras ' Grand Slam title count and subsequently narrow the Grand Slam title count gap between himself and Federer. Furthermore, should Nadal win, he would become the first man in the Open Era to achieve a double career Grand Slam, winning each of the Grand Slams at least twice in men 's singles.
Numerous tennis players and legends fielded their opinions on the match and who would win, including Australian Open promotional interviews with Roy Emerson, Fred Stolle, John McEnroe, Lindsay Davenport, and Rod Laver, in addition to other media interviews with John Newcombe, Martina Navratilova, Lleyton Hewitt, Pat Rafter, Michael Chang, Mary Joe Fernández, and Andy Roddick. Federer 's age, his last two disappointing four - set losses in Grand Slam tournament finals, and first tournament return from his six - month layoff due to his injured and surgically repaired knee were all collectively cited against Federer 's chances for winning the final, all in addition to the popularly cited Nadal 's dominant head - to - head record (including 3 - 0 against Federer in their previous Australian Open matches), and particular game match - up against Federer 's game. Players remarked that the court speed would favor Federer 's game over Nadal 's, and the media noted that Federer 's game may be further helped by the courts being comparatively faster than the previous year 's Australian Open, but this remains disputed. Further adding to Federer 's chances to winning were their last encounter ending in Federer 's favor at the 2015 Swiss Basel Indoors, an additional day of rest for Federer, a comparatively improved backhand that might hold up better against Nadal 's lefty forehand, and Nadal 's intensely contested five - set semi-final match against Grigor Dimitrov which lasted almost five hours.
James Keothavong of the UK was the chair umpire.
The match lasted 3: 38 minutes, including a medical time - out for Federer after the 4th set. Federer won the first set 6 -- 4 after breaking Nadal in the 7th game. Nadal won the second set 6 -- 3 where he broke Federer twice and Federer broke back once. The start of the third set saw a crucial momentum swing, where Federer saved 3 break points in his opening service game, all of which were saved by aces. After holding on to his serve, Federer subsequently broke Nadal twice to take the set 6 -- 1. The fourth set was won by Nadal 6 -- 3, and it came down to a fifth set.
Federer took an off - court medical time - out at the start of the fifth set. Upon resumption of play, Nadal broke Federer in the first game, and was leading the final set 3 -- 1, however Federer broke back to level the set at 3 -- 3. After holding his serve to take the lead 4 -- 3, Federer went on to break Nadal 's next service game, which included a 26 shot rally (longest in the match) at deuce. Whilst serving for the championship at 5 -- 3, Federer had to overcome a 15 -- 40 deficit to reach championship point. On his second championship point, Federer hit a forehand winner that landed on the line of the alley on the deuce side. Nadal challenged the call, but, upon Hawk - Eye review, the call was upheld and Federer won the match.
The match statistics followed a similar pattern to those at the 2009 Australian Open final, with a few exceptions: Federer has a higher break point conversion rate than Nadal, and Nadal winning a higher percentage of points at the net.
The most striking difference between this match and past Fedal Slam finals is that Federer hit more than double the number of winning shots than Nadal, 73 to 35.
Winning his 5th Australian Open men 's singles title, Roger Federer extended his all - time record of Grand Slam titles to 18, pulling four ahead of the second all - time count of 14 held by Rafael Nadal and Pete Sampras. Federer also became the first man ever to win at least 5 singles majors at 3 different Grand Slams each (Australian Open, Wimbledon, and US Open). In addition to being denied his third effort to win the Australian Open title, Nadal was also denied, for the second time after the 2014 Australian Open men 's singles final, from becoming the first man to achieve a double career Grand Slam in the Open Era. Furthermore, Federer 's victory over Nadal in the Australian Open 2017 final was his first Grand Slam match win over Nadal since the 2007 Wimbledon final nearly a decade ago, and also marked Federer 's first ever win over Nadal in a Grand Slam match outside of the grass courts of Wimbledon. Most importantly, Federer 's 2017 Australian Open title victory marked the culmination of his years - long quest since his 2012 Wimbledon title win for his 18th Grand Slam singles title, which previously saw three finals appearances and losses all to then - reigning No. 1 Novak Djokovic at the 2014 Wimbledon and 2015 's Wimbledon and US Open. At 35 years and 174 days of age, Federer became the second - oldest winner of a Grand Slam after Ken Rosewall since 1972. Considered altogether along with his return from his six - month injury layoff, his 2017 Australian Open run seeing three 5 - set match wins over top 10 players, and his Grand Slam match history of losses against Nadal, Federer 's victory from being down 1 -- 3 in the final set against Nadal in the 2017 Australian Open men 's singles final is considered by some to be the biggest win in his career.
Federer 's 5th Australian Open title win marked a tournament record 7 year - long gap between a player 's successive Australian Open titles and also established an Open - era Slam record of a 13 + year - long span of winning men 's singles Grand Slam titles since his maiden 2003 Wimbledon title win. Winning another Australian Open title also saw Federer increase his all - time record count of hard court singles majors to 10, two ahead of the second all - time count of 8 held by Novak Djokovic. Federer is now tied with Djokovic with the record of 6 Australian Open finals and is one behind Djokovic 's all - time record count of 6 Australian Open titles. In addition, the match was also Federer 's career 7th five - set Grand Slam final match, subsequently breaking the all - time career record tie held with Björn Borg of 6 Grand Slam five - set finals.
Federer 's winning campaign at the 2017 Australian Open defeated four top 10 players, three of which whose matches went to a full five sets and two of them were back - to - back: 5th seed Kei Nishikori in the 4th round; 4th seed Stan Wawrinka in the semi-final; and 9th seed Rafael Nadal in the final. The previous winning campaign in a men 's singles Grand Slam defeating four top 10 players for the title was 35 years ago, accomplished by the unseeded 17 year - old Mats Wilander at the 1982 French Open - Men 's Singles. The 2017 Australian Open men 's singles final also marked Federer 's 100th Australian Open match. Winning the 2017 Australian Open catapulted Federer back into the top 10 rankings at No. 10. Nadal 's runner - up position advanced his rank from No. 9 to No. 6.
The match was one of the most watched tennis matches in history. Eurosport 's coverage of the event reached 9.7 million viewers across Europe, becoming its most - watched tennis match of all - time and the second most watched sport event in Eurosport 's history, averaging 7.2 million viewers through the match 's duration and peaking at 8 million viewers during the final set. Eurosport 's coverage of the final also broke local records receiving the highest ever amount of average viewers for a Eurosport programme in the Netherlands with 503,000 viewers and in Spain with 610,000 viewers.
In Australia, the free - to - air television broadcast on the Seven Network was the highest - rating Australian Open Men 's Singles Final in more than a decade, with a combined 2.668 million viewers in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide & Perth. Including regional viewers (965,000), the figure rose to 3.615 million viewers across Australia. A one - minute period peaked at 4.4 million viewers across Australia. Across the final day of the tournament, 6.5 million Australians watched at least 5 consecutive minutes of the broadcast. In addition, the match was streamed online in Australia by nearly 190,000 people. The Seven Network had a free - to - air audience share of 54.5 % between 6: 00pm and 12: 00am.
In the United States, ESPN said the men 's final drew a record audience since it moved to an overnight time slot in 2005. Starting at 3: 30 AM ET Sunday, the five - set match posted a 0.9 overnight rating (~ 1.05 million households), up 80 % from the 2016 final between Novak Djokovic and Andy Murray. The network said it likely will be the most - watched program at that hour in ESPN history.
Joining the social media congratulations and praise from fans, commentators, fellow contemporaries and tennis legends such as Billie Jean King who praised Federer as the greatest of all time, were other sport stars and legends outside of tennis such as Mesut Özil, Ian Thorpe, Alex Morgan, Sachin Tendulkar, Pau Gasol, Luís Figo, Franco Baresi, Karrie Webb, Lin Dan, and Usain Bolt. Golf legend ' Golden Bear ' Jack Nicklaus, who holds the all - time record of golf majors at the same number of 18, also offered his congratulations to Federer for winning his 18th major tennis singles win.
Commentators contributed their post-match thoughts. Brad Gilbert said to his fellow commentators Chris McKendry and Darren Cahill that he could easily make a case that Federer, being 1 - 3 down to his archrival Nadal in the final deciding set, would go on to play the best five games in his career, coming up the most clutch that he has ever been, especially in the face of Nadal and everything that was on line in losing this match to him. Patrick McEnroe of ESPN said that Federer ' out - Rafa 'd Rafa ', noting that, instead of being emotionally and physically depleted from being grounded down by Nadal 's persistence and tenacity, Federer this time around was ' the fighter... that was defending, that was scrapping, was coming up with shots on the run ' that, coupled with his serve, saw him close the gap between himself and Nadal and then go on to win the deciding set of the match. John McEnroe remarked that Nadal 's long semi-final and the one day of difference of rest between him and Federer perhaps made themselves felt in the latter stages of the match. But John McEnroe, who himself in the past was one of the critics who judged that Federer would never again win another major after his 2012 Wimbledon title win, remarked that during the match 's final set Federer ' showed more heart and will than he ever has in a singles match in his life, ' which led to Federer 's victory that in John McEnroe 's eyes cemented Federer as being the best player of all time unless Nadal can win additional majors to once again close the gap between their respective Grand Slam singles title count. Due to the form shown by both players, both McEnroe brothers say that Federer and Nadal could very well win at their respective most successful Slams of Wimbledon and the French Open ahead. This prediction proved out to be correct, as later in the year Nadal and Federer, won French open and Wimbledon respectively, both without dropping a set. Nadal also won the US Open later.
Pat Cash criticized Federer 's ' lengthy break ' after the 4th set due to a medical time - out, accusing him of "legal '' cheating and criticized the tournament for allowing Federer to do so. In response, Federer said that Cash was unfair and exaggerating in his criticism, elaborating that his quad and groin began to hurt through the second and third sets respectively and finally warranted a medical time - out after the end of the fourth set. Further defending his integrity, Federer said that he was the last guy to take a medical time - out, much less abuse it, citing his 20 - year career of having not called a medical time - out prior to the 2017 Australian Open. When asked in the post-match conference for his thoughts, Nadal was indifferent, "(having) no opinion and did n't know what was going on ''. Nadal himself had taken a brief break in which he went to the dressing room and returned to court in fresh clothes. As precedence, Nadal also took a timeout in the 2014 final against Stan Wawrinka when he was behind, and came back to play better and win the third set in that final following the break. Nadal 's uncle and coach, Toni Nadal, also believed that Federer 's medical time out was not called to secure an advantage from stopping the match 's rhythm and pace. In fact, Nadal broke Federer 's serve immediately after the timeout.
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how many nba finals have the bulls won | Chicago Bulls - wikipedia
The Chicago Bulls are an American professional basketball team based in Chicago, Illinois. The Bulls compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the league 's Eastern Conference Central Division. The team was founded on January 16, 1966. The team plays its home games at the United Center, an arena shared with the Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League (NHL).
The Bulls saw their greatest success during the 1990s, when they were responsible for popularizing the NBA worldwide. They are known for having one of the NBA 's greatest dynasties, winning six NBA championships between 1991 and 1998 with two three - peats. All six championship teams were led by Hall of Famers Michael Jordan, Scottie Pippen and coach Phil Jackson. The Bulls are the only NBA franchise to win multiple championships and never lose an NBA Finals series in their history.
The Bulls won 72 games during the 1995 -- 96 NBA season, setting an NBA record that stood until the Golden State Warriors won 73 games during the 2015 -- 16 NBA season. The Bulls were the first team in NBA history to win 70 games or more in a single season, and the only NBA franchise to do so until the 2015 -- 16 Warriors. Many experts and analysts consider the 1996 Bulls to be one of the greatest teams in NBA history.
Michael Jordan and Derrick Rose have both won the NBA Most Valuable Player Award while playing for the Bulls, for a total of six MVP awards.
The Bulls share rivalries with the Detroit Pistons, New York Knicks, and the Miami Heat. The Bulls ' rivalry with the Pistons was highlighted heavily during the late 1980s and early 1990s.
On January 16, 1966 Chicago was granted an NBA franchise to be called the Bulls. The Chicago Bulls became the third NBA franchise in the city, after the Chicago Stags (1946 -- 1950) and the Chicago Packers / Zephyrs (now the Washington Wizards). The Bulls ' founder, Dick Klein, was the Bulls ' only owner to ever play professional basketball (for the Chicago American Gears). He served as the Bulls ' president and general manager in their initial years.
After the 1966 NBA Expansion Draft, the newly founded Chicago Bulls were allowed to acquire players from the previously established teams in the league for the upcoming 1966 -- 67 season. The team started in the 1966 -- 67 NBA season, and posted the best record by an expansion team in NBA history. Coached by Chicagoan and former NBA star Johnny "Red '' Kerr, and led by former NBA assist leader Guy Rodgers, guard Jerry Sloan and forward Bob Boozer, the Bulls qualified for the playoffs, the only NBA team to do so in their inaugural season.
In their first season, the Bulls played their home games at the International Amphitheatre, before moving to Chicago Stadium.
Fan interest was diminishing after four seasons, with one game in the 1968 season having an official attendance of 891 and some games being played in Kansas City. In 1969, Klein dropped out of the general manager job and hired Pat Williams, who as the Philadelphia 76ers ' business manager created promotions that helped the team become third in attendance the previous season. Williams revamped the team roster, acquiring Chet Walker from his old team in exchange for Jim Washington and drafting Norm Van Lier -- who was traded to the Cincinnati Royals and only joined the Bulls in 1971 -- while also investing in promotion, with actions such as creating mascot Benny the Bull. The Bulls under Williams and head coach Dick Motta qualified for four straight playoffs and had attendances grow to over 10,000. In 1972, the Bulls set a franchise win - loss record at 57 wins and 25 losses. During the 1970s, the Bulls relied on Jerry Sloan, forwards Bob Love and Chet Walker, point guard Norm Van Lier, and centers Clifford Ray and Tom Boerwinkle. The team made the conference finals in 1975 but lost to the eventual champions, the Golden State Warriors, 4 games to 3.
After four 50 - win seasons, Williams returned to Philadelphia, and Motta decided to take on the role of GM as well. The Bulls ended up declining, winning only 24 games in the 1975 -- 1976 season. Motta was fired and replaced by Ed Badger.
Klein sold the Bulls to the Wirtz Family, longtime owners of the Chicago Blackhawks. Indifferent to NBA basketball, the new ownership group infamously implemented a shoestring budget, putting little time and investment into improving the team.
Artis Gilmore, acquired in the ABA dispersal draft in 1976, led a Bulls squad which included guard Reggie Theus, forward David Greenwood and forward Orlando Woolridge.
In 1979, the Bulls lost a coin flip for the right to select first in the NBA draft (Rod Thorn, the Bulls ' General Manager, called "heads ''). Had the Bulls won the toss, they would have selected Magic Johnson; instead, they selected David Greenwood with the second pick. The Los Angeles Lakers selected Johnson with the pick acquired from the New Orleans Jazz, who traded the selection for Gail Goodrich.
After Gilmore was traded to the San Antonio Spurs for center Dave Corzine, the Bulls employed a high - powered offense centered around Theus, and which soon included guards Quintin Dailey and Ennis Whatley. However, with continued dismal results, the Bulls decided to change direction, trading Theus to the Kansas City Kings during the 1983 -- 84 season. Attendance began to dwindle, with the Wirtz Family looking to sell to ownership groups interested in moving the team out of Chicago, before selling to local ownership.
In the summer of 1984, the Bulls had the third pick of the 1984 NBA draft, after Houston and Portland. The Rockets selected Hakeem Olajuwon, the Blazers picked Sam Bowie and the Bulls chose shooting guard Michael Jordan. The team, with new management in owner Jerry Reinsdorf and general manager Jerry Krause, decided to rebuild around Jordan. Jordan set franchise records during his rookie campaign for scoring (third in the league) and steals (fourth), and led the Bulls back to the playoffs, where they lost in four games to the Milwaukee Bucks. For his efforts, he was rewarded with a selection to the All - NBA Second Team and the NBA Rookie of the Year Award.
In the following off - season, the team acquired point guard John Paxson and on draft day traded with the Cavaliers for the rights to power forward Charles Oakley. Along with Jordan and center Dave Corzine, they provided much of the Bulls ' offense for the next two years. After suffering a broken foot early in the 1985 -- 86 season, Jordan finished second on the team to Woolridge in scoring. Jordan returned for the playoffs, and led the eighth - place Bulls against the 67 -- 15 Boston Celtics, led by Larry Bird. At the time, the Bulls had the fifth worst record of any team to qualify for the playoffs in NBA history. Though the Bulls were swept, Jordan recorded a playoff single - game record 63 points in Game 2 (which still stands to this day), prompting Bird to call him ' God disguised as Michael Jordan. '
In the 1986 -- 87 NBA season, Jordan continued his assault on the record books, leading the league in scoring with 37.1 points per game and becoming the first Bull named to the All - NBA First Team. The Bulls finished 40 -- 42, which was good enough to qualify them for the playoffs. However, they were again swept by the Celtics in the playoffs. In the 1987 draft, to address their lack of depth, Krause selected center Olden Polynice eighth overall and power forward Horace Grant 10th overall, then sent Polynice to Seattle in a draft - day trade for the fifth selection, small forward Scottie Pippen. With Paxson and Jordan in the backcourt, Brad Sellers and Oakley at the forward spots, Corzine anchoring center, and rookies Pippen and Grant coming off the bench, the Bulls won 50 games and advanced to the Eastern Conference semifinals, where they were beaten by the eventual Eastern Conference Champions Detroit Pistons in five games. For his efforts, Jordan was named NBA Most Valuable Player, an award he would win four more times over his career. The 1987 -- 88 season would also mark the start of the Pistons - Bulls rivalry which was formed from 1988 to 1991.
The 1988 -- 89 season marked a second straight year of major off - season moves. Power forward Charles Oakley, who had led the league in total rebounds in both 1987 and 1988, was traded on the eve of the 1988 NBA draft to the New York Knicks along with a first round draft pick used by the Knicks to select Rod Strickland for center Bill Cartwright and a first round pick, which the Bulls used to obtain center Will Perdue. In addition, the Bulls acquired three - point shooter Craig Hodges from Phoenix. The new starting lineup of Paxson, Jordan, Pippen, Grant, and Cartwright took some time to mesh, winning fewer games than the previous season, but made it all the way to the Eastern Conference Finals, where they were defeated in six games by the NBA champion Pistons.
In 1989 -- 90, Jordan led the league in scoring for the fourth straight season, and was joined on the all - star squad for the first time by Pippen. There was also a major change during the off - season, where head coach Doug Collins was replaced by assistant coach Phil Jackson. The Bulls also picked up rookie center Stacey King and rookie point guard B.J. Armstrong in the 1989 draft. With these additional players and the previous year 's starting five, the Bulls again made it to the Conference Finals, and pushed the Pistons to seven games before being eliminated for the third straight year, the Pistons going on to repeat as NBA champions.
In the 1990 -- 91 season, the Bulls recorded a then - franchise record 61 wins, and romped through the playoffs, where they swept the Knicks in the first round, defeated the Philadelphia 76ers in the semifinals, then eliminated defending champion Pistons in the Conference Finals and won the NBA Finals in five games over the Magic Johnson - led Los Angeles Lakers.
The Bulls won their second straight title in 1992 after racking up another franchise record for wins with 67. They defeated the Miami Heat in four games in the first round, the Knicks in seven hard - fought games in the second round, then the Cleveland Cavaliers in six games in the Eastern Conference to the Finals for the second year in a row where they defeated the Clyde Drexler - led Portland Trail Blazers in six games.
In 1993, the Bulls won their third consecutive championship by defeating the Atlanta Hawks, Cleveland Cavaliers and New York Knicks in the first three rounds and then defeating regular season MVP Charles Barkley and the Phoenix Suns, with John Paxson 's three - pointer with 3.9 seconds left giving them a 99 -- 98 victory in Game 6 in Phoenix, Arizona.
On October 6, 1993, Michael Jordan shocked the basketball community by announcing his retirement, three months after his father 's murder. The Bulls were then led by Scottie Pippen, who established himself as one of the top players in the league by winning the 1994 All - Star MVP. He received help from Horace Grant and B.J. Armstrong, who were named to their first all - star games. The three were assisted by Cartwright, Perdue, shooting guard Pete Myers, and Croatian rookie forward Toni Kukoč. Despite the Bulls winning 55 games during the 1993 -- 94 season, they were beaten in seven games by the Knicks in the second round of the playoffs, after a controversial foul call by referee Hue Hollins in game 5 of that series. The Knicks eventually reached the finals that year, but lost to the Houston Rockets. The Bulls opened the 1994 -- 95 season by leaving their home of 27 years, Chicago Stadium, and moving into their current home, the United Center.
In 1994, the Bulls lost Grant, Cartwright and Scott Williams to free agency, and John Paxson to retirement, but picked up shooting guard Ron Harper, the seeming heir apparent to Jordan in assistant coach Tex Winter 's triple - post offense, and small - forward Jud Buechler. The Bulls started Armstrong and Harper in the backcourt, Pippen and Kukoc at the forward spots, and Perdue at center. They also had sharpshooter Steve Kerr, whom they acquired via free agency before the 1993 -- 94 season, Myers, and centers Luc Longley (acquired via trade in 1994 from the Minnesota Timberwolves) and Bill Wennington. However, they were struggling during the season, on March 18, 1995, they received the news that Michael Jordan was coming out of retirement. He scored 55 points against the Knicks in only his fifth game back, and led the Bulls to the fifth seed in the playoffs, where they defeated the Charlotte Hornets. However, Jordan and the Bulls were unable to overcome the eventual Eastern Conference champion Orlando Magic, which included Horace Grant, Anfernee Hardaway, and Shaquille O'Neal. When Jordan returned to the Bulls, he initially wore No. 45 (which was his number while playing for the Birmingham Barons, a minor - league affiliate of the Chicago White Sox). He chose the No. 45 because his older brother Larry wore that number in high school. Michael wanted to be half as good as his brother so he chose 23 which is half of 45 (22.5) rounded up. However, Jordan switched back to the familiar 23 before game 2 of the Orlando Magic series.
In the off - season, the Bulls lost Armstrong in the expansion draft, and Krause traded Perdue to the San Antonio Spurs for rebounding specialist Dennis Rodman, who had won the past four rebounding titles, and who had also been a member of the Detroit Pistons ' "Bad Boys '' squad that served as the Bulls ' chief nemesis in the late 1980s.
With a lineup of Harper, Jordan, Pippen, Rodman and Longley, and perhaps the league 's best bench in Steve Kerr, Kukoc, Wennington, Buechler, and guard Randy Brown, the Bulls posted one of the best single - season improvements in league history and the best single - season record at that time, moving from 47 -- 35 to 72 -- 10, becoming the first NBA team to win 70 or more games. Jordan won his eighth scoring title, and Rodman his fifth straight rebounding title, while Kerr finished second in the league in three - point shooting percentage. Jordan garnered the elusive triple crown with the NBA MVP, NBA All - Star Game MVP, and NBA Finals MVP. Krause was named NBA Executive of the Year, Jackson Coach of the Year, and Kukoc the Sixth Man of the Year. Both Pippen and Jordan made the All - NBA First Team, and Jordan, Pippen, and Rodman made the All - Defensive First Team, making the Bulls the only team in NBA history with three players on the All - Defensive First Team.
In addition, the 1995 -- 96 team holds several other records, including the best road record in a standard 41 - road - game season (33 -- 8), the all - time best start by a team (41 -- 3), and the best start at home (37 -- 0). The Bulls also posted the second - best home record in history (39 -- 2), behind only the 1985 -- 86 Celtics 40 -- 1 home mark. The team triumphed over the Miami Heat in the first round, the New York Knicks in the second round, the Orlando Magic in the Eastern Conference Finals and finally Gary Payton, Shawn Kemp and the Seattle SuperSonics for their fourth title. The 1995 -- 96 Chicago Bulls are widely regarded as one of the greatest teams in the history of basketball.
In the 1996 -- 97 season, the Bulls missed out on a second consecutive 70 - win season by losing their final two games to finish 69 -- 13. They repeated their home dominance, going 39 -- 2 at the United Center. The Bulls capped the season by defeating the Bullets, Hawks and Heat in the first three rounds of the playoffs en route to winning their fifth NBA championship over John Stockton, Karl Malone and the Utah Jazz. Jordan earned his second straight and ninth career scoring title, while Rodman earned his sixth straight rebounding title. Jordan and Pippen, along with Robert Parish, who was a member of the Bulls at the time, were also honored as members of the 50 greatest players of all - time with the NBA celebrating its 50th season. Parish, whose single season with the Bulls would be his last year in the league, was nominated for his stellar career with the Boston Celtics.
The 1997 -- 98 season was one of turmoil for the NBA champion Bulls. Many speculated this would be Michael Jordan 's final season with the team. Phil Jackson 's future with the team was also questionable, as his relationship with team general manager Jerry Krause was one of growing tension. Scottie Pippen was looking for a significant contract extension that he thought he deserved, but was not getting from the organization. In spite of the turmoil that surrounded the Bulls, they still had a remarkable season, with a final regular - season record of 62 -- 20. Michael Jordan would be named the league MVP for the fifth and final time, and the Bulls went into the playoffs as the number one seed in the Eastern Conference.
The first round of the playoffs for the Bulls was against the New Jersey Nets, a team led by Keith Van Horn, Kendall Gill and Sam Cassell. The Bulls swept the Nets three to nothing in a best of five series. The conference semi-finals were more challenging with the Charlotte Hornets stealing game two from the Bulls at the United Center, and tying the series 1 -- 1. But the Bulls easily defeated the Hornets in the next three games of the series. The Conference Finals was a challenge for the Bulls as they went up against the Reggie Miller - led Indiana Pacers. Experts were of the opinion that the Pacers had the best chance to defeat the Bulls. The Pacers gave the Bulls no road wins, winning games 3, 4, and 6, sending the series to a deciding game seven at the United Center. The Bulls prevailed and beat the Pacers 88 -- 83, winning their 6th Eastern Conference Championship.
In a much anticipated Finals, The Bulls faced the team they beat the previous year, the Utah Jazz. Led by Karl Malone and John Stockton, the Jazz felt confident that they could defeat the Bulls, winning game one at Utah 's Delta Center. Facing a potential two to nothing deficit, the Bulls won Game 2 at the Delta Center and tied the series. The Bulls returned to the United Center and, by winning the next two games, took a 3 -- 1 series lead. The Jazz won Game 5 by two points, 83 -- 81. Game 6 was a tough battle for both teams, as the Jazz had a lead late in the game. Down by three points to the Jazz, Michael Jordan led the Bulls to one final win. Jordan hit a shot to bring the Bulls within 1, then stole the ball from Karl Malone and hit the game winning shot with 5.2 seconds remaining on the clock. With a score of 87 -- 86, John Stockton put up a three - pointer, but missed, giving the Bulls their sixth championship in eight years. Jordan would be named the Finals MVP for the sixth time in his career. He retired for the second time on January 13, 1999.
The summer of 1998 brought an abrupt end to the championship era. Krause felt that the Bulls were on the verge of being too old and unable to compete. He decided that the team 's only choices were to rebuild or endure a slow decline. His plan was to trade away the aging talent and acquire high draft picks while clearing salary cap space to make a run at several promising free agents in two years ' time. After having been vetoed in a previous attempt by owner Jerry Reinsdorf, Krause traded Scottie Pippen for Roy Rogers (who was released in February 1999) and a conditional second - round draft pick from the Houston Rockets. He also decided not to re-sign Dennis Rodman, and traded Luc Longley and Steve Kerr for other draft picks. He hired a new coach, Tim Floyd, who had run a successful program at Iowa State University. Upon Phil Jackson 's departure, Michael Jordan made his second retirement official. With a new starting lineup of point guard Randy Brown, shooting guard Ron Harper, newcomer Brent Barry at small forward, power forward Toni Kukoč, and center Bill Wennington, the team began the lockout - shortened 1998 -- 99 season. Kukoc led the team in scoring, rebounding, and assists, but the team won only 13 of 50 games. The lowest point of the season came on April 10 in a game against the Miami Heat. In that game, the Bulls scored 49 points to set an NBA record for the fewest points in a game in the shot clock era.
The previous year 's dismal finish came with one highlight: the team won the draft lottery and the rights to power forward Elton Brand. Since the team lost Harper, Wennington and Barry in the offseason, Brand and fellow rookie Ron Artest led the team throughout the year, especially after Kukoc missed most of the season due to injury and was then dealt for a draft pick at the trading deadline. Brand recorded the first 20 -- 10 average for the Bulls since the days of Artis Gilmore. He led all rookies in scoring, rebounds, blocks, field goal percentage and minutes, while Artest led all rookies in steals and finished second on the team in scoring. For his efforts Brand was named 1999 -- 2000 co-Rookie of the Year with Houston 's Steve Francis, and to the all - rookie first team, while Artest was named to the all - rookie second team. However, the team established a franchise low at 17 -- 65, second worst in the league.
After a summer in which the Bulls witnessed most major and minor free agents Tim Duncan, Grant Hill, Tracy McGrady, Eddie Jones and even Tim Thomas choose to stay with their teams (or go elsewhere) rather than sign with them, Krause signed free agent center Brad Miller and shooting guard Ron Mercer, and drafted power forward Marcus Fizer and traded draft pick Chris Mihm to Cleveland for the rights of guard Jamal Crawford. Brand again led the team in scoring and rebounds with another 20 -- 10 season, but the new acquisitions failed to make a major impact, and they finished with the worst record in team history and the league 's worst for the season at 15 -- 67.
Krause shocked Bulls fans on draft day in 2001 when he traded franchise player Brand to the Los Angeles Clippers for the second pick in the draft, Tyson Chandler. He also selected Eddy Curry with the fourth pick. Since both Chandler and Curry came straight out of high school, neither was expected to make much of a contribution for several years, but they were seen as potential franchise players. The team floundered without veteran leadership. At mid-season, the Bulls traded their top three scorers -- Mercer, Artest, and Miller along with Kevin Ollie -- to the Indiana Pacers for veteran guard Jalen Rose, Travis Best and Norman Richardson. There was also a change in coaching, with Floyd being dismissed in favor of assistant coach and former Bulls co-captain Bill Cartwright, following a series of arguments with players and management. The Bulls improved from 15 to 21 wins, although they were still tied for last in the league.
For the 2002 -- 03 season, the Bulls came to play with much optimism. They picked up college phenom Jay Williams with the second pick in the draft. Williams teamed with Jalen Rose, Crawford, Fizer, newcomer Donyell Marshall, Curry, Chandler, and guard Trenton Hassell to form a young and exciting nucleus which improved to 30 -- 52 in Bill Cartwright 's first full season as head coach. Curry led the league in field goal percentage, becoming the first Bull since Jordan to lead the league in a major statistical category.
During the summer of 2003, long - time GM Jerry Krause retired, and former player and color commentator John Paxson was tapped as his successor. Jay Williams, coming off a promising rookie campaign, was seriously injured in a motorcycle accident. His contract was bought out by the Bulls in February 2004 and he has yet to return to the game. Paxson selected point guard Kirk Hinrich with the seventh pick in the draft, and signed veteran free agent and former franchise player Scottie Pippen. With Pippen playing, Cartwright at the sidelines, and Paxson in the front office, the Bulls hoped that some of the championship magic from before would return.
However, the 2003 -- 04 season was a resounding disappointment. Eddy Curry regressed, leading to questions about his conditioning and commitment. Tyson Chandler was plagued by a chronic back injury, missing more than thirty games. Pippen 's ability to influence games was impaired by knee problems, and he openly contemplated retirement. Jamal Crawford remained inconsistent. Bill Cartwright was fired as head coach in December and replaced with former Phoenix coach Scott Skiles. A trade with the Toronto Raptors brought Antonio Davis and Jerome Williams in exchange for Rose and Marshall in what was seen as a major shift in team strategy from winning with athleticism to winning with hard work and defense. After struggling throughout the season, the Bulls finished with 23 wins and 59 losses, the second - worst record in the league. Fizer was not re-signed, and Crawford was re-signed and traded to the Knicks for expiring contracts. Hinrich provided the lone bright spot, becoming a fan favorite for his gritty determination and tenacious defense. He won a place on the All - Rookie first team.
During the 2004 off - season, Paxson traded a 2005 draft pick to the Phoenix Suns in return for an additional pick in the 2004 NBA draft. He used the picks to select Connecticut guard Ben Gordon and Duke small forward Luol Deng in the first round, and Duke point guard Chris Duhon in the second. Paxson also signed free agent small forward Andrés Nocioni, who had recently won an Olympic gold medal as a member of the Argentine national team. After losing the first nine games of the season, the Bulls began to show signs of improvement behind their improved team defense and clutch fourth - quarter play from Gordon. The Bulls, who were 0 -- 9 to start the season, finished the regular season 47 -- 35, with the third - best record in the Eastern Conference and advanced to the NBA playoffs for the first time since Jordan 's departure. In the first round, the 4th - seeded Bulls played the Washington Wizards. Despite an injury to Deng and a heart issue with Curry, the Bulls opened the series with two wins at home, but lost the next four games and the series. After the season, Ben Gordon became the first rookie to win the NBA Sixth Man Award and the first Bull to win the award since 1996 with Toni Kukoč.
During the 2005 off - season, the Bulls re-signed free agent Tyson Chandler. However, Curry showed possible symptoms of a heart disease resulting of a heart murmur during checkups, and Paxson would not clear him to play without extensive DNA testing. Ultimately, Curry refused to participate in the tests, and he was traded along with Antonio Davis to the New York Knicks for Michael Sweetney, Tim Thomas, and what became the second pick of the 2006 NBA draft -- as well as the right to swap picks with New York in the 2007 NBA draft.
Without a significant post presence, the Bulls struggled for most of the 2005 -- 06 season. However, a late - season 12 -- 2 surge allowed them to finish 41 -- 41 and qualify for the 2006 playoffs as the seventh seed. There, the Bulls faced the Miami Heat. After two close losses in Miami, the Bulls broke through with a blowout win in Game 3, and another win in Game 4. However, the Heat took the next two games to win the series and went on to win that year 's championship. The Bulls ' several young players nevertheless earned additional postseason experience, and Nocioni turned in a remarkable series of performances that far exceeded his season averages.
In the 2006 NBA Draft, the Bulls were awarded forward - center LaMarcus Aldridge and immediately traded him to the Portland Trail Blazers for forward Tyrus Thomas and forward Viktor Khryapa. In a second draft - day trade, the Bulls selected Rodney Carney and traded him to the Philadelphia 76ers for guard Thabo Sefolosha. Later that summer, four - time Defensive Player of the Year Ben Wallace signed with the Bulls for a reported four - year, $60 million contract. Following the signing of Wallace, the Bulls traded Tyson Chandler, the last remaining player of the Krause era, to the (then) New Orleans / Oklahoma City Hornets for veteran power forward P.J. Brown and J.R. Smith and salary cap space that was used to sign former Chicago co-captain Adrian Griffin.
In 2006 -- 07, the Bulls overcame a 3 -- 9 season start to finish 49 -- 33, the third - best record in the Eastern Conference. In the first round, the Bulls again faced Miami, the defending NBA champions. The Bulls narrowly won Game 1 at home, then followed it with a blowout victory in Game 2. In Miami, the Bulls rallied from a 12 - point second - half deficit to win Game 3 and then posted another comeback win in Game 4. The Bulls ' four - game sweep of the defending champions stunned many NBA observers. It was Chicago 's first playoff series victory since 1998, Jordan 's last season with the team.
The Bulls then advanced to face the Detroit Pistons, marking the first time the Central Division rivals had met in the playoffs since 1991. The Pistons won the first three games including a big comeback in Game 3. No NBA team had ever come back from a 0 -- 3 deficit to win the series, but the Bulls avoided a sweep by winning Game 4 by 10 points. The Bulls then easily won Game 5 in Detroit, and had a chance to make NBA history. But they lost at home in game 6 by 10, and the Pistons won the series 4 -- 2 on May 17.
During the off season, the Bulls signed forward Joe Smith and guard Adrian Griffin, and drafted center Joakim Noah. However, distractions began when Luol Deng and Ben Gordon turned down contract extensions, never citing reasons. Then rumors surfaced that the Bulls were pursuing stars like Kevin Garnett, Pau Gasol, and most notably, Kobe Bryant. None of these deals happened, and general manager John Paxson denied a deal was ever imminent.
The Bulls started the 2007 -- 08 NBA season by losing 10 of their first 12 games and on December 24, 2007, after a 9 -- 16 start, the Bulls fired head coach Scott Skiles. Jim Boylan was named the interim head coach on December 27, 2007.
On February 21, 2008, Ben Wallace, Joe Smith, Adrian Griffin and the Bulls ' 2009 2nd round draft pick were exchanged for Drew Gooden, Cedric Simmons, Larry Hughes and Shannon Brown in a three - team trade deal involving the Cleveland Cavaliers and the Seattle SuperSonics. Boylan was not retained on April 17 at the conclusion of the 2007 -- 08 season after compiling a 24 -- 32 record with the Bulls. The Bulls ended the 2007 -- 08 campaign with a 33 -- 49 record, a complete reversal of last year 's record.
After Jim Boylan 's interim tenure expired, the Bulls began the process of selecting a new head coach. They were in talks with former Phoenix head coach Mike D'Antoni, but on May 10, 2008, he signed with the New York Knicks. Other possible options included former Dallas head coach Avery Johnson and former Bulls head coach Doug Collins. Collins resigned from the coaching list on June 4, 2008, reporting that he did not want to ruin his friendship with Jerry Reinsdorf.
On June 10, 2008, the Chicago Bulls G.M. John Paxson hired Vinny Del Negro, with no coaching experience, to coach the young Bulls. On July 3, 2008, the Chicago Tribune reported that Del Harris agreed to become an assistant coach for the Chicago Bulls along with former Charlotte Bobcats head coach Bernie Bickerstaff and longtime NBA assistant Bob Ociepka. Along with Bickerstaff and Ociepka, Harris helped establish a veteran presence on the coaching staff and helped rookie head coach Del Negro.
With a slim 1.7 % chance of winning the rights to draft number 1, the Bulls won the 2008 NBA Draft Lottery and selected first overall. With this, the Bulls became the team with the lowest chance of winning to ever win the lottery since it was modified for the 1994 NBA draft, and second lowest ever. On June 26, 2008, the Bulls drafted Chicago native Derrick Rose from the University of Memphis as the number 1 draft pick. At pick number 39 they selected Sonny Weems. The Bulls later traded Weems to the Denver Nuggets for Denver 's 2009 regular second - round draft pick. The Bulls then acquired Ömer Aşık from the Portland Trail Blazers (selected with the 36th pick) for Denver 's 2009 regular second - round draft pick, New York 's 2009 regular second - round draft pick, and the Bulls ' 2010 regular second - round draft pick. The Bulls re-signed Luol Deng to a six - year $71 million contract on July 30, 2008. He was later plagued with an injury keeping him from action for most of the 2008 -- 09 season. Ben Gordon signed a one - year contract on October 2, 2008.
On February 18, 2009, the Bulls made their first of several trades, sending Andrés Nocioni, Drew Gooden, Cedric Simmons, and Michael Ruffin to the Sacramento Kings for Brad Miller and John Salmons. Then on February 19, 2009, the NBA trade deadline, the Bulls traded Larry Hughes to the New York Knicks for Tim Thomas, Jerome James, and Anthony Roberson. Later that day the Bulls made the third trade in a span of less than 24 hours by sending swingman Thabo Sefolosha to the Oklahoma City Thunder for a 2009 first - round pick. The trades brought a late - season push for the Bulls, which finally clinched a playoff berth on April 10, 2009, their fourth in the last five years. They finished the season with a 41 -- 41 record. Their record was good enough to secure a No. 7 seed in the 2009 NBA Playoffs, playing a tough series against the Boston Celtics. In Game 1, Derrick Rose scored 36 points, along with 11 assists, tying Kareem Abdul - Jabbar 's record for most points scored by a rookie in a playoff debut. After breaking the record for most overtimes played in an NBA Playoffs Series, the Boston Celtics managed to overcome the Bulls after 7 games and 7 overtimes played.
The Bulls had two first round picks in the 2009 NBA draft and decided to take Wake Forest stand out forward James Johnson and athletic USC forward Taj Gibson. In the 2009 NBA off - season the Bulls lost their leading scorer, Ben Gordon, when he signed with their divisional rival, the Detroit Pistons.
On February 18, 2010, John Salmons was traded to the Milwaukee Bucks for Joe Alexander and Hakim Warrick. Meanwhile, Tyrus Thomas was traded to the Charlotte Bobcats for Acie Law, Flip Murray and a future protected first round pick. On April 14, 2010, the Bulls clinched the playoffs with the number 8 seed. Unlike the previous year, however, the Bulls ' playoff run was shorter and less dramatic as they were eliminated by the Cleveland Cavaliers in five games. On May 4, 2010, the Bulls officially fired head coach Vinny Del Negro.
In early June 2010, Boston Celtics assistant Tom Thibodeau accepted a three - year contract to fill the Bulls ' head coaching vacancy. He was officially introduced on June 23. On July 7, it was revealed that Carlos Boozer of the Utah Jazz had verbally agreed to an $80 million, five - year contract. Afterwards, the Bulls traded veteran point guard Kirk Hinrich to the Washington Wizards to create more cap space. The Bulls also signed former 76er and Jazz sharpshooter Kyle Korver to a three - year, $15 million contract. The same day that the Bulls signed Kyle Korver, they signed Turkish All - Star Ömer Aşık. After being matched by the Orlando Magic for J.J. Redick, they signed their third free agent from the Jazz in the off - season in shooting guard Ronnie Brewer, traded for former Warrior point guard C.J. Watson, and signed former Bucks power forward Kurt Thomas as well as former Spurs player Keith Bogans and former Celtic Brian Scalabrine.
Rose earned the 2011 NBA MVP Award, thereby becoming the youngest player in NBA history to win it. He became the first Bulls player since Michael Jordan to win the award. As a team, Chicago finished the regular season with a league - best 62 -- 20 record and clinched the first seed in the Eastern Conference for the first time since 1998. The Bulls defeated the Indiana Pacers and the Atlanta Hawks in five and six games, respectively, thereby reaching the Eastern Conference finals for the first time since 1998, and faced the Miami Heat. After winning the first game of the series, they lost the next four games, ending their season.
During the off - season, the Bulls drafted Jimmy Butler 30th overall in the 2011 NBA draft. After the NBA lockout ended, the Bulls lost Kurt Thomas to free agency, and released Keith Bogans. The Bulls signed veteran shooting guard Richard "Rip '' Hamilton to a three - year deal, after he was waived by the Detroit Pistons. The Bulls also gave MVP Derrick Rose a 5 - year contract extension worth $94.8 million.
Derrick Rose was voted as an NBA All - Star starter for the second consecutive year, and was the third leading voted player overall behind Dwight Howard and Kobe Bryant. Luol Deng was also selected as a reserve for the Eastern Conference. This was the first time that the Bulls had two all stars since 1997, when Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen were the duo. Derrick Rose was injured for most of the 2011 -- 12 NBA season; however, the team was still able to finish with a 50 -- 16 record and clinched the first seed in the Eastern Conference for the second straight year and the best overall record in the NBA (tied with the San Antonio Spurs). Rose suffered a new injury when he tore his ACL during the 4th quarter of the first playoff game on April 28, 2012, against the Philadelphia 76ers and missed the rest of the series. Head coach Tom Thibodeau was criticized for keeping Rose in the game even though the Bulls were essentially minutes away from their victory over the 76ers. The Bulls lost the next three games, and also lost Noah to a foot injury after he severely rolled his ankle stepping on Andre Iguodala 's foot in Game 3; he briefly returned for part of the fourth quarter of that game, but missed the following games in the series. After winning Game 5 at home, Bulls were eliminated by the 76ers in Game 6 in Philadelphia, becoming the fifth team in NBA history to be eliminated as a first seed by an eighth seed. In Game 6, Andre Iguodala sank two free throws with 2.2 seconds left to put the 76ers up 79 -- 78 after getting fouled by Ömer Aşık, who had missed two free throws five seconds earlier. At the end of the season, Boozer and Aşık were the only members on the Bulls ' roster to have played in every game, with Korver and Brewer missing one game apiece. In the offseason, the Bulls gave up Lucas to the Toronto Raptors, Brewer to the New York Knicks, Korver to the Atlanta Hawks, Watson to the Brooklyn Nets and Aşık to the Houston Rockets, but brought back Kirk Hinrich. In addition, they added Marco Belinelli, Vladimir Radmanovic, Nazr Mohammed and Nate Robinson to the roster via free agency.
Rose missed the entire 2012 -- 13 season, but despite his absence, the Bulls finished 45 -- 37, second in the Central Division (behind the Indiana Pacers) and 5th in their conference. They defeated the Brooklyn Nets 4 -- 3 (after leading 3 -- 1) in the first round of the playoffs and lost to the Miami Heat 4 -- 1 in the next round.
During the season, the Bulls snapped both Miami 's 27 - game winning streak and the New York Knicks ' 13 - game winning streak, becoming the second team in NBA history to snap two winning streaks of 13 games or more in a season.
Just 10 games into the 2013 -- 14 season, Derrick Rose would tear his medial meniscus on a non-contact play. He declared he would miss the remainder of the season. On January 7, 2014, veteran forward Luol Deng was traded to the Cleveland Cavaliers for center Andrew Bynum and a set of picks. Bynum was immediately waived after the trade went through. The Bulls would finish second in the Central Division with 48 wins, and earned home - court advantage in the first round. However, due to lack of a strong offensive weapon, they failed to win a single home game en route to losing to the Washington Wizards in five games.
In the 2014 NBA draft, the Bulls traded their 16th and 19th picks for Doug McDermott, the former Creighton star and 5th leading scorer in NCAA history, who was selected with the 11th pick, and in the second round, took Cameron Bairstow with the 49th pick. That offseason, they signed Pau Gasol, re-signed Kirk Hinrich and brought over Eurostar Nikola Mirotić, who was acquired via a draft day trade in 2011, but could not come over sooner, due to salary cap constraints.
The second return of Derrick Rose gave the Bulls and their fans optimism for the 2014 -- 15 season. With 2 - time NBA Champion Pau Gasol and a deep bench consisting of Taj Gibson, Nikola Mirotić, Tony Snell, Aaron Brooks, Doug McDermott, Kirk Hinrich, among others, the Bulls were one of the two favorite teams to come out of the Eastern Conference along with the Cleveland Cavaliers. The Bulls started off the season in style with a blowout win of the New York Knicks, and then winning 7 of their first 9 games (losses coming to the Cleveland Cavaliers and Boston Celtics). The emergence of Jimmy Butler as a primary scorer for the Bulls was a major surprise and he surged into the forefront of the "Most Improved Player of the Year '' award race. Butler 's statistical jump was noted by many as one of the greatest in NBA History, going from scoring just 13 points per game in 2013 -- 14 to scoring 20 points per game in 2014 -- 15. Pau Gasol was considered a huge asset for the Bulls and averaged a double - double throughout the season. Both Butler and Gasol ended up making the Eastern Conference All - Star team. The Bulls ' second half of the season was marred by inconsistency and frustration set in with Derrick Rose blasting the team for not being on the same page. Tension between management and Tom Thibodeau continued to be a dark cloud hanging over the organization. The Bulls finished with a 50 -- 32 record and the 3rd seed in the Eastern Conference. They faced the Milwaukee Bucks in the first round, and took advantage of the young and inexperienced Bucks by going up a quick 3 -- 0 in the series. However, inconsistency and not being on the same page yet again plagued the Bulls as the Bucks won the next two games, sending a scare to Chicago. The Bulls bounced back with fury in Game 6 however, beating the Bucks by a playoff record 54 points winning the series 4 -- 2. The next round saw the Bulls facing their arch - rival Cleveland Cavaliers, and their biggest nemesis, LeBron James, who had beaten the Bulls in all three of their previous playoff meetings. The Bulls shocked the Cavs in Game 1 dominating them and never trailing. The Cavs answered back in Game 2 in the same fashion, never trailing the entire game. In a pivotal Game 3 in Chicago, the Bulls and Cavs battled closely all the way through, but the Bulls prevailed on a last - second buzzer beating 3 - pointer by Derrick Rose. In Game 4, the Cavs would answer once again, with LeBron James hitting the buzzer - beating shot to win the game. The Bulls lack of consistency and poor offensive showing doomed them once again as the Cavs won the next 2 games handily and closed out the series 4 -- 2. After the series, speculation erupted about Tom Thibodeau 's job security due to escalating feud between Thibodeau and Bulls front office managers Gar Forman and John Paxson.
On May 28, 2015, the Bulls fired Tom Thibodeau to seek a "change in approach ''. The Bulls named Fred Hoiberg as their head coach on June 2, 2015. The Bulls had only 1 draft pick in the 2015 NBA draft, and selected center Bobby Portis from the University of Arkansas. Bulls forward Mike Dunleavy Jr. was ruled out for at least the first four months of the season after completing back surgery. With Dunleavy out indefinitely, the Bulls promoted Doug McDermott to the starting lineup in his place at small forward. Before the season started, coach Fred Hoiberg made an incredibly controversial move by putting Nikola Mirotić as his starting power forward to pair with center Pau Gasol, meaning Joakim Noah, a long - time Bulls veteran and a fan - favorite was to come off the bench. Hoiberg told the media that the move was suggested by Noah himself but Noah denied having made any suggestions to Hoiberg, which sparked a distrust between the two before the season even began.
The Bulls started the 2015 -- 16 season off well with an impressive season - opening 97 -- 95 victory against archrivals and defending Eastern Conference Champion Cleveland Cavaliers and jumped to an 8 -- 3 record in the first month. The Bulls went 10 -- 9 and through late November and December. The Bulls came back and won six straight games. However soon afterwards, they lost 12 of their next 17 games and Butler missed four weeks after injuring his knee. The Bulls were eliminated from playoff contention after a loss to the Miami Heat on April 7, 2016 although finishing with season with a winning record of 42 -- 40. It was the first time in 8 years that the Bulls had missed the playoffs.
On June 22, 2016, Derrick Rose and Justin Holiday, along with a 2017 second - round draft pick, were traded to the New York Knicks for center Robin Lopez, and point guards Jerian Grant and José Calderón, who was soon traded to the Los Angeles Lakers. On July 7, the Bulls announced the signing of Rose 's replacement, guard Rajon Rondo. On July 15, the Bulls signed Chicago native Dwyane Wade. On October 17, 2016, the Bulls acquired 2014 Rookie of the Year Michael Carter - Williams in exchange for Tony Snell.
On February 23, 2017, Taj Gibson and Doug McDermott, along with a 2018 second - round draft pick, were traded to the Oklahoma City Thunder for point guard Cameron Payne, shooting guard Anthony Morrow, and power forward / center Joffrey Lauvergne. The Bulls clinched the eighth seed in 2017 NBA Playoffs after winning seven of their final ten games and finishing the season with a 41 -- 41 record. The team struck an early 2 -- 0 lead against the top - seeded Boston Celtics in the first round of the playoffs, but ultimately lost the series after losing the next four games.
On June 22, 2017, Jimmy Butler, along with Chicago 's 2017 first - round pick, was traded to the Minnesota Timberwolves for Zach LaVine, Kris Dunn, and Minnesota 's 2017 first - round pick, which the Bulls used to select Lauri Markkanen. Additionally, on June 27, the Bulls did not give a qualifying offer to Michael Carter - Williams, allowing him to enter unrestricted free agency. On June 30, Rajon Rondo and Isaiah Canaan were waived by the Bulls. On September 24, 2017, Dwyane Wade and the Bulls reportedly agreed to a buyout of the remaining year on his contract. Adrian Wojnarowski reported that Wade gave back $8 million of his $23.2 million contract as part of the agreement.
On October 17, 2017, a fight broke out in practice between Bobby Portis and Nikola Mirotić, who suffered a concussion and two broken bones in his face. Portis was suspended eight games for his role in the altercation, and Mirotić missed 23 games to start the regular season. On February 1, 2018, the Bulls traded Mirotić and a second - round draft pick to the New Orleans Pelicans for a first - round draft pick and Ömer Aşık, Tony Allen, and Jameer Nelson. Bulls ended up finishing the season with 27 -- 55 record.
On June 21, 2018, Bulls selected Wendell Carter with the seventh overall pick, and with 22nd overall pick via trade with New Orleans Pelicans selected Chandler Hutchison. On July 8, the Bulls matched an offer Zach LaVine received from the Sacramento Kings for a four - year, $78 million deal. On July 14, the team signed Jabari Parker to a two - year, $40 million contract after the Milwaukee Bucks ' general manager Jon Horst removed the qualifying offer on the restricted free agent and allowed him to become unrestricted. Part of Parker 's agreement gave the Bulls a team option for the second year.
The Bulls ' main division rivals have been the Detroit Pistons ever since the Jordan - led Bulls met the "Bad Boy '' Pistons in the 1988 Eastern Conference semifinals. The two teams met in the playoffs four consecutive years, with the Pistons winning each time until 1991. The Eastern Conference Finals in 1991 ended with a four - game sweep of the Pistons, who walked off the floor with time still on the game clock. The rivalry was renewed in the 2007 Eastern Conference Semifinals, in which former Detroit cornerstone Ben Wallace met his former team (the Pistons won in 6 games). The geographic proximity and membership in the Central Division further intensify the rivalry, which has been characterized by intense, physical play ever since the teams met in the late 1980s. Chicago fans have been known to have a disliking for Detroit professional teams, as it was in the same division as Chicago in all four major North American sports until recently when the Red Wings moved to the Atlantic Division of the Eastern Conference for the 2013 -- 14 season.
The Bulls and the Miami Heat rivalry began once the Heat became contenders during the 1990s, a decade dominated by the Bulls. They were eliminated 3 times by Chicago, who went on to win the title each time. The rivalry has come back due to the return of the Bulls to the playoffs in the post-Michael Jordan era and the emergence of Dwyane Wade and Derrick Rose. The revived rivalry has been very physical, involving rough plays and hard fouls between players, most notably the actions of former Heat player James Posey. The Bulls and Heat met in the 2011 Eastern Conference Finals, with the Heat winning in 5 games. On March 27, 2013, Chicago snapped Miami 's 27 - game winning streak. The Bulls and Heat met later that year in the 2013 Eastern Conference Semifinals. Miami won the series 4 -- 1. Since LeBron James 's departure from Miami, the Bulls - Heat rivalry has experienced a tough in comparison to the better part of the century as the Bulls chop the Heat 's playoff hopes in the 2017 regular season.
Another franchise that the Bulls have competed fiercely with is the New York Knicks. The two teams met in the playoffs in four consecutive years (1991 -- 94) and again in 1996, with the teams ' series twice (1992 and 1994) going the full seven games. Their first playoff confrontation, however, came in 1989 when both teams were called "teams on the rise '' under Michael Jordan and Patrick Ewing, respectively (rivalry that started their freshman year in the 1982 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship Game with Jordan hitting the deciding jumper of the final). That first confrontation would belong to Chicago with six games of the Eastern Semifinals. The Bulls won in the first three years (1991 -- 93) before losing in 1994 but got revenge in 1996. As with Detroit, the historic rivalry between the cities has led to animosity between the teams and occasionally their fans.
During the Bulls ' run of dominance, the player introductions became world - famous. Longtime announcer Tommy Edwards was the first to use "Sirius '', "On The Run '' and other songs in game presentation in the NBA. When Edwards moved to Boston for employment with CBS Radio, he was replaced by Ray Clay in 1990, and Clay continued many of the traditional aspects of the Bulls introductions, including the music, The Alan Parsons Project 's "Sirius '', for all six championship runs. The lights are first dimmed during the visiting team introduction, accompanied by "The Imperial March '' from Star Wars composed by John Williams or "On the Run '' by Pink Floyd, or "Tick of the Clock '' by Chromatics. Virtually all lights in the stadium are then shut off for the Bulls introduction, and a spotlight illuminates each player as he is introduced and runs onto the court; the spotlight is also focused on the Bulls logo prior to the introductions. Since the move to the United Center, lasers and fireworks have been added, and with improvements to the arena 's White Way video screen, computer graphics on the stadium monitors have been added. These graphics feature the 3D - animated ' Running of the Bulls ' en route to the United Center, along the way smashing a bus featuring the opposing team 's logo. Coincidentally, Alan Parsons wrote "Sirius '' for his own band and was the sound engineer for "On the Run '' from Pink Floyd 's album The Dark Side of the Moon.
Traditionally, the players have been introduced in the following order: small forward, power forward, center, point guard, shooting guard. During the championship era, Scottie Pippen was usually the first (or second after Horace Grant) Bulls player introduced, and Michael Jordan the last. (Pippen and Jordan are the only players to play on all six Bulls championship teams.) More recently with Derrick Rose 's arrival, the guards have been reversed in order, making the Chicago - bred point guard the last player introduced. Although internal disputes eventually led to the dismissal of Clay, the Bulls in 2006 announced the return of Tommy Edwards as the announcer.
As part of Edwards ' return, the introductions changed as a new introduction was developed by Lily and Lana Wachowski, Ethan Stoller and Jamie Poindexter, all from Chicago. The introduction also included a newly composed remix of the traditional Sirius theme.
The Bulls have an unofficial tradition of wearing black shoes (regardless of being home or away) during the playoffs, which dates all the way back to 1989 when they debuted the tradition. Then - Bulls backup center Brad Sellers suggested to wear black shoes as a way to show unity within the team. For the 1996 playoffs, they became the first team to wear black socks with the black shoes, similar to the University of Michigan and the Fab Five which started the trend in college earlier in the decade. Since, many teams have this look in both the regular season and playoffs. It was noted when the Bulls made their first playoff appearance during the 2004 -- 05 season after a six - year hiatus, they continued the tradition and wore black shoes.
Even though the Bulls generally wear black footwear in the playoffs since 1989, there have been some notable exceptions. In the 1995 playoffs against the Magic, when Michael Jordan debuted his Air Jordan XI shoe, he wore the white colorway during the Bulls ' playoff games in Orlando. He was fined by the Bulls for not complying with their colorway policy. During the 2009 playoffs, the Bulls again broke the tradition when all of their players wore white shoes and socks in Game 3 of the first round against the Boston Celtics. More recently, since the NBA 's relaxation of sneaker color rules, some Bulls players wore either red or white sneakers in defiance of the tradition.
The Bulls and their arena mates, the Chicago Blackhawks, shared an odd tradition dating to the opening of Chicago Stadium. Every fall, Feld Entertainment 's Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus came to Chicago on its nationwide tour. Since it used large indoor venues rather than tents, it took over the United Center for its entire run and the Bulls were forced, along with the Blackhawks, to take an extended road trip that lasted around two weeks. The start of the "circus trip '', as many sportscasters dubbed it, was noted in local newspapers, television and radio sports reports as "the circus trip '', along with national programs like SportsCenter. Blackhawks chairman Rocky Wirtz, who co-owns the United Center with Bulls chairman Jerry Reinsdorf, let the contract lapse after the circus ' 2016 run, and condensed the formerly two - week local run of Feld 's Disney on Ice to a week - long period effective February 2018.
Dick Klein wanted a name that evoked Chicago 's traditional meat packing industry and the Chicago Stadium 's proximity to the Union Stock Yards. Klein considered names like Matadors or Toreadors, but dismissed them, saying, "If you think about it, no team with as many as three syllables in its nickname has ever had much success except for the (Montreal Canadiens). '' After discussing possible names with his family, Klein settled on Bulls when his son Mark said, "Dad, that 's a bunch of bull! ''
The iconic Bulls ' logo is a charging red bull 's face (seen at left). The logo was designed by noted American graphic designer Dean P. Wessel and was adopted in 1966. At one point, the Bulls also had an alternate logo during the early 1970s, featuring the same Bulls logo, but with a cloud that says "Windy City '' below the bull 's nose.
The Bulls currently wear three different uniforms: a white uniform, a red uniform, and a black alternate uniform. The original uniforms were aesthetically close to what the Bulls wear today, featuring the iconic diamond surrounding the Bulls logo on the shorts and block lettering. What distinguished the original uniforms were the black drop shadows, red or white side stripes with black borders, and white lettering on the red uniforms. For the 1969 -- 70 season, the red uniforms were tweaked to include the city name.
For the 1973 -- 74 season, the Bulls drastically changed their look, removing the side stripes and drop shadows while moving the front numbers to the left chest. While the white uniforms saw the "Bulls '' wordmark go from a vertically arched to radially arched arrangement, the red uniforms saw a more significant makeover, featuring black lettering and a script "Chicago '' wordmark. With a few tweaks in the lettering, these uniforms were used until 1985.
This uniform set was later revived as a throwback uniform during the 2003 -- 04 and 2015 -- 16 seasons.
Starting with the 1985 -- 86 season, the Bulls updated their uniform. Among the more notable changes in the look were centered uniform numbers and a vertically arched "Bulls '' wordmark in both the red and white uniforms. Like the previous set, this uniform saw a few tweaks particularly in the treatment of the player 's name.
When Nike became the NBA 's uniform provider in 2017, the Bulls kept much of the same look save for the truncated shoulder striping and the addition of the Chicago four stars on the waistline. With Nike and the NBA eliminating any designations on home and away uniforms, the Bulls also announced that their red "Icon '' uniforms would become their primary home uniforms while the white "Association '' uniforms would become their primary away uniforms.
In the 1995 -- 96 season, the Bulls added a black uniform to their set. The initial look featured red pinstripes and lacked the classic diamond on the shorts. This set was revived as throwback uniforms in the 2007 -- 08 and 2012 -- 13 seasons.
From the 1997 -- 98 to the 2005 -- 06 seasons, the Bulls wore slightly modified black uniforms without pinstripes. This set, with a few slight changes in the template, also marked the return of the city name in front of the uniform during the 1999 -- 2000 season.
The 2006 -- 07 season saw another change in the Bulls ' black alternate uniform, now resembling the red and white uniform with the addition of a red diamond in the shorts. For the 2014 -- 15 season, the uniforms were tweaked a bit to include sleeves and a modernized diamond treatment in black with red and white borders.
Since the 2017 -- 18 season, the Bulls ' black uniforms remained mostly untouched save for the aforementioned switch to the new Nike logo that affected the treatment towards the shoulder piping. Nike also dubbed this uniform as the "Statement '' uniform in reference to its third jerseys. The Bulls began wearing the Statement uniforms after Thanksgiving and is currently used in away games against teams that wear their white or cream uniforms.
During the 2005 -- 06 season, the Bulls honored the defunct Chicago Stags by wearing the team 's red and blue throwback uniforms. The set featured red tops and blue shorts.
From 2006 to 2017, the Bulls wore a green version of their red uniforms during the week of St. Patrick 's Day in March. The only red elements visible were those found on the team logo. For 2015 the Bulls wore sleeved versions of the green uniform that featured white lettering with gold and black trim and the "Chicago '' wordmark replacing "Bulls in front. In 2016 and 2017, they wore the same uniforms minus the sleeves.
Between 2009 and 2017, the Bulls wore a variation of their red uniforms as part of the NBA 's "Noche Latina '' festivities every March. The only notable change in this uniform was the "Los Bulls '' wordmark in front. For 2014, the Bulls briefly retired the look in favor of a black sleeved uniform featuring "Los Bulls '' in white with red trim.
During the NBA 's "Green Week '' celebrations, the Bulls also wore green uniforms, but with a slightly darker shade from their St. Patrick 's Day counterparts. They used their black alternate uniforms as its template. They donned the uniforms in a game against the Philadelphia 76ers on April 9, 2009.
The Bulls also wore special edition Christmas uniforms as part of the NBA 's Christmas Day games. The one - off Christmas uniforms were as follows:
From 2015 to 2017, the Bulls wore a grey "Pride '' sleeved uniform, featuring the team name and other lettering in red with white trim. The shorts featured a more modernized version of the diamond, along with four six - pointed stars on either side.
In the 2017 -- 18 season, the Bulls will wear special "City '' uniforms designed by Nike. The uniforms, designed to pay homage to Chicago 's flag, are in white and feature the classic "Chicago '' script and numbers in red with light blue trim along with four six - pointed stars on each side.
Benny the Bull is the main mascot of the Chicago Bulls. He was first introduced in 1969. Benny is a red bull who wears number 1. Benny is one of the oldest and best known mascots in all of professional sports. The Bulls also had another mascot named Da Bull. Introduced in 1995, he was described on the team website as being the high flying cousin of Benny, known for his dunking skills. The man who portrayed Da Bull was arrested in 2004 for possession and selling marijuana from his car. Da Bull was retired soon after the incident. While Benny has a family - friendly design, Da Bull was designed as a more realistic bull. Unlike Benny, Da Bull was brown. He also had a meaner facial expression and wore number 95.
In 1992, the team began training at the Berto Center, located at 550 Lake Cook Rd., Deerfield, Illinois. However, on June 13, 2012, the team announced that it would move its practice facility to a downtown location closer to the United Center to reduce game day commutes. On September 12, 2014, the Bulls officially opened their new training facility, the Advocate Center.
Roster Transactions Last transaction: 2018 -- 07 -- 08
The Bulls hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.
Bold denotes still active with team.
Italic denotes still active but not with team. Points scored (regular season) (as of the end of the 2017 -- 18 season)
Other statistics (regular season) (as of April 18, 2017)
Notes:
The team 's games are broadcast on Entercom 's WSCR (670) as of February 3, 2018. From October 2015 - January 2018, games were carried on Cumulus Media 's WLS (890) in a deal that was expected to last until the 2020 - 21 season, but was nullified in the middle of the 2017 - 18 season after Cumulus filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy and nullified several large play - by - play and talent contracts.
Chuck Swirsky does play - by - play, with Bill Wennington providing color commentary. Univision Radio 's WRTO (1200) has carried Spanish language game coverage since 2009 - 10, with Omar Ramos as play - by - play announcer and Matt Moreno as color analyst.
The Bulls ' television broadcasts are split among NBC Sports Chicago, which broadcasts most of the games, WGN - TV, and WCIU - TV. The announcers are Neil Funk and Stacey King. Also worth noting is that WGN - TV does not air all of its Chicago Bulls games nationwide: only a select few, usually Saturday games, were nationally televised on WGN America from 1999 -- 2014. The rest are only available within the Chicago area.
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education commission that was appointed after independence is called | List of indian commissions - wikipedia
Commissions are constituted by the Government of India either on an ad hoc or permanent basis, to guide, advise or provide solutions to various issues coming under the concerned ministry.
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when does jim clancy get his memory back | Ghost Whisperer (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth season of Ghost Whisperer, an American television series created by John Gray, commenced airing in the United States on October 3, 2008, concluded May 15, 2009, and consisted of 23 episodes. The series follows the life of Melinda Gordon (Jennifer Love Hewitt), who has the ability to see and communicate with ghosts. While trying to live as normal a life as possible -- she is married and owns an antique store -- Melinda helps earthbound spirits resolve their problems and cross over into the Light, or the spirit world. Her tasks are difficult and at times she struggles with people who push her away and disbelieve her ability. In addition, the ghosts are mysterious and sometimes menacing in the beginning and Melinda must use the clues available to her to understand the spirit 's needs and help them.
Ghost Whisperer 's fourth season aired in the United States (U.S.) on Fridays at 8: 00 pm ET on CBS, a terrestrial television network, where it received an average of 10.62 million viewers per episode, becoming the most watched season of the series.
In the fourth season, Melinda meets Eli James (Jamie Kennedy) after a fire at Rockland University who, after his own near - death experience, develops the ability to hear ghosts. Melinda says goodbye to her close friend Rick Payne, who leaves Grandview on a research trip for the university. In this season, Jim is shot and killed. He does not "cross over '' because he does not want to leave Melinda, and his spirit later enters the body of a man named Sam Lucas, who died in an unrelated accident in Grandview and crossed over. When Jim / Sam regains consciousness, he has no memory of being Jim. Melinda works to get him to remember his past life and her, and succeeds after much difficulty and skepticism on the part of her friends. They soon discover that Melinda is pregnant and that the date of conception was right before Jim died.
At the end of the season, Ned and Eli find the Book of Changes, a book written by the Watchers (a benevolent group of ghosts who keep watch over the living). The book tells them of past and future prominent dates, such as Andrea and Jim 's deaths. One date is listed as September 25, 2009; Melinda 's due date. Melinda learns from a Watcher named Carl that her child is destined to not only inherit her gift, but be far more powerful than her. Melinda and Jim decide to remarry and have a small ceremony on a snowy night, on the street where they first met.
Ghost Whisperer is based on the work of "Spirit Communicator '' James Van Praagh, who is co-executive producer and regularly updates a blog about the show through LivingTV. The stories are also said to be based in part on the work of "Spirit Communicator '' Mary Ann Winkowski. Development of the show dates back to at least two years before its premiere.
The show was produced by Sander / Moses Productions in association with CBS Television Studios (originally Paramount Network Television in season one and ABC Studios (originally Touchstone Television in the first two seasons) and CBS Paramount Network Television in seasons two and three).
The show was filmed on the Universal Studios back lot in Los Angeles. One area on the lot is Courthouse Square from the Back to the Future trilogy, though it has been drastically modified to depict Grandview. For example, the clock tower in Back to the Future has been completely covered up. Cast and crew members believe that the set gets visits from real spirits.
Sound effects were completed at Smart Post Sound. Visual effects for the pilot and some season one episodes were completed at Flash Film Works. Visual effects for nearly the entire series were created at Eden FX.
Creator John Gray grew up in Brooklyn, New York, which is not far from Grandview - On - Hudson, west of the Hudson River. Piermont is often referenced in episodes as the neighboring town, which is accurate to real life as Grandview - On - Hudson is actually located just north of Piermont. Professor Rick Payne worked in the fictional "Rockland University, '' and perhaps not coincidentally, the actual Grandview, New York is a village located in Rockland County, New York.
Melinda hears that there has been a fire at the Rockland University Building when Jim is called over there, and hurries over, fearful for Professor Rick Payne, but he is revealed to be alive and well. However, a therapist by the name Eli James dies, and Melinda witnesses his soul being brought back. This ' near - death ' experience grants him the ability to hear ghosts. The episode is focused on the ghost of one of Eli 's patients, who was possibly more than that, and whether or not she has been starting fires since she was 12. Whilst Melinda is trapped in the archives, she meets a group of seemingly benign ghosts calling themselves the watchers, who warn her that dealing with death may brush off on something she loves.
Note: This was Jay Mohr 's last appearance as Professor Payne. First appearance of Jamie Kennedy
Melinda and Jim go to a cruise ship that is going to be scrapped soon and meet the newlywed couple staying in the room next to theirs who want to swap because they are having problems with their room and marriage. Mel sees lots of ghosts on the ship and one is very friendly and helpful. Mel realises room M108 is haunted by a ghost who is looking for her fiancé and swaps rooms so she can help her. She figures out the story of how the ghost died and who her fiancé was - he happens to be the owner of the ship, and has to get him to help the ghost cross over.
A girl swims in a lake and is scared away. It is later discovered that there are many dead bodies in the lake and one of them is the girls ' father. Mel and Eli have to figure out what happened to the bodies to stop the ghosts from being so angry and helping them move on, and it has something to do with the owner of the funeral home, who now has cancer and wo n't take his medication. Sam 's fiancé Nikki ends up staying with Mel and spending a lot of time with Sam, which worries Delia, who urges Mel to fight for him. The Watchers return and warn Mel again, and she learns that they chose to stay earthbound to help the living. After his past life regression session with Eli, Sam remembers loving Mel, but he thinks he is remembering Nikki.
Delia asks Sam and Mel to help her chaperone Ned 's school dance, and Mel sees a ghost trying to stop a girl leaving with an older boy. She quickly realises the ghost is the girls ' mother, and must figure out why she does n't want the two to be together, with very little help from the ghost herself. Delia and Eli help her. Sam asks her on a date and she accepts, but helping the ghost causes her to miss it, and leads Sam to think she 's not ready to date after losing her husband.
A young woman in Eli 's apartment building is being haunted, but claims she does n't know anyone who has died. Mel and Eli investigate together and figure out who the ghost is, and when they find out that Morgan was lying about knowing him, they wonder what else she 's been lying about, and quickly discover that she is ill herself. Meanwhile, Jim misses his job and friends but realises that ca n't be his life anymore, and he eventually decides he wants to go to Med School. Mel and Eli realise there is much more to Morgan 's story, and have to stop the ghost hurting her out of his anger at being lied to.
A TV show is shooting in Grandview and wants to use Melinda 's store. Mel, Delia, Jim and Eli go to a Promotional Event, and Mel and Eli quickly pick up that a ghost is haunting the writer of the show and the lead male actor, and is also involving a seemingly random girl in the audience. They discover that they were all in a play together and the ghost was shot on stage when the blank gun malfunctioned. Mel and Eli think he blames the other three for his death and Eli jumps to the conclusion that the ghost is trying to kill someone on the show. They have to unravel the truth behind what happened in the play all those years ago so the ghost can cross over. After an accident shooting a walk - on part, Jim takes Mel to the hospital and they get some great news.
Melinda is at Delia 's when she realises that one of the girls in Ned 's study group is being haunted. After a sleepwalking incident, Mel and Eli try to work out who the ghost is and what he wants. Eli 's friend Zoe (who told him about Voodoo in the previous episode) recognises the hauntings as Vampire Myths, leading Mel to wonder if Serena knew the ghost, and whether she was into Vampires. When she tries to ask her about it, Serena ends up thinking Vampires are real, and is surprised when Mel reveals she was talking about a ghost. The ghost leads Serena to his crypt after she says she wants to see him, and Mel has to race against time to get there and get her out of the sealed crypt before all the oxygen runs out. Also, Mel and Jim plan their second wedding - with Jim as Sam.
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who produced the first motor that run on ac | AC motor - wikipedia
An AC motor is an electric motor driven by an alternating current (AC). The AC motor commonly consists of two basic parts, an outside stator having coils supplied with alternating current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and an inside rotor attached to the output shaft producing a second rotating magnetic field. The rotor magnetic field may be produced by permanent magnets, reluctance saliency, or DC or AC electrical windings.
Less common, AC linear motors operate on similar principles as rotating motors but have their stationary and moving parts arranged in a straight line configuration, producing linear motion instead of rotation.
The two main types of AC motors are induction motors and synchronous motors. The induction motor (or asynchronous motor) always relies on a small difference in speed between the stator rotating magnetic field and the rotor shaft speed called slip to induce rotor current in the rotor AC winding. As a result, the induction motor can not produce torque near synchronous speed where induction (or slip) is irrelevant or ceases to exist. In contrast, the synchronous motor does not rely on slip - induction for operation and uses either permanent magnets, salient poles (having projecting magnetic poles), or an independently excited rotor winding. The synchronous motor produces its rated torque at exactly synchronous speed. The brushless wound - rotor doubly fed synchronous motor system has an independently excited rotor winding that does not rely on the principles of slip - induction of current. The brushless wound - rotor doubly fed motor is a synchronous motor that can function exactly at the supply frequency or sub to super multiple of the supply frequency.
Other types of motors include eddy current motors, and AC and DC mechanically commutated machines in which speed is dependent on voltage and winding connection.
Alternating current technology was rooted in Michael Faraday 's and Joseph Henry 's 1830 -- 31 discovery that a changing magnetic field can induce an electric current in a circuit. Faraday is usually given credit for this discovery since he published his findings first.
In 1832, French instrument maker Hippolyte Pixii generated a crude form of alternating current when he designed and built the first alternator. It consisted of a revolving horseshoe magnet passing over two wound wire coils.
Because of AC 's advantages in long distance high voltage transmission, there were many inventors in the United States and Europe during the late 19th century trying to develop workable AC motors. The first person to conceive of a rotating magnetic field was Walter Baily, who gave a workable demonstration of his battery - operated polyphase motor aided by a commutator on June 28, 1879, to the Physical Society of London. Describing an apparatus nearly identical to Baily 's, French electrical engineer Marcel Deprez published a paper in 1880 that identified the rotating magnetic field principle and that of a two - phase AC system of currents to produce it. Never practically demonstrated, the design was flawed, as one of the two currents was "furnished by the machine itself. '' In 1886, English engineer Elihu Thomson built an AC motor by expanding upon the induction - repulsion principle and his wattmeter. In 1887, American inventor Charles Schenk Bradley was the first to patent a two - phase AC power transmission with four wires.
"Commutatorless '' alternating current induction motors seem to have been independently invented by Galileo Ferraris and Nikola Tesla. Ferraris demonstrated a working model of his single - phase induction motor in 1885, and Tesla built his working two - phase induction motor in 1887 and demonstrated it at the American Institute of Electrical Engineers in 1888 (although Tesla claimed that he conceived the rotating magnetic field in 1882). In 1888, Ferraris published his research to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin, where he detailed the foundations of motor operation; Tesla, in the same year, was granted a United States patent for his own motor. Working from Ferraris 's experiments, Mikhail Dolivo - Dobrovolsky introduced the first three - phase induction motor in 1890, a much more capable design that became the prototype used in Europe and the U.S. He also invented the first three - phase generator and transformer and combined them into the first complete AC three - phase system in 1891. The three - phase motor design was also worked on by the Swiss engineer Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown, and other three - phase AC systems were developed by German technician Friedrich August Haselwander and Swedish engineer Jonas Wenström.
If the rotor of a squirrel cage motor were to run at the true synchronous speed, the flux in the rotor at any given place on the rotor would not change, and no current would be created in the squirrel cage. For this reason, ordinary squirrel - cage motors run at some tens of RPM slower than synchronous speed. Because the rotating field (or equivalent pulsating field) effectively rotates faster than the rotor, it could be said to slip past the surface of the rotor. The difference between synchronous speed and actual speed is called slip, and loading the motor increases the amount of slip as the motor slows down slightly. Even with no load, internal mechanical losses prevent the slip from being zero.
The speed of the AC motor is determined primarily by the frequency of the AC supply and the number of poles in the stator winding, according to the relation:
where
Actual RPM for an induction motor will be less than this calculated synchronous speed by an amount known as slip, that increases with the torque produced. With no load, the speed will be very close to synchronous. When loaded, standard motors have between 2 -- 3 % slip, special motors may have up to 7 % slip, and a class of motors known as torque motors are rated to operate at 100 % slip (0 RPM / full stall).
The slip of the AC motor is calculated by:
where
As an example, a typical four - pole motor running on 60 Hz might have a nameplate rating of 1725 RPM at full load, while its calculated speed is 1800 RPM. The speed in this type of motor has traditionally been altered by having additional sets of coils or poles in the motor that can be switched on and off to change the speed of magnetic field rotation. However, developments in power electronics mean that the frequency of the power supply can also now be varied to provide a smoother control of the motor speed.
This kind of rotor is the basic hardware for induction regulators, which is an exception of the use of rotating magnetic field as pure electrical (not electromechanical) application.
Most common AC motors use the squirrel - cage rotor, which will be found in virtually all domestic and light industrial alternating current motors. The squirrel - cage refers to the rotating exercise cage for pet animals. The motor takes its name from the shape of its rotor "windings '' - a ring at either end of the rotor, with bars connecting the rings running the length of the rotor. It is typically cast aluminum or copper poured between the iron laminates of the rotor, and usually only the end rings will be visible. The vast majority of the rotor currents will flow through the bars rather than the higher - resistance and usually varnished laminates. Very low voltages at very high currents are typical in the bars and end rings; high efficiency motors will often use cast copper to reduce the resistance in the rotor.
In operation, the squirrel - cage motor may be viewed as a transformer with a rotating secondary. When the rotor is not rotating in sync with the magnetic field, large rotor currents are induced; the large rotor currents magnetize the rotor and interact with the stator 's magnetic fields to bring the rotor almost into synchronization with the stator 's field. An unloaded squirrel - cage motor at rated no - load speed will consume electrical power only to maintain rotor speed against friction and resistance losses. As the mechanical load increases, so will the electrical load -- the electrical load is inherently related to the mechanical load. This is similar to a transformer, where the primary 's electrical load is related to the secondary 's electrical load.
This is why a squirrel - cage blower motor may cause household lights to dim upon starting, but does not dim the lights on startup when its fan belt (and therefore mechanical load) is removed. Furthermore, a stalled squirrel - cage motor (overloaded or with a jammed shaft) will consume current limited only by circuit resistance as it attempts to start. Unless something else limits the current (or cuts it off completely) overheating and destruction of the winding insulation is the likely outcome.
Virtually every washing machine, dishwasher, standalone fan, record player, etc. uses some variant of a squirrel - cage motor.
An alternate design, called the wound rotor, is used when variable speed is required. In this case, the rotor has the same number of poles as the stator and the windings are made of wire, connected to slip rings on the shaft. Carbon brushes connect the slip rings to a controller such as a variable resistor that allows changing the motor 's slip rate. In certain high - power variable - speed wound rotor drives, the slip - frequency energy is captured, rectified, and returned to the power supply through an inverter. With bidirectionally controlled power, the wound rotor becomes an active participant in the energy conversion process, with the wound rotor doubly fed configuration showing twice the power density.
Compared to squirrel cage rotors, wound rotor motors are expensive and require maintenance of the slip rings and brushes, but they were the standard form for variable speed control before the advent of compact power electronic devices. Transistorized inverters with variable - frequency drive can now be used for speed control, and wound rotor motors are becoming less common.
Several methods of starting a polyphase motor are used. Where a large inrush current and high starting torque can be permitted, the motor can be started across the line, by applying full line voltage to the terminals (direct - on - line, DOL). Where it is necessary to limit the starting inrush current (where the motor is large compared with the short - circuit capacity of the supply), the motor is started at reduced voltage using either series inductors, an autotransformer, thyristors, or other devices. A technique sometimes used is star - delta (YΔ) starting, where the motor coils are initially connected in star configuration for acceleration of the load, then switched to delta configuration when the load is up to speed. This technique is more common in Europe than in North America. Transistorized drives can directly vary the applied voltage as required by the starting characteristics of the motor and load.
This type of motor is becoming more common in traction applications such as locomotives, where it is known as the asynchronous traction motor.
A typical two - phase AC servo - motor has a squirrel cage rotor and a field consisting of two windings:
An AC servo amplifier, a linear power amplifier, feeds the control winding. The electrical resistance of the rotor is made high intentionally so that the speed -- torque curve is fairly linear. Two - phase servo motors are inherently high - speed, low - torque devices, heavily geared down to drive the load.
Single - phase motors do not have a unique rotating magnetic field like multi-phase motors. The field alternates (reverses polarity) between pole pairs and can be viewed as two fields rotating in opposite directions. They require a secondary magnetic field that causes the rotor to move in a specific direction. After starting, the alternating stator field is in relative rotation with the rotor. Several methods are commonly used:
A common single - phase motor is the shaded - pole motor and is used in devices requiring low starting torque, such as electric fans, small pumps, or small household appliances. In this motor, small single - turn copper "shading coils '' create the moving magnetic field. Part of each pole is encircled by a copper coil or strap; the induced current in the strap opposes the change of flux through the coil. This causes a time lag in the flux passing through the shading coil, so that the maximum field intensity moves higher across the pole face on each cycle. This produces a low level rotating magnetic field which is large enough to turn both the rotor and its attached load. As the rotor picks up speed the torque builds up to its full level as the principal magnetic field is rotating relative to the rotating rotor.
A reversible shaded - pole motor was made by Barber - Colman several decades ago. It had a single field coil, and two principal poles, each split halfway to create two pairs of poles. Each of these four "half - poles '' carried a coil, and the coils of diagonally opposite half - poles were connected to a pair of terminals. One terminal of each pair was common, so only three terminals were needed in all.
The motor would not start with the terminals open; connecting the common to one other made the motor run one way, and connecting common to the other made it run the other way. These motors were used in industrial and scientific devices.
An unusual, adjustable - speed, low - torque shaded - pole motor could be found in traffic - light and advertising - lighting controllers. The pole faces were parallel and relatively close to each other, with the disc centred between them, something like the disc in a watthour meter. Each pole face was split, and had a shading coil on one part; the shading coils were on the parts that faced each other. Both shading coils were probably closer to the main coil; they could have both been farther away, without affecting the operating principle, just the direction of rotation.
Applying AC to the coil created a field that progressed in the gap between the poles. The plane of the stator core was approximately tangential to an imaginary circle on the disc, so the travelling magnetic field dragged the disc and made it rotate.
The stator was mounted on a pivot so it could be positioned for the desired speed and then clamped in position. Keeping in mind that the effective speed of the travelling magnetic field in the gap was constant, placing the poles nearer to the centre of the disc made it run relatively faster, and toward the edge, slower.
It is possible that these motors are still in use in some older installations.
Another common single - phase AC motor is the split - phase induction motor, commonly used in major appliances such as air conditioners and clothes dryers. Compared to the shaded pole motor, these motors provide much greater starting torque.
A split - phase motor has a secondary startup winding that is 90 electrical degrees to the main winding, always centered directly between the poles of the main winding, and connected to the main winding by a set of electrical contacts. The coils of this winding are wound with fewer turns of smaller wire than the main winding, so it has a lower inductance and higher resistance. The position of the winding creates a small phase shift between the flux of the main winding and the flux of the starting winding, causing the rotor to rotate. When the speed of the motor is sufficient to overcome the inertia of the load, the contacts are opened automatically by a centrifugal switch or electric relay. The direction of rotation is determined by the connection between the main winding and the start circuit. In applications where the motor requires a fixed rotation, one end of the start circuit is permanently connected to the main winding, with the contacts making the connection at the other end.
A capacitor start motor is a split - phase induction motor with a starting capacitor inserted in series with the startup winding, creating an LC circuit which produces a greater phase shift (and so, a much greater starting torque) than both split - phase and shaded pole motors.
A resistance start motor is a split - phase induction motor with a starter inserted in series with the startup winding, creating reactance. This added starter provides assistance in the starting and initial direction of rotation. The start winding is made mainly of thin wire with less number of turns to make it high resistive and less inductive. The main winding is made with thicker wire with larger number of turns which makes it less resistive and more inductive.
Another variation is the permanent - split capacitor (or PSC) motor. Also known as a capacitor - run motor, this type of motor uses a non-polarized capacitor with a high voltage rating to generate an electrical phase shift between the run and start windings. PSC motors are the dominant type of split - phase motor in Europe and much of the world, but in North America, they are most frequently used in variable torque applications (like blowers, fans, and pumps) and other cases where variable speeds are desired.
A capacitor with a relatively low capacitance, and relatively high voltage rating, is connected in series with the start winding and remains in the circuit during the entire run cycle. Like other split - phase motors, the main winding is used with a smaller start winding, and rotation is changed by reversing the connection between the main winding and the start circuit, or by having polarity of main winding switched while start winding is always connected to a capacitor. There are significant differences, however; the use of a speed sensitive centrifugal switch requires that other split - phase motors must operate at, or very close to, full speed. PSC motors may operate within a wide range of speeds, much lower than the motor 's electrical speed. Also, for applications like automatic door openers that require the motor to reverse rotation often, the use of a mechanism requires that a motor must slow to a near stop before contact with the start winding is re-established. The ' permanent ' connection to the capacitor in a PSC motor means that changing rotation is instantaneous.
Three - phase motors can be converted to PSC motors by making common two windings and connecting the third via a capacitor to act as a start winding. However, the power rating needs to be at least 50 % larger than for a comparable single - phase motor due to an unused winding.
If connections to the rotor coils of a three - phase motor are taken out on slip - rings and fed a separate field current to create a continuous magnetic field (or if the rotor consists of a permanent magnet), the result is called a synchronous motor because the rotor will rotate synchronously with the rotating magnetic field produced by the polyphase electrical supply. Another synchronous motor system is the brushless wound - rotor doubly fed synchronous motor system with an independently excited rotor multiphase AC winding set that may experience slip - induction beyond synchronous speeds but like all synchronous motors, does not rely on slip - induction for torque production.
The synchronous motor can also be used as an alternator.
Contemporary synchronous motors are frequently driven by solid state variable - frequency drives. This greatly eases the problem of starting the massive rotor of a large synchronous motor. They may also be started as induction motors using a squirrel - cage winding that shares the common rotor: once the motor reaches synchronous speed, no current is induced in the squirrel - cage winding so it has little effect on the synchronous operation of the motor, aside from stabilizing the motor speed on load changes.
Synchronous motors are occasionally used as traction motors; the TGV may be the best - known example of such use.
Huge numbers of three phase synchronous motors are now fitted to electric cars. They have a Nd or other rare - earth permanent magnet.
One use for this type of motor is its use in a power factor correction scheme. They are referred to as synchronous condensers. This exploits a feature of the machine where it consumes power at a leading power factor when its rotor is over excited. It thus appears to the supply to be a capacitor, and could thus be used to correct the lagging power factor that is usually presented to the electric supply by inductive loads. The excitation is adjusted until a near unity power factor is obtained (often automatically). Machines used for this purpose are easily identified as they have no shaft extensions. Synchronous motors are valued in any case because their power factor is much better than that of induction motors, making them preferred for very high power applications.
Some of the largest AC motors are pumped - storage hydroelectricity generators that are operated as synchronous motors to pump water to a reservoir at a higher elevation for later use to generate electricity using the same machinery. Six 500 - megawatt generators are installed in the Bath County Pumped Storage Station in Virginia, USA. When pumping, each unit can produce 642,800 horsepower (479.3 megawatts)..
Small single - phase AC motors can also be designed with magnetized rotors (or several variations on that idea; see "Hysteresis synchronous motors '' below).
If a conventional squirrel - cage rotor has flats ground on it to create salient poles and increase reluctance, it will start conventionally, but will run synchronously, although it can provide only a modest torque at synchronous speed. This is known as a reluctance motor.
Because inertia makes it difficult to instantly accelerate the rotor from stopped to synchronous speed, these motors normally require some sort of special feature to get started. Some include a squirrel - cage structure to bring the rotor close to synchronous speed. Various other designs use a small induction motor (which may share the same field coils and rotor as the synchronous motor) or a very light rotor with a one - way mechanism (to ensure that the rotor starts in the "forward '' direction). In the latter instance, applying AC power creates chaotic (or seemingly chaotic) jumping movement back and forth; such a motor will always start, but lacking the anti-reversal mechanism, the direction it runs is unpredictable. The Hammond organ tone generator used a non-self - starting synchronous motor (until comparatively recently), and had an auxiliary conventional shaded - pole starting motor. A spring - loaded auxiliary manual starting switch connected power to this second motor for a few seconds.
These motors are relatively costly, and are used where exact speed (assuming an exact - frequency AC source) and rotation with low flutter (high - frequency variation in speed) are essential. Applications included tape recorder capstan drives (the motor shaft could be the capstan), and, before the advent of crystal control, motion picture cameras and recorders. Their distinguishing feature is their rotor, which is a smooth cylinder of a magnetic alloy that stays magnetized, but can be demagnetized fairly easily as well as re-magnetized with poles in a new location. Hysteresis refers to how the magnetic flux in the metal lags behind the external magnetizing force; for instance, to demagnetize such a material, one could apply a magnetizing field of opposite polarity to that which originally magnetized the material. These motors have a stator like those of capacitor - run squirrel - cage induction motors. On startup, when slip decreases sufficiently, the rotor becomes magnetized by the stator 's field, and the poles stay in place. The motor then runs at synchronous speed as if the rotor were a permanent magnet. When stopped and restarted, the poles are likely to form at different locations. For a given design, torque at synchronous speed is only relatively modest, and the motor can run at below synchronous speed. In simple words, it is lagging magnetic field behind magnetic flux.
A universal motor is a design that can operate on either AC or DC power. In universal motors the stator and rotor of a brushed DC motor are both wound and supplied from an external source, with the torque being a function of the rotor current times the stator current so reversing the current in both rotor and stator does not reverse the rotation. Universal motors can run on AC as well as DC provided the frequency is not so high that the inductive reactance of the stator winding and eddy current losses become problems. Nearly all universal motors are series - wound because their stators have relatively few turns, minimizing inductance. Universal motors are compact, have high starting torque and can be varied in speed over a wide range with relatively simple controls such as rheostats and PWM choppers. Compared with induction motors, universal motors do have some drawbacks inherent to their brushes and commutators: relatively high levels of electrical and acoustic noise, low reliability and more frequent required maintenance.
Universal motors are widely used in small home appliances and hand power tools. Until the 1970s they dominated electric traction (electric, including diesel - electric railway and road vehicles); many traction power networks still use special low frequencies such as 16.7 and 25 Hz to overcome the aforementioned problems with losses and reactance. Still widely used, universal traction motors have been increasingly displaced by polyphase AC induction and permanent magnet motors with variable - frequency drives made possible by modern power semiconductor devices.
Repulsion motors are wound - rotor single - phase AC motors that are a type of induction motor. In a repulsion motor, the armature brushes are shorted together rather than connected in series with the field, as is done with universal motors. By transformer action, the stator induces currents in the rotor, which create torque by repulsion instead of attraction as in other motors. Several types of repulsion motors have been manufactured, but the repulsion - start induction - run (RS - IR) motor has been used most frequently. The RS - IR motor has a centrifugal switch that shorts all segments of the commutator so that the motor operates as an induction motor once it is close to full speed. Some of these motors also lift the brushes out of contact with source voltage regulation. Repulsion motors were developed before suitable motor starting capacitors were available, and few repulsion motors are sold as of 2005.
Where speed stability is important, some AC motors (such as some Papst motors) have the stator on the inside and the rotor on the outside to optimize inertia and cooling.
A conical rotor brake motor incorporates the brake as an integral part of the conical sliding rotor. When the motor is at rest, a spring acts on the sliding rotor and forces the brake ring against the brake cap in the motor, holding the rotor stationary. When the motor is energized, its magnetic field generates both an axial and a radial component. The axial component overcomes the spring force, releasing the brake; while the radial component causes the rotor to turn. There is no additional brake control required.
The high starting torque and low inertia of the conical rotor brake motor has proven to be ideal for the demands of high cycle dynamic drives in applications since the motor was invented, designed and introduced over 50 years ago. This type of motor configuration was first introduced in the USA in 1963.
Single - speed or two speed motors are designed for coupling to gear motor system gearboxes. Conical rotor brake motors are also used to power micro speed drives.
Motors of this type can also be found on overhead cranes and hoists. The micro speed unit combines two motors and an intermediate gear reducer. These are used for applications where extreme mechanical positioning accuracy and high cycling capability are needed. The micro speed unit combines a "main '' conical rotor brake motor for rapid speed and a "micro '' conical rotor brake motor for slow or positioning speed. The intermediate gearbox allows a range of ratios, and motors of different speeds can be combined to produce high ratios between high and low speed.
Electronically commutated (EC) motors are electric motors powered by direct - current (DC) electricity and having electronic commutation systems, rather than mechanical commutators and brushes. The current - to - torque and frequency - to - speed relationships of BLDC motors are linear. While the motor coils are powered by DC, power may be rectified from AC within the casing.
These are two - phase induction motors with permanent magnets to retard the rotor so its speed is accurately proportional to the power passing through the meter. The rotor is an aluminium - alloy disc, and currents induced into it react with the field from the stator.
A split - phase watthour meter has a stator with three coils facing the disc. The magnetic circuit is completed by a C - shaped core of permeable iron. The "voltage '' coil above the disc is in parallel with the supply; its many turns have a high inductance / resistance ratio (Q) so its current and magnetic field are the time integral of the applied voltage, lagging it by 90 degrees. This magnetic field passes down perpendicularly through the disc, inducing circular eddy currents in the plane of the disc centered on the field. These induced currents are proportional to the time derivative of the magnetic field, leading it by 90 degrees. This puts the eddy currents in phase with the voltage applied to the voltage coil, just as the current induced in the secondary of a transformer with a resistive load is in phase with the voltage applied to its primary.
The eddy currents pass directly above the pole pieces of two "current '' coils under the disc, each wound with a few turns of heavy - gauge wire whose inductive reactance is small compared to the load impedance. These coils connect the supply to the load, producing a magnetic field in phase with the load current. This field passes from the pole of one current coil up perpendicularly through the disc and back down through the disc to the pole of the other current coil, with a completed magnetic circuit back to the first current coil. As these fields cross the disc, they pass through the eddy currents induced in it by the voltage coil producing a Lorentz force on the disc mutually perpendicular to both. Assuming power is flowing to the load, the flux from the left current coil crosses the disc upwards where the eddy current flows radially toward the center of the disc producing (by the right - hand rule) a torque driving the front of the disc to the right. Similarly, the flux crosses down through the disc to the right current coil where the eddy current flows radially away from the disc center, again producing a torque driving the front of the disc to the right. When the AC polarity reverses, the eddy currents in the disc and the direction of the magnetic flux from the current coils both change, leaving the direction of the torque unchanged.
The torque is thus proportional to the instantaneous line voltage times the instantaneous load current, automatically correcting for power factor. The disc is braked by a permanent magnet so that speed is proportional to torque and the disc mechanically integrates real power. The mechanical dial on the meter reads disc rotations and the total net energy delivered to the load. (If the load supplies power to the grid, the disc rotates backwards unless prevented by a ratchet, thus making net metering possible.)
In a split - phase watthour meter the voltage coil is connected between the two "hot '' (line) terminals (240 V in North America) and two separate current coils are connected between the corresponding line and load terminals. No connection to the system neutral is needed to correctly handle combined line - to - neutral and line - to - line loads. Line - to - line loads draw the same current through both current coils and spin the meter twice as fast as a line - to - neutral load drawing the same current through only a single current coil, correctly registering the power drawn by the line - to - line load as twice that of the line - to - neutral load.
Other variations of the same design are used for polyphase (e.g., three - phase) power.
Representative are low - torque synchronous motors with a multi-pole hollow cylindrical magnet (internal poles) surrounding the stator structure. An aluminum cup supports the magnet. The stator has one coil, coaxial with the shaft. At each end of the coil are a pair of circular plates with rectangular teeth on their edges, formed so they are parallel with the shaft. They are the stator poles. One of the pair of discs distributes the coil 's flux directly, while the other receives flux that has passed through a common shading coil. The poles are rather narrow, and between the poles leading from one end of the coil are an identical set leading from the other end. In all, this creates a repeating sequence of four poles, unshaded alternating with shaded, that creates a circumferential traveling field to which the rotor 's magnetic poles rapidly synchronize. Some stepping motors have a similar structure.
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who plays the best man in table 19 | Fred Perry - wikipedia
Frederick John "Fred '' Perry (18 May 1909 -- 2 February 1995) was a British tennis and table tennis player from England and former World No. 1 who won 10 Majors including eight Grand Slams and two Pro Slams single titles, as well as six Major doubles titles. Perry won three consecutive Wimbledon Championships from 1934 to 1936 and was World Amateur number one tennis player during those three years. Prior to Andy Murray in 2013, Perry was the last British player to win the men 's Wimbledon championship, in 1936, and the last British player to win a men 's singles Grand Slam title until Andy Murray won the 2012 US Open.
Perry was the first player to win a "Career Grand Slam '', winning all four singles titles, which he completed at the age of 26 at the 1935 French Open. He remains the only British player ever to achieve this. Perry 's first love was Table Tennis and he was World Champion in 1929. He began playing tennis aged 14 and his tennis career at 21, when in 1930 an LTA committee chose him to join a four - man team to tour the United States.
In 1933, Perry helped lead the Great Britain team to victory over France in the Davis Cup; the team 's first success since 1912, followed by wins over the United States in 1934, 1935, and a fourth consecutive title with victory over Australia in 1936. But due to his disillusionment with the class - conscious nature of the Lawn Tennis Club of Great Britain, the working - class Perry turned professional at the end of the 1936 season and moved to the United States where he became a naturalised US citizen in 1938. In 1942, he was drafted into the US Army Air Force during the Second World War.
Despite his unprecedented contribution to British tennis, Perry was not accorded full recognition by tennis authorities until later in life because between 1927 and 1967, the International Lawn Tennis Federation, ignored amateur champions that later turned professional. In 1984, a statue of Perry was unveiled at Wimbledon, and in the same year he became the only tennis player listed in a survey of 2,000 Britons to find the "Best of the Best '' British sportsmen of the 20th century.
Perry was born in Stockport, in 1909 where his father, Samuel Perry (1877 -- 1954), was a cotton spinner. For the first decade of his life, he also lived in Bolton, Lancashire, and Wallasey, Cheshire, because his father was involved in local politics. When living in Wallasey he attended Liscard Primary School and Wallasey Grammar School. Perry moved to Brentham Garden Suburb in Ealing, west London aged eleven years when his father became the national secretary of the Co-operative Party after World War I. His father became the Co-operative Party Member of Parliament for Kettering in 1929.
Perry first began to play tennis on the public courts near his family 's housing estate. He was educated at Ealing Grammar School for Boys.
In 1928 -- 29, Perry won several medals in the single, double and team events in the World Table Tennis Championships. He had exceptional speed and played with the Shakehand style, attacking the ball low and on the rise.
Along with the US, French and Australian Amateur championships, Perry won the Wimbledon men 's title three times in succession between 1934 and 1936. His final triumph was a 6 -- 1, 6 -- 1, 6 -- 0 victory over the German Baron Gottfried von Cramm which lasted less than 45 minutes. It became the quickest final in the 20th century and the second shortest of all time. Perry had been able to pick up the information from the Wimbledon masseur that von Cramm had been treated for a groin strain and was as a result having difficulty moving wide on the forehand.
Perry 's success attracted the adoration of the crowds at Wimbledon particularly as he contrasted sharply with the privileged background of most patrons and players associated with the All England Club at the time. The upper echelons of the British tennis establishment greeted his success more coolly, regarding him as an "upstart ''. After winning his maiden Wimbledon title, Perry recalled overhearing a Wimbledon committee member remark that "the best man did n't win. '' His All England Club member 's tie, awarded to all winners of the Championships, was left for him on a chair in his dressing room.
In the Davis Cup, Perry led the Great Britain team to four consecutive victories from 1933 to 1936, with wins over France in 1933, the United States in 1934 and 1935, and Australia in 1936. Perry competed in a total of 20 Davis Cup matches, winning 34 of his 38 rubbers in singles, and 11 out of 14 in doubles.
After three years as the world No. 1 tennis amateur player, Perry turned professional in late 1936. This led to his being virtually ostracised by the British tennis establishment. He made his professional debut on 6 January 1937 at the Madison Square Garden against the best professional player, Ellsworth Vines. For the next two years he played lengthy tours against Vines. In 1937, they played 61 matches in the United States on their big tour, with Vines winning 32 and Perry 29. They then sailed to Britain, where they played a brief tour. Perry won six matches out of nine, so they finished the year tied at 35 victories each. The following year, 1938, the big tour was even longer, and this time Vines beat Perry 49 matches to 35, while a short tour of the Caribbean and Central and South America ended at four victories a piece. Don Budge won the Grand Slam in 1938 as an amateur and then turned professional and played a series of matches against both Vines and Perry in 1939, beating Vines 22 times to 17, and beating Perry by 28 victories to 8.
Perry also won the US Pro title in 1938 and 1941, held in Chicago in both those years.
Perry was one of the leading bachelors of the 1930s and his off - court romances were sensationalised in the world press. Perry had a romantic relationship with the actress Marlene Dietrich and in 1934 he announced his engagement to the British actress Mary Lawson, but the relationship fell apart after Perry moved to America. In 1935 he married an American film star Helen Vinson, but their marriage ended in divorce in 1940. In 1941 he was briefly married to a model, Sandra Breaux. Then, in 1945, he married Lorraine Walsh, but that marriage also ended quickly. Perry 's final marriage to Barbara Riese in 1952 lasted over forty years, until his death. They had two children, Penny and David. The sister of Barbara (Bobby) Riese was the actress Patricia Roc.
Perry had an older sister Edith, they were both born in Stockport, Cheshire. Edith greatly supported her younger brother throughout his sporting achievements. Perry had a half sister, Sylvia.
Perry died at Epworth Hospital in Melbourne, Australia after breaking his ribs following a fall in a hotel bathroom.
Perry is considered by some to have been one of the greatest male players ever to have played the game. In his 1979 autobiography Jack Kramer, the long - time tennis promoter and great player himself, called Perry one of the six greatest players of all time.
Kings of the Court, a video - tape documentary made in 1997 in conjunction with the International Tennis Hall of Fame, named Perry one of the ten greatest players of all time. But this documentary only considered those players who played before the Open era of tennis that began in 1968, with the exception of Rod Laver, who spanned both eras, so that all of the more recent great players are missing.
Kramer, however, had several caveats about Perry. He says that Bill Tilden once called Perry "the world 's worst good player ''. Kramer says that Perry was "extremely fast; he had a hard body with sharp reflexes, and he could hit a forehand with a snap, slamming it on the rise -- and even on the fastest grass. That shot was nearly as good as Segura 's two - handed forehand. '' His only real weakness, says Kramer, "was his backhand. Perry hit underslice off that wing about 90 % of the time, and eventually at the very top levels -- against Vines and Budge -- that was what did him in. Whenever an opponent would make an especially good shot, Perry would cry out ' Very clevah. ' I never played Fred competitively, but I heard enough from other guys that ' Very clevah ' drove a lot of opponents crazy. ''
Perry, however, recalled his days on the professional tour differently. He maintained that "there was never any easing up in his tour matches with Ellsworth Vines and Bill Tilden since there was the title of World Pro Champion at stake. '' He said "I must have played Vines in something like 350 matches, yet there was never any fixing as most people thought. There were always people willing to believe that our pro matches were n't strictly on the level, that they were just exhibitions. But as far as we were concerned, we always gave everything we had. ''
Another comment from Kramer is that Perry unwittingly "screwed up men 's tennis in England, although this was n't his fault. The way he could hit a forehand -- snap it off like a ping - pong shot -- Perry was a physical freak. Nobody else could be taught to hit a shot that way. But the kids over there copied Perry 's style, and it ruined them. Even after Perry faded out of the picture, the coaches there must have kept using him as a model. ''
In the late 1940s, Perry was approached by Tibby Wegner, an Austrian footballer who had invented an anti-perspirant device worn around the wrist. Perry made a few changes to create the first sweatband.
Wegner 's next idea was to produce a sports shirt, which was to be made from white knitted cotton pique with short sleeves and a buttoned placket like René Lacoste 's shirts. Launched at Wimbledon in 1952, the Fred Perry tennis shirt was an immediate success.
The white tennis shirt was supplemented in the late 1950s with coloured versions for table tennis in which white shirts are not allowed. These became popular in the 1960s as a symbol of mod culture.
The brand 's logo is a laurel wreath. It was based on the original symbol for Wimbledon. The logo, which appears on the left breast of a garment, is stitched into the fabric of the shirt.
The brand was bought by Japanese company Hit Union in 1995. The brand was previously the clothing sponsor of British tennis player Andy Murray.
A bronze statue of Fred Perry was erected at the All England Lawn Tennis Club in Wimbledon, London in 1984 to mark the 50th anniversary of his first singles championship. It is located at the Church Road gate.
Perry 's home town of Stockport has numerous memorials to the former tennis champion. For instance there is a blue plaque commemorating the house where he was born. In September 2002, a designated walking route called the Fred Perry Way was opened through the Metropolitan Borough of Stockport. The 14 miles (23 km) route from Woodford in the south to Reddish in the north, combines rural footpaths, quiet lanes and river valleys with urban landscapes and parklands. Features along the route include Houldsworth Mill and Square, the start of the River Mersey at the confluence of the River Tame and River Goyt, Stockport Town Centre, Vernon and Woodbank Parks and the Happy Valley. The route also passes through Woodbank Park where Perry played some exhibition tennis matches.
In November 2010, Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex and John Perry, Fred Perry 's grandson, opened Fred Perry House in Stockport. The building, which is the borough 's new civic headquarters, will be used by various local government agencies.
In June 2012 an English Heritage blue plaque was unveiled on the house at 223 Pitshanger Lane, Ealing, London where Perry lived between 1919 and 1935.
Perry was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in Newport, Rhode Island in 1975.
Perry received a Doctor of Laws degree, honoris causa, from Washington and Lee University on 4 June 1987. He had coached the W&L tennis team in 1941 and again in 1947.
In the United States, two drives in El Paso, Texas and Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and a street in Springfield, Tennessee, are named after Fred Perry.
Fred Perry joined professional tennis in 1937 and was unable to compete in the Grand Slams tournaments.
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which of the following is located in the mitte section of berlin | Mitte - wikipedia
Mitte is the first and most central borough of Berlin. It was created in Berlin 's 2001 administrative reform by the merger of the former districts of Mitte proper, Tiergarten and Wedding; the resulting borough retained the name Mitte. It is one of the two boroughs (beside Friedrichshain - Kreuzberg) which comprises former West and East Berlin districts. Mitte encompasses Berlin 's historic core and includes some of the most important tourist sites of Berlin like Museum Island, Brandenburg Gate, Unter den Linden, Potsdamer Platz, the Reichstag and Berlin Hauptbahnhof, most of which were in former East Berlin.
Note that when Berliners speak of Mitte, they usually refer to the smaller locality and not to the larger borough.
Mitte (German for "middle '', "centre '') is located in the central part of Berlin along the Spree River. It borders on Charlottenburg - Wilmersdorf in the west, Reinickendorf in the north, Pankow in the east, Friedrichshain - Kreuzberg in the southeast, and Tempelhof - Schöneberg in the southwest.
In the middle of the Spree lies Museum Island (Museumsinsel) with its museums and Berlin Cathedral (Berliner Dom). The central square in Mitte is Alexanderplatz with the prominent Fernsehturm (TV tower), Germany 's highest building, and the large railway station with connections to many subway (U-Bahn), tramway (Straßenbahn), city trains (S - Bahn) and buses.
There are some important streets which connect Mitte with the other boroughs, e.g. the boulevard Unter den Linden which connects Alexanderplatz to the west with Brandenburg Gate and runs further as Straße des 17. Juni to the Victory Column and the centre of former West Berlin in Charlottenburg, or Karl - Marx - Allee from Alexanderplatz to Friedrichshain and the eastern suburbs.
The former Mitte district had been established by the 1920 Greater Berlin Act and comprised large parts of the historic city around Alt - Berlin and Cölln. Brandenburg Gate was the western exit at the Berlin city boundary until 1861.
Between 1961 and 1990, Mitte was the central part of East Berlin, however at the same time it was surrounded by the Berlin Wall at its north, south and west. There were some border control points, the most famous of which was Checkpoint Charlie between Kreuzberg and Mitte, which was operated by the United States Army and its allies and was open to foreigners and diplomats.
Two other checkpoints were at Heinrich - Heine - Straße / Prinzenstraße east of Checkpoint Charlie, open to citizens of West Germany and West Berlin and on Invalidenstraße in the north on the border with the West Berlin Tiergarten district (the present - day Moabit locality).
The government district is located in the locality of Tiergarten around the Reichstag Building. Most institutions of the german government have their seat at the Regierungsviertel
Reichstag Building
Bellevue Palace
German Chancellery
Paul - Löbe - Haus
Swiss Embassy
Many embassies and the Federal Ministry of Defence in the historic embassy quarter in the south of the Tiergarten Park.
Italian Embassy
Japanese Embassy
Spanish Embassy
Indian Embassy
Embassy of the United Arab Emirates
Großer Tiergarten is the name oft the biggest urban park in Mitte, located in the same - named locality. The Tiergarten Park was established as a hunting ground in the 16th century by the Prussian kings. Today its enclosed by densely build - up areas by Hansaviertel and Moabit in the north, the Government District in the east and the City West and the Embassy Quarter in the southwest.
Many cultural monuments and memorials are located in the Tiergarten Park, like the Siegessäule, the Soviet War Memorial and a historic rose garden. The Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe, the biggest victim group of the Nazi - Diktatorship, is located on the east side of the park, near the Brandenburg Gate and the place where once Hitler 's New Reich Chancellery was.
Siegessäule
View from the Siegessäule to Brandenburg Gate
Rose Garden
Memorial to Homosexuals Persecuted Under Nazism
Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe
The Kulturforum was build in the 1950s and 1960s at the edge of West Berlin, after most of the once unified city 's cultural assets had been lost behind the Berlin Wall. The Kulturforum is characterized by its innovative modernist architecture; several buildings are distinguished by the organic designs of Hans Scharoun, and the Neue Nationalgalerie was designed by Mies van der Rohe.
Among the cultural institutions housed in and around the Kulturforum are:
The present - day borough of Mitte consists of six localities:
(the former Mitte borough)
(the former Tiergarten borough)
(the former Wedding borough)
As of 2010, the district had a population of 322,919, of whom 144.000 (44.5 %) had a migration background. In the former West Berlin areas of Wedding, Gesundbrunnen and Moabit, foreigners and Germans of foreign origin compose nearly 70 % of the population, while in Mitte proper the share of migrants is relatively low. The immigrant community is quite diverse, however, Turks, Africans, Eastern Europeans and East Asians form the largest groups.
At the 2011 elections for the parliament of the borough (Bezirksverordnetenversammlung) the following parties were elected:
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ek hazaron me mere behna hai song download | Ek Hazaaron Mein Meri Behna Hai - Wikipedia
Ek Hazaaron Mein Meri Behna Hai (English: My Sister is One in a Thousand) is a daily Indian soap opera that aired on STAR Plus from 3 October 2011 to 13 September 2013, when it got replaced by the mythological series Mahabharat. The show was very popular amongst the viewers and was dubbed into even regional languages Telugu as "Chigurakulalo Chilakamma '' on Star_Maa and in Tamil as "Daivam thantha en thangai '' on Star_Vijay and has been popular due to the intense storyline. The show starred Krystle D'Souza, Karan Tacker, Nia Sharma and Kushal Tandon.
Jeevika Chaudhary (Krystle D'Souza) and Maanvi Chaudhary (Nia Sharma) are two orphan sisters living in Rishikesh with their great grandmother, grandmother, uncle, aunt and cousin brother while Viren Singh Vadhera (Karan Tacker) and Viraat Singh Vadhera (Kushal Tandon) are two brothers hailing from an elite family of lawyers in Chandigarh.
The two sisters are inseparable and Maanvi loves and respects Jeevika as though she 's her mother. A marriage proposal comes for Jeevika. Maanvi While Viren and Jeevika like each other at first sight; Viraat and Maanvi are at odds with each other. Jeevika and Viren 's wedding is fixed and the preparations start by then a misunderstanding crops up as Viren gets to know Jeevika loved Dr. Mannan and hence Viren starts ignoring Jeevika. Soon misunderstanding is sorted as Virat along with Maanvi bring the would - be couple together to resolve, on the eve of Diwali festival.
Viren and Jeevika soon gets married and they leave for Chandigarh. The Sisters miss each other very much. Viren brings Maanvi to Chandigarh to cheer up Jeevika on her Birthday. During her stay, Maanvi supports Inder to actively takeup legal cases and gain his own Identity but Vadhera family accuses good intentions of Maanvi as interference and sends Maanvi to Rishikesh. However Inder insists to takeup the case and wins it too, thus Maanvi is vindicated and now Vadhera family realizes its mistake and invites Maanvi to Chandigarh. Just when Virat seen falling for Maanvi, his Ex Girlfriend Maya comes into his life much to his chagrin. However as Aunt Swamini dislikes Maanvi, she promotes Maya and even cajoles Maanvi to act cupid to bring the duo together. Maanvi does it, soon Virat and Maya gets engaged, by then Maanvi comes to know that she has blood cancer. Sooner, Maya gets exposed of her ill intentions and Virat realises he is cheated by her again, thus calls of his relation. He realises Maanvi is his truelove and goes to Rishikesh to propose Maanvi. Series of events happen there one in which Jeevika gets grievously injured, needs blood and only Maanvi has to give, upon insistence she reveals to Virat of her ailment but hides from Jeevika. Virat is heart broken but is determined to get Maanvi treated, save her life. Soon Jeevika too gets to know Maanvi needs a bone marrow transplant to survive. Jeevika gets pregnant, but is left with no other choice than aborting her baby to save Maanvi, as she is her only perfect bone marrow match. Maanvi gets operated successfully, following this, Virat and Maanvi get married.
Vadhera family welcomes new "Bahu '' Maanvi, then Karan who claims to be Swamini 's son, enters the Vadhera family. But Karan has ill intentions to ruin the Vadheras and he starts creating rifts among the family members. Sooner, Maanvi comes to know his intentions and alerts the family but they ignore her. Virat and Maanvi partiicipates in Singing competetion show Sur - Sartaaz of India and here too Karan creates false news of Virat - Maanvi divorce, a rift created among the couple which almost leads to their separation but soon they save their marriage and relinquish the trophy. But Karan defends himself and his mother Swamini blames Maanvi instead. Finally, Jeevika too comes to know about Karan, trails him to his bunglow, Maanvi too joins her soon, Karan starts misbehaving with the sisters and in the melee Jeevika shoots Karan in self defence. Viraat arrives on the scene and decides to take the blame on himself to save Jeevika but Swamini miserable in her son 's death, blames Viraat. Jeevika is under Maanvi 's promise not to reveal truth, however out of guilt, she reveals the truth to Viren. Viren tries to prove Jeevika 's innocence and later during the trial, a camera is found in which Jaiswal 's reflection when he is killing Karan, is seen by everyone. Jaiswal is arrested.
Viraat restarts his music career but soon a terrible fight breaks between the brothers once Virat comes to know Viren helped him get the album contract. Thus in rage, Viraat and Maanvi leaves Vadhera House. After few weeks they come back as Virat now gets new singing job which he earns on his own. After a while, Vadhera family welcomes happiness once again as Maanvi becomes pregnant. At the same time they come to know that Jeevika can no longer become pregnant. Jeevika and Viren opts surrogacy way to get their child.
Jeevika and Maanvi 's father appears one day. Maanvi, though shocked but very happy to find that her father is alive, is vey surprised with Jeevika 's and their Grandmaa 's anger towards her father. She questions both and receives the news of her own father being the reason of her mother 's death - she committed suicide after learning that her husband was a cheater. Nevertheless, Maanvi believes that her father should be forgiven as he has realized his mistakes and should be given another chance. But, Jeevika is against this. Yet, when Jeevika knows that her father is very ill, she forgives him and soon, they reconcile.
In the last episode, Vidhi, the surrogate mother of Viren and Jeevika 's child, leaves Vadhera House because she does n't want to cause any more issues. There was the naming ceremony of the babies where Viren and Jeevika named their daughter, Maansi while Viraat and Maanvi named their daughter, Jhanvi. During the celebrations, Jeevika comes to know that she 's pregnant. The whole family finally gets their happily ever after.
The show is produced and directed by Siddharth Malohtra of Cinevistaas Limited. Krystle D'Souza was cast to play Jeevika Chaudhary along with Nia Sharma as Maanvi Chaudhary. Karan Tacker and Kushal Tandon both were finalised to play the main male leads. Abhinav Shukla was roped to play the 3rd main lead opposite Krystle. Other supporting cast included Seema Kapoor, Anju Mahendru, Manasvi Vyas, Anupam Bhattacharya, Divyajyotee Sharma, Gaurav Kumar, Deep Dhillon and Tarla Joshi were other supporting roles. Seema played a strict women and the main antagonist but later her character turned positive.
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where is north port florida located on the map | North Port, Florida - wikipedia
North Port is a city located in Sarasota County, Florida. The population was 57,357 at the 2010 US Census. It is part of the North Port -- Bradenton -- Sarasota Metropolitan Statistical Area. It was originally developed by General Development Corporation as the northern / Sarasota County portion of its Port Charlotte development, the other portion located in the adjacent Charlotte County. GDC dubbed it North Port Charlotte, and it was incorporated under that name through a special act of the Florida Legislature in 1959. By referendum in 1974, the city 's residents approved a change to its name as North Port, dropping Charlotte from its name to proclaim the city as a separate identity.
North Port is a municipality containing very large - scale residential subdivisions along with an extensive network of streets. The municipality has annexed nearby locales including the area known as Warm Mineral Springs, the location of a notable artesian spring as well as its own significant residential subdivision.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 104.16 square miles (269.8 km), of which 99.58 square miles (257.9 km) is land and 4.58 square miles (11.9 km) (4.40 %) is water.
As of the 2010 US Census, there were 57,357 people and 27,986 households residing in the city. The population density was 576.0 inhabitants per square mile (222.4 / km). There were 27,986 housing units at an average density of 281.0 per square mile (108.5 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 87.6 % White, 7 % African American, 0.3 % Native American, 1.2 % Asian, 0.1 % Pacific Islander, 1.7 % from other races, and 2.2 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8.7 % of the population.
Of the 22,431 households, 49.6 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.3 % were married couples living together, 11.2 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.8 % were non-families. 21.6 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9.8 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 2.95.
In the city, the population was spread out with 26.4 % under the age of 20, 4.4 % from 20 to 24, 24.7 % from 25 to 44, 26.5 % from 45 to 64, and 1.9 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40.9 years. For every 100 females, there were approximately 94 males. For every 100 females age 20 and over, there were approximately 97 males.
As of 2010, the median income for a household in the city was $53,815. The per capita income for the city was $27,070. About 12.3 % of people were below the poverty line.
North Port has five elementary schhools, one public charter school, two middle schools, and one high school:
In 2019, North Port will be the Spring Training home for the Atlanta Braves. The Braves will also hold extended spring training in North Port.
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which events take place in the light dependent reactions of photosynthesis | Light - dependent reactions - wikipedia
In photosynthesis, the light - dependent reactions take place on the thylakoid membranes. The inside of the thylakoid membrane is called the lumen, and outside the thylakoid membrane is the stroma, where the light - independent reactions take place. The thylakoid membrane contains some integral membrane protein complexes that catalyze the light reactions. There are four major protein complexes in the thylakoid membrane: Photosystem II (PSII), Cytochrome b6f complex, Photosystem I (PSI), and ATP synthase. These four complexes work together to ultimately create the products ATP and NADPH.
The four photosystems absorb light energy through pigments -- primarily the chlorophylls, which are responsible for the green color of leaves. The light - dependent reactions begin in photosystem II. When a chlorophyll a molecule within the reaction center of PSII absorbs a photon, an electron in this molecule attains a higher energy level. Because this state of an electron is very unstable, the electron is transferred from one to another molecule creating a chain of redox reactions, called an electron transport chain (ETC). The electron flow goes from PSII to cytochrome b6f to PSI. In PSI, the electron gets the energy from another photon. The final electron acceptor is NADP. In oxygenic photosynthesis, the first electron donor is water, creating oxygen as a waste product. In anoxygenic photosynthesis various electron donors are used.
Cytochrome b6f and ATP synthase work together to create ATP. This process is called photophosphorylation, which occurs in two different ways. In non-cyclic photophosphorylation, cytochrome b6f uses the energy of electrons from PSII to pump protons from the stroma to the lumen. The proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane creates a proton - motive force, used by ATP synthase to form ATP. In cyclic photophosphorylation, cytochrome b6f uses the energy of electrons from not only PSII but also PSI to create more ATP and to stop the production of NADPH. Cyclic phosphorylation is important to create ATP and maintain NADPH in the right proportion for the light - independent reactions.
The net - reaction of all light - dependent reactions in oxygenic photosynthesis is:
2H O + 2NADP + 3ADP + 3P → O + 2NADPH + 3ATP
The two photosystems are protein complexes that absorb photons and are able to use this energy to create an electron transport chain. Photosystem I and II are very similar in structure and function. They use special proteins, called light - harvesting complexes, to absorb the photons with very high effectiveness. If a special pigment molecule in a photosynthetic reaction center absorbs a photon, an electron in this pigment attains the excited state and then is transferred to another molecule in the reaction center. This reaction, called photoinduced charge separation, is the start of the electron flow and is unique because it transforms light energy into chemical forms.
The reaction center is in the thylakoid membrane. It transfers light energy to a dimer of chlorophyll pigment molecules near the periplasmic (or thylakoid lumen) side of the membrane. This dimer is called a special pair because of its fundamental role in photosynthesis. This special pair is slightly different in PSI and PSII reaction center. In PSII, it absorbs photons with a wavelength of 680 nm, and it is therefore called P680. In PSI, it absorbs photons at 700 nm, and it is called P700. In bacteria, the special pair is called P760, P840, P870, or P960. Where "P '' means pigment, and the number following it is the wavelength of light absorbed.
If an electron of the special pair in the reaction center becomes excited, it can not transfer this energy to another pigment using resonance energy transfer. In normal circumstances, the electron should return to the ground state, but, because the reaction center is arranged so that a suitable electron acceptor is nearby, the excited electron can move from the initial molecule to the acceptor. This process results in the formation of a positive charge on the special pair (due to the loss of an electron) and a negative charge on the acceptor and is, hence, referred to as photoinduced charge separation. In other words, electrons in pigment molecules can exist at specific energy levels. Under normal circumstances, they exist at the lowest possible energy level they can. However, if there is enough energy to move them into the next energy level, they can absorb that energy and occupy that higher energy level. The light they absorb contains the necessary amount of energy needed to push them into the next level. Any light that does not have enough or has too much energy can not be absorbed and is reflected. The electron in the higher energy level, however, does not want to be there; the electron is unstable and must return to its normal lower energy level. To do this, it must release the energy that has put it into the higher energy state to begin with. This can happen various ways. The extra energy can be converted into molecular motion and lost as heat. Some of the extra energy can be lost as heat energy, while the rest is lost as light. (This re-emission of light energy is called fluorescence.) The energy, but not the e - itself, can be passed onto another molecule. (This is called resonance.) The energy and the e - can be transferred to another molecule. Plant pigments usually utilize the last two of these reactions to convert the sun 's energy into their own.
This initial charge separation occurs in less than 10 picoseconds (10 seconds). In their high - energy states, the special pigment and the acceptor could undergo charge recombination; that is, the electron on the acceptor could move back to neutralize the positive charge on the special pair. Its return to the special pair would waste a valuable high - energy electron and simply convert the absorbed light energy into heat. In the case of PSII, this backflow of electrons can produce reactive oxygen species leading to photoinhibition. Three factors in the structure of the reaction center work together to suppress charge recombination nearly completely.
Thus, electron transfer proceeds efficiently from the first electron acceptor to the next, creating an electron transport chain that ends if it has reached NADPH.
The photosynthesis process in chloroplasts begins when an electron of P680 of PSII attains a higher - energy level. This energy is used to reduce a chain of electron acceptors that have subsequently lowered redox - potentials. This chain of electron acceptors is known as an electron transport chain. When this chain reaches PS I, an electron is again excited, creating a high redox - potential. The electron transport chain of photosynthesis is often put in a diagram called the z - scheme, because the redox diagram from P680 to P700 resembles the letter z.
The final product of PSII is plastoquinol, a mobile electron carrier in the membrane. Plastoquinol transfers the electron from PSII to the proton pump, cytochrome b6f. The ultimate electron donor of PSII is water. Cytochrome b6f proceeds the electron chain to PSI through plastocyanin molecules. PSI is able to continue the electron transfer in two different ways. It can transfer the electrons either to plastoquinol again, creating a cyclic electron flow, or to an enzyme called FNR (Ferredoxin -- NADP (+) reductase), creating a non-cyclic electron flow. PSI releases FNR into the stroma, where it reduces NADP to NADPH.
Activities of the electron transport chain, especially from cytochrome b6f, lead to pumping of protons from the stroma to the lumen. The resulting transmembrane proton gradient is used to make ATP via ATP synthase.
The overall process of the photosynthetic electron transport chain in chloroplasts is:
PS II is extremely complex, a highly organized transmembrane structure that contains a water - splitting complex, chlorophylls and carotenoid pigments, a reaction center (P680), pheophytin (a pigment similar to chlorophyll), and two quinones. It uses the energy of sunlight to transfer electrons from water to a mobile electron carrier in the membrane called plastoquinone:
Plastoquinone, in turn, transfers electrons to cyt, which feeds them into PS I.
The step H O → P680 is performed by a poorly understood structure embedded within PS II called the water - splitting complex or the oxygen - evolving complex. It catalyzes a reaction that splits water into electrons, protons and oxygen:
The actual steps of the above reaction are running in the following way (Dolai 's diagram of S - states): (I) 2H2O (monoxide) (II) OH. H2O (hydroxide) (III) H2O2 (peroxide) (IV) HO2 (super oxide) (V) O2 (di - oxygen).
The electrons are transferred to special chlorophyll molecules (embedded in PS II) that are promoted to a higher - energy state by the energy of photons.
The excitation P680 → P680 of the reaction center pigment P680 occurs here. These special chlorophyll molecules embedded in PS II absorb the energy of photons, with maximal absorption at 680 nm. Electrons within these molecules are promoted to a higher - energy state. This is one of two core processes in photosynthesis, and it occurs with astonishing efficiency (greater than 90 %) because, in addition to direct excitation by light at 680 nm, the energy of light first harvested by antenna proteins at other wavelengths in the light - harvesting system is also transferred to these special chlorophyll molecules.
This is followed by the step P680 → pheophytin, and then on to plastoquinone, which occurs within the reaction center of PS II. High - energy electrons are transferred to plastoquinone before it subsequently picks up two protons to become plastoquinol. Plastoquinol is then released into the membrane as a mobile electron carrier.
This is the second core process in photosynthesis. The initial stages occur within picoseconds, with an efficiency of 100 %. The seemingly impossible efficiency is due to the precise positioning of molecules within the reaction center. This is a solid - state process, not a chemical reaction. It occurs within an essentially crystalline environment created by the macromolecular structure of PS II. The usual rules of chemistry (which involve random collisions and random energy distributions) do not apply in solid - state environments.
When the chlorophyll passes the electron to pheophytin, it obtains an electron from P. In turn, P can oxidize the Z (or Y) molecule. Once oxidized, the Z molecule can derive electrons from the oxygen - evolving complex (OEC). Dolai 's S - state diagrams show the reactions of water splitting in the oxygen - evolving complex.
PS II is a transmembrane structure found in all chloroplasts. It splits water into electrons, protons and molecular oxygen. The electrons are transferred to plastoquinone, which carries them to a proton pump. Molecular oxygen is released into the atmosphere.
The emergence of such an incredibly complex structure, a macromolecule that converts the energy of sunlight into potentially useful work with efficiencies that are impossible in ordinary experience, seems almost magical at first glance. Thus, it is of considerable interest that, in essence, the same structure is found in purple bacteria.
PS II and PS I are connected by a transmembrane proton pump, cytochrome complex (plastoquinol -- plastocyanin reductase; EC 1.10. 99.1). Electrons from PS II are carried by plastoquinol to cyt, where they are removed in a stepwise fashion (reforming plastoquinone) and transferred to a water - soluble electron carrier called plastocyanin. This redox process is coupled to the pumping of four protons across the membrane. The resulting proton gradient (together with the proton gradient produced by the water - splitting complex in PS II) is used to make ATP via ATP synthase.
The similarity in structure and function between cytochrome (in chloroplasts) and cytochrome (Complex III in mitochondria) is striking. Both are transmembrane structures that remove electrons from a mobile, lipid - soluble electron carrier (plastoquinone in chloroplasts; ubiquinone in mitochondria) and transfer them to a mobile, water - soluble electron carrier (plastocyanin in chloroplasts; cytochrome c in mitochondria). Both are proton pumps that produce a transmembrane proton gradient.
PS I accepts electrons from plastocyanin and transfers them either to NADPH (noncyclic electron transport) or back to cytochrome (cyclic electron transport):
PS I, like PS II, is a complex, highly organized transmembrane structure that contains antenna chlorophylls, a reaction center (P700), phylloquinine, and a number of iron - sulfur proteins that serve as intermediate redox carriers.
The light - harvesting system of PS I uses multiple copies of the same transmembrane proteins used by PS II. The energy of absorbed light (in the form of delocalized, high - energy electrons) is funneled into the reaction center, where it excites special chlorophyll molecules (P700, maximum light absorption at 700 nm) to a higher energy level. The process occurs with astonishingly high efficiency.
Electrons are removed from excited chlorophyll molecules and transferred through a series of intermediate carriers to ferredoxin, a water - soluble electron carrier. As in PS II, this is a solid - state process that operates with 100 % efficiency.
There are two different pathways of electron transport in PS I. In noncyclic electron transport, ferredoxin carries the electron to the enzyme ferredoxin NADP reductase (FNR) that reduces NADP to NADPH. In cyclic electron transport, electrons from ferredoxin are transferred (via plastoquinone) to a proton pump, cytochrome. They are then returned (via plastocyanin) to P700.
NADPH and ATP are used to synthesize organic molecules from CO. The ratio of NADPH to ATP production can be adjusted by adjusting the balance between cyclic and noncyclic electron transport.
It is noteworthy that PS I closely resembles photosynthetic structures found in green sulfur bacteria, just as PS II resembles structures found in purple bacteria.
PS II, PS I, and cytochrome are found in chloroplasts. All plants and all photosynthetic algae contain chloroplasts, which produce NADPH and ATP by the mechanisms described above. In essence, the same transmembrane structures are also found in cyanobacteria.
Unlike plants and algae, cyanobacteria are prokaryotes. They do not contain chloroplasts. Rather, they bear a striking resemblance to chloroplasts themselves. This suggests that organisms resembling cyanobacteria were the evolutionary precursors of chloroplasts. One imagines primitive eukaryotic cells taking up cyanobacteria as intracellular symbionts in a process known as endosymbiosis.
Cyanobacteria contain structures similar to PS II and PS I in chloroplasts. Their light - harvesting system is different from that found in plants (they use phycobilins, rather than chlorophylls, as antenna pigments), but their electron transport chain
is, in essence, the same as the electron transport chain in chloroplasts. The mobile water - soluble electron carrier is cytochrome in cyanobacteria, plastocyanin in plants.
Cyanobacteria can also synthesize ATP by oxidative phosphorylation, in the manner of other bacteria. The electron transport chain is
where the mobile electron carriers are plastoquinone and cytochrome, while the proton pumps are NADH dehydrogenase, and cytochrome.
Cyanobacteria are the only bacteria that produce oxygen during photosynthesis. Earth 's primordial atmosphere was anoxic. Organisms like cyanobacteria produced our present - day oxygen - containing atmosphere.
The other two major groups of photosynthetic bacteria, purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria, contain only a single photosystem and do not produce oxygen.
Purple bacteria contain a single photosystem that is structurally related to PS II in cyanobacteria and chloroplasts:
This is a cyclic process in which electrons are removed from an excited chlorophyll molecule (bacteriochlorophyll; P870), passed through an electron transport chain to a proton pump (cytochrome complex, similar but not identical to cytochrome in chloroplasts), and then returned to the chlorophyll molecule. The result is a proton gradient, which is used to make ATP via ATP synthase. As in cyanobacteria and chloroplasts, this is a solid - state process that depends on the precise orientation of various functional groups within a complex transmembrane macromolecular structure.
To make NADPH, purple bacteria use an external electron donor (hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur, sulfite, or organic molecules such as succinate and lactate) to feed electrons into a reverse electron transport chain.
Green sulfur bacteria contain a photosystem that is analogous to PS I in chloroplasts:
There are two pathways of electron transfer. In cyclic electron transfer, electrons are removed from an excited chlorophyll molecule, passed through an electron transport chain to a proton pump, and then returned to the chlorophyll. The mobile electron carriers are, as usual, a lipid - soluble quinone and a water - soluble cytochrome. The resulting proton gradient is used to make ATP.
In noncyclic electron transfer, electrons are removed from an excited chlorophyll molecule and used to reduce NAD to NADH. The electrons removed from P840 must be replaced. This is accomplished by removing electrons from H S, which is oxidized to sulfur (hence the name "green sulfur bacteria '').
Purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria occupy relatively minor ecological niches in the present day biosphere. They are of interest because of their importance in precambrian ecologies, and because their methods of photosynthesis were the likely evolutionary precursors of those in modern plants.
The first ideas about light being used in photosynthesis were proposed by Colin Flannery in 1779 who recognized it was sunlight falling on plants that was required, although Joseph Priestley had noted the production of oxygen without the association with light in 1772. Cornelius Van Niel proposed in 1931 that photosynthesis is a case of general mechanism where a photon of light is used to photo decompose a hydrogen donor and the hydrogen being used to reduce CO. Then in 1939, Robin Hill showed that isolated chloroplasts would make oxygen, but not fix CO showing the light and dark reactions occurred in different places. Although they are referred to as light and dark reactions, both of them take place only in the presence of light. This led later to the discovery of photosystems I and II.
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what do we call school assembly in hindi | Hindi - Wikipedia
Hindi (Devanagari: हिन्दी, IAST: Hindī), or Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: मानक हिन्दी, IAST: Mānak Hindī) is a standardised and Sanskritised register of the Hindustani language. Along with the English language, Hindi written in the Devanagari script is the official language of India.
On 14 September 1949, the Constituent Assembly of India adopted Hindi written in Devanagari script as the official language of the Republic of India. To this end, several stalwarts rallied and lobbied pan-India in favor of Hindi, most notably Beohar Rajendra Simha along with Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, Kaka Kalelkar, Maithili Sharan Gupt and Seth Govind Das who even debated in Parliament on this issue. As such, on the 50th birthday of Beohar Rajendra Simha on 14 September 1949, the efforts came to fruition following adoption of Hindi as the official language. It is one of the 22 scheduled languages of the Republic of India. However, it is not the national language of India because no language was given such a status in the Indian constitution.
Hindi is the lingua franca of the Hindi belt, and to a lesser extent the whole of India (usually in a simplified or pidginized variety such as Bazaar Hindustani or Haflong Hindi). Outside India, several other languages are recognized officially as "Hindi '' but do not refer to the Standard Hindi language described here and instead descend from other dialects of Hindustani, such as Awadhi and Bhojpuri. Such languages include Fiji Hindi, which is official in Fiji, and Caribbean Hindustani, which is a recognized language in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, and Suriname. Apart from specialized vocabulary, Hindi is mutually intelligible with Standard Urdu, another recognized register of Hindustani.
Individually, as a linguistic variety, Hindi is the fourth most - spoken first language in the world, after Mandarin, Spanish and English. Alongside Urdu as Hindustani, it is the third most - spoken language in the world, after Mandarin and English.
The term Hindī originally was used to refer to inhabitants of the region east of the Indus. It was borrowed from Classical Persian Hindī (Iranian Persian Hendi), meaning "Indian '', from the proper noun Hind "India ''.
The name Hindavī was used by Amir Khusrow in his poetry.
Like other Indo - Aryan languages, Hindi is a direct descendant of an early form of Vedic Sanskrit, through Sauraseni Prakrit and Śauraseni Apabhraṃśa (from Sanskrit apabhraṃśa "corrupted ''), which emerged in the 7th century A.D.
Modern Standard Hindi is based on the Khariboli dialect, the vernacular of Delhi and the surrounding region, which came to replace earlier prestige dialects such as Awadhi, Maithili (sometimes regarded as separate from the Hindi dialect continuum) and Braj. Urdu -- another form of Hindustani -- acquired linguistic prestige in the later Mughal period (1800s), and underwent significant Persian influence. Modern Hindi and its literary tradition evolved towards the end of the 18 century. However, modern Hindi 's earlier literary stages before standardization can be traced to the 16th century. In the late 19th century, a movement to further develop Hindi as a standardised form of Hindustani separate from Urdu took form. In 1881, Bihar accepted Hindi as its sole official language, replacing Urdu, and thus became the first state of India to adopt Hindi. Modern Standard Hindi is one of the youngest Indian languages in this regard.
After independence, the government of India instituted the following conventions:
The Constituent Assembly adopted Hindi as an official language of India on 14 September 1949. Now, it is celebrated as Hindi Day.
In Northeast India a pidgin known as Haflong Hindi has developed as a lingua franca for various tribes in Assam that speak other languages natively. In Arunachal Pradesh, Hindi emerged as a lingua franca among locals who speak over 50 dialects natively.
Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with the official language of the Indian Commonwealth. Under Article 343, the official languages of the Union has been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English:
(1) The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals. (2) Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement: Provided that the President may, during the said period, by order authorize the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union
Article 351 of the Indian constitution states
It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule, and by drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages.
It was envisioned that Hindi would become the sole working language of the Union Government by 1965 (per directives in Article 344 (2) and Article 351), with state governments being free to function in the language of their own choice. However, widespread resistance to the imposition of Hindi on non-native speakers, especially in South India (such as the those in Tamil Nadu) led to the passage of the Official Languages Act of 1963, which provided for the continued use of English indefinitely for all official purposes, although the constitutional directive for the Union Government to encourage the spread of Hindi was retained and has strongly influenced its policies.
Article 344 (2b) stipulates that official language commission shall be constituted every ten years to recommend steps for progressive use of Hindi language and imposing restrictions on the use of the English language by the union government. In practice, the official language commissions are constantly endeavouring to promote Hindi but not imposing restrictions on English in official use by the union government.
At the state level, Hindi is the official language of the following Indian states: Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Mizoram, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and West Bengal. Each may also designate a "co-official language ''; in Uttar Pradesh, for instance, depending on the political formation in power, this language is generally Urdu. Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of official language in the following Union Territories: Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu, National Capital Territory.
National language status for Hindi is a long - debated theme. In 2010, the Gujarat High Court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such.
Outside Asia, the Awadhi language (A Hindi dialect) is an official language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji, where it referred to it as "Hindustani '', however in the 2013 Constitution of Fiji, it is simply called "Fiji Hindi ''. It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji.
Hindi is also spoken by a large population of Madheshis (people having roots in north - India but have migrated to Nepal over hundreds of years) of Nepal. Apart from specialized vocabulary, Hindi is mutually intelligible with Standard Urdu, another recognized register of Hindustani. Hindi is quite easy to understand for some Pakistanis, who speak Urdu, which, like Hindi, is part of Hindustani. Apart from this, Hindi is spoken by the large Indian diaspora which hails from, or has its origin from the "Hindi Belt '' of India. A substantially large North Indian diaspora lives in countries like The United States of America, the United Kingdom, the United Arab Emirates, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, South Africa, Fiji and Mauritius, where it is natively spoken at home and among their own Hindustani - speaking communities. Outside India, Hindi speakers are 8 million in Nepal; 649,000 in United States of America; 450,170 in Mauritius; 380,000 in Fiji; 250,292 in South Africa; 150,000 in Suriname; 100,000 in Uganda; 45,800 in United Kingdom; 20,000 in New Zealand; 20,000 in Germany; 16,000 in Trinidad and Tobago; 3,000 in Singapore.
Linguistically, Hindi and Urdu are two registers of the same language and are mutually intelligble. Hindi is written in the Devanagari script and uses more Sanskrit words, whereas Urdu is written in the Perso - Arabic script and uses more Arabic and Persian words. Hindi is the most commonly used official language in India. Urdu is the national language and lingua franca of Pakistan and is one of 22 official languages of India.
The splitting of Hindi and Urdu into separate languages is largely motivated by politics, namely the Indo - Pakistani rivalry.
Hindi is written in the Devanagari script, an abugida. Devanagari consists of 11 vowels and 33 consonants and is written from left to right. Unlike for Sanskrit, Devanagari is not entirely phonetic for Hindi, especially failing to mark schwa dropping in spoken Standard Hindi.
The Government of India uses Hunterian transliteration as its official system of writing Hindi in the Latin script. Various other systems also exist, such as IAST, ITRANS and ISO 15919.
Traditionally, Hindi words are divided into five principal categories according to their etymology:
Hindi also makes extensive use of loan translation (calqueing) and occasionally phono - semantic matching of English.
Hindi has naturally inherited a large portion of its vocabulary from Śaurasenī Prākṛt, in the form of tadbhava words. This process usually involves compensatory lengthening of vowels preceding consonant clusters in Prakrit, e.g. Sanskrit tīkṣṇa > Prakrit tikkha > Hindi tīkhā.
Much of Modern Standard Hindi 's vocabulary is borrowed from Sanskrit as tatsam borrowings, especially in technical and academic fields. The formal Hindi standard, from which much of the Persian, Arabic and English vocabulary has been replaced by neologisms compounding tatsam words, is called Śuddh Hindi (pure Hindi), and is viewed as a more prestigious dialect over other more colloquial forms of Hindi.
Excessive use of tatsam words sometimes creates problems for native speakers. They may have Sanskrit consonant clusters which do not exist in native Hindi, causing difficulties in pronunciation.
As a part of the process of Sanskritization, new words are coined using Sanskrit components to be used as replacements for supposedly foreign vocabulary. Usually these neologisms are calques of English words already adopted into spoken Hindi. Some terms such as dūrbhāṣ "telephone '', literally "far - speech '' and dūrdarśan "television '', literally "far - sight '' have even gained some currency in formal Hindi in the place of the English borrowings (ṭeli) fon and ṭīvī.
Hindi literature is broadly divided into four prominent forms or styles, being Bhakti (devotional -- Kabir, Raskhan); Śṛṇgār (beauty -- Keshav, Bihari); Vīgāthā (epic); and Ādhunik (modern).
Medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence of Bhakti movement and the composition of long, epic poems. It was primarily written in other varieties of Hindi, particularly Avadhi and Braj Bhasha, but to a degree also in Khariboli, the basis for Modern Standard Hindi. During the British Raj, Hindustani became the prestige dialect.
Chandrakanta, written by Devaki Nandan Khatri in 1888, is considered the first authentic work of prose in modern Hindi. The person who brought realism in the Hindi prose literature was Munshi Premchand, who is considered as the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement. Literary, or Sāhityik, Hindi was popularised by the writings of Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Bhartendu Harishchandra and others. The rising numbers of newspapers and magazines made Hindustani popular with the educated people.
The Dvivedī Yug ("Age of Dwivedi '') in Hindi literature lasted from 1900 to 1918. It is named after Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, who played a major role in establishing Modern Standard Hindi in poetry and broadening the acceptable subjects of Hindi poetry from the traditional ones of religion and romantic love.
In the 20th century, Hindi literature saw a romantic upsurge. This is known as Chāyāvād (shadow - ism) and the literary figures belonging to this school are known as Chāyāvādī. Jaishankar Prasad, Suryakant Tripathi ' Nirala ', Mahadevi Varma and Sumitranandan Pant, are the four major Chāyāvādī poets.
Uttar Ādhunik is the post-modernist period of Hindi literature, marked by a questioning of early trends that copied the West as well as the excessive ornamentation of the Chāyāvādī movement, and by a return to simple language and natural themes.
The Hindi Wikipedia was the first Indic - language wiki to reach 100,000 articles. Hindi literature, music, and film have all been disseminated via the internet. In 2015, Google reported a 94 % increase in Hindi - content consumption year - on - year, adding that 21 % of users in India prefer content in Hindi.
Many Hindi newspapers also offer digital editions.
The following is a sample text in High Hindi, of the Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (by the United Nations):
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what is the #1 disney movie of all time | List of highest - grossing animated films - wikipedia
Included on the list are charts of the top box - office earners, a chart of high - grossing animated films by calendar year, a timeline showing the transition of the highest - grossing animated film record, and a chart of the highest - grossing animated film franchises and series. All charts are ranked by international theatrical box office performance where possible, excluding income derived from home video, broadcasting rights and merchandise.
Animated family films have performed consistently well at the box office, with Disney films enjoying lucrative re-releases prior to the home video era. Disney also enjoyed later success with its Pixar brand, of which the Toy Story films, the Finding Nemo films, and Inside Out have been the best performers; beyond Pixar animation, the Shrek, Ice Age, Madagascar, and Despicable Me series have met with the most success. The Peter Pan, Jungle Book, Mickey Mouse, and Bambi series saw successful returns after lying dormant for decades.
DreamWorks Animation has the highest total of any animation studio, with nearly $14.5 billion across 36 films, while Illumination Entertainment films have the best average with $794 million per film across 6 films. John Lasseter 's films have grossed the most of any animated director, with a total of $18.5 billion across 47 films, while producer Rich Moore has the best average $763 million per film across 4 films as of October 2017.
The chart below lists the highest - grossing animated films. Figures are given in United States dollars (USD). Many films that were released during the 20th century do not appear on this list as figures have not been adjusted for inflation. 88 % of the films in the top 50 were released after 2000. 2016 is the most represented year on the list, with six films. Shrek is the most represented franchise, with five films. DreamWorks Animation is the most represented studio, with 15 films on the list.
The top 11 films on this list are also among the top 50 worldwide highest - grossing films of all time and the top six have each grossed in excess of $1 billion worldwide. When adjusted for inflation, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs would appear at the top of the chart with an adjusted gross of $1.819 billion.
The films on this list have all had a theatrical run (including re-releases) since 1993. Films that have not played since then do not appear on the chart due to ticket price inflation, population size, and ticket purchasing trends not being considered.
Animated / live - action films can be considered for this list if they meet the criteria that 75 % of footage is animation and a significant number of major characters are animated.
The following chart is a list of the highest - grossing computer animated films. 98 % of films in the top 50 were released after 2000. 2016 is the most represented year on the list with seven films.
All feature films in the Despicable Me, How to Train Your Dragon, Rio, Kung Fu Panda and Shrek franchises, as well as the main films in the Cars and Madagascar franchises, are on the list while the Toy Story and Ice Age franchise features often. Shrek is the most represented franchise with five films. DreamWorks Animation is the most represented studio with 15 films on the list.
The top 47 films listed are also among the highest - grossing animated films, the top 10 are among the 50 highest - grossing films, and the top six have each grossed in excess of $1 billion worldwide.
The films on this chart have all had a theatrical run (including re-releases) since 2001, and films that have not played since then do not appear on the chart due to ticket price inflation, population size and ticket purchasing trends not being considered.
The following chart is a list of the highest - grossing stop motion films. 87.5 % of the top 40 were released after 2000. 2012 and 2015 the most represented years on the list, with five films each.
Aardman and Laika are the most represented studios with five films each on the list. All stop - motion feature films by Aardman, DreamWorks Animation, Laika, and Tim Burton are on the list. All feature films in the Wallace and Gromit and Solan & Ludvig franchises are on the list.
The films on this chart have all had a theatrical run (including re-releases) since 1986, and films that have not played since then do not appear on the chart due to ticket price inflation, population size and ticket purchasing trends not being considered.
The following chart is a list of the highest - grossing traditionally - animated films. 44 % of the films in the top 50 were released after 2000. 1998, 2000 and 2002 are the most represented years on the list, with four films each.
All films in the main Peter Pan, The Jungle Book and SpongeBob SquarePants series appear in the chart, while the Rugrats, Mickey Mouse and Pokémon franchises feature prominently. All of these five franchises are also the most represented with two films each. Disney is the most represented studio with 26 films on the list.
The top three films on this list are also on the highest - grossing animated films list. Only The Lion King is also on the list of highest - grossing films, ranking in at 34.
The films on this chart have all had a theatrical run (including re-releases) since 1972, and films that have not played since then do not appear on the chart due to ticket price inflation, population size and ticket purchasing trends not being considered.
Every year since 1994, there has been at least one animated film grossing more than $250 million. 2010 is the year with the most animated films in the Top 10 with five. The years 1937, 1940, 1942, 1950, 1953, 1955, 1961, 1967, 1992, 1994, 1995, 2004, 2010 and 2013 were the top high - grossing films by year. Every year since 2015, there has been at least two animated films in the top 10 highest - grossing films of the year.
Computer - animated films have been the highest earners in 1995 and every year since 1998, while 1975 and 1993 are the only years when a stop - motion animated feature grossed the highest. Traditional animated films has topped every other year.
All films in the Toy Story, The Rescuers, and Finding Nemo were the highest - grossing animated films of the year they were released. Franchises were the highest - grossing animated films of the year they were released. Ice Age and Doraemon have the most high - grossing animated films by year, with four films each. Disney has the most top grossing by year with 31 films.
At least seven animated films have held the record of highest - grossing animated film at different times. Four of these were Disney films and two by Pixar. Shrek 2, made by DreamWorks Animation, is the only film on the list not produced by Disney or Pixar.
Snow White held the record for the longest, with 55 years, while Aladdin held it for the shortest period of a year. The Lion King was the last non-CG animated film to hold the record. Shrek 2 and Toy Story 3 are the only sequels to hold the record. Finding Nemo was the first CG animated film.
All of these films are still among the highest - grossing animated films, and only Snow White and Aladdin are not also among the highest - grossing films.
The following chart is a list of the highest - grossing animated film franchises. The top four are among the highest - grossing film franchises of all time and, respectively, are ranked 12th, 14th, 16th, and 24th of all time. The Despicable Me is the highest - grossing animated franchise of all time with $3.7 billion; it is also the only animated franchise with two films grossing over $1 billion worldwide. The Finding Nemo franchise has the highest per - film average, with over $984 million unadjusted. All franchises by DreamWorks Animation, Pixar (both of whom are the most represented studio with four franchises each), Blue Sky and 20th Century Fox, are on the list. A given franchise needs to have at least two theatrically released films to be on this list.
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what does the little u mean in statistics | Standard deviation - wikipedia
In statistics, the standard deviation (SD, also represented by the Greek letter sigma σ or the Latin letter s) is a measure that is used to quantify the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of data values. A low standard deviation indicates that the data points tend to be close to the mean (also called the expected value) of the set, while a high standard deviation indicates that the data points are spread out over a wider range of values.
The standard deviation of a random variable, statistical population, data set, or probability distribution is the square root of its variance. It is algebraically simpler, though in practice less robust, than the average absolute deviation. A useful property of the standard deviation is that, unlike the variance, it is expressed in the same units as the data. There are also other measures of deviation from the norm, including average absolute deviation, which provide different mathematical properties from standard deviation.
In addition to expressing the variability of a population, the standard deviation is commonly used to measure confidence in statistical conclusions. For example, the margin of error in polling data is determined by calculating the expected standard deviation in the results if the same poll were to be conducted multiple times. This derivation of a standard deviation is often called the "standard error '' of the estimate or "standard error of the mean '' when referring to a mean. It is computed as the standard deviation of all the means that would be computed from that population if an infinite number of samples were drawn and a mean for each sample were computed. It is very important to note that the standard deviation of a population and the standard error of a statistic derived from that population (such as the mean) are quite different but related (related by the inverse of the square root of the number of observations). The reported margin of error of a poll is computed from the standard error of the mean (or alternatively from the product of the standard deviation of the population and the inverse of the square root of the sample size, which is the same thing) and is typically about twice the standard deviation -- the half - width of a 95 percent confidence interval. In science, many researchers report the standard deviation of experimental data, and only effects that fall much farther than two standard deviations away from what would have been expected are considered statistically significant -- normal random error or variation in the measurements is in this way distinguished from likely genuine effects or associations. The standard deviation is also important in finance, where the standard deviation on the rate of return on an investment is a measure of the volatility of the investment.
When only a sample of data from a population is available, the term standard deviation of the sample or sample standard deviation can refer to either the above - mentioned quantity as applied to those data or to a modified quantity that is an unbiased estimate of the population standard deviation (the standard deviation of the entire population).
Logan gives the following example. Furness and Bryant measured the resting metabolic rate for 8 male and 6 female breeding Northern fulmars. The table shows the furness data set.
The graph shows the metabolic rate for males and females. By visual inspection, it appears that the variability of the metabolic rate is greater for males than for females.
The sample standard deviation of the metabolic rate for the female fulmars is calculated as follows. The formula for the sample standard deviation is
where (x 1, x 2,..., x N) (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ (x_ (1), \, x_ (2), \, \ ldots, \, x_ (N) \)) are the observed values of the sample items, x _̄ (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (\ overline (x))) is the mean value of these observations, and N is the number of observations in the sample.
In the sample standard deviation formula, for this example, the numerator is the sum of the squared deviation of each individual animal 's metabolic rate from the mean metabolic rate. The table below shows the calculation of this sum of squared deviations for the female fulmars. For females, the sum of squared deviations is 886047.09, as shown in the table.
The denominator in the sample standard deviation formula is N -- 1, where N is the number of animals. In this example, there are N = 6 females, so the denominator is 6 -- 1 = 5. The sample standard deviation for the female fulmars is therefore
For the male fulmars, a similar calculation gives a sample standard deviation of 894.37, approximately twice as large as the standard deviation for the females. The graph shows the metabolic rate data, the means (red dots), and the standard deviations (red lines) for females and males.
Use of the sample standard deviation implies that these 14 fulmars are a sample from a larger population of fulmars. If these 14 fulmars comprised the entire population (perhaps the last 14 surviving fulmars), then instead of the sample standard deviation, the calculation would use the population standard deviation. In the population standard deviation formula, the denominator is N instead of N - 1. It is rare that measurements can be taken for an entire population, so, by default, statistical software packages calculate the sample standard deviation. Similarly, journal articles report the sample standard deviation unless otherwise specified.
Suppose that the entire population of interest was eight students in a particular class. For a finite set of numbers, the population standard deviation is found by taking the square root of the average of the squared deviations of the values from their average value. The marks of a class of eight students (that is, a statistical population) are the following eight values:
These eight data points have the mean (average) of 5:
First, calculate the deviations of each data point from the mean, and square the result of each:
The variance is the mean of these values:
and the population standard deviation is equal to the square root of the variance:
This formula is valid only if the eight values with which we began form the complete population. If the values instead were a random sample drawn from some large parent population (for example, they were 8 marks randomly and independently chosen from a class of 2 million), then one often divides by 7 (which is n − 1) instead of 8 (which is n) in the denominator of the last formula. In that case the result of the original formula would be called the sample standard deviation. Dividing by n − 1 rather than by n gives an unbiased estimate of the variance of the larger parent population. This is known as Bessel 's correction.
If the population of interest is approximately normally distributed, the standard deviation provides information on the proportion of observations above or below certain values. For example, the average height for adult men in the United States is about 70 inches (177.8 cm), with a standard deviation of around 3 inches (7.62 cm). This means that most men (about 68 %, assuming a normal distribution) have a height within 3 inches (7.62 cm) of the mean (67 -- 73 inches (170.18 -- 185.42 cm)) -- one standard deviation -- and almost all men (about 95 %) have a height within 6 inches (15.24 cm) of the mean (64 -- 76 inches (162.56 -- 193.04 cm)) -- two standard deviations. If the standard deviation were zero, then all men would be exactly 70 inches (177.8 cm) tall. If the standard deviation were 20 inches (50.8 cm), then men would have much more variable heights, with a typical range of about 50 -- 90 inches (127 -- 228.6 cm). Three standard deviations account for 99.7 % of the sample population being studied, assuming the distribution is normal (bell - shaped). (See the 68 - 95 - 99.7 rule, or the empirical rule, for more information.)
Let X be a random variable with mean value μ:
Here the operator E denotes the average or expected value of X. Then the standard deviation of X is the quantity
(derived using the properties of expected value).
In other words, the standard deviation σ (sigma) is the square root of the variance of X; i.e., it is the square root of the average value of (X − μ).
The standard deviation of a (univariate) probability distribution is the same as that of a random variable having that distribution. Not all random variables have a standard deviation, since these expected values need not exist. For example, the standard deviation of a random variable that follows a Cauchy distribution is undefined because its expected value μ is undefined.
In the case where X takes random values from a finite data set x, x,..., x, with each value having the same probability, the standard deviation is
or, using summation notation,
If, instead of having equal probabilities, the values have different probabilities, let x have probability p, x have probability p,..., x have probability p. In this case, the standard deviation will be
The standard deviation of a continuous real - valued random variable X with probability density function p (x) is
and where the integrals are definite integrals taken for x ranging over the set of possible values of the random variable X.
In the case of a parametric family of distributions, the standard deviation can be expressed in terms of the parameters. For example, in the case of the log - normal distribution with parameters μ and σ, the standard deviation is ((exp (σ) − 1) exp (2μ + σ)).
One can find the standard deviation of an entire population in cases (such as standardized testing) where every member of a population is sampled. In cases where that can not be done, the standard deviation σ is estimated by examining a random sample taken from the population and computing a statistic of the sample, which is used as an estimate of the population standard deviation. Such a statistic is called an estimator, and the estimator (or the value of the estimator, namely the estimate) is called a sample standard deviation, and is denoted by s (possibly with modifiers). However, unlike in the case of estimating the population mean, for which the sample mean is a simple estimator with many desirable properties (unbiased, efficient, maximum likelihood), there is no single estimator for the standard deviation with all these properties, and unbiased estimation of standard deviation is a very technically involved problem. Most often, the standard deviation is estimated using the corrected sample standard deviation (using N − 1), defined below, and this is often referred to as the "sample standard deviation '', without qualifiers. However, other estimators are better in other respects: the uncorrected estimator (using N) yields lower mean squared error, while using N − 1.5 (for the normal distribution) almost completely eliminates bias.
The formula for the population standard deviation (of a finite population) can be applied to the sample, using the size of the sample as the size of the population (though the actual population size from which the sample is drawn may be much larger). This estimator, denoted by s, is known as the uncorrected sample standard deviation, or sometimes the standard deviation of the sample (considered as the entire population), and is defined as follows:
where (x 1, x 2,..., x N) (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ (x_ (1), \, x_ (2), \, \ ldots, \, x_ (N) \)) are the observed values of the sample items and x _̄ (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (\ overline (x))) is the mean value of these observations, while the denominator N stands for the size of the sample: this is the square root of the sample variance, which is the average of the squared deviations about the sample mean.
This is a consistent estimator (it converges in probability to the population value as the number of samples goes to infinity), and is the maximum - likelihood estimate when the population is normally distributed. However, this is a biased estimator, as the estimates are generally too low. The bias decreases as sample size grows, dropping off as 1 / N, and thus is most significant for small or moderate sample sizes; for N > 75 (\ displaystyle N > 75) the bias is below 1 %. Thus for very large sample sizes, the uncorrected sample standard deviation is generally acceptable. This estimator also has a uniformly smaller mean squared error than the corrected sample standard deviation.
If the biased sample variance (the second central moment of the sample, which is a downward - biased estimate of the population variance) is used to compute an estimate of the population 's standard deviation, the result is
Here taking the square root introduces further downward bias, by Jensen 's inequality, due to the square root being a concave function. The bias in the variance is easily corrected, but the bias from the square root is more difficult to correct, and depends on the distribution in question.
An unbiased estimator for the variance is given by applying Bessel 's correction, using N − 1 instead of N to yield the unbiased sample variance, denoted s:
This estimator is unbiased if the variance exists and the sample values are drawn independently with replacement. N − 1 corresponds to the number of degrees of freedom in the vector of deviations from the mean, (x 1 − x _̄,..., x n − x _̄). (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (x_ (1) - (\ overline (x)), \; \ dots, \; x_ (n) - (\ overline (x))).)
Taking square roots reintroduces bias (because the square root is a nonlinear function, which does not commute with the expectation), yielding the corrected sample standard deviation, denoted by s:
As explained above, while s is an unbiased estimator for the population variance, s is still a biased estimator for the population standard deviation, though markedly less biased than the uncorrected sample standard deviation. This estimator is commonly used and generally known simply as the "sample standard deviation ''. The bias may still be large for small samples (N less than 10). As sample size increases, the amount of bias decreases. We obtain more information and the difference between 1 N (\ displaystyle (\ frac (1) (N))) and 1 N − 1 (\ displaystyle (\ frac (1) (N - 1))) becomes smaller.
For unbiased estimation of standard deviation, there is no formula that works across all distributions, unlike for mean and variance. Instead, s is used as a basis, and is scaled by a correction factor to produce an unbiased estimate. For the normal distribution, an unbiased estimator is given by s / c, where the correction factor (which depends on N) is given in terms of the Gamma function, and equals:
This arises because the sampling distribution of the sample standard deviation follows a (scaled) chi distribution, and the correction factor is the mean of the chi distribution.
An approximation can be given by replacing N − 1 with N − 1.5, yielding:
The error in this approximation decays quadratically (as 1 / N), and it is suited for all but the smallest samples or highest precision: for n = 3 the bias is equal to 1.3 %, and for n = 9 the bias is already less than 0.1 %.
For other distributions, the correct formula depends on the distribution, but a rule of thumb is to use the further refinement of the approximation:
where γ denotes the population excess kurtosis. The excess kurtosis may be either known beforehand for certain distributions, or estimated from the data.
The standard deviation we obtain by sampling a distribution is itself not absolutely accurate, both for mathematical reasons (explained here by the confidence interval) and for practical reasons of measurement (measurement error). The mathematical effect can be described by the confidence interval or CI. To show how a larger sample will make the confidence interval narrower, consider the following examples: A small population of N = 2 has only 1 degree of freedom for estimating the standard deviation. The result is that a 95 % CI of the SD runs from 0.45 × SD to 31.9 × SD; the factors here are as follows:
where q p (\ displaystyle q_ (p)) is the p - th quantile of the chi - square distribution with k degrees of freedom, and 1 − α (\ displaystyle 1 - \ alpha) is the confidence level. This is equivalent to the following:
With k = 1, q 0.025 = 0.000982 (\ displaystyle q_ (0.025) = 0.000982) and q 0.975 = 5.024 (\ displaystyle q_ (0.975) = 5.024). The reciprocals of the square roots of these two numbers give us the factors 0.45 and 31.9 given above.
A larger population of N = 10 has 9 degrees of freedom for estimating the standard deviation. The same computations as above give us in this case a 95 % CI running from 0.69 * SD to 1.83 * SD. So even with a sample population of 10, the actual SD can still be almost a factor 2 higher than the sampled SD. For a sample population N = 100, this is down to 0.88 * SD to 1.16 * SD. To be more certain that the sampled SD is close to the actual SD we need to sample a large number of points.
These same formulae can be used to obtain confidence intervals on the variance of residuals from a least squares fit under standard normal theory, where k is now the number of degrees of freedom for error.
The standard deviation is invariant under changes in location, and scales directly with the scale of the random variable. Thus, for a constant c and random variables X and Y:
The standard deviation of the sum of two random variables can be related to their individual standard deviations and the covariance between them:
where var = σ 2 (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ operatorname (var) \, = \, \ sigma ^ (2)) and cov (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ operatorname (cov)) stand for variance and covariance, respectively.
The calculation of the sum of squared deviations can be related to moments calculated directly from the data. In the following formula, the letter E is interpreted to mean expected value, i.e., mean.
The sample standard deviation can be computed as:
For a finite population with equal probabilities at all points, we have
This means that the standard deviation is equal to the square root of the difference between the average of the squares of the values and the square of the average value. See computational formula for the variance for proof, and for an analogous result for the sample standard deviation.
A large standard deviation indicates that the data points can spread far from the mean and a small standard deviation indicates that they are clustered closely around the mean.
For example, each of the three populations (0, 0, 14, 14), (0, 6, 8, 14) and (6, 6, 8, 8) has a mean of 7. Their standard deviations are 7, 5, and 1, respectively. The third population has a much smaller standard deviation than the other two because its values are all close to 7. It will have the same units as the data points themselves. If, for instance, the data set (0, 6, 8, 14) represents the ages of a population of four siblings in years, the standard deviation is 5 years. As another example, the population (1000, 1006, 1008, 1014) may represent the distances traveled by four athletes, measured in meters. It has a mean of 1007 meters, and a standard deviation of 5 meters.
Standard deviation may serve as a measure of uncertainty. In physical science, for example, the reported standard deviation of a group of repeated measurements gives the precision of those measurements. When deciding whether measurements agree with a theoretical prediction, the standard deviation of those measurements is of crucial importance: if the mean of the measurements is too far away from the prediction (with the distance measured in standard deviations), then the theory being tested probably needs to be revised. This makes sense since they fall outside the range of values that could reasonably be expected to occur, if the prediction were correct and the standard deviation appropriately quantified. See prediction interval.
While the standard deviation does measure how far typical values tend to be from the mean, other measures are available. An example is the mean absolute deviation, which might be considered a more direct measure of average distance, compared to the root mean square distance inherent in the standard deviation.
The practical value of understanding the standard deviation of a set of values is in appreciating how much variation there is from the average (mean).
Standard deviation is often used to compare real - world data against a model to test the model. For example, in industrial applications the weight of products coming off a production line may need to comply with a legally required value. By weighing some fraction of the products an average weight can be found, which will always be slightly different to the long - term average. By using standard deviations, a minimum and maximum value can be calculated that the averaged weight will be within some very high percentage of the time (99.9 % or more). If it falls outside the range then the production process may need to be corrected. Statistical tests such as these are particularly important when the testing is relatively expensive. For example, if the product needs to be opened and drained and weighed, or if the product was otherwise used up by the test.
In experimental science, a theoretical model of reality is used. Particle physics conventionally uses a standard of "5 sigma '' for the declaration of a discovery. A five - sigma level translates to one chance in 3.5 million that a random fluctuation would yield the result. This level of certainty was required in order to assert that a particle consistent with the Higgs boson had been discovered in two independent experiments at CERN, and this was also the significance level leading to the declaration of the first detection of gravitational waves.
As a simple example, consider the average daily maximum temperatures for two cities, one inland and one on the coast. It is helpful to understand that the range of daily maximum temperatures for cities near the coast is smaller than for cities inland. Thus, while these two cities may each have the same average maximum temperature, the standard deviation of the daily maximum temperature for the coastal city will be less than that of the inland city as, on any particular day, the actual maximum temperature is more likely to be farther from the average maximum temperature for the inland city than for the coastal one.
In finance, standard deviation is often used as a measure of the risk associated with price - fluctuations of a given asset (stocks, bonds, property, etc.), or the risk of a portfolio of assets (actively managed mutual funds, index mutual funds, or ETFs). Risk is an important factor in determining how to efficiently manage a portfolio of investments because it determines the variation in returns on the asset and / or portfolio and gives investors a mathematical basis for investment decisions (known as mean - variance optimization). The fundamental concept of risk is that as it increases, the expected return on an investment should increase as well, an increase known as the risk premium. In other words, investors should expect a higher return on an investment when that investment carries a higher level of risk or uncertainty. When evaluating investments, investors should estimate both the expected return and the uncertainty of future returns. Standard deviation provides a quantified estimate of the uncertainty of future returns.
For example, assume an investor had to choose between two stocks. Stock A over the past 20 years had an average return of 10 percent, with a standard deviation of 20 percentage points (pp) and Stock B, over the same period, had average returns of 12 percent but a higher standard deviation of 30 pp. On the basis of risk and return, an investor may decide that Stock A is the safer choice, because Stock B 's additional two percentage points of return is not worth the additional 10 pp standard deviation (greater risk or uncertainty of the expected return). Stock B is likely to fall short of the initial investment (but also to exceed the initial investment) more often than Stock A under the same circumstances, and is estimated to return only two percent more on average. In this example, Stock A is expected to earn about 10 percent, plus or minus 20 pp (a range of 30 percent to − 10 percent), about two - thirds of the future year returns. When considering more extreme possible returns or outcomes in future, an investor should expect results of as much as 10 percent plus or minus 60 pp, or a range from 70 percent to − 50 percent, which includes outcomes for three standard deviations from the average return (about 99.7 percent of probable returns).
Calculating the average (or arithmetic mean) of the return of a security over a given period will generate the expected return of the asset. For each period, subtracting the expected return from the actual return results in the difference from the mean. Squaring the difference in each period and taking the average gives the overall variance of the return of the asset. The larger the variance, the greater risk the security carries. Finding the square root of this variance will give the standard deviation of the investment tool in question.
Population standard deviation is used to set the width of Bollinger Bands, a widely adopted technical analysis tool. For example, the upper Bollinger Band is given as x + nσ. The most commonly used value for n is 2; there is about a five percent chance of going outside, assuming a normal distribution of returns.
Financial time series are known to be non-stationary series, whereas the statistical calculations above, such as standard deviation, apply only to stationary series. To apply the above statistical tools to non-stationary series, the series first must be transformed to a stationary series, enabling use of statistical tools that now have a valid basis from which to work.
To gain some geometric insights and clarification, we will start with a population of three values, x, x, x. This defines a point P = (x, x, x) in R. Consider the line L = ((r, r, r): r ∈ R). This is the "main diagonal '' going through the origin. If our three given values were all equal, then the standard deviation would be zero and P would lie on L. So it is not unreasonable to assume that the standard deviation is related to the distance of P to L. That is indeed the case. To move orthogonally from L to the point P, one begins at the point:
whose coordinates are the mean of the values we started out with.
M (\ displaystyle M) is on L (\ displaystyle L) therefore M = (l, l, l) (\ displaystyle M = (l, l, l)) with l ∈ R (\ displaystyle l \ in (\ textbf (R)))
The line L (\ displaystyle L) is to be orthogonal to the vector from M (\ displaystyle M) to P (\ displaystyle P). Therefore:
L ⋅ (P − M) = 0 (r, r, r) ⋅ (x 1 − l, x 2 − l, x 3 − l) = 0 r ∗ (x 1 − l + x 2 − l + x 3 − l) = 0 r ∗ (∑ i x i − 3 l) = 0 ∑ i x i − 3 l = 0 1 3 ∑ i x i = l x _̄ = l (\ displaystyle (\ begin (aligned) L \ cdot (P-M) & = 0 \ \ (r, r, r) \ cdot (x_ (1) - l, x_ (2) - l, x_ (3) - l) & = 0 \ \ r * (x_ (1) - l + x_ (2) - l + x_ (3) - l) & = 0 \ \ r * (\ sum \ limits _ (i) x_ (i) - 3l) & = 0 \ \ \ sum \ limits _ (i) x_ (i) - 3l& = 0 \ \ (\ frac (1) (3)) \ sum \ limits _ (i) x_ (i) & = l \ \ (\ overline (x)) & = l \ end (aligned)))
A little algebra shows that the distance between P and M (which is the same as the orthogonal distance between P and the line L) ∑ i (x i − x _̄) 2 (\ displaystyle (\ sqrt (\ sum \ limits _ (i) (x_ (i) - (\ overline (x))) ^ (2)))) is equal to the standard deviation of the vector x, x, x, multiplied by the square root of the number of dimensions of the vector (3 in this case.)
An observation is rarely more than a few standard deviations away from the mean. Chebyshev 's inequality ensures that, for all distributions for which the standard deviation is defined, the amount of data within a number of standard deviations of the mean is at least as much as given in the following table.
The central limit theorem states that the distribution of an average of many independent, identically distributed random variables tends toward the famous bell - shaped normal distribution with a probability density function of
where μ is the expected value of the random variables, σ equals their distribution 's standard deviation divided by n, and n is the number of random variables. The standard deviation therefore is simply a scaling variable that adjusts how broad the curve will be, though it also appears in the normalizing constant.
If a data distribution is approximately normal, then the proportion of data values within z standard deviations of the mean is defined by:
where erf (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ operatorname (erf)) is the error function. The proportion that is less than or equal to a number, x, is given by the cumulative distribution function:
If a data distribution is approximately normal then about 68 percent of the data values are within one standard deviation of the mean (mathematically, μ ± σ, where μ is the arithmetic mean), about 95 percent are within two standard deviations (μ ± 2σ), and about 99.7 percent lie within three standard deviations (μ ± 3σ). This is known as the 68 - 95 - 99.7 rule, or the empirical rule.
For various values of z, the percentage of values expected to lie in and outside the symmetric interval, CI = (− zσ, zσ), are as follows:
The mean and the standard deviation of a set of data are descriptive statistics usually reported together. In a certain sense, the standard deviation is a "natural '' measure of statistical dispersion if the center of the data is measured about the mean. This is because the standard deviation from the mean is smaller than from any other point. The precise statement is the following: suppose x,..., x are real numbers and define the function:
Using calculus or by completing the square, it is possible to show that σ (r) has a unique minimum at the mean:
Variability can also be measured by the coefficient of variation, which is the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean. It is a dimensionless number.
Often, we want some information about the precision of the mean we obtained. We can obtain this by determining the standard deviation of the sampled mean. Assuming statistical independence of the values in the sample, the standard deviation of the mean is related to the standard deviation of the distribution by:
where N is the number of observations in the sample used to estimate the mean. This can easily be proven with (see basic properties of the variance):
(Statistical Independence is assumed.)
hence
Resulting in:
It should be emphasized that in order to estimate the standard deviation of the mean σ mean (\ displaystyle \ sigma _ (\ text (mean))) it is necessary to know the standard deviation of the entire population σ (\ displaystyle \ sigma) beforehand. However, in most applications this parameter is unknown. For example, if a series of 10 measurements of a previously unknown quantity is performed in a laboratory, it is possible to calculate the resulting sample mean and sample standard deviation, but it is impossible to calculate the standard deviation of the mean.
The following two formulas can represent a running (repeatedly updated) standard deviation. A set of two power sums s and s are computed over a set of N values of x, denoted as x,..., x:
Given the results of these running summations, the values N, s, s can be used at any time to compute the current value of the running standard deviation:
Where N, as mentioned above, is the size of the set of values (or can also be regarded as s).
Similarly for sample standard deviation,
In a computer implementation, as the three s sums become large, we need to consider round - off error, arithmetic overflow, and arithmetic underflow. The method below calculates the running sums method with reduced rounding errors. This is a "one pass '' algorithm for calculating variance of n samples without the need to store prior data during the calculation. Applying this method to a time series will result in successive values of standard deviation corresponding to n data points as n grows larger with each new sample, rather than a constant - width sliding window calculation.
For k = 1,..., n:
where A is the mean value.
Note: Q 1 = 0 (\ displaystyle Q_ (1) = 0) since k − 1 = 0 (\ displaystyle k - 1 = 0) or x 1 = A 1 (\ displaystyle x_ (1) = A_ (1))
Sample variance:
Population variance:
When the values x are weighted with unequal weights w, the power sums s, s, s are each computed as:
And the standard deviation equations remain unchanged. Note that s is now the sum of the weights and not the number of samples N.
The incremental method with reduced rounding errors can also be applied, with some additional complexity.
A running sum of weights must be computed for each k from 1 to n:
and places where 1 / n is used above must be replaced by w / W:
In the final division,
and
or
where n is the total number of elements, and n ' is the number of elements with non-zero weights. The above formulas become equal to the simpler formulas given above if weights are taken as equal to one.
The term standard deviation was first used in writing by Karl Pearson in 1894, following his use of it in lectures. This was as a replacement for earlier alternative names for the same idea: for example, Gauss used mean error.
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when does the little league world series continue | Mercy rule - wikipedia
A mercy rule, slaughter rule, knockout rule, or skunk rule ends a two - competitor sports competition earlier than the scheduled endpoint if one competitor has a very large and presumably insurmountable scoring lead over the other. It is called the mercy rule because it spares further humiliation for the loser. It is common in youth sports in North America, where running up the score is considered unsporting. It is especially common in baseball and softball in which there is no game clock and a dominant team could in theory continue an inning endlessly.
The rules vary widely, depending on the level of competition, but nearly all youth sports leagues and high school sports associations and many college sports associations in the United States have mercy rules for sports including baseball, softball, American football and association football.
However, mercy rules usually do not take effect until a prescribed point in the game (like the second half of an association football game). Thus, one team, particularly if it is decidedly better than a weaker opponent, can still "run up the score '' before the rule takes effect. For instance, in American football, one team could be ahead by 70 points with three minutes left in the first half; in baseball, the better team could have a 20 - run lead in the second inning, but the game would still continue.
International competitions are sanctioned by the World Baseball Softball Confederation (WBSC), formed by the 2013 merger of the International Baseball Federation (IBAF) and International Softball Federation (ISF).
In international baseball competition and the World Baseball Classic (WBC), games are ended when one team is ahead by 10 runs, once at least seven completed innings are played by the trailing team. In women 's competition, the same applies after five innings of a seven - inning game.
The inaugural WBC in 2006 followed the IBAF mercy rule, with an additional rule stopping a game after five innings when a team is ahead by at least 15 runs. The mercy rules applied to the round - robin (now double - elimination) matches only, not to the semi-finals or final.
In a six - inning game such as Little League Baseball and Softball, rules call for the game to end if the winning team is ahead by 15 runs after three innings played or 10 runs after four innings played by the trailing team.
Softball rules are different for fast / modified fast pitch and slow pitch. In WBSC - sanctioned competitions, the run ahead rule (the WBSC terminology) is, for fast or modified fast pitch, 20 runs after three innings, 15 after four, or 7 after 5. In slow pitch, the margin is 20 runs after four innings or 15 after five. The NCAA has also adopted the rule.
In regular season or conference tournament NCAA and NAIA college baseball, the IBAF rule may be implemented. Most NCAA conferences limit the rule to the final day of a series, for travel reasons, or primarily during conference tournaments where four to five games are played in a day, in order to allow the next game to start. The rule is not allowed in NCAA tournament play (regionals, super regionals and College World Series), in which all games must be at least nine innings.
In NCAA softball, the rule is invoked if one team is ahead by at least eight runs after five innings and, unlike with college baseball, applies in the NCAA tournament as well with the exception of the championship series. In American high school softball, most states use a mercy rule of 20 runs ahead in three innings or 10 in five innings. (In either case, if the home team is ahead by the requisite number of runs, the game will end after the top half of the inning.)
Most state high school associations (where games are seven innings) use the IBAF Women 's rule after five innings have been played by the trailing team; some associations further the rule by ending a game after either three or four innings if the lead is at least 15 runs. For softball, the rule is 12 after three innings and 10 after five. However, since the home team has the last at - bat, the rules usually allow visiting teams to score an unlimited number of runs in the top half of an inning. That can be prevented by invoking the rule only after the home team has completed its half of the inning.
Due to the untimed nature of innings, some leagues either impose caps on the number of runs that can be scored in one inning (usually in the 4 - 8 range) or limit the number of plate appearances in an inning (typically, such a limit will consist of one rotation of the batting order). Such rules ensure that games will complete in a reasonable length of time, but it can also mean that a lead of a certain size becomes insurmountable by the cap, which can be prevented by not invoking the rule in such circumstances.
At the middle - or high - school level, 34 states use a mercy rule that may involve a "continuous clock '' (the clock continues to operate on most plays when the clock would normally stop, such as an incomplete pass) once a team has a certain lead (for example, 35 points) during the second half. That greatly decreases the amount of time taken for a game to complete, which reduces the leading team 's chances to score more and the time that the trailing team must spend in facing an insurmountable deficit. In most states, the clock stops only for scores, timeouts (officials ', injury, or charged), or the end of the quarter. Plays that would normally stop the clock, such as penalties, incomplete passes, going out of bounds, or change of possession, would not stop the clock. The rule varies by state; for example, the clock does not stop upon a score in Colorado, Kansas (regular - season games only), or Missouri (fourth quarter only).
In most states, once the point differential is reduced to below the mercy rule - invoking amount, normal timing procedures resume until either the end of the game or the mercy rule - invoking point differential is re-established; in Colorado and Kansas, the clock continues to run even if the differential falls below the threshold. Most states that have mercy rules waive this rule for a championship game.
In some states, coaches and game officials may choose to end a game at their own discretion at any time during the second half if the continuous clock rule is in effect; that usually happens if a lopsided margin continues to increase or if threatening weather is imminent. Sometimes the coach of the team that is losing agrees to shorten the length of a quarter in addition to the continuous clock rule. Although it is rare, some states or high school conferences have rules in which the team with a very large lead may not run a certain play for the rest of the game, such as a deep pass or outside run.
In some states (where 8 - man and 6 - man football is widely used), the rules call for a game to end when one team is ahead by a certain score (like 45 or 50 points) at halftime or any time thereafter. In other states with 6 - or 8 - man football, continuous clock rules are used, and the rule may be modified; for instance, in Iowa, the rule goes into effect if the 35 - point differential is reached at any time after the first quarter.
In a variant on the mercy rule used in Connecticut high school football from 2006 to 2016, the team 's coach was issued a one - game suspension (i.e., for the team 's next game) if at any point the team had a 50 - point lead. In 2016 it was replaced with a running clock rule.
The National Collegiate Athletic Association 's mercy rule provides, "Any time during the game, the playing time of any remaining period or periods and the intermission between halves may be shortened by mutual agreement of the opposing head coaches and the referee. '' (NCAA Football Rule 3 - 2 - 2 - a) NCAA Football Approved Ruling 3 - 2 - 2 - I cites an example: "At halftime the score is 56 -- 0. The coaches and the referee agree that the third and fourth quarters should be shortened to 12 minutes each. The coaches also request that the second half be played with a ' running clock ' i.e., that the game clock not be stopped. '' The NCAA Football Rules Committee determined, "The remaining quarters may be shortened to 12 minutes each. However, the ' running clock ' is not allowed; normal clock rules apply for the entire game. ''
The most recent example of an NCAA football game shortened by invoking this rule occurred September 1, 2018 during a game Georgia played against Austin Peay in Athens Georgia. With the score 45 - 0 in the 3rd quarter and a high heat index, the Austin Peay Coach Will Healy suggested to Georgia head coach Kirby Smart that they play a 10 minute fourth quarter instead of the typical 15 minute fourth quarter. The coaches and referee agreed and the game was shortened.
September 24, 2016 the Missouri Tigers led Delaware State 58 -- 0 at halftime. The coaches agreed to shorten the third and fourth quarters from 15 minutes to 10 minutes each, shortening the total game time from 60 minutes to 50 minutes. Missouri added three touchdowns in the abbreviated second half to make the final score 79 -- 0, setting team records for the most points scored in a game (79), the greatest margin of victory (79), and the largest number of touchdowns scored (11). (Missouri would have scored 80 points, but it had missed an extra point early in the game).
Also in 2016, the game between Clemson and South Carolina State had both the third and fourth quarters shortened from 15 minutes to 12 as a result of Clemson leading the game at half 45 - 0. The final score of the game was 59 - 0.
Earlier in 2016, the game between Texas State and Arkansas saw the fourth quarter shortened to 10 minutes when severe thunderstorms were approaching Donald W. Reynolds Razorback Stadium. Arkansas led 42 -- 3 at the end of the third quarter, and the final period was scoreless. A similar scenario took place in 2017 in the game between TCU and Kansas, where the coaches agreed to a running clock for the final 12: 49 of the game due to severe thunderstorms approaching Amon G. Carter Stadium.
In a 2013 game, Old Dominion University (ODU) was losing to the University of North Carolina (UNC) 80 -- 20 when ODU coach Bobby Wilder asked for the fourth quarter to be shortened by five minutes, which UNC coach Larry Fedora agreed to. Fedora also directed his quarterback to take a knee on fourth and goal with 1: 53 remaining to not run up the score.
In a 1988 game, Kansas Jayhawks coach Glen Mason asked if a running clock could be used after his team trailed 49 -- 0 at halftime to the Auburn Tigers. Auburn coach Pat Dye and the officials agreed, and Auburn ended up a 56 -- 7 winner.
Despite the NCAA Football Rules Committee 's subsequent ruling (A.R. 3 - 2 - 2 - I) that a "running clock '' is not permitted, a continuous clock was used September 5, 2013, beginning in the fourth quarter when the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets had a 63 -- 0 lead against the Elon Phoenix. That was at the request of Elon coach Jason Swepson and agreed upon by Georgia Tech coach Paul Johnson. Georgia Tech won the game 70 -- 0.
However, in the Mississippi Association of Community and Junior Colleges, a running clock is allowed if the team is ahead by 38 points or more. This rule was instituted in 2013.
If a boxer trails by more than 20 points, the referee stops the fight and the boxer that is leading automatically wins; bouts which end this way may be noted as "RSC '' (referee stopped contest) with notations for an outclassed opponent (RSCO), outscored opponent (RSCOS), injury (RSCI) or head injury (RSCH).
While a boxer who loses on the mercy rule is scored RSCO and would be similar to a technical knockout in professional boxing, it is not scored a loss by knockout, and the 28 - day suspension for losing on a knockout does not apply.
International Blind Sports Federation rules require that any time during a game in which one team has scored ten (10) more goals than the other team that game is deemed completed. In US high school soccer, most states use a mercy rule that ends the game if one team is ahead by 10 or more goals at any point from halftime onward. Youth soccer leagues use variations on the rule.
In high school basketball, many states have a "continuous clock '' rule, similar to American football, which takes effect in the second half after a lead grows to a prescribed point (in Iowa, 35 points or more; in Kansas, 30 points or more but only in the fourth quarter). The clock stops only for charged, officials ' or injury time - outs; or at the end of the third quarter. The clock would not stop when would normally stop, such as for fouls, free throws, out - of - bounds plays or substitutions.
The rules vary when normal timing procedures take effect after a lead is diminished (such as because of the trailing team 's rally); for instance, in Iowa, normal timing procedures are enforced if the lead is lowered to 25 points but re-instituted once the lead grows back to 35 or more points. By comparison, in Kansas, if the running clock is triggered, it will not stop except for a timeout or an injury even if the differential is reduced to under 30 points. As with other sports, some states offer provisions to allow a team to end the game early by mutual decision of the coaches (for instance, if a large lead continues to grow and the talent disparity is obvious).
In American collegiate wrestling and high school wrestling, a wrestler wins by technical fall, and the match ends, if he builds a 15 - point lead. If a wrestler gains a 15 - point lead by having his opponent in a near - fall, the referee will allow the offensive wrestler the opportunity to win by fall without liability to be reversed and pinned. The bout ends when a fall is awarded or the near - fall ends.
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who belongs to the central states pension fund | International Brotherhood of Teamsters - Wikipedia
The International Brotherhood of Teamsters (IBT) is a labor union in the United States and Canada. Formed in 1903 by the merger of The Team Drivers International Union and The Teamsters National Union, the union now represents a diverse membership of blue - collar and professional workers in both the public and private sectors. The union had approximately 1.3 million members in 2013. Formerly known as the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America, the IBT is a member of the Change to Win Federation and Canadian Labour Congress.
The American Federation of Labor (AFL) had helped form local unions of teamsters since 1887. In November 1898, the AFL organized the Team Drivers ' International Union (TDIU). In 1901, a group of Teamsters in Chicago, Illinois, broke from the TDIU and formed the Teamsters National Union. Unlike the TDIU, which permitted large employers to be members, the new Teamsters National Union permitted only employees, teamster helpers, and owner - operators owning only a single team to join, and advocated higher wages and shorter hours more aggressively than the TDIU. Claiming more than 28,000 members in 47 locals, its president, Albert Young, applied for membership in the AFL. The AFL asked the TDIU to merge with Young 's union to form a new, AFL - affiliated union and the two groups did so in 1903, forming the International Brotherhood of Teamsters (IBT), and electing Cornelius Shea as the new union 's first president. The election process proved tumultuous. Shea effectively controlled the convention because the Chicago locals -- representing nearly half the IBT 's membership -- supported his candidacy en bloc. Shea was opposed by John Sheridan, president of the Ice Drivers ' Union of Chicago. Sheridan and George Innes, president of the TDIU, accused Shea of embezzlement in an attempt to prevent his election. Shea won the election on August 8, 1903, by a vote of 605 to 480. The new grouping elected Edward L. Turley of Chicago as secretary - treasurer and Albert Young as general organizer.
The union, like most unions within the American Federation of Labor (AFL) at the time, had a largely decentralized structure, with a number of local unions that governed themselves autonomously and tended to look only after their own interests in the geographical jurisdiction in which they operated. The Teamsters were vitally important to the labor movement, for a strike or sympathy strike by the Teamsters could paralyze the movement of goods throughout a city and bring a strike into nearly every neighborhood. It also meant that Teamsters leaders were able to demand bribes in order to avoid strikes, and control of a Teamsters local could bring organized crime significant revenues. During Shea 's presidency, the entire Teamsters union was notoriously corrupt. Noted labor historian John R. Commons famously concluded that during this time, the Teamsters were less a union and more a criminal organization.
Several major strikes occupied the union in its first three years. In November 1903, Teamsters employed by the Chicago City Railway went out on strike. Shea attempted to stop sympathy strikes by other Teamster locals, but three locals walked out and eventually disaffiliated over the sympathy - strike issue. A sympathy strike in support of 18,000 striking meat cutters in Chicago in July 1904 led to riots before the extensive use of strikebreakers led Shea to force his members back to work (leading to the collapse of the meat cutters ' strike). In the midst of the strife in 1904, the Teamsters convention in Cincinnati, Ohio re-elected Shea by acclamation on August 8, 1904. Under his leadership, the union had expanded to nearly 50,000 members in 821 locals in 300 cities, making the Teamsters one of the largest unions in the United States.
In 1905 10,000 Teamsters struck in support of locked - out tailors at Montgomery Ward, and eventually more than 25,000 Teamsters manned the picket lines. But when local newspapers discovered that Shea was living in a local brothel, kept a 19 - year - old waitress as a mistress, and had spent the strike hosting parties, public support for the strike collapsed and the strike ended on August 1, 1905. Despite the revelations, Shea won re-election on August 12, 1905, by a vote of 129 to 121.
Shea was re-elected again in 1905 and 1906, although significant challenges to his presidency occurred each time. Shea 's first trial on charges stemming from the 1905 Montgomery Ward strike ended in a mistrial. However, during the 1906 re-election Shea had promised that he would resign the presidency once his trial had ended. But he did not, and most union members withdrew their support for him. Daniel J. Tobin of Boston was elected Shea 's successor by a vote of 104 to 94 in August 1907.
Historic references to early freight transportation in the US refer to "teamsters '' as those who drove teams of horses pulling huge wagons.
Tobin was president of the Teamsters from 1907 to 1952. Although he faced opposition in his re-election races in 1908, 1909 and 1910, he never faced opposition again until his retirement in 1952.
The Teamsters began to expand dramatically and mature organizationally under Tobin. He pushed for the development of "joint councils '' to which all local unions were forced to affiliate. Varying in geographical and industrial jurisdiction, the joint councils became important incubators for up - and - coming leadership and negotiating master agreements which covered all employers in a given industry. Tobin also actively discouraged strikes in order to bring discipline to the union and encourage employers to sign contracts, and founded and edited the union magazine, the International Teamster. Under Tobin, the Teamsters also first developed the "regional conference '' system (developed by Dave Beck in Seattle), which provided stability, organizing strength, and leadership to the international union.
Tobin undertook long jurisdictional battles with many unions during this period. Fierce disputes occurred between the Teamsters and the Gasoline State Operators ' National Council (an AFL federal union of gas station attendants), the International Longshoremen 's Association, the Retail Clerks International Union, and the Brotherhood of Railway Clerks. The most significant disagreement, however, was with the United Brewery Workers over the right to represent beer wagon drivers. While the Teamsters lost this battle in 1913, when the AFL awarded jurisdiction to the Brewers, they won when the issue came before the AFL Executive Board again in 1933, when the Brewers were still recovering from their near - elimination during Prohibition. The raids and new member organizing in the 1930s led to significant membership increases. Teamster membership stood at just 82,000 in 1932. Tobin took advantage of the wave of pro-union sentiment engendered by the passage of the National Industrial Recovery Act, and by 1935 union membership had increased nearly 65 percent to 135,000. By 1941, Tobin had a dues - paying membership of 530,000 -- making the Teamsters the fastest - growing labor union in the United States.
One of the most significant events in union history occurred in 1934. A group of radicals in Local 574 in Minneapolis -- led by Farrell Dobbs, Carl Skoglund, and the Dunne brothers (Ray, Miles and Grant), all members of the Trotskyist Communist League of America -- began successfully organizing coal truck drivers in the winter of 1933. Tobin, an ardent anti-communist, opposed their efforts and refused to support their 1933 strike. Local 574 struck again in 1934, leading to several riots over a nine - day period in May. When the employers ' association reneged on the agreement, Local 574 resumed the strike, although it ended again after nine days when martial law was declared by Governor Floyd B. Olson. Although Local 574 won a contract recognizing the union and which broke the back of the anti-union Citizens Alliance in Minneapolis, Tobin expelled Local 574 from the Teamsters. Member outrage was extensive, and in August 1936 he was forced to recharter the local as 544. Within a year the newly formed Local 544 had organized 250,000 truckers in the Midwest and formed the Central Conference of Teamsters.
Extensive organizing also occurred in the West. Harry Bridges, radical leader of the International Longshoremen 's and Warehousemen 's Union (ILWU), was leading "the march inland '' -- an attempt to organize warehouse workers away from shipping ports. Alarmed by Bridges ' radical politics and worried that the ILWU would encroach on Teamster jurisdictions, Dave Beck formed a large regional organization (the Western Conference of Teamsters) to engage in fierce organizing battles and membership raids against the ILWU which led to the establishment of many new locals and the organization of tens of thousands of new members.
But corruption became even more widespread in the Teamsters during the Tobin administration. By 1941, the union was considered the most corrupt in the United States, and the most abusive towards its own members. Tobin vigorously defended the union against such accusations, but also instituted many constitutional and organizational changes and practices which made it easier for union officials to engage in criminal offenses.
By the beginning of World War II, the Teamsters was one of the most powerful unions in the country, and Teamster leaders influential in the corridors of power. Union membership had risen more than 390 percent between 1935 and 1941 to 530,000. In June 1940, President Franklin Roosevelt appointed IBT President Daniel J. Tobin to be the official White House liaison to organized labor, and later that year chair of the Labor Division of the Democratic National Committee. In 1942, President Roosevelt appointed Tobin special representative to the United Kingdom and charged him with investigating the state of the labor movement there. Tobin was considered three times for Secretary of Labor, and twice refused the post -- in 1943 and 1947. On September 23, 1944, Roosevelt gave his famous "Fala speech '' while campaigning in the 1944 presidential election. Because of Roosevelt 's strong relationship with Tobin and the union 's large membership, the President delivered his speech before the Teamster convention.
Nonetheless, Teamsters members were restive. Dissident members of the union accused the leadership of suppressing democracy in the union, a charge President Tobin angrily denied. Over the next year, Tobin cracked down on dissidents and trusted several large locals led by his political opponents.
During World War II, The Teamsters strongly endorsed the American labor movement 's no - strike pledge. The Teamsters agreed to cease raiding other unions and not strike for the duration of the national emergency. President Tobin even ordered Teamsters members to cross picket lines put up by other unions. Nevertheless, the national leadership sanctioned strikes by Midwestern truckers in August 1942, Southern truckers in October 1943, and brewery workers and milk delivery drivers in January 1945. The Teamsters did not, however, participate in the great post-war wave of labor strikes. In the two years following the cessation of hostilities, the Teamsters struck only three times: 10,000 truckers in New Jersey struck for two weeks; workers at UPS struck nationwide for three weeks; and workers at Railway Express Agency struck for almost a month.
Teamsters leaders strongly opposed enactment of the Taft - Hartley Act and repeatedly called for its repeal. President Tobin, however, was one of the first labor leaders to sign the non-communist affidavit required by the law.
The great wave of organizing which the union engaged in during the Great Depression and the war significantly boosted the political power of a number of regional Teamsters leaders, and the leadership of the union engaged in a number of power struggles in the post-war period. By 1949, the union 's membership had topped one million. Dave Beck (elected an international vice-president in 1940) was increasingly influential in the international union, and Tobin attempted to check his growing power but failed. In 1946, Beck successfully overcame Tobin 's opposition and won approval of an amendment to the union 's constitution creating the post of executive vice-president. Beck then won the 1947 election to fill the position. Beck also successfully opposed in 1947 a Tobin - backed dues increase to fund new organizing. The following year, Beck was able to demand the ouster of the editor of International Teamster magazine and install his own man in the job.
In 1948, Beck allied with his long - time rival Jimmy Hoffa and effectively seized control of the union. He announced a raid on the International Association of Machinists local at Boeing. Although President Dan Tobin publicly repudiated Beck 's actions, Beck had more than enough support from Hoffa and other members of the executive board to force Tobin to back down. Five months later, Beck won approval of a plan to dissolve the union 's four divisions and replace them with 16 divisions organized around each of the major job categories in the union 's membership. In 1951, Tom Hickey, reformist leader of the Teamsters in New York City, won election to the Teamsters executive board. Tobin needed Beck 's support to prevent Hickey 's election, and Beck refused to give it.
On September 4, 1952, Tobin announced he would step down as president of the Teamsters at the end of his term. At the union 's 1952 convention, Beck was elected General President and pushed through a number of changes intended to make it harder for a challenger to build the necessary majority to unseat a president or reject his policies.
Beck was elected to the Executive Council of the AFL on August 13, 1953, but his election generated a tremendous political battle between AFL President George Meany, who supported his election, and federation vice presidents who felt Beck was corrupt and should not be elected to the post. Beck was the first Teamster president to negotiate a nationwide master contract and a national grievance arbitration plan, established organizing drives in the Deep South and the East, and built the current Teamsters headquarters (the "Marble Palace '') in Washington, D.C. on Louisiana Avenue NW (across a small plaza from the United States Senate). But his intervention in a construction and a milk strike (both centered on New York City), and refusal to intervene in a Northeastern trucking strike created major political problems for him. Perceiving Beck to be weak, Jimmy Hoffa began challenging Beck on various union decisions and policies in 1956 with an eye to unseating him as General President in the regularly scheduled union elections in 1957.
Infiltration by organized crime dominated the agenda of the Teamsters throughout the 1950s. The Teamsters had suffered from extensive corruption since its formation in 1903. Although the more extreme, public forms of corruption had been eliminated after General President Cornelius Shea was removed from office, the extent of corruption and control by organized crime increased during General President Tobin 's time in office (1907 to 1952). In 1929, the Teamsters and unions in Chicago even approached gangster Roger Touhy and asked for his protection from Al Capone and his Chicago Outfit, which were seeking to control the area 's unions. Evidence of widespread corruption within the Teamsters began emerging shortly after Tobin retired. In Kansas City, corrupt Teamsters locals spent years seeking bribes, embezzling money, and engaging in extensive extortion and labor rackets as well as beatings, vandalism and even bombings in an attempt to control the construction and trucking industries. The problem was so serious that the U.S. House of Representatives held hearings on the issue.
Hoffa 's attempt to challenge Beck caused a major national scandal which led to two Congressional investigations, several indictments for fraud and other crimes against Beck and Hoffa, strict new federal legislation and regulations regarding labor unions, and even helped launch the political career of Robert F. Kennedy. Believing he needed additional votes to unseat Beck, in October 1956 mobster Johnny Dio met with Hoffa in New York City and the two men conspired to create as many as 15 paper locals to boost Hoffa 's delegate totals. When the paper locals applied for charters from the international union, Hoffa 's political foes were outraged. A major battle broke out within the Teamsters over whether to charter the locals, and the media attention led to inquiries by the U.S. Department of Justice and the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the U.S. Senate Committee on Government Operations. Beck and other Teamster leaders challenged the authority of the U.S. Senate to investigate the union, which caused the Senate to establish the Select Committee on Improper Activities in Labor and Management -- a new committee with broad subpeona and investigative powers. Senator John L. McClellan, chair of the select committee, hired Robert F. Kennedy as the subcommittee 's chief counsel and investigator.
The Select Committee (also known as the McClellan Committee, after its chairman), exposed widespread corruption in the Teamsters union. Dave Beck fled the country for a month to avoid its subpoenas before returning. Four of the paper locals were dissolved to avoid committee scrutiny, several Teamster staffers were charged with contempt of Congress, and union records were lost or destroyed (allegedly on purpose), and wiretaps were played in public before a national television audience in which Dio and Hoffa discussed the creation of even more paper locals. Evidence was unearthed of a mob - sponsored plot in which Oregon Teamsters unions would seize control of the state legislature, state police, and state attorney general 's office through bribery, extortion and blackmail. Initially, members of the union did not believe the charges, and support for Beck was strong, but after three months of continuous allegations of wrongdoing many rank - and - file Teamsters withdrew their support and openly called for Beck to resign. Beck initially refused to address the allegations, but broke his silence and denounced the committee 's inquiry on March 6. But even as the committee conducted its investigation, the Teamsters chartered even more paper locals. In mid-March 1957, Jimmy Hoffa was arrested for allegedly trying to bribe a Senate aide. Hoffa denied the charges, but the arrest triggered additional investigations and more arrests and indictments over the following weeks. A week later, Beck admitted to receiving an interest - free $300,000 loan from the Teamsters which he had never repaid, and Senate investigators claimed that loans to Beck and other union officials (and their businesses) had cost the union more than $700,000. Beck appeared before the select committee for the first time on March 25, 1957, and invoked his Fifth Amendment right against self - incrimination 117 times. The McClellan Committee turned its focus to Hoffa and other Teamsters officials, and presented testimony and evidence alleging widespread corruption in Hoffa - controlled Teamster units.
Several historic legal developments came out of the select committee 's investigation. The scandals uncovered by the McClellan committee, which affected not only the Teamsters but several other unions, led directly to the passage of the Labor - Management Reporting and Disclosure Act (also known as the Landrum - Griffin Act) in 1959. The right of union officials to exercise their Fifth Amendment rights was upheld and a significant refinement of constitutional law made when the U.S. Supreme Court reaffirmed the right of union officials to not divulge the location of union records in Curcio v. United States, 354 U.S. 118 (1957).
Rank - and - file anger over the McClellan Committee 's revelations eventually led Beck to retire from the Teamsters and allowed Jimmy Hoffa to take over. Immediately after his testimony in late March 1957, Beck won approval from the union 's executive board to establish a $1 million fund to defend himself and the union from the committee 's allegations. But member outrage at the expenditure was significant, and permission to establish the fund rescinded. Member anger continued to grow throughout the spring, and Beck 's majority support on the executive board vanished. Beck was called before the McClellan Committee again in early May 1957, and additional interest - free loans and other potentially illegal and unethical financial transactions exposed. Based on these revelations, Beck was indicted for tax evasion on May 2, 1957.
Beck 's legal troubles led him to retire and Hoffa to win election to the union presidency. Support for Beck among the membership evaporated. Beck announced on May 25 he would not run for re-election in October. The announcement created chaos among the union leadership, and despite additional indictments Hoffa announced he would seek the presidency on July 19. Rank - and - file support for Hoffa was strong, although there were some attempts to organize an opposition candidate. Hoffa 's opponents asked a federal judge to postpone the election, but the request was granted only temporarily and Hoffa was duly elected General President of the union on October 4, 1957. Beck offered to retire early to allow Hoffa to take control of the union in December. A federal district court barred Hoffa from taking power unless he was acquitted in his wiretapping trial. The ruling was upheld by a court of appeals, but the trial ended in a hung jury on December 19, 1957, and Hoffa assumed the presidency on February 1, 1958.
The worsening corruption scandal led the AFL - CIO to eject the Teamsters. AFL - CIO President George Meany, worried that corruption scandals plaguing a number of unions at the time might lead to harsh regulation of unions or even the withdrawal of federal labor law protection, began an anti-corruption drive in April 1956. New rules were enacted by the labor federation 's executive council that provided for the removal of vice presidents engaged in corruption as well as the ejection of unions considered corrupt. The McClellan Committee 's investigation only worsened the dispute between the AFL - CIO and the Teamsters. In January 1957, the AFL - CIO proposed a new rule which would bar officers of the federation from continuing to hold office if they exercised their Fifth Amendment rights in a corruption investigation. Beck opposed the new rule, but the Ethical Practices Committee of AFL - CIO instituted the rule on January 31, 1957. The Teamsters were given 90 days to reform, but Beck retaliated by promising more raids on AFL - CIO member unions if the union was ousted. Beck 's opposition prompted a successful move by Meany to remove Beck from AFL - CIO executive council on grounds of corruption. After extensive hearings and appeals which lasted from July to September 1957, the AFL - CIO voted on September 25, 1957, to eject the Teamsters if the union did not institute reforms within 30 days. Beck refused to institute any reforms, and the election of Jimmy Hoffa (whom the AFL - CIO considered as corrupt as Beck) led the labor federation to suspend the Teamsters union on October 24, 1957. Meany offered to keep the Teamsters within the AFL - CIO if Hoffa resigned as president, but Hoffa refused and the formal expulsion occurred on December 6, 1957.
The Teamsters were not the only corrupt union in the AFL - CIO by any means. Another was the International Longshoremen 's Association (ILA), which represented stevedores in most East Coast ports. The Teamsters had long desired to bring all shipping and transportation workers into the union, so that no product could be moved anywhere in the U.S. without it being touched by Teamsters hands. As the ILA came under increasing attack for permitting corruption in its locals, President Beck sought to bring the ILA into the Teamsters. The AFL ousted the ILA in September 1953, and formed the International Brotherhood of Longshoremen - AFL (IBL - AFL) to represent longshoremen on the Great Lakes and East Coast. The Teamsters planned to raid the expelled union, and may even have hoped to seize control of the IBL - AFL. Beck undertook a campaign to bring the ILA back into the AFL in early 1955, but the election of mob associate Anthony "Tough Tony '' Anastasio as an ILA vice president forced Beck to end the effort. But even as Beck backed away from any ILA deal, Jimmy Hoffa secretly negotiated a major package of financial and staff aid to the ILA and then went public with the deal -- forcing Beck to accept it as a fait accompli or risk embarrassing Hoffa. The AFL - CIO threatened to expel the Teamsters if it aided the ILA. Beck fought Hoffa over the ILA aid package and won, withdrawing the offer to the ILA in the spring of 1956.
The ILA was not the only union the Teamsters sought to merge with. The union attempted to merge with the Mine, Mill & Smelter Workers in 1955, but the effort failed. The union also sought a merger with the Brewery Workers, but the smaller union rejected the offer. When the overture failed, the Teamsters raided the Brewery Workers, leading to fierce protests by the CIO.
Raiding by the Teamsters was such a serious issue that it prompted the AFL and CIO, which had attempted to sign a no - raid agreement for years, to finally negotiate and implement such a pact in December 1953. President Beck initially refused to sign the agreement, and threatened to take the Teamsters out of the AFL if forced to adhere to it. Three months after the pact was signed, the Teamsters agreed to submit to the terms of the no - raid agreement. Shortly thereafter, the AFL adopted Article 20 of its constitution, which prevented its member unions from raiding one another. The union 's affection for raiding led it to initially oppose the AFL - CIO merger in January 1955, but it quickly reversed itself.
Hoffa achieved his goal of unifying all freight drivers under a single collective bargaining agreement, the National Master Freight Agreement, in 1964. Hoffa used the grievance procedures of the agreement, which authorized selective strikes against particular employers, to police the agreement or, if Hoffa thought that it served the union 's interest, to drive marginal employers out of the industry. The union won substantial gains for its members, fostering a nostalgic image of the Hoffa era as the golden age for Teamster drivers. Hoffa also succeeded where Tobin had failed, concentrating power at the international level, dominating the conferences which Beck and Dobbs had helped build.
In addition, Hoffa was instrumental in using the assets of the Teamsters ' pension plans, particularly the Central States plan, to support Mafia projects, such as the development of Las Vegas in the 1950s and 1960s. Pension funds were loaned to finance Las Vegas casinos such as the Stardust Resort & Casino, the Fremont Hotel & Casino, the Desert Inn, the Dunes (hotel and casino) (which was controlled by Hoffa 's attorney, Morris Shenker), the Four Queens, the Aladdin Hotel & Casino, Circus Circus, and Caesars Palace. The pension fund also made a number of loans to associates and relatives of high - ranking Teamster officials. A close associate of Hoffa during this period was Allen Dorfman. Dorfman owned an insurance agency that provided insurance claims processing to the Teamsters ' union, and which was the subject of an investigation by the McClellan Committee. Dorfman also had increasing influence over loans made by the Teamsters ' pension fund, and after Hoffa went to prison in 1967, Dorfman had primary control over the fund. Dorfman was murdered in January 1983, shortly after his conviction, along with Teamsters ' president Roy Lee Williams, in a bribery case.
Hoffa was, moreover, defiantly unwilling to reform the union or limit his own power in response to the attacks from Robert F. Kennedy, formerly chief counsel to the McClellan Committee, then Attorney General. Kennedy 's Department of Justice tried to convict Hoffa for a variety of offenses over the 1960s, finally succeeding on a witness tampering charge in 1964, with key testimony provided by Teamsters business agent Edward Grady Partin of Baton Rouge, Louisiana. After exhausting his appeals, Hoffa entered prison in 1967.
Hoffa installed Frank Fitzsimmons, an associate from his days in Local 299 in Detroit, to hold his place for him while he served time. Fitzsimmons, however, began to enjoy the exercise of power in Hoffa 's absence; in addition, the organized crime figures around him found that he was more pliant than Hoffa had been. While President Nixon 's pardon barred Hoffa from resuming any role in the Teamsters until 1980, Hoffa challenged the legality of that condition and planned to run again for presidency of the union, but disappeared in 1975 under mysterious circumstances. He is presumed dead, although his body has never been found.
Under General President Frank Fitzsimmons, authority within the Teamsters was decentralized back into the hands of regional, joint council, and local leaders. While this helped solidify Fitzsimmons ' own political position in the union, it also made it more difficult for the union to act decisively on policy issues. Fitzsimmons also moved the union 's political stands slowly to the left, supporting universal health care, an immediate end to the Vietnam War, urban renewal, and community organizing. In 1968, Fitzsimmons and United Auto Workers President Walter Reuther formed the Alliance for Labor Action, a new national trade union center which competed with the AFL - CIO. The Alliance dissolved in 1972 after Reuther 's death. While the Teamsters won rich national master contracts in trucking and package delivery in the 1970s, it did little to adapt to the changes occurring in the transportation industry.
A major jurisdictional battle with the United Farm Workers (UFW) broke out in 1970, and did not end until 1977. The Teamsters and UFW had both claimed jurisdiction over farm workers for many years, and in 1967 had signed an agreement settling their differences. But decentralization of power within the union led several Teamster leaders in California to repudiate this agreement without Fitzsimmons ' permission and organize large numbers of field workers. His hand forced, Fitzsimmons ordered Teamsters contract negotiators to re-open the handful of contracts it had signed with California growers. The UFW sued, the AFL - CIO condemned the action, and many employers negotiated contracts with the Teamsters rather than with the UFW. The Teamsters subsequently signed contracts (which many denounced as sweetheart deals) with more than 375 California growers. Although an agreement giving UFW jurisdiction over field workers and the Teamsters jurisdiction over packing and warehouse workers was reached on September 27, 1973, Fitzsimmons reneged on the agreement within a month and moved ahead with forming a farm workers regional union in California. The organizing battles even became violent at times. By 1975, the UFW had won 24 elections and the Teamsters 14; UFW membership had plummeted to just 6,000 from nearly 70,000 while the Teamsters farmworker division counted 55,000 workers. The UFW signed an agreement with Fitzsimmons in March 1977 in which the UFW agreed to seek to organize only those workers covered by the California Agricultural Labor Relations Act, while the Teamsters retained jurisdiction over some agricultural workers, who had been covered by Teamsters Local Union contracts prior to the formation of the UFW.
In October 1973, Fitzsimmons ended the long - running jurisdictional dispute with the United Brewery Workers, and the Brewery Workers merged with the Teamsters.
In 1979 Congress passed legislation that deregulated the freight industry, removing the Interstate Commerce Commission 's power to impose detailed regulatory tariffs on interstate carriers. The union tried to fight deregulation by attempting to bribe Senator Howard Cannon of Nevada. That attempt not only failed, but resulted in the conviction in 1982 of Roy Williams, the General President who had succeeded Fitzsimmons in 1981. Williams subsequently resigned in 1983 as a condition of remaining free on bail while his appeal proceeded.
Deregulation had catastrophic effects on the Teamsters, opening up the industry to competition from non-union companies who sought to cut costs by avoiding unionization and curbing wages. Nearly 200 unionized carriers went out of business in the first few years of deregulation, leaving thirty percent of Teamsters in the freight division unemployed. The remaining unionized carriers demanded concessions in wages, work rules, and hours.
Williams ' successor, Jackie Presser, was prepared to grant most of these concessions in the form of a special freight "relief rider '' that would cut wages by up to 35 percent and establish two - tier wages. Teamsters for a Democratic Union, which had grown out of efforts to reject the 1976 freight agreement, launched a successful national campaign to defeat the relief rider, which was defeated by a vote of 94,086 to 13,082.
The pressure on the freight industry and the national freight agreement continued, however. By the end of the 1990s the National Master Freight Agreement, which had covered 500,000 drivers in the late 1970s, dropped to fewer than 200,000, with numerous local riders weakening it further in some areas.
The decline in working conditions in the freight industry, combined with long - simmering unhappiness among members employed by the United Parcel Service, led to the development of two nationwide dissident groups within the union in the 1980s: Teamsters for a Democratic Union (TDU), an assemblage of a number of local efforts, and the Professional Drivers Council, better known as PROD, which began as a public interest group affiliated with Ralph Nader that was concerned with worker safety. The two groups merged in 1979.
TDU was able to win some local offices within the union, although the International Union often attempted to make those victories meaningless by marginalizing the officer or the union. TDU acquired greater prominence, however, with the election reforms forced on the union by the consent decree it had entered into in 1989 on the eve of trial on a suit brought by the federal government under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO).
The decree required the direct election of International officers by the membership, as TDU had been demanding for years leading up to the decree, to replace the indirect election by delegates at the union 's convention. While the delegates at the union 's 1991 convention balked at amending the Constitution, they ultimately capitulated under pressure from the government.
That consent decree might not have been possible, however, if it had not been for the testimony of Roy Williams, who described, in an affidavit he gave the government in return for a delay of his imprisonment, his own dealings with organized crime as the Secretary - Treasurer of a local union in Kansas City and as an officer of the International Union. The decree also gave the government the power to install an Independent Review Board with the power to expel any member of the union for "conduct unbecoming to the union '', which the IRB proceeded to exercise far more aggressively than the Teamsters officials who had agreed to the decree had expected.
While the government was pursuing a civil case against the union as an entity it was also indicting Presser, who had succeeded Williams as General President, for embezzling from two different local unions in Cleveland prior to his election as President. Presser resigned in 1988, but died before his trial was scheduled to begin. He was succeeded by William J. McCarthy, who came from the same local that Dan Tobin had led eighty years earlier.
The Independent Review Board (IRB) is a three - member panel established to investigate and take appropriate action with respect to "any allegations of corruption, '' "any allegations of domination or control or influence '' of any part of the Union by organized crime, and any failure to cooperate fully with the IRB.
In 1991, Ron Carey won a surprising victory in the first direct election for General President in the union 's history, defeating two "old guard '' candidates, R.V. Durham and Walter Shea. Carey 's slate, supported by TDU, also won nearly all of the seats on the International Executive Board.
Carey acquired a fair amount of influence within the AFL - CIO, which had readmitted the Teamsters in 1985. Carey was close with the new leadership elected in 1995, particularly Richard Trumka of the United Mine Workers of America, who became Secretary - Treasurer of the AFL - CIO under John Sweeney. Carey had also swung the Teamsters support behind the Democratic Party, a change from past administrations that had supported the Republican Party. The new administration set out to break from the past in other ways, making energetic efforts to head off a vote to oust the union as representative of Northwest Airlines ' flight attendants, negotiating a breakthrough agreement covering carhaulers, and supporting local strikes, such as the one against Diamond Walnut, to restore the union 's strength.
The Carey administration did not, on the other hand, have much power in the lower reaches of the Teamster hierarchy: all of the large regional conferences were run by "old guard '' officers, as were most of the locals. Disagreements between those two camps led the old guard to campaign against the Carey administration 's proposed dues increase; the Carey administration retaliated by dissolving the regional conferences, calling them expensive redundancies and fiefdoms for old guard union officers. and rearranging the boundaries of some joint councils that had fought against the dues increase.
The opposition responded by uniting around a single candidate, James P. Hoffa, son of James R. Hoffa, to run against Carey in 1996. Hoffa ran a strong campaign, trading on the mystique still attached to his late father 's name and promising to restore those days of glory. Carey appeared, however, to have won a close election.
Shortly afterward in 1997, the union initiated a large and successful strike against UPS. The parcel services department by that time had become the largest division in the union.
Carey was removed from the union 's leadership by the IRB shortly thereafter, when evidence that individuals in his office had arranged for transfer of several thousand dollars to an outside contractor, which then arranged for another entity to make an equivalent contribution to the Carey campaign. Carey was indicted for lying to investigators about his campaign funding but was acquitted of all charges in a 2001 trial.
In the 1998 election to succeed Carey, James P. Hoffa was elected handily. He became president of the Teamsters on March 19, 1999, and took the union in a more moderate direction, tempering the union 's support for Democrats and attempting to come to terms with powerful Republicans in Congress.
The union has merged in recent years with a number of unions from other industries, including the Graphic Communications International Union, a printing industry union, and the Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employes and Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, both from the railway industry.
On July 25, 2005, the Teamsters disaffiliated from the AFL - CIO and became a founding member of the new national trade union center, the Change to Win Federation.
In 2009, UPS, many employees of which are members of the Teamsters, lobbied to have language added to the FAA Reauthorization Act of 2009 (H.R. 915) to change how UPS and FedEx compete with one another. In response, FedEx launched a large, online advertising campaign aimed at UPS and the Teamsters, called ' Stop the Brown Bailout '.
Prior to the 1970s, no long - lived caucuses existed within the Teamsters union. Challengers for office ran on their personal appeal and individual power base, rather than on caucus or "party '' platforms and such challenges were infrequent. The Teamster leadership was well - established and somewhat self - perpetuating, and challengers only rarely achieved victories at the local and (even less frequently) regional levels. This changed in the 1970s. A national wildcat strike challenged President Frank Fitzsimmons ' control over the union, but failed. After the strike, a reform movement known as "Teamsters United Rank and File '' (TURF) formed to continue to challenge against the union 's national leadership. But TURF collapsed after a few years due to internal dissent. In 1975, two new caucuses formed: Teamsters for a Decent Contract (TDC) and UPSurge. Both groups pushed the national leadership for a vastly improved contract at the UPS freight and shipping company.
In 1976 a new formal caucus, Teamsters for a Democratic Union (TDU), formed when TDC and UPSurge merged. The new caucus ' goal was to make internal Teamster governance more transparent and democratic, which included giving rank - and - file more of a say in the terms and approval of contracts.
In the 1980s, TDU occasionally won elections for positions on local councils, but it was not until 1983 -- when the TDU forced President Jackie Presser to withdraw and make changes to a concession - laden National Master Freight Agreement -- that TDU had a national impact. TDU publicized the very centralized and not very transparent national union decision - making process, criticized what it said was lack of member input into these decisions, and published contract, salary, membership, and other data critical of the national union leadership. These criticisms led to another success for TDU, with many TDU proposals finding their way into the 1988 court decree in which the federal government took over of the Teamsters. Although the TDU has never won the presidency of the national union as of mid-2013, it strongly supported Ron Carey for the presidency in 1991. Carey, in turn, adopted many of TDU 's reform proposals as part of his platform. Carey ran with nearly a full slate (which included a candidate for secretary - treasurer and 13 vice presidencies). R.V. Durham, leader of the Teamsters in North Carolina, was considered the "establishment '' candidate and front - runner in the campaign (he had the backing of a majority of the union 's executive board). A second candidate in the race, Walter Shea, was a veteran union staffer from Washington, D.C. Carey won with 48.5 percent of the vote to Durham 's 33.2 percent and Shea 's 18.3 percent. (Turnout was low, only about 32 percent of the union 's total membership.) Carey 's election, sociologist Charlotte Ryan says, was another success for TDU (even though Carey was not a TDU candidate).
Carey won re-election in 1996 in a corrupt election, defeating James P. Hoffa (son of the former union president). Prior to entering the race, Hoffa formed a caucus of his own, the "Hoffa Unity Slate '', to counter the grassroots organizing of TDU and Carey. Carey was later ousted as union president by U.S. government officials. A re-run election in 1998 saw Hoffa and the Unity Slate easily defeat TDU candidate Tom Leedham 54.5 percent to 39.3 percent (with 28 percent turnout).
Hoffa was re-elected over Leedham (again running on the TDU platform) in 2001, 64.8 percent to 35.2 percent. Leedham challenged Hoffa and the Hoffa Unity Slate a third time in 2006, losing 65 percent to 35 percent (with 25 percent turnout). Hoffa faced TDU candidate Sandy Pope, a local union president, in 2011. Also running, with a full slate of officer and vice presidential candidates, was former Hoffa supporter and former national vice president Fred Gegare. Hoffa again easily won re-election, earning 60 percent of the vote to Gregare 's 23 percent and Pope 's 17 percent. The Hoffa Unity Slate also won all five regional vice presidencies, although the slate 's support declined across the board. Hoffa won reelection once more in 2016, this time against Teamsters United candidate Fred Zuckerman, but by a much narrower margin of 52 to 48 percent. The 2016 election was also the first time Hoffa - allied candidates lost regional vice presidencies to the Teamsters United reform slate.
The Teamsters Union is one of the largest labor unions in the world, as well as the 11th largest campaign contributor in the United States. While they supported Republicans Ronald Reagan and George H.W. Bush for President in the 1980s, they have begun leaning largely toward the Democrats in recent years; they have donated 92 % of their $24,418,589 in contributions since 1990 to the Democratic Party. Though the union opposed former President George W. Bush 's agenda to open US highways to Mexican truckers, it did previously support Bush 's platform for oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. On July 23, 2008, however, Hoffa announced the union 's withdrawal from the coalition favoring drilling there. Speaking before environmentalists and union leaders assembled to discuss good jobs and clean air, Hoffa said, "We are not going to drill our way out of the energy problems we are facing -- not here and not in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. ''
The Teamsters Union endorsed Barack Obama for the 2008 Democratic Nomination on February 20, 2008.
In the 2016 Presidential Election, the Teamsters endorsed Hillary Clinton on August 26, 2016.
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when was the last person executed in north carolina | List of people executed in North Carolina - wikipedia
There have been 43 executions in North Carolina, under the current statute, since it was adopted in 1977. All were for murder and were performed using lethal injection, except those indicated with a * which were performed using gas inhalation.
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list of 2016 bollywood films hit or flop | List of Bollywood films of 1990 - wikipedia
A list of films produced by the Bollywood film industry based in Mumbai in 1970:
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everything gonna be alright album bob marley | Everything 's Gonna Be Alright - wikipedia
Everything 's Gonna Be Alright may refer to:
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what day is national ice cream day on | National Ice Cream Month - Wikipedia
National Ice Cream Month is celebrated each year in July and National Ice Cream Day is celebrated on the third Sunday in July, in the United States.
The celebrations were originated by Joint resolution 298, which was sponsored by Senator Walter Dee Huddleston of Kentucky on May 17, 1984. The resolution proclaimed the month of July 1984 as "National Ice Cream Month '' and July 15, 1984, as "National Ice Cream Day ''. It was signed into public law by President Ronald Reagan on July 9, 1984 with Presidential Proclamation 5219.
Even though the resolution only mentioned a specific month and day in 1984, the celebrations have held up in the years ever since, publicized by ice cream manufacturers.
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The Ninth Gate is a 1999 mystery thriller film directed, produced, and co-written by Roman Polanski. An international co-production between the United States, Portugal, France, and Spain, the film is loosely based upon Arturo Pérez - Reverte 's 1993 novel The Club Dumas. The plot involves the search for a rare and ancient book that purportedly contains a magical secret for summoning the Devil. The premiere showing was at San Sebastián, Spain, on 25 August 1999, a month before the 47th San Sebastian International Film Festival. Though critically and commercially unsuccessful in North America, where reviewers compared it unfavorably with Polanski 's celebrated supernatural film Rosemary 's Baby (1968), The Ninth Gate earned a worldwide gross of $58.4 million against a $38 million budget.
Dean Corso (Johnny Depp), a New York City rare book dealer, makes his living conning people into selling him valuable antique books for a low price, and then re-selling them to private collectors. Corso meets with wealthy book collector Boris Balkan (Frank Langella), who has recently acquired a copy of the (fictional) book The Nine Gates of the Kingdom of Shadows by 17th - century author Aristide Torchia, one of only three extant copies. The book is an adaptation of one written by the Devil himself and purportedly contains the means to summon the Devil and acquire invincibility and immortality. Balkan believes two of the copies are forgeries. He hires Corso to check all three and acquire the legitimate one by any means necessary.
Balkan 's copy was acquired from Andrew Telfer (Willy Holt), who killed himself soon after. Telfer 's widow Liana (Lena Olin) seduces Corso, in a failed attempt to get the book back. Meanwhile, Corso leaves the book for safekeeping with bookseller Bernie Rothstein (James Russo), who is then murdered; his corpse is found posed like an engraving in The Nine Gates.
Corso travels to Toledo, Spain. The Ceniza brothers, book restorers, show him that three of the engravings are signed "LCF ''. Corso deduces that Lucifer himself designed and cut them. Corso travels to Sintra, Portugal, to compare Victor Fargas ' (Jack Taylor) copy of the book to Balkan 's. To Corso 's surprise, he discovers that the signature "LCF '' is found in three different engravings, which vary in small but significant details from the images in the Balkan copy. The next morning, a mysterious young woman (identified only as "the Girl '') (Emmanuelle Seigner) who appears to have been shadowing Corso since Balkan hired him, awakens Corso and leads him to Fargas ' house. He finds the old man murdered and the "LCF '' - signed engravings ripped out of that copy.
In Paris, Corso visits the Baroness Kessler (Barbara Jefford), who owns the third copy. At first, the Baroness refuses to cooperate, but Corso intrigues her with evidence that the engravings differ among the three copies. He explains his idea: each copy contains three different "LCF '' - signed engravings, therefore all three copies are required for the ritual. Corso finds "LCF '' on three different engravings in the Baroness 's book, confirming his theory.
Kessler is killed, and the Girl rescues Corso from Liana 's bodyguard. When Liana steals Balkan 's copy from Corso 's hotel room, he follows her, and witnesses her using the book in a Satanist ceremony. Balkan suddenly interrupts the ceremony, kills Liana, and leaves with the engraved pages and his own intact copy.
Corso pursues Balkan to a remote castle, depicted in one of the engravings, and finds Balkan preparing the final ritual. After a struggle, Balkan traps Corso in a hole in the floor. Balkan performs his summoning ritual: he arranges the engravings on a makeshift altar, and recites a series of phrases related to each of the nine engravings. Balkan then douses the floor and himself with gasoline and sets it alight, believing himself to be immune to suffering. Balkan 's invocation fails, and he screams in pain as the flames engulf him. Corso frees himself, kills Balkan, takes the engravings, and escapes.
Outside, the Girl appears and has sex with him by the light of the burning castle. She tells him that Balkan failed because the ninth engraving he had used was a forgery. On her suggestion, Corso returns to the Ceniza brothers ' now vacant shop. By chance, he finds there the authentic ninth engraving. On it, there is a likeness of the Girl. With the last engraving in hand, Corso returns to the castle. He completes the ritual and crosses through the Ninth Gate into the light.
Roman Polanski read the screenplay by Enrique Urbizu, an adaptation of the Spanish novel El Club Dumas (The Club Dumas, 1993), by Arturo Pérez - Reverte. Impressed with the script, Polanski read the novel, liking it because he "saw so many elements that seemed good for a movie. It was suspenseful, funny, and there were a great number of secondary characters that are tremendously cinematic ''. Pérez - Reverte 's novel, El Club Dumas features intertwined plots, so Polanski wrote his own adaptation with his usual partner, John Brownjohn (Tess, Pirates and Bitter Moon). They deleted the novel 's literary references and a sub-plot about Corso 's investigation of an original manuscript of a chapter of The Three Musketeers and concentrated upon Dean Corso 's pursuing the authentic copy of The Nine Gates.
Polanski approached the subject skeptically, saying, "I do n't believe in the occult. I do n't believe. Period. '' Yet he enjoyed the genre. "There (are) a great number of clichés of this type in The Ninth Gate, which I tried to turn around a bit. You can make them appear serious on the surface, but you can not help but laugh at them. '' The appeal of the film was that it featured "a mystery in which a book is the leading character '' and its engravings "are also essential clues ''.
In reading El Club Dumas, Polanski pictured Johnny Depp as "Dean Corso '', who joined the production as early as 1997, when he met Polanski at the Cannes Film Festival, while promoting The Brave, his directorial debut, then in festival competition. Initially, he did not think Depp right as "Corso '', because the character was forty years old (Depp at the time was only 34). He considered an older actor, but Depp persisted; he wanted to work with Roman Polanski.
The film press reported, around the time of the North American release of The Ninth Gate, creative friction between Depp and Polanski. Depp said, "It 's the director 's job to push, to provoke things out of an actor ''. Polanski said of Depp, "He decided to play it rather flat, which was n't how I envisioned it; and I did n't tell him it was n't how I saw it ''. Visually, in the neo-noir genre style, rare - book dealer Dean Corso 's disheveled grooming derives from Philip Marlowe, Raymond Chandler 's quintessential literary private investigator.
Polanski cast Frank Langella as Boris Balkan based upon his performance as Clare Quilty in Lolita (1997), directed by Adrian Lyne. Barbara Jefford was a last - minute replacement for the German actress originally cast as the Baroness Frida Kessler, who fell sick with pneumonia, and after a second actress proved unable to learn the character 's dialogue; with only days ' notice, Barbara Jefford learned her part, spoken with a German accent. Depp met his long - time partner Vanessa Paradis during the shooting.
The Ninth Gate was filmed in France, Portugal, and Spain in the summer of 1998. Selected prominent buildings in the film are:
The musical score for The Ninth Gate was composed by Wojciech Kilar, who previously collaborated with Polanski on Death and the Maiden (1994). The film 's main theme is loosely based upon Havanaise, for violin and orchestra, by Camille Saint - Saëns; some of the score is a vocalise by Korean soprano Sumi Jo. A soundtrack album was released on November 16, 1999 via Silva Screen label.
The premiere screening of The Ninth Gate was in San Sebastián, Spain, on 25 August 1999; in North America, it appeared in 1,586 cinemas during the March 10th, 2000 weekend, earning a gross income of $6.6 million, and $18.6 million in total. Worldwide, it earned $58.4 million against a $38 million production budget.
The film received mixed reviews. The Ninth Gate holds a 41 % rating at Rotten Tomatoes and a metascore of 44 on Metacritic. Most movie reviewers said that the suspense in The Ninth Gate was less than that of Rosemary 's Baby (1968), director Polanski 's famous supernatural - themed film. Roger Ebert said the ending was lackluster, "while at the end, I did n't yearn for spectacular special effects, I did wish for spectacular information -- something awesome, not just a fade - to - white ''. In his review for The New York Times, Elvis Mitchell said the movie was "about as scary as a sock - puppet re-enactment of The Blair Witch Project, and not nearly as funny ''. Entertainment Weekly rated the film "D + '', and Lisa Schwarzbaum said it had an "aroma of middle - brow, art - house Euro - rot, a whiff of decay and hauteur in a film not even a star as foxed, and foxy, as Johnny Depp, himself, could save ''. In the Los Angeles Times, Kenneth Turan said the film was "too laid - back, and unconcerned about the pacing of its story to be satisfying '', because "a thriller that 's not high - powered, is an intriguing concept, in reality it can hold our attention for only so long ''. In the Village Voice, J. Hoberman said the film was "barely releasable hokum, stuffed with cheesy blah - blah ''. European reviews were generally more attentive and praised the film 's fine pace and irony.
In Sight and Sound magazine, Phillip Strick said it was "not particularly liked at first outing -- partly because Johnny Depp, in fake grey temples, personifies the odious Corso of the book a little too accurately -- the film is intricately well - made, deserves a second chance, despite its disintegrations, and, in time, will undoubtedly acquire its own coven of heretical fans ''.
In Time magazine, Richard Corliss said that The Ninth Gate was Polanski 's most accessible effort "since fleeing the U.S. soon after Chinatown ''.
In the San Francisco Chronicle, Bob Graham said that "Depp is the best reason to see Polanski 's satanic thriller '' and "Polanski 's sly sense of film - noir conventions pokes fun at the genre, while, at the same time, honoring it ''.
On his website Groucho Reviews, web critic Peter Canavese called the film "an insinuating trip into devilish darkness '' and a "sorely underrated occult mystery ''.
After the release of The Ninth Gate, Artisan sued Polanski for taking more than $1 million from the budget, refunds of France 's value - added tax that he did not give to the completion bond company guaranteeing Artisan Entertainment a completed film.
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when did the haves and the have nots start | The Haves and the Have Nots (tv series) - wikipedia
The Haves and the Have Nots is an American crime drama and soap opera created, executive produced, written, and directed by Tyler Perry. The premise of the series is based on Perry 's 2011 play The Haves and the Have Nots. The show premiered on May 28, 2013 on the Oprah Winfrey Network. It is the first scripted television series to air on the network. Both the show 's first and second episodes aired back - to - back on its premiere night. Each episode is one hour long.
Variety has recognized The Haves and the Have Nots as "OWN 's most popular series to date. '' In addition, the drama series has been acclaimed as being "one of OWN 's biggest success stories with its weekly dose of soapy fun, filled with the typical betrayals, affairs, manipulations, and a bitch slap or two. '' The series set ratings record for OWN, scoring the highest ratings ever for a series premiere and the highest overall ratings in the network 's history. The second season premiered on January 7, 2014. To date, the series is still OWN 's highest rated broadcast. The mid-season finale, aired on March 11, 2014, was the most watched broadcast in OWN 's history, and also came in first among all of cable television and number 4 among all shows on television for the night it aired. The mid-season premiere aired on May 27, 2014. The third season of the series premiered on January 6, 2015. The second half premiered on June 30, 2015. The fourth season of the series premiered on January 5, 2016 and the second half premiered on June 21, 2016 and aired through September 6, 2016. The fifth season premiered on January 3, 2017 and ended with the mid-season finale on March 14, 2017. On January 30, 2017, the series was given an additional 44 - episode order. The second half of season 5 premiered on June 20, 2017 and ended with the season finale on September 12, 2017.
On November 21, 2017, the series was renewed for a sixth season, which premiered on January 9, 2018, and the 1st mid-season finale aired March 13, 2018 and on March 13, 2018, OWN also announced the second half of the season, which premiered on May 1, 2018 and with the 2nd mid-season finale July 17, 2018. On July 17, 2018, OWN announced the third half of the season, which premiered on August 14, 2018. On September 11, 2018, OWN announced the fourth half of the season, which premiered on October 2, 2018, on October 9, 2018, OWN announced the countdown to the season 6 finale, set to air November 6, 2018. The series has been renewed for a seventh season which is now filming.
The series follows three families and their lifestyles as they intersect with one another in Savannah, Georgia: the rich, powerful, and locally very public Cryer and Harrington families (dubbed "The Haves '') and the poor and destitute Young family (dubbed "The Have Nots ''). The Young family is headed by Hanna, a single mother who works as the Cryer family 's maid and also serves as the best friend and confidante of the lady of the house, Katheryn. Included as part of The Have Nots is another maid of the Cryer family 's, Celine Gonzales. While the Young family versus the Cryer and Harrington families lead polar opposite lifestyles in terms of social class, economics, social status, and surroundings, they are each similar in that they lead exceedingly dysfunctional lifestyles.
Each of the three families experience similarly overwhelming hardships and plights. Often, the plights, predicaments, and hardships that the three families encounter are of a juicy, scandalous, and controversial nature. Among the serious issues that have been tackled on the program to date have included: infidelity, cancer, substance abuse, homosexuality, suicide, prostitution, poverty, rape, law / crime, abortion, religion / Christianity, politics, and mental health. All of the main characters in the program have proven to be devious, immoral, vile, or at least nasty in their behaviors at one point or another, if not regularly.
The show 's cast is multiracial: one of the upper class families are Caucasian American and the other is African American; the poor family is also African American; in addition to this, there is a poor maid who 's Hispanic. To that end, when Angela Robinson (the actress who plays Veronica Harrington) was interviewed about her new role on the series in late June 2013, she stated, "This is one of the only shows on television with a diverse cast that looks like America: Black, White, Latino, straight, gay, rich, and poor. '' The characters are filled with experiences, typically of a serious and shocking nature, that they attempt to keep secret from one another; however, their secrets tend to dramatically come to light when all is said and done.
The Cryer family
The Harrington family
The Young family & Celine Gonzales
These main characters do not appear in the opening sequence like the shows title characters ("The Haves '': The Cryers and The Harringtons and "The Have Nots '': The Youngs and Celine), but also receive star billing.
As a central and very one - of - a-kind antagonist in the program, the "Veronica Harrington '' character has drawn increasing attention in the media, promoted as "the ice queen with ice water running through her veins. '' An NBC News article characterized the character as an "insecure woman that everyone loves to hate '' and "a bougie buppie, diabolical diva who slept her way to the top of Savannah 's high society. ''
In August 2015, the Broadway veteran actress playing the role, Angela Robinson, was dubbed by an NBC News article as "Tyler Perry 's breakout star '' from her role in The Haves and The Have Nots. Described in her on - air role as a "villainess, '' she was hailed as "slowly becoming a household name and gaining a cult - like following from the hit series. '' The actress was reported as becoming choked up in an August 2015 conference call when a journalist asked her: "How does it feel being the most hated (black female character) on prime time television this summer? '' The actress was reported as having to take a moment to compose herself before answering the question.
The Haves and the Have Nots premiered on Tuesday, May 28, 2013, at 9 / 8c on the Oprah Winfrey Network. The Haves and the Have Nots is the first scripted television series to air on OWN. Both the show 's first and second episodes aired back to back on its premiere night. Each episode of the series runs for an hour (42 minutes plus commercials).
The Haves and the Have Nots set a record for OWN, scoring the highest ratings ever for a series premiere on the network. During the show 's first season, The Haves and the Have Nots received numerous widely publicized series highs in ratings, including with its July 30 episode, its August 6 episode, its August 13 episode, its August 27 episode, and most notably with its season 1 finale on September 3. The season 1 finale of The Haves And the Have Nots was the third most watched telecast in OWN history, bested only by an interview with Whitney Houston 's daughter Bobbi Kristina and episodes of Oprah 's Next Chapter featuring Lance Armstrong.
Within its first season alone, Variety had recognized The Haves and the Have Nots as "OWN 's most popular series to date. '' Also within only its first season, The Haves and the Have Nots had been critically acclaimed as being "one of OWN 's biggest success stories with its weekly dose of soapy fun, filled with the typical betrayals, affairs, manipulations and a bitch slap or two. '' Recognizing the show 's increasing popularity, OWN renewed the drama series for a 2nd season midway into the first season. The 2nd season was originally to consist of 16 episodes and bring the series to 32 in total by the completion of season 2; however on August 21, it was announced that the network had ordered 4 additional episodes for the 2nd season, which will bring the series to 36 episodes in total by season 2 's completion.
Season 2 of The Haves and the Have Nots premiered on Tuesday, January 7, 2014. Continuing on with its ratings records from season 1, the show debuted its 2nd season with series and network high ratings. Throughout season 2, the soap has achieved several more series highs. On February 4, 2014, for example, the drama series came in as the most watched television program in all of cable television with an estimated 3.4 million viewers. Among all of OWN programming since the network 's January 2011 debut, only a March 2012 Oprah 's Next Chapter interview with Bobbi Kristina has drawn more viewers (3.5 million) than the February 4, 2014 episode of The Haves and the Have Nots. The Haves and the Have Nots episode in question is "Why Did n't You Tell Me? '' On Tuesday, March 11, 2014, however, the mid-season 2 finale of The Haves and the Have Nots set a record for all of OWN programming, scoring the highest ratings in the station 's history. The record - breaking episode brought in 3.6 million viewers, surpassing the 3.5 million that tuned in for Oprah Winfrey 's interview with Bobbi Kristina. Not only was the episode the most watched broadcast in all of OWN history but it came in at number 1 among all of cable television and number 4 among all shows on television for its airing night. Season 3 premiered on January 6, 2015. Production of season 3 began in August 2014 following a 25 episode order which will bring the episode count to 61 through 2015.
In May 2015, it was reported that the 3rd season of "The Haves and the Have Nots '' was primetime 's # 1 original cable series among African - American women and total viewers, regularly attracting more than three million viewers.
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how old do you have to be to drink in usa | Legal drinking age - Wikipedia
The legal drinking age is the age at which a person can legally consume alcoholic beverages. These laws cover a wide range of issues and behaviors, addressing when and where alcohol can be consumed. The minimum age alcohol can be legally consumed can be different from the age when it can be purchased in some countries. These laws vary between different countries and many laws have exemptions or special circumstances. Most laws apply only to drinking alcohol in public places, with alcohol consumption in the home being mostly unregulated (an exception being the UK, which has a minimum legal age of five for supervised consumption in private places). Some countries also have different age limits for different types of alcoholic drinks.
Kazakhstan, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, Paraguay, Solomon Islands, India (certain states), the United States (except U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico), Yemen (Aden and Sana'a), Japan, Iceland, Canada (certain Provinces and Territories), and South Korea have the highest set drinking ages; however, some of these countries do not have off - premises drinking limits. Austria, Antigua and Barbuda, Belgium, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cuba, Ethiopia, Gibraltar, Luxembourg and Nicaragua have the lowest set drinking ages.
The most commonly known reason for the law behind the legal drinking age is the effect on the brain in adolescents. because the brain is still maturing, alcohol can have a negative effect on the memory and long - term thinking. Alongside that, it can cause liver failure, and create a hormone imbalance in teens due to the constant changes and maturing of hormones during puberty.
The most common minimum age to purchase alcohol in Africa is 18. Although it varies from the lowest age limit in Ethiopia being only 15 years, Zimbabwe with a minimum purchase age of 16 years, Gambia with an age limit of 17 years and Uganda where the minimum legal purchase age is 18 but minors aged 16 or 17 may consume a glass of beer, wine or cider with a meal at a restaurant. Cameroon and Egypt are the only countries in Africa with a minimum purchase age of 21 years. However Algeria, Angola (except Luando Province), Central African Republic, Comoros, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Guinea - Bissau, Morocco, Togo, Tunisia and the Western Sahara have no laws on the book restricting the sale of alcohol to minors. In Libya, Somalia and Sudan the sale, production and consumption of alcohol is completely prohibited.
It is illegal to sell alcoholic beverages to anyone under the age of 18. It is also illegal for minors to buy and consume alcohol.
The minimum age to purchase and consume varies, but the most common age is 18 years. However, in North America the age limits varies between 18 and 21 years of age. Throughout the United States the minimum legal age to purchase any alcoholic beverage from a shop, supermarket, liquor store, bar, club or any other licensed premises is 21 years of age. In Canada each province can decide which minimum age limit is to be set to buy or consume alcohol. Most provinces have a minimum age of 19 years, while Alberta, Manitoba and Quebec have set a minimum age of 18 years. In South America all countries have set a minimum purchase age of 18 years, except for Guyana where minors aged 16 or 17 may consume a glass of beer, wine or cider in a restaurant provided they buy a meal, and Paraguay the only country with a minimum legal purchase and drinking age of 20 years.
Federal law explicitly provides for religious exceptions. As of 2005, 31 states have family member or location exceptions to their underage possession laws. However, non-alcoholic beer in many (but not all) states, such as Idaho, Texas, and Maryland, is considered legal for those under the age of 21.
By a judge 's ruling, South Carolina appears to allow the possession and consumption of alcohol by adults 18 to 20 years of age, but a circuit court judge has said otherwise.
The states of Washington and Wisconsin allows the consumption of alcohol in the presence of parents.
Some U.S. states have legislation that make providing to and possession of alcohol by persons under twenty - one a gross misdemeanor with a potential penalty of a $5,000 fine or up to a year in jail.
The legal age for drinking alcohol is 18 in Abu Dhabi (although a Ministry of Tourism by - law allows hotels to serve alcohol only to those over 21), and 21 in Dubai and the Northern Emirates (except Sharjah, where drinking alcohol is illegal).
It is a punishable offence to drink, or to be under the influence of alcohol, in public.
Most countries within Europe have set 18 as the minimum age to purchase alcohol. Although Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Denmark, Germany, Gibraltar, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Serbia and Switzerland (except Ticino) maintain a minimum purchase age below 18 years permitting minors either full or limited access to alcohol. In 2005, 2007 and recently in 2015 the European Union has failed to enact a law forcing member states to raise their purchase age to 18 years. But in the past years several European countries have raised their drinking / purchase age or enacted laws restricting the access to alcohol for minors:
By tradition, youths are privately allowed to drink alcohol after their confirmation. If a shop or bar fails to ask for an ID card and is identified having sold alcohol to an underage, it is subject to fine. A national ID card, obtained in the local town hall, can serve as age verification. This card is rarely used though since a passport or drivers license is more commonly used.
Both the legal drinking and purchasing age in the Faroe Islands is 18.
Police may search minors in public places and confiscate or destroy any alcoholic beverages in their possession. Incidents are reported to the legal guardian and social authorities, who may intervene with child welfare procedures. In addition, those aged 15 or above are subject to a fine.
In private, offering alcohol to a minor is considered a criminal offence if it results in drunkenness and the act can be deemed reprehensible as a whole, considering the minor 's age, degree of maturity and other circumstances.
Alcohol with more than 60 % ABV is generally not sold in Norway, although exceptions may be made by the government for specific products.
Alcohol possessed by minors may be confiscated as evidence. Drinking in public is prohibited, though this is rarely enforced in recreational areas.
None
None 18 18 20,
It is illegal to sell, serve, offer or consume alcoholic beverages in public under the age of 18.
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when did the puerto rico became a us territory | Puerto Rico - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 18 ° 12 ′ N 66 ° 30 ′ W / 18.2 ° N 66.5 ° W / 18.2; - 66.5
Puerto Rican (formal) American (since 1917)
Puerto Rico (Spanish for "Rich Port ''), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (Spanish: Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit. "Free Associated State of Puerto Rico '') and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea.
An archipelago among the Greater Antilles, Puerto Rico includes the main island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones, such as Mona, Culebra, and Vieques. The capital and most populous city is San Juan. Its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The island 's population is approximately 3.4 million. Puerto Rico 's history, tropical climate, natural scenery, traditional cuisine, and tax incentives make it a destination for travelers from around the world.
Originally populated by the indigenous Taíno people, the island was claimed in 1493 by Christopher Columbus for Spain during his second voyage. Later it endured invasion attempts from the French, Dutch, and British. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government influenced the island 's cultural landscapes with waves of African slaves, Canarian, and Andalusian settlers. In the Spanish Empire, Puerto Rico played a secondary, but strategic role when compared to wealthier colonies like Peru and the mainland parts of New Spain. Spain 's distant administrative control continued up to the end of the 19th century, helping to produce a distinctive creole Hispanic culture and language that combined elements from the Native Americans, Africans, and Iberians. In 1898, following the Spanish -- American War, the United States acquired Puerto Rico under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. The treaty took effect on April 11, 1899.
Puerto Ricans are by law citizens of the United States and may move freely between the island and the mainland. As it is not a state, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. However, Puerto Rico does have one non-voting member of the House called a Resident Commissioner. As residents of a U.S. territory, American citizens in Puerto Rico are disenfranchised at the national level and do not vote for president and vice president of the United States, and do not pay federal income tax on Puerto Rican income. Like other territories and the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico does not have U.S. senators. Congress approved a local constitution in 1952, allowing U.S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A 2012 referendum showed a majority (54 % of those who voted) disagreed with "the present form of territorial status ''. A second question asking about a new model, had full statehood the preferred option among those who voted for a change of status, although a significant number of people did not answer the second question of the referendum. Another fifth referendum was held on June 11, 2017, with "Statehood '' and "Independence / Free Association '' initially as the only available choices. At the recommendation of the Department of Justice, an option for the "current territorial status '' was added. The referendum showed an overwhelming support for statehood, with 97.18 % voting for it, although the voter turnout had a historically low figure of only 22.99 % of the registered voters casting their ballots.
In early 2017, the Puerto Rican government - debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt had climbed to $70 billion at a time with 12.4 % unemployment. The debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. This was the second major financial crisis to affect the island after the Great Depression when the U.S. government, in 1935, provided relief efforts through the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration. On May 3, 2017, Puerto Rico 's financial oversight board in the U.S. District Court for Puerto Rico filed the debt restructuring petition which was made under Title III of PROMESA. By early August 2017, the debt was $72 billion with a 45 % poverty rate.
In late September 2017, the Category 5 Hurricane Maria hit Puerto Rico causing devastating damage. The island 's electrical grid was largely destroyed, with repairs expected to take months to complete, provoking the largest power outage in American history. Recovery efforts were somewhat slow in the first few months, and over 200,000 residents had moved to Florida alone by late November 2017.
Puerto Rico means "rich port '' in Spanish. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquén -- a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, which means "Land of the Valiant Lord ''. The terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also popularly known in Spanish as la isla del encanto, meaning "the island of enchantment ''.
Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, while the capital city was named Ciudad de Puerto Rico ("Rich Port City ''). Eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading / shipping port and the capital city.
The island 's name was changed to "Porto Rico '' by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898. The anglicized name was used by the U.S. government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931.
The official name of the entity in Spanish is Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico ("free associated state of Puerto Rico ''), while its official English name is Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.
The ancient history of the archipelago which is now Puerto Rico is not well known. Unlike other indigenous cultures in the New World (Aztec, Maya and Inca) which left behind abundant archeological and physical evidence of their societies, scant artifacts and evidence remain of the Puerto Rico 's indigenous population. Scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish accounts from the colonial era constitute all that is known about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, nearly three centuries after the first Spaniards landed on the island.
The first known settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland. Some scholars suggest their settlement dates back about 4,000 years. An archeological dig in 1990 on the island of Vieques found the remains of a man, designated as the "Puerto Ferro Man '', which was dated to around 2000 BC. The Ortoiroid were displaced by the Saladoid, a culture from the same region that arrived on the island between 430 and 250 BC.
The Igneri tribe migrated to Puerto Rico between 120 and 400 AD from the region of the Orinoco river in northern South America. The Arcaico and Igneri co-existed on the island between the 4th and 10th centuries.
Between the 7th and 11th centuries, the Taíno culture developed on the island. By approximately 1000 AD, it had become dominant. At the time of Columbus ' arrival, an estimated 30,000 to 60,000 Taíno Amerindians, led by the cacique (chief) Agüeybaná, inhabited the island. They called it Boriken, meaning "the great land of the valiant and noble Lord ''. The natives lived in small villages, each led by a cacique. They subsisted by hunting and fishing, done generally by men, as well as by the women 's gathering and processing of indigenous cassava root and fruit. This lasted until Columbus arrived in 1493.
When Columbus arrived in Puerto Rico during his second voyage on November 19, 1493, the island was inhabited by the Taíno. They called it Borikén (Borinquen in Spanish transliteration). Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of St John the Baptist. Having reported the findings of his first travel, Columbus brought with him this time a letter from King Ferdinand empowered by a papal bull that authorized any course of action necessary for the expansion of the Spanish Empire and the Christian faith. Juan Ponce de León, a lieutenant under Columbus, founded the first Spanish settlement, Caparra, on August 8, 1508. He later served as the first governor of the island. Eventually, traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, and San Juan became the name of the main trading / shipping port.
At the beginning of the 16th century, the Spanish people began to colonize the island. Despite the Laws of Burgos of 1512 and other decrees for the protection of the indigenous population, some Taíno Indians were forced into an encomienda system of forced labor in the early years of colonization. The population suffered extremely high fatalities from epidemics of European infectious diseases.
In 1520, King Charles I of Spain issued a royal decree collectively emancipating the remaining Taíno population. By that time, the Taíno people were few in number. Enslaved Africans had already begun to be imported to compensate for the native labor loss, but their numbers were proportionate to the diminished commercial interest Spain soon began to demonstrate for the island colony. Other nearby islands, like Cuba, Saint - Domingue, and Guadeloupe, attracted more of the slave trade than Puerto Rico, probably because of greater agricultural interests in those islands, on which colonists had developed large sugar plantations and had the capital to invest in the Atlantic slave trade.
From the beginning of the country, the colonial administration relied heavily on the industry of enslaved Africans and creole blacks for public works and defenses, primarily in coastal ports and cities, where the tiny colonial population had hunkered down. With no significant industries or large - scale agricultural production as yet, enslaved and free communities lodged around the few littoral settlements, particularly around San Juan, also forming lasting Afro - creole communities. Meanwhile, in the island 's interior, there developed a mixed and independent peasantry that relied on a subsistence economy. This mostly unsupervised population supplied villages and settlements with foodstuffs and, in relative isolation, set the pattern for what later would be known as the Puerto Rican Jíbaro culture. By the end of the 16th century, the Spanish Empire was diminishing and, in the face of increasing raids from European competitors, the colonial administration throughout the Americas fell into a "bunker mentality ''. Imperial strategists and urban planners redesigned port settlements into military posts with the objective of protecting Spanish territorial claims and ensuring the safe passing of the king 's silver - laden Atlantic Fleet to the Iberian Peninsula. San Juan served as an important port - of - call for ships driven across the Atlantic by its powerful trade winds. West Indies convoys linked Spain to the island, sailing between Cádiz and the Spanish West Indies. The colony 's seat of government was on the forested Islet of San Juan and for a time became one of the most heavily fortified settlements in the Spanish Caribbean earning the name of the "Walled City ''. The islet is still dotted with the various forts and walls, such as La Fortaleza, Castillo San Felipe del Morro, and Castillo San Cristóbal, designed to protect the population and the strategic Port of San Juan from the raids of the Spanish European competitors.
In 1625, in the Battle of San Juan, the Dutch commander Boudewijn Hendricksz tested the defenses ' limits like no one else before. Learning from Francis Drake 's previous failures here, he circumvented the cannons of the castle of San Felipe del Morro and quickly brought his 17 ships into the San Juan Bay. He then occupied the port and attacked the city while the population hurried for shelter behind the Morro 's moat and high battlements. Historians consider this event the worst attack on San Juan. Though the Dutch set the village on fire, they failed to conquer the Morro, and its batteries pounded their troops and ships until Hendricksz deemed the cause lost. Hendricksz 's expedition eventually helped propel a fortification frenzy. Constructions of defenses for the San Cristóbal Hill were soon ordered so as to prevent the landing of invaders out of reach of the Morro 's artillery. Urban planning responded to the needs of keeping the colony in Spanish hands.
During the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Spain concentrated its colonial efforts on the more prosperous mainland North, Central, and South American colonies. With the advent of the lively Bourbon Dynasty in Spain in the 1700s, the island of Puerto Rico began a gradual shift to more imperial attention. More roads began connecting previously isolated inland settlements to coastal cities, and coastal settlements like Arecibo, Mayaguez, and Ponce began acquiring importance of their own, separate from San Juan. By the end of the 18th century, merchant ships from an array of nationalities threatened the tight regulations of the Mercantilist system, which turned each colony solely toward the European metropole and limited contact with other nations. U.S. ships came to surpass Spanish trade and with this also came the exploitation of the island 's natural resources. Slavers, which had made but few stops on the island before, began selling more enslaved Africans to growing sugar and coffee plantations. The increasing number of Atlantic wars in which the Caribbean islands played major roles, like the War of Jenkins ' Ear, the Seven Years ' War and the Atlantic Revolutions, ensured Puerto Rico 's growing esteem in Madrid 's eyes. On April 17, 1797, Sir Ralph Abercromby 's fleet invaded the island with a force of 6,000 -- 13,000 men, which included German soldiers and Royal Marines and 60 to 64 ships. Fierce fighting continued for the next days with Spanish troops. Both sides suffered heavy losses. On Sunday April 30 the British ceased their attack and began their retreat from San Juan. By the time independence movements in the larger Spanish colonies gained success, new waves of loyal creole immigrants began to arrive in Puerto Rico, helping to tilt the island 's political balance toward the Crown.
In 1809, to secure its political bond with the island and in the midst of the European Peninsular War, the Supreme Central Junta based in Cádiz recognized Puerto Rico as an overseas province of Spain. This gave the island residents the right to elect representatives to the recently convened Spanish parliament (Cádiz Cortes), with equal representation to mainland Iberian, Mediterranean (Balearic Islands) and Atlantic maritime Spanish provinces (Canary Islands).
Ramón Power y Giralt, the first Spanish parliamentary representative from the island of Puerto Rico, died after serving a three - year term in the Cortes. These parliamentary and constitutional reforms were in force from 1810 to 1814, and again from 1820 to 1823. They were twice reversed during the restoration of the traditional monarchy by Ferdinand VII. Immigration and commercial trade reforms in the 19th century increased the island 's ethnic European population and economy and expanded the Spanish cultural and social imprint on the local character of the island.
Minor slave revolts had occurred on the island throughout the years, with the revolt planned and organized by Marcos Xiorro in 1821 being the most important. Even though the conspiracy was unsuccessful, Xiorro achieved legendary status and is part of Puerto Rico 's folklore.
In the early 19th century, Puerto Rico spawned an independence movement that, due to harsh persecution by the Spanish authorities, convened in the island of St. Thomas. The movement was largely inspired by the ideals of Simón Bolívar in establishing a United Provinces of New Granada and Venezuela, that included Puerto Rico and Cuba. Among the influential members of this movement were Brigadier General Antonio Valero de Bernabé and María de las Mercedes Barbudo. The movement was discovered, and Governor Miguel de la Torre had its members imprisoned or exiled.
With the increasingly rapid growth of independent former Spanish colonies in the South and Central American states in the first part of the 19th century, the Spanish Crown considered Puerto Rico and Cuba of strategic importance. To increase its hold on its last two New World colonies, the Spanish Crown revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 as a result of which 450,000 immigrants, mainly Spaniards, settled on the island in the period up until the American conquest. Printed in three languages -- Spanish, English, and French -- it was intended to also attract non-Spanish Europeans, with the hope that the independence movements would lose their popularity if new settlers had stronger ties to the Crown. Hundreds of non Spanish families, mainly from Corsica, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy and Scotland, also immigrated to the island.
Free land was offered as an incentive to those who wanted to populate the two islands, on the condition that they swear their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church. The offer was very successful, and European immigration continued even after 1898. Puerto Rico still receives Spanish and European immigration.
Poverty and political estrangement with Spain led to a small but significant uprising in 1868 known as Grito de Lares. It began in the rural town of Lares, but was subdued when rebels moved to the neighboring town of San Sebastián.
Leaders of this independence movement included Ramón Emeterio Betances, considered the "father '' of the Puerto Rican independence movement, and other political figures such as Segundo Ruiz Belvis. Slavery was abolished in Puerto Rico in 1873, "with provisions for periods of apprenticeship ''.
Leaders of "El Grito de Lares '' went into exile in New York City. Many joined the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee, founded on December 8, 1895, and continued their quest for Puerto Rican independence. In 1897, Antonio Mattei Lluberas and the local leaders of the independence movement in Yauco organized another uprising, which became known as the Intentona de Yauco. They raised what they called the Puerto Rican flag, which was adopted as the national flag. The local conservative political factions opposed independence. Rumors of the planned event spread to the local Spanish authorities who acted swiftly and put an end to what would be the last major uprising in the island to Spanish colonial rule.
In 1897, Luis Muñoz Rivera and others persuaded the liberal Spanish government to agree to grant limited self - government to the island by royal decree in the Autonomic Charter, including a bicameral legislature. In 1898, Puerto Rico 's first, but short - lived, quasi-autonomous government was organized as an "overseas province '' of Spain. This bilaterally agreed - upon charter maintained a governor appointed by the King of Spain -- who held the power to annul any legislative decision -- and a partially elected parliamentary structure. In February, Governor - General Manuel Macías inaugurated the new government under the Autonomic Charter. General elections were held in March and the new government began to function on July 17, 1898.
In 1890, Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, a member of the Navy War Board and leading U.S. strategic thinker, published a book titled The Influence of Sea Power upon History in which he argued for the establishment of a large and powerful navy modeled after the British Royal Navy. Part of his strategy called for the acquisition of colonies in the Caribbean, which would serve as coaling and naval stations. They would serve as strategic points of defense with the construction of a canal through the Isthmus of Panama, to allow easier passage of ships between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
William H. Seward, the former Secretary of State under presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson, had also stressed the importance of building a canal in Honduras, Nicaragua or Panama. He suggested that the United States annex the Dominican Republic and purchase Puerto Rico and Cuba. The U.S. Senate did not approve his annexation proposal, and Spain rejected the U.S. offer of 160 million dollars for Puerto Rico and Cuba.
Since 1894, the United States Naval War College had been developing contingency plans for a war with Spain. By 1896, the U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared a plan that included military operations in Puerto Rican waters. Except for one 1895 plan, which recommended annexation of the island then named Isle of Pines (later renamed as Isla de la Juventud), a recommendation dropped in later planning, plans developed for attacks on Spanish territories were intended as support operations against Spain 's forces in and around Cuba. Recent research suggests that the U.S. did consider Puerto Rico valuable as a naval station, and recognized that it and Cuba generated lucrative crops of sugar -- a valuable commercial commodity which the United States lacked, before the development of the sugar beet industry in the United States.
On July 25, 1898, during the Spanish -- American War, the U.S. invaded Puerto Rico with a landing at Guánica. As an outcome of the war, Spain ceded Puerto Rico, along with the Philippines and Guam, then under Spanish sovereignty, to the U.S. under the Treaty of Paris, which went into effect on April 11, 1899. Spain relinquished sovereignty over Cuba, but did not cede it to the U.S.
The United States and Puerto Rico began a long - standing metropolis - colony relationship. In the early 20th century, Puerto Rico was ruled by the military, with officials including the governor appointed by the President of the United States. The Foraker Act of 1900 gave Puerto Rico a certain amount of civilian popular government, including a popularly elected House of Representatives. The upper house and governor were appointed by the United States.
Its judicial system was constructed to follow the American legal system; a Puerto Rico Supreme Court and a United State District Court for the territory were established. It was authorized a non-voting member of Congress, by the title of "Resident Commissioner '', who was appointed. In addition, this Act extended all U.S. laws "not locally inapplicable '' to Puerto Rico, specifying, in particular, exemption from U.S. Internal Revenue laws.
The Act empowered the civil government to legislate on "all matters of legislative character not locally inapplicable '', including the power to modify and repeal any laws then in existence in Puerto Rico, though the U.S. Congress retained the power to annul acts of the Puerto Rico legislature. During an address to the Puerto Rican legislature in 1906, President Theodore Roosevelt recommended that Puerto Ricans become U.S. citizens.
In 1914, the Puerto Rican House of Delegates voted unanimously in favor of independence from the United States, but this was rejected by the U.S. Congress as "unconstitutional '', and in violation of the 1900 Foraker Act.
In 1917, the U.S. Congress passed the Jones -- Shafroth Act, popularly called the Jones Act, which granted Puerto Ricans, born on or after, April 25, 1898, U.S. citizenship. Opponents, which included all of the Puerto Rican House of Delegates, who voted unanimously against it, said that the U.S. imposed citizenship in order to draft Puerto Rican men into the army as American entry into World War I became likely.
The same Act provided for a popularly elected Senate to complete a bicameral Legislative Assembly, as well as a bill of rights. It authorized the popular election of the Resident Commissioner to a four - year term.
Natural disasters, including a major earthquake and tsunami in 1918, and several hurricanes, and the Great Depression impoverished the island during the first few decades under U.S. rule. Some political leaders, such as Pedro Albizu Campos, who led the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, demanded change in relations with the United States. He organized a protest at the University of Puerto Rico in 1935, in which four were killed by police.
In 1936, U.S. Senator Millard Tydings introduced a bill supporting independence for Puerto Rico, but it was opposed by Luis Muñoz Marín of the Liberal Party of Puerto Rico. (Tydings had co-sponsored the Tydings -- McDuffie Act, which provided independence to the Philippines after a 10 - year transition under a limited autonomy.) All the Puerto Rican parties supported the bill, but Muñoz Marín opposed it. Tydings did not gain passage of the bill.
In 1937, Albizu Campos ' party organized a protest in which numerous people were killed by police in Ponce. The Insular Police, resembling the National Guard, opened fire upon unarmed cadets and bystanders alike. The attack on unarmed protesters was reported by the U.S. Congressman Vito Marcantonio and confirmed by the report of the Hays Commission, which investigated the events. The commission was led by Arthur Garfield Hays, counsel to the American Civil Liberties Union.
Nineteen people were killed and over 200 were badly wounded, many in their backs while running away. The Hays Commission declared it a massacre and police mob action, and it has since been known as the Ponce massacre. In the aftermath, on April 2, 1943, Tydings introduced a bill in Congress calling for independence for Puerto Rico. This bill ultimately was defeated.
During the latter years of the Roosevelt -- Truman administrations, the internal governance was changed in a compromise reached with Luis Muñoz Marín and other Puerto Rican leaders. In 1946, President Truman appointed the first Puerto Rican - born governor, Jesús T. Piñero.
Since 2007, the Puerto Rico State Department has developed a protocol to issue certificates of Puerto Rican citizenship to Puerto Ricans. In order to be eligible, applicants must have been born in Puerto Rico; born outside of Puerto Rico to a Puerto Rican -- born parent; or be an American citizen with at least one year of residence in Puerto Rico.
In 1947, the U.S. granted Puerto Ricans the right to democratically elect their own governor. In 1948, Luis Muñoz Marín became the first popularly elected governor of Puerto Rico.
A bill was introduced before the Puerto Rican Senate which would restrain the rights of the independence and nationalist movements in the island. The Senate at the time was controlled by the Popular Democratic Party (PPD), and was presided over by Luis Muñoz Marín. The bill, also known as the Gag Law (Spanish: Ley de la Mordaza), was approved by the legislature on May 21, 1948. It made it illegal to display a Puerto Rican flag, to sing a pro-independence tune, to talk of independence, or to campaign for independence.
The bill, which resembled the Smith Act passed in the United States, was signed and made into law on June 10, 1948, by the U.S. appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Jesús T. Piñero, and became known as "Law 53 '' (Spanish: Ley 53).
In accordance with this law, it would be a crime to print, publish, sell, exhibit, organize or help anyone organize any society, group or assembly of people whose intentions are to paralyze or destroy the insular government. Anyone accused and found guilty of disobeying the law could be sentenced to ten years of prison, be fined $10,000 (U.S.), or both. According to Dr. Leopoldo Figueroa, a member of the Puerto Rico House of Representatives, the law was repressive and in violation of the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, which guarantees Freedom of Speech. He asserted that the law as such was a violation of the civil rights of the people of Puerto Rico. The law was repealed in 1957.
In 1950, the U.S. Congress granted Puerto Ricans the right to organize a constitutional convention via a referendum that gave them the option of voting their preference, "yes '' or "no '', on a proposed U.S. law that would organize Puerto Rico as a "commonwealth '' that would continue United States sovereignty over Puerto Rico and its people. Puerto Rico 's electorate expressed its support for this measure in 1951 with a second referendum to ratify the constitution. The Constitution of Puerto Rico was formally adopted on July 3, 1952. The Constitutional Convention specified the name by which the body politic would be known.
On February 4, 1952, the convention approved Resolution 22 which chose in English the word Commonwealth, meaning a "politically organized community '' or "state '', which is simultaneously connected by a compact or treaty to another political system. Puerto Rico officially designates itself with the term "Commonwealth of Puerto Rico '' in its constitution, as a translation into English of the term to "Estado Libre Asociado '' (ELA).
In 1967 Puerto Rico 's Legislative Assembly polled the political preferences of the Puerto Rican electorate by passing a plebiscite act that provided for a vote on the status of Puerto Rico. This constituted the first plebiscite by the Legislature for a choice among three status options (commonwealth, statehood, and independence). In subsequent plebiscites organized by Puerto Rico held in 1993 and 1998 (without any formal commitment on the part of the U.S. Government to honor the results), the current political status failed to receive majority support. In 1993, Commonwealth status won by a plurality of votes (48.6 % versus 46.3 % for statehood), while the "none of the above '' option, which was the Popular Democratic Party - sponsored choice, won in 1998 with 50.3 % of the votes (versus 46.5 % for statehood). Disputes arose as to the definition of each of the ballot alternatives, and Commonwealth advocates, among others, reportedly urged a vote for "none of the above ''.
In 1950, the U.S. Congress approved Public Law 600 (P.L. 81 - 600), which allowed for a democratic referendum in Puerto Rico to determine whether Puerto Ricans desired to draft their own local constitution. This Act was meant to be adopted in the "nature of a compact ''. It required congressional approval of the Puerto Rico Constitution before it could go into effect, and repealed certain sections of the Organic Act of 1917. The sections of this statute left in force were entitled the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act. U.S. Secretary of the Interior Oscar L. Chapman, under whose Department resided responsibility of Puerto Rican affairs, clarified the new commonwealth status in this manner:
On October 30, 1950, Pedro Albizu Campos and other nationalists led a three - day revolt against the United States in various cities and towns of Puerto Rico, in what is known as the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party Revolts of the 1950s. The most notable occurred in Jayuya and Utuado. In the Jayuya revolt, known as the Jayuya Uprising, the Puerto Rican governor declared martial law, and attacked the insurgents in Jayuya with infantry, artillery and bombers under control of the Puerto Rican commander. The Utuado uprising culminated in what is known as the Utuado massacre.
On November 1, 1950, Puerto Rican nationalists from New York City, Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo, attempted to assassinate President Harry S. Truman at his temporary residence of Blair House. Torresola was killed during the attack, but Collazo was wounded and captured. He was convicted of murder and sentenced to death, but President Truman commuted his sentence to life. After Collazo served 29 years in a federal prison, President Jimmy Carter commuted his sentence to times served and he was released in 1979.
Pedro Albizu Campos served many years in a federal prison in Atlanta, for seditious conspiracy to overthrow the U.S. government in Puerto Rico.
The Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by a Constitutional Convention on February 6, 1952, and 82 % of the voters in a March referendum. It was modified and ratified by the U.S. Congress, approved by President Truman on July 3 of that year, and proclaimed by Gov. Muñoz Marín on July 25, 1952. This was the anniversary of July 25, 1898, landing of U.S. troops in the Puerto Rican Campaign of the Spanish -- American War, until then celebrated as an annual Puerto Rico holiday.
Puerto Rico adopted the name of Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico (literally "Associated Free State of Puerto Rico ''), officially translated into English as Commonwealth, for its body politic. "The United States Congress legislates over many fundamental aspects of Puerto Rican life, including citizenship, the currency, the postal service, foreign policy, military defense, communications, labor relations, the environment, commerce, finance, health and welfare, and many others. ''
During the 1950s and 1960s, Puerto Rico experienced rapid industrialization, due in large part to Operación Manos a la Obra ("Operation Bootstrap ''), an offshoot of FDR 's New Deal. It was intended to transform Puerto Rico 's economy from agriculture - based to manufacturing - based to provide more jobs. Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination, as well as a global center for pharmaceutical manufacturing.
Four referendums have been held since the late 20th century to resolve the political status. The 2012 referendum showed a majority (54 % of the voters) in favor of a change in status, with full statehood the preferred option of those who wanted a change. Because there were almost 500,000 blank ballots in the 2012 referendum, creating confusion as to the voters ' true desire, Congress decided to ignore the vote.
The first three plebiscites provided voters with three options: statehood, free association, and independence. The Puerto Rican status referendum, 2017 in June 2017 was going to offer only two options: Statehood and Independence / Free Association. However, a letter from the Donald Trump administration recommended adding the Commonwealth, the current status, in the plebiscite. The option had been removed from this plebiscite in response to the results of the plebiscite in 2012 which asked whether to remain in the current status and No had won. The Trump administration cited changes in demographics during the past 5 years to add the option once again. Amendments to the plebiscite bill were adopted making ballot wording changes requested by the Department of Justice, as well as adding a "current territorial status '' option. While 97 percent voted in favor of statehood, the turnout was low; only some 23 percent voted. After the ballots were counted the Justice Department was non-committal. The Justice Department had asked for the 2017 plebiscite to be postponed but the Rosselló government chose not to do so. After the outcome was announced, the department told the Associated Press that it had "not reviewed or approved the ballot 's language ''.
Former Governor Aníbal Acevedo Vilá (2005 -- 2009) is convinced that statehood is not the solution for either the U.S. or for Puerto Rico "for economic, identity and cultural reasons ''. He pointed out that voter turnout for the 2017 referendum was extremely low, and suggests that a different type of mutually - beneficial relationship should be found.
If the federal government agrees to discuss an association agreement, the conditions would be negotiated between the two entities. The agreement might cover topics such as the role of the U.S. military in Puerto Rico, the use of the U.S. currency, free trade between the two entities, and whether Puerto Ricans would be U.S. citizens.
The three current Free Associated States (Marshall Islands, Micronesia and Palau) use the American dollar, receive some financial support and the promise of military defense if they refuse military access to any other country. Their citizens are allowed to work in the U.S. and serve in its military.
Governor Ricardo Rosselló is strongly in favor of statehood to help develop the economy and help to "solve our 500 - year - old colonial dilemma... Colonialism is not an option... It 's a civil rights issue... 3.5 million citizens seeking an absolute democracy, '' he told the news media. Benefits of statehood include an additional $10 billion per year in federal funds, the right to vote in presidential elections, higher Social Security and Medicare benefits, and a right for its government agencies and municipalities to file for bankruptcy. The latter is currently prohibited.
Statehood might be useful as a means of dealing with the financial crisis, since it would allow for bankruptcy and the relevant protection. According to the Government Development Bank, this might be the only solution to the debt crisis. Congress has the power to vote to allow Chapter 9 protection without the need for statehood, but in late 2015 there was very little support in the House for this concept. Other benefits to statehood include increased disability benefits and Medicaid funding, the right to vote in Presidential elections and the higher (federal) minimum wage.
Subsequent to the 2017 referendum, Puerto Rico 's legislators are also expected to vote on a bill that would allow the Governor to draft a state constitution and hold elections to choose senators and representatives to the federal Congress. In spite of the outcome of the referendum, and the so - called Tennessee Plan (above), action by the United States Congress would be necessary to implement changes to the status of Puerto Rico under the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution.
Since 1953, the UN has been considering the political status of Puerto Rico and how to assist it in achieving "independence '' or "decolonization ''. In 1978, the Special Committee determined that a "colonial relationship '' existed between the U.S. and Puerto Rico.
The UN 's Special Committee on Decolonization has often referred to Puerto Rico as a "nation '' in its reports, because, internationally, the people of Puerto Rico are often considered to be a Caribbean nation with their own national identity. Most recently, in a June 2016 report, the Special Committee called for the United States to expedite the process to allow self - determination in Puerto Rico. More specifically, the group called on the United States to expedite a process that would allow the people of Puerto Rico to exercise fully their right to self - determination and independence... allow the Puerto Rican people to take decisions in a sovereign manner, and to address their urgent economic and social needs, including unemployment, marginalization, insolvency and poverty ".
On November 27, 1953, shortly after the establishment of the Commonwealth, the General Assembly of the United Nations approved Resolution 748, removing Puerto Rico 's classification as a non-self - governing territory. The General Assembly did not apply the full list of criteria which was enunciated in 1960 when it took favorable note of the cessation of transmission of information regarding the non-self - governing status of Puerto Rico.
According to the White House Task Force on Puerto Rico 's Political Status in its December 21, 2007 report, the U.S., in its written submission to the UN in 1953, never represented that Congress could not change its relationship with Puerto Rico without the territory 's consent. It stated that the U.S. Justice Department in 1959 reiterated that Congress held power over Puerto Rico pursuant to the Territorial Clause of the U.S. Constitution.
In 1993 the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit stated that Congress may unilaterally repeal the Puerto Rican Constitution or the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act and replace them with any rules or regulations of its choice. In a 1996 report on a Puerto Rico status political bill, the U.S. House Committee on Resources stated, "Puerto Rico 's current status does not meet the criteria for any of the options for full self - government under Resolution 1541 '' (the three established forms of full self - government being stated in the report as (1) national independence, (2) free association based on separate sovereignty, or (3) full integration with another nation on the basis of equality). The report concluded that Puerto Rico "... remains an unincorporated colony and does not have the status of ' free association ' with the United States as that status is defined under United States law or international practice '', that the establishment of local self - government with the consent of the people can be unilaterally revoked by the U.S. Congress, and that U.S. Congress can also withdraw the U.S. citizenship of Puerto Rican residents of Puerto Rico at any time, for a legitimate Federal purpose. The application of the U.S. Constitution to Puerto Rico is limited by the Insular Cases.
In 2006, 2007, 2009, 2010, and 2011 the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization passed resolutions calling on the United States to expedite a process "that would allow Puerto Ricans to fully exercise their inalienable right to self - determination and independence '', and to release all Puerto Rican political prisoners in U.S. prisons, to clean up, decontaminate and return the lands in the islands of Vieques and Culebra to the people of Puerto Rico, to perform a probe into U.S. human rights violations on the island and a probe into the killing by the FBI of pro-independence leader Filiberto Ojeda Rios.
On July 15, 2009, the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization approved a draft resolution calling on the Government of the United States to expedite a process that would allow the Puerto Rican people to exercise fully their inalienable right to self - determination and independence.
On April 29, 2010, the U.S. House voted 223 -- 169 to approve a measure for a federally sanctioned process for Puerto Rico 's self - determination, allowing Puerto Rico to set a new referendum on whether to continue its present form of commonwealth, or to have a different political status. If Puerto Ricans voted to continue as a commonwealth, the Government of Puerto Rico was authorized to conduct additional plebiscites at intervals of every eight years from the date on which the results of the prior plebiscite were certified; if Puerto Ricans voted to have a different political status, a second referendum would determine whether Puerto Rico would become a U.S. state, an independent country, or a sovereign nation associated with the U.S. that would not be subject to the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution. During the House debate, a fourth option, to retain its present form of commonwealth (sometimes referred to as "the status quo '') political status, was added as an option in the second plebiscite.
Immediately following U.S. House passage, H.R. 2499 was sent to the U.S. Senate, where it was given two formal readings and referred to the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources. On December 22, 2010, the 111th United States Congress adjourned without any Senate vote on H.R. 2499, killing the bill.
The latest Task Force report was released on March 11, 2011. The report suggested a two - plebiscite process, including a "first plebiscite that requires the people of Puerto Rico to choose whether they wish to be part of the United States (either via Statehood or Commonwealth) or wish to be independent (via Independence or Free Association). If continuing to be part of the United States were chosen in the first plebiscite, a second vote would be taken between Statehood and Commonwealth. ''
On June 14, 2011, President Barack Obama "promised to support ' a clear decision ' by the people of Puerto Rico on statehood ''. That same month, the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization passed a resolution and adopted a consensus text introduced by Cuba 's delegate on June 20, 2011, calling on the United States to expedite a process "that would allow Puerto Ricans to fully exercise their inalienable right to self - determination and independence ''.
On November 6, 2012, a two - question referendum took place, simultaneous with the general elections. The first question asked voters whether they wanted to maintain the current status under the territorial clause of the U.S. Constitution. The second question posed three alternate status options if the first question was approved: statehood, independence or free association. For the first question, 54 percent voted against the current Commonwealth status. For the second question, 61.16 % voted for statehood, 33.34 % for a sovereign free associated state, and 5.49 % for independence.
There were also 515,348 blank and invalidated ballots, which are not reflected in the final tally, as they are not considered cast votes under Puerto Rico law. On December 11, 2012, Puerto Rico 's Legislature passed a concurrent resolution to request to the President and the U.S. Congress action on November 6, 2012 plebiscite results. But on April 10, 2013, with the issue still being widely debated, the White House announced that it will seek $2.5 million to hold another referendum, this next one being the first Puerto Rican status referendum to be financed by the U.S. Federal government.
In December 2015, the U.S. Government submitted a brief as Amicus Curiae to the U.S. Supreme Court related to the case Commonwealth of Puerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle. The U.S. Government official position is that the U.S. Constitution does not contemplate "sovereign territories ''. That the Court has consistently recognized that "there is no sovereignty in a Territory of the United States but that of the United States itself ''. and a U.S. territory has "no independent sovereignty comparable to that of a state. That is because "the Government of a territory owes its existence wholly to the United States ''. Congress 's plenary authority over federal territories includes the authority to permit self - government, whereby local officials administer a territory 's internal affairs.
On June 9, 2016, in Commonwealth of Puerto Rico vs Sanchez Valle, a 6 -- 2 majority of the Supreme Court of the United States determined that Puerto Rico is a territory and lacks Sovereignty.
On June 30, 2016, the President of the United States of America signed a new law approved by U.S. Congress, H.R. 5278: PROMESA, establishing a Control Board over the Puerto Rico Government. This board will have a significant degree of federal control involved in its establishment and operations. In particular, the authority to establish the control board derives from the federal government 's constitutional power to "make all needful rules and regulations '' regarding U.S. territories; The President would appoint all seven voting members of the board; and the board would have broad sovereign powers to effectively overrule decisions by Puerto Rico 's legislature, governor, and other public authorities.
The latest referendum on statehood, independence, or an associated republic was held on November 6, 2012. The people of Puerto Rico made history by requesting, for the first time ever, the conclusion of the island 's current territorial status. Almost 78 % of registered voters participated in a plebiscite held to resolve Puerto Rico 's status, and a slim but clear majority (54 %) disagreed with Puerto Rico maintaining its present territorial status. Furthermore, among the possible alternatives, sixty - one percent (61 %) of voters chose the statehood option, while one third of the ballots were submitted blank.
On December 11, 2012, the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico enacted a concurrent resolution requesting the President and the Congress of the United States to respond to the referendum of the people of Puerto Rico, held on November 6, 2012, to end its current form of territorial status and to begin the process to admit Puerto Rico as a State. The initiative has not made Puerto Rico into a state.
In late September 2017, Hurricane Maria hit the island as a Category 4 storm causing severe damage to homes, other buildings and infrastructure. The recovery as of late November was slow but progress had been made. Electricity was restored to two - thirds of the island, although there was some doubt as to the number of residents getting reliable power. In January 2018, it was reported that close to 40 percent of the island 's customers still did not have electricity. The vast majority had access to water but were still required to boil it. The number still living in shelters had dropped to 982 with thousands of others living with relatives. The official death toll at the time was 58 but some sources indicated that the actual number is much higher. A dam on the island was close to failure and officials were concerned about additional flooding from this source.
Thousands had left Puerto Rico, with close to 200,000 having arrived in Florida alone. Those who were then living on the mainland experienced difficulty in getting health care benefits. A New York Times report on November 27 said it was understandable that Puerto Ricans wanted to leave the island. "Basic essentials are hard to find and electricity and other utilities are unreliable or entirely inaccessible. Much of the population has been unable to return to jobs or to school and access to health care has been severely limited. '' The Center for Puerto Rican Studies at New York 's Hunter College estimated that some half million people, about 14 % of the population, may permanently leave by 2019.
The total damage on the island was estimated as up to $95 billion. By the end of November, FEMA had received over a million applications for aid and had approved about a quarter of those. The US government had agreed in October to provide funding to rebuild and up to $4.9 billion in loans to help the island 's government. FEMA had $464 million earmarked to help local governments rebuild public buildings and infrastructure. Bills for other funding were being considered in Washington but little progress had been made on those.
A November 28, 2017 report by the Sierra Club included this comment: "It will take years to rebuild Puerto Rico, not just from the worst hurricane to make landfall since 1932, but to sustainably overcome environmental injustices which made Maria 's devastation even more catastrophic ''.
In May, 2017, the Natural Resources Defense Council reported that Puerto Rico 's water system was the worst as measured by the Clean Water Act. 70 % of the population drank water that violated U.S. law.
A tourism web site report in March 2018 indicated that all airports were operating, although Luis Munoz Marin Airport would not be back to handling the full number of flights until July 2018. Some 90 % of the island was receiving electricity, although the power structure would require another $17.6 billion for full rebuilding, according to the United States Department of Energy. Nearly all residents had access to telecommunications service and running water. All hospitals were operating. Some 83 % of hotel rooms were available for use and the cruise ship port was receiving ships; 58 arrived in San Juan in February. The island was encouraging operators to increase the number of tourists.
Reports in April 2018 stated that Puerto Rico will receive $18.5 billion from the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development to help rebuild homes and infrastructure. This was substantially less than the $46 billion requested by the governor. However, the island was expecting to receive approximately $50 billion for disaster relief over the subsequent six years mostly via the Federal Emergency Management Agency. At that time, nearly 2800 families were living in FEMA - sponsored short - term housing across 34 states and Puerto Rico. Nearly half of the schools are operating at only 60 % classroom capacity. Over 280 public schools would not reopen in the fall; 827 were expected to be operational. Almost 40,000 students left the island 's schools since May 2017; some of these were in schools in the mainland U.S. (Before the hurricanes, Puerto Rico had planned to close 179 schools due to inadequate numbers of students.)
Puerto Rico consists of the main island of Puerto Rico and various smaller islands, including Vieques, Culebra, Mona, Desecheo, and Caja de Muertos. Of these five, only Culebra and Vieques are inhabited year - round. Mona, which has played a key role in maritime history, is uninhabited most of the year except for employees of the Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources. There are many other even smaller islets, like Monito, which is near to Mona, Isla de Cabras and La Isleta de San Juan, both located on the San Juan Bay. The latter is the only inhabited islet with communities like Old San Juan and Puerta de Tierra, and connected to the main island by bridges.
The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico has an area of 13,790 square kilometers (5,320 sq mi), of which 8,870 km (3,420 sq mi) is land and 4,921 km (1,900 sq mi) is water. Puerto Rico is larger than two U.S. states, Delaware and Rhode Island. The maximum length of the main island from east to west is 180 km (110 mi), and the maximum width from north to south is 65 km (40 mi). Puerto Rico is the smallest of the Greater Antilles. It is 80 % of the size of Jamaica, just over 18 % of the size of Hispaniola and 8 % of the size of Cuba, the largest of the Greater Antilles.
The island is mostly mountainous with large coastal areas in the north and south. The main mountain range is called "La Cordillera Central '' (The Central Range). The highest elevation in Puerto Rico, Cerro de Punta 1,338 meters (4,390 ft), is located in this range.
Another important peak is El Yunque, one of the highest in the Sierra de Luquillo at the El Yunque National Forest, with an elevation of 1,065 m (3,494 ft).
Puerto Rico has 17 lakes, all man - made, and more than 50 rivers, most originating in the Cordillera Central. Rivers in the northern region of the island are typically longer and of higher water flow rates than those of the south, since the south receives less rain than the central and northern regions.
Puerto Rico is composed of Cretaceous to Eocene volcanic and plutonic rocks, overlain by younger Oligocene and more recent carbonates and other sedimentary rocks. Most of the caverns and karst topography on the island occurs in the northern region in the carbonates. The oldest rocks are approximately 190 million years old (Jurassic) and are located at Sierra Bermeja in the southwest part of the island. They may represent part of the oceanic crust and are believed to come from the Pacific Ocean realm.
Puerto Rico lies at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates and is being deformed by the tectonic stresses caused by their interaction. These stresses may cause earthquakes and tsunamis. These seismic events, along with landslides, represent some of the most dangerous geologic hazards in the island and in the northeastern Caribbean.
The most recent major earthquake occurred on October 11, 1918, and had an estimated magnitude of 7.5 on the Richter scale. It originated off the coast of Aguadilla, several kilometers off the northern coast, and was accompanied by a tsunami. It caused extensive property damage and widespread losses, damaging infrastructure, especially bridges. It resulted in an estimated 116 deaths and $4 million in property damage. The failure of the government to move rapidly to provide for the general welfare contributed to political activism by opponents and eventually to the rise of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party.
The Puerto Rico Trench, the largest and deepest trench in the Atlantic, is located about 115 km (71 mi) north of Puerto Rico at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates. It is 280 km (170 mi) long. At its deepest point, named the Milwaukee Deep, it is almost 8,400 m (27,600 ft) deep.
The climate of Puerto Rico in the Köppen climate classification is tropical rainforest. Temperatures are warm to hot year round, averaging near 85 ° F (29 ° C) in lower elevations and 70 ° F (21 ° C) in the mountains. Easterly trade winds pass across the island year round. Puerto Rico has a rainy season which stretches from April into November. The mountains of the Cordillera Central are the main cause of the variations in the temperature and rainfall that occur over very short distances. The mountains can also cause wide variation in local wind speed and direction due to their sheltering and channeling effects adding to the climatic variation.
The island has an average temperature of 82.4 ° F (28 ° C) throughout the year, with an average minimum temperature of 66.9 ° F (19 ° C) and maximum of 85.4 ° F (30 ° C). Daily temperature changes seasonally are quite small in the lowlands and coastal areas. The temperature in the south is usually a few degrees higher than the north and temperatures in the central interior mountains are always cooler than those on the rest of the island.
Between the dry and wet season, there is a temperature change of around 6 ° F (3.3 ° C). This is mainly due to the warm waters of the tropical Atlantic Ocean, which significantly modify cooler air moving in from the north and northwest. Coastal waters temperatures around the years are about 75 ° F (24 ° C) in February to 85 ° F (29 ° C) in August. The highest temperature ever recorded was 99 ° F (37 ° C) at Arecibo, while the lowest temperature ever recorded was 40 ° F (4 ° C) in the mountains at Adjuntas, Aibonito, and Corozal. The average yearly precipitation is 1,687 mm (66 in).
Puerto Rico experiences the Atlantic hurricane season, similar to the remainder of the Caribbean Sea and North Atlantic oceans. On average, a quarter of its annual rainfall is contributed from tropical cyclones, which are more prevalent during periods of La Niña than El Niño. A cyclone of tropical storm strength passes near Puerto Rico, on average, every five years. A hurricane passes in the vicinity of the island, on average, every seven years. Since 1851, the Lake Okeechobee Hurricane of September 1928 is the only hurricane to make landfall as a Category 5 hurricane.
In the busy 2017 Atlantic hurricane season, Puerto Rico avoided a direct hit by the Category 5 Hurricane Irma on September 8, 2017, but high winds caused a loss of electrical power to some one million residents. Almost 50 % of hospitals were operating with power provided by generators. The Category 4 Hurricane Jose, as expected, veered away from Puerto Rico. A short time later, the devastating Hurricane Maria made landfall in Puerto Rico as a Category 4 hurricane, with sustained 155 mph (249 km / h) winds, powerful rains and widespread flooding causing tremendous destruction, including the electrical grid, which could remain out for 4 -- 6 months. With such widespread destruction and a great need for supplies -- everything from drinking water, food, medicine and personal care items to fuel for generators and construction materials for rebuilding the island -- Gov. Rossello and several Congressmen called on the federal government to waive the WWI - era Jones Act (protectionist provisions: ships made and owned in U.S., and with U.S. crews), which essentially double Puerto Rico 's cost for shipped goods relative to neighboring islands. On September 28, U.S. President Donald Trump waived the Act for ten days.
Species endemic to the archipelago number 239 plants, 16 birds and 39 amphibians / reptiles, recognized as of 1998. Most of these (234, 12 and 33 respectively) are found on the main island. The most recognizable endemic species and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the coquí, a small frog easily identified by the sound of its call, from which it gets its name. Most coquí species (13 of 17) live in the El Yunque National Forest, a tropical rainforest in the northeast of the island previously known as the Caribbean National Forest. El Yunque is home to more than 240 plants, 26 of which are endemic to the island. It is also home to 50 bird species, including the critically endangered Puerto Rican amazon.
Across the island in the southwest, the 40 km (15 sq mi) of dry land at the Guánica Commonwealth Forest Reserve contain over 600 uncommon species of plants and animals, including 48 endangered species and 16 endemic to Puerto Rico.
The population of Puerto Rico has been shaped by Amerindian settlement, European colonization, slavery, economic migration, and Puerto Rico 's status as unincorporated territory of the United States.
The estimated population of Puerto Rico as of July 1, 2015, was 3,474,182, a 6.75 % decrease since the 2010 United States Census. From 2000 to 2010, the population decreased, the first such decrease in census history for Puerto Rico. It went from the 3,808,610 residents registered in the 2000 Census to 3,725,789 in the 2010 Census.
A declining and aging population presents additional problems for the society. The U.S. Census Bureau 's estimate for July 1, 2016 was 3,411,307 people, down substantially from the 2010 data which had indicated 3,725,789 people.
Continuous European immigration and high natural increase helped the population of Puerto Rico grow from 155,426 in 1800, to almost a million by the close of the 19th century.
A census conducted by royal decree on September 30, 1858, gave the following totals of the Puerto Rican population at that time: 341,015 were Free colored; 300,430 identified as Whites; and 41,736 were slaves.
During the 19th century hundreds of families arrived in Puerto Rico, primarily from the Canary Islands and Andalusia, but also from other parts of Spain such as Catalonia, Asturias, Galicia and the Balearic Islands and numerous Spanish loyalists from Spain 's former colonies in South America. Settlers from outside Spain also arrived in the islands, including from Corsica, France, Lebanon, China, Portugal, Ireland, Scotland, Germany and Italy. This immigration from non-Hispanic countries was the result of the Real Cedula de Gracias de 1815 ("Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 ''), which allowed European Catholics to settle in the island with land allotments in the interior of the island, provided they paid taxes and continued to support the Catholic Church.
Between 1960 and 1990 the census questionnaire in Puerto Rico did not ask about race or ethnicity. The 2000 United States Census included a racial self - identification question in Puerto Rico. According to the census, most Puerto Ricans identified as White and Hispanic; few identified as Black or some other race.
A recent population genetics study conducted in Puerto Rico suggests that between 52.6 % and 84 % of the population possess some degree of Amerindian mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in their maternal ancestry, usually in a combination with other ancestries such as aboriginal Guanche North - West African ancestry brought by Spanish settlers from the Canary Islands.
In addition, these DNA studies show Amerindian ancestry in addition to the Taíno.
One genetic study on the racial makeup of Puerto Ricans (including all races) found them to be roughly around 61 % West Eurasian / North African (overwhelmingly of Spanish provenance), 27 % Sub-Saharan African and 11 % Native American. Another genetic study from 2007, claimed that "the average genomewide individual (ie. Puerto Rican) ancestry proportions have been estimated as 66 %, 18 %, and 16 %, for European, West African, and Native American, respectively. '' Other study estimates 63.7 % European, 21.2 % (Sub-Saharan) African, and 15.2 % Native American; European ancestry is more prevalent in the West and in Central Puerto Rico, African in Eastern Puerto Rico, and Native American in Northern Puerto Rico.
A Pew Research survey indicated a literacy rate of 90.4 % (adult population) in 2012 based on data from the United Nations and a life expectancy of 79.3 years.
Puerto Rico has recently become the permanent home of over 100,000 legal residents. The vast majority of recent immigrants, both legal and illegal, come from the Dominican Republic and Haiti. Other sources sending in significant numbers of recent immigrants include Cuba, Mexico, Colombia, Panama, Jamaica, Venezuela, Spain, and Nigeria. Also, there are many non-Puerto Rican U.S. citizens settling in Puerto Rico, from the mainland United States and the U.S. Virgin Islands, as well as Nuyoricans (stateside Puerto Ricans) coming back to Puerto Rico. Most recent immigrants settle in and around San Juan.
Emigration is a major part of contemporary Puerto Rican history. Starting soon after World War II, poverty, cheap airfares, and promotion by the island government caused waves of Puerto Ricans to move to the United States, particularly to the Northeastern states, and Florida. This trend continued even as Puerto Rico 's economy improved and its birth rate declined. Puerto Ricans continue to follow a pattern of "circular migration '', with some migrants returning to the island. In recent years, the population has declined markedly, falling nearly 1 % in 2012 and an additional 1 % (36,000 people) in 2013 due to a falling birthrate and emigration.
According to the 2010 Census, the number of Puerto Ricans living in the United States outside of Puerto Rico far exceeds those living in Puerto Rico. Emigration exceeds immigration. As those who leave tend to be better educated than those that remain, this accentuates the drain on Puerto Rico 's economy.
Based on the July 1, 2016 estimate by the U.S. Census Bureau, the population of the Commonwealth had declined by 314,482 people since the 2010 Census data had been tabulated.
The most populous city is the capital, San Juan, with approximately 371,400 people based on a 2015 estimate by the Census Bureau. Other major cities include Bayamón, Carolina, Ponce, and Caguas. Of the ten most populous cities on the island, eight are located within what is considered San Juan 's metropolitan area, while the other two are located in the south (Ponce) and west (Mayagüez) of the island.
The official languages of the executive branch of government of Puerto Rico are Spanish and English, with Spanish being the primary language. Spanish is, and has been, the only official language of the entire Commonwealth judiciary system, despite a 1902 English - only language law. However, all official business of the U.S. District Court for the District of Puerto Rico is conducted in English. English is the primary language of less than 10 % of the population. Spanish is the dominant language of business, education and daily life on the island, spoken by nearly 95 % of the population.
The U.S. Census Bureau 's 2015 update provides the following facts: 94.1 % of adults speak Spanish, 5.8 % speak only English, 78.3 % do not speak English "very well ''.
In Puerto Rico, public school instruction is conducted almost entirely in Spanish. There have been pilot programs in about a dozen of the over 1,400 public schools aimed at conducting instruction in English only. Objections from teaching staff are common, perhaps because many of them are not fully fluent in English. English is taught as a second language and is a compulsory subject from elementary levels to high school. The languages of the deaf community are American Sign Language and its local variant, Puerto Rican Sign Language.
The Spanish of Puerto Rico has evolved into having many idiosyncrasies in vocabulary and syntax that differentiate it from the Spanish spoken elsewhere. As a product of Puerto Rican history, the island possesses a unique Spanish dialect. Puerto Rican Spanish utilizes many Taíno words, as well as English words. The largest influence on the Spanish spoken in Puerto Rico is that of the Canary Islands. The Spanish of Puerto Rico also includes Taíno words, typically in the context of vegetation, natural phenomena or primitive musical instruments. Similarly, words attributed to primarily West African languages were adopted in the contexts of foods, music or dances, particularly in coastal towns with concentrations of descendants of Sub-Saharan Africans.
Religious affiliation in Puerto Rico (2014)
The Roman Catholic Church was brought by Spanish colonists and gradually became the dominant religion in Puerto Rico. The first dioceses in the Americas, including that of Puerto Rico, were authorized by Pope Julius II in 1511. One Pope, John Paul II, visited Puerto Rico in October 1984. All municipalities in Puerto Rico have at least one Catholic church, most of which are located at the town center, or plaza. African slaves brought and maintained various ethnic African religious practices associated with different peoples; in particular, the Yoruba beliefs of Santería and / or Ifá, and the Kongo - derived Palo Mayombe. Some aspects were absorbed into syncretic Christianity.
Protestantism, which was suppressed under the Spanish Catholic regime, has slightly reemerged under United States rule, making contemporary Puerto Rico more interconfessional than in previous centuries, although Catholicism continues to be the dominant religion. The first Protestant church, Iglesia de la Santísima Trinidad, was established in Ponce by the Anglican Diocese of Antigua in 1872. It was the first non-Roman Catholic Church in the entire Spanish Empire in the Americas.
Pollster Pablo Ramos stated in 1998 that the population was 38 % Roman Catholic, 28 % Pentecostal, and 18 % were members of independent churches, which would give a Protestant percentage of 46 % if the last two populations are combined. Protestants collectively added up to almost two million people. Another researcher gave a more conservative assessment of the proportion of Protestants:
Puerto Rico, by virtue of its long political association with the United States, is the most Protestant of Latin American countries, with a Protestant population of approximately 33 to 38 percent, the majority of whom are Pentecostal. David Stoll calculates that if we extrapolate the growth rates of evangelical churches from 1960 -- 1985 for another twenty - five years Puerto Rico will become 75 percent evangelical. (Ana Adams: "Brincando el Charco... '' in Power, Politics and Pentecostals in Latin America, Edward Cleary, ed., 1997. p. 164).
The data provided for 2014 by Pew Research Center, is summarized in the chart to the right. An Associated Press article in March 2014 stated that "more than 70 percent of whom identify themselves as Catholic '' but provided no source for this information.
The CIA World Factbook reports that 85 % of the population of Puerto Rico identifies as Roman Catholic, while 15 % identify as Protestant and Other. Neither a date or a source for that information is provided and may not be recent. A 2013 Pew Research survey found that only about 45 % of Puerto Rican adults identified themselves as Catholic, 29 % as Protestant and 20 % as unaffiliated with a religion. The people surveyed by Pew consisted of Puerto Ricans living in the 50 states and DC and may not be indicative of those living in the Commonwealth.
By 2014, a Pew Research report, with the sub-title Widespread Change in a Historically Catholic Region, indicated that only 56 % of Puerto Ricans were Catholic and that 33 % were Protestant; this survey was completed between October 2013 and February 2014.
An Eastern Orthodox community, the Dormition of the Most Holy Theotokos / St. Spyridon 's Church is located in Trujillo Alto, and serves the small Orthodox community. This affiliation accounted for under 1 % of the population in 2010 according to the Pew Research report. In 1940, Juanita García Peraza founded the Mita Congregation, the first religion of Puerto Rican origin. Taíno religious practices have been rediscovered / reinvented to a degree by a handful of advocates. Similarly, some aspects of African religious traditions have been kept by some adherents. In 1952, a handful of American Jews established the island 's first synagogue; this religion accounts for under 1 % of the population in 2010 according to the Pew Research report. The synagogue, called Sha'are Zedeck, hired its first rabbi in 1954. Puerto Rico has the largest Jewish community in the Caribbean, numbering 3000 people (date not stated), and is the only Caribbean island in which the Conservative, Reform and Orthodox Jewish movements all are represented. In 2007, there were about 5,000 Muslims in Puerto Rico, representing about 0.13 % of the population. Eight mosques are located throughout the island, with most Muslims living in Río Piedras and Caguas, most of these Muslims are of Palestinian and Jordanian descent. There is also a Bahá'í community on the island. In 2015, the 25,832 Jehovah 's Witnesses represented about 0.70 % of the population, with 324 congregations. The Padmasambhava Buddhist Center, whose followers practice Tibetan Buddhism, as well as Nichiren Buddhism have branches in Puerto Rico.
Roman Catholic Cathedral of San Juan Bautista.
Anglican Iglesia Santísima Trinidad in Ponce
Islamic Center at Ponce
Inside Sha'are Zedeck in San Juan
Puerto Rico has 8 senatorial districts, 40 representative districts and 78 municipalities. It has a republican form of government with separation of powers subject to the jurisdiction and sovereignty of the United States. Its current powers are all delegated by the United States Congress and lack full protection under the United States Constitution. Puerto Rico 's head of state is the President of the United States.
The government of Puerto Rico, based on the formal republican system, is composed of three branches: the executive, legislative, and judicial branch. The executive branch is headed by the governor, currently Ricky Rosselló. The legislative branch consists of a bicameral legislature called the Legislative Assembly, made up of a Senate as its upper chamber and a House of Representatives as its lower chamber. The Senate is headed by the President of the Senate, currently Thomas Rivera Schatz, while the House of Representatives is headed by the Speaker of the House, currently Johnny Méndez. The governor and legislators are elected by popular vote every four years with the last election held in November 2016.
The judicial branch is headed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico, currently Maite Oronoz Rodríguez. Members of the judicial branch are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the Senate.
Puerto Rico is represented in the United States Congress by a nonvoting delegate, the Resident Commissioner, currently Jenniffer González. Current congressional rules have removed the Commissioner 's power to vote in the Committee of the Whole, but the Commissioner can vote in committee.
Puerto Rican elections are governed by the Federal Election Commission and the State Elections Commission of Puerto Rico. While residing in Puerto Rico, Puerto Ricans can not vote in U.S. presidential elections, but they can vote in primaries. Puerto Ricans who become residents of a U.S. state can vote in presidential elections.
Puerto Rico hosts consulates from 41 countries, mainly from the Americas and Europe, with most located in San Juan. As an unincorporated territory of the United States, Puerto Rico does not have any first - order administrative divisions as defined by the U.S. government, but has 78 municipalities at the second level. Mona Island is not a municipality, but part of the municipality of Mayagüez.
Municipalities are subdivided into wards or barrios, and those into sectors. Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected for a four - year term. The municipality of San Juan (previously called "town ''), was founded first, in 1521, San Germán in 1570, Coamo in 1579, Arecibo in 1614, Aguada in 1692 and Ponce in 1692. An increase of settlement saw the founding of 30 municipalities in the 18th century and 34 in the 19th. Six were founded in the 20th century; the last was Florida in 1971.
Since 1952, Puerto Rico has had three main political parties: the Popular Democratic Party (PPD in Spanish), the New Progressive Party (PNP in Spanish) and the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP). The three parties stand for different political status. The PPD, for example, seeks to maintain the island 's status with the U.S. as a commonwealth, while the PNP, on the other hand, seeks to make Puerto Rico a state of the United States. The PIP, in contrast, seeks a complete separation from the United States by seeking to make Puerto Rico a sovereign nation. In terms of party strength, the PPD and PNP usually hold about 47 % of the vote each while the PIP holds only about 5 %.
After 2007, other parties emerged on the island. The first, the Puerto Ricans for Puerto Rico Party (PPR in Spanish) was registered that same year. The party claims that it seeks to address the islands ' problems from a status - neutral platform. But it ceased to remain as a registered party when it failed to obtain the required number of votes in the 2008 general election. Four years later, the 2012 election saw the emergence of the Movimiento Unión Soberanista (MUS; English: Sovereign Union Movement) and the Partido del Pueblo Trabajador (PPT; English: Working People 's Party) but none obtained more than 1 % of the vote.
Other non-registered parties include the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, the Socialist Workers Movement, and the Hostosian National Independence Movement.
The insular legal system is a blend of civil law and the common law systems.
Puerto Rico is the only current U.S. possession whose legal system operates primarily in a language other than American English: namely, Spanish. Because the U.S. federal government operates primarily in English, all Puerto Rican attorneys must be bilingual in order to litigate in English in U.S. federal courts, and litigate federal preemption issues in Puerto Rican courts.
Title 48 of the United States Code outlines the role of the United States Code to United States territories and insular areas such as Puerto Rico. After the U.S. government assumed control of Puerto Rico in 1901, it initiated legal reforms resulting in the adoption of codes of criminal law, criminal procedure, and civil procedure modeled after those then in effect in California. Although Puerto Rico has since followed the federal example of transferring criminal and civil procedure from statutory law to rules promulgated by the judiciary, several portions of its criminal law still reflect the influence of the California Penal Code.
The judicial branch is headed by the Chief Justice of the Puerto Rico Supreme Court, which is the only appellate court required by the Constitution. All other courts are created by the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico. There is also a Federal District Court for Puerto Rico. Someone accused of a criminal act at the federal level may not be accused for the same act in a Commonwealth court, unlike a state court, since Puerto Rico as a territory lacks sovereignty separate from Congress as a state does. Such a parallel accusation would constitute double jeopardy.
The nature of Puerto Rico 's political relationship with the U.S. is the subject of ongoing debate in Puerto Rico, the United States Congress, and the United Nations. Specifically, the basic question is whether Puerto Rico should remain a U.S. territory, become a U.S. state, or become an independent country.
Constitutionally, Puerto Rico is subject to the plenary powers of the United States Congress under the territorial clause of Article IV of the U.S. Constitution. Laws enacted at the federal level in the United States apply to Puerto Rico as well, regardless of its political status. Their residents do not have voting representation in the U.S. Congress. Like the different states of the United States, Puerto Rico lacks "the full sovereignty of an independent nation '', for example, the power to manage its "external relations with other nations '', which is held by the U.S. federal government. The Supreme Court of the United States has indicated that once the U.S. Constitution has been extended to an area (by Congress or the courts), its coverage is irrevocable. To hold that the political branches may switch the Constitution on or off at will would lead to a regime in which they, not this Court, say "what the law is ''.
Puerto Ricans "were collectively made U.S. citizens '' in 1917 as a result of the Jones - Shafroth Act. U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico can not vote for the U.S. president, though both major parties, Republican and Democratic, run primary elections in Puerto Rico to send delegates to vote on a presidential candidate. Since Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory (see above) and not a U.S. state, the United States Constitution does not fully enfranchise U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico.
Only fundamental rights under the American federal constitution and adjudications are applied to Puerto Ricans. Various other U.S. Supreme Court decisions have held which rights apply in Puerto Rico and which ones do not. Puerto Ricans have a long history of service in the U.S. Armed Forces and, since 1917, they have been included in the U.S. compulsory draft whensoever it has been in effect.
Though the Commonwealth government has its own tax laws, Puerto Ricans are also required to pay many kinds of U.S. federal taxes, not including the federal personal income tax for Puerto Rico - sourced income, but only under certain circumstances. In 2009, Puerto Rico paid $3.742 billion into the U.S. Treasury. Residents of Puerto Rico pay into Social Security, and are thus eligible for Social Security benefits upon retirement. They are excluded from the Supplemental Security Income (SSI), and the island actually receives a smaller fraction of the Medicaid funding it would receive if it were a U.S. state. Also, Medicare providers receive less - than - full state - like reimbursements for services rendered to beneficiaries in Puerto Rico, even though the latter paid fully into the system.
While a state may try an individual for the same crime he / she was tried in federal court, this is not the case in Puerto Rico. Being a U.S. territory, Puerto Rico 's authority to enact a criminal code derives from Congress and not from local sovereignty as with the states. Thus, such a parallel accusation would constitute double jeopardy and is constitutionally impermissible.
In 1992, President George H.W. Bush issued a memorandum to heads of executive departments and agencies establishing the current administrative relationship between the federal government and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. This memorandum directs all federal departments, agencies, and officials to treat Puerto Rico administratively as if it were a state, insofar as doing so would not disrupt federal programs or operations.
Many federal executive branch agencies have significant presence in Puerto Rico, just as in any state, including the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Transportation Security Administration, Social Security Administration, and others. While Puerto Rico has its own Commonwealth judicial system similar to that of a U.S. state, there is also a U.S. federal district court in Puerto Rico, and Puerto Ricans have served as judges in that Court and in other federal courts on the U.S. mainland regardless of their residency status at the time of their appointment. Sonia Sotomayor, a New Yorker of Puerto Rican descent, serves as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Puerto Ricans have also been frequently appointed to high - level federal positions, including serving as United States Ambassadors to other nations.
Puerto Rico is subject to the Commerce and Territorial Clause of the Constitution of the United States and, therefore, is restricted on how it can engage with other nations, sharing the opportunities and limitations that state governments have albeit not being one. As is the case with state governments, regardless, it has established several trade agreements with other nations, particularly with Hispanic American countries such as Colombia and Panamá.
It has also established trade promotion offices in many foreign countries, all Spanish - speaking, and within the United States itself, which now include Spain, the Dominican Republic, Panama, Colombia, Washington, D.C., New York City and Florida, and has included in the past offices in Chile, Costa Rica, and Mexico. Such agreements require permission from the U.S. Department of State; most, are simply allowed by existing laws or trade treaties between the United States and other nations which supersede trade agreements pursued by Puerto Rico and different U.S. states.
At the local level, Puerto Rico established by law that the international relations which states and territories are allowed to engage must be handled by the Department of State of Puerto Rico, an executive department, headed by the Secretary of State of Puerto Rico, who also serves as the territory 's lieutenant governor. It is also charged to liaise with general consuls and honorary consuls based in Puerto Rico. The Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration, along with the Office of the Resident Commissioner, manage all its intergovernmental affairs before entities of or in the United States (including the federal government of the United States, local and state governments of the United States, and public or private entities in the United States).
Both entities frequently assist the Department of State of Puerto Rico in engaging with Washington, D.C. - based ambassadors and federal agencies that handle Puerto Rico 's foreign affairs, such as the U.S. Department of State, the Agency for International Development, and others. The current Secretary of State is Víctor Suárez Meléndez from the Popular Democratic Party and member of the Democratic Party of the United States, while the current Director of the Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration is Juan Eugenio Hernández Mayoral also from the Popular Democratic and member of the Democratic Party.
The Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, the delegate elected by Puerto Ricans to represent them before the federal government, including the U.S. Congress, sits in the United States House of Representatives, serves and votes on congressional committees, and functions in every respect as a legislator except being denied a vote on the final disposition of legislation on the House floor, also engages in foreign affairs to the same extent as other members of Congress. The current Resident Commissioner is Pedro Pierluisi from the New Progressive Party and member of the Democratic Party of the United States.
Many Puerto Ricans have served as United States ambassadors to different nations and international organizations, such as the Organization of American States, mostly but not exclusively in Latin America. For example, Maricarmen Aponte, a Puerto Rican and now an Acting Assistant Secretary of State, previously served as U.S. ambassador to El Salvador.
As it is a territory of the United States of America, the defense of Puerto Rico is provided by the United States as part of the Treaty of Paris with the President of the United States as its commander - in - chief. Puerto Rico has its own Puerto Rico National Guard, and its own state defense force, the Puerto Rico State Guard, which by local law is under the authority of the Puerto Rico National Guard.
The commander - in - chief of both local forces is the governor of Puerto Rico who delegates his authority to the Puerto Rico Adjutant General, currently Brigadier General Isabelo Rivera. The Adjutant General, in turn, delegates the authority over the State Guard to another officer but retains the authority over the Puerto Rico National Guard as a whole.
U.S. military installations in Puerto Rico were part of the U.S. Atlantic Command (LANTCOM after 1993 USACOM), which had authority over all U.S. military operations that took place throughout the Atlantic. Puerto Rico had been seen as crucial in supporting LANTCOM 's mission until 1999, when U.S. Atlantic Command was renamed and given a new mission as United States Joint Forces Command. Puerto Rico is currently under the responsibility of United States Northern Command.
Both the Naval Forces Caribbean (NFC) and the Fleet Air Caribbean (FAIR) were formerly based at the Roosevelt Roads Naval Station. The NFC had authority over all U.S. Naval activity in the waters of the Caribbean while FAIR had authority over all U.S. military flights and air operations over the Caribbean. With the closing of the Roosevelt Roads and Vieques Island training facilities, the U.S. Navy has basically exited from Puerto Rico, except for the ships that steam by, and the only significant military presence in the island is the U.S. Army at Ft Buchanan, the Puerto Rican Army and Air National Guards, and the U.S. Coast Guard. Protests over the noise of bombing practice forced the closure of the naval base. This resulted in a loss of 6,000 jobs and an annual decrease in local income of $300 million.
A branch of the U.S. Army National Guard is stationed in Puerto Rico -- known as the Puerto Rico Army National Guard -- which performs missions equivalent to those of the Army National Guards of the different states of the United States, including ground defense, disaster relief, and control of civil unrest. The local National Guard also incorporates a branch of the U.S. Air National Guard -- known as the Puerto Rico Air National Guard -- which performs missions equivalent to those of the Air National Guards of each one of the U.S. states.
At different times in the 20th century, the U.S. had about 25 military or naval installations in Puerto Rico, some very small ones, as well as large installations. The largest of these installations were the former Roosevelt Roads Naval Station in Ceiba, the Atlantic Fleet Weapons Training Facility (AFWTF) on Vieques, the National Guard training facility at Camp Santiago in Salinas, Fort Allen in Juana Diaz, the Army 's Fort Buchanan in San Juan, the former U.S. Air Force Ramey Air Force Base in Aguadilla, and the Puerto Rico Air National Guard at Muñiz Air Force base in San Juan.
The former U.S. Navy facilities at Roosevelt Roads, Vieques, and Sabana Seca have been deactivated and partially turned over to the local government. Other than U.S. Coast Guard and Puerto Rico National Guard facilities, there are only two remaining military installations in Puerto Rico: the U.S. Army 's small Ft. Buchanan (supporting local veterans and reserve units) and the PRANG (Puerto Rico Air National Guard) Muñiz Air Base (the C - 130 Fleet). In recent years, the U.S. Congress has considered their deactivations, but these have been opposed by diverse public and private entities in Puerto Rico -- such as retired military who rely on Ft. Buchanan for the services available there.
Puerto Ricans have participated in many of the military conflicts in which the United States has been involved. For example, they participated in the American Revolution, when volunteers from Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Mexico fought the British in 1779 under the command of General Bernardo de Gálvez (1746 -- 1786), and have continued to participate up to the present - day conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan.
A significant number of Puerto Ricans participate as members and work for the U.S. Armed Services, largely as National Guard members and civilian employees. The size of the overall military - related community in Puerto Rico is estimated to be 100,000 individuals. This includes retired personnel. Fort Buchanan has about 4,000 military and civilian personnel. In addition, approximately 17,000 people are members of the Puerto Rico Army and Air National Guards, or the U.S. Reserve forces. Puerto Rican soldiers have served in every U.S. military conflict from World War I to the current military engagement known by the United States and its allies as the War against Terrorism.
The 65th Infantry Regiment, nicknamed "The Borinqueneers '' from the original Taíno name of the island (Borinquen), is a Puerto Rican regiment of the United States Army. The regiment 's motto is Honor et Fidelitas, Latin for Honor and Fidelity. The 65th Infantry Regiment participated in World War I, World War II, the Korean War, and the War on Terror and in 2014 was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal, presented by President Barack Obama, for its heroism during the Korean War.
There are no counties, as there are in 48 of the 50 United States. There are 78 municipalities. Municipalities are subdivided into barrios, and those into sectors. Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected to four - year terms.
The economy of Puerto Rico is classified as a high income economy by the World Bank and as the most competitive economy in Latin America by the World Economic Forum but Puerto Rico currently has a public debt of $72.204 billion (equivalent to 103 % of GNP), and a government deficit of $2.5 billion. According to World Bank, gross national income per capita of Puerto Rico in 2013 is $23,830 (PPP, International Dollars), ranked as 63rd among all sovereign and dependent territories entities in the world. Its economy is mainly driven by manufacturing (primarily pharmaceuticals, textiles, petrochemicals and electronics) followed by the service industry (primarily finance, insurance, real estate and tourism). In recent years, the territory has also become a popular destination for MICE (meetings, incentives, conferencing, exhibitions), with a modern convention centre district overlooking the Port of San Juan.
The geography of Puerto Rico and its political status are both determining factors on its economic prosperity, primarily due to its relatively small size as an island; its lack of natural resources used to produce raw materials, and, consequently, its dependence on imports; as well as its territorial status with the United States, which controls its foreign policy while exerting trading restrictions, particularly in its shipping industry.
Puerto Rico experienced a recession from 2006 to 2011, interrupted by 4 quarters of economic growth, and entered into recession again in 2013, following growing fiscal imbalance and the expiration of the IRS Section 936 corporate incentives that the U.S. Internal Revenue Code had applied to Puerto Rico. This IRS section was critical to the economy, as it established tax exemptions for U.S. corporations that settled in Puerto Rico, and allowed their insular subsidiaries to send their earnings to the parent corporation at any time, without paying federal tax on corporate income. Puerto Rico has surprisingly been able to maintain a relatively low inflation in the past decade while maintaining a purchasing power parity per capita higher than 80 % of the rest of the world.
Academically, most of Puerto Rico 's economic woes stem from federal regulations that expired, have been repealed, or no longer apply to Puerto Rico; its inability to become self - sufficient and self - sustainable throughout history; its highly politicized public policy which tends to change whenever a political party gains power; as well as its highly inefficient local government which has accrued a public debt equal to 68 % of its gross domestic product throughout time.
In comparison to the different states of the United States, Puerto Rico is poorer than Mississippi (the poorest state of the U.S.) with 41 % of its population below the poverty line. When compared to Latin America, Puerto Rico has the highest GDP per capita in the region. Its main trading partners are the United States itself, Ireland, and Japan, with most products coming from East Asia, mainly from China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. At a global scale, Puerto Rico 's dependency on oil for transportation and electricity generation, as well as its dependency on food imports and raw materials, makes Puerto Rico volatile and highly reactive to changes in the world economy and climate. Puerto Rico 's agricultural sector represents less than 1 % of GNP.
In early 2017, the Puerto Rican government - debt crisis posed serious problems for the government which was saddled with outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion at a time with a 45 percent poverty rate and 12.4 % unemployment that is more than twice the mainland U.S. average. The debt had been increasing during a decade long recession.
The Commonwealth had been defaulting on many debts, including bonds, since 2015. With debt payments due, the Governor was facing the risk of a government shutdown and failure to fund the managed health care system. "Without action before April, Puerto Rico 's ability to execute contracts for Fiscal Year 2018 with its managed care organizations will be threatened, thereby putting at risk beginning July 1, 2017 the health care of up to 900,000 poor U.S. citizens living in Puerto Rico '', according to a letter sent to Congress by the Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary of Health and Human Services. They also said that "Congress must enact measures recommended by both Republicans and Democrats that fix Puerto Rico 's inequitable health care financing structure and promote sustained economic growth. ''
Initially, the oversight board created under PROMESA called for Puerto Rico 's governor Ricardo Rosselló to deliver a fiscal turnaround plan by January 28. Just before that deadline, the control board gave the Commonwealth government until February 28 to present a fiscal plan (including negotiations with creditors for restructuring debt) to solve the problems. A moratorium on lawsuits by debtors was extended to May 31. It is essential for Puerto Rico to reach restructuring deals to avoid a bankruptcy - like process under PROMESA. An internal survey conducted by the Puerto Rican Economists Association revealed that the majority of Puerto Rican economists reject the policy recommendations of the Board and the Rosselló government, with more than 80 % of economists arguing in favor of auditing the debt.
In early August 2017, the island 's financial oversight board (created by PROMESA) planned to institute two days off without pay per month for government employees, down from the original plan of four days per month; the latter had been expected to achieve $218 million in savings. Governor Rossello rejected this plan as unjustified and unnecessary. Pension reforms were also discussed including a proposal for a 10 % reduction in benefits to begin addressing the $50 billion in unfunded pension liabilities.
Puerto Rico has an operating budget of about U.S. $9.8 billion with expenses at about $10.4 billion, creating a structural deficit of $775 million (about 7.9 % of the budget). The practice of approving budgets with a structural deficit has been done for 18 consecutive years starting in 2000. Throughout those years, including present time, all budgets contemplated issuing bonds to cover these projected deficits rather than making structural adjustments. This practice increased Puerto Rico 's cumulative debt, as the government had already been issuing bonds to balance its actual budget for four decades since 1973.
Projected deficits added substantial burdens to an already indebted nation which accrued a public debt of $71 B or about 70 % of Puerto Rico 's gross domestic product. This sparked an ongoing government - debt crisis after Puerto Rico 's general obligation bonds were downgraded to speculative non-investment grade ("junk status '') by three credit rating agencies. In terms of financial control, almost 9.6 % -- or about $1.5 billion -- of Puerto Rico 's central government budget expenses for FY2014 is expected to be spent on debt service. Harsher budget cuts are expected as Puerto Rico must now repay larger chunks of debts in the following years.
For practical reasons the budget is divided into two aspects: a "general budget '' which comprises the assignments funded exclusively by the Department of Treasury of Puerto Rico, and the "consolidated budget '' which comprises the assignments funded by the general budget, by Puerto Rico 's government - owned corporations, by revenue expected from loans, by the sale of government bonds, by subsidies extended by the federal government of the United States, and by other funds.
Both budgets contrast each other drastically, with the consolidated budget being usually thrice the size of the general budget; currently $29 B and $9.0 B respectively. Almost one out of every four dollars in the consolidated budget comes from U.S. federal subsidies while government - owned corporations compose more than 31 % of the consolidated budget.
The critical aspects come from the sale of bonds, which comprise 7 % of the consolidated budget -- a ratio that increased annually due to the government 's inability to prepare a balanced budget in addition to being incapable of generating enough income to cover all its expenses. In particular, the government - owned corporations add a heavy burden to the overall budget and public debt, as none is self - sufficient. For example, in FY2011 the government - owned corporations reported aggregated losses of more than $1.3 B with the Puerto Rico Highways and Transportation Authority (PRHTA) reporting losses of $409 M, the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA; the government monopoly that controls all electricity on the island) reporting losses of $272 M, while the Puerto Rico Aqueducts and Sewers Authority (PRASA; the government monopoly that controls all water utilities on the island) reported losses of $112 M.
Losses by government - owned corporations have been defrayed through the issuance of bonds compounding more than 40 % of Puerto Rico 's entire public debt today. Holistically, from FY2000 -- FY2010 Puerto Rico 's debt grew at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 9 % while GDP remained stagnant. This has not always provided a long - term solution. In early July 2017 for example, the PREPA power authority was effectively bankrupt after defaulting in a plan to restructure $9 billion in bond debt; the agency planned to seek Court protection.
In terms of protocol, the governor, together with the Puerto Rico Office of Management and Budget (OGP in Spanish), formulates the budget he believes is required to operate all government branches for the ensuing fiscal year. He then submits this formulation as a budget request to the Puerto Rican legislature before July 1, the date established by law as the beginning of Puerto Rico 's fiscal year. While the constitution establishes that the request must be submitted "at the beginning of each regular session '', the request is typically submitted during the first week of May as the regular sessions of the legislature begin in January and it would be impractical to submit a request so far in advance. Once submitted, the budget is then approved by the legislature, typically with amendments, through a joint resolution and is referred back to the governor for his approval. The governor then either approves it or vetoes it. If vetoed the legislature can then either refer it back with amendments for the governor 's approval, or approve it without the governor 's consent by two - thirds of the bodies of each chamber.
Once the budget is approved, the Department of Treasury disburses funds to the Office of Management and Budget which in turn disburses the funds to the respective agencies, while the Puerto Rico Government Development Bank (the government 's intergovernmental bank) manages all related banking affairs including those related to the government - owned corporations.
The cost of living in Puerto Rico is high and has increased over the past decade. San Juan 's in particular is higher than Atlanta, Dallas, and Seattle but lower than Boston, Chicago, and New York City. One factor is housing prices which are comparable to Miami and Los Angeles, although property taxes are considerably lower than most places in the United States.
Statistics used for cost of living sometimes do not take into account certain costs, such as the high cost of electricity, which has hovered in the 24 ¢ to 30 ¢ range per kilowatt / hour, two to three times the national average, increased travel costs for longer flights, additional shipping fees, and the loss of promotional participation opportunities for customers "outside the continental United States ''. While some online stores do offer free shipping on orders to Puerto Rico, many merchants exclude Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico and other United States territories.
The household median income is stated as $19,350 and the mean income as $30,463 in the U.S. Census Bureau 's 2015 update. The report also indicates that 45.5 % of individuals are below the poverty level. The median home value in Puerto Rico ranges from U.S. $100,000 to U.S. $214,000, while the national median home value sits at $119,600.
One of the most cited contributors to the high cost of living in Puerto Rico is the Merchant Marine Act of 1920, also known as the Jones Act, which prevents foreign - flagged ships from carrying cargo between two American ports, a practice known as cabotage. Because of the Jones Act, foreign ships inbound with goods from Central and South America, Western Europe, and Africa can not stop in Puerto Rico, offload Puerto Rico - bound goods, load mainland - bound Puerto Rico - manufactured goods, and continue to U.S. ports. Instead, they must proceed directly to U.S. ports, where distributors break bulk and send Puerto Rico - bound manufactured goods to Puerto Rico across the ocean by U.S. - flagged ships.
The local government of Puerto Rico has requested several times to the U.S. Congress to exclude Puerto Rico from the Jones Act restrictions without success. The most recent measure has been taken by the 17th Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico through R. Conc. del S. 21. These measures have always received support from all the major local political parties.
In 2013 the Government Accountability Office published a report which concluded that "repealing or amending the Jones Act cabotage law might cut Puerto Rico shipping costs '' and that "shippers believed that opening the trade to non-U.S. - flag competition could lower costs ''. However, the same GAO report also found that "(shippers) doing business in Puerto Rico that GAO contacted reported that the freight rates are often -- although not always -- lower for foreign carriers going to and from Puerto Rico and foreign locations than the rates shippers pay to ship similar cargo to and from the United States, despite longer distances. Data were not available to allow us to validate the examples given or verify the extent to which this difference occurred. '' Ultimately, the report concluded that "(the) effects of modifying the application of the Jones Act for Puerto Rico are highly uncertain '' for both Puerto Rico and the United States, particularly for the U.S. shipping industry and the military preparedness of the United States.
The first school in Puerto Rico was the Escuela de Gramática (Grammar School). It was established by Bishop Alonso Manso in 1513, in the area where the Cathedral of San Juan was to be constructed. The school was free of charge and the courses taught were Latin language, literature, history, science, art, philosophy and theology.
Education in Puerto Rico is divided in three levels -- Primary (elementary school grades 1 -- 6), Secondary (intermediate and high school grades 7 -- 12), and Higher Level (undergraduate and graduate studies). As of 2002, the literacy rate of the Puerto Rican population was 94.1 %; by gender, it was 93.9 % for males and 94.4 % for females. According to the 2000 Census, 60.0 % of the population attained a high school degree or higher level of education, and 18.3 % has a bachelor 's degree or higher.
Instruction at the primary school level is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 18. As of 2010, there are 1539 public schools and 806 private schools.
The largest and oldest university system is the public University of Puerto Rico (UPR) with 11 campuses. The largest private university systems on the island are the Sistema Universitario Ana G. Mendez which operates the Universidad del Turabo, Metropolitan University and Universidad del Este. Other private universities include the multi-campus Inter American University, the Pontifical Catholic University, Universidad Politécnica de Puerto Rico, and the Universidad del Sagrado Corazón. Puerto Rico has four schools of Medicine and three ABA - approved Law Schools.
As of 2015 medical care in Puerto Rico had been heavily impacted by emigration of doctors to the mainland and underfunding of the Medicare and Medicaid programs which serve 60 % of the island 's population. Affordable medical insurance under the Affordable Care Act is not available in Puerto Rico as, since Puerto Ricans pay no income tax, no subsidies are available.
The city of San Juan has a system of triage, hospital, and preventive care health services. The municipal government sponsors regular health fairs in different areas of the city focusing on health care for the elderly and the disabled.
In 2017, there were 69 hospitals in Puerto Rico. There are twenty hospitals in San Juan, half of which are operated by the government. The largest hospital is the Centro Médico de Río Piedras (the Río Piedras Medical Center). Founded in 1956, it is operated by the Medical Services Administration of the Department of Health of Puerto Rico, and is actually a network of eight hospitals:
The city of San Juan operates nine other hospitals. Of these, eight are Diagnostic and Treatment Centers located in communities throughout San Juan. These nine hospitals are:
There are also ten private hospitals in San Juan. These are:
The city of Ponce is served by several clinics and hospitals. There are four comprehensive care hospitals: Hospital Dr. Pila, Hospital San Cristobal, Hospital San Lucas, and Hospital de Damas. In addition, Hospital Oncológico Andrés Grillasca specializes in the treatment of cancer, and Hospital Siquiátrico specializes in mental disorders. There is also a U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs Outpatient Clinic that provides health services to U.S. veterans. The U.S. Veterans Administration will build a new hospital in the city to satisfy regional needs. Hospital de Damas is listed in the U.S. News & World Report as one of the best hospitals under the U.S. flag. Ponce has the highest concentration of medical infrastructure per inhabitant of any municipality in Puerto Rico.
On the island of Culebra, there is a small hospital in the island called Hospital de Culebra. It also offers pharmacy services to residents and visitors. For emergencies, patients are transported by plane to Fajardo on the main island.
The town of Caguas has three hospitals: Hospital Hima San Pablo, Menonita Caguas Regional Hospital, and the San Juan Bautista Medical Center.
The town of Cayey is served by the Hospital Menonita de Cayey, and the Hospital Municipal de Cayey.
Reforma de Salud de Puerto Rico (Puerto Rico Health Reform) -- locally referred to as La Reforma (The Reform) -- is a government - run program which provides medical and health care services to the indigent and impoverished, by means of contracting private health insurance companies, rather than employing government - owned hospitals and emergency centers. The Reform is administered by the Puerto Rico Health Insurance Administration.
The overall rate of crime is low in Puerto Rico. The territory has a high firearm homicide rate. The homicide rate of 19.2 per 100,000 inhabitants was significantly higher than any U.S. state in 2014. Most homicide victims are gang members and drug traffickers with about 80 % of homicides in Puerto Rico being drug related.
Modern Puerto Rican culture is a unique mix of cultural antecedents: including European (predominantly Spanish, Italian, French, German and Irish), African, and, more recently, some North American and lots of South Americans. A large number of Cubans and Dominicans have relocated to the island in the past few decades.
From the Spanish, Puerto Rico received the Spanish language, the Catholic religion and the vast majority of their cultural and moral values and traditions. The United States added English - language influence, the university system and the adoption of some holidays and practices. On March 12, 1903, the University of Puerto Rico was officially founded, branching out from the "Escuela Normal Industrial '', a smaller organization that was founded in Fajardo three years before.
Much of Puerto Rican culture centers on the influence of music and has been shaped by other cultures combining with local and traditional rhythms. Early in the history of Puerto Rican music, the influences of Spanish and African traditions were most noticeable. The cultural movements across the Caribbean and North America have played a vital role in the more recent musical influences which have reached Puerto Rico.
The official symbols of Puerto Rico are the reinita mora or Puerto Rican spindalis (a type of bird), the flor de maga (a type of flower), and the ceiba or kapok (a type of tree). The unofficial animal and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the coquí, a small frog. Other popular symbols of Puerto Rico are the jíbaro (the "countryman ''), and the carite.
The architecture of Puerto Rico demonstrates a broad variety of traditions, styles and national influences accumulated over four centuries of Spanish rule, and a century of American rule. Spanish colonial architecture, Ibero - Islamic, art deco, post-modern, and many other architectural forms are visible throughout the island. From town to town, there are also many regional distinctions.
Old San Juan is one of the two barrios, in addition to Santurce, that made up the municipality of San Juan from 1864 to 1951, at which time the former independent municipality of Río Piedras was annexed. With its abundance of shops, historic places, museums, open air cafés, restaurants, gracious homes, tree - shaded plazas, and its old beauty and architectonical peculiarity, Old San Juan is a main spot for local and internal tourism. The district is also characterized by numerous public plazas and churches including San José Church and the Cathedral of San Juan Bautista, which contains the tomb of the Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León. It also houses the oldest Catholic school for elementary education in Puerto Rico, the Colegio de Párvulos, built in 1865.
The oldest parts of the district of Old San Juan remain partly enclosed by massive walls. Several defensive structures and notable forts, such as the emblematic Fort San Felipe del Morro, Fort San Cristóbal, and El Palacio de Santa Catalina, also known as La Fortaleza, acted as the primary defenses of the settlement which was subjected to numerous attacks. La Fortaleza continues to serve also as the executive mansion for the Governor of Puerto Rico. Many of the historic fortifications are part of San Juan National Historic Site.
During the 1940s, sections of Old San Juan fell into disrepair, and many renovation plans were suggested. There was even a strong push to develop Old San Juan as a "small Manhattan ''. Strict remodeling codes were implemented to prevent new constructions from affecting the common colonial Spanish architectural themes of the old city. When a project proposal suggested that the old Carmelite Convent in San Juan be demolished to erect a new hotel, the Institute had the building declared as a historic building, and then asked that it be converted to a hotel in a renewed facility. This was what became the Hotel El Convento in Old San Juan. The paradigm to reconstruct and renovate the old city and revitalize it has been followed by other cities in the Americas, particularly Havana, Lima and Cartagena de Indias.
Ponce Creole is an architectural style created in Ponce, Puerto Rico, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This style of Puerto Rican buildings is found predominantly in residential homes in Ponce that developed between 1895 and 1920. Ponce Creole architecture borrows heavily from the traditions of the French, the Spaniards, and the Caribbean to create houses that were especially built to withstand the hot and dry climate of the region, and to take advantage of the sun and sea breezes characteristic of the southern Puerto Rico 's Caribbean Sea coast. It is a blend of wood and masonry, incorporating architectural elements of other styles, from Classical revival and Spanish Revival to Victorian.
Puerto Rican art reflects many influences, much from its ethnically diverse background. A form of folk art, called santos evolved from the Catholic Church 's use of sculptures to convert indigenous Puerto Ricans to Christianity. Santos depict figures of saints and other religious icons and are made from native wood, clay, and stone. After shaping simple, they are often finished by painting them in vivid colors. Santos vary in size, with the smallest examples around eight inches tall and the largest about twenty inches tall. Traditionally, santos were seen as messengers between the earth and Heaven. As such, they occupied a special place on household altars, where people prayed to them, asked for help, or tried to summon their protection.
Also popular, caretas or vejigantes are masks worn during carnivals. Similar masks signifying evil spirits were used in both Spain and Africa, though for different purposes. The Spanish used their masks to frighten lapsed Christians into returning to the church, while tribal Africans used them as protection from the evil spirits they represented. True to their historic origins Puerto Rican caretas always bear at least several horns and fangs. While usually constructed of papier - mâché, coconut shells and fine metal screening are sometimes used as well. Red and black were the typical colors for caretas but their palette has expanded to include a wide variety of bright hues and patterns.
Puerto Rican literature evolved from the art of oral story telling to its present - day status. Written works by the native islanders of Puerto Rico were prohibited and repressed by the Spanish colonial government. Only those who were commissioned by the Spanish Crown to document the chronological history of the island were allowed to write.
Diego de Torres Vargas was allowed to circumvent this strict prohibition for three reasons: he was a priest, he came from a prosperous Spanish family, and his father was a Sergeant Major in the Spanish Army, who died while defending Puerto Rico from an invasion by the Dutch armada. In 1647, Torres Vargas wrote Descripción de la Ciudad e Isla de Puerto Rico ("Description of the Island and City of Puerto Rico ''). This historical book was the first to make a detailed geographic description of the island.
The book described all the fruits and commercial establishments of the time, mostly centered in the towns of San Juan and Ponce. The book also listed and described every mine, church, and hospital in the island at the time. The book contained notices on the State and Capital, plus an extensive and erudite bibliography. Descripción de la Ciudad e Isla de Puerto Rico was the first successful attempt at writing a comprehensive history of Puerto Rico.
Some of Puerto Rico 's earliest writers were influenced by the teachings of Rafael Cordero. Among these was Dr. Manuel A. Alonso, the first Puerto Rican writer of notable importance. In 1849 he published El Gíbaro, a collection of verses whose main themes were the poor Puerto Rican country farmer. Eugenio María de Hostos wrote La peregrinación de Bayoán in 1863, which used Bartolomé de las Casas as a spring board to reflect on Caribbean identity. After this first novel, Hostos abandoned fiction in favor of the essay which he saw as offering greater possibilities for inspiring social change.
In the late 19th century, with the arrival of the first printing press and the founding of the Royal Academy of Belles Letters, Puerto Rican literature began to flourish. The first writers to express their political views in regard to Spanish colonial rule of the island were journalists. After the United States invaded Puerto Rico during the Spanish -- American War and the island was ceded to the Americans as a condition of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, writers and poets began to express their opposition to the new colonial rule by writing about patriotic themes.
Alejandro Tapia y Rivera, also known as the Father of Puerto Rican Literature, ushered in a new age of historiography with the publication of The Historical Library of Puerto Rico. Cayetano Coll y Toste was another Puerto Rican historian and writer. His work The Indo - Antillano Vocabulary is valuable in understanding the way the Taínos lived. Dr. Manuel Zeno Gandía in 1894 wrote La Charca and told about the harsh life in the remote and mountainous coffee regions in Puerto Rico. Dr. Antonio S. Pedreira, described in his work Insularismo the cultural survival of the Puerto Rican identity after the American invasion.
With the Puerto Rican diaspora of the 1940s, Puerto Rican literature was greatly influenced by a phenomenon known as the Nuyorican Movement. Puerto Rican literature continued to flourish and many Puerto Ricans have since distinguished themselves as authors, journalists, poets, novelists, playwrights, screenwriters, essayists and have also stood out in other literary fields. The influence of Puerto Rican literature has transcended the boundaries of the island to the United States and the rest of the world. Over the past fifty years, significant writers include Ed Vega, Luis Rafael Sánchez, Piri Thomas, Giannina Braschi, and Miguel Piñero. Esmeralda Santiago has written an autobiographical trilogy about growing up in modern Puerto Rico as well as an historical novel, Conquistadora, about life on a sugar plantation during the mid-19th century.
The media in Puerto Rico includes local radio stations, television stations and newspapers, the majority of which are conducted in Spanish. There are also three stations of the U.S. Armed Forces Radio and Television Service. Newspapers with daily distribution are El Nuevo Dia, El Vocero and Indice, Metro, and Primera Hora. El Vocero is distributed free of charge as well as Indice and Metro.
Newspapers distributed on a weekly or regional basis include Claridad, La Perla del Sur, La Opinion, Vision, and La Estrella del Norte, among others. Several television channels provide local content in the island. These include WIPR - TV, Telemundo, Univision Puerto Rico, WAPA - TV, and WKAQ - TV.
The music of Puerto Rico has evolved as a heterogeneous and dynamic product of diverse cultural resources. The most conspicuous musical sources have been Spain and West Africa, although many aspects of Puerto Rican music reflect origins elsewhere in Europe and the Caribbean and, over the last century, from the U.S. Puerto Rican music culture today comprises a wide and rich variety of genres, ranging from indigenous genres like bomba, plena, aguinaldo, danza and salsa to recent hybrids like reggaeton.
Puerto Rico has some national instruments, like the Cuatro (Spanish for Four). The cuatro is a local instrument that was made by the "Jibaro '' or people from the mountains. Originally, the Cuatro consisted of four steel strings, hence its name, but currently the Cuatro consists of five double steel strings. It is easily confused with a guitar, even by locals. When held upright, from right to left, the strings are G, D, A, E, B.
In the realm of classical music, the island hosts two main orchestras, the Orquesta Sinfónica de Puerto Rico and the Orquesta Filarmónica de Puerto Rico. The Casals Festival takes place annually in San Juan, drawing in classical musicians from around the world.
With respect to opera, the legendary Puerto Rican tenor Antonio Paoli was so celebrated, that he performed private recitals for Pope Pius X and the Czar Nicholas II of Russia. In 1907, Paoli was the first operatic artist in world history to record an entire opera -- when he participated in a performance of Pagliacci by Ruggiero Leoncavallo in Milan, Italy.
Over the past fifty years, Puerto Rican artists such as Jorge Emmanuelli, Yomo Toro, Ramito, Jose Feliciano, Bobby Capo, Rafael Cortijo, Ismael Rivera, Chayanne, Tito Puente, Eddie Palmieri, Ray Barreto, Dave Valentin, Omar Rodríguez - López, Hector Lavoe, Ricky Martin, Marc Anthony and Luis Fonsi have gained fame internationally.
Puerto Rican cuisine has its roots in the cooking traditions and practices of Europe (Spain), Africa and the native Taínos. In the latter part of the 19th century, the cuisine of Puerto Rico was greatly influenced by the United States in the ingredients used in its preparation. Puerto Rican cuisine has transcended the boundaries of the island, and can be found in several countries outside the archipelago. Basic ingredients include grains and legumes, herbs and spices, starchy tropical tubers, vegetables, meat and poultry, seafood and shellfish, and fruits. Main dishes include mofongo, arroz con gandules, pasteles, alcapurrias and pig roast (or lechón). Beverages include maví and piña colada. Desserts include flan, arroz con dulce (sweet rice pudding), piraguas, brazo gitanos, tembleque, polvorones, and dulce de leche.
Locals call their cuisine cocina criolla. The traditional Puerto Rican cuisine was well established by the end of the 19th century. By 1848 the first restaurant, La Mallorquina, opened in Old San Juan. El Cocinero Puertorriqueño, the island 's first cookbook was published in 1849.
From the diet of the Taíno people come many tropical roots and tubers like yautía (taro) and especially Yuca (cassava), from which thin cracker - like casabe bread is made. Ajicito or cachucha pepper, a slightly hot habanero pepper, recao / culantro (spiny leaf), achiote (annatto), peppers, ají caballero (the hottest pepper native to Puerto Rico), peanuts, guavas, pineapples, jicacos (cocoplum), quenepas (mamoncillo), lerenes (Guinea arrowroot), calabazas (tropical pumpkins), and guanabanas (soursops) are all Taíno foods. The Taínos also grew varieties of beans and some maize / corn, but maize was not as dominant in their cooking as it was for the peoples living on the mainland of Mesoamerica. This is due to the frequent hurricanes that Puerto Rico experiences, which destroy crops of maize, leaving more safeguarded plants like conucos (hills of yuca grown together).
Spanish / European influence is also seen in Puerto Rican cuisine. Wheat, chickpeas (garbanzos), capers, olives, olive oil, black pepper, onions, garlic, cilantrillo (cilantro), oregano, basil, sugarcane, citrus fruit, eggplant, ham, lard, chicken, beef, pork, and cheese all came to Borikén (Puerto Rico 's native Taino name) from Spain. The tradition of cooking complex stews and rice dishes in pots such as rice and beans are also thought to be originally European (much like Italians, Spaniards, and the British). Early Dutch, French, Italian, and Chinese immigrants influenced not only the culture but Puerto Rican cooking as well. This great variety of traditions came together to form La Cocina Criolla.
Coconuts, coffee (brought by the Arabs and Corsos to Yauco from Kafa, Ethiopia), okra, yams, sesame seeds, gandules (pigeon peas in English) sweet bananas, plantains, other root vegetables and Guinea hen, all come to Puerto Rico from Africa.
Puerto Rico has been commemorated on four U.S. postal stamps and four personalities have been featured. Insular Territories were commemorated in 1937, the third stamp honored Puerto Rico featuring ' La Fortaleza ', the Spanish Governor 's Palace. The first free election for governor of the U.S. colony of Puerto Rico was honored on April 27, 1949, at San Juan, Puerto Rico. ' Inauguration ' on the 3 - cent stamp refers to the election of Luis Munoz Marin, the first democratically elected governor of Puerto Rico. San Juan, Puerto Rico was commemorated with an 8 - cent stamp on its 450th anniversary issued September 12, 1971, featuring a sentry box from Castillo San Felipe del Morro. In the "Flags of our nation series '' 2008 -- 2012, of the fifty - five, five territorial flags were featured. Forever stamps included the Puerto Rico Flag illustrated by a bird issued 2011.
Four Puerto Rican personalities have been featured on U.S. postage stamps. These include Roberto Clemente in 1984 as an individual and in the Legends of Baseball series issued in 2000. Luis Muñoz Marín in the Great Americans series, on February 18, 1990, Julia de Burgos in the Literary Arts series, issued 2010, and José Ferrer in the Distinguished American series, issued 2012.
Baseball was one of the first sports to gain widespread popularity in Puerto Rico. The Puerto Rico Baseball League serves as the only active professional league, operating as a winter league. No Major League Baseball franchise or affiliate plays in Puerto Rico, however, San Juan hosted the Montreal Expos for several series in 2003 and 2004 before they moved to Washington, D.C. and became the Washington Nationals.
The Puerto Rico national baseball team has participated in the World Cup of Baseball winning one gold (1951), four silver and four bronze medals, the Caribbean Series (winning fourteen times) and the World Baseball Classic. On March 2006, San Juan 's Hiram Bithorn Stadium hosted the opening round as well as the second round of the newly formed World Baseball Classic. Puerto Rican baseball players include Hall of Famers Roberto Clemente, Orlando Cepeda and Roberto Alomar, enshrined in 1973, 1999, and 2011 respectively.
Boxing, basketball, and volleyball are considered popular sports as well. Wilfredo Gómez and McWilliams Arroyo have won their respective divisions at the World Amateur Boxing Championships. Other medalists include José Pedraza, who holds a silver medal, and three boxers who finished in third place, José Luis Vellón, Nelson Dieppa and McJoe Arroyo. In the professional circuit, Puerto Rico has the third-most boxing world champions and it is the global leader in champions per capita. These include Miguel Cotto, Félix Trinidad, Wilfred Benítez and Gómez among others.
The Puerto Rico national basketball team joined the International Basketball Federation in 1957. Since then, it has won more than 30 medals in international competitions, including gold in three FIBA Americas Championships and the 1994 Goodwill Games August 8, 2004, became a landmark date for the team when it became the first team to defeat the United States in an Olympic tournament since the integration of National Basketball Association players. Winning the inaugural game with scores of 92 -- 73 as part of the 2004 Summer Olympics organized in Athens, Greece. Baloncesto Superior Nacional acts as the top - level professional basketball league in Puerto Rico, and has experienced success since its beginning in 1930.
Puerto Rico is also a member of FIFA and CONCACAF. In 2008, the archipelago 's first unified league, the Puerto Rico Soccer League, was established.
Other sports include professional wrestling and road running. The World Wrestling Council and International Wrestling Association are the largest wrestling promotions in the main island. The World 's Best 10K, held annually in San Juan, has been ranked among the 20 most competitive races globally. The "Puerto Rico All Stars '' team, which has won twelve world championships in unicycle basketball.
Organized Streetball has gathered some exposition, with teams like "Puerto Rico Street Ball '' competing against established organizations including the Capitanes de Arecibo and AND1 's Mixtape Tour Team. Six years after the first visit, AND1 returned as part of their renamed Live Tour, losing to the Puerto Rico Streetballers. Consequently, practitioners of this style have earned participation in international teams, including Orlando "El Gato '' Meléndez, who became the first Puerto Rican born athlete to play for the Harlem Globetrotters. Orlando Antigua, whose mother is Puerto Rican, in 1995 became the first Hispanic and the first non-black in 52 years to play for the Harlem Globetrotters.
Puerto Rico has representation in all international competitions including the Summer and Winter Olympics, the Pan American Games, the Caribbean World Series, and the Central American and Caribbean Games. Puerto Rico hosted the Pan Am Games in 1979 (officially in San Juan), and The Central American and Caribbean Games were hosted in 1993 in Ponce and in 2010 in Mayagüez.
Puerto Rican athletes have won nine medals in Olympic competition (one gold, two silver, six bronze), the first one in 1948 by boxer Juan Evangelista Venegas. Monica Puig won the first gold medal for Puerto Rico in the Olympic Games by winning the Women 's Tennis singles title in Rio 2016.
Cities and towns in Puerto Rico are interconnected by a system of roads, freeways, expressways, and highways maintained by the Highways and Transportation Authority under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and patrolled by the Puerto Rico Police Department. The island 's metropolitan area is served by a public bus transit system and a metro system called Tren Urbano (in English: Urban Train). Other forms of public transportation include seaborne ferries (that serve Puerto Rico 's archipelago) as well as Carros Públicos (private mini buses).
Puerto Rico has three international airports, the Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in Carolina, Mercedita Airport in Ponce, and the Rafael Hernández Airport in Aguadilla, and 27 local airports. The Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport is the largest aerial transportation hub in the Caribbean.
Puerto Rico has nine ports in different cities across the main island. The San Juan Port is the largest in Puerto Rico, and the busiest port in the Caribbean and the 10th busiest in the United States in terms of commercial activity and cargo movement, respectively. The second largest port is the Port of the Americas in Ponce, currently under expansion to increase cargo capacity to 1.5 million twenty - foot containers (TEUs) per year.
The Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA) -- Spanish: Autoridad de Energía Eléctrica (AEE) -- is an electric power company and the government - owned corporation of Puerto Rico responsible for electricity generation, power transmission, and power distribution in Puerto Rico. PREPA is the only entity authorized to conduct such business in Puerto Rico, effectively making it a government monopoly. The Authority is ruled by a Governing Board appointed by the Governor with the advice and consent of the Senate of Puerto Rico, and is run by an Executive Director.
Telecommunications in Puerto Rico includes radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. Broadcasting in Puerto Rico is regulated by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC). As of 2007, there were 30 TV stations, 125 radio stations and roughly 1 million TV sets on the island. Cable TV subscription services are available and the U.S. Armed Forces Radio and Television Service also broadcast on the island.
Geography
United States government
United Nations (U.N.) Declaration on Puerto Rico
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who controls monetary policy in the united states | Monetary policy of the United States - wikipedia
Monetary policy concerns the actions of a central bank or other regulatory authorities that determine the size and rate of growth of the money supply. For example, in the United States, the Federal Reserve is in charge of monetary policy, and implements it primarily by performing operations that influence short - term interest rates.
The money supply has different components, generally broken down into "narrow '' and "broad '' money, reflecting the different degrees of liquidity (' spendability ') of each different type, as broader forms of money can be converted into narrow forms of money (or may be readily accepted as money by others, such as personal checks).
For example, demand deposits are technically promises to pay on demand, while savings deposits are promises to pay subject to some withdrawal restrictions, and Certificates of Deposit are promises to pay only at certain specified dates; each can be converted into money, but "narrow '' forms of money can be converted more readily. The Federal Reserve directly controls only the most narrow form of money, physical cash outstanding along with the reserves of banks throughout the country (known as M0 or the monetary base); the Federal Reserve indirectly influences the supply of other types of money.
Broad money includes money held in deposit balances in banks and other forms created in the financial system. Basic economics also teaches that the money supply shrinks when loans are repaid; however, the money supply will not necessarily decrease depending on the creation of new loans and other effects. Other than loans, investment activities of commercial banks and the Federal Reserve also increase and decrease the money supply. Discussion of "money '' often confuses the different measures and may lead to misguided commentary on monetary policy and misunderstandings of policy discussions.
Monetary policy in the US is determined and implemented by the US Federal Reserve System, commonly referred to as the Federal Reserve. Established in 1913 by the Federal Reserve Act to provide central banking functions, the Federal Reserve System is a quasi-public institution. Ostensibly, the Federal Reserve Banks are 12 private banking corporations; they are independent in their day - to - day operations, but legislatively accountable to Congress through the auspices of Federal Reserve Board of Governors.
The Board of Governors is an independent governmental agency consisting of seven officials and their support staff of over 1800 employees headquartered in Washington, D.C. It is independent in the sense that the Board currently operates without official obligation to accept the requests or advice of any elected official with regard to actions on the money supply, and its methods of funding also preserve independence. The Governors are nominated by the President of the United States, and nominations must be confirmed by the U.S. Senate.
The presidents of the Federal Reserve Banks are nominated by each bank 's respective Board of Directors, but must also be approved by the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve. The Chairman of the Federal Reserve Board is generally considered to have the most important position, followed by the president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. The Federal Reserve System is primarily funded by interest collected on their portfolio of securities from the US Treasury, and the Fed has broad discretion in drafting its own budget, but, historically, nearly all the interest the Federal Reserve collects is rebated to the government each year.
The Federal Reserve has three main mechanisms for manipulating the money supply. It can buy or sell treasury securities. Selling securities has the effect of reducing the monetary base (because it accepts money in return for purchase of securities), taking that money out of circulation. Purchasing treasury securities increases the monetary base (because it pays out hard currency in exchange for accepting securities). Secondly, the discount rate can be changed. And finally, the Federal Reserve can adjust the reserve requirement, which can affect the money multiplier; the reserve requirement is adjusted only infrequently, and was last adjusted in 1992.
In practice, the Federal Reserve uses open market operations to influence short - term interest rates, which is the primary tool of monetary policy. The federal funds rate, for which the Federal Open Market Committee announces a target on a regular basis, reflects one of the key rates for interbank lending. Open market operations change the supply of reserve balances, and the federal funds rate is sensitive to these operations.
In theory, the Federal Reserve has unlimited capacity to influence this rate, and although the federal funds rate is set by banks borrowing and lending funds to each other, the federal funds rate generally stays within a limited range above and below the target (as participants are aware of the Fed 's power to influence this rate).
Assuming a closed economy, where foreign capital or trade does not affect the money supply, when money supply increases, interest rates go down. Businesses and consumers have a lower cost of capital and can increase spending and capital improvement projects. This encourages short - term growth. Conversely, when the money supply falls, interest rates go up, increasing the cost of capital and leading to more conservative spending and investment. The Federal reserve increases interest rates to combat Inflation.
When money is deposited in a bank, it can then be lent out to another person. If the initial deposit was $100 and the bank lends out $100 to another customer the money supply has increased by $100. However, because the depositor can ask for the money back, banks have to maintain minimum reserves to service customer needs. If the reserve requirement is 10 % then, in the earlier example, the bank can lend $90 and thus the money supply increases by only $90. The reserve requirement therefore acts as a limit on this multiplier effect. Because the reserve requirement only applies to the more narrow forms of money creation (corresponding to M1), but does not apply to certain types of deposits (such as time deposits), reserve requirements play a limited role in monetary policy.
Currently, the US government maintains over US $800 billion in cash money (primarily Federal Reserve Notes) in circulation throughout the world, up from a sum of less than $30 billion in 1959. Below is an outline of the process which is currently used to control the amount of money in the economy. The amount of money in circulation generally increases to accommodate money demanded by the growth of the country 's production. The process of money creation usually goes as follows:
Though the Federal Reserve authorizes and distributes the currency printed by the Treasury (the primary component of the narrow monetary base), the broad money supply is primarily created by commercial banks through the money multiplier mechanism. One textbook summarizes the process as follows:
"The Fed '' controls the money supply in the United States by controlling the amount of loans made by commercial banks. New loans are usually in the form of increased checking account balances, and since checkable deposits are part of the money supply, the money supply increases when new loans are made...
This type of money is convertible into cash when depositors request cash withdrawals, which will require banks to limit or reduce their lending. The vast majority of the broad money supply throughout the world represents current outstanding loans of banks to various debtors. A very small amount of U.S. currency still exists as "United States Notes '', which have no meaningful economic difference from Federal Reserve notes in their usage, although they departed significantly in their method of issuance into circulation. The currency distributed by the Federal Reserve has been given the official designation of "Federal Reserve Notes. ''
In 2005, the Federal Reserve held approximately 9 % of the national debt as assets against the liability of printed money. In previous periods, the Federal Reserve has used other debt instruments, such as debt securities issued by private corporations. During periods when the national debt of the United States has declined significantly (such as happened in fiscal years 1999 and 2000), monetary policy and financial markets experts have studied the practical implications of having "too little '' government debt: both the Federal Reserve and financial markets use the price information, yield curve and the so - called risk free rate extensively.
Experts are hopeful that other assets could take the place of National Debt as the base asset to back Federal Reserve notes, and Alan Greenspan, long the head of the Federal Reserve, has been quoted as saying, "I am confident that U.S. financial markets, which are the most innovative and efficient in the world, can readily adapt to a paydown of Treasury debt by creating private alternatives with many of the attributes that market participants value in Treasury securities. '' In principle, the government could still issue debt securities in significant quantities while having no net debt, and significant quantities of government debt securities are also held by other government agencies.
Although the U.S. government receives income overall from seigniorage, there are costs associated with maintaining the money supply. Leading ecological economist and steady - state theorist Herman Daly, claims that "over 95 % of our (broad) money supply (in the United States) is created by the private banking system (demand deposits) and bears interest as a condition of its existence, '' a conclusion drawn from the Federal Reserve 's ultimate dependence on increased activity in fractional reserve lending when it exercises open market operations. Economist Eric Miller criticizes Daly 's logic because money is created in the banking system in response to demand for the money, which justifies cost.
Thus, use of expansionary open market operations typically generates more debt in the private sector of society (in the form of additional bank deposits). The private banking system charges interest to borrowers as a cost to borrow the money. The interest costs are borne by those that have borrowed, and without this borrowing, open market operations would be unsuccessful in maintaining the broad money supply, though alternative implementations of monetary policy could be used. Depositors of funds in the banking system are paid interest on their savings (or provided other services, such as checking account privileges or physical security for their "cash ''), as compensation for "lending '' their funds to the bank.
Increases (or contractions) of the money supply corresponds to growth (or contraction) in interest - bearing debt in the country. The concepts involved in monetary policy may be widely misunderstood in the general public, as evidenced by the volume of literature on topics such as "Federal Reserve conspiracy '' and "Federal Reserve fraud. ''
A few of the uncertainties involved in monetary policy decision making are described by the federal reserve:
The Federal Reserve is lauded by some economists, while being the target of scathing criticism by other economists, legislators, and sometimes members of the general public. The former Chairman of the Federal Reserve Board, Ben Bernanke, is one of the leading academic critics of the Federal Reserve 's policies during the Great Depression.
One of the functions of a central bank is to facilitate the transfer of funds through the economy, and the Federal Reserve System is largely responsible for the efficiency in the banking sector. There have also been specific instances which put the Federal Reserve in the spotlight of public attention. For instance, after the stock market crash in 1987, the actions of the Fed are generally believed to have aided in recovery. Also, the Federal Reserve is credited for easing tensions in the business sector with the reassurances given following the 9 / 11 terrorist attacks on the United States.
The Federal Reserve has been the target of various criticisms, involving: accountability, effectiveness, opacity, inadequate banking regulation, and potential market distortion. Federal Reserve policy has also been criticized for directly and indirectly benefiting large banks instead of consumers. For example, regarding the Federal Reserve 's response to the 2007 -- 2010 financial crisis, Nobel laureate Joseph Stiglitz explained how the U.S. Federal Reserve was implementing another monetary policy -- creating currency -- as a method to combat the liquidity trap.
By creating $600 billion and inserting this directly into banks the Federal Reserve intended to spur banks to finance more domestic loans and refinance mortgages. However, banks instead were spending the money in more profitable areas by investing internationally in emerging markets. Banks were also investing in foreign currencies which Stiglitz and others point out may lead to currency wars while China redirects its currency holdings away from the United States.
The Federal Reserve is subject to different requirements for transparency and audits than other government agencies, which its supporters claim is another element of the Fed 's independence. Although the Federal Reserve has been required by law to publish independently audited financial statements since 1999, the Federal Reserve is not audited in the same way as other government agencies. Some confusion can arise because there are many types of audits, including: investigative or fraud audits; and financial audits, which are audits of accounting statements; there are also compliance, operational, and information system audits.
The Federal Reserve 's annual financial statements are audited by an outside auditor. Similar to other government agencies, the Federal Reserve maintains an Office of the Inspector General, whose mandate includes conducting and supervising "independent and objective audits, investigations, inspections, evaluations, and other reviews of Board programs and operations. '' The Inspector General 's audits and reviews are available on the Federal Reserve 's website.
The Government Accountability Office (GAO) has the power to conduct audits, subject to certain areas of operations that are excluded from GAO audits; other areas may be audited at specific Congressional request, and have included bank supervision, government securities activities, and payment system activities. The GAO is specifically restricted any authority over monetary policy transactions; the New York Times reported in 1989 that "such transactions are now shielded from outside audit, although the Fed influences interest rates through the purchase of hundreds of billions of dollars in Treasury securities. '' As mentioned above, it was in 1999 that the law governing the Federal Reserve was amended to formalize the already - existing annual practice of ordering independent audits of financial statements for the Federal Reserve Banks and the Board; the GAO 's restrictions on auditing monetary policy continued, however.
Congressional oversight on monetary policy operations, foreign transactions, and the FOMC operations is exercised through the requirement for reports and through semi-annual monetary policy hearings. Scholars have conceded that the hearings did not prove an effective means of increasing oversight of the Federal Reserve, perhaps because "Congresspersons prefer to bash an autonomous and secretive Fed for economic misfortune rather than to share the responsibility for that misfortune with a fully accountable Central Bank, '' although the Federal Reserve has also consistently lobbied to maintain its independence and freedom of operation.
By law, the goals of the Fed 's monetary policy are: high employment, sustainable growth, and stable prices.
Critics say that monetary policy in the United States has not achieved consistent success in meeting the goals that have been delegated to the Federal Reserve System by Congress. Congress began to review more options with regard to macroeconomic influence beginning in 1946 (after World War II), with the Federal Reserve receiving specific mandates in 1977 (after the country suffered a period of stagflation).
Throughout the period of the Federal Reserve following the mandates, the relative weight given to each of these goals has changed, depending on political developments. In particular, the theories of Keynesianism and monetarism have had great influence on both the theory and implementation of monetary policy, and the "prevailing wisdom '' or consensus view of the economic and financial communities has changed over the years.
Inflation worldwide has fallen significantly since former Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker began his tenure in 1979, a period which has been called the Great Moderation; some commentators attribute this to improved monetary policy worldwide, particularly in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. BusinessWeek notes that inflation has been relatively low since mid-1980s and it was during this time that Volcker wrote (in 1995), "It is a sobering fact that the prominence of central banks (such as the Federal Reserve) in this century has coincided with a general tendency towards more inflation, not less. By and large, if the overriding objective is price stability, we did better with the nineteenth - century gold standard and passive central banks, with currency boards, or even with ' free banking. '. ''
Monetarists believe that the Great Depression started as an ordinary recession, but that significant policy mistakes by monetary authorities (especially the Federal Reserve) caused a shrinking of the money supply, which greatly exacerbated the economic situation, causing a recession to descend into the Great Depression.
The Federal Reserve has established a library of information on their websites, however, many experts have spoken about the general level of public confusion that still exists on the subject of the economy; this lack of understanding of macroeconomic questions and monetary policy, however, exists in other countries as well. Critics of the Fed widely regard the system as being "opaque '', and one of the Fed 's most vehement opponents of his time, Congressman Louis T. McFadden, even went so far as to say that "Every effort has been made by the Federal Reserve Board to conceal its powers... ''
There are, on the other hand, many economists who support the need for an independent central banking authority, and some have established websites that aim to clear up confusion about the economy and the Federal Reserve 's operations. The Federal Reserve website itself publishes various information and instructional materials for a variety of audiences.
Some economists, especially those belonging to the heterodox Austrian School, criticize the idea of even establishing monetary policy, believing that it distorts investment. Friedrich Hayek won the Nobel Prize for his elaboration of the Austrian business cycle theory.
Briefly, the theory holds that an artificial injection of credit, from a source such as a central bank like the Federal Reserve, sends false signals to entrepreneurs to engage in long - term investments due to a favorably low interest rate. However, the surge of investments undertaken represents an artificial boom, or bubble, because the low interest rate was achieved by an artificial expansion of the money supply and not by savings. Hence, the pool of real savings and resources have not increased and do not justify the investments undertaken.
These investments, which are more appropriately called "malinvestments '', are realized to be unsustainable when the artificial credit spigot is shut off and interest rates rise. The malinvestments and unsustainable projects are liquidated, which is the recession. The theory demonstrates that the problem is the artificial boom which causes the malinvestments in the first place, made possible by an artificial injection of credit not from savings.
According to Austrian economics, without government intervention, interest rates will always be an equilibrium between the time - preferences of borrowers and savers, and this equilibrium is simply distorted by government intervention. This distortion, in their view, is the cause of the business cycle. Some Austrian economists -- but by no means all -- also support full reserve banking, a hypothetical financial / banking system where banks may not lend deposits. Others may advocate free banking, whereby the government abstains from any interference in what individuals may choose to use as money or the extent to which banks create money through the deposit and lending cycle.
The Federal Reserve regulates banking, and one regulation under its direct control is the reserve requirement which dictates how much money banks must keep in reserves, as compared to its demand deposits. Banks use their observation that the majority of deposits are not requested by the account holders at the same time.
Currently, the Federal Reserve requires that banks keep 10 % of their deposits on hand. Some countries have no nationally mandated reserve requirements -- banks use their own resources to determine what to hold in reserve, however their lending is typically constrained by other regulations. Other factors being equal, lower reserve percentages increases the possibility of Bank runs, such as the widespread runs of 1931. Low reserve requirements also allow for larger expansions of the money supply by actions of commercial banks -- currently the private banking system has created much of the broad money supply of US dollars through lending activity. Monetary policy reform calling for 100 % reserves has been advocated by economists such as: Irving Fisher, Frank Knight, many ecological economists along with economists of the Chicago School and Austrian School. Despite calls for reform, the nearly universal practice of fractional - reserve banking has remained in the United States.
Historically and to the present day, various social and political movements (such as social credit) have criticized the involvement of the private sector in "creating money '', claiming that only the government should have the power to "make money ''. Some proponents also support full reserve banking or other non-orthodox approaches to monetary policy. Various terminology may be used, including "debt money '', which may have emotive or political connotations. These are generally considered to be akin to conspiracy theories by mainstream economists and ignored in academic literature on monetary policy.
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which books of the catholic bible are not in a protestant bible | Deuterocanonical books - wikipedia
Outline of Bible - related topics
The deuterocanonical books (from the Greek meaning "belonging to the second canon '') is a term adopted in 16th century by the Roman Catholic Church to denote those books and passages of the Christian Old Testament, as defined in 1546 by the Council of Trent, that were not found in the Hebrew Bible. The term distinguished these texts both from those that were termed protocanonical books, which were the books of the Hebrew canon; and from the apocryphal books, which were those books of Jewish origin that were known sometimes to have been read in church as scripture but which the Council considered not to be canonical.
At the same time, the Council of Trent had also promulgated the Vulgate bible as the official Latin version of the Bible for the Roman Catholic Church. Jerome, the translator of most of this version in the early 5th century had done so afresh directly from the Hebrew Bible, rather than from the Greek Septuagint, and had then explicitly rejected all Septuagint books and passages not found in the Hebrew as ' apocryphal '; and although he had subsequently translated some of these texts under sufferance, he had maintained throughout that none of these books and additions were canonical, and recorded this opinion in his prologues to each book. The Council therefore needed to establish anew which of the Septuagint Old Testament books, in the editions of the Vulgate that circulated in the 16th century, were in the Bible; and which were not.
This 16th century debate drew on a texts witnessing a counterpart debate in the 4th and 5th centuries; occasioned by the awareness that the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, which the early church used as its standard Old Testament, included several books not recognised in the Jewish canon of the bible as it had since been defined in Rabbinic Judaism. In this debate, which had preceded the dissemination of Jerome 's Vulgate version, the books in the Hebrew bible had been termed ' canonical '; the additional books that were recognised by the Christian churches had been termed ' ecclesiastical ', and those that were considered not to be in the Bible were termed ' apocryphal '.
Forms of the term ' deuterocanonical ' were adopted after the 16th century by the Eastern Orthodox Church to denote canonical books of the Septuagint not in the Hebrew Bible (a wider selection than that adopted by the Council of Trent), and also by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church to apply to works believed to be of Jewish origin translated in the Old Testament of the Ethiopic Bible; a wider selection still.
Most protestant churches have, since the 16th century accepted only works in the Masoretic Text of the Hebrew bible as canonical books of the Old Testament, and hence classify all deuterocanonical texts (of whichever definition) with the Apocrypha.
Philip Schaff says that "the Council of Hippo in 393, and the third (according to another reckoning the sixth) Council of Carthage in 397, under the influence of Augustine, who attended both, fixed the catholic canon of the Holy Scriptures, including the Apocrypha of the Old Testament,... This decision of the transmarine church however, was subject to ratification; and the concurrence of the Roman see it received when Innocent I and Gelasius I (AD 414) repeated the same index of biblical books. Schaff says that this canon remained undisturbed till the sixteenth century, and was sanctioned by the Council of Trent at its fourth session, '' although as the Catholic Encyclopedia reports, "in the Latin Church, all through the Middle Ages we find evidence of hesitation about the character of the deuterocanonicals... Few are found to unequivocally acknowledge their canonicity, '' but that the countless manuscript copies of the Vulgate produced by these ages, with a slight, probably accidental, exception, uniformly embrace the complete Roman Catholic Old Testament.
Exceptions to this narrative are Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah, which appear in the Greek canon lists of the Council of Laodicea, Athanasius (367 AD), Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 350 AD), and Epiphanius of Salamis (c. 385 AD) but are not separately listed as canonical in the Latin accounts of the Canons of Laodicea or any other Western synods and councils, nor are specified as canonical by Innocent I and Gelasius I, nor are present in any complete Vulgate bibles earlier the 9th century; and even after that date, do not become common in the Vulgate Old Testament until the 13th century. In the Old Latin version of the bible, these two works appear to have been incorporated into the Book of Jeremiah, and Latin Fathers of the 4th century and earlier always cite their texts as being from that book. However, when Jerome translated Jeremiah afresh from the Hebrew text, which is considerably longer than the Greek Septuagint text and with chapters in a different order, he steadfastly refused to include either Baruch or the Letter of Jeremiah. As the Vulgate bible supplanted the Old Latin in western church use in subsequent centuries, so Baruch and the letter of Jeremiah are no longer treated as canonical in the works of Fathers who favoured the Vulgate; Gregory the Great, Isidore of Seville and Bede. In the 9th century these two works were reintroduced into the Vulgate bibles produced under the influence of Theodulf of Orleans, originally as additional chapters to the Vulgate book of Jeremiah. Subsequently, and especially in the Paris Bibles of the 13th century, they are found together as a single, combined book after Lamentations.
The canonical status of Greek Esdras in the Western church is less easy to track. This text provides a free translation into Greek of the Hebrew canonical book of Ezra - Nehemiah, with some additional matter, but the sections specific to Nehemiah removed. In the surviving Greek pandect bibles of the 4th and 5th centuries; this text always stands as ' Esdras A ' while the Greek translation of the whole of canonical Ezra - Nehemiah stands as ' Esdras B '; and the same is found in the surviving witness of the Old Latin Bible. When Latin fathers of the early church cite quotations from ' Ezra ' it is overwhelmingly ' Esdras A ' to which they refer; as in Augustine ' City of God ' 18: 36. Citations of the ' Nehemiah ' sections of Old Latin ' Esdras B ' are much rarer; and no Old Latin citations from the ' Ezra ' sections of ' Esdras B ' are known before Bede in the 8th century. Accordingly Bogaert has proposed that all references to the ' two books of Ezra ' in both Latin and Greek authorities and councils may be best understood as denoting Esdras A and Esdras B; where most previous scholars had interpreted this phrase as an early reference to Ezra and Nehemiah as separate works. In Jerome 's Vulgate bible however, there is only one Book of Ezra, translating Hebrew Ezra - Nehemiah and corresponding to Greek Esdras B; Esdras A being rejected by Jerome as apocryphal. From the 9th century, occasional Latin Vulgate manuscripts are found in which Jerome 's single Ezra text is split to form the separate books of Ezra and Nehemiah; and in the Paris bibles of the 13th century this split has become universal, with Esdras A being reintroduced as ' 3 Esdras ' and Latin Esdras being added as ' 4 Esdras '. At the Council of Trent neither ' 3 Esdras ' nor 4 Esdras were accepted as deuterocanonical books; but were eventually printed in the section of ' Apocrypha ' in the Sixto - Clementine Vulgate, along with the Prayer of Manasses.
The Council of Trent in 1546 supported the decisions about which books to include in the canon that were determined by earlier councils, other than including Baruch with the Letter of Jeremiah as a separate book. While the majority at Trent supported this decision there were participants in the minority who disagreed with the books accepted in the canon. Among the minority, at Trent, were Cardinals Seripando and Cajetan, the latter an opponent of Luther at Augsburg. The Fathers in session at Trent confirmed the statements of earlier regional councils which also included the deuterocanonical books, such as the Council of Rome (382), the Synod of Hippo (393), the Council of Carthage (397) and Council of Carthage (419) and the Council of Florence (1442) and provided "the first infallible and effectually promulgated pronouncement on the Canon '' by the Roman Catholic Church.
Since 1546 Catholic deuterocanonical scriptural texts have been:
Deuterocanonical is a term coined in 1566 by the theologian Sixtus of Siena, who had converted to Catholicism from Judaism, to describe scriptural texts considered canonical by the Catholic Church, but which whose recognition was considered ' secondary. For Sixtus, this term included portions of both Old and New Testaments (Sixtus considers the final chapter of the Gospel of Mark as ' deuterocanonical '); and he also applies the term to include the Book of Esther from the canon of the Hebrew Bible. The term was then taken up by other writers to apply specifically those books of the Old Testament which had been recognised as canonical by the Council of Trent, but which were not in the Hebrew canon
Their acceptance among early Christians was widespread, though not universal, and the Bible of the early Church always included, with varying degrees of recognition, books now called deuterocanonical. Some say that their canonicity seems not to have been doubted in the Church until it was challenged by Jews after AD 100, sometimes postulating a hypothetical Council of Jamnia. Regional councils in the West published official canons that included these books as early as the 4th and 5th centuries.
The Catholic Encyclopedia states that "At Jerusalem there was a renewal, or at least a survival, of Jewish ideas, the tendency there being distinctly unfavourable to the deuteros. St. Cyril of Jerusalem, while vindicating for the Church the right to fix the Canon, places them among the apocrypha and forbids all books to be read privately which are not read in the churches. In Antioch and Syria the attitude was more favourable. St. Epiphanius of Salamis hesitated about the rank of some deuteros. While he esteemed them, they did not hold the same place as the Hebrew books in his regard. On the other hand, the Oriental versions and Greek manuscripts of the period are more liberal. They have all the deuterocanonicals and, in some cases, certain apocrypha. ''
"In the Latin Church, all through the Middle Ages, there is evidence of hesitation about the character of the deuterocanonicals. One is favourable, the other unfavourable to their authority and sacredness. Wavering between the two are a number of writers whose veneration for these books is tempered by some perplexity as to their exact standing, and among those is St. Thomas Aquinas. Few are found to unequivocally acknowledge their canonicity. The prevailing attitude of Western medieval authors is substantially that of the Greek Fathers. The chief cause of this phenomenon in the West is to be sought in the influence, direct and indirect, of St. Jerome 's depreciating Prologus. ''
Meanwhile, "the protocanonical books of the Old Testament correspond with those of the Bible of the Hebrews, and the Old Testament as received by Protestants. ''
Fragments of three deuterocanonical (Sirach, Tobit & Letter of Jeremiah) books have been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls found at Qumran, in addition to several partial copies of I Enoch and Jubilees from the Ethiopic deuterocanon, and Psalm 151 from the Eastern Orthodox Church deuterocanon.
Sirach, whose Hebrew text was already known from the Cairo Geniza, has been found in two scrolls (2QSir or 2Q18, 11QPs_a or 11Q5) in Hebrew. Another Hebrew scroll of Sirach has been found in Masada (MasSir). Five fragments from the Book of Tobit have been found in Qumran written in Aramaic and in one written in Hebrew (papyri 4Q, nos. 196 -- 200). The Letter of Jeremiah (or Baruch chapter 6) has been found in cave 7 (papyrus 7Q2) in Greek. It has been theorized by recent scholars that the Qumran library (of approximately 1,100 manuscripts found in the eleven caves at Qumran) was not entirely produced at Qumran, but may have included part of the library of the Jerusalem Temple, that may have been hidden in the caves for safekeeping at the time the Temple was destroyed by Romans in 70 AD.
The large majority of Old Testament references in the New Testament are taken from the Koine Greek Septuagint (LXX) -- editions of which include the deuterocanonical books, as well as apocrypha -- both of which are called collectively ἀναγιγνωσκόμενα anagignoskomena (things that are read or "profitable reading ''). No two Septuagint codices contain the same apocrypha, and the three earliest manuscripts of the LXX show uncertainty as to which books constitute the complete list of the Apocrypha. Codex Vaticanus (B) lacks any of the books of Maccabees, while Codex Sinaiticus (Aleph) omits Baruch and the letter of Jeremiah, but includes 1 and 4 Maccabees. Codex Alexandrinus includes the Psalms of Solomon and Maccabees 1 - 4. All three codices include Psalm 151 in addition to the canonical 150 Pslams; and all three codices include Greek Esdras as the ' first book of Ezra ', with the canonical Ezra - Nehemiah counted as the ' second book of Ezra '.
Greek Psalm manuscripts from the fifth century contain three New Testament "psalms '': the Magnificat, the Benedictus, the Nunc dimittis from Luke 's birth narrative, and the conclusion of the hymn that begins with the "Gloria in Excelsis ''. Beckwith states that manuscripts of anything like the capacity of Codex Alexandrinus were not used in the first centuries of the Christian era, and believes that the comprehensive codices of the Septuagint, which start appearing in the fourth century AD, are all of Christian origin.
Some deuterocanonicals appear to have been written originally in Hebrew, but the original text has long been lost. Archaeological finds discovered both Psalm 151 and the Book of Tobit in Hebrew among the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Septuagint was widely accepted and used by Greek - speaking Jews in the 1st century, even in the region of Roman Judea, and therefore naturally became the text most widely used by early Christians, who were predominantly Greek speaking.
In the New Testament, Hebrews 11: 35 is understood by some as referring to an event that was recorded in one of the deuterocanonical books, 2 Maccabees. For instance, the author of Hebrews references oral tradition which spoke of an Old Testament prophet who was sawn in half in Hebrews 11: 37, two verses after the 2nd Maccabees reference. Other New Testament authors such as Paul also reference or quote period literature which was familiar to the audience but that was not included in the deuterocanonical or the protocanonical Old Testament books.
The Jewish historian Josephus (c. 94 AD) speaks of there being 22 books in the canon of the Hebrew Bible, a Jewish tradition reported also by the Christian bishop Athanasius.
Origen of Alexandria (c. 240 AD) also records 22 canonical books of the Hebrew Bible cited by Eusebius; among them are the Epistle of Jeremiah and the Maccabees as canonical books.
The twenty - two books of the Hebrews are the following: That which is called by us Genesis; Exodus; Leviticus; Numbers; Jesus, the son of Nave (Joshua book); Judges and Ruth in one book; the First and Second of Kings (1 Samuel and 2 Samuel) in one; the Third and Fourth of Kings (1 Kings and 2 Kings) in one; of the Chronicles, the First and Second in one; Esdras (Ezra -- Nehemiah) in one; the book of Psalms; the Proverbs of Solomon; Ecclesiastes; the Song of Songs; Isaiah; Jeremiah, with Lamentations and the epistle (of Jeremiah) in one; Daniel; Ezekiel; Job; Esther. And besides these there are the Maccabees.
In the Muratorian fragment (170AD) it can be found that the book of the Wisdom of Solomon was counted by the church, although it is not known if another one was accepted because the document lacks a part.
Moreover, the epistle of Jude and two of the above - mentioned (or, bearing the name of) John are counted (or, used) in the catholic (Church); and (the book of) Wisdom, written by the friends of Solomon in his honour.
Eusebius wrote in his Church History (c. 324 AD) that Bishop Melito of Sardis in the 2nd century AD considered the deuterocanonical Wisdom of Solomon as part of the Old Testament and that it was considered canonical by Jews and Christians. On the other hand, the contrary claim has been made: "In the catalogue of Melito, presented by Eusebius, after Proverbs, the word Wisdom occurs, which nearly all commentators have been of opinion is only another name for the same book, and not the name of the book now called ' The Wisdom of Solomon '. ''
Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 350 AD), in his Catechetical Lectures cites as canonical books "Jeremiah one, including Baruch and Lamentations and the Epistle (of Jeremiah) ''.
In Athanasius 's canonical books list (367 AD) the Book of Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah are included and Esther is omitted. At the same time, he mentioned that certain other books, including four deuterocanonical books (the Wisdom of Solomon, the Wisdom of Sirach, Judith and Tobit), the book of Esther and also the Didache and The Shepherd of Hermas, while not being part of the Canon, "were appointed by the Fathers to be read ''. He excluded what he called "apocryphal writings '' entirely.
Epiphanius of Salamis (c. 385 AD) mentions that "there are 27 books given the Jews by God, but they are counted as 22, however, like the letters of their Hebrew alphabet, because ten books are doubled and reckoned as five ''. He wrote in his Panarion that Jews had in their books the deuterocanonical Epistle of Jeremiah and Baruch, both combined with Jeremiah and Lamentations in only one book. While Wisdom of Sirach and the Wisdom of Solomon were books of disputed canonicity.
Augustine (c. 397 AD) writes in his book On Christian Doctrine (Book II Chapter 8) that two books of Maccabees, Tobias, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus are canonical books.
Now the whole canon of Scripture on which we say this judgment is to be exercised, is contained in the following books: -- Five books of Moses, that is, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy; one book of Joshua the son of Nun; one of Judges; one short book called Ruth; next, four books of Kings (the two books of Samuel and the two books of Kings), and two of Chronicles, Job, and Tobias, and Esther, and Judith, and the two books of Maccabees, and the two of Ezra... one book of the Psalms of David; and three books of Solomon, that is to say Proverbs, Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes... For two books, one called Wisdom and the other Ecclesiasticus... Twelve separate books of the prophets which are connected with one another, and having never been disjoined, are reckoned as one book; the names of these prophets are as follows: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi; then there are the four greater prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, Ezekiel.
According to the monk Rufinus of Aquileia (c. 400 AD) the deuterocanonical books were not called canonical but ecclesiastical books. In this category Rufinus includes the Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, Judith, Tobit and two books of Maccabees. Rufinus makes no mention of Baruch or the Epistle of Jeremiah.
Pope Innocent I (405 AD) sent a letter to the bishop of Toulouse citing deuterocanonical books as a part of the Old Testament Canon.
Which books really are received in the canon, this brief addition shows. These therefore are the things of which you desired to be informed. Five books of Moses, that is, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, and Joshua the son of Nun, and Judges, and the four books of Kings (the two Books of Kings and the two books of Samuel) together with Ruth, sixteen books of the Prophets, five books of Solomon, and the Psalms. Also of the historical books, one book of Job, one of Tobit, one of Esther, one of Judith, two of Maccabees, two of Ezra, two of Chronicles.
In later copyings of the canons of the Council of Laodicea (from 364 AD) a canon list became appended to Canon 59, likely before the mid fifth century, which affirmed that Jeremiah, and Baruch, the Lamentations, and the Epistle (of Jeremiah) were canonical, while excluding the other deuterocanonical books.
The Council of Rome (382 AD), where the Decretum Gelasianum, which is a work written by an anonymous scholar between 519 and 553, cites a list of books of Scripture presented as having been made canonical by the Council of Rome. This list mentions all the deuterocanonical books except Baruch and the Letter of Jermiah as a part of the Old Testament Canon.
The Synod of Hippo (in 393 AD), followed by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419), may be the first councils that explicitly accepted the first canon which includes a selection of books that did not appear in the Hebrew Bible; the councils were under significant influence of Augustine of Hippo, who regarded the canon as already closed.
Canon XXIV from the Synod of Hippo (393 AD) records the Scriptures which are considered canonical; the Old Testament books as follows:
On 28 August 397, the Council of Carthage (397 AD) confirmed the canon issued at Hippo; the recurrence of the Old Testament part as stated:
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua the son of Nun, Judges, Ruth, four books of Kings, two books of Paraleipomena, Job, the Psalter, five books of Solomon., the books of the twelve prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezechiel, Daniel, Tobit, Judith, Esther, two books of Esdras, two Books of the Maccabees.
The Council of Carthage (419 AD) in its canon 24 lists the deuterocanonical books except Baruch and the Epistle of Jeremiah as Canonical Scripture.
The Apostolic Canons approved by the Eastern Council in Trullo in 692 AD (not recognized by the Catholic Church) states that are venerable and sacred the first three books of Maccabees and Wisdom of Sirach
The Council of Florence (1442 AD) listed the books of Judith, Esther, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch and two books of the Maccabees as Canonical books.
Five books of Moses, namely Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy; Joshua, Judges, Ruth, four books of Kings, two of Paralipomenon (Chronicles), Esdras (Ezra), Nehemiah, Tobit, Judith, Esther, Job, Psalms of David, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Baruch, Ezechiel, Daniel; the twelve minor prophets, namely Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi; two books of the Maccabees.
Finally the Council of Trent (1546 AD) adopted an understanding of the canons of these previous councils as corresponding to its own list of deuterocanonical books. This understanding rested on two historical presumptions which are contested in current research; that the where these councils and synods noted the ' Book of Jeremiah ', they intended the Book of Baruch to be silently understood (including the Letter of Jeremiah); and that where these synods and councils noted ' two books of Esdras ', these two books were to be understood as Ezra and Nehemiah counted separately; not (as was universal in Septuagint manuscripts of the time, in the Old Latin Bible and in the works of Augustine) as 1 Esdras and Ezra - Nehemiah.
Jerome in the Vulgate 's prologues describes a canon which excludes the deuterocanonical books,. In his Prologues, Jerome mentions all of the deuterocanonical and apocryphal works by name as being apocryphal or "not in the canon '' except for Prayer of Manasses and Baruch. He mentions Baruch by name in his Prologue to Jeremiah and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon ''. The inferior status to which the deuterocanonical books were relegated by authorities like Jerome is seen by some as being due to a rigid conception of canonicity, one demanding that a book, to be entitled to this supreme dignity, must be received by all, must have the sanction of Jewish antiquity, and must moreover be adapted not only to edification, but also to the "confirmation of the doctrine of the Church ''.
J.N.D. Kelly states that "Jerome, conscious of the difficulty of arguing with Jews on the basis of books they spurned and anyhow regarding the Hebrew original as authoritative, was adamant that anything not found in it was ' to be classed among the apocrypha ', not in the canon; later he grudgingly conceded that the Church read some of these books for edification, but not to support doctrine. ''
Eventually however, Jerome 's Vulgate did include the deuterocanonical books as well as apocrypha. Jerome referenced and quoted from some as scripture despite describing them as "not in the canon ''. Michael Barber asserts that, although Jerome was once suspicious of the apocrypha, he later viewed them as Scripture. Barber argues that this is clear from Jerome 's epistles; he cites Jerome 's letter to Eustochium, in which Jerome quotes Sirach 13: 2. Elsewhere Jerome apparently also refers to Baruch, the Story of Susannah and Wisdom as scripture. Henry Barker states that Jerome quotes the Apocrypha with marked respect, and even as "Scripture '', giving them an ecclesiastical if not a canonical position and use. Luther also wrote introductions to the books of the Apocrypha, and occasionally quoted from some to support an argument.
In his prologue to Judith, without using the word canon, Jerome mentioned that Judith was held to be scriptural by the First Council of Nicaea.
Among the Hebrews the Book of Judith is found among the Hagiographa... But because this book is found by the Nicene Council to have been counted among the number of the Sacred Scriptures, I have acquiesced to your request.
In his reply to Rufinus, Jerome affirmed that he was consistent with the choice of the church regarding which version of the deuterocanonical portions of Daniel to use, which the Jews of his day did not include:
What sin have I committed in following the judgment of the churches? But when I repeat what the Jews say against the Story of Susanna and the Hymn of the Three Children, and the fables of Bel and the Dragon, which are not contained in the Hebrew Bible, the man who makes this a charge against me proves himself to be a fool and a slanderer; for I explained not what I thought but what they commonly say against us. (Against Rufinus, II: 33 (AD 402)).
Thus Jerome acknowledged the principle by which the canon would be settled -- the judgment of the Church (at least the local churches in this case) rather than his own judgment or the judgment of Jews; though concerning translation of Daniel to Greek, he wondered why one should use the version of a translator whom he regarded as heretic and judaizer (Theodotion).
The Vulgate is also important as the touchstone of the canon concerning which parts of books are canonical. When the Council of Trent listed the books included in the canon, it qualified the books as being "entire with all their parts, as they have been used to be read in the Catholic Church, and as they are contained in the old Latin vulgate edition ''. This decree was clarified somewhat by Pope Pius XI on 2 June 1927, who allowed that the Comma Johanneum was open to dispute, and it was further explicated by Pope Pius XII 's Divino afflante Spiritu.
Outside the Roman Catholic Church, the term deuterocanonical is sometimes used, by way of analogy, to describe books that Eastern Orthodoxy, and Oriental Orthodoxy included in the Old Testament that are not part of the Jewish Tanakh, nor the Protestant Old Testament. Among Orthodox, the term is understood to mean that they were compiled separately from the primary canon, as explained in 2 Esdras, where Esdras is instructed to keep certain books separate and hidden.
The Eastern Orthodox Churches have traditionally included all the books of the Septuagint in their Old Testaments. The Greeks use the word Anagignoskomena (Ἀναγιγνωσκόμενα "readable, worthy to be read '') to describe the books of the Greek Septuagint that are not present in the Hebrew Tanakh. When Orthodox theologians use the term "deuterocanonical, '' it is important to note that the meaning is not identical to the Roman Catholic usage. In Orthodox Christianity, deuterocanonical means that a book is part of the corpus of the Old Testament (i.e. is read during the services) but has secondary authority. In other words, deutero (second) applies to authority or witnessing power, whereas in Roman Catholicism, deutero applies to chronology (the fact that these books were confirmed later), not to authority.
The Eastern Orthodox canon includes the deuterocanonical books listed above, plus 3 Maccabees and 1 Esdras (also included in the Clementine Vulgate), while Baruch is divided from the Epistle of Jeremiah, making a total of 49 Old Testament books in contrast with the Protestant 39 - book canon.
Like the Roman Catholic deuterocanonical books, these texts are integrated with the rest of the Old Testament, not printed in a separate section.
Other texts printed in Orthodox Bibles are considered of some value (like the additional Psalm 151, and the Prayer of Manasseh) or are included as an appendix (like the Greek 4 Maccabees, and the Slavonic 2 Esdras).
In the Amharic Bible used by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church (an Oriental Orthodox Church), those books of the Old Testament that are still counted as canonical, but not by all other Churches, are often set in a separate section titled "Deeyutrokanoneekal '' (ዲዩትሮካኖኒካል), which is the same word. The Ethiopian Orthodox Deuterocanon, in addition to the standard set listed above, along with the books of Esdras and Prayer of Minasse, also includes some books that are still held canonical by only the Ethiopian Church, including Enoch or Henok (I Enoch), Kufale (Jubilees) and 1, 2 and 3 Meqabyan (which are sometimes wrongly confused with the "Books of Maccabees '').
There is a great deal of overlap between the Apocrypha section of the original 1611 King James Bible and the Catholic deuterocanon, but the two are distinct. The Apocrypha section of the original 1611 King James Bible includes, in addition to the deuterocanonical books, the following three books, which were not included in the list of the canonical books by the Council of Trent:
These books make up the Apocrypha section of the Clementine Vulgate: 3 Esdras (1 Esdras); 4 Esdras (2 Esdras); and the Prayer of Manasseh, where they are specifically described as "outside of the series of the canon ''. The 1609 Douai Bible includes them in an appendix, but they have not been included in English Catholic Bibles since the Challoner revision of the Douai Bible in 1750. They are found, along with the deuterocanonical books, in the Apocrypha section of certain Protestant Bibles (some versions of the King James, for example).
Using the word apocrypha (Greek: hidden away) to describe texts, although not necessarily pejorative, implies to some people that the writings in question should not be included in the canon of the Bible. This classification commingles them with certain non-canonical gospels and New Testament apocrypha. The Style Manual for the Society of Biblical Literature recommends the use of the term deuterocanonical literature instead of Apocrypha in academic writing.
The Thirty - nine Articles of Religion of the Church of England lists the deuterocanonical books as suitable to be read for "example of life and instruction of manners, but yet doth not apply them to establish any doctrine ''. The early lectionaries of the Anglican Church (as included in the Book of Common Prayer of 1662) included the deuterocanonical books amongst the cycle of readings, and passages from them were used regularly in services (such as the Kyrie Pantokrator and the Benedicite).
Readings from the deuterocanonical books are now included in most, if not all, of the modern lectionaries in the Anglican Communion, based on the Revised Common Lectionary (in turn based on the post-conciliar Roman Catholic lectionary), though alternative readings from protocanonical books are also provided.
Luther did not accept deuterocanonical books in his Old Testament, terming them "Apocrypha, that are books which are not considered equal to the Holy Scriptures, but are useful and good to read. ''
The Westminster Confession of Faith, a Calvinist document that serves as a systematic summary of doctrine for the Church of Scotland and Presbyterian churches worldwide, recognizes only the sixty - six books of the Protestant canon as authentic Scripture. Chapter 1, Article 3 of the Confession reads: "The books commonly called Apocrypha, not being of divine inspiration, are no part of the Canon of Scripture; and therefore are of no authority in the Church of God, nor to be any otherwise approved, or made use of, than other human writings. ''
The Belgic Confession, used in Reformed churches, devotes a section (Article 6) to "The difference between the canonical and apocryphal books '' and asserts that "All which the Church may read and take instruction from, so far as they agree with the canonical books; but they are far from having such power and efficacy as that we may from their testimony confirm any point of faith or of the Christian religion; much less to detract from the authority of the other sacred books. ''
Judaism and most Protestant versions of the Bible exclude these books. It is commonly said that Judaism officially excluded the deuterocanonicals and the additional Greek texts listed here from their Scripture in the Council of Jamnia (c. 70 -- 90 AD), but this claim is disputed.
The term deuterocanonical is sometimes used to describe the canonical antilegomena, those books of the New Testament which, like the deuterocanonicals of the Old Testament, were not universally accepted by the early Church. These books may be called the "New Testament deuterocanonicals '', which are now included in the 27 books of the New Testament recognized by almost all Christians. The deuterocanonicals of the New Testament are as follows:
Luther made an attempt to remove the books of Hebrews, James, Jude and Revelation from the canon (notably, he perceived them to go against his new doctrines such as sola gratia and sola fide), but this was not generally accepted among his followers. However, these books are ordered last in the German - language Luther Bible to this day.
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which of these civil rights leaders was born in georgia | List of civil rights leaders - wikipedia
Civil rights leaders are influential figures in the promotion and implementation of political freedom and the expansion of personal civil liberties and rights. They work to protect individuals and groups from political repression and discrimination by governments and private organizations, and seek to ensure the ability of all members of society to participate in the civil and political life of the state.
Civil rights include individual rights to equal protection and service, privacy, freedom of thought, freedom of expression, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, freedom to travel, freedom of worship, protection of civil liberties, the right to vote, and the right to freely share ideas and opinions through all forms of communication and media. People who motivated themselves and then led others to gain and protect these rights and liberties include:
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when do they stop selling liquor in michigan | Last call (bar term) - wikipedia
In a bar, a last call (last orders) is an announcement made shortly before the bar closes for the night, informing patrons of their last chance to buy alcoholic beverages. There are various means to make this signal, like ringing a bell, flashing the lights, or announcing orally.
Last call times are often legally mandated and vary widely globally as well as locally. Legislation 's purpose include reducing late night noise in the neighborhood, traffic accidents, violence, and alcohol related health problems.
In New South Wales, there is no specified closing time, although in residential areas bars are often required to close at midnight. In non-residential areas some bars are open 24 hours. However, a six - hour daily closure period applies to new licenses (and extended hours authorizations) granted from 30 October 2008; this period is nominated depending on individual and community circumstances.
During a significant part of the 20th century, bars in Australia and New Zealand were closed at 6 p.m. by law. The resulting rush to buy drinks after work was known as the six o'clock swill.
Bar closing hours in Austria are regulated by the federated states. In most states bars must close at 4 a.m. although many places have special permits to close later. In the capital Vienna bars and clubs are allowed to stay open until 6 a.m. Alcohol is allowed to be served until the bar or club closes.
There is no legally mandated last call in Belgium; many bars will stay open all night.
Many bars, KTVs and nightclubs have no specific last call and will continue to sell alcohol and stay open provided there are paying customers present. However, during sensitive times where national security is increased (i.e. the Olympics, the 60th Anniversary of the PRC), closing times may be in effect in some cities between 1 and 3 a.m. Alcohol is sold through retailers 24 hours a day.
According to the state law, establishments that serve drinks can register as bars, in which case they are allowed to be open in inhabited areas only in indoor spaces and only between 21: 00 and 06: 00, while no such restrictions exist if bars are located outside inhabited areas. Various exceptions can be made for bars located in transit facilities, if approved by the local authorities, etc. The prescribed working hours for bars are a frequent point of contention between city authorities and local businessmen, particularly during the summer tourist season.
The Dominican Republic has an alcohol curfew starting at 2: 00 a.m. exempting non-religious National Holidays. Not applicable to residential dwellings.
Bars are allowed to serve drinks until 1: 30 a.m., but a provincial government may at the proprietor 's request, grant extensions up to 3.30 a.m. Extensions require the establishment to maintain a higher standard of amenities, service and entertainment by, for example, providing a coat check, entertainment programming such as a DJ or live music, and even general cleanliness and "look and feel '' count.
A last call is not announced per se, but as a custom, the lights are flashed a few times (or in case of a dimly lit establishment such as a nightclub, all lights are left on) to notify the customers that serving drinks is over.
Bar closing hours in Germany are regulated by the federated states or cities. Since the 2000s, many federated states and cities have none or relaxed regulations. In many states and cities bars are open as long as there are customers. Open - air locations such as beer gardens often must close at 11 p.m. or 12 a.m. to reduce noise pollution. Exceptions may exist for weekends, Carnival and New Year 's Eve etc. Not all cities strictly enforce the regulation.
In Greece, all bars, cafeterias, clubs, and the like will stay open as long as there are customers inside. Usually, cafeterias stay open until 11 p.m., bars until 2 a.m. and clubs until early in the morning, but there is no last call whatsoever. In 1994, Stelios Papathemelis who was the Minister for Public Order at the time passed a law mandating closing of all bars at 2 a.m. The law was widely unpopular, never materialized fully and was abolished a few years later.
India closing time of bars vary in different states. In Delhi it is 1am, Mumbai 1: 30am, Chennai, Hyderabad and Kolkata at midnight. In Chandigarh it is 1 a.m. weekdays and 2 a.m. weekends. In Bangalore it is 11: 30 p.m. on weekdays and 1am on Friday and Saturday nights.
Bar closing hours are governed by the Intoxicating Liquor Act 2000. Generally, bars must close at 23: 30 Sunday to Thursday and 00: 30 on Friday and Saturday. There are special provisions for certain holidays and festivals. However, bars may get an extended license until 02: 30 any night.
In Israel, there are no specific closing times and the country has liberal alcohol laws. Bars and clubs in entertainment districts will serve alcohol practically 24 hours a day, while in residential districts local regulations apply; establishments that serve alcohol outside may often have to call their guests inside after midnight or even close completely.
In 2006, Knesset member Ruhama Avraham attempted to pass a bill in parliament that would forbid selling alcohol between 2 and 6 a.m. The bill faced severe resistance from bar and restaurant owners and finally was drawn back.
In Tel Aviv, bars are fined for remaining open past 1 a.m. Though few bars actually close at that time, they are forced to pay this "back - door '' tax to the municipality, with no recourse to the national government. A number of bars are contemplating closing at the required time and during internationally promoted events such as Gay Pride Week in protest of the city 's underhanded hypocrisy in promoting itself as "the city that never sleeps '' while at the same time fining the very establishments that make it such a hot tourist mecca.
Alcohol is no longer sold around the clock in grocery stores, and no sales are allowed between 23: 00 and 6: 00.
Italy does not have a legally mandated closing time. Alcohol may be served or sold anywhere 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. In Rome, an ordinance was passed in January 2009 to make 2 a.m. the last call in Campo de ' Fiori and the neighborhoods of Trastevere and Testaccio. The new last call time for these areas was initiated to curtail nighttime commotion in these popular parts of Rome.
Japan does not have a legally mandated closing time. Alcohol may be served or sold anywhere 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.
Until December 18, 2013, bars could close at any time they wanted (often 7 am). But from December 18, 2013 all bars and nightclubs must close at 4 am. Special conditions apply on Holy / Maundy Thursday, Holy Saturday (aka Easter Eve,) The Day Before ANZAC day and Christmas Eve where bars must close their doors by midnight (However, private bars and workingmen 's clubs can stay open beyond that curfew). There was a period in New Zealand history where Pubs closed at 6 pm and could not open on Sundays.
Last call laws vary. Cities and towns are free to impose more restrictive regulations, but no later than 3 a.m.
Out of the 429 counties of Norway, almost 50 % have established a closing time or "last call '' at 2 a.m. Only 1 in 7 counties serves drinks until the laws maximum allowance at 3 a.m. This is a major decrease over the last few years because of the government 's belief that reduced drinking hours equal less fighting, noise, disturbance, etc.
In Sweden, explicit last calls do not take place, as it would violate a political principle not to encourage people to drink more. The latest allowed closing time of bars and restaurant is decided by the municipality but regulated by national laws and rules. The standard latest time is 1 a.m. But in many cities a later time can be allowed on some conditions, like high security and staff educated in responsible serving of alcohol. In some of the largest cities, a closing time as late as 5 a.m. occurs.
The average "Last Call '' time is between 11 PM and 1 AM in municipalities like Birmingham, London, Telford and Sherborne. This information was taken from two hundred bars from 2014 to 2016. Bars and clubs can apply for individual licenses allowing them to close at any time between 11 pm and 5 am. Some establishments in big cities have 24 - hour licenses.
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who plays the female lead in ready player one | Ready Player One (film) - wikipedia
Ready Player One is a 2018 American science fiction adventure film produced and directed by Steven Spielberg, and written by Zak Penn and Ernest Cline, based on Cline 's 2011 novel of the same name. The film stars Tye Sheridan, Olivia Cooke, Ben Mendelsohn, Lena Waithe, T.J. Miller, Simon Pegg, and Mark Rylance.
The film takes place in 2045, when much of humanity uses the virtual reality software OASIS to escape the desolation of the real world. Orphaned teenager Wade Watts (Sheridan) discovers clues to a hidden game within the program that promises the winner full ownership of the OASIS, and joins several allies to try to complete the game before a large company run by businessman Nolan Sorrento (Mendelsohn) can do so.
Ready Player One premiered at South by Southwest on March 11, 2018, was theatrically released by Warner Bros. Pictures in the United States on March 29, 2018, in 2D, Real D 3D, IMAX and IMAX 3D. It grossed $582 million worldwide, making it the sixth - highest - grossing film of 2018. The film received generally positive reviews, critics praised its visuals, brisk pacing, and Rylance 's performance. The film was noted to have significant differences from the book; some critics said the film 's plot was an improvement over the source material.
Set in a slum - filled version in 2045, people escape their lives to live out most days in the virtual reality entertainment universe OASIS, co-created by James Halliday and Ogden Morrow of Gregarious Games. After Halliday 's death, a pre-recorded message left by his avatar Anorak announces a game, granting ownership of OASIS to the first to find the Golden Easter Egg within it, locked behind a gate requiring three keys. The contest has lured a number of "Gunters '', Egg hunters, and the interest of Nolan Sorrento, the CEO of Innovative Online Industries (IOI), seeking to control OASIS himself. IOI uses a number of indentured servants and employees called "Sixers '' to seek the egg.
Wade Watts is an orphaned teenager living in the "stacks '' of Columbus, Ohio with his aunt, Alice; in the OASIS, his avatar, Parzival is good friends with Aech, a virtual mechanic. Parzival befriends Art3mis, a well - known Gunter, sharing a common interest in Halliday 's history. They review Halliday 's life from the Archives with help of its Curator. They learn Halliday had several regrets; his partner Morrow had signed away his part of Gregarious Games due to fallout over Halliday 's love for Morrow 's wife Kira. Using this information, they solve the first two challenges of Anorak 's game: a car race across an ever - shifting Manhattan cityscape, and a search for Kira in a simulation of the Overlook Hotel from The Shining. Aech and his friends Daito and Sho also follow; they become known as the "High Five '' on the OASIS scoreboards.
Sorrento learns of Parzival 's identity through OASIS mercenary i - R0k, and attempts to sway Wade into IOI, but he refuses. In retaliation, Sorrento has IOI 's head of operations F'Nale Zandor bomb Wade 's stack, killing Alice. Art3mis ' player, Samantha Cook, rescues Wade, but they too are soon found by IOI, who captures and forces Samantha into their servitude. Wade is extracted by the other High Five -- Helen (Aech), Toshiro (Daito) and Zhou (Sho) -- who discover her location and remotely provide her means to assist them in the OASIS as Art3mis.
The third challenge requires one to play Halliday 's favorite Atari 2600 game, in a castle on Planet Doom, which Sorrento has protected with a force field. Attesting to Sorrento 's nature, Parzival recruits countless OASIS players to help the rebels attack the IOI forces around the castle. Art3mis breaks the force field, allowing Parzival to reach the console, but Sorrento activates the Cataclyst, a bomb that wipes all the avatars off Planet Doom. However, due to having won a coin from the Archive 's Curator earlier, Parzival gets an extra life, and proceeds to play through Adventure to find its Easter egg, and is awarded the last key. Opening the gate, he is greeted by Anorak and given a contract to sign. Parzival recognizes it as the same contract Morrow signed to turn over his part of Gregarious, and refuses. Anorak reveals himself to be Halliday, and that the contract was the final test to make sure Parzival would not have the same regrets as Halliday did with Morrow. Parzival is given the Golden Egg that controls OASIS.
In the real world, Sorrento and Zandor fail to stop Parzival before he wins, and are arrested for the bombing, and IOI is dismantled as a company. Wade decides to run OASIS alongside the other High Five. Morrow, revealed to have been the Curator, offers his services to Wade. Wade and the others agree to shut down the OASIS twice a week for everyone to spend more time to improve the real world, while he and Samantha move into an apartment together.
Additionally, Susan Lynch portrays Alice, Wade 's aunt; Ralph Ineson portrays Rick, Alice 's abusive boyfriend; Perdita Weeks portrays Karen "Kira '' Underwood, Morrow 's wife; Clare Higgins portrays Mrs. Gilmore, Wade 's neighbor; and Letitia Wright portrays a rebel who can briefly be seen at the safe house. McKenna Grace and Lulu Wilson appear as elementary school children who use the OASIS.
Warner Bros. and De Line Pictures won an auction for the rights to Ernest Cline 's novel Ready Player One in 2010, before it had been published. Cline was set to write the script for the film, which Donald De Line and Dan Farah would produce. Eric Eason rewrote Cline 's script, and Zak Penn was hired to rewrite the previous drafts by Cline and Eason. Village Roadshow Pictures came aboard to co-finance and co-produce the film with Warner Bros. Steven Spielberg signed on to direct and produce the film, which Kristie Macosko Krieger also produced, along with De Line and Farah. Ready Player One is Spielberg 's first action - fantasy film since The Adventures of Tintin in late 2011. Cline and Penn made several revisions while adapting the novel to film. Most of these changes were to eliminate scenes that would be uninteresting in a visual format, such as when Wade beats a high score in Pac - Man, or recites all the lines from the film WarGames.
Three actresses were top - runners for the role of Art3mis: Elle Fanning, Olivia Cooke, and Lola Kirke; In September 2015, Cooke was announced as having been cast in the coveted female lead role. In January 2016, Ben Mendelsohn joined the cast. In February 2016, Tye Sheridan was confirmed as playing the lead role of Wade, after a lengthy nationwide casting call failed to produce an unknown for the part. In March 2016, Simon Pegg joined the cast. In April 2016, Mark Rylance joined the cast, and in June 2016, T.J. Miller, Hannah John - Kamen and Win Morisaki also joined. In July 2016, Philip Zhao joined the cast, and Lena Waithe, Ralph Ineson, McKenna Grace, and Letitia Wright were later also announced to have been cast.
Production was set to begin in July 2016. Screenwriter Zak Penn tweeted on July 1, 2016 that the first week of filming had been completed. In August and September 2016, filming took place in Birmingham, England; this included Livery Street in the Jewellery Quarter area of the city, which was extensively used, including the van chase that takes place towards the film 's end. The chase was edited to make the street appear longer than it actually is. The backpackers hostel Hatters, also on Livery Street, was used for internal filming for a basement scene. The Ludgate Hill Car Park lot on Lionel Street, in which caravan homes were partially built was also used and a planned explosion there caused some local business and homes to call emergency services, as no prior notification were given by the production team. Other locations in the city included the former industrial area of Digbeth, in a rooftop scene that overlooks the Birmingham City Centre skyline. Some of the city 's landmark buildings were erased and replaced with CGI buildings to create a dystopian Ohio in the year 2045. Principal photography ended on September 27, 2016.
Spielberg worked with Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) to oversee the film 's visual effects, meeting with ILM for 3 hours three times a week. He has stated that "(t) his is the most difficult movie I 've done since Saving Private Ryan. ''
A significant part of the film takes place in a virtual space based on the Overlook Hotel in the film The Shining. This was mostly a digital recreation of the film using high - quality telecine of the original film, giving them some freedom of new camera angles and shots that could be generated from this recreation. The final film includes a combination of the original footage from The Shining and ILM 's additional work. Only a few scenes in this sequence which involved real actors, such as the appearance of the Grady twins, required them to construct a faithful reproduction of The Shining 's set for the actors to interact with. Finally, the sequence was post-processed to introduce film grain and other aging effects to make the new footage indistinguishable from the original film.
ILM also had to faithfully produce digital recreations of several of the cultural references that appear throughout the film, including the DeLorean time machine, the Iron Giant, Chucky, and King Kong that was modeled after the 1933 version of the character. The Tyrannosaurus rex from Jurassic Park was also recreated using the same base model that ILM had previously created during the original film production.
Ready Player One pays homage to the popular culture of the 1970s and 1980s as in the book, but also extends to the 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s; several reviewers have identified well over one hundred references to films, television shows, music, toys, video games, anime and comics of these eras. Cline did not have any issues with these copyrighted elements when he published the book, but was aware that securing all necessary rights would be a major obstacle for a film adaptation, a task made easier by Spielberg 's reputation. Spielberg and producer Kristie Macosko Krieger spent several years securing the rights for the copyrighted elements used in the film, starting before filming began, since some scenes would not be possible without certain copyrighted elements. Spielberg estimated that they had gotten about 80 % of the copyrighted elements they wanted. Spielberg noted that in some cases, the filmmakers were able to secure rights for some but not all the characters they wanted; in negotiating with Warner Bros., they could not secure Close Encounters of the Third Kind from Columbia Pictures, despite the latter being one of Spielberg 's first films as director.
Blade Runner, which was integral to the plot of the book, was off limits to the film adaptation because Blade Runner 2049 was in production at the same time as Ready Player One. As a replacement, they conceived of players having to play out the events of The Shining, which Spielberg was able to secure the rights to as an homage to his friend Stanley Kubrick. While Cline 's original work heavily used the character of Ultraman, the rights over the character were still under legal dispute, requiring them to replace Ultraman with the titular robot from The Iron Giant. Spielberg recognized that his past films were a significant part of the 1980s popular culture cited in the book, and to avoid being accused of "vanity '', he opted to remove many of the references to his own work. Cline stated that he believed Spielberg wanted to avoid self - references to films he directed, due to the criticism he received for his film 1941, which lampooned his own previous works Jaws and Duel. Cline said he had to convince Spielberg to include some iconic elements, such as the DeLorean time machine from Back to the Future, which Spielberg conceded as the film was one he produced rather than directed. Spielberg also allowed the Tyrannosaurus rex from his own Jurassic Park to be included. Cline also asked ILM to include a reference to Last Action Hero, one of Penn 's first screenplays, without Penn 's knowledge.
On June 9, 2016, Variety stated that Spielberg 's regular collaborator John Williams was planning to compose the film 's score. However, in July 2017, it was reported that Williams had left the project to work on Spielberg 's The Post instead, with Alan Silvestri hired to take over scoring duties for Ready Player One. The official score was released by WaterTower Music as a two - CD set on March 30, 2018, with vinyl and cassette releases projected for the summer. At Spielberg 's request, Silvestri references his own music from Back to the Future within the film 's score, as well as quoting the music by Wendy Carlos and Rachel Elkind from The Shining for the film 's sequence at the Overlook Hotel.
The film also includes licensed music from the 1970s and 1980s, which appears on the digital - only soundtrack album Ready Player One: Songs From the Motion Picture.
Ready Player One was initially scheduled to be released on December 15, 2017, but was pushed back to March 30, 2018, to avoid competition with Star Wars: The Last Jedi. In January 2018, it was announced the film 's release date had been moved up one day to March 29, 2018. The film had its world premiere at the Paramount Theatre in Austin, Texas on March 11, 2018 (as part of the South by Southwest Film Festival).
Warner Bros. Pictures distributed the film worldwide, with Village Roadshow Pictures distributing in several overseas territories.
Ready Player One was released by Warner Bros. Home Entertainment on digital on July 3, 2018, and on 4K UHD, Blu - ray 3D, Blu - Ray, and DVD on July 24, 2018.
Ready Player One has grossed $137 million in the United States and Canada, and $445 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $582 million. Made on a production budget of $175 million, with about $150 million more spent on global marketing costs, the film needed to gross at least $440 million in order to break - even.
In the United States and Canada, Ready Player One was released alongside God 's Not Dead: A Light in Darkness and Acrimony, and was projected to gross $40 -- 50 million from 4,100 theaters over its first four days. It made $12.1 million on its first day, including $3.75 million from Wednesday night previews. It ended up grossing $41.8 million in its opening weekend (for a four - day total of $53.7 million), marking Spielberg 's biggest debut since 2008 's Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull. In its second weekend it grossed $25.1 million (a drop of 40 %), finishing second behind newcomer A Quiet Place ($50 million). In its third weekend the film made $11.2 million, coming in fourth behind Rampage, A Quiet Place and Truth or Dare. In its fourth weekend the film made $7.4 million, finishing sixth at the box office In its fifth weekend it grossed $2.4 million, a drop of 67 % from previous weekend and finishing ninth.
Worldwide, the film was released day - in - date in 62 countries, including China, where it was expected to make $100 -- 120 million in its opening weekend. It grossed $2.9 million on its first day from 11 countries, including $980,000 from Korea. In China the film made $14.75 million on its first day and earned a score of 9.2 from audiences on Douban (compared to the average 6 -- 7 earned by Hollywood films). It grossed $61.7 million in China in its opening weekend which is the highest opening ever for Warner Bros in said territory. The film 's other major opening weekend territories were South Korea ($8.1 million), United Kingdom ($7.3 million), Russia ($6.1 million) and France ($6 million). In its second weekend in China it grossed $42 million, and in third weekend grossed $13.9 million. The film grossed $81.7 million in its second weekend overseas, dropping only 35 % and is ahead of other newcomers A Quiet Place and Blockers. In its third weekend it grossed $33.8 million overseas dropping 58.6 %. On April 21, 2018, the film topped $200 million in China, becoming the tenth - biggest U.S. release ever in the country. In its fourth weekend in China, it grossed $8.24 million finishing third at the box office and has a total gross of $207 million. It grossed $23 million overseas from 67 territories in its fourth weekend. It opened in Japan, its final major market and grossed $4.4 million. In its fifth weekend overseas, it grossed $8.6 million from 63 territories. In China, the weekend was $2.4 M to push it past Avatar as the no. 9 Hollywood title ever in the market with $213.8 M (RMB 1.34 B). Japan 's third frame held well during Golden Week with just a 6 % drop from the last session. The total there is currently at $17.5 M. In its sixth weekend in China, it bumped up 10 % from last session to lift the local cume to $220.2 M. The film 's largest markets after China are Japan ($23.4 million), United Kingdom ($21.3 million), France ($21.5 million), Korea ($18.6 million), and Russia - CIS ($13.1 million).
On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 73 % based on 336 reviews, and an average rating of 6.9 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Ready Player One is a sweetly nostalgic thrill ride that neatly encapsulates Spielberg 's strengths while adding another solidly engrossing adventure to his filmography. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 64 out of 100, based on 54 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an 82 % overall positive score and a 65 % "definite recommend ''.
In a review for RogerEbert.com, Brian Tallerico wrote that the film 's "overwhelming '' nature and non-stop action will likely thrill fans of pop culture; while he observed narrative weaknesses, such as a lack of depth among the supporting characters, he felt that they ultimately do not hinder the film from working "on the level of technical, blockbuster mastery that Spielberg helped define ''. Writing for Variety, Owen Gleiberman called the film a "coruscating explosion of pop - culture eye candy '', and found the sequence based on The Shining to be "irresistible ''. However, he also criticized Spielberg 's dichotomization of fantasy and reality, as well as the film having "more activity than it does layers ''. IndieWire 's Eric Kohn characterized the film as "an astonishing sci - fi spectacle and a relentless nostalgia trip at once '' and praised both the sequence based on The Shining as well as Penn 's screenplay, particularly with respect to Mendelsohn 's character. Nevertheless, he remarked that the film "drags a bunch in its final third ''.
Alissa Wilkinson, writing for Vox, praised both the quality and quantity of the world building. She also commented on just how dystopian the future portrayed is, where the main characters fight to save the OASIS and the escape from reality it represents, with arguably less concern for the problems of the real world.
Monica Castillo was more critical of the film in her review for The Guardian and drew attention to the absence of character arcs, the lack of resolution for plot holes in the novel, and the bloating of scenes in the film by trivia. Matt Bobkin scored the film a 6 out of 10 for Exclaim! saying the film "is not so much a groundbreaking recontextualizing, more doe - eyed affection with no critical commentary ''. Movie Metropolis noted that the film "is an absolute thrill - ride from start to finish and is pure Spielberg in the very best way '' and awarded it 4 out of 5 stars.
Film and television critic Matt Zoller Seitz praised Ready Player One and noted the undercurrent of sadness present in the film, stating that "I do n't think Spielberg gets enough credit for making sad films that most people interpret as happy, and complex films that are immediately dismissed as simple or confused ''. Seitz concluded that the film "is a mess, but it is a fascinating and complex one... ''
Cline is working on a sequel to the novel. For a sequel to the film, he stated, "(...) I think there 's a good chance that, if this one does well, Warner Bros. will want to make a sequel. I do n't know if Steven (Spielberg) would want to dive back in, because he would know what he is getting into. He 's said that it 's the third - hardest film he 's made, out of dozens and dozens of movies ''.
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where was the movie best of me filmed | The Best of Me (film) - wikipedia
The Best of Me is a 2014 American romantic drama film directed by Michael Hoffman and written by Will Fetters and J. Mills Goodloe, based on Nicholas Sparks ' 2011 novel of the same name. The film stars James Marsden and Michelle Monaghan with Luke Bracey and Liana Liberato.
Dawson Cole works on an oil rig off the coast of Louisiana. One day, an explosion on the job nearly kills him, throwing him into the water. Days after recovering, Dawson learns that his close friend and surrogate father, Tuck Hostetler, has died and returns home for the first time in almost twenty years to carry out Tuck 's final wishes. When he arrives at his house, Dawson is surprised to find that Tuck also arranged for Dawson 's high school girlfriend, Amanda Collier, to join him. After more than twenty years of separation, Amanda is now married to Frank Reynolds and has a son, while Dawson has remained single.
Dawson was born into a notorious backwoods criminal family with an abusive father and more than a dozen abusive cousins. In flashbacks, it is revealed that as a teenager, he ran away from his father 's home and stayed overnight in Tuck Hostetler 's garage. Tuck, a local mechanic who had lost his wife a few years ago, allows Dawson to live with him and eventually considers him a son of his own.
During this time, Amanda and Dawson, two high school seniors, start dating and quickly fall in love with one another. The day of their high school senior prom, Dawson 's father and cousins savagely beat up Tuck and ruin his garden and the tulips his wife planted with their truck. Furious, an upset Dawson goes to his father 's house with the intent of killing him with Tuck 's rifle. Instead, Bobbie, Dawson 's cousin and best friend, is accidentally killed with the rifle in a rough scuffle between Dawson and his father. Dawson is arrested and cooperates with the authorities, leading to a police raid on the Coles ' property and all the other Coles are arrested. In exchange for a lighter sentence, Dawson testifies against his father and cousins. However, Dawson is not given the chance for parole before four years and he decides to cut ties with Amanda to allow her to move on with her life and to follow her ambitious dreams of becoming a lawyer.
Meanwhile in the present, Amanda and Dawson meet with Tuck 's lawyer and learn that they are to scatter Tuck 's ashes at a cottage he owned with his wife. The lawyer hands them separate letters that Tuck wrote to them individually in the hospital. Broken and hurt, Amanda has no plans on spending any time with Dawson, but she changes her mind after reading Tuck 's letter.
Dawson and Amanda eventually reconcile and spend a passionate night together at Tuck 's cottage. Although they are still deeply in love with each other, Dawson and Amanda agree that she must return to her family, despite her strained marriage. Her husband became an alcholic after the death of their young daughter, Bea, many years ago.
Dawson meets with Bobbie 's old girlfriend and apologizes for killing the father of her unborn child. She consoles Dawson by telling him that Bobbie 's death was not his fault, and she thanks him for anonymously sending money in the mail over the years to support her son. She then confesses to Dawson that her son Aaron is in trouble by hanging out with the Coles and living with Dawson 's horrible and abusive father. Dawson drives to his father 's filthy property to persuade Aaron to leave with him. He confronts his father and tells him that he 's a coward and a weak old man.
In the meantime, Amanda tells her husband that their marriage is broken and that she wants to leave. She then calls Dawson and leaves him a voicemail, professing her love to him.
Later in the night, Amanda receives a call from the hospital. Her son was in a very serious car accident and needs a heart transplant in order to survive. Amanda is devastated and can not imagine losing her other child. Miraculously, a heart donor is found the same night and the heart transplant surgery is a success.
The next morning, Amanda wakes up from a dream in which she saw Dawson sitting on the edge of her bed, watching her sleep. Her mother arrives and somberly informs Amanda that Dawson has died. He was attacked the previous night by his cousins at a railroad crossing after listening to her voicemail, and is ultimately shot in the chest by his father. Amanda crumples to the floor in huge sobs. Grief - stricken, she attends his small funeral along with her mother, Bobbie 's old girlfriend and Aaron.
One year later, Amanda is a new divorcee and is finally realizing her teenage dreams by working at a paralegal office focused on helping children. She receives a call from her son in college who just found out that his heart donor was Dawson Cole.
She later visits Tuck 's cottage and finds a heartfelt letter written by Dawson the day of his death, expressing his profound love for her and how the best days of his life had always been with her. She then walks into the garden, and is taken aback; Dawson had restored it to its original beauty. Amanda sits on the wooden bench in the garden, taking in the moment as she realizes that Dawson had given her the best of himself.
In an alternate ending on the DVD, Amanda leaves her husband and she and Dawson get together and enjoy walking through Tuck 's garden and the end credits roll.
On June 17, 2011, Warner Bros. acquired the film rights to the novel The Best of Me by Nicholas Sparks. On March 15, 2012, it was announced that the studio had tapped screenwriter J. Mills Goodloe to adapt the book.
On September 27, it was reported that Warner Bros. was in final talks with Michael Hoffman to direct the film, Will Fetters was set to rewrite the screenplay, marking his second adaptation of a Nicholas Sparks novel, and Denise Di Novi was set to produce the film, along with Sparks and Sparks ' agent Theresa Park as co-producers, marking Di Novi 's fifth film collaboration with Sparks, Sparks ' second time producing a film adaptation of one of his novels and Park 's production debut. On July 25, 2013, Relativity Media acquired the distribution rights from Warner Bros., marking the studio 's third film adaptation of a Nicholas Sparks novel. On October 22, Michelle Monaghan was cast to play the female lead Amanda Collier, and Ryan Kavanaugh was to co-produce the film. On October 24, the studio set the film for an October 17, 2014 release.
On January 9, 2014, the studio offered James Marsden from the 2004 adaptation of Sparks ' 1996 novel The Notebook to play the male lead Dawson Cole, replacing Paul Walker after his death. On January 28, Liana Liberato joined the film 's cast as the younger version of Monaghan 's character, Amanda Collier. On February 12, Luke Bracey was added to the cast to play the younger version of Marsden 's character, Dawson Cole. On March 12, Sebastian Arcelus and Gerald McRaney joined the cast of the film. Arcelus played Frank Reynolds, Amanda 's husband and father of her children, while McRaney played Tuck, a widower who takes in young Dawson and becomes a friend and father - figure to him. On March 25, Jon Tenney was added to the cast to play Harvey Collier, the father of Amanda.
Principal photography began on March 6, 2014 in New Orleans, Louisiana for a 42 - day shoot. On April 30 and May 1 the filming took place in the downtown Covington area. Also filming took place in parts of Pearl River, Louisiana.
On June 27, 2014, it was announced that composer Aaron Zigman would be scoring the music for the film.
The soundtrack album for the film, released on October 7, 2014, features original music primarily from the genre of country music, recorded by artists such as Lady Antebellum, Hunter Hayes, David Nail, Colbie Caillat, Kip Moore, Eli Young Band, Eric Paslay, Thompson Square, and Thomas Rhett. "I Did with You '' by Lady Antebellum was released on September 8, 2014 as the first promotional single from the soundtrack. The band 's other contribution, "Falling for You '' is also available on the deluxe edition of their fifth studio album, 747.
The titles and performing artists were published by Taste of Country.
The album debuted at number 54 on the Billboard 200, selling 6,200 copies in its first week.
The Best of Me opened in North America on October 17, 2014 across 2,936 theaters. It has grossed $26,766,213 in North America and $9,160,000 in other territories for a worldwide total of $35,926,213.
In its opening weekend, the film grossed $10,003,827, finishing fifth at the box office behind Fury ($23,702,421), Gone Girl ($17,511,956), The Book of Life ($17,005,218) and Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day ($11,456,954), making it the worst opening for a Nicholas Sparks ' novel adaptation.
The Best of Me has been panned by critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 8 %, based on 74 reviews, with an average rating of 3.5 / 10. The site 's consensus reads, "At nine films and counting, the line between Nicholas Sparks film fans and detractors is clear, and The Best of Me will change few minds on either side of the divide. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 29 out of 100, based on 26 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave The Best of Me an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
The Best of Me was released on DVD and Blu - ray on February 3, 2015.
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where is the rna of the ribosomes made | Ribosome - wikipedia
The ribosome (/ ˈraɪbəˌsoʊm, - boʊ - /) is a complex molecular machine, found within all living cells, that serves as the site of biological protein synthesis (translation). Ribosomes link amino acids together in the order specified by messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules. Ribosomes consist of two major components: the small ribosomal subunits, which reads the RNA, and the large subunits, which joins amino acids to form a polypeptide chain. Each subunit is composed of one or more ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules and a variety of ribosomal proteins (r - protein or rProtein). The ribosomes and associated molecules are also known as the translational apparatus.
The sequence of DNA, which encodes the sequence of the amino acids in a protein, is copied into a messenger RNA chain. It may be copied many times into RNA chains. Ribosomes can bind to a messenger RNA chain and use its sequence for determining the correct sequence of amino acids. Amino acids are selected, collected, and carried to the ribosome by transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, which enter one part of the ribosome and bind to the messenger RNA chain. It is during this binding that the correct translation of nucleic acid sequence to amino acid sequence occurs. For each coding triplet in the messenger RNA there is a distinct transfer RNA that matches and which carries the correct amino acid for that coding triplet. The attached amino acids are then linked together by another part of the ribosome. Once the protein is produced, it can then fold to produce a specific functional three - dimensional structure although during synthesis some proteins start folding into their correct form.
A ribosome is made from complexes of RNAs and proteins and is therefore a ribonucleoprotein. Each ribosome is divided into two subunits:
When a ribosome finishes reading an mRNA molecule, these two subunits split apart. Ribosomes are ribozymes, because the catalytic peptidyl transferase activity that links amino acids together is performed by the ribosomal RNA. Ribosomes are often associated with the intracellular membranes that make up the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Ribosomes from bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes in the three - domain system, resemble each other to a remarkable degree, evidence of a common origin. They differ in their size, sequence, structure, and the ratio of protein to RNA. The differences in structure allow some antibiotics to kill bacteria by inhibiting their ribosomes, while leaving human ribosomes unaffected. In bacteria and archaea, more than one ribosome may move along a single mRNA chain at one time, each "reading '' its sequence and producing a corresponding protein molecule.
The mitochondrial ribosomes of eukaryotic cells, are produced from mitochondrial genes, and functionally resemble many features of those in bacteria, reflecting the likely evolutionary origin of mitochondria.
Ribosomes were first observed in the mid-1950s by Romanian - American cell biologist George Emil Palade, using an electron microscope, as dense particles or granules. The term "ribosome '' was proposed by scientist Richard B. Roberts in the end of 1950s:
During the course of the symposium a semantic difficulty became apparent. To some of the participants, "microsomes '' mean the ribonucleoprotein particles of the microsome fraction contaminated by other protein and lipid material; to others, the microsomes consist of protein and lipid contaminated by particles. The phrase "microsomal particles '' does not seem adequate, and "ribonucleoprotein particles of the microsome fraction '' is much too awkward. During the meeting, the word "ribosome '' was suggested, which has a very satisfactory name and a pleasant sound. The present confusion would be eliminated if "ribosome '' were adopted to designate ribonucleoprotein particles in sizes ranging from 35 to 100S.
Albert Claude, Christian de Duve, and George Emil Palade were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, in 1974, for the discovery of the ribosome. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2009 was awarded to Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, Thomas A. Steitz and Ada E. Yonath for determining the detailed structure and mechanism of the ribosome.
The ribosome is a highly complex cellular machine. It is largely made up of specialized RNA known as ribosomal RNA (rRNA) as well as dozens of distinct proteins (the exact number varies slightly between species). The ribosomal proteins and rRNAs are arranged into two distinct ribosomal pieces of different size, known generally as the large and small subunit of the ribosome. Ribosomes consist of two subunits that fit together (Figure 2) and work as one to translate the mRNA into a polypeptide chain during protein synthesis (Figure 1). Because they are formed from two subunits of non-equal size, they are slightly longer in the axis than in diameter.
Prokaryotic ribosomes are around 20 nm (200 Å) in diameter and are composed of 65 % rRNA and 35 % ribosomal proteins. Eukaryotic ribosomes are between 25 and 30 nm (250 -- 300 Å) in diameter with an rRNA - to - protein ratio that is close to 1. Crystallographic work has shown that there are no ribosomal proteins close to the reaction site for polypeptide synthesis. This suggests that the protein components of ribosomes do not directly participate in peptide bond formation catalysis, but rather that these proteins act as a scaffold that may enhance the ability of rRNA to synthesize protein (See: Ribozyme).
The ribosomal subunits of prokaryotes and eukaryotes are quite similar.
The unit of measurement used to describe the ribosomal subunits and the rRNA fragments is the Svedberg unit, a measure of the rate of sedimentation in centrifugation rather than size. This accounts for why fragment names do not add up: for example, prokaryotic 70S ribosomes are made of 50S and 30S subunits.
Prokaryotes have 70 S ribosomes, each consisting of a small (30S) and a large (50S) subunit. Their small subunit has a 16S RNA subunit (consisting of 1540 nucleotides) bound to 21 proteins. The large subunit is composed of a 5S RNA subunit (120 nucleotides), a 23S RNA subunit (2900 nucleotides) and 31 proteins.
Affinity label for the tRNA binding sites on the E. coli ribosome allowed the identification of A and P site proteins most likely associated with the peptidyltransferase activity; labelled proteins are L27, L14, L15, L16, L2; at least L27 is located at the donor site, as shown by E. Collatz and A.P. Czernilofsky. Additional research has demonstrated that the S1 and S21 proteins, in association with the 3 ' - end of 16S ribosomal RNA, are involved in the initiation of translation.
Eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes, each consisting of a small (40S) and large (60S) subunit. Their 40S subunit has an 18S RNA (1900 nucleotides) and 33 proteins. The large subunit is composed of a 5S RNA (120 nucleotides), 28S RNA (4700 nucleotides), a 5.8 S RNA (160 nucleotides) subunits and 46 proteins.
During 1977, Czernilofsky published research that used affinity labeling to identify tRNA - binding sites on rat liver ribosomes. Several proteins, including L32 / 33, L36, L21, L23, L28 / 29 and L13 were implicated as being at or near the peptidyl transferase center.
The ribosomes found in chloroplasts and mitochondria of eukaryotes also consist of large and small subunits bound together with proteins into one 70S particle. These organelles are believed to be descendants of bacteria (see Endosymbiotic theory) and, as such, their ribosomes are similar to those of bacteria.
The various ribosomes share a core structure, which is quite similar despite the large differences in size. Much of the RNA is highly organized into various tertiary structural motifs, for example pseudoknots that exhibit coaxial stacking. The extra RNA in the larger ribosomes is in several long continuous insertions, such that they form loops out of the core structure without disrupting or changing it. All of the catalytic activity of the ribosome is carried out by the RNA; the proteins reside on the surface and seem to stabilize the structure.
The differences between the bacterial and eukaryotic ribosomes are exploited by pharmaceutical chemists to create antibiotics that can destroy a bacterial infection without harming the cells of the infected person. Due to the differences in their structures, the bacterial 70S ribosomes are vulnerable to these antibiotics while the eukaryotic 80S ribosomes are not. Even though mitochondria possess ribosomes similar to the bacterial ones, mitochondria are not affected by these antibiotics because they are surrounded by a double membrane that does not easily admit these antibiotics into the organelle.
The general molecular structure of the ribosome has been known since the early 1970s. In the early 2000s, the structure has been achieved at high resolutions, of the order of a few Å.
The first papers giving the structure of the ribosome at atomic resolution were published almost simultaneously in late 2000. The 50S (large prokaryotic) subunit was determined from the archaeon Haloarcula marismortui and the bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans, and the structure of the 30S subunit was determined from Thermus thermophilus. These structural studies were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2009. In May 2001 these coordinates were used to reconstruct the entire T. thermophilus 70S particle at 5.5 Å resolution.
Two papers were published in November 2005 with structures of the Escherichia coli 70S ribosome. The structures of a vacant ribosome were determined at 3.5 - Å resolution using x-ray crystallography. Then, two weeks later, a structure based on cryo - electron microscopy was published, which depicts the ribosome at 11 -- 15 Å resolution in the act of passing a newly synthesized protein strand into the protein - conducting channel.
The first atomic structures of the ribosome complexed with tRNA and mRNA molecules were solved by using X-ray crystallography by two groups independently, at 2.8 Å and at 3.7 Å. These structures allow one to see the details of interactions of the Thermus thermophilus ribosome with mRNA and with tRNAs bound at classical ribosomal sites. Interactions of the ribosome with long mRNAs containing Shine - Dalgarno sequences were visualized soon after that at 4.5 - to 5.5 - Å resolution.
In 2011, the first complete atomic structure of the eukaryotic 80S ribosome from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae was obtained by crystallography. The model reveals the architecture of eukaryote - specific elements and their interaction with the universally conserved core. At the same time, the complete model of a eukaryotic 40S ribosomal structure in Tetrahymena thermophila was published and described the structure of the 40S subunit, as well as much about the 40S subunit 's interaction with eIF1 during translation initiation. Similarly, the eukaryotic 60S subunit structure was also determined from Tetrahymena thermophila in complex with eIF6.
Ribosomes are organelles that synthesize proteins. Proteins are needed for many cellular functions such as repairing damage or directing chemical processes. Ribosomes can be found floating within the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
Ribosomes are the workplaces of protein biosynthesis, the process of translating mRNA into protein. The mRNA comprises a series of codons that dictate to the ribosome the sequence of the amino acids needed to make the protein. Using the mRNA as a template, the ribosome traverses each codon (3 nucleotides) of the mRNA, pairing it with the appropriate amino acid provided by an aminoacyl - tRNA. Aminoacyl - tRNA contains a complementary anticodon on one end and the appropriate amino acid on the other. For fast and accurate recognition of the appropriate tRNA, the ribosome utilizes large conformational changes (conformational proofreading). The small ribosomal subunit, typically bound to an aminoacyl - tRNA containing the amino acid methionine, binds to an AUG codon on the mRNA and recruits the large ribosomal subunit. The ribosome contains three RNA binding sites, designated A, P and E. The A-site binds an aminoacyl - tRNA; the P - site binds a peptidyl - tRNA (a tRNA bound to the peptide being synthesized); and the E-site (exit) binds a free tRNA before it exits the ribosome. Protein synthesis begins at a start codon AUG near the 5 ' end of the mRNA. mRNA binds to the P site of the ribosome first. The ribosome is able to identify the start codon by use of the Shine - Dalgarno sequence of the mRNA in prokaryotes and Kozak box in eukaryotes.
Although catalysis of the peptide bond involves the C2 hydroxyl of RNA 's P - site adenosine in a proton shuttle mechanism, other steps in protein synthesis (such as translocation) are caused by changes in protein conformations. Since their catalytic core is made of RNA, ribosomes are classified as "ribozymes, '' and it is thought that they might be remnants of the RNA world.
In Figure 5, both ribosomal subunits (small and large) assemble at the start codon (towards the 5 ' end of the RNA). The ribosome uses RNA that matches the current codon (triplet) on the mRNA to append an amino acid to the polypeptide chain. This is done for each triplet on the RNA, while the ribosome moves towards the 3 ' end of the mRNA. Usually in bacterial cells, several ribosomes are working parallel on a single RNA, forming what is called a polyribosome or polysome.
Presence of a ribosome quality control protein Rqc2 is associated with mRNA - independent protein elongation. This elongation is a result of ribosomal addition (via tRNAs brought by Rqc2) of CAT tails: ribosomes extend the C - terminus of a stalled protein with random, translation - independent sequences of alanines and threonines.
Würzburg University and Max Planck Institute researches, the results of which were published in Cell Reports and The EMBO magazines in September 2016, have shown that ribosomes have the role of being "a quality control point ''. Professor Utz Fischer from the University of Würzburg has been researching the assembly of proteins called "macromolecular machines '' in the cell for years. He describes this assembly process as LEGO blocks: "Think of it as LEGO bricks at the molecular level: One brick is attached to the next until the product is finished. If only one defective or wrong brick is used, the entire building may be compromised as a result. ''
Ribosomes are classified as being either "free '' or "membrane - bound ''.
Free and membrane - bound ribosomes differ only in their spatial distribution; they are identical in structure. Whether the ribosome exists in a free or membrane - bound state depends on the presence of an ER - targeting signal sequence on the protein being synthesized, so an individual ribosome might be membrane - bound when it is making one protein, but free in the cytosol when it makes another protein.
Ribosomes are sometimes referred to as organelles, but the use of the term organelle is often restricted to describing sub-cellular components that include a phospholipid membrane, which ribosomes, being entirely particulate, do not. For this reason, ribosomes may sometimes be described as "non-membranous organelles ''.
Free ribosomes can move about anywhere in the cytosol, but are excluded from the cell nucleus and other organelles. Proteins that are formed from free ribosomes are released into the cytosol and used within the cell. Since the cytosol contains high concentrations of glutathione and is, therefore, a reducing environment, proteins containing disulfide bonds, which are formed from oxidized cysteine residues, can not be produced within it.
When a ribosome begins to synthesize proteins that are needed in some organelles, the ribosome making this protein can become "membrane - bound ''. In eukaryotic cells this happens in a region of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) called the "rough ER ''. The newly produced polypeptide chains are inserted directly into the ER by the ribosome undertaking vectorial synthesis and are then transported to their destinations, through the secretory pathway. Bound ribosomes usually produce proteins that are used within the plasma membrane or are expelled from the cell via exocytosis.
In bacterial cells, ribosomes are synthesized in the cytoplasm through the transcription of multiple ribosome gene operons. In eukaryotes, the process takes place both in the cell cytoplasm and in the nucleolus, which is a region within the cell nucleus. The assembly process involves the coordinated function of over 200 proteins in the synthesis and processing of the four rRNAs, as well as assembly of those rRNAs with the ribosomal proteins.
The ribosome may have first originated in an RNA world, appearing as a self - replicating complex that only later evolved the ability to synthesize proteins when amino acids began to appear. Studies suggest that ancient ribosomes constructed solely of rRNA could have developed the ability to synthesize peptide bonds. In addition, evidence strongly points to ancient ribosomes as self - replicating complexes, where the rRNA in the ribosomes had informational, structural, and catalytic purposes because it could have coded for tRNAs and proteins needed for ribosomal self - replication. Hypothetical cellular organisms with self - replicating RNA but without DNA are called ribocytes (or ribocells).
As amino acids gradually appeared in the RNA world under prebiotic conditions, their interactions with catalytic RNA would increase both the range and efficiency of function of catalytic RNA molecules. Thus, the driving force for the evolution of the ribosome from an ancient self - replicating machine into its current form as a translational machine may have been the selective pressure to incorporate proteins into the ribosome 's self - replicating mechanisms, so as to increase its capacity for self - replication.
Heterogeneity in ribosome composition has been proposed to be involved in translational control of protein synthesis. Vincent Mauro and Gerald Edelman proposed the ribosome filter hypothesis to explain the regulatory functions of ribosomes. Emerging evidence has shown that specialized ribosomes specific to different cell populations can affect how genes are translated. Some ribosomal proteins exchange from the assembled complex with cytosolic copies suggesting that the structure of the in vivo ribosome can be modified without synthesizing an entire new ribosome.
This article incorporates public domain material from the NCBI document "Science Primer ''.
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how many vice presidents of the united states have there been | List of Vice Presidents of the United States - wikipedia
There have been 48 Vice Presidents of the United States since the office came into existence in 1789. Originally, the Vice President was the person who received the second most votes for President of the United States in the Electoral College. However, in the election of 1800, a tie in the electoral college between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr led to the selection of the President by the House of Representatives. To prevent such an event from happening again, the Twelfth Amendment was added to the Constitution, creating the current system where electors cast a separate ballot for the vice presidency.
The United States Constitution assigns few powers or duties to the vice president. The Vice President 's primary function is to succeed to the presidency if the President dies, resigns, or is impeached and removed from office. Nine vice presidents have ascended to the presidency in this way: eight through the president 's death, and one, Gerald Ford, through the president 's resignation. In addition, the Vice President serves as the President of the Senate and may choose to cast a tie - breaking vote on decisions made by the Senate. Vice presidents have exercised this latter power to varying extents over the years.
Prior to passage of the Twenty - fifth Amendment, a vacancy in the office of the Vice President could not be filled until the next post-election inauguration. Such vacancies were common; sixteen occurred before the 25th Amendment was ratified -- as a result of seven deaths, one resignation (John C. Calhoun, who resigned to become a U.S. Senator), and eight cases in which the vice president succeeded to the presidency. This amendment allowed for a vacancy to be filled with appointment by the President and confirmation by both chambers of the U.S. Congress. Since the Amendment 's passage, two vice presidents have been appointed through this process, Gerald Ford in 1973 and Nelson Rockefeller in 1974.
The Twenty - fifth Amendment also established a procedure whereby a Vice President may, if the president is unable to discharge the powers and duties of the office, temporarily assume the powers and duties of the office as Acting President. George H.W. Bush did so once, on July 13, 1985. Dick Cheney did so twice, on June 29, 2002, and on July 21, 2007.
Vice presidents have hailed from 21 states. More than half of them have come from just five states, New York (11), Indiana (6), Massachusetts (4), Kentucky (3), and Texas (3). Most vice presidents have been in their 50s or 60s and had political experience prior to assuming the office. The youngest person to become Vice President was John C. Breckinridge at 36 years of age, while the oldest was Alben W. Barkley at 71 years of age. Two vice presidents -- George Clinton and John C. Calhoun -- served under more than one president.
Twenty -- five vice presidents held other high U.S. state or federal government positions after leaving the vice presidency. Fourteen went on to become President of the United States (nine of them following their predecessor 's death or resignation), and 4 served in the United States Senate. Several served as U.S. Cabinet members, ambassadors of the United States abroad, or in U.S. state government.
In addition to their post-vice - presidency service to the United States, two former vice presidents served in the government of the Confederate States during the American Civil War: John Tyler, as a member of the Provisional Confederate Congress, 1861 -- 1862, elected to the Confederate House of Representatives in November 1861, but died before he could take his seat; and John C. Breckinridge, as Confederate States Secretary of War, 1865.
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what is the meaning of hassan in english | Hassan (given name) - wikipedia
Hassan (also spelled Hasan, Hassane, Hassen, Hasson, Hassin, Hassine, Hacen, Hasen, Hasin, Hassa, Hassann, Hasa, Hasso, Cassin, Chassan, Chasan, Khassan, Khasan, Cassan, Casan, Hasaan, Alassane, Lassana, Lacène, or Lansenou) (Arabic: حسن , Ḥasan) is a masculine Arabic given name.
As a surname, Hassan may be Irish, Scottish, Arabic or Hebrew (see Hassan (surname)).
The name Hassan in Arabic means ' handsome ' or ' good ', or ' benefactor '.
There are two different Arabic names that are both romanized with the spelling "Hassan ''. However, they are pronounced differently, and in Arabic script spelled differently.
In the romanized spelling Hassan, it is not possible to distinguish which of the two names is intended. The ambiguity can be removed by romanizing the former name as Hassan with a single a, and reserving the spelling with doubled a for the latter name, or romanizing the former as Hasan and the latter as Hassan.
King al - Ḥasan of Morocco (officially romanized as Hassan, with a double ss, due to the influence of French orthography) is an example of the former. The early Islamic poet Ḥassān ibn Thābit is an example of the latter. In the original Arabic, the two different names are easily distinguished.
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who sings sing a song about the heartland | Heartland (George Strait song) - Wikipedia
"Heartland '' is a song written by Steve Dorff and John Bettis, and recorded by American country music artist George Strait. It was released in January 1993 as the second single from his soundtrack album Pure Country. The song reached the top of the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks (now Hot Country Songs) chart.
The song is an uptempo country - rocker, in which the narrator sings about the heartland of America -- "The only place I feel at home '' and "Where they still know wrong from right. ''
A music video was filmed for the single, which combines a live performance of the song and short clips from the movie.
Per the liner notes of Strait 's 1995 box set Strait Out of the Box. All parts were recorded on April 28, 1992, except for the electric guitar, which was recorded one day later.
The song debuted at number 73 on the Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart dated January 2, 1993. It spent 20 weeks on that chart, and reached Number One on the chart dated March 20, 1993.
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books of bible in order of date written | Dating the Bible - wikipedia
Outline of Bible - related topics
The four tables give the most commonly accepted dates or ranges of dates for the Old Testament / Hebrew Bible, the Deuterocanonical books (included in Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox bibles, but not in the Hebrew and Protestant bibles) and the New Testament, including, where possible, hypotheses about their formation - history.
Table I is a chronological overview. Table II treats the Old Testament / Hebrew Bible books, grouped according to the divisions of the Hebrew Bible with occasional reference to scholarly divisions. Table III gives the Deuterocanonical books. Table IV gives the books of the New Testament, including the earliest preserved fragments for each.
This table summarises the chronology of the main tables and serves as a guide to the historical periods mentioned. Much of the Hebrew Bible or the Protocanonical Old Testament may have been assembled in the 5th century BCE. The New Testament books were composed largely in the second half of the 1st century CE. The Deuterocanonical books fall largely in between.
The five books are drawn from four "sources '' (distinct schools of writers rather than individuals): the Priestly source, the Yahwist and the Elohist (these two are often referred to collectively as the "non-Priestly '' source), and the Deuteronomist. There is general agreement that the Priestly source is post-exilic, but there is no agreement over the non-Priestly source (s).
Book of Joshua Book of Judges Books of Samuel Books of Kings
Book of Isaiah Book of Jeremiah Book of Ezekiel
The Book of Jeremiah exists in two versions, Greek (the version used in Orthodox Christian Bibles) and Hebrew (Jewish, Catholic and Protestant Bibles), with the Greek representing the earlier version. The Greek version was probably finalised in the early Persian period and translated into Greek in the 3rd century BCE, and the Hebrew version dates from some point between then and the 2nd century BCE.
The Book of Ezekiel describes itself as the words of the Ezekiel ben - Buzi, a priest living in exile in the city of Babylon, and internal evidence dates the visions to between 593 and 571 BCE. While the book probably reflects much of the historic Ezekiel, it is the product of a long and complex history, with significant additions by a "school '' of later followers.
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coldplay a rush of blood to the head album | A Rush of Blood to the Head - wikipedia
A Rush of Blood to the Head is the second studio album by the British rock band Coldplay. It was released on 26 August 2002 by Parlophone in the United Kingdom, and a day later by Capitol Records in the United States. The album was produced by the band and producer Ken Nelson. Recording started after the band became popular worldwide with the release of their debut album Parachutes (2000), and one of its singles in particular, "Yellow ''. The album makes greater use of electric guitar and piano than its predecessor.
The album was made available in August 2002, two months after its original planned release date. The album topped the UK Albums Chart upon its first week of release in the United Kingdom, and became the eighth biggest - selling album of the 21st century in the UK. The British Phonographic Industry has since certified the album 9 × Platinum for its accumulated sales of over 2.9 million units in the UK and the album has sold 12 million copies worldwide. The album spawned the hit singles "In My Place '', "The Scientist '', and "Clocks ''. "God Put a Smile upon Your Face '' was also released, but was significantly less successful.
A Rush of Blood to the Head has been critically acclaimed, and the band won the 2003 Grammy for Best Alternative Album for the second year in a row, and the 2004 Grammy for Record of the Year for the song "Clocks ''. In 2012, it was ranked number 466 on Rolling Stone Magazine 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. It was also voted the best album of all time by the listeners of BBC Radio 2 in a poll conducted in 2013.
Capitol released a remastered version of the album in 2008 on a 180 - gram vinyl record as part of its "From the Capitol Vaults '' series.
The band started recording the album in London a week after the September 11 attacks in the United States, during which their "poignant songs... garnered larger audiences ''. Coldplay had never stayed in London for an extended period before and were bombarded by problems focusing on the production process. They decided to relocate to Liverpool, where they had recorded some of the songs on Parachutes. Lead singer Chris Martin said that once there they "became obsessed with recording ''. "In My Place '' was the first song recorded for the album and the one that the band released as the album 's lead single "because it was the song that made us want to do a second album. It kept us going and made us think we could still write songs '', following "a strange period of not really knowing what we were doing '' three months after the success of Parachutes.
The band wrote more than twenty songs for the album and some of those, including "In My Place '' and "Animals '', were performed live during the tours promoting Parachutes. The album 's title was revealed through a post on the band 's official website.
During initial recording sessions in Liverpool, lead singer Chris Martin and guitarist Jonny Buckland worked alone, and only on weekends. Each Monday, they would present the song ideas that they had developed to their bandmates. With A Rush of Blood to the Head nearly completed, Martin went into the studio late one night and wrote a piano riff that he has stated "just came out ''. The band recognised that this early version of the song, that would become "Clocks '', was special the first time Martin played it to them. Reasoning that it was too late to include the song on the album, they recorded a demo version and included it on a CD marked "Songs for # 3 '', featuring unfinished tracks they intended to work on for their third studio album.
By June 2002, the band had completed A Rush of Blood to the Head, but thought their output sounded "rubbish '' and reached an agreement with the label to postpone the release of the album until they were completely satisfied. Subsequently, many songs were discarded because they sounded like they could have been on Parachutes. Martin has claimed that it would have been uninteresting: "It would have shown that we 're happy to sit back on what we 'd done, and we 're not. For us, it was important to progress and try to improve upon our abilities as musicians. '' Such ambitions put the band under strain: "sometimes practice sessions ended abruptly with one or more members of Coldplay threatening to quit ''.
After headlining the 2002 Glastonbury Festival, Coldplay returned to the studio and worked on some tracks from the "Songs for # 3 '' CD they had produced earlier. Phil Harvey, the band 's manager, heard "Clocks '' and urged them to rework it immediately: "No, you must do that song now ' cause you 're going on (in the lyrics) about urgency, and you 're talking about keeping this song back. That does n't make sense. ''
Production of the album began quickly with the writing of the track "Politik '', which was a song seen as a reflection of the world at the time, giving the band a renewed perspective on their lives and society. Many of the song lyrics on the album relate strongly to the theme of urgency. Martin has commented that previous songs were more relaxed since they were in a comfortable state of mind: "Perhaps there 's a bit more urgency on some of these songs. And that 's born from all the places we 've been and the things we 've experienced. '' Martin has explained. In relation to the theme of urgency, Martin has also started that the album 's title means "doing something on impulse ''.
Several songs on the album are about the themes of love & relationships. These tracks are based on reality, but according to Martin, they were written with a fictional twist: "Songs are like fairy tales: they have a beginning and an end and you can make it all work perfectly. Real life does n't work like that ''.
The album includes ballads and acoustic songs featuring extensive use of guitar and piano. The U2-esque "epic rock '' of the album 's opening track "Politik '', the piano - driven "Clocks '', the loud guitars of "A Whisper '' and the Crowded House - inspired guitar in "Warning Sign '' were seen as an extension of the band 's musical range. Chris Martin has also stated that the album 's title track is an homage to American singer - songwriter Johnny Cash, whom he considered one of "the greatest... men with just guitars ''. The title track is about uncertainties faced in life.
According to Martin, the song "Green Eyes '' was composed for two individuals: An "American friend '' (speculated to be a woman of Chris ' romantic desire), and bandmate Jonny Buckland.
The album cover for A Rush of Blood to the Head was designed by photographer Sølve Sundsbø. Sundsbø had been hired by fashion magazine Dazed & Confused in the late 1990s to produce a shot with a "technological feel, something all white '', according to himself. As an artist, Sundsbø attempted to do a unique original piece, creating a shot that had never been seen before; He suggested taking shots using a three - dimensional scanning machine to fulfil his vision.
The model for the shots wore all - white cosmetic makeup, along with a twill - coloured cape, to aesthetically produce optimal and desired results. The scanner could not properly identify the colors on the model, so they were replaced with digital spikes, and the head in the image was chopped as the machine was unable scan more than about a foot of the image. The editor of the magazine well - received the image, and eventually featured it in one of the magazine 's publications. Martin eventually saw the image in a publication of the magazine, then approaching Sundsbø for proper permission to use the image as the cover of A Rush of Blood to the Head. For the album 's singles, Martin asked Sundsbø for any ideas; Sundsbø suggested scanning the head of each member of the band (Sundsbø also did artwork duties for the Live 2003 album cover).
The album booklet contains only two photos; One with Coldplay in a location that was rumoured to be a forest, and one with the band in a recording studio. The album cover was among the ten chosen by the Royal Mail for a set of "Classic Album Cover '' postage stamps issued in January 2010.
Upon release, A Rush of Blood to the Head received critical acclaim from contemporary critics. Review aggregating website Metacritic reports a normalised score of 80 based on 25 reviews. Many felt that it built upon their previous album, Parachutes. Alexis Petridis of the newspaper The Guardian wrote that the band 's "new assurance is everywhere... the timidity of Parachutes is nowhere to be found ''. He concludes, "It sounds like an album ready to take on the world, and win. ''
Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times praised the album, commenting that it is "one of the year 's best albums '' and describing it as "sparser, stranger and even catchier than its predecessor ''. Rolling Stone magazine 's Rob Sheffield, said that "A Rush of Blood to the Head is a nervier, edgier, thoroughly surprising album '', adding, "where Parachutes was the clumsy diary of a high - strung kid, A Rush of Blood sounds more like a band with the confidence to test its own limits. '' Ted Kessler of NME lauded the album, calling it "an album of outstanding natural beauty, an organic, wholesome work. '' MacKenzie Wilson of AllMusic echoed the above comments, saying that it is a "strong album ''. Wilson, who compliments Martin for his "sharpened '' falsetto and refined "haunting delivery '' and Buckland for his "riveting guitar work '', notes that "regardless of the band still being in their mid-twenties, they 've made an amazing record ''. Emma Pearse of the American newspaper The Village Voice has the same sentiments, stating that it is "a little edgier, trancier, and more conversational '' compared to Parachutes. Robert Christgau gave the album a one - star honourable mention () and quipped, "Let Green Eyes dump him for real and we 'll see how long he hums in the void. ''
A Rush of Blood to the Head has earned the band several awards from both the domestic and international music press. In 2002 it was awarded Best Album at the Q Awards. In the same year, the band won two Grammy Awards: Best Alternative Music Album and Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal for the song "In My Place ''. In 2003 A Rush of Blood to the Head won Best British Album at the BRIT Awards, and the following year the band earned their first Grammy Award for Record of the Year for the song "Clocks '' for a total of three Grammys for the album. The band also won three VMAs at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Group Video, Breakthrough Video and Best Direction in a Video for "The Scientist ''. The same year, they won the awards best NME album of the year, and best album of the year at the NME Awards.
The album was chosen in 2002 as Billboard magazine 's Critics ' Choice. Kludge included it on their list of best albums of 2002. In 2012, it was ranked number 466 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. It was also ranked 21st on Rolling Stone 's list of top 100 albums of the 2000s. In 2007 The National Association of Recording Merchandisers and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame released a list of what they term "The Definitive 200 Albums of All Time ''; A Rush of Blood to the Head ranks at number 65 on the list. The album was nominated for the BRITs Album of 30 Years at the 2010 BRIT Awards.
In a BBC Radio poll in 2013, the album topped the list ahead of Hopes and Fears by Keane, Rio by Duran Duran and The Dark Side of the Moon by Pink Floyd. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
A Rush of Blood to the Head made an entrance into the UK Albums Chart upon its debut week, entering at number 1 and moving 273,924 copies. The British Phonographic Industry has since certified the album 9x Platinum for its accumulated sales of over 2.8 million copies. With the subsequent release of "Clocks '' and "The Scientist '', the album spent over one year on the chart. A Rush of Blood to the Head has been placed at number seven on the list of United Kingdom 's 20 biggest - selling albums of the 21st century, published by the British trade paper Music Week. In July 2011, A Rush of Blood to the Head climbed from No. 176 back to No. 44 in the album 's 250th charting week there. As of June 2016, the album has sold 2,909,750 copies in the UK, making it Coldplay 's best - selling studio album. It is the tenth best - selling album of the 21st century.
In the United States, A Rush of Blood was Coldplay 's first venture into the top 5 with 144,000 copies sold initially, stronger than its predecessor, Parachutes, which debuted at number 189 in December 2000. It has since been certified 4x platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America, and it has sold sales 4,925,000 copies as of July 2014. It has been certified 7x platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association, having accumulated shipments of over 490,000 units, and 4x times platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association for shipments of over 400,000.
All tracks written by Chris Martin, Jonny Buckland, Guy Berryman, and Will Champion.
Coldplay
Technical and additional personnel
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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war for the planet of tge apes imdb | War for the Planet of the Apes - Wikipedia
War for the Planet of the Apes is a 2017 American epic science fiction action drama film directed by Matt Reeves and written by Mark Bomback and Reeves. A sequel to Rise of the Planet of the Apes (2011) and Dawn of the Planet of the Apes (2014), it is the third installment in the Planet of the Apes reboot series. The film stars Andy Serkis, Woody Harrelson and Steve Zahn, and follows a confrontation between the apes, led by Caesar, and the humans for control of Earth. Like its predecessor, its premise shares several similarities to the fifth film in the original series, Battle for the Planet of the Apes, but it is not a direct remake.
Principal photography began on October 14, 2015, in Vancouver. War for the Planet of the Apes premiered in New York City on July 10, 2017, and was theatrically released in the United States on July 14, 2017, by 20th Century Fox. The film has grossed over $483 million and received critical praise, with many reviewers highlighting the acting (particularly Serkis), visual effects, story, musical score, and direction.
Two years after the U.S. military was called to fight off an increasingly intelligent and dangerous tribe of apes, starting a devastating war between the two species, the apes ' clan, led by the chimpanzee Caesar, are attacked in the woods by a rogue paramilitary faction known as Alpha - Omega, led by a mysterious Colonel. Alpha - Omega also has in its service apes they call "donkeys '' that had previously followed Koba, a maniacal, human - hating bonobo who led a failed coup against Caesar and started the war after leading a vengeful attack against human survivors in San Francisco. During the attack, the Alpha - Omega soldiers are met by heavy ape resistance, and four soldiers, including a "donkey '' gorilla named Red, are captured by the apes. Caesar arrives and orders the human soldiers to be released, with a message to the Colonel that he did not start the war and he killed Koba for doing so, and that he desires peace between the humans and apes. Caesar, out of spite, orders that Red is to be imprisoned but he escapes, injuring albino gorilla Winter.
Soon after, Caesar 's son, Blue Eyes, and his lieutenant Rocket return from a journey to find a safe haven for the apes. They report that they have found a place across the desert that is perfect for the clan. Winter, still frightened from the soldiers ' attack, wants to leave immediately, but Caesar does not think they are prepared to leave so soon. That night, a group of Alpha - Omega soldiers, led by the Colonel, infiltrates the apes ' home behind a waterfall. The apes discover their presence and kill them all except the Colonel, whom Caeser encounters preparing to escape. Discovering that the Colonel has killed his wife Cornelia along with Blue Eyes, an enraged Caesar lunges at the Colonel but fails to prevent him from escaping out of the waterfall. Upon discovering that Winter has disappeared, Luca, a gorilla and Caesar 's secondary lieutenant, believes that he has betrayed them out of cowardice.
Leaving his younger son Cornelius in the care of Blue Eyes ' mate Lake, Caesar departs to exact revenge on the Colonel for the deaths of his wife and oldest son. He is accompanied by Maurice, a orangutan and Caesar 's adviser, Luca, and Rocket, while the other apes head for the desert. During their journey, the apes enter an abandoned village, encounter a soldier, and kill him. Caesar, Maurice, Luca, and Rocket search the dead soldier 's home. Maurice discovers the soldier 's daughter who is apparently unable to speak. Maurice befriends and adopts the girl, giving her a small rag doll.
Along the way, Caesar 's party encounters Winter in an Alpha - Omega camp on the beach where he has volunteered to become a "donkey '' for the soldiers in return for sparing his life. He tells Caesar 's group that the Colonel has departed for a location referred to as the "border. '' Winter tries to call out to the Alpha - Omega soldiers to save him, but Caesar and the others struggle to keep him quiet. While restraining Winter, Caesar accidentally smothers and kills him. Caesar begins to worry that he is becoming like Koba by killing his fellow apes and seeking revenge. While following the soldiers to the border, they discover some soldiers who have been shot and left for dead. Their examination of a soldier who survived reveals that he, like the girl, can not speak. At the soldier 's urging, Caesar mercifully kills him. Later the group encounters Bad Ape, a reclusive chimpanzee hermit who lived in the Sierra Zoo before the Simian Flu pandemic. Bad Ape reveals that the human soldiers are encamped at the border and hesitantly agrees to lead them there.
When the group arrives at the border, they see hundreds of apes held captive inside a former quarantine facility. While getting a closer look, Luca is killed protecting Caesar from an Alpha - Omega patrol, angering Caesar and causing him to proceed alone. Caesar discovers the rest of his ape clan has been captured, and are being forced to build a wall with no food or water; he is captured by Red. The Colonel reveals to Caesar that the Simian Flu virus has mutated and now causes humans who survived the original strain to become mute, which he believes is a sign of devolution to a primitive state. Caesar deduces that the Colonel is barricading himself in the facility to fend off remnants of the U.S. Army from the north who are coming to execute him because he favors massacring any infected humans, including his own son, to stop the spread of the virus. Caesar is commended by the Colonel for his intelligence, and the Colonel explains that he is fighting a "holy war '' for humanity 's survival.
While Caesar is tortured with starvation, the mute girl, whom Maurice names Nova, sneaks into the facility to give Caesar food, water, and her rag doll (originally given to her by Maurice). To prevent Nova from being discovered, Rocket allows himself to be captured as a diversion. The next day, the Colonel comes to see if Caesar is still alive, and confiscates Nova 's doll upon discovering it. Together Caesar and Rocket are able to work out a means of escape via an underground tunnel that leads out of the facility. Maurice and Bad Ape use the tunnel to rescue the apes, and Caesar orders the others to escape while he goes to confront the Colonel as the facility comes under attack by the northern army. Caesar reaches the Colonel and prepares to kill him, but discovers that Nova 's doll has infected him with the mutated virus, rendering him unable to speak. Caesar spares the Colonel and watches as he uses his pistol to commit suicide, rather than regressing to a primitive state.
During the battle between Alpha - Omega and the northern army, the escaping apes come under fire from Alpha - Omega. Caesar attempts to attack Alpha - Omega forces from behind, but is shot with a crossbow by Preacher, one of the Alpha - Omega soldiers he had previously set free. In an act of redemption, Red saves Caesar 's life by killing Preacher with a grenade launcher, and gets shot by an Alpha - Omega superior as a result. Caesar blows up a large fuel tank, causing a cascade of explosions which destroys the Alpha - Omega facility, allowing the northern army to win the battle. However, the army is subsequently devastated by an avalanche, which Caesar and the other apes, carrying Nova, survive by climbing nearby trees.
The remaining apes depart the facility and cross the desert to find an oasis. While the other apes joyously celebrate their new home, Maurice discovers Caesar 's wound. Maurice then speaks, telling the dying Caesar that Cornelius will know who his father was, what he stood for and what he did to protect the apes. Caesar then slowly and silently succumbs to his wounds, dying peacefully while Maurice mourns his passing as the other apes look on.
After seeing his cut of Dawn, 20th Century Fox and Chernin Entertainment signed Matt Reeves to return as director for a third installment of the reboot series. In January 2014, the studio announced the third film, with Reeves returning to direct and co-write along with Bomback, and Peter Chernin, Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver serving as producers. During an interview in mid-November 2014 with MTV, Andy Serkis said they did not know the next film 's setting. "... It could be five years after the event. It could be the night after the events of where we left ' Dawn. ' '' In May 2015, the title was first given as War of the Planet of the Apes. By October 2015, it had been retitled as War for the Planet of the Apes.
When director Reeves and screenwriter Bomback came on board to helm Dawn, the film already had a release date, which led to an accelerated production schedule. However, with the third installment, Fox wanted to give the duo plenty of time to write and make the film. Taking advantage of this, the two bonded with each other more than before.
In interviews for Dawn, Reeves talked about the inevitable war Caesar would have with the humans: "As this story continues, we know that war is not avoided by the end of Dawn. That is going to take us into the world of what he is grappling with. Where he is going to be thrust into circumstances that he never, ever wanted to deal with, and was hoping he could avoid. And now he is right in the middle of it. The things that happen in that story test him in huge ways, in the ways in which his relationship with Koba haunts him deeply. It 's going to be an epic story. I think you 've probably read that I sort of described it where in the first film was very much about his rise from humble beginnings to being a revolutionary. The second movie was about having to rise to the challenge of being a great leader in the most difficult of times. This is going to be the story that is going to cement his status as a seminal figure in ape history, and sort of leads to an almost biblical status. He is going to become like a mythic ape figure, like Moses. ''
Toby Kebbell, who portrayed Koba in Dawn, had expressed interest in reprising his role or performing as other characters. Plans to include Koba in a larger role in the film were abandoned early, with Bomback saying, "If you stayed until the very end of Dawn of the Planet of the Apes, you hear Koba 's breathing. We did that to give us a tiny crack of a possibility that we could revive Koba if we wanted to. Very early on in spitballing, we realized there was nothing more to do with Koba -- certainly nothing that would exceed what he had done in the last story. But we knew we wanted to keep him alive as an idea. In playing out the reality of what happened at the end of the last film, Caesar would be traumatized by having to kill his brother. That would have resonance, and we wanted to make sure that did n't get lost. So the answer was that we could go inside Caesar 's mind at this point and revisit Koba that way. ''
In August 2015, Deadline reported that Gabriel Chavarria had been cast as one of the humans in the film. In September 2015, The Hollywood Reporter announced that Woody Harrelson had been cast as the film 's antagonist, and that Chavarria 's role was supporting. In October 2015, TheWrap reported that Steve Zahn was cast as a new ape in the film. It was also announced that actress Amiah Miller was cast as one of the film 's humans, with Judy Greer and Karin Konoval reprising their roles as Cornelia and Maurice, while Aleks Paunovic and Sara Canning were cast as new apes.
Principal photography on the film began on October 14, 2015 in the Lower Mainland in Vancouver, under the working title Hidden Fortress. Filming was expected to take place there until early March 2016. Parts of the film were expected to shoot for up to five days in the Kananaskis in late January and early February. In March, Serkis confirmed that he had finished shooting his portions.
As with Rise and Dawn, the visual effects for War were created by Weta Digital; the apes were created with a mixture of motion - capture and CGI key - frame animation, as they were performed in motion - capture technology and animated in CGI.
At New York Comic - Con 2016, Reeves explained that he and Bomback were influenced by many films before writing. He said, "One of the first things that Mark and I did because we had just finished Dawn was that we decided to watch a million movies. We decided to do what people fantasize what Hollywood screenwriters get to do but no one actually does. We got Fox to give us a theater and we watched movie after movie. We watched every Planet of the Apes movie, war movies, westerns, Empire Strikes Back... We just thought, ' We have to pretend we have all the time in the world, ' even though we had limited time. We got really inspired. ''
Additionally, during production, Reeves and Bomback sought broader inspirations from films like Bridge on the River Kwai and The Great Escape. Feeling that there was a need to imbue Biblical themes and elements, they also watched Biblical epics like Ben - Hur and The Ten Commandments. The influences and inspirations were made evident in the relationship between Caesar and Woody Harrelson 's Colonel, a military leader with pretensions toward godhood. Reeves has compared their relationship to the dynamic between Alec Guinness 's British Commander and Sessue Hayakawa 's prison camp Colonel in Bridge on the River Kwai. Another comparison is in Caesar 's journey to find the Colonel, flanked by a posse of close friends -- a situation Reeves explicitly tied to Clint Eastwood 's war - weary soldier in The Outlaw Josey Wales. Influences from the film Apocalypse Now, notably Harrelson 's character and his Alpha - Omega faction being similar to Colonel Kurtz 's renegade army, were also noted by several journalists. Harrelson has also acknowledged the similarities and inspiration.
On October 17, 2015, it was confirmed that Michael Giacchino, the composer and writer of the soundtrack for Dawn, would return to compose War 's score. The soundtrack was digitally released to iTunes and Amazon on July 7, 2017, and in its physical form by Sony Masterworks on July 21, 2017.
All music composed by Michael Giacchino.
The film was initially set for a July 29, 2016, release. However, in January 2015, Fox postponed the film 's release date to July 14, 2017.
Special behind - the - scenes footage for the film was aired on TV on November 22, 2015, as part of a contest announcement presented by director Matt Reeves and Andy Serkis. The footage aired during The Walking Dead on AMC. The announcement allowed winners to wear a performance - capture suit and appear in a scene as an ape. The announcement was released on 20th Century Fox 's official YouTube page later the same day.
At a New York Comic Con special event on October 6, Reeves, Serkis and producer Dylan Clark debuted an exclusive look at the film.
Serkis has also mentioned that the film would be accompanied by a video game, for which he performed motion capture. Titled Planet of the Apes: Last Frontier, the game is set for release for the PlayStation 4, Xbox One and PC in fall 2017.
War for the Planet of the Apes will be released on Digital HD on October 10, 2017 and on Blu - ray and DVD on October 24, 2017 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment.
As of October 1, 2017, War for the Planet of the Apes has grossed $146.5 million in the United States and Canada and $334.7 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $484.8 million, against a production budget of $150 million.
In North America, the film was projected to gross $50 -- 60 million in its opening weekend, however, given its acclaimed status and strong word - of - mouth, rival studios believed the film had the potential to debut as high as $70 -- 80 million. War was closely monitored by analysts while the summer was witnessing a decline in ticket sales, a situation that they blamed on franchise fatigue for an overabundance of sequels and reboots (such as Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales, Transformers: The Last Knight and The Mummy). However, box office analysts noted that well - reviewed films have tended to perform in - line with estimates (Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, Wonder Woman and Spider - Man: Homecoming). The film grossed $5 million from Thursday night previews at 3,021 theaters, up 22 % from the $4.1 million earned by its predecessor, and $22.1 million on its first day. It went on to debut to $56.3 million, topping the box office, albeit with a 22 % drop from Dawn 's $72.6 million debut. In its second weekend, the film grossed $20.9 million (a drop of 62.9 %, more than the 50.4 % fall Dawn saw), finishing 4th at the box office. In its third weekend, the film made $10.5 million (dropping another 49.9 %), finishing 6th at the box office. It was lower than the third weeks of both Rise ($16.1 million) and Dawn ($16.8 million).
Outside North America, War for the Planet of the Apes is receiving a scattered release in a span of three months (July -- September). The film began its release in about a third of the marketplace on July 14, albeit only in two major markets, and was projected to have an opening of $50 -- 60 million, with the potential to go higher if smaller Asian markets over-perform, as they have for recent tent poles. The film ended up having an international debut of $44.2 million, including $9.27 million in the United Kingdom.
War for the Planet of the Apes received critical acclaim for the performances of its cast (particularly Serkis), direction, musical score, visual effects, cinematography and morally complex storyline. On review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 93 %, based on 268 reviews, with a rating average of 8.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "War for the Planet of the Apes combines breathtaking special effects and a powerful, poignant narrative to conclude this rebooted trilogy on a powerful -- and truly blockbuster -- note. '' On review aggregator Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average rating to reviews, the film has a score of 82 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale, the same score earned by its two immediate predecessors. Scott Collura of IGN awarded the film a score of 9.5 out of 10, saying: "War for the Planet of the Apes is an excellent closing act to this rebooted trilogy, but also one that does enough world - building that the series can potentially continue from here -- and it 's a rare case where, after three movies, we 're left wanting more. ''
During an interview with MTV News in mid-November 2014, Andy Serkis talked about possible sequels: "It might be three films, it could be four. It could be five. Who knows? The journey will continue. '' In October 2016, it was announced that a fourth Planet of the Apes film is being planned.
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another word for god bless you when you sneeze | Responses to sneezing - wikipedia
In English - speaking countries, the common verbal response to another person 's sneeze is "bless you '', or, less commonly in the United States and Canada, "Gesundheit '', the German word for health (and the response to sneezing in German - speaking countries). There are several proposed bless - you origins for use in the context of sneezing.
In non-English - speaking cultures, words referencing good health or a long life are often used instead of "bless you, '' though some also use references to God.
In some Asian cultures such as Korean and Japanese cultures, the practice of responding to another person 's sneeze does not exist.
فرج (Faraj), صحة (Sahha).
"Relief! '', "Health! ''
(India) Jibah Jibah (জীবঃ জীবঃ)
"(India) May you live long ''
More rarely there is the expression 多 保重 (duōbǎozhòng)
"Take care ''
Old - fashioned: à tes / vos amours after the second sneeze, and qu'elles durent toujours after the third. More archaically, one can say Que dieu te / vous bénisse.
2) Helf Gott! / Helfgott! (Southern Germany / Austria / Transylvanian - Saxon; archaic / mostly used by more or less religious elderly)
3) Großwachsen! (Transylvanian - Saxon; from Romanian "Să creşti mare! ''; used solely for children, usually after the usual "Gesundheit '' for the first and / or second response)
2) "May God help you! ''
3) "You shall grow tall! ''
or Háíshį́į́ naa ntsékees / naa yáłti '
2) Să crești mare! (for children; usually "Noroc '' comes first, then "Sănătate '' and, as a third option, "Să crești mare! '')
2) "May you grow up! ''
Someone might say правду говорю (pravdu govor'u) if they sneeze while talking.
"I 'm telling the truth. ''
2) Pis Maco mostly used with children
2) "go away kitten '' as sound of sneezing often sounds like cat 's cough
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watch game of thrones season 3 episode 4 watch series | And Now his Watch is Ended - wikipedia
"And Now His Watch Is Ended '' is the fourth episode of the third season of HBO 's fantasy television series Game of Thrones, and the 24th episode of the series. It was written by showrunners and executive producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss and directed by Alex Graves, his directorial debut for the series.
The episode 's title comes from a chant made by the Night 's Watch at the funeral of a fallen brother while at Craster 's Keep.
Tyrion Lannister asks Lord Varys, laboring to open a large crate, for proof that Queen Regent Cersei Lannister tried to have him killed during the Battle of the Blackwater. Varys replies that he has none, but advises that revenge requires patience and tells the story of being made a eunuch decades earlier by a sorcerer in Myr. Once his story concludes, Varys opens the crate to reveal the whimpering sorcerer inside. Later, Varys gathers information from Ros, who reveals that Lord Petyr Baelish may take Sansa Stark with him when he leaves for the Eyrie to wed Lysa Arryn. Varys also meets with Lady Olenna Tyrell, asking about her interest in Sansa. He warns her that Baelish could become dangerous if he could obtain more power by controlling the heir to the North.
King Joffrey Baratheon takes Lady Margaery Tyrell on a tour of the Great Sept of Baelor, where Cersei and Lady Olenna are discussing the wedding. Margaery encourages Joffrey to give love to the people, urging him to open the doors to the balcony to wave to the crowd, which angers Cersei. Later, Cersei meets with her father, Tywin, to discuss the importance of getting Jaime back, as well as the Tyrell presence in King 's Landing. Cersei distrusts Margaery for her ability to manipulate Joffrey. Margaery and Sansa get to know one another when Margaery finds Sansa at prayer in the godswood. Margaery expresses her hope that Sansa will come to see the Tyrell seat of Highgarden, but Sansa says Cersei will not allow her to leave King 's Landing. Margaery replies that once she is queen, she would see Sansa wed to her brother, Ser Loras.
Bran dreams he is running through the woods with Jojen Reed, chasing the three - eyed raven. Bran climbs a tree in pursuit of the raven, but falls when his mother, Catelyn, appears, commanding him not to climb.
Theon Greyjoy and the boy who freed him ride for Deepwood Motte, where the boy claims Theon 's sister Yara is waiting. While in the castle 's underground entrance tunnel, Theon explains that he never found or killed the Stark boys, instead having Dagmer Cleftjaw kill and burn two orphans as substitutes. He also reveals his remorse for his actions and claims that Eddard Stark was his true father all along. When they enter the castle, the boy lights a torch to reveal that he has taken Theon back to the dungeon from which he 'd helped him escape. Guards subdue Theon while the boy watches in delight.
Locke and his men taunt Ser Jaime Lannister for their removal of his sword hand. When Jaime falls from his horse, he steals a sword from one of Locke 's men and attacks them, but, due to his weakened condition and having to use his left hand, he is quickly beaten. At camp, Brienne of Tarth talks with Jaime, who refuses to eat, saying he wants to die. She chastises him for quitting and tells him to live so that he can take revenge on Locke.
Arya Stark, Gendry, and Sandor "the Hound '' Clegane are transported to the hideout of the Brotherhood Without Banners by Thoros of Myr and his men. They are introduced to the Brotherhood 's leader, Lord Beric Dondarrion, who calls Clegane a murderer, which Clegane rejects on the grounds that all his killings were duty - bound protection of the king. Arya tells the Brotherhood about Mycah, the butcher 's boy Clegane killed, but Clegane defends the execution as justified by Mycah having attacked the king, which Arya protests is untrue. Dondarrion sentences Clegane to fight him in a trial by combat.
Grenn, Edd Tollett and Rast have been forced to work at Craster 's Keep, caring for the pigs; Rast declares that they can not trust Craster. Samwell Tarly and Gilly discuss her newborn son and his likely murder by Craster. The men of the Night 's Watch hold a funeral for a fallen brother and soon return to Craster 's Keep for dinner. Brother Karl Tanner challenges Craster, complaining about the poor food they have been given. Rast then enrages Craster by mentioning his bastard parentage. Craster grabs his hatchet and orders the Night 's Watch out of his keep, threatening to mutilate the next one who calls him a bastard. After a moment of silence, Karl calls Craster a list of vulgar insults including the word "bastard ''; Craster lunges at Karl, who stabs Craster in the throat. When Lord Commander Jeor Mormont attempts to fight Karl, Rast stabs him in the back, and, after the commander falls, stabs him repeatedly. As a fight breaks out amongst the Night 's Watch brothers, Sam flees with Gilly and her infant son.
Daenerys Targaryen and her followers arrive to complete the trade of one of her dragons to the slaver Kraznys for the 8,000 - strong Unsullied army. During the exchange, Kraznys repeatedly insults her in Valyrian yet again. After completing the exchange, Daenerys -- in fluent Valyrian, claiming it as her mother tongue due to her Targaryen ancestry -- orders her new army of Unsullied to sack Astapor, kill all the slavers and free every slave they find. When a horrified Kraznys tries to order the Unsullied to turn on their new mistress, Daenerys reclaims her dragon by ordering it to kill Kraznys. After the battle ends, she frees the Unsullied and tells them they may remain with her as free men or leave if they choose. None choose to leave her, showing their support by pounding their spears in unison. Daenerys and her army depart Astapor.
"And Now His Watch Is Ended '' was written by showrunners David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. It was based on George Martin 's novels, chapters Tyrion X from A Clash of Kings and Jaime IV, Tyrion II, Samwell II, the first part of Arya VI, and the second half of Daenerys III from A Storm of Swords.
Benioff and Weiss considered this episode one of the "big ones '' and a turning point of the series. Weiss said that when he was reading the books he was swept away by Daenerys ' final scene, and remembered thinking how he 'd be able to put it on screen if he could ever get to film it.
This final scene includes the first instance of the High Valyrian language in the series, apart from short stock phrases, spoken by Daenerys. Up to this point only the Astapori dialect of Low Valyrian, a creolized form of the ancient language of the old Valyrian Empire, had been heard, spoken by the slaver Kraznys. David J. Peterson, the language creator hired by the series, designed both versions of the tongue.
The episode reintroduces Lord Beric Dondarrion, now played by Richard Dormer. Dondarrion had previously been portrayed by David Michael Scott in his brief appearance in the first season episode "A Golden Crown '', where he was entrusted by Lord Eddard Stark with the task of capturing Ser Gregor Clegane. This episode also marks James Cosmo 's last appearance in the series, as his character Jeor Mormont is killed by his own men.
The episode was helmed by director Alex Graves, a newcomer to the production. The producers praised his work, in particular in the handling of the final scene at Astapor: "He took a scene that had us quite nervous -- the number of people on set, the size of the action, the amount of the effects work -- and had it all done in a few days. A scene that might take a feature eight days; for us it was two or three. ''
The interiors of the episode were shot at Belfast 's The Paint Hall, including a new set representing the colossal Great Sept of Baelor at King 's Landing. For the exteriors, the episode filmed extensively at the forests of Clandeboye Estate, where the sets of Craster 's Keep and the encampment of Locke 's band were built. The gardens where Olenna and Varys plot are parts of the Trsteno Arboretum, in Croatia.
The scenes with Daenerys were filmed in Morocco. While during the first three episodes the city of Astapor had been represented by the coastal ramparts of Essaouira, the plaza and the walls seen in this episode were sets from Atlas Studios, located 5 kilometres west of the city of Ouarzazate. The walls had been built to stand in for the city of Jerusalem in the 2005 film Kingdom of Heaven.
The ratings of the episode raised to a new record for the series, with a viewership of 4.87 million viewers and a 2.6 share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. The encore was watched by another 1.03 million, totaling 5.90 million viewers for the night. In the United Kingdom, the episode was seen by 0.992 million viewers on Sky Atlantic, being the channel 's second highest - rated broadcast that week.
The episode received critical acclaim, being consistently rated as the best of the season at the time of its airing. Review aggregator surveyed 21 reviews of the episode and judged 100 % of them to be positive with an average score of 9.2 out of 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "' And Now His Watch is Ended ' is an enthralling meditation on betrayal and revenge, bolstered by a mind - blowing surprise for those who would underestimate Daenerys Targarean (sic). '' IGN 's Matt Fowler rated it with a 9.3 / 10, highlighting "shocking deaths, brutal double - crosses and a Kingslayer undone made for some mighty fine Thrones ''. David Simms, writing for The A.V. Club, considered it "an insanely satisfying, shocking episode '' and gave it an "A '' grade. His colleague Todd VanDerWerff agreed on the score.
The final scene with Daenerys was unanimously praised. At Cultural Learnings, Myles McNutt found that the scene was one of the series ' best sequences and considered it an impressive feat to have achieved a climax so satisfying for the viewer with only a relatively small number of scenes building up to it in the first three episodes. VanDerWerff considered that Emilia Clarke 's acting was Emmy worthy. HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall also praised her performance, remarking that "her big moment comes in a (fictional) foreign language, and the subtitles are barely necessary. That 's how good she is. ''
Due to her nomination, Emilia Clarke submitted this episode for consideration for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards. At the 65th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards, Diana Rigg was nominated for the Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series for her performance in this episode, and the episode itself received two nominations for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Series (One Hour).
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which of these made up rome's plebeian class | Social class in ancient Rome - wikipedia
Social class in ancient Rome was hierarchical, but there were multiple and overlapping social hierarchies, and an individual 's relative position in one might be higher or lower than in another. The status of freeborn Romans during the Republic was established by:
For example, men who lived in towns outside Rome (such as municipia or colonies) might hold citizenship, but lack the right to vote (see ius Latinum); free - born Roman women were citizens, but could not vote or hold political office.
There were also classes of non-citizens with different legal rights, such as peregrini. Under Roman law, slaves were considered property and had no rights as such. However, some laws regulated slavery and offered slaves protections not extended to other forms of property such as animals. Slaves who had been manumitted were freedmen (liberti), and for the most part enjoyed the same legal rights and protections as free - born citizens.
Roman society was patriarchal in the purest sense; the male head of household (paterfamilias) held special legal powers and privileges that gave him jurisdiction (patria potestas) over all the members of his familia -- a more encompassing term than its modern derivative "family '' that included adult sons, his wife (but only in Rome 's earlier history, when marriage cum manu was practiced), married daughters (in the Classical period of Roman history), various dependent relatives, and slaves. The patron - client relationship (clientela), with the word patronus deriving from pater ("father ''), was another way in which Roman society was organized into hierarchical groups, though clientela also functioned as a system of overlapping social networks. A patron could be the client of a socially superior or more powerful patron; a client could have multiple patrons.
In the Roman Kingdom and the early Roman Republic the most important division in Roman society was between the patricians and the plebeians. The patricians were a small elite whose ancestry was traced to the first Senate established by Romulus, who monopolised political power. The plebeians comprised the majority of Roman citizens (see below). Adult males who were not Roman citizens, whether free or slave, fall outside this division. Women and children were also not citizens, but took the social status of their father or husband, which granted them various rights and protections not available to the women and children of men of lower rank.
The common assumptions that the patricians and the Roman elite were one and the same throughout the history of ancient Rome, and that all plebeians were of non-elite status throughout the history of ancient Rome, are entirely incorrect. From the Late Republic era onward many members of the elite, including an increasing proportion of senators, came from plebeian families. The first Roman Emperor, Augustus, was of plebeian origin, as were many of his successors. By the Late Empire, few members of the Senate were from the original patrician families, most of which had died out. Rome continued to have a hierarchical class system, but it was no longer dominated by the distinction between patricians and plebeians.
Originally, all public offices were open only to patricians, and the classes could not intermarry. Plebeians and Patricians were always at odds due to the fact that Plebeians wanted to increase their power. A series of social struggles (see Conflict of the Orders) saw the plebs secede from the city on three occasions, the last in 297 BC, until their demands were met. They won the right to stand for office, the abolition of the intermarriage law, and the creation of office of tribune of the plebs. This office, founded in 494 BC as a result of a plebeian secession, was the main legal bulwark against the powers of the patrician class, and only plebeians were eligible. The tribunes originally had the power to protect any plebeian from a patrician magistrate. Later revolts forced the Senate to grant the tribunes additional powers, such as the right to veto legislation. A tribune 's person was sacrosanct, and he was obliged to keep an open house at all times while in office. Some patricians, notably Clodius Pulcher in the late 60s BC, petitioned to be assigned plebeian status, in order to accumulate the political influence among the people that the office of tribune afforded. The conflict between the classes came to a climax in 287 BC when patricians and plebeians were declared equal under the law.
Following these changes the distinction between patrician and plebeian status became less important, and by the Late Republic the only patrician prerogatives were certain priesthoods. Over time, some patrician families declined, some plebeian families rose in status, and the composition of the ruling class changed. A plebeian who was the first of his line to become consul was known as a novus homo ("new man ''), and he and his descendants became "noble '' (nobiles). Notable examples of novi homines are the seven - time consul Marius, and Cicero, whose rise was unusual in that it was driven by his oratorical and intellectual abilities rather than, as with Marius, military success. During the Empire, patricius became a title of nobility bestowed by emperors.
The census divided citizens into six complex classes based on property. The richest were the senatorial class, who during the Late Republic had to be worth at least 400,000 sestertii, the same as the equites; when Augustus reformed the senate during the first years of the Principate, he raised the property requirement to 1,000, 0000 sestertii. The wealth of the senatorial class was based on ownership of large agricultural estates, and by custom members did not engage in commercial activity.
Below the senatores in rank, but above others were the equites ("equestrians '' or "knights ''), with 400,000 sestertii, who could engage in commerce and formed an influential business class. Certain political and quasi-political positions were filled by equites, including tax farming and, under the Principate, leadership of the Praetorian Guard. Below the equites were three more classes of property - owning citizens; and lastly the proletarii, whose property was valued below 11,000 asses.
money (property)
(self - supplied)
Free - born women in ancient Rome were citizens (cives), but could not vote or hold political office. The form of Roman marriage called conubium, for instance, requires that both spouses be citizens; like men from towns granted civitas sine suffragio, women eligible for legal marriage were citizens without suffrage. The legal status of a mother as a citizen affected her son 's citizenship. The phrase ex duobus civibus Romanis natos ("children born of two Roman citizens '') indicates that a Roman woman was regarded as having citizen status, in specific contrast to a peregrina.
The Latin Right was a form of citizenship with limited rights. It was conferred originally on the allied towns of Latium in the Republican era, and gradually extended to communities throughout the Empire. Latin citizens had rights, but not the vote, although their leading magistrates could become full citizens.
Free - born foreign subjects were known as peregrini, and special laws existed to govern their conduct and disputes. These distinctions continued until 212 AD, when Caracalla extended full Roman citizenship to all free - born men in the empire.
Slaves (servi) were not citizens, and lacked even the legal standing accorded free - born foreigners. For the most part, slaves descended from debtors and from prisoners of war, especially women and children captured during sieges and other military campaigns in Greece, Italy, Spain, and Carthage. In the later years of the Republic and into the Empire, more slaves came from newly conquered areas of Gaul, Britain, North Africa, and Asia Minor. Many slaves were created as the result of Rome 's conquest of Greece, but Greek culture was considered in some respects superior to that of Rome: hence Horace 's famous remark Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit ("Captured Greece took her savage conqueror captive ''). The Roman playwright Terence is thought to have been brought to Rome as a slave. Thus slavery was regarded as a circumstance of birth, misfortune, or war; it was defined in terms of legal status, or rather the lack thereof, and was neither limited to or defined by ethnicity or race, nor regarded as an inescapably permanent condition.
Slaves who lacked skills or education performed agricultural or other forms of manual labor. Those who were violent or disobedient, or who for whatever reason were considered a danger to society, might be sentenced to labor in the mines, where they suffered under inhumane conditions. Slaves subjected to harsh labor conditions also had few if any opportunities to obtain their freedom.
Since slaves were legally property, they could be disposed of by their owners at any time. All children born to female slaves were slaves. Some slave owners, as for instance Tacitus, freed slaves whom they believed to be their natural children. Slaves who had the education or skills to earn a living were often manumitted upon the death of their owner as a condition of his will. Slaves who conducted business for their masters were also permitted to earn and save money for themselves, and some might be able to buy their own freedom.
Over time, legislation was passed to protect the lives and health of slaves. Although many prostitutes were slaves, for instance, the bill of sale for some slaves stipulated that they could not be used for commercial prostitution.
Freed men (liberti) were freed slaves, whose free - born children were full citizens. The status of liberti developed throughout the Republic as their number increased. Livy states that freedmen in the Early Republic mainly joined the lower classes of the plebeians. Juvenal, writing during the Empire when financial Freedmen were often highly educated and made up the bulk of the civil service during the early Empire. The Augustan poet Horace was himself the child of a freedman from Venusia in southern Italy. Many became enormously wealthy as the result of bribes, fraud, or other forms of corruption, or were given large estates by the Emperor they served. Other freedmen engaged in commerce, amassing vast fortunes often only rivalled by those of the wealthiest nobiles. Many of the Satires of Juvenal contain angry denouncements of the pretensions of wealthy freedmen, some ' with the chalk of the slave market still on their heel '. Juvenal saw these successful men as nouveaux riches who were far too ready to show off their (often ill - gotten) wealth. Another famous caricature is seen in the absurdly extravagant character of Trimalchio in Satyricon. The majority of freedmen, however, joined the plebeian classes, and often worked as farmers or tradesmen.
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when does a driver have to stop for a school bus | School bus traffic stop laws - wikipedia
School bus stop laws are laws dictating what a motorist must do in the vicinity of a bus stop being used by a school bus or other bus, coach or minibus providing school transport.
Jurisdictions in the United States (including overseas territories) and Canada have adopted various school bus stop laws that require drivers to stop and wait for a stopped school bus loading or unloading, so as to protect school children boarding or alighting.
Generally, if a stopped school bus is displaying a flashing, alternating red lamp, a driver of a vehicle meeting or overtaking the stopped bus from either direction (front or back) must stop and wait until the bus moves again or the red light is off. Police officers, school crossing guards, and even school bus drivers themselves may have the power to wave traffic on, even when a red light is flashing.
On divided highways, most American and Canadian jurisdictions do not require vehicular drivers to stop when on the opposite side of the road from a stopped school bus. Those that do require vehicles to stop are:
American and Canadian jurisdictions have sought to deter illegal passing stopped school buses by increased enforcement and heavy penalties, including fines, application of demerit points against a driver 's license or even license suspension. Nevertheless, violations are common. An officer must witness the violation, and even when citations issued, getting convictions is often difficult; sometimes traffic courts consider the evidence insufficient, or reduce the charge because the penalty for a first offense seems excessive. There are, however, exceptions. Missouri has Jessica 's Law, which grants the right of a school bus driver to report the offense, in which case the driver is automatically cited. Cobb County, an urban county in Metro Atlanta, has added bus cameras, as a deterrent, which can detect and automatically report vehicles passing a bus.
Drivers in Washington state are not required to stop for a school bus on any highway (Under Washington law, any public road is defined as a highway) with three or more lanes when traveling in the opposite direction. This has been interpreted to mean that when approaching a bus from the opposite direction on a normal road with a turn lane, or a road with two lanes in each direction, etc., a driver is not required to stop their vehicle. This is an unusual law, but arguably leads to a higher safety level for children, as they are then required to be dropped on the same side of the road as the bus exit on anything greater than a two - lane road as provided by RCW 46.61. 370. Ohio has a similar exception for roads with four or more lanes.
Drivers in Idaho and Kentucky are not required to stop for a school bus on any highway with four or more lanes when traveling in the opposite direction.
Drivers in California do not have to stop on any highway that is divided or is multi-lane (2 or more lanes of travel in each direction) when traveling in the opposite direction.
In Pennsylvania, the only vehicle that may pass a stopped school bus with the red lights flashing is an emergency vehicle with its flashing lights and siren activated, but only after the emergency vehicle has come to a complete stop and proceeds with due caution for any students embarking or disembarking.
In New York State, an official estimate is that 50,000 vehicles pass stopped school buses illegally every day. However, as New York State requires traffic to stop for a school bus stopped on the opposing roadway of a divided highway, the estimate may include "New York violations '' that would be legal in other states. The New York State Department of Transportation once recommended that the State Legislature exempt traffic from stopping for a school bus stopped on the opposing roadway of a divided highway, but this has not been done.
On a national basis, school bus drivers in the United States have reported a decrease in passing violators in recent years with improved warning devices. Despite an increase in traffic and school bus ridership, annual fatalities and injuries to children struck by other vehicles has decreased as well. However, it is unclear whether having reported a decrease in passing violators is due to difficulty to report or better compliance by motorists.
When and where enforcement against violators becomes too hard, some residential streets may prohibit entry of vehicles other than school buses at certain times to effectively eliminate passing stopped school buses illegally.
Bus drivers are prohibited to turn around at intersections with students on the bus. If laws are broken, the bus driver may be charged with including but not limited to: child endangerment and disobeying laws. This section may not include all laws or bylaws.
Traffic laws in other countries do not require vehicles to stop
The speed limit is 40 km / h (24.9 mph) in Australia and 20 km / h (12.4 mph) in New Zealand when passing a stopped school bus. In New Zealand, the New Zealand Transport Agency decided that the speed limit passing a stopped school bus should not be raised based on probabilities of pedestrian deaths if hit at different speeds, nor has it supported requiring fully stopping and waiting for school buses loading and unloading children as in the United States and Canada.
In Belgium and Germany, traffic is required to pass stopped school buses at very slow speeds that allow for quick stopping. While in South Korea, Japan, Taiwan, and the United Kingdom, drivers are directed to drive carefully passed stopped school buses.
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meaning behind it is well with my soul | It is Well with my soul - wikipedia
(Original lyrics)
When peace like a river, attendeth my way, When sorrows like sea billows roll; Whatever my lot, Thou hast taught me to know It is well, it is well, with my soul.
Refrain: It is well, (it is well), With my soul, (with my soul) It is well, it is well, with my soul.
Though Satan should buffet, though trials should come, Let this blest assurance control, That Christ has regarded my helpless estate, And hath shed His own blood for my soul.
My sin, oh, the bliss of this glorious thought! My sin, not in part but the whole, Is nailed to the cross, and I bear it no more, Praise the Lord, praise the Lord, O my soul!
For me, be it Christ, be it Christ hence to live: If Jordan above me shall roll, No pang shall be mine, for in death as in life, Thou wilt whisper Thy peace to my soul.
But Lord, ' tis for Thee, for Thy coming we wait, The sky, not the grave, is our goal; Oh, trump of the angel! Oh, voice of the Lord! Blessed hope, blessed rest of my soul.
And Lord, haste the day when my faith shall be sight, The clouds be rolled back as a scroll; The trump shall resound, and the Lord shall descend, A song in the night, oh my soul!
"know '' (at the end of the third line) was changed to "say ''. "A song in the night, oh my soul '' (last line) was changed to "Even so, it is well with my soul ''.
"It Is Well With My Soul '' is a hymn penned by hymnist Horatio Spafford and composed by Philip Bliss. First published in Gospel Songs No. 2 by Sankey and Bliss (1876), it is possibly the most influential and enduring in the Bliss repertoire and is often taken as a choral model, appearing in hymnals of a wide variety of Christian fellowships.
This hymn was written after traumatic events in Spafford 's life. The first was the death of his son at the age of 2 and the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, which ruined him financially (he had been a successful lawyer and had invested significantly in property in the area of Chicago that was extensively damaged by the great fire). His business interests were further hit by the economic downturn of 1873, at which time he had planned to travel to Europe with his family on the SS Ville du Havre. In a late change of plan, he sent the family ahead while he was delayed on business concerning zoning problems following the Great Chicago Fire. While crossing the Atlantic, the ship sank rapidly after a collision with a sea vessel, the Loch Earn, and all four of Spafford 's daughters died. His wife Anna survived and sent him the now famous telegram, "Saved alone... ''. Shortly afterwards, as Spafford traveled to meet his grieving wife, he was inspired to write these words as his ship passed near where his daughters had died.
Bliss called his tune Ville du Havre, from the name of the stricken vessel.
The Spaffords later had three more children. On February 11, 1880, their son, Horatio Goertner Spafford, died at the age of four, of scarlet fever. Their daughters were Bertha Hedges Spafford (born March 24, 1878) and Grace Spafford (born January 18, 1881). Their Presbyterian church regarded their tragedy as divine punishment. In response, the Spaffords formed their own Messianic sect, dubbed "the Overcomers '' by American press. In 1881, the Spaffords, including baby Bertha and newborn Grace, set sail for Ottoman - Turkish Palestine. The Spaffords settled in Jerusalem and helped found a group called the American Colony. Colony members, later joined by Swedish Christians, engaged in philanthropic work among the people of Jerusalem regardless of their religious affiliation and without proselytizing motives -- thereby gaining the trust of the local Muslim, Jewish, and Christian communities. During and immediately after World War I, the American Colony played a critical role in supporting these communities through the great suffering and deprivations by running soup kitchens, hospitals, orphanages and other charitable ventures. The colony later became the subject of Jerusalem by the Nobel prize - winning author, Swedish novelist Selma Lagerlöf.
The Georgia Southern University marching band Southern Pride plays the song at the end of each win.
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do jamaicans need a visa to travel to colombia | Visa requirements for Jamaican citizens - Wikipedia
Visa requirements for Jamaican citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Jamaica. As of 10 July 2018, Jamaican citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 85 countries and territories, ranking the Jamaican passport 59th in terms of travel freedom according to Henley Passport Index.
Overseas trips made by Jamaican citizens
(11) Jamaica has a modest number of diplomatic missions and consulates in the world they are maintained under the umbrella of the Jamaican Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade. They are official representative of the government of one state in the territory of another, normally acting to assist and protect the citizens of the consul 's own country, and to facilitate trade and friendship between the people of the two countries.
Many countries have entry restrictions on foreigners that go beyond the common requirement of having either a valid visa or a visa exemption. Such restrictions may be health related or impose additional documentation requirements on certain classes of people for diplomatic or political purposes.
In the absence of specific bilateral agreements, countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Kuwait, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Rwanda, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela and Vietnam.
Turkey requires passports to be valid for at least 150 days upon entry.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months beyond the period of intended stay include European Union countries (except the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom), Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland (and always excepting EU / EEA / Swiss nationals), Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Nauru, Moldova, New Zealand and 3 months validity on arrival in Albania, Honduras, Macedonia, Panama, Qatar and Senegal.
Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.
Countries that require a passport validity of at least one month beyond the period of intended stay include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Lebanon, Macau and South Africa.
Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay. Some countries have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the period of passport validity required for each other 's citizens or even accept passports that have already expired (but not been cancelled).
Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages. Endorsement pages, which often appear after the visa pages, are not counted as being available.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia, require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.
Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area or has recently visited one.
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.
To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead that reads: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan.
Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old.
Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''. As of April 2018 the list contains 710 persons.
Upon request, the authorities of the largely unrecognized Republic of Artsakh may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.
Some countries (for example: Australia, Canada, Fiji, New Zealand and the United States) routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record.
The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10 - year ban on entering Israel.
Several countries mandate that all travellers, or all foreign travellers, be fingerprinted on arrival and will refuse admission to or even arrest those travellers that refuse to comply. In some countries, such as the United States, this may apply even to transit passengers who merely wish to quickly change planes rather than go landside.
Fingerprinting countries include Afghanistan, Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, China when entering through Shenzhen airport, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Japan, Malaysia upon entry and departure, Paraguay, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan.
Additionally, the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors who need to apply for a visa.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty. Part of the Kingdom of Denmark, not part of the Schengen Area.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
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the tendency to judge other cultures by the standards of one’s own is considered | Ethnocentrism - wikipedia
Ethnocentrism is judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one 's own culture. Ethnocentric individuals judge other groups relative to their own ethnic group or culture, especially with concern for language, behavior, customs, and religion. These ethnic distinctions and subdivisions serve to define each ethnicity 's unique cultural identity. William G. Summer defined it as "the technical name for the view of things in which one 's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it. '' He further characterized ethnocentrism as often leading to pride, vanity, beliefs of one 's own group 's superiority, and contempt of outsiders. This may occur for the differentiation of people between in - groups and out - groups. Two main view points of ethnocentrism are the social sciences and the genetics. In anthropology, cultural relativism is used as an antithesis and an antonym to ethnocentrism. In biology, ethnocentrism is considered a natural condition of mankind.
The term "ethnocentrism '' was coined by Ludwig Gumplowicz and subsequently employed by William G. Sumner. Gumplowicz defined ethnocentrism as the reasons by virtue of which each people believed it had always occupied the highest point not only among contemporaneous peoples and nations but also in relation to all peoples of the historical past (Der Rassenkampf, 1883). Sumner relied on observing the tendency for people to differentiate between the in - group and others, disseminating it in his 1906 work Folkways.
In 1996, Robert K. Merton commented that "although the practice of seeing one 's own group as the center of things is empirically correlated with a belief in superiority, centrality and superiority need to be kept analytically distinct in order to deal with patterns of alienation from one 's membership group and contempt for it. ''
People born into a particular culture that grow up absorbing the values and behaviors of the culture will develop a worldview that considers their culture to be the norm. If people then experience other cultures that have different values and normal behaviors, they will find that the thought patterns appropriate to their birth culture and the meanings their birth culture attaches to behaviors are not appropriate for the new cultures. However, since people are accustomed to their birth culture, it can be difficult for them to see the behaviors of people from a different culture from the viewpoint of that culture rather than from their own.
Explicit ethnocentrism and implicit ethnocentrism. Explicit ethnocentrism involves the ability to express the feelings about outsiders (people from other groups), and implicit ethnocentrism refers to the inhibition of the feelings for outsiders.
Anthropologists such as Franz Boas and Bronislaw Malinowski argued that any human science had to transcend the ethnocentrism of the scientist. Both urged anthropologists to conduct ethnographic fieldwork in order to overcome their ethnocentrism. Boas developed the principle of cultural relativism where the "context '' plays an important role to the understanding of other people 's values, and Malinowski developed the theory of functionalism as guides for producing non-ethnocentric studies of different cultures. Classic examples of anti-ethnocentric anthropology include Margaret Mead 's Coming of Age in Samoa (1928), Malinowski 's The Sexual Life of Savages in North - Western Melanesia (1929), and Ruth Benedict 's Patterns of Culture (1934). (Mead and Benedict were two of Boas 's students.)
Examples of ethnocentrism include religiocentric constructs claiming a divine association like "divine nation '', "God 's Own Country '', "God 's Chosen People '', and "God 's Promised Land ''. Although this may be seen as classic examples, a study published by Brill showed that religious attitudes do not effect on negative out - group attitudes.
In Precarious Life, Judith Butler discusses recognizing the Other in order to sustain the Self and the problems of not being able to identify the Other. Butler writes:
Consumer ethnocentrism refers to the preference of buying products from one 's own country with the purpose of protecting the economy and the jobs of people in the country. It involves the brand and quality of the products. In order to measure the levels of a consumer 's ethnocentric tendencies, the CETSACALE was created and used for many countries and cultures.
The idea of cultural relativism refers to the idea that what is considered true in one culture may not be in another one. This relates is the opposite of ethnocentrism; referring to the idea of being aware that different beliefs and cultures exist. Classic examples of this are the use of certain words that may have a different meaning in another country. the term used to describe this examples is linguistic relativism. However, a person does not necessarily need to apply the concept of cultural relativism to not be ethnocentric.
In a research published by PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America) suggested that ethnocentrism may be mediated by the oxytocin hormone. It was found that in randomized controlled trials "oxytocin creates intergroup bias because oxytocin motivates in - group favoritism and, to a lesser extent, out - group derogation ''.
In The Selfish Gene, evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins writes that "Blood - feuds and inter-clan warfare are easily interpretable in terms of Hamilton 's genetic theory. '' Simulation - based experiments in evolutionary game theory have attempted to provide an explanation for the selection of ethnocentric - strategy phenotypes.
There is not a single reason to determine the causes of ethnocentrism, different areas of sciences tried to explain how ethnocentrism works. The Social identity approach suggests that a person is ethnocentric due to a strong identification with the inter - culture which may lead to negative feelings to the outsiders. Social scientists believe that the lack of contact with outsiders may be a cause stereotype towards other groups.
Realistic conflict theory assumes that ethnocentrism happens due to "real or perceived conflict '' in between groups. this happens also with new members of a group where the dominant group may perceive the new ones as treat.
Notes
Further reading
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what happens at the end of american gigolo | American Gigolo - wikipedia
$22,743,674 (Domestic) (domestic) $30 million (International)
American Gigolo is a 1980 American romantic crime film written and directed by Paul Schrader, and starring Richard Gere, Lauren Hutton, Hector Elizondo, Nina Van Pallandt and Bill Duke. It tells the story of Julian Kaye, a high - price male escort in Los Angeles who becomes romantically involved with a prominent politician 's wife while simultaneously becoming the prime suspect in a murder case.
The film is notable for establishing Gere as a leading man, and was one of the first mainstream Hollywood films to include frontal male nudity from its main star. It is also notable for its Golden Globe Award - nominated musical score, composed by Giorgio Moroder, and number - one hit single "Call Me '' by Blondie.
Schrader considers it one of four similar films, which he calls "double bookends '': Taxi Driver, bookended by Light Sleeper, and American Gigolo bookended by The Walker.
Julian Kaye (Richard Gere) is a male escort in Los Angeles whose job supports and requires an expensive taste in cars and clothes, and affords him a luxury Westwood apartment. He is blatantly materialistic, narcissistic and superficial. However, he takes pleasure in his work from being able to sexually satisfy women, particularly older women.
Julian 's procuress, Anne (Nina Van Pallandt), sends him on an assignment with a wealthy old widow, Mrs. Dobrun (Carole Cook), who is visiting town. Afterwards, he goes to the hotel bar and meets Michelle Stratton (Lauren Hutton), a senator 's beautiful but unhappy wife, who becomes obsessed with him. Meanwhile, another pimp, Leon (Bill Duke), sends him to Palm Springs on a "substitute '' assignment to the house of Mr. Rheiman (Tom Stewart), a wealthy financier. Rheiman asks Julian to have violent sex with his wife Judy (Patricia Carr) while he watches them. The next day, Julian berates Leon for sending him to a "rough trick '' and makes it clear he does not do kinky or gay assignments. Leon in turn warns Julian that the wealthy, older women he serves will turn on him and discard him without a second thought.
As Julian begins to get to know Michelle, he learns that Judy Rheiman has been murdered. Los Angeles Police Department Detective Sunday (Hector Elizondo) investigates Julian as a primary suspect. Though Julian was with another client, Lisa Williams (K Callan), on the night of the murder, she refuses to give Julian an alibi in order to protect her and her husband 's reputations.
As Julian 's relationship with Michelle deepens, evidence implicating him in the murder mounts. He realizes that he is being framed and grows increasingly desperate. His mounting anguish is visually represented by a degeneration in style; his clothes become rumpled, he goes unshaven, and drives a cheap rental car (after ruining his Mercedes to find Judy Rheiman 's jewelry planted in it). He neglects to pick up an important client for Anne that he 's been scheduled to escort, and she shuns him. Meeting Michelle, he warns her that he is in trouble, and tells her to stay away from him.
Julian concludes that Leon and Rheiman are the ones trying to frame him, and that one of Leon 's other gigolos was the murderer. He goes to confront Leon, telling him he knows everything, but Leon refuses to help him. Julian pleads with Leon to clear his name, even offering to work exclusively for him and do kink and gay assignments, but Leon remains implacable. Julian accidentally pushes Leon over the apartment balcony to his death.
With no one to help him, Julian ends up in jail, hopelessly awaiting trial for the Rheiman murder. However, Michelle sacrifices her reputation and her marriage to provide Julian with the alibi that can save him from prison.
Christopher Reeve reportedly turned down the part of Julian Kaye despite being offered a million - dollar fee, before Richard Gere became attached to the role. Reeve was offered the role by the studio, namely Barry Diller at Paramount Pictures, but writer / director Paul Schrader did n't want to cast him and telephoned Reeves 's agent trying to persuade him not to read the script. Gere said in 2012 that he was drawn to the role because of its gay subtext.
"I read it and I thought, ' This is a character I do n't know very well. I do n't own a suit. He speaks languages; I do n't speak any languages. There 's kind of a gay thing that 's flirting through it and I did n't know the gay community at all. ' I wanted to immerse myself in all of that and I had literally two weeks. So I just dove in. ''
John Travolta became interested in the part and briefly acted in it before getting "cold feet '' and being replaced by Gere. This is not the only role that Travolta has turned down only to be taken by Gere: it had previously happened with Days of Heaven (1978) and occurred again when Travolta was offered the lead in both An Officer and a Gentleman (1982) and Chicago (2002). Paul Schrader had threatened to sue Travolta if Richard Gere was n't cast in the film knowing full well that Travolta had his eye on the script of another Paramount production Urban Cowboy (1980). Gere 's very brief nude scenes marked the first time a major Hollywood actor was frontally nude in a film. According to Gere, the nudity was not in the original script.
"It was just in the natural process of making the movie. I certainly felt vulnerable, but I think it 's different for men than women. ''
Julie Christie was originally cast in the role of Michelle Stratton, but her departure was precipitated by Gere 's replacement of Travolta. By the time Gere had returned to the project, Lauren Hutton had already been hired. Meryl Streep was also offered the part of Michelle, but declined because she did not like the tone of the film.
Schrader acknowledges that Pickpocket (1959) by the French director Robert Bresson was a direct influence on the film; the composition of the final shot draws heavily from the film, as does the final dialogue. Schrader later provided an introduction to the Criterion Collection DVD of Pickpocket. Schrader re-visited many of the themes of American Gigolo in his 2007 film, The Walker, and says the idea for that film came about while wondering what would have become of the Julian Kaye character.
The film is widely credited to have established Giorgio Armani in Hollywood, since the Italian designer 's clothes are featured prominently in Julian Kaye 's wardrobe. When John Travolta agreed to star in the film, Armani provided him with many outfits to wear as Julian Kay. When Travolta walked off the project, Schrader hired Richard Gere; Travolta was a svelte six - footer, whereas Gere was much shorter and more muscular, so Armani 's wardrobe did not fit Gere. The designer 's team had to make new clothing for the smaller actor.
The film 's musical score was composed by Giorgio Moroder, who was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score. The main theme song of the film is "Call Me '' performed by Blondie. The song was written by Moroder and Blondie vocalist Debbie Harry, and became a huge worldwide hit in 1980. It peaked at number one in various countries including the US and the UK, and became the highest selling single of 1980 in the United States. In 1981, the song was also nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. Moroder and Harry further shared a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song.
The film received mixed to positive reviews from critics, as the film holds a 67 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 21 reviews.
In October 2014, Jerry Bruckheimer announced plans to adapt the movie into a television series. In October 2016, Neil Labute will write the series for Showtime.
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what happened during the first phase of the russian revolution | February Revolution - wikipedia
Revolutionary victory
Russian Imperial Government
The February Revolution (Russian: Февра́льская револю́ция, IPA: (fjɪvˈraljskəjə rjɪvɐˈljutsɨjə)), known in Soviet historiography as the February Bourgeois Democratic Revolution was the first of two revolutions which took place in Russia in 1917.
The main events of the revolution took place in and near Petrograd (present - day St. Petersburg), the then - capital of Russia, where longstanding discontent with the monarchy erupted into mass protests against food rationing on 23 February Old Style (8 March New Style). Revolutionary activity lasted about eight days. It involved mass demonstrations and violent armed clashes with police and gendarmes, the last loyal forces of the Russian monarchy. On 27 February O.S. (12 March N.S.) mutinous Russian Army forces sided with the revolutionaries. Three days later the Tsar Nicholas II abdicated, ending Romanov dynastic rule, and the Imperial Russia. A Russian Provisional Government under Prince Georgy Lvov replaced the Russian Council of Ministers.
The revolution appeared to break out without any real leadership or formal planning. Russia had been suffering from a number of economic and social problems, which compounded after the start of World War I in 1914. Disaffected soldiers from the city 's garrison joined bread rioters, primarily women in bread lines, and industrial strikers on the streets. As more and more troops deserted, and with loyal troops away at the Front, the city fell into chaos, leading to the overthrow of the Tsar. In all, over 1,300 people were killed during the protests of February 1917.
A number of factors contributed to the February Revolution, both short and long term. Historians disagree on the main factors that contributed to this. Liberal historians emphasize the turmoil created by the war, whereas Marxists emphasise the inevitability of change. Rabinowitch summarizes the main long - term and short - term causes:
Despite its occurrence at the height of World War I, the roots of the February Revolution date further back. Chief among these was Imperial Russia 's failure, throughout the 19th and early 20th century, to modernize its archaic social, economic and political structures while maintaining the stability of ubiquitous devotion to an autocratic monarch. As historian Richard Pipes writes, "the incompatibility of capitalism and autocracy struck all who gave thought to the matter ''.
The first major event of the Russian Revolution was the February Revolution, which was a chaotic affair, caused by the culmination of over a century of civil and military unrest. There were many causes of this unrest of the common people towards the Tsar and aristocratic landowners. The causes can be summarized as the ongoing cruel treatment of peasants by the bourgeoisie, poor working conditions of industrial workers and the spreading of western democratic ideas by political activists. All of these causes led to a growing political and social awareness in the lower classes of Russia. Dissatisfaction of proletarians was compounded by food shortages and military failures. In 1905, Russia experienced humiliating losses in its war with Japan, then Bloody Sunday and the Revolution of 1905, in which Tsarist troops fired upon a peaceful, unarmed crowd, further dividing Nicholas II from his people. Widespread strikes, riots and the famous mutiny on the Battleship Potemkin ensued.
These conditions caused much agitation among the small working and professional classes. This tension erupted into general revolt with the 1905 Revolution, and again under the strain of war in 1917, this time with lasting consequences.
The revolution was provoked by Russian military failures during the First World War, as well as public dissatisfaction with the way the country was run on the home front. The economic challenges faced due to fighting a total war also contributed.
In August 1914, all classes supported and virtually all political deputies voted in favour of the war. The declaration of war was followed by a revival of nationalism across Russian society, which temporarily reduced internal strife. The army achieved some early victories (such as in Galicia in 1915 and with the Brusilov Offensive in 1916) but also suffered major defeats, notably Tannenberg in August 1914, the Winter Battle in Masuria in February 1915 and the loss of Russian Poland during May to August 1915. Nearly six million casualties -- dead, wounded and missing -- had been accrued by January 1917. Mutinies sprang up more often (most due to simple war - weariness), morale was at its lowest, and the newly called up officers and commanders were at times very incompetent. Like all major armies, Russia 's armed forces had inadequate supply. The pre-revolution desertion rate ran at around 34,000 a month. Meanwhile, the wartime alliance of industry, Duma (lower house of parliament) and Stavka (Military High Command) started to work outside the Tsar 's control.
In an attempt to boost morale and repair his reputation as a leader, Nicholas announced in the summer of 1915 that he would take personal command of the army, in defiance of almost universal advice to the contrary. The result was disastrous on three grounds. Firstly, it associated the monarchy with the unpopular war; secondly, Nicholas proved to be a poor leader of men on the front, often irritating his own commanders with his interference; and thirdly, being at the front made him unavailable to govern. This left the reins of power to his wife, the German Tsarina Alexandra, who was unpopular and accused of being a spy and under the thumb of her confidant, Grigori Rasputin, himself so unpopular that he was assassinated by members of the nobility in December 1916. The Tsarina proved an ineffective ruler in a time of war, announcing a rapid succession of different Prime Ministers and angering the Duma. The lack of strong leadership is illustrated by a telegram from Octobrist politician Mikhail Rodzianko to the Tsar on 26 February O.S. (11 March N.S), 1917, in which Rodzianko begged for a minister with the "confidence of the country '' be instated immediately. Delay, he wrote, would be "tantamount to death ''.
On the home front, a famine loomed and commodities became scarce due to the overstretched railroad network. Meanwhile, refugees from German - occupied Russia came in their millions. The Russian economy, which had just seen one of the highest growth rates in Europe, was blocked from the continent 's markets by the war. Though industry did not collapse, it was considerably strained and when inflation soared, wages could not keep up. The Duma, which was composed of liberal deputies, warned Tsar Nicholas II of the impending danger and counselled him to form a new constitutional government, like the one he had dissolved after some short - term attempts in the aftermath of the 1905 Revolution. The Tsar ignored the advice. Historian Edward Acton argues that "by stubbornly refusing to reach any modus vivendi with the Progressive Bloc of the Duma... Nicholas undermined the loyalty of even those closest to the throne (and) opened an unbridgeable breach between himself and public opinion. '' In short, the Tsar no longer had the support of the military, the nobility or the Duma (collectively the élites), or the Russian people. The result was revolution.
On 29 December O.S. (11 January N.S.), a hesitating Nikolai Golitsyn became the successor of Trepov, who was dismissed. Golitsyn begged the Emperor to cancel his appointment, citing his lack of preparation for the role of Prime Minister. On 3 January O.S. (16 January N.S) Dmitry Shuvayev, who did not speak any foreign language, was succeeded by Mikhail Belyaev as Minister of War, likely at the request of the Empress.
"In the seventeen months of the ' Tsarina 's rule ', from September 1915 to February 1917, Russia had four Prime Ministers, five Ministers of the Interior, three Foreign Ministers, three War Ministers, three Ministers of Transport and four Ministers of Agriculture. This "ministerial leapfrog '', as it came to be known, not only removed competent men from power, but also disorganized the work of government since no one remained long enough in office to master their responsibilities. ''
The Duma President Mikhail Rodzianko, Grand Duchess Marie Pavlovna and British ambassador Buchanan joined calls for Alexandra to be removed from influence, but Nicholas still refused to take their advice. Many people came to the conclusion that the problem was not Rasputin. According to Rodzianko the Empress "exerts an adverse influence on all appointments, including even those in the army. '' On 11 January O.S. (24 January N.S.) the Duma opening was postponed to the 25th (7 February N.S.). On 14 January O.S. (27 January N.S.) Georgy Lvov proposed to Grand Duke Nicholas that he take control of the country. At the end of January / beginning of February major negotiations took place between the allied powers in Petrograd; unofficially they sought to clarify the internal situation in Russia. On 14 February O.S. (27 February N.S.) police agents reported that army officers had, for the first time, mingled with the crowds demonstrating against the war and the government on Nevsky Prospekt. Kerensky took the opportunity to attack the tsarists regime.
By 1917, the majority of Russians had lost faith in the Tsarist regime. Government corruption was unrestrained, and Tsar Nicholas II had frequently disregarded the Imperial Duma. Thousands of workers flooded the streets of Petrograd (modern St. Petersburg) to show their dissatisfaction. The first major protest of the February Revolution occurred on 18 February O.S. (3 March N.S) as workers of Putilov Factory, Petrograd 's largest industrial plant, announced a strike to demonstrate against the government. Strikes continued on the following days. Due to heavy snowstorms, tens of thousands of freight cars were stuck on the tracks, with the bread and fuel. On 22 February O.S. (7 March N.S.) the Tsar left for the front.
On 23 February O.S. (8 March N.S.), Putilov protesters were joined in the uprising by those celebrating International Woman 's Day and protesting against the government 's implemented food rationing. As the Russian government began rationing flour and bread, rumors of food shortages circulated and bread riots erupted across the city of Petrograd. Women, in particular, were passionate in showing their dissatisfaction with the implemented rationing system, and the female workers marched to nearby factories to recruit over 50,000 workers for strike. Both men and women flooded the streets of Petrograd, demanding an end to Russian food shortages, the end of World War I and the end of autocracy. '' By the following day 24 February O.S. (March 9 N.S), nearly 200,000 protesters filled the streets, demanding the replacement of the Tsar with a more progressive political leader. The protesting mob called for the war to end and for the Russian monarchy to be overthrown. By 25 February O.S (10 March N.S), nearly all industrial enterprises in Petrograd were shut down by the uprising. Although all gatherings on the streets were absolutely forbidden some 250,000 people were on strike. The president of the Imperial Duma Rodzianko asked the chairman of the Council of Ministers Nikolai Golitsyn to resign; the minister of Foreign Affairs Nikolai Pokrovsky proposed the resignation of the whole government. There were disturbances on the Nevsky Prospect during the day and in the late afternoon four people were killed.
The Tsar took action to address the riots on 25 February O.S (10 March N.S) by wiring garrison commander General Sergey Semyonovich Khabalov, an inexperienced and extremely indecisive commander of the Petrograd military district, to disperse the crowds with rifle fire and to suppress the "impermissible '' rioting by force. On the 26 February O.S (11 March N.S) the center of the city was fenced off.
That evening Golitsyn used a (signed, but not yet dated) ukaze declaring that his Majesty had decided to interrupt the Duma until April, leaving it with no legal authority to act.
During the late afternoon of 26 February O.S (11 March N.S) the Fourth Company of the Pavlovski Replacement Regiment broke out of their barracks upon learning that another detachment of the regiment had clashed with demonstrators near the Kazan Cathedral. After firing at mounted police the soldiers of the Fourth Company were disarmed by the Preobrazhensky Regiment. This marked the first instance of open mutiny in the Petrograd garrison.
On the next day (27 February O.S, 12 March N.S), the Duma remained obedient, and "did not attempt to hold an official sitting ''. Then some delegates decided to form a Provisional Committee of the State Duma, led by Rodzianko and backed by major Moscow manufacturers and St. Petersburg bankers. Its first meeting was on the same evening and ordered the arrest of all the ex-ministers and senior officials. The Duma refused to head the revolutionary movement. At the same time, socialists also formed the Petrograd Soviet. In the Marinsky Palace the Council of Ministers of Russia, assisted by Rodzyanko, held its last meeting. Protopopov was told to resign and offered to commit suicide. The Council formally submitted its resignation to the Tsar.
By nightfall, General Khabalov and his forces faced a capital controlled by revolutionaries. The protesters of Petrograd burned and sacked the premises of the district court, the headquarters of the secret police, and many police stations. They also occupied the Ministry of Transport, seized the arsenal, and released prisoners into the city. Army officers retreated into hiding and many took refuge in the Admiralty building, but moved that night to the Winter Palace.
On 26 February O.S (11 March N.S) Mikhail Rodzianko, Chairman of the Duma, had sent the Tsar a report of the chaos in a telegram (exact wordings and translations differ, but each retains a similar sense):
The situation is serious. The capital is in a state of anarchy. The Government is paralyzed. Transport service and the supply of food and fuel have become completely disrupted. General discontent is growing... There must be no delay. Any procrastination is tantamount to death.
Nicholas 's response on 27 February O.S (12 March N.S), perhaps based on the Empress 's earlier letter to him that the concern about Petrograd was an over-reaction, was one of irritation that "again, this fat Rodzianko has written me lots of nonsense, to which I shall not even deign to reply ''. Meanwhile, events unfolded in Petrograd. The bulk of the garrison mutinied, starting with the Volynsky Life Guards Regiment. Soldiers of this regiment brought the Litovsky, Preobrazhensky, and Moskovsky Regiments out on the street to join the rebellion, resulting in the hunting down of police and the gathering of 40,000 rifles which were dispersed among the workers. Even the Cossack units that the government had come to use for crowd control showed signs that they supported the people. Although few actively joined the rioting, many officers were either shot or went into hiding; the ability of the garrison to hold back the protests was all but nullified. Symbols of the Tsarist regime were rapidly torn down around the city and governmental authority in the capital collapsed -- not helped by the fact that Nicholas had prorogued the Duma that morning, leaving it with no legal authority to act. Attempts were made by high ranking military leaders to persuade the Tsar to resign power to the Duma in an effort to collapse war efforts and establish far - left power. The response of the Duma, urged on by the Progressive Bloc, was to establish a Provisional Committee to restore law and order; the Provisional Committee declared itself the governing body of the Russian Empire. "Chief among them was the desire to bring the war to a successful conclusion in conjunction with the Allies; and the very cause of their opposition was the ever deepening conviction that this was unattainable under the present government and under the present regime. Meanwhile, the socialist parties re-established the Petrograd Soviet, first created during the 1905 revolution, to represent workers and soldiers. The remaining loyal units switched allegiance the next day.
On 28 February, Rodzianko invited the Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich and Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich to put their signatures to the drafting of the Manifesto, in which Emperor Nicholas II was recommended to introduce the constitutional system in Russia. Rodzianko said that the Emperor will be asked to sign this Manifesto on 1 March at the station of Tsarskoe Selo immediately after his return. Late in the evening the text "Grand Manifesto '' was signed by the Grand Dukes Paul Alexandrovich, Kirill Vladimirovich and Grand Duke Dmitry Konstantinovich. But the Empress refused to sign the draft. "I 'm not a ruler -- said the Empress -- and have no rights to take the initiative in the absence of the Emperor. Moreover, this paper may not be only illegal, but useless. ''
On 28 February O.S (13 March N.S), at five in the morning, the Tsar left Mogilev, (and also directed Nikolay Iudovich Ivanov to go to Tsarskoe Selo) but was unable to reach Petrograd as revolutionaries meanwhile controlled railway stations around the capital. Around midnight the train was stopped at Malaya Vishera, turned, and in the evening of 1 March O.S (14 March N.S) Nicholas arrived in Pskov. In the meantime the units guarding the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoe Selo either "declared their neutrality '' or left for Petrograd and thus abandoned the Imperial Family. The Provisional Committee declared itself the governing body of the Russian Empire.
The Army Chief Nikolai Ruzsky, and the Duma deputies Vasily Shulgin and Alexander Guchkov who had come to advise the Tsar, suggested that he abdicate the throne. He did so on behalf of himself and his son, Tsarevich Alexei. At 3 o'clock in the afternoon on 2 March O.S (15 March N.S), Nicholas nominated his brother, the Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich, to succeed him. The next day the Grand Duke realised that he would have little support as ruler, so he declined the crown, stating that he would take it only if that was the consensus of democratic action by the Russian Constituent Assembly, which shall define the form of government for Russia. The 300 year old Romanov dynasty ended with the Grand Duke 's decision on 3 March O.S (17 March N.S). On 8 March O.S (22 March N.S) the former Tsar, addressed with contempt by the sentries as "Nicholas Romanov '', was reunited with his family at the Alexander Palace at Tsarskoye Selo. He and his family and loyal retainers were placed under protective custody by the Provisional Government in the palace.
The February Revolution immediately caused widespread excitement in Petrograd. On 3 March O.S (16 March N.S), a provisional government was announced by the Provisional Committee of the State Duma. The Provisional Government published its manifesto declaring itself the governing body of the Russian Empire that same day. The manifesto proposed a plan of civic and political rights and the installation of a democratically elected Russian Constituent Assembly, but did not touch on many of the topics that were driving forces in the revolution such as participation in World War I and land. At the same time, the Petrograd Soviet (or workers ' council) began organizing and was officially formed on 27 February. The Petrograd Soviet and the Provisional Government shared dual power over Russia. The term dual power came about as the driving forces in the fall of the monarchy, opposition to the human and widespread political movement, became politically institutionalized.
While the Soviet represented the proletariat, the provisional government represented the bourgeoisie. The Soviet had stronger practical power because it controlled the workers and the soldiers, but it did not want to become involved in administration and bureaucracy; the Provisional Government lacked support from the population. Since the Provisional Government did not have the support of the majority and, in an effort to keep their claim to democratic mandate, they welcomed socialist parties to join in order to gain more support and Dvoyevlastiye (dual power) was established. However, the Soviet asserted de facto supremacy as early as 1 March O.S (14 March N.S) (before the creation of the Provisional Government), by issuing Order No. 1:
The orders of the Military Commission of the State Duma (part of the organisation which became the Provisional Government) shall be executed only in such cases as do not conflict with the orders and resolution of the Soviet of Workers ' and Soldiers ' Deputies.
Order No. 1 ensured that the Dual Authority developed on the Soviet 's conditions. The Provisional Government was not a publicly elected body (having been self - proclaimed by committee members of the old Duma) and it lacked the political legitimacy to question this arrangement and instead arranged for elections to be held later. The Provisional Government had the formal authority in Russia but the Soviet Executive Committee and the soviets had the support of the majority of the population. The soviets held the real power to effect change. The Provisional Government represented an alliance between liberals and socialists who wanted political reform.
The initial soviet executive chairmen were Menshevik Mikola Ckheidze, Matvey Skobelev and Alexander Kerensky. The chairmen believed that the February Revolution was a "Bourgeois revolution '' about bringing capitalist development to Russia instead of socialism. The center - left was well represented, and the government was initially chaired by a liberal aristocrat, Prince Georgy Yevgenyevich Lvov, a man with no connections to any official party. The Provisional government included 9 Duma deputies and 6 from the Kadet party in ministerial positional, representing professional and business interests, the bourgeoisie. As the left moved further left in Russia over the course of 1917, the Kadets became the main conservative party. Despite this, the provisional government strove to implement further left leaning policies with the repeal of the death penalty, amnesty for political prisoners and freedom of the press.
Dual Power was not prevalent outside of the capital and political systems varied from province to province. One example of a system gathered the educated public, workers and soldiers to facilitate order and food systems, democratic elections and the removal of tsarist officials. In a short amount of time, 3,000 deputies were elected to the Petrograd soviet. The soviet quickly became the representative responsible for fighting for workers and soldiers hopes for "bread, peace and land ''. In the spring of 1917, 700 soviets were established across Russia, equalling about a third of the population, representing the proletariat and their interests. The soviets spent their time pushing for a constituent assembly rather than swaying the public to believe they were a more morally sound means of governing.
After the abdication of the throne by the tsar, the Provisional Government declared itself the new form of authority. The Provisional Government shared Kadet views. The Kadets began to be seen as a conservative political party and as "state - minded '' by other Russians. At the same time the Provisional Government was put into place, the Soviet Executive Committee was also forming. The Soviet represented workers and soldiers, while the Provisional Government represented the middle and upper social classes. The Soviet also gained support from Social Revolutionists and Menshoviks when the two groups realized that they did not want to support the Provisional Government. When these two powers existed at the same time, "dual power '' was created. The Provisional Government was granted formal authority, but the Soviet Executive Committee had the support of the people resulting in political unrest until the Bolshevik takeover in October.
Vladimir Lenin, exiled in neutral Switzerland, arrived in Petrograd from Zürich on 16 April O.S (29 April N.S). He immediately began to undermine the provisional government, issuing his April Theses the next month. These theses were in favor of "Revolutionary defeatism '', which argues that the real enemy is those who send the proletariat into war, as opposed to the "imperialist war '' (whose "link to Capital '' must be demonstrated to the masses) and the "social - chauvinists '' (such as Georgi Plekhanov, the grandfather of Russian socialism), who supported the war. The theses were read by Lenin to a meeting of only Bolsheviks and again to a meeting of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks, both being extreme leftist parties, and was also published. He believed that the most effective way to overthrow the government was to be a minority party and to give no support to the Provisional Government. Lenin also tried to take control of the Bolshevik movement and attempted to win proletariat support by the use of slogans such as "Peace, bread and land '', "End the war without annexations or indemnities '', "All power to the Soviet '' and "All land to those who work it ''.
Initially, Lenin and his ideas did not have widespread support, even among Bolsheviks. In what became known as the July Days, approximately half a million soldiers, sailors, and workers, some of them armed, came out onto the streets of Petrograd in protest. The protesters seized automobiles, fought with people of authority, and often fired their guns into the air. The crowd was so uncontrollable that the Soviet leadership sent the Socialist Revolutionary Victor Chernov, a widely liked politician, to the streets to calm the crowd. The demonstrators, lacking leadership, disbanded and the government survived. Leaders of the Soviet placed the blame of the July Days on the Bolsheviks, as did the Provisional Government who issued arrest warrants for prominent Bolsheviks. Historians debated from early on whether this was a planned Bolshevik attempt to seize power or a strategy to plan a future coup. Lenin fled to Finland and other members of the Bolshevik party were arrested. Lvov was replaced by the Socialist Revolutionary minister Alexander Kerensky as head of the Provisional Government.
Kerensky declared freedom of speech, ended capital punishment, released thousands of political prisoners and tried to maintain Russian involvement in World War I. He faced many challenges related to the war: there were still very heavy military losses on the front; dissatisfied soldiers deserted in larger numbers than before; other political groups did their utmost to undermine him; there was a strong movement in favor of withdrawing Russia from the war, which was seen to be draining the country, and many who had initially supported it now wanted out; there was a great shortage of food and supplies, which was very difficult to remedy in wartime conditions. All of these were highlighted by the soldiers, urban workers, and peasants, who claimed that little had been gained by the February Revolution. Kerensky was expected to deliver on his promises of jobs, land, and food almost instantaneously, and failed to do so.
The Kornilov Affair arose when Commander - in - Chief of the Army, General Lavr Kornilov, directed an army under Aleksandr Krymov to march toward Petrograd with Kerensky 's agreement. Although the details remain sketchy, Kerensky appeared to become frightened by the possibility of a coup and the order was countermanded. (Historian Richard Pipes is adamant that the episode was engineered by Kerensky). On 27 August O.S (9 September N.S), feeling betrayed by the Kerensky government who had previously agreed with his views on how to restore order to Russia, Kornilov pushed on towards Petrograd. With few troops to spare on the front, Kerensky was turned to the Petrograd Soviet for help. Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries confronted the army and convinced them to stand down. Right - wingers felt betrayed, and the left wing was resurgent. Pressure from the Allies to continue the war against Germany put the government under increasing strain. The conflict between the "diarchy '' became obvious, and, ultimately, the regime and the dual power formed between the Petrograd Soviet and the Provisional Government instigated by the February Revolution was overthrown by the Bolshevik in the October Revolution.
When discussing the historiography of the February Revolution there are three historical interpretations which are relevant: Liberal, Soviet, and Revisionist. These three different approaches exist separately from one another because of their respective beliefs of what ultimately caused the collapse of a Tsarist government in February.
Out of these three approaches, all of them have received modern criticism. The February Revolution is seen by many present - day scholars as an event which gets "mythologized ''.
Online sources
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twilight zone mr. garrity and the graves cast | Mr. Garrity and the Graves - wikipedia
John Dehner J. Pat O'Malley Stanley Adams John Mitchum Percy Helton Norman Leavitt Edgar Dearing Kate Murtagh Patrick O'Moore John Cliff Robert McCord Cosmo Sardo
"Mr. Garrity and the Graves '' is an episode of the American television series The Twilight Zone.
In the year 1890, a traveling peddler named Jared Garrity, arrives in the little recently renamed town of Happiness, Arizona offering to bring the townsfolk 's dead back from Boot Hill. Initially, they do n't believe him, but when he appears to resurrect a dead dog struck by a traveler 's horse - drawn wagon, they do believe him.
After performing the resurrection ritual, Garrity, in seemingly casual conversation, reminds the people about the dead and departed, almost all of whom were murdered: who died having a score to settle with whom and so forth. The townsfolk grow uncomfortable at the thought of facing problems they thought buried with the dead. When one apparent resurrectee is seen approaching town and is identified to be his brother who shot the man himself, the man bribes Garrity to reverse the ritual and the figure vanishes. Ultimately, everyone in town similarly pays Garrity to not revive their "loved ones. ''
Later that night, Garrity and his assistant Ace (who was both wagon driver and "resurrectee '') ride away with the money, joking about how they can not actually bring the dead back to life: they had simply performed a few smoke and mirrors tricks to con the townsfolk, and used a dog that was alive the whole time but simply knew how to play dead.
After they have left the town, the last scene reveals that the dead really are rising from the grave, with one commenting that the peddler underestimates his own ability. One revived person is looking forward to getting back into town to get caught up on his drinking. A revived criminal has unfinished business with the sheriff. A woman named Zelda Gooberman plans to break her husband 's arm for what she sees in him. As Garrity continues to ride away from Happiness, Arizona, the final shot shows the deserted Boot Hill Cemetery.
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does addison return to grey's anatomy after season 3 | Addison Montgomery - wikipedia
Director Of Seaside Health & Wellness Chief Of OB / GYN and Neonatal Surgery at Seattle Grace Hospital (former)
Dr. Addison Adrianne Forbes Montgomery (formerly Montgomery - Shepherd) is a fictional character on the ABC television series Grey 's Anatomy and Private Practice played by Kate Walsh. Addison is a world - class neonatal surgeon with board certifications in both Obstetrics and Gynaecology and Maternal and Fetal Medicine. Additionally, she is a medical genetics fellow. She works at the Oceanside Wellness Group, a fictional practice located in Santa Monica, California.
Most of Addison 's past is presented in a non-linear fashion, primarily revealed in the second season of Grey 's Anatomy and the second and third season of Private Practice. Addison is the daughter of wealthy parents, and has a $25 million trust fund. Addison 's father is nicknamed "The Captain '' and is a doctor who teaches medicine at a university where Addison would sit and watch as a child. Her father used spending time with his daughter as a pretense for his many affairs. Addison 's mother is Beatrice "Bizzy '' Forbes Montgomery and her brother, Archer, is a world - class neurologist and successful author. Addison met her future husband, Derek Shepherd, in medical school. Although never actually stated in the series, this would mean that she attended Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York City. She met future colleagues Sam and Naomi Bennett there as well. Addison and Derek each began their own practice in New York City, which placed a strain on their marriage. Their marriage was troubled in the years leading to Derek 's decision to leave New York as it is eventually revealed in both Grey 's Anatomy and Private Practice that Derek 's mother did not approve of her (choosing to give her dead husband 's ring to Derek 's second wife, Meredith Grey) and Addison 's brother Archer disliked Derek. Derek later admitted that he was at fault as he was an absent husband. Addison 's affair with Derek 's best friend Mark Sloan drove the wedge even further and Derek 's departure to Seattle. Addison briefly attempted to have a relationship with Mark, which resulted in her becoming pregnant. She had an abortion as she was still in love with Derek, and when Mark cheated on her, she moved to Seattle.
The character Addison first appears in the season one finale of Grey 's Anatomy, arriving at Richard 's behest. She tries to reconcile with Derek, despite his relationship with Meredith Grey, but he is still angry with her, and there is a period of antagonism between them. Addison 's presence, however, does reinvigorate their relationship, and ultimately leads to Derek choosing Addison over Meredith, despite Derek eventually admitting that he fell in love with Meredith. They attempt to return to their former life, taking residence in his trailer, and Addison becomes the head of a unique surgical service integrating neonatal surgery and obstetrics and gynecology. She realizes that Derek still has feelings for Meredith, and their marriage is tested further when Mark arrives in Seattle looking for Addison. Mark makes Addison realize that Derek is in love with Meredith and that he (Mark) does love her. Derek sleeps with Addison after he sees that Meredith has moved on. When Addison finds out that Derek had sex with Meredith, she gets drunk and sleeps with Mark. He asks for a relationship, but she rejects him.
During season two, Addison punishes Alex Karev, by putting him on her service, because he almost got her arrested. However, by season three, she begins to feel an attraction towards Alex and eventually sleeps with him, only to discover that he is not interested in a relationship with her. Feeling alone, Addison decides to have a baby and visits Naomi, who is a fertility specialist. This introduces Addison 's transition from Grey 's Anatomy to its spin - off, as it serves as the backdoor pilot for Private Practice. Soon after, Addison decides to leave Seattle and move to Los Angeles, joining Oceanside Wellness, led by Sam and Naomi. This marks Addison 's departure from Grey 's Anatomy as a regular, although she makes later guest appearances.
In the series ' first episode, Addison is made to feel unwelcome by the other doctors but stays. Addison is attracted to Pete Wilder, the practice 's alternative medicine specialist. When Pete stands her up on a date, Addison decides they should be friends and nothing more, and instead accepts a date with Kevin, a police officer she met through work. In a crossover episode, Addison briefly returns to Seattle Grace to help with a patient. Before she leaves, Addison advises Meredith not to let Derek get away.
In season two, Addison learns from Naomi that the practice is failing financially. She tells Sam against Naomi 's wishes, and, feeling betrayed, Naomi breaks off her friendship with Addison. Addison inadvertently prompts the staff to vote between Sam and Naomi, and is surprised when instead, she is elected to lead the practice as its director.
Addison 's relationship with Kevin is tested when her brother Archer tells Kevin he is not good enough for her. Addison reassures him, but it causes them to break up later. Addison is surprised when Archer begins working for Pacific Wellcare Center, a rival practice. When he experiences multiple seizures and believes he has a brain tumor, Addison asks Derek to treat Archer in another crossover episode with Grey 's Anatomy. Derek discovers he has parasites in his brain, and successfully removes them. Naomi and Archer begin dating, which puts some strain on the friendship between Addison and Naomi. Addison also dates a man who is later revealed to be married. Also during this time, it is revealed that Addison 's mother Bizzy is a lesbian who has been in a long term affair with her best friend. Addison is angry because she always blamed her father for his many affairs and was angry at how he treated Bizzy, not realizing that her mother was the one in a serious extramarital relationship. Addison 's father is aware of her mother 's affair, but they decided a long time ago that they would stay married to one another because Bizzy is not comfortable with others knowing about her sexuality. Although the relationship with her parents is strained from this, in the end they make peace.
Addison and Sam start developing feelings for each other. It is revealed that, back in college, Sam wanted to ask Addison out but was too nervous, and he ended up with Naomi. They share a kiss after a terrifying ordeal when they tried to save a married couple who got into a devastating car accident. They kiss again when Addison decides to sleep over at Sam 's. Addison and Sam grow close, but she decides to put a halt on their developing relationship, worried about the consequences in her friendship with Naomi. Addison revealed that she was in love with Sam and Pete, but she decided to begin a relationship with Pete instead, while Sam was with another doctor. Despite them being with other people, they still show they harbor feelings for each other, including jealousy when they see the other with their current significant others. After Sam becomes single again, he kisses Addison again. Although she was with Pete, she kisses Sam back and Pete catches them. Despite this, they stay together. Naomi ends her friendship with Addison after she finds about Sam and Addison. In the season finale, Addison has to operate on Maya Bennett, her godchild, who got in a car accident on her way to the hospital to give birth. She and Naomi then make up. Addison breaks up with Pete, and she and Sam finally become a couple. Although Addison wants to have children, Sam tells her he 's not ready to have more children, as he wants to take time in their romance. Sam and Addison end their relationship and Addison goes on a date with a man named Jake (played by Benjamin Bratt). He invites her to Fiji, and although she initially agrees, in the end she chooses to get back together with Sam.
At the beginning of season 5, Sam and Addison are back together, although they break up again as he is still not ready to commit to marriage and a family with her. Jake is hired at the practice, which at first makes Addison uncomfortable. Jake is a very gifted doctor whose speciality is helping women with fertility issues become pregnant. He becomes Addison 's doctor and helps her attempt to conceive using IVF. Throughout the season, Addison and Jake grow closer. It is revealed that Jake had a wife, Lily, who was a drug addict and died from an overdose. He adopted her daughter Angela, who is featured in the final 2 seasons of the show. She is often shown advising her father and encourages him to pursue a relationship with Addison, whom he clearly has feelings for. Although Addison still has feelings for Sam, she also has feelings for Jake, the latter of whom wants to get married and have kids. On more than one occasion, Addison and Jake kiss, and both admit to have feelings for the other. However, Jake realizes that Addison is not over Sam and does not want to be a rebound, but tells her he will wait for her. Although Addison decides to stop fertility treatments, her dream of having a child finally comes true and she adopts a baby boy named Henry. Sam begins to regret his decision to leave Addison, and makes excuses to spend time with Henry, but Addison decides to focus on her baby instead of pursuing a relationship with either Sam or Jake. In the season finale, Addison and Jake have sex after Amelia delivers a brainless baby whose organs she donates so that her pregnancy will still be meaningful. When Addison arrives home, Sam is there with Henry and he proposes to Addison. It is not revealed what she says, but we also see that Jake is on his way to her house with flowers and Chinese food.
In the beginning of season 6, we find that Addison rejected Sam and is now pursuing a relationship with Jake. Jake and Addison move in together later in the season after she admits to being in love with him. She then proposes marriage. Although initially he does not give her an answer, over the course of the episode he gains closure with his wife and realizes that Addison is who he wants to spend his life with. When Addison gets home, Jake has lit candles and lined the living room with rose petals, leading to the deck where he is waiting for her in a suit and tie. He tells her to ask him again, and gives her a ring, after which point the two are engaged. In the finale episode of Private Practice, Jake and Addison get married and are beginning the rest of their lives with Henry.
-- Shonda Rhimes on creating a show centered on Kate Walsh 's character
Kate Walsh first appeared as Addison on Grey 's Anatomy. The character was initially planned to appear in several episodes but quickly became a regular on the show before leaving for Private Practice. In June 2012, Kate Walsh announced on Bethenny that the upcoming sixth season of Private Practice would be her last one. "It 's been an incredible journey and an amazing ride and I 'm hugely, hugely grateful. It 's bittersweet. It 's a huge chapter of my life. It 's been eight years, '' she said.
Montgomery was initially described as "cold and unforgiving ''. As episodes passed, it was noted that the writers had "softened '' the character. Walsh summarized her as "a girl you love to hate ''. She said of Montgomery 's transition from the end of Grey 's Anatomy 's first season to the second: "She started out so together. Now she 's a cat without a whisker -- a little off balance and leaving a mess all over the hospital. She 's a little untethered now, she 's coming unraveled. ''
Walsh felt that Montgomery had become "stronger '' and "more centered '' between the first and the second season of Private Practice, "Initially she 's still getting her footing, still is n't quite sure and a little wobbly, and then you see that she 's got her groove back. '' Additionally, Walsh said of the character that "she 's flawed and arrogant and really good at what she does. And no matter what happens, she picks herself up and moves on. She keeps trying. '' Walsh expressed satisfaction with the evolution of Montgomery 's love life because "the only thing we saw of her in Grey 's Anatomy was the ugly side of the Derek / Meredith triangle. And then, of course, Mark Sloan, but there was no real love there. '' She said the pairing of her character with Kevin Nelson (David Sutcliffe) is different than from what transpires with Pete Wilder (Tim Daly) or Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey); "It 's really fun to see this total other side of her come out that we never saw. It hit me, this little epiphany of like, ' Oh, we 've never seen Addison into someone or someone that likes her back. ' ''
TV Guide said of Walsh 's stint on Grey 's Anatomy: "Kate Walsh kicks butt as Addison, and I hope she sticks around. She adds spice to an already hot show. '' Joel Keller of AOL TV was disappointed with the character 's evolution from Grey 's Anatomy to Private Practice during its first season, saying she "went from strong and funny to whimpering and lovelorn. '' Keller was, however, happy to observe some maturity in the second season 's storylines and that what he liked about her, "the ability to perform complicated surgical procedures even while everything in her personal life is in chaos '', was reintroduced. By the time Private Practice ended, Margaret Lyons of New York Magazine deemed the character "fun '' and added: "Even when tragedy befell her at every turn on PP, she was still sort of sassy and bright and interesting. '' Montgomery appeared in Comcast 's list of TV 's Most Intriguing Characters. Glamour named her one of the 12 Most Stylish TV Characters. She was listed in Wetpaint 's "10 Hottest Female Doctors on TV '' and in BuzzFeed 's "16 Hottest Doctors On Television ''.
In 2006, Walsh was among the cast of Grey 's Anatomy to win the Satellite Award for Best Ensemble in a Television Series. The cast, including her, was nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series, which they won in 2007, and were nominated for again the following year. For her work on Private Practice, Walsh earned a nomination for Favorite TV Drama Actress at the 37th People 's Choice Awards.
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when did the first fleet arrive in australia | First Fleet - wikipedia
The First Fleet was the 11 ships that departed from Portsmouth, England, on 13 May 1787 to found the penal colony that became the first European settlement in Australia. The Fleet consisted of two Royal Navy vessels, three store ships and six convict transports, carrying between 1,000 and 1,500 convicts, marines, seamen, civil officers and free people (accounts differ on the numbers), and a large quantity of stores. From England, the Fleet sailed southwest to Rio de Janeiro, then east to Cape Town and via the Great Southern Ocean to Botany Bay, arriving over the period of 18 to 20 January 1788, taking 250 to 252 days from departure to final arrival.
Convicts were originally transported to the Thirteen Colonies in North America, but after the American War of Independence ended in 1783, the newly formed United States refused to accept further convicts. On 6 December 1785, Orders in Council were issued in London for the establishment of a penal colony in New South Wales, on land claimed for Britain by explorer James Cook in his first voyage to the Pacific in 1770.
The First Fleet was commanded by Commodore Arthur Phillip, who was given instructions authorising him to make regulations and land grants in the colony. The ships arrived at Botany Bay between 18 January and 20 January 1788: HMS Supply arrived on 18 January, Alexander, Scarborough and Friendship arrived on 19 January, and the remaining ships on 20 January.
The cost to Britain of outfitting and despatching the Fleet was £ 84,000 (about £ 9.6 million as of 2015).
The First Fleet included two Royal Navy escort ships, the ten - gun sixth - rate vessel HMS Sirius under the command of Captain John Hunter, and the armed tender HMS Supply commanded by Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball.
Ropes, crockery, agricultural equipment and a miscellany of other stores were needed. Items transported included tools, agricultural implements, seeds, spirits, medical supplies, bandages, surgical instruments, handcuffs, leg irons and a prefabricated wooden frame for the colony 's first Government House. The party had to rely on its own provisions to survive until it could make use of local materials, assuming suitable supplies existed, and grow its own food and raise livestock.
Scale models of all the ships are on display at the Museum of Sydney. The models were built by ship makers Lynne and Laurie Hadley, after researching the original plans, drawings and British archives. The replicas of the Supply, Charlotte, Scarborough, Friendship, Prince of Wales, Lady Penrhyn, Borrowdale, Alexander, Sirius (1786), Fishburn and Golden Grove are made from Western Red or Syrian Cedar.
Nine Sydney harbour ferries built in the mid-1980s are named after First Fleet vessels. The unused names are Lady Penrhyn and Prince of Wales.
The people of the fleet included seamen, marines and their families, government officials, and a large number of convicts, including women and children. The majority were British, but there were also African, American and French convicts on board. The convicts had committed a variety of crimes, including theft, perjury, fraud, assault, and robbery, for which they had variously been sentenced to penal transportation for 7 years, 14 years, or the term of their natural life.
The six convict transports each had a detachment of marines on board. Most of the families of the marines traveled aboard the Prince of Wales. A number of people on the First Fleet kept diaries and journals of their experiences, including the surgeons. There are twelve known journals in existence as well as some letters.
The exact number of people directly associated with the First Fleet will likely never be established, as accounts of the event vary slightly. A total of 1,420 people have been identified as embarking on the First Fleet in 1787, and 1,373 are believed to have landed at Sydney Cove in January 1788. In her biographical dictionary of the First Fleet, Mollie Gillen gives the following statistics:
While the names of all crew members of Sirius and Supply are known, the six transports and three storeships may have carried as many as 110 more seamen than have been identified -- no complete musters have survived for these ships. The total number of persons embarking on the First Fleet would, therefore, be approximately 1,530 with about 1,483 reaching Sydney Cove.
Other sources indicate that the passengers consisted of 10 civil officers, 212 marines, including officers, 28 wives and 17 children of the marines, 81 free people, 504 male convicts and 192 female convicts; making the total number of free people 348 and the total number of prisoners 696, coming to a grand total of 1,044 people.
According to the first census of 1788 as reported by Governor Phillip to Lord Sydney, the white population of the colony was 1,030 and the colony also consisted of 7 horses, 29 sheep, 74 swine, 6 rabbits, and 7 cattle.
The following statistics were provided by Governor Phillip:
David Collins ' book An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales gives the following details:
The Alexander, of 453 tons, had on board 192 male convicts; 2 lieutenants, 2 sergeants, 2 corporals, 1 drummer, and 29 privates, with 1 assistant surgeon to the colony.
The Scarborough, of 418 tons, had on board 205 male convicts; 1 captain, 2 lieutenants, 2 sergeants, 2 corporals, 1 drummer, and 26 privates, with 1 assistant surgeon to the colony.
The Charlotte, of 346 tons, had on board 89 male and 20 female convicts; 1 captain, 2 lieutenants, 2 sergeants, 3 corporals, 1 drummer, and 35 privates, with the principal surgeon of the colony.
The Lady Penrhyn, of 338 tons, had on board 101 female convicts; 1 captain, 2 lieutenants, and 3 privates, with a person acting as a surgeon 's mate.
The Prince of Wales, of 334 tons, had on board 2 male and 50 female convicts; 2 lieutenants, 3 sergeants, 2 corporals, 1 drummer, and 24 privates, with the surveyor - general of the colony.
The Friendship,... of 228 tons, had on board 76 male and 21 female convicts; 1 captain, 2 lieutenants, 2 sergeants, 3 corporals, 1 drummer, and 36 privates, with 1 assistant surgeon to the colony.
There were on board, beside these, 28 women, 8 male and 6 female children, belonging to the soldiers of the detachment, together with 6 male and 7 female children belonging to the convicts.
The Fishburn store - ship was of 378 tons; the Borrowdale of 272 tons; and the Golden Grove of 331 tons. Golden Grove carried the chaplain for the colony, with his wife and a servant.
Not only these store - ships, but the men of war and transports were laden with provisions, implements of agriculture, camp equipage, clothing for the convicts, baggage, etc.
The Sirius carried as supernumeraries, the major commandant of the corps of marines embarked in the transports * (* This officer was also lieutenant - governor of the colony), the adjutant and quarter - master, the judge - advocate of the settlement, and the commissary; with one sergeant, three drummers, seven privates, four women, and a few artificers.
The chief surgeon for the First Fleet, John White, reported a total of 48 deaths and 28 births during the voyage. The deaths during the voyage included one marine, one marine 's wife, one marine 's child, 36 male convicts, four female convicts, and five children of convicts.
The First Fleet left Portsmouth, England on 13 May 1787. The journey began with fine weather, and thus the convicts were allowed on deck. The Fleet was accompanied by the armed frigate Hyena until it left English waters. On 20 May 1787, one convict on the Scarborough reported a planned mutiny; those allegedly involved were flogged and two were transferred to Prince of Wales. In general, however, most accounts of the voyage agree that the convicts were well behaved. On 3 June 1787, the fleet anchored at Santa Cruz at Tenerife. Here, fresh water, vegetables and meat were brought on board. Phillip and the chief officers were entertained by the local governor, while one convict tried unsuccessfully to escape. On 10 June they set sail to cross the Atlantic to Rio de Janeiro, taking advantage of favourable trade winds and ocean currents.
The weather became increasingly hot and humid as the Fleet sailed through the tropics. Vermin, such as rats, and parasites such as bedbugs, lice, cockroaches and fleas, tormented the convicts, officers and marines. Bilges became foul and the smell, especially below the closed hatches, was over-powering. While Phillip gave orders that the bilge - water was to be pumped out daily and the bilges cleaned, these orders were not followed on the Alexander and a number of convicts fell sick and died. Tropical rainstorms meant that the convicts could not exercise on deck as they had no change of clothes and no method of drying wet clothing. Consequently, they were kept below in the foul, cramped holds. On the female transports, promiscuity between the convicts, the crew and marines was rampant, despite punishments for some of the men involved. In the doldrums, Phillip was forced to ration the water to three pints a day.
The Fleet reached Rio de Janeiro on 5 August and stayed for a month. The ships were cleaned and water taken on board, repairs were made, and Phillip ordered large quantities of food. The women convicts ' clothing had become infested with lice and was burnt. As additional clothing for the female convicts had not arrived before the Fleet left England, the women were issued with new clothes made from rice sacks. While the convicts remained below deck, the officers explored the city and were entertained by its inhabitants. A convict and a marine were punished for passing forged quarter - dollars made from old buckles and pewter spoons.
The Fleet left Rio de Janeiro on 4 September to run before the westerlies to the Cape of Good Hope in southern Africa, which it reached on 13 October. This was the last port of call, so the main task was to stock up on plants, seeds and livestock for their arrival in Australia. The livestock taken on board from the Cape of Good Hope destined for the new colony included two bulls, seven cows, one stallion, three mares, 44 sheep, 32 pigs, four goats and "a very large quantity of poultry of every kind ''. Women convicts on the Friendship were moved to other transports to make room for livestock purchased there. The convicts were provided with fresh beef and mutton, bread and vegetables, to build up their strength for the journey and maintain their health. The Dutch colony of Cape Town was the last outpost of European settlement which the fleet members would see for years, perhaps for the rest of their lives. "Before them stretched the awesome, lonely void of the Indian and Southern Oceans, and beyond that lay nothing they could imagine. ''
Assisted by the gales in the "Roaring Forties '' latitudes below the 40th parallel, the heavily laden transports surged through the violent seas. In the last two months of the voyage, the Fleet faced challenging conditions, spending some days becalmed and on others covering significant distances; the Friendship travelled 166 miles one day, while a seaman was blown from the Prince of Wales at night and drowned. Water was rationed as supplies ran low, and the supply of other goods including wine ran out altogether on some vessels. Van Diemen 's Land was sighted from the Friendship on 4 January 1788. A freak storm struck as they began to head north around the island, damaging the sails and masts of some of the ships.
On 25 November, Phillip had transferred to the Supply. With Alexander, Friendship and Scarborough, the fastest ships in the Fleet, which were carrying most of the male convicts, the Supply hastened ahead to prepare for the arrival of the rest. Phillip intended to select a suitable location, find good water, clear the ground, and perhaps even have some huts and other structures built before the others arrived. This was a planned move, discussed by the Home Office and the Admiralty prior to the Fleet 's departure. However, this "flying squadron '' reached Botany Bay only hours before the rest of the Fleet, so no preparatory work was possible. Supply reached Botany Bay on 18 January 1788; the three fastest transports in the advance group arrived on 19 January; slower ships, including Sirius, arrived on 20 January.
This was one of the world 's greatest sea voyages -- eleven vessels carrying about 1,487 people and stores had travelled for 252 days for more than 15,000 miles (24,000 km) without losing a ship. Forty - eight people died on the journey, a death rate of just over three per cent.
It was soon realised that Botany Bay did not live up to the glowing account that the explorer Captain James Cook had provided. The bay was open and unprotected, the water was too shallow to allow the ships to anchor close to the shore, fresh water was scarce, and the soil was poor. First contact was made with the local indigenous people, the Eora, who seemed curious but suspicious of the newcomers. The area was studded with enormously strong trees. When the convicts tried to cut them down, their tools broke and the tree trunks had to be blasted out of the ground with gunpowder. The primitive huts built for the officers and officials quickly collapsed in rainstorms. The marines had a habit of getting drunk and not guarding the convicts properly, whilst their commander, Major Robert Ross, drove Phillip to despair with his arrogant and lazy attitude. Crucially, Phillip worried that his fledgling colony was exposed to attack from Aborigines or foreign powers. Although his initial instructions were to establish the colony at Botany Bay, he was authorised to establish the colony elsewhere if necessary.
On 21 January, Phillip and a party which included John Hunter, departed the Bay in three small boats to explore other bays to the north. Phillip discovered that Port Jackson, about 12 kilometres to the north, was an excellent site for a colony with sheltered anchorages, fresh water and fertile soil. Cook had seen and named the harbour, but had not entered it. Phillip 's impressions of the harbour were recorded in a letter he sent to England later: "the finest harbour in the world, in which a thousand sail of the line may ride in the most perfect security... ''. The party returned to Botany Bay on 23 January.
On the morning of 24 January, the party was startled when two French ships were seen just outside Botany Bay. This was a scientific expedition led by Jean - François de La Pérouse. The French had expected to find a thriving colony where they could repair ships and restock supplies, not a newly arrived fleet of convicts considerably more poorly provisioned than themselves. There was some cordial contact between the French and British officers, but Phillip and La Pérouse never met. The French ships remained until 10 March before setting sail on their return voyage. They were not seen again and were later discovered to have been shipwrecked off the coast of Vanikoro in the present - day Solomon Islands.
On 26 January 1788, the Fleet weighed anchor and sailed to Port Jackson. The site selected for the anchorage had deep water close to the shore, was sheltered, and had a small stream flowing into it. Phillip named it Sydney Cove, after Lord Sydney the British Home Secretary. This date is celebrated as Australia Day, marking the beginning of British settlement. The British flag was planted and formal possession taken. This was done by Phillip and some officers and marines from the Supply, with the remainder of Supply 's crew and the convicts observing from on board ship. The remaining ships of the Fleet did not arrive at Sydney Cove until later that day.
The First Fleet encountered indigenous Australians when they landed at Botany Bay. The Cadigal people of the Botany Bay area witnessed the Fleet arrive and six days later the two ships of French explorer La Pérouse sailed into the bay. When the Fleet moved to Sydney Cove seeking better conditions for establishing the colony, they encountered the Eora people, including the Bidjigal clan. A number of the First Fleet journals record encounters with Aboriginal people.
Although the official policy of the British Government was to establish friendly relations with Aboriginal people, and Arthur Phillip ordered that the Aboriginal people should be well treated, it was not long before conflict began. The colonists did not sign treaties with the original inhabitants of the land. Between 1790 and 1810, Pemulwuy of the Bidjigal clan led the local people in a series of attacks against the British colonisers.
The ships of the First Fleet mostly did not remain in the colony. Some returned to England, while others left for other ports. Some remained at the service of the Governor of the colony for some months: some of these were sent to Norfolk Island where a second penal colony was established.
1788
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On 26 January 1842, the Colonial Government in Sydney awarded a life pension of 1 shilling a day to three surviving members of the First Fleet. The Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser reported, on Saturday 29 January 1842: "The Government have ordered a pension of one shilling per diem to be paid to the survivors of those who came by the first vessel into the Colony. The number of these really ' old hands ' is now reduced to three, of whom, two are now in the Benevolent Asylum, and the other is a fine hale old fellow, who can do a day 's work with more spirit than many of the young fellows lately arrived in the Colony. '' The names of the three recipients are not given.
William Hubbard: Hubbard was convicted in the Kingston Assizes in Surrey, England, on 24 March 1784 for theft. He was transported to Australia on the Scarborough in the First Fleet. He married Mary Goulding on 19 December 1790 in Rose Hill. In 1803 he received a land grant of 70 acres at Mulgrave Place. He died on 18 May 1843 at the Sydney Benevolent Asylum. His age was given as 76 when he was buried at Christ Church St. Lawrence, Sydney on 22 May 1843.
John McCarthy: McCarthy was a Marine who sailed on the Friendship. McCarthy was born in Killarney, County Kerry, Ireland, circa Christmas 1745. He first served in the colony of New South Wales, then at Norfolk Island where he took up a land grant of 60 acres (Lot 110). He married the first fleet convict Ann Beardsley on Norfolk Island in November 1791 after his discharge a month earlier. In 1808, on the close of Norfolk Island settlement, he resettled in Van Diemen 's Land and later took a land grant (80 acres at Melville) in lieu of the one forfeited on Norfolk Island. The last few years of his life were spent at the home of his granddaughter and her husband, Mr. and Mrs. William H. Budd, at a place called Kinlochewe Inn near Donnybrook, Victoria. McCarthy died on 24 July 1846, six months past his 100 birthday.
John Limeburner: The South Australian Register reported, in an article dated Wednesday 3 November 1847: "John Limeburner, the oldest colonist in Sydney, died in September last, at the advanced age of 104 years. He helped to pitch the first tent in Sydney, and remembered the first display of the British flag there, which was hoisted on a swamp oak - tree, then growing on a spot now occupied as the Water - Police Court. He was the last of those called the ' first - fleeters ' (arrivals by the first convict ships) and, notwithstanding his great age, retained his faculties to the last. '' John Limeburner was a convict on the Charlotte. He was convicted on 9 July 1785 at New Sarum, Wiltshire of theft of a waistcoat, a shirt and stockings. He married Elizabeth Ireland in 1790 at Rosehill and together they establish a 50 - acre farm at Prospect. He died at Ashfield in September 1847 and is buried at St John 's, Ashfield.
John Jones: Jones was a Marine on the First Fleet and sailed on the Alexander. He is listed in the N.S.W. 1828 Census as aged 82 and living at the Sydney Benevolent Asylum. He is said to have died at the Benevolent Asylum in 1848.
Samuel King: King was a scribbler (a worker in a scribbling mill) before he became a Marine. He was a Marine with the First Fleet on board the flagship Sirius (1786). He shipped to Norfolk Island on Golden Grove in September 1788, where he lived with Mary Rolt, a convict who arrived with the First Fleet on the Prince of Wales. He received a grant of 60 acres (Lot No. 13) at Cascade Stream in 1791. Mary Rolt returned to England on the Britannia in October 1796. King was resettled in Van Diemen 's Land, boarding the City of Edinburgh on 3 September 1808, and landed in Hobart on 3 October. He married Elizabeth Thackery on 28 January 1810. He died on 21 October 1849 at 86 years of age and was buried in the Wesleyan cemetery at Lawitta Road, Back River.
John Small: Convicted 14 March 1785 at the Devon Lent Assizes held at Exeter for Robbery King 's Highway. Sentenced to hang, reprieved to 7 years transportation. Arrived on the Charlotte in First Fleet 1788. Certificate of freedom 1792. Land Grant 1794, 30 acre "Small 's Farm '' at Eastern Farms (Ryde). Married October 1788 Mary Parker also a First Fleet convict who arrived on Lady Penrhyn. John Small died on 2 October 1850 at age of 90 years.
Elizabeth Thackery: Elizabeth "Betty '' King (née Thackery) was tried and convicted of theft on 4 May 1786 at Manchester Quarter Sessions, and sentenced to seven years transportation. She sailed on the Friendship, but was transferred to the Charlotte at the Cape of Good Hope. She was shipped to Norfolk Island on the Sirius (1786) in 1790 and lived there with James Dodding. In August 1800 she bought 10 acres of land from Samuel King at Cascade Stream. Elizabeth and James were relocated to Van Diemen 's Land in December 1807 but parted company sometime afterwards. On 28 January 1810 Elizabeth married "First Fleeter '' Private Samuel King (above) and lived with him until his death in 1849. Betty King died in New Norfolk, Tasmania on 7 August 1856, aged 89 years. She is buried in the churchyard of the Methodist Chapel, Lawitta Road, Back River, next to her husband, and the marked grave bears a First Fleet plaque. She was one of the first British women to land in Australia and was the last "First Fleeter '' to die.
Historians have disagreed over whether those aboard the First Fleet were responsible for introducing smallpox to Australia 's indigenous population, and if so, whether this was the consequence of deliberate action.
In 1914, J. H. L. Cumpston, director of the Australian Quarantine Service put forward the hypothesis that smallpox arrived with British settlers. Some researchers have argued that any such release may have been a deliberate attempt to decimate the indigenous population. Others have suggested that live smallpox virus may have been introduced accidentally, when Aboriginal people came into contact with variolous matter brought by the First Fleet for use in anti-smallpox inoculations. Hypothetical scenarios for such an action might have included: an act of revenge by an aggrieved individual, a response to attacks by indigenous people, or part of an orchestrated assault by the New South Wales Marine Corps, intended to clear the path for colonial expansion.
Other historians have disputed the idea that there was a deliberate release of smallpox virus and / or suggest that it arrived with visitors to Australia other than the First Fleet. In 2002, historian Judy Campbell suggested that smallpox had arrived in Australia through contact with fishermen from Makassar in Indonesia, where smallpox was endemic. In 2011, Macknight stated: "The overwhelming probability must be that it (smallpox) was introduced, like the later epidemics, by (Indonesian) trepangers... and spread across the continent to arrive in Sydney quite independently of the new settlement there. ''
There is a third theory, that the 1789 epidemic was not smallpox but chickenpox -- to which indigenous Australians also had no inherited resistance -- that happened to be affecting, or was carried by, members of the First Fleet. This theory has also been disputed.
After Ray Collins, a stonemason, completed years of research into the First Fleet, he sought approval from about nine councils to construct a commemorative garden in recognition of these immigrants. Liverpool Plains Shire Council was ultimately the only council to accept his offer to supply the materials and construct the garden free of charge. The site chosen was a disused caravan park on the banks of Quirindi Creek at Wallabadah, New South Wales. In September 2002 Collins commenced work on the project. Additional support was later provided by Neil McGarry in the form of some signs and the council contributed $28,000 for pathways and fencing. Collins hand - chiseled the names of all those who came to Australia on the eleven ships in 1788 on stone tablets along the garden pathways. The stories of those who arrived on the ships, their life, and first encounters with the Australian country are presented throughout the garden. On 26 January 2005, the First Fleet Garden was opened as the major memorial to the First Fleet immigrants. Previously the only other specific memorial to the First Fleeters was an obelisk at Brighton - Le - Sands, New South Wales. The surrounding area has a barbecue, tables, and amenities.
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when does alaska die in looking for alaska | Looking for Alaska - wikipedia
Looking for Alaska is John Green 's first novel, published in March 2005 by Dutton Juvenile. It won the 2006 Michael L. Printz Award from the American Library Association, and led the association 's list of most - challenged books for 2015 due to profanity and sexually explicit scenes. The story is told through teenager Miles Halter as he enrolls at a boarding school to try to gain a deeper perspective on life, and was inspired by Green 's experiences as a high school student.
During the week of July 29, 2012, Looking for Alaska broke into the New York Times best seller list at number ten in Children 's Paperback, 385 weeks (more than seven years) after it was released. As of May 3, 2016, it is number four on the New York Times best seller listing for Young Adult Paperback.
Miles Halter leaves Florida to attend Culver Creek Preparatory High School in Alabama for his junior year, quoting François Rabelais 's last words: "I do to seek a Great Perhaps ''. Miles ' new roommate, Chip "The Colonel '' Martin, ironically nicknames Miles "Pudge '' and introduces Pudge to his friends: hip - hop emcee Takumi Hikohito and Alaska Young, a beautiful but emotionally unstable girl. Learning of Pudge 's obsession with famous last words, Alaska informs him of Simón Bolívar 's: "Damn it. How will I ever get out of this labyrinth! '' The two make a deal that if Pudge figures out what the labyrinth is, Alaska will find him a girlfriend.
On his first night at Culver Creek, Pudge is kidnapped and thrown into a lake by the Weekday Warriors, rich schoolmates who blame the Colonel and his friends for the expulsion of their friend, Paul. Takumi insists that they are innocent as their friend Marya was also expelled, but Alaska later admits that she told on Marya and Paul to the dean, Mr. Starnes, to save herself from being punished. Alaska sets Pudge up with a Romanian classmate, Lara. Unfortunately, Pudge and Lara have a disastrous date, ending with a concussed Pudge throwing up on Lara. Alaska and Pudge grow closer and he begins to fall in love with her, although she insists on keeping their relationship platonic.
The gang celebrate a series of pranks by drinking and partying, and an inebriated Alaska confides about her mother 's death from an aneurysm when she was eight years old. Although she did n't understand at the time, she feels guilty for not calling 911. Pudge figures that her mother 's death made Alaska impulsive and rash. He concludes that the labyrinth was a person 's suffering and that humans must try to find their way out. Afterwards, Pudge grows closer to Lara, and they start dating. A week later, after another ' celebration ', an intoxicated Alaska becomes amorous toward Pudge but tires and they fall asleep together.
In the middle of the night, Alaska receives a phone call which causes her to go into hysterics, insisting that she has to leave. Pudge and the Colonel distract Mr. Starnes and Alaska drives away while drunk, crashes her car, and dies instantly. The Colonel and Pudge are devastated and blame themselves, but learn that Alaska might have deliberately crashed to kill herself. The Colonel insists on questioning Jake, her boyfriend, but Pudge refuses, fearing that he might learn that Alaska never loved him. They argue and the Colonel accuses Pudge of only loving an idealized Alaska that Pudge made up in his head. Pudge realizes the truth of this and reconciles with the Colonel.
As a way of celebrating Alaska 's life, Pudge, the Colonel, Takumi, and Lara team up with the Weekday Warriors to hire a male stripper to speak at Culver 's Speaker Day. The whole school finds it hilarious; Mr. Starnes even acknowledges how clever it was. Pudge finds Alaska 's copy of The General in His Labyrinth with the labyrinth quote underlined and notices the words "straight and fast '' written in the margins. He remembers Alaska died on the morning after the anniversary of her mother 's death and concludes that Alaska felt guilty for not visiting her mother 's grave. In her rush, she might have been trying to reach the cemetery or might have committed suicide out of guilt. On the last day of school, Takumi confesses in a note that he was the last person to see Alaska, and he let her go as well. Pudge realizes that letting her go does n't matter as much anymore. He forgives Alaska for dying, as he knows Alaska would forgive him for letting her go.
Green attended Indian Springs School, a boarding and day school outside of Birmingham, Alabama. While he was enrolled there, a student died under circumstances similar to the character of Alaska.
John Green discussed at a book talk in Rivermont Collegiate on October 19, 2006 that he got the idea of Takumi 's "fox hat '' from a Filipino friend who wore a similar hat while playing pranks at Indian Springs School. From the same book talk, Green also stated that the possessed swan in Culver Creek came from his student life at Indian Springs School as well, where there was also a swan of similar nature on the campus. The two pranks that occur in the book are similar to pranks that Green pulled at his high school. Green has also stated that several of Culver Creek 's teachers are direct caricatures of multiple faculty members at Indian Springs.
The book has been challenged for content dealing with sexually explicit situations. Two teachers at Depew High School near Buffalo, New York, used the book for eleventh grade instruction in 2008. A letter was sent to parents advising them that the book contained controversial content. An alternate reading selection was available for those opting out, and a small percentage of parents chose this option. Nevertheless, the book was challenged on the grounds that it is "pornographic '' and "disgusting. '' One parent even went as far as refusing to read the book himself, reportedly saying that "One does not need to have cancer to diagnose cancer. '' The book was ultimately kept in the curriculum by the school board after a unanimous school board vote. Green defended his book in his vlog, Vlogbrothers.
In March 2012, The Knoxville Journal reported that a parent of a 15 - year - old Karns High School student objected to the book 's placement on the Honors and Advanced Placement classes ' required reading lists for Knox County high schools on the grounds that its sex scene and its use of profanity rendered it pornography.
The book led the list of the top ten most - challenged books for 2015 (out of 275 titles) in an accounting assembled by the American Library Association. The reasons given: "Offensive language, sexually explicit, and unsuited for age group. ''
The main characters in the story are teenagers who also drink, smoke, and use explicit language. Green has publicly defended his work. "Some people say, ' You wrote a dirty, dirty book. ' But there are very old - fashioned values and even a lot of religion in it, '' Green said. "There are some adults who think that the only kind of ethics that matter are sexual ethics. So they miss everything else that is going on in the book. '' Green also said, "The book has never been marketed to 12 - year - olds. Never. It is packaged like an adult book; it does n't even say it 's published by a kids ' book imprint on the cover, and it 's never shelved in the children 's section of bookstores. ''
In August 2012, Green revealed details regarding the cover design of Looking for Alaska. Green acknowledged that the extinguished candle on the cover leads to "an improbable amount of smoke '', and explained that the initial cover design did not feature the candle. Green said that certain book chains were uncomfortable with displaying or selling a book with a cover that featured cigarette smoke, so the candle was added beneath the smoke.
In John Green 's box set, released on October 25, 2012, the candle has been removed from the cover. Further paperback releases of the book also have the candle removed.
The film rights to the novel were acquired by Paramount Pictures in 2005. The screenplay was potentially going to be written and directed by Josh Schwartz (creator of The O.C.) but, due to a lack of interest by Paramount, the production had been shelved indefinitely. It had been reported that Paramount was putting the screenplay in review due to the success of the film adaptation of Green 's breakout novel, The Fault in Our Stars. On February 27, 2015, The Hollywood Reporter announced that Scott Neustadter and Michael H. Weber, screenwriters for Temple Hill Entertainment who had worked on adaptations for The Fault in Our Stars and Paper Towns, would be writing and executive producing for the film. Paramount was actively casting the latest version of the screenplay, which was written by Sarah Polley. Rebecca Thomas was set to direct. Green also confirmed that Neustadter and Weber were still involved with the film. In August 2015, it was announced filming would begin in the fall in Michigan. It was later announced that filming would begin in early 2016 because of lack of casting decisions. Later in 2016, John Green announced in a Vlogbrother 's video and on social media that the film adaption has once again been shelved indefinitely.
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janet jackson state of the world tour playlist | State of the World Tour - wikipedia
The State of the World Tour is the eighth concert tour by American singer Janet Jackson. Launched in promotion of her eleventh studio album Unbreakable (2015), the tour is produced by Live Nation and is under the creative direction of Gil Duldulao. Announced in May 2017 as a 56 - city North American trek visiting the United States and Canada, it is a continuation of the Unbreakable World Tour, which was postponed in 2016 due to Jackson 's pregnancy. Tickets originally purchased for the Unbreakable World Tour were honored with new concert dates under the revamped State of the World Tour.
The theme of the tour was altered to reflect socially conscious messages from Jackson 's entire music catalog. The revised name of the tour is taken from her 1991 single "State of the World '', released from her fourth studio album Janet Jackson 's Rhythm Nation 1814 (1989). The tour was advertised on social media with socially conscious lyrics quoted from studio albums Rhythm Nation 1814, Janet (1993), The Velvet Rope (1997) and Unbreakable. A number of songs selected for the concert set list, along with corresponding imagery depicted on stage, address racism, white supremacy, homophobia, fascism, xenophobia, domestic violence and police brutality.
The first concert took place on September 7, 2017, in Lafayette, Louisiana at the Cajundome arena. Proceeds from the September 9, 2017 concert at the Toyota Center in Houston, Texas were donated to relief efforts supporting evacuees of Hurricane Harvey; Jackson met with Houston mayor Sylvester Turner and evacuees at the George R. Brown Convention Center prior to the performance. The first leg of the tour concluded with a concert at the Philips Arena in Atlanta, Georgia on December 17, 2017.
On May 1, 2017, Jackson announced a massive North American trek to reschedule her Unbreakable World Tour that was postponed due to the singer 's pregnancy, with Jackson set to embark on a rebranded trek starting in September. Tickets from the postponed Unbreakable Tour gigs will be honored at the new dates, while newly scheduled stops going on sale, beginning May 5, 2017, at Live Nation.
The concert opens with a video reel denouncing white supremacy, right - wing extremism, domestic terrorism and police brutality. Names of unarmed black men killed by police which drew national attention with the Black Lives Matter movement, as well as the deadly violence surrounding the 2017 Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia were depicted in the video. As Jordan Darville of The Fader observes: "The one - minute video introduction starts by naming unarmed black men who were killed by police officers: Eric Garner, Michael Brown, and Jonathan Ferrell. Then, we hear audio clips of television personalities and protestors explaining the threats of white supremacy, privilege, and inequality. The message is a vital one: The Center for Investigative reporting has shared an analysis of domestic terrorism in the United States spanning nine years, and found that right - wing extremists were responsible for twice as many violent attacks compared to Islamic extremists. ''
The tour marks the first time non-single songs from earlier albums such as "The Body That Loves You '' (from the Janet album), "Spending Time With You '' and "Island Life '' (both from the Damita Jo album) were performed live, alongside the first performance of 1995 single "Twenty Foreplay '' (from the Design of a Decade: 1986 -- 1996 album) and the first time "Where Are You Now '', "New Agenda '', "What About '', "The Knowledge '', "State of the World '' were performed since their respective album 's tours. Also, songs from the "Unbreakable '' album were performed for the first time, such as "Black Eagle '', "Dammn Baby '', and "Well Travelled ''. On October 8, 2017, Jackson welcomed back several former dancers to appear during the performance of "Rhythm Nation '' at the Hollywood Bowl.
According to StubHub, the State of the World Tour ranks as one of the top 10 most in - demand concert tours for the fall of 2017.
At the end of 2017, the tour placed at number 62 on Pollstar 's "2017 Year - End Top 100 Worldwide Tours '' list, grossing $33.4 million from 56 shows with a total attendance of 456,633.
The tour opened to positive critical reception, with several commentators praising Jackson 's post-pregnancy physical fitness, showmanship and socially conscious messages. Her emotional rendition of "What About '', a song concerning domestic violence originally recorded for The Velvet Rope, drew media attention highlighting her recent separation from her third husband Wissam Al Mana; Jackson 's brother Randy alleges she suffered verbal abuse by Al Mana which contributed to the breakdown of their marriage.
In his review for the Houston Chronical, Joey Guerra wrote that "Janet Jackson is at her absolute best, and largely unparalleled in pop music, when she funnels direct, declarative messages into her songs '', citing numerous hits from her catalog. He considered "Rhythm Nation '' a highlight of the show, which "resonates even more today in a world seemingly gone mad (.) '' Brandon Caldwell of the Houston Press reported that Jackson 's denouncement of police brutality and white supremacy, as well as her dance - driven classic hits elated the crowd. "For two hours on Saturday night, '' he wrote, "it felt right to go through the eras with Janet. The liberating janet. years, the rhythm - driven arcs of Control and even the current Unbreakable album. ''
This set list is representative of the show on September 7, 2017, in Lafayette, Louisiana. It does not represent all concerts for the duration of the tour.
Notes:
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who plays jacob black's father in twilight | Gil Birmingham - wikipedia
Gil Birmingham (born July 13, 1953) is an American actor of Comanche ancestry, best known for his portrayal of Billy Black in The Twilight Saga film series.
Birmingham was born in San Antonio, Texas. His family moved frequently during his childhood, due to his father 's career in the military. He learned to play the guitar at an early age and considers music his "first love ''. After obtaining a Bachelor of Science from the University of Southern California (he graduated from the School of Policy, Planning and Development), he worked as a petrochemical engineer before becoming an actor.
In the early 1980s, a talent scout spotted Birmingham at a local gym, where he had been bodybuilding and entering bodybuilding contests. This led to his first acting experience, in a music video for Diana Ross, for her 1982 hit song "Muscles ''.
After appearing in Ross ' music video, Birmingham began to pursue acting as his primary career. He studied acting with Larry Moss and Charles Conrad. He portrayed the character of Conan the Barbarian in Universal Studios Hollywood 's theme park attraction The Adventures of Conan: A Sword and Sorcery Spectacular.
In 1986, Birmingham made his television debut on an episode of the series Riptide. By 2002, he had a recurring role as the character Oz in the medical drama Body & Soul, starring Peter Strauss. In 2005, he was cast as the older Dogstar in the Steven Spielberg six - part miniseries Into the West.
He has appeared in a number of television series, including Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Veronica Mars, 10 Items or Less, Nip / Tuck, Castle, The Mentalist, House of Cards and Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt. He has also had roles in several television films, such as Gentle Ben (with Dean Cain) and Gentle Ben 2, Dreamkeeper, The Lone Ranger, and Love 's Long Journey (with Erin Cottrell and Irene Bedard).
In 2001, Birmingham appeared in his first feature film, The Doe Boy, in which he portrayed Manny Deadmarsh.
In 2008, Birmingham was cast as the character Billy Black in The Twilight Saga film series and has appeared in all four of the films.
The Twilight series has led to roles in other major film roles, including that of Sheriff Johnny Cortez in Love Ranch (with Joe Pesci and Helen Mirren), and Cal Bishnik in Shouting Secrets (with The Twilight Saga: New Moon castmate Chaske Spencer). In September 2011, Birmingham appeared in the film Crooked Arrows, cast in the role of Ben Logan.
Birmingham voiced Wounded Bird in the animated film Rango and has provided voice work for the television series The Wild Thornberrys (in which he voiced an Inuit elder) and the film Night at the Museum. He played the partnering Texas Ranger to Jeff Bridges ' character in the bank robbery film Hell or High Water (2016).
In the Chickasaw Nation production of Te Ata, Birmingham plays Thomas Benjamin ' T.B. ' Thompson, Mary Frances ' Te Ata ' (Thomoson) Fisher 's father. Birmingham attended the film 's premiere in Moore, Oklahoma on September 13, 2016.
He was featured in The Space Between Us as Shaman Neka, which was released on February 3, 2017.
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when is the new henry danger coming on | List of Henry Danger episodes - Wikipedia
Henry Danger is an American sitcom created by Dan Schneider and Dana Olsen that premiered on Nickelodeon on July 26, 2014. The series stars Jace Norman, Cooper Barnes, Riele Downs, Sean Ryan Fox, and Ella Anderson.
When Coach Bix says his team is a team of losers, Henry believes that he was replaced on the Swellview Honey Badgers basketball team by a 14 year old boy named Shawn Corbit, who has been recruited by Coach Bix. After losing a one - on - one match that determines who will be point guard, Shawn reveals to Henry that he 's really 26 years old & Coach Bix is forcing Shawn to pretend he 's 14 years old because Coach Bix kidnaped Shawn 's Cockapoo hostage in order to get the team to win. Meanwhile, Ray is reluctant to call his former worker Schwoz when the Man Cave is on the fritz. Later, Henry tells Ray the bad news. So, Ray turns into Captain Man & goes to Coach Bix 's apartment with Shawn & gives his puppy back to him and the Man Cave becomes fixed by Schwoz & Ray befriends Schwoz again.
A device in the Man Cave meant to make men stronger, more powerful, and "manlier '' strikes Henry when he accidentally pushes a button on the machine. The effect makes him grow facial hair and increases his adrenaline, making him angry and eventually turning him "beastly ''. Captain Man, Schwoz, and Charlotte rush to find Henry before his crazy behavior ruins his date with Chloe Hartman.
Henry and Ray must deal with The Spoiler, an annoying new teenage super-villain that finds out the endings of TV shows and movies and tells people about it before they see it. Meanwhile, Piper tries to get into the Man Fans, a Captain Man fan club led by Paula Marikto, and goes through the initiation process with the latest one involving getting a selfie with Captain Man.
While Captain Man and Kid Danger pursue the Van Del, the leader of a graffiti group known as the Wall Dogs, Kid Danger falls for Wall Dogs member Veronika. Meanwhile, Jasper, Sydney, Oliver, and Oliver 's cousin Krish work with Piper in order to get $10,000 rewarded to whoever finds the Wall Dogs so that Jasper can pay for foot - reduction surgery.
Following the fight against Captain Man near the Swellview sign, Veronika brings Kid Danger to her fellow Wall Dogs members Beyonspray, Spray - Z, Two Canz, and T Paint so that Van Del will welcome Henry into the Wall Dogs. At the same time, Captain Man searches for Kid Danger, while Piper, Jasper, Sydney, Oliver, and Krish continue looking for the Wall Dogs.
Courtney Sham, Jasper 's girlfriend from summer camp, arrives from Fibberton and becomes jealous of Charlotte when she thinks she is dating Jasper. Meanwhile, Henry and Ray make a bet revolving around the loser of a ping - pong game having to clean the tube in ducky pajamas after Mexican food splattered over it following a visit from Schwoz ' sister.
Special guest star: Benjamin Flores, Jr. as Li'l Biggie
Two weeks after Captain Man and Kid Danger captured the Time Jerker, Henry receives a gift basket. Henry finds a gift card to Swellview 's most exclusive steakhouse, Montego 's, inside. When his friends, family, neighbors, and Herb from Sam & Cat, who came to Swellview from Venice, Los Angeles as part of his vacation, want Henry to invite them as his guest, Henry decides to bring Ray, who has not yet been invited to Montego 's as Captain Man. Henry soon finds himself conflicted when he also invites Bianca as part of their one year "Lockerversary ''. Ray and Schwoz try to pose as Henry and Bianca, but Henry and Bianca appear and catch them in the act. A dispute then ensures on who 's who, but it eventually ends with Bianca leaving since she is not into beef, but chicken instead. After having their steak, Henry and Ray notice petty criminals Ert and Bernie leaving the restaurant and end up fighting them, causing damage to the dining area. Following Ert and Bernie 's arrest, Captain Man and Kid Danger are told by the manager that they are n't on the reservation list and have the food confiscated. Upon returning to the Man Cave, Captain Man finds out that some of the steak fell into Kid Danger 's outfit and the two of them split it. Afterward, they head to Back Out Steakhouse.
Guest stars: Jeffrey Nichols Brown as Mr. Hart, Kelly Sullivan as Mrs. Hart, Michael D. Cohen as Schwoz, Carrie Barrett as Mary Gaperman, Jill Benjamin as Miss Shapen, Rob Locke as Turk, Joey Richter as The Time Jerker, Winston Story as Trent Overunder, Maeve Tomalty as Bianca
When Jasper stops a thief and becomes a big news hit, Henry becomes jealous because nobody gives him any credit as Henry. In an attempt to prove himself, he tries to stop an angry customer who 's taken hostages at an animal store as himself; however, Captain Man shows up, causing Henry to become distracted and taken hostage. When the angry customer threatens to drop a poisonous spider on Henry 's face, Captain Man is forced to lock himself in a cage. Meanwhile, Jasper shows up at Henry 's house looking for Henry, where Mr. and Mrs. Hart are getting massages. When he discovers Henry is in danger, he runs off to rescue him. Jasper then shows up at the animal store and lets Captain Man out of his cage. The angry customer becomes aware and comes back out demanding answers, but Captain Man punches him and puts a stop to him. When Henry and the rest of the hostages are freed, Jasper mentions how Henry does n't need to thank him because they are best friends, causing Henry to feel bad for being jealous. To make up for it, Henry purchases the same poisonous spider that the angry customer threatened to drop onto Henry as an apology because Jasper saw it at the store and really wanted, but he could not afford it as it cost $150.
Guest stars: Jeffrey Nichols Brown as Mr. Hart, Kelly Sullivan as Mrs. Hart, Carrie Barrett as Mary Gaperman, Jill Benjamin as Miss Shapen, Zach Callison as Chet, Joe Kaprielian as Sidney, Matthew Zhang as Oliver, Winston Story as Trent Overunder, Toby Wilson as Dirk
After Kid Danger is nearly injured trying to help Captain Man stop a clock store from exploding, he decides to go through Dr. Carl Manchester 's trans - molecular densitizer that made Ray indestructable, located in the Man Cave 's storage room. Meanwhile, Piper wants to be on the TV show "Junior Chefs '' much to the dismay of Mr. Hart after the last two times Piper had cooked for the family. Ray is hesitant to use the trans - molecular densitizer on Henry after some incidents that Dr. Manchester and his fellow scientists did on Dave McCallen who gained a face on his stomach, John Walker whose hands became feet, and Glenn Levit who gained arms that emerge from his ears. Schwoz theorizes that it worked well with Ray when he was a young boy and uses it on Henry. The experiment appears to work, but the next morning, Henry discovers that the densitizer gave him a side effect.
As a side effect of going through the trans - molecular densitizer, Henry breathes fire whenever he laughs. Upon examining Henry, Schwoz tells Ray and Charlotte that the machine mutated his throat muscles. Meanwhile, Piper has another attempt at making her parents dinner after the dogs that Jasper walked ate it. Jasper brings his comedian cousin Dex Dunlop to dinner as Henry tries not to laugh at his jokes. Piper eventually catches on to the family 's plan to avoid saying that her cooking is awful. Thanks to Piper declaring that dinner is over, Henry returns to the Man Cave, where Ray is used to conduct the two components of the trans - molecular densitizer in order to reverse the mutation to Henry 's throat muscles.
Henry and Ray want a video made to see what they would look like when they blow their bubbles and transform into their superhero personas. However, Henry accidentally sends the video to Piper. Henry must now get Piper 's phone and delete the video before Piper can see it. When Jasper brings the phone to Henry with Piper on his tail, it turns out that Jasper accidentally grabbed Mrs. Hart 's phone by mistake, and Henry then races home to get to Piper 's phone before Piper does. After much difficulty, Henry deletes the video from the phone and brings it to Junk ' n ' Stuff. Henry stalls Piper as Charlotte deletes the video from the Cloud. Piper then reclaims her phone and storms off. At the end, Henry and Ray discover that Charlotte videoed herself instead of them.
Henry and Charlotte get caught in an electrical disturbance in the transport tubes during a thunderstorm and end up in an alternate dimension where Ray / Captain Man and Schwoz are evil and are planning to force the tickets for The Halkings ' concert from that reality 's version of Piper. To keep the alternate Piper from being eliminated, Henry and Charlotte must prevent the alternate Captain Man from succeeding. Meanwhile, Ray and Schowz deal with the alternate Henry and Charlotte that ended up in their universe. After Henry tells the alternate Captain Man the truth, a truce is held to get both versions of Henry and Charlotte back to their respectful dimensions.
When strange things have been happening to Ray, Charlotte and Schwoz find out that Ray 's old friend, Invisible Brad, survived being hit by a bus. While investigating his grave at the Swellview cemetery, Kid Danger and Captain Man exam Invisible Brad 's casket. However, they end up being ambushed by Invisible Brad, who traps them in the casket and buries them alive. Meanwhile, Jasper gets a pair of petite walkie - talkies and tries using different code names for Henry. At the same time, Piper gets a driver 's license from Swellview 's DMV. Invisible Brad then proceeds to enter the Man Cave and uses Ray 's power gum to become Captain Brad. With help from Piper, Jasper rescues Captain Man and Kid Danger from the casket. Back at the Man Cave, Invisible Brad reveals that he faked his death so that he could take over as Swellview 's hero, but when Henry and Ray return, they find him, and Henry uses bear spray to defeat him.
Piper comes down with an illness called Ox Pox after unknowingly consuming one of the cookies that Schwoz made with comodium acetate due to him mistaking it for sugar. In order to get the feathers of the extinct Chica - Willow, Captain Man uses the Time Jerker 's confiscated time machine to go back to Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, in 1709 in order to obtain the Chica - Willow feathers so that he can make a cure for Piper. Meanwhile, Jasper wants Henry to play ultimate hide and seek with him by giving him clues. When Captain Man obtains the Chica - Willow, Scwhoz accidentally brings an elderly Ray from 50 years in the future by mistake. Henry, Charlotte, and Schwoz then work together to bring Captain Man back to the present and send the elderly Ray back to his own time, before Henry makes the cure for Piper.
A crime wave has hit Swellview and Dr. Minyak has escaped from prison. In Hiddenville, Phoebe Thunderman sees the news and plans to help Captain Man and Kid Danger. After an unsuccessful robbery by the Three Muchachos, they learn from the Three Muchachos that Dr. Minyak has called a meeting with Swellview 's villains to discuss how to destroy Captain Man and Kid Danger. Meanwhile, Piper 's neck gets stiff, causing Jasper and Mr. Hart to work to unstiffen her neck. As Captain Man and Kid Danger work to pose as two of the Three Muchachos, Phoebe mistakes them for the real Three Muchachos and goes on the attack until Captain Man and Kid Danger clear things up. Meanwhile, Piper 's doctor diagnoses her condition as "Text Neck '' and she must wear a cone until her neck recuperates. Phoebe joins Captain Man and Kid Danger and goes undercover where Dr. Minyak, Nurse Cohort, Drill Finger, Jeff, Van Del, and Time Jerker are assembled at the bottom of an underwater base beneath Lake Swellview by Toddler, who has Phoebe 's brother Max Thunderman working for them.
Toddler explains to the assembled villains that he survived the bottomless ball pit by being blasted 100 feet beneath the Earth and had to dig himself out where he ended up emerging from the public sandbox. Toddler proposes to the assembled villains that if they combine their powers, they can destroy Captain Man and Kid Danger. When Phoebe makes herself known to Max, she learns that Max came to steal Dr. Minyak 's Heliometer. Meanwhile, Jasper helps Piper and ends up accidentally texting the wrong guy to sushi party causing Piper 's friends to get angry at her. As the villains work to come up with a plan to destroy Captain Man and Kid Danger, Max ends up giving Captain Man and Kid Danger away, causing Phoebe to come to their defense. Captain Man has Kid Danger get Phoebe away from the villains as he works to buy them some time until Toddler uses the Heliometer on Captain Man. With Captain Man trapped in a cement block on the train, Toddler and his henchmen state that the train will go over the Jandy Bridge and be thrown into the Jandy River as Max attempts to take the Heliometer. With help from Charlotte and Schwoz, Kid Danger and Phoebe locate Captain Man. Meanwhile, Piper 's friends show up at her house to express their anger toward Piper as her admits to the mistake, and the group takes their anger out on Jasper. Kid Danger and Phoebe catch up and face off against Toddler, Dr. Minyak, Van Del, and their henchmen as Charlotte unleashes the man - grenades to free Captain Man. With Captain Man free, the heroes fight the villains who are thrown off the train. Max is forgiven by Captain Man and Kid Danger, but is given a ride home dangling from Schwoz 's helicopter.
Also starring: Jack Griffo, Kira Kosarin
Guest stars: Jeffrey Nichols Brown as Mr. Hart, Michael D. Cohen as Schwoz, Josh Fingerhut as Van Del, Ben Giroux as The Toddler, Ryan Grassmeyer as Jeff, Joey Richter as The Time Jerker, Amber Bela Muse as Nurse Cohort, Mike Ostroski as Dr. Minyak
Henry receives a note in his locker from an unknown person that they are aware of what he did on Wednesday and know his secret, and Henry immediately assumes that the person who sent the note knows he 's Kid Danger. He takes the note back to the Man Cave, where Schwoz tries to identify any DNA that could find the creator of the note; however, nothing is found. Meanwhile, Piper tries to send back a spray tan gun when she believes she was sent the wrong item and later decides to operate a tanning salon from home. When Henry and Charlotte arrive home, Henry heads to his room where he finds Jasper waiting for him. Shocked, Henry tries to explain, but is unable to speak, assuming that Jasper knows he 's Kid Danger. Downstairs, Piper tells Charlotte that Jasper told her his secret. Charlotte asks what he told her and Piper says that Henry had promised to see Galaxy Wars 10 on Saturday with Jasper, but his mom wanted to see it on opening night, which was Wednesday, so Henry had gone with her. Meanwhile, Henry 's father is arrested on the misunderstanding that he was running an illegal tanning operation. Frazzled by the misunderstanding, Charlotte rushes to Henry 's room to tell him that Jasper does n't know his secret identity; however, it 's too late as Henry has revealed to Jasper that he 's Kid Danger. Jasper faints in excitement, and Henry contacts Captain Man and asks him to come to his house. When Captain Man gets there, they get into an argument about Henry 's oath to never tell anyone he 's Kid Danger. Afterward, Captain Man decides they have to erase Jasper 's memory -- including memories of his best friend -- to prevent any more exposure. Henry contemplates and asks if he can spend a few minutes with Jasper before his memory is wiped. He and Jasper relapse on their past, with Jasper saying he is proud of Henry. Emotional by this and not willing to lose his best friend, Henry eventually resists wiping Jasper 's memory and begs Captain Man not to. He relents, but finally agrees and takes Jasper under his wing.
When Jasper accidentally gives away a piñata full of killer bees to Piper for her friend 's birthday party, Henry and Ray must find a way to sneak in and remove it before harm can be done. They eventually dress up as clowns to infiltrate the house, but things do n't exactly go as planned, and the fiñata eventually breaks when Henry finally manages to get it down from the tree.
A female criminal named Gwen uses special muffins to make Captain Man fall in love with her so that she can access the Man Cave. When Henry, Charlotte, and Schowz catch onto the plan, they must work to keep Captain Man from marrying her.
Guest stars: Jill Benjamin as Miss Shapen, Andrew Caldwell as Mitch Bilsky, Henry Dittman as Mr. Sugarman, Matthew Zhang as Oliver
Drex, a former sidekick of Captain Man - turned - supervillain, has escaped from prison when the daughter of the parole board 's chairman tampers with the prison computers during "Take Your Daughter to Work Day '' which allowed Drex to get paroled. As part of his revenge, Drex traps Captain Man in an unbreakable box. After failing to free Captain Man, and subsequently being embarrassed by Drex, Henry turns to Schowz for help where he gains superspeed as a new superpower.
Guest stars: Michael D. Cohen as Schwoz, Carrie Barrett as Mary Gaperman, Danielle Morrow as Kooschtello, Jeremy Rowley as Schwahbbit, Winston Story as Trent Overunder, Tommy Walker as Drex
Miss Shapen persuades Henry to let her niece Noelle stay at his house since she is allergic to the cats at her house. When wanting to date someone, Noelle chooses Jasper over Henry where they end up on a double date with Piper and Kale. Henry does n't know it yet, but Noelle is secretly working for Drill Finger in his plot to target people 's teeth where Jasper, Piper, and Kale end up being one of Drill Finger 's captives.
When two astronauts are held hostage aboard a space station, Kid Danger and Captain Man must travel to space in order to rescue them. Upon reaching the space station, they shockingly discover who the person holding the astronauts captive is. Meanwhile, Piper is eager to see her own commercial premiere on television.
On the space station, Captain Man and Kid Danger discover the reason why the two astronauts were taken hostage by the little girl, who is revealed to be Jim 's daughter Kelsey. She reveals that the astronauts are taking bunnies to the Moon for experiments. In the process of transporting the bunnies back, however, problems soon arise. Eventually, they all travel back to Earth on the Love Shuttle, with Captain Man having to cling onto the side of the shuttle, much to his dismay. Meanwhile, Piper is getting impatient from the multiple interruptions to her commercial, much to the dismay of her friends and father.
When a gas pipe bursts below Swellview 's nuclear plant, Henry and Ray must go fix it before the gas reaches the surface. However, Henry is stuck in school because of Achievement Test Day and is not allowed to leave. Eventually, Captain Man and Schwoz are able to devise a plan to sneak Henry out of school and into the shaft where they both successfully seal the pipe and eliminate the threat to Swellview.
Guest stars: Michael D. Cohen as Schwoz, Carrie Barrett as Mary Gaperman, Jill Benjamin as Miss Shapen, Winston Story as Trent Overunder, Matthew Zhang as Oliver
After Kid Danger and Captain Man are invited to a party that will be hosted by a huge webstar named Frankini, it is revealed that Frankini is using Kid Danger and Captain Man to break the world record for the most people watching a live stream. Meanwhile, Charlotte babysits Piper and both end up watching pimple popping videos.
Charlotte, Jasper, Piper, and Schwoz must stop Kid Danger and Captain Man before they reveal their true identities to the world. With the help of Sydney and Oliver, Piper tries to take away viewers from Frankini 's live stream so that people can watch Piper popping Jasper 's big pimple. Meanwhile, Charlotte and Schwoz are back at the Man Cave and Schwoz comes up with the idea of turning off the power in all of Swellview. As Kid Danger and Captain Man are about to take off their masks, the power goes out and they return to their old selves. Later, Piper pops Jasper 's pimple which gets all over Frankini.
Piper is about to start a man fan meeting when Dr. Minyak and Nurse Cohort take her and the man fans hostage; Henry and Ray must now find a way to rescue them. Schwoz comes up with the idea of using a background board so it looks like Henry and Ray are in the Man Cave so they can sneak out without Dr. Minyak being aware of their plan. If they are detected, Dr. Minyak will launch Piper into space. Later, Henry and Ray are able to rescue Piper and the man fans and send Dr. Minyak into space instead.
Kid Danger and Captain Man are judges on the show "Swellview 's Got Talent '', which Piper and her friend, Carl (William Simmons), are performing in. After the first performance goes awry due to Harry Hoagie (Jay Tapaoan) acting strangely and then passing out, it is Piper and Carl 's turn to perform their dance. Unfortunately, they too start to act strangely before passing out. Later in the backstage area, Jasper notices that champion Steven Sharp is making a big deal about having performers pet his ferret for good luck. Jasper searches on his phone and discovers that it is a Norwegian ferret and that it is dangerous and contact should be avoided because it secretes powerful oils that are capable of causing strange reactions, tongue - chewing, and loss of consciousness. Steven Sharp was having performers do this so he could win.
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how to get margin of error in statistics | Margin of error - wikipedia
The margin of error is a statistic expressing the amount of random sampling error in a survey 's results. The larger the margin of error, the less confidence one should have that the poll 's reported results are close to the "true '' figures; that is, the figures for the whole population. Margin of error is positive whenever a population is incompletely sampled and the outcome measure has positive variance (that is, it varies).
The term "margin of error '' is often used in non-survey contexts to indicate observational error in reporting measured quantities.
The margin of error is usually defined as the "radius '' (or half the width) of a confidence interval for a particular statistic from a survey. One example is the percent of people who prefer product A versus product B. When a single, global margin of error is reported for a survey, it refers to the maximum margin of error for all reported percentages using the full sample from the survey. If the statistic is a percentage, this maximum margin of error can be calculated as the radius of the confidence interval for a reported percentage of 50 %.
The margin of error has been described as an "absolute '' quantity, equal to a confidence interval radius for the statistic. For example, if the true value is 50 percentage points, and the statistic has a confidence interval radius of 5 percentage points, then we say the margin of error is 5 percentage points. As another example, if the true value is 50 people, and the statistic has a confidence interval radius of 5 people, then we might say the margin of error is 5 people.
In some cases, the margin of error is not expressed as an "absolute '' quantity; rather it is expressed as a "relative '' quantity. For example, suppose the true value is 50 people, and the statistic has a confidence interval radius of 5 people. If we use the "absolute '' definition, the margin of error would be 5 people. If we use the "relative '' definition, then we express this absolute margin of error as a percent of the true value. So in this case, the absolute margin of error is 5 people, but the "percent relative '' margin of error is 10 % (because 5 people are ten percent of 50 people). Often, however, the distinction is not explicitly made, yet usually is apparent from context.
Like confidence intervals, the margin of error can be defined for any desired confidence level, but usually a level of 90 %, 95 % or 99 % is chosen (typically 95 %). This level is the probability that a margin of error around the reported percentage would include the "true '' percentage. Along with the confidence level, the sample design for a survey, and in particular its sample size, determines the magnitude of the margin of error. A larger sample size produces a smaller margin of error, all else remaining equal.
If the exact confidence intervals are used, then the margin of error takes into account both sampling error and non-sampling error. If an approximate confidence interval is used (for example, by assuming the distribution is normal and then modeling the confidence interval accordingly), then the margin of error may only take random sampling error into account. It does not represent other potential sources of error or bias such as a non-representative sample - design, poorly phrased questions, people lying or refusing to respond, the exclusion of people who could not be contacted, or miscounts and miscalculations.
An example from the 2004 U.S. presidential campaign will be used to illustrate concepts throughout this article. According to an October 2, 2004 survey by Newsweek, 47 % of registered voters would vote for John Kerry / John Edwards if the election were held on that day, 45 % would vote for George W. Bush / Dick Cheney, and 2 % would vote for Ralph Nader / Peter Camejo. The size of the sample was 1,013. Unless otherwise stated, the remainder of this article uses a 95 % level of confidence.
Polls basically involve taking a sample from a certain population. In the case of the Newsweek poll, the population of interest is the population of people who will vote. Because it is impractical to poll everyone who will vote, pollsters take smaller samples that are intended to be representative, that is, a random sample of the population. It is possible that pollsters sample 1,013 voters who happen to vote for Bush when in fact the population is evenly split between Bush and Kerry, but this is extremely unlikely (p = 2 ≈ 1.1 × 10) given that the sample is random.
Sampling theory provides methods for calculating the probability that the poll results differ from reality by more than a certain amount, simply due to chance; for instance, that the poll reports 47 % for Kerry but his support is actually as high as 50 %, or is really as low as 44 %. This theory and some Bayesian assumptions suggest that the "true '' percentage will probably be fairly close to 47 %. The more people that are sampled, the more confident pollsters can be that the "true '' percentage is close to the observed percentage. The margin of error is a measure of how close the results are likely to be.
However, the margin of error only accounts for random sampling error, so it is blind to systematic errors that may be introduced by non-response or by interactions between the survey and subjects ' memory, motivation, communication and knowledge.
This section will briefly discuss the standard error of a percentage, the corresponding confidence interval, and connect these two concepts to the margin of error. For simplicity, the calculations here assume the poll was based on a simple random sample from a large population.
The standard error of a reported proportion or percentage p measures its accuracy, and is the estimated standard deviation of that percentage. It can be estimated from just p and the sample size, n, if n is small relative to the population size, using the following formula:
When the sample is not a simple random sample from a large population, the standard error and the confidence interval must be estimated through more advanced calculations. Linearization and resampling are widely used techniques for data from complex sample designs.
Note that there is not necessarily a strict connection between the true confidence interval, and the true standard error. The true p percent confidence interval is the interval (a, b) that contains p percent of the distribution, and where (100 − p) / 2 percent of the distribution lies below a, and (100 − p) / 2 percent of the distribution lies above b. The true standard error of the statistic is the square root of the true sampling variance of the statistic. These two may not be directly related, although in general, for large distributions that look like normal curves, there is a direct relationship.
In the Newsweek poll, Kerry 's level of support p = 0.47 and n = 1,013. The standard error (. 016 or 1.6 %) helps to give a sense of the accuracy of Kerry 's estimated percentage (47 %). A Bayesian interpretation of the standard error is that although we do not know the "true '' percentage, it is highly likely to be located within two standard errors of the estimated percentage (47 %). The standard error can be used to create a confidence interval within which the "true '' percentage should be to a certain level of confidence.
The estimated percentage plus or minus its margin of error is a confidence interval for the percentage. In other words, the margin of error is half the width of the confidence interval. It can be calculated as a multiple of the standard error, with the factor depending of the level of confidence desired; a margin of one standard error gives a 68 % confidence interval, while the estimate plus or minus 1.96 standard errors is a 95 % confidence interval, and a 99 % confidence interval runs 2.58 standard errors on either side of the estimate.
The margin of error for a particular statistic of interest is usually defined as the radius (or half the width) of the confidence interval for that statistic. The term can also be used to mean sampling error in general. In media reports of poll results, the term usually refers to the maximum margin of error for any percentage from that poll.
For a simple random sample from a large population, the maximum margin of error is a simple re-expression of the sample size n. The numerators of these equations are rounded to two decimal places.
If an article about a poll does not report the margin of error, but does state that a simple random sample of a certain size was used, the margin of error can be calculated for a desired degree of confidence using one of the above formulae. Also, if the 95 % margin of error is given, one can find the 99 % margin of error by increasing the reported margin of error by about 30 %.
As an example of the above, a random sample of size 400 will give a margin of error, at a 95 % confidence level, of 0.98 / 20 or 0.049 - just under 5 %. A random sample of size 1600 will give a margin of error of 0.98 / 40, or 0.0245 - just under 2.5 %. A random sample of size 10 000 will give a margin of error at the 95 % confidence level of 0.98 / 100, or 0.0098 - just under 1 %.
While the margin of error typically reported in the media is a poll - wide figure that reflects the maximum sampling variation of any percentage based on all respondents from that poll, the term margin of error also refers to the radius of the confidence interval for a particular statistic.
The margin of error for a particular individual percentage will usually be smaller than the maximum margin of error quoted for the survey. This maximum only applies when the observed percentage is 50 %, and the margin of error shrinks as the percentage approaches the extremes of 0 % or 100 %.
In other words, the maximum margin of error is the radius of a 95 % confidence interval for a reported percentage of 50 %. If p moves away from 50 %, the confidence interval for p will be shorter. Thus, the maximum margin of error represents an upper bound to the uncertainty; one is at least 95 % certain that the "true '' percentage is within the maximum margin of error of a reported percentage for any reported percentage.
The formula above for the margin of error assume that there is an infinitely large population and thus do not depend on the size of the population of interest. According to sampling theory, this assumption is reasonable when the sampling fraction is small. The margin of error for a particular sampling method is essentially the same regardless of whether the population of interest is the size of a school, city, state, or country, as long as the sampling fraction is less than 5 %.
In cases where the sampling fraction exceeds 5 %, analysts can adjust the margin of error using a "finite population correction '', (FPC) to account for the added precision gained by sampling close to a larger percentage of the population. FPC can be calculated using the formula:
To adjust for a large sampling fraction, the fpc factored into the calculation of the margin of error, which has the effect of narrowing the margin of error. It holds that the fpc approaches zero as the sample size (n) approaches the population size (N), which has the effect of eliminating the margin of error entirely. This makes intuitive sense because when N = n, the sample becomes a census and sampling error becomes moot.
Analysts should be mindful that the samples remain truly random as the sampling fraction grows, lest sampling bias be introduced.
Confidence intervals can be calculated, and so can margins of error, for a range of statistics including individual percentages, differences between percentages, means, medians, and totals.
The margin of error for the difference between two percentages is larger than the margins of error for each of these percentages, and may even be larger than the maximum margin of error for any individual percentage from the survey.
In a plurality voting system, where the winner is the candidate with the most votes, it is important to know who is ahead. The terms "statistical tie '' and "statistical dead heat '' are sometimes used to describe reported percentages that differ by less than a margin of error, but these terms can be misleading. For one thing, the margin of error as generally calculated is applicable to an individual percentage and not the difference between percentages, so the difference between two percentage estimates may not be statistically significant even when they differ by more than the reported margin of error. The survey results also often provide strong information even when there is not a statistically significant difference.
When comparing percentages, it can accordingly be useful to consider the probability that one percentage is higher than another. In simple situations, this probability can be derived with 1) the standard error calculation introduced earlier, 2) the formula for the variance of the difference of two random variables, and 3) an assumption that if anyone does not choose Kerry they will choose Bush, and vice versa; they are perfectly negatively correlated. This may not be a tenable assumption when there are more than two possible poll responses. For more complex survey designs, different formulas for calculating the standard error of difference must be used.
The standard error of the difference of percentages p for Kerry and q for Bush, assuming that they are perfectly negatively correlated, follows:
Given the observed percentage difference p − q (2 % or 0.02) and the standard error of the difference calculated above (. 03), any statistical calculator may be used to calculate the probability that a sample from a normal distribution with mean 0.02 and standard deviation 0.03 is greater than 0.
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fleetwood mac and you say that you love me | Say You Love Me (Fleetwood Mac song) - Wikipedia
"Say You Love Me '' is a song written by singer Christine McVie, for Fleetwood Mac 's 1975 self - titled album. The song peaked at # 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 for three weeks, and remains one of their best known songs. Its success helped the group 's eponymous 1975 album to sell over 8 million copies worldwide.
In the UK, "Say You Love Me '' was the fourth single from the Fleetwood Mac album, but the first to chart, where it peaked at number 40 on the UK Singles Chart in September 1976. In Canada, Shirley Eikhard covered "Say You Love Me '' and released it as a single several weeks in advance of Fleetwood Mac in early June 1976. Eikhard took the song into the Canadian top 40, peaking at number 34; Fleetwood Mac 's version, released only a few weeks later, peaked at 29 in September.
In addition to its appearance on Fleetwood Mac 's self - titled 1975 album, "Say You Love Me '' appears on three other compilation albums by Fleetwood Mac: Greatest Hits, The Very Best of Fleetwood Mac, and 25 Years - The Chain. During Christine McVie 's departure, the song was performed on Fleetwood Mac 's Unleashed Tour with Stevie Nicks and Lindsey Buckingham sharing lead vocals.
McVie wrote "Say You Love Me '' after her fifth year in the band. During the writing of this song, she was married to John McVie, bassist of Fleetwood Mac. The version used on the single release differs from the album version in that Buckingham remixed the LP version and overdubbed additional guitar work. The single mix is the one used on the compilation 25 Years - The Chain.
"Say You Love Me '' has been performed on seven of Fleetwood Mac 's tours since its release. In a rare occurrence, John McVie sang background vocals for the song during The Dance tour. In a Q&A session, he said that his ex-wife, Christine, convinced him to do it. During performances of the song, Mick Fleetwood played a cocktail drum kit and Buckingham played banjo.
Shirley Eikhard covered the song in 1976. It became a hit in Canada, spending two weeks at number 34 on the pop singles chart and number four on the Adult Contemporary chart.
In the late half of the 1970s, the song proved to be a popular song to cover in country music. Singer Lynda K. Lance spent five weeks in the fall of 1976 on the American country singles chart with her version, peaking at # 93. In the fall of 1979, singer Stephanie Winslow scored the only Top 10 country hit of her career, with her cover reaching number 10 on the country charts.
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where did the buffalo bills name come from | Buffalo Bills - wikipedia
American Football League (1960 -- 1969)
National Football League (1970 -- present)
Royal Blue, Red, White, Navy Blue
League championships (2)
Conference championships (4)
Division championships (10)
The Buffalo Bills are a professional American football team based in the Buffalo -- Niagara Falls metropolitan area. The Bills compete in the National Football League (NFL), as a member club of the league 's American Football Conference (AFC) East division. The team plays their home games at New Era Field in Orchard Park, New York. The Bills are the only NFL team that plays its home games in the state of New York (the New York Giants and New York Jets play at MetLife Stadium, located in East Rutherford, New Jersey). The Bills conduct summer training camp at St. John Fisher College in Pittsford, New York, an eastern suburb of Rochester, New York.
The Bills began play as an original franchise of the American Football League (AFL) in 1960. The club joined the NFL as a result of the AFL -- NFL merger for the 1970 season. The 1964 and 1965 Bills were the only teams representing Buffalo that won major league professional sports championships ("back - to - back '' American Football League Championships). The Bills are the only team to win four consecutive conference championships and are the only NFL team to lose four consecutive Super Bowl games. The team was owned by Ralph Wilson from the team 's founding in 1960, until his death in 2014 at the age of 95. After his death, Wilson 's estate reached an agreement to sell the team to Terry and Kim Pegula, which was approved by the other NFL team owners on October 8, 2014. The Bills have the longest active playoff drought in any major professional sport: they have not qualified to play in the NFL playoffs since 1999 and are the only team that has not appeared in the playoffs so far in the 21st century.
The Bills began competitive play in 1960 as a charter member of the American Football League led by head coach Buster Ramsey and joined the NFL as part of the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970. The Bills won two consecutive American Football League titles in 1964 and 1965, but the club has yet to win a league championship since.
Once the AFL -- NFL merger took effect, the Bills became the second NFL team to represent the city; they followed the Buffalo All - Americans, a charter member of the league. Buffalo had been left out of the league since the All - Americans (by that point renamed the Bisons) folded in 1929; the Bills were no less than the third professional non-NFL team to compete in the city before the merger, following the Indians / Tigers of the early 1940s and an earlier team named the Bills, originally the Bisons, in the late 1940s in the All - America Football Conference (AAFC).
In 1947 a contest was held to rename the Bisons, which was owned by James Breuil of the Frontier Oil Company. The winning entry suggested Bills, reflecting on the famous western frontiersman, Buffalo Bill Cody. Carrying the "frontier '' theme further, the winning contestant offered the team was being supported by Frontier Oil and was "opening a new frontier in sports in Western New York. '' When Buffalo joined the new American Football League in 1960, the name of the city 's earlier pro football entry was adopted.
After being pushed to the brink of failure in the mid-1980s, the collapse of the United States Football League and a series of high draft picks allowed the Bills to rebuild into a perennial contender in the late 1980s through the mid-1990s, a period in which the team won four consecutive AFC Championships; the team nevertheless lost all four subsequent Super Bowls, records in both categories that still stand.
The rise of the division rival New England Patriots under Tom Brady, along with numerous failed attempts at rebuilding in the 2000s and 2010s, have prevented the Bills from reaching the playoffs since 1999, a 17 - year drought that is the longest active playoff drought in all major professional sports. On October 8, 2014, Buffalo Sabres owners Terry and Kim Pegula received unanimous approval to acquire the Bills during the NFL owners ' meetings, becoming the second ownership group of the team after team founder Ralph Wilson.
The Bills ' uniforms in its first two seasons were based on those of the Detroit Lions at the time.
The team 's original colors were Honolulu blue, silver and white, and the helmets were silver with no striping. There was no logo on the helmet, which displayed the players ' numbers on each side.
In 1962, the standing red bison was designated as the logo and took its place on a white helmet. In 1962, the team 's colors also changed to red, white, and blue. The team switched to blue jerseys with red and white "LSU '' stripes on the shoulders. the helmets were white with a red center stripe. The jerseys again saw a change in 1964 when the shoulder stripes were replaced by a distinctive stripe pattern on the sleeves consisting of four stripes, two thicker inner stripes and two thinner outer stripes all bordered by red piping. By 1965, red and blue center stripes were put on the helmets.
The Bills introduced blue pants worn with the white jerseys in 1973, the last year of the standing buffalo helmet. The blue pants remained through 1985. The face mask on the helmet was blue from 1974 through 1986 before changing to white.
The standing bison logo was replaced by a blue charging one with a red slanting stripe streaming from its horn. The newer emblem, which is still the primary one used by the franchise, was designed by aerospace designer Stevens Wright in 1974.
In 1984, the helmet 's background color was changed from white to red, primarily to help Bills quarterback Joe Ferguson distinguish them more readily from three of their division rivals at that time, the Baltimore Colts, the Miami Dolphins, and the New England Patriots, who all also wore white helmets at that point. Ferguson said "Everyone we played had white helmets at that time. Our new head coach Kay Stephenson just wanted to get more of a contrast on the field that may help spot a receiver down the field. '' (The Patriots now use a silver helmet, the Colts have since been realigned to the AFC South, and the New York Jets, who switched to green helmets after the 1977 season, have since switched back to white helmets.)
In 2002, under the direction of general manager Tom Donahoe, the Bills ' uniforms went through radical changes. A darker shade of blue was introduced as the main jersey color, and nickel gray was introduced as an accent color. Both the blue and white jerseys featured red side panels. The white jerseys included a dark blue shoulder yoke and royal blue numbers. The helmet remained primarily red with one navy blue, two nickel, two royal blue, two white stripes, and white face mask. A new logo, a stylized "B '' consisting of two bullets and a more detailed buffalo head on top, was proposed and had been released (it can be seen on a few baseball caps that were released for sale), but fan backlash led to the team retaining the running bison logo. The helmet logo adopted in 1974 -- a charging royal blue bison, with a red streak, white horn and eyeball -- remained unchanged.
In 2005, the Bills revived the standing bison helmet and uniform of the mid-1960s as a throwback uniform.
The Bills usually wore the all - blue combination at home and the all - white combination on the road when not wearing the throwback uniforms. They stopped wearing blue - on - white after 2006, while the white - on - blue was not worn after 2007.
For the 2011 season, the Bills unveiled a new uniform design, an updated rendition of the 1975 -- 83 design. This change includes a return to the white helmets with "charging buffalo '' logo, and a return to royal blue instead of navy.
Buffalo sporadically wore white at home in the 1980s, but stopped doing so before their Super Bowl years. On November 6, 2011, against the New York Jets, the Bills wore white at home for the first time since 1986. Since 2011, the Bills have worn white for a home game either with their primary uniform or a throwback set.
The Bills ' uniform received minor alterations as part of the league 's new uniform contract with Nike. The new Nike uniform was unveiled on April 3, 2012.
On November 12, 2015, the Bills and the New York Jets became the first two teams to participate in the NFL 's Color Rush uniform initiative, with Buffalo wearing an all - red combination for the first time in team history.
A notable use of the Bills ' uniforms outside of football will be in the 2018 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships, when the United States men 's national junior ice hockey team will use Bills uniforms in their outdoor game against Team Canada on December 29, 2017.
The Bills have rivalries with their three AFC East opponents, and also have had occasional or historical rivalries with other teams such as the Baltimore / Indianapolis Colts (a former divisional rival), Kansas City Chiefs, Houston Oilers / Tennessee Titans, Cleveland Browns, and Dallas Cowboys. They also play an annual preseason game against the Detroit Lions.
This is often considered Buffalo 's most famous rivalry. Though the Bills and Dolphins both originated in the American Football League, the Dolphins did not start playing until 1966 as an expansion team while the Bills were one of the original eight teams. The rivalry first gained prominence when the Dolphins won every match - up against the Bills in the 1970s for an NFL - record 20 straight wins against a single opponent. Fortunes changed in the following decades with the rise of Jim Kelly as Buffalo 's franchise quarterback, and though Kelly and Dolphins quarterback Dan Marino shared a competitive rivalry in the 1980s and 1990s, the Bills became dominant in the 1990s. Things have since cooled down after the retirements of Kelly and Marino and the rise of the Belichick / Brady - led Patriots, but Miami remains a fierce rival of the Bills, coming in second place in a recent poll of Buffalo 's primary rival. Miami leads the overall series 60 - 45 - 1, but Buffalo has the advantage in the playoffs at 3 - 1.
The rivalry with the New England Patriots first started when both teams were original franchises in the American Football League prior to the NFL - AFL merger. After the rise of head coach Bill Belichick and quarterback Tom Brady in New England, the Patriots have dominated the AFC East, including the Bills. The Bills - Patriots rivalry in particular has become lopsided as the Patriots are 29 - 5 against the Bills since Belichick became head coach. This has led many fans and players in the 2000s and beyond to replace the Dolphins with the Patriots as Buffalo 's most hated rival. Overall, the Patriots lead the series 70 - 43 - 1 as of 2016.
The rivalry is also notable as numerous players, including Drew Bledsoe, Doug Flutie, Lawyer Milloy, Brandon Spikes, Scott Chandler and Stephon Gilmore have played for both teams at some point in their careers.
The Bills and Jets both represent the state of New York, though the Jets actually play their games in East Rutherford, New Jersey. The series started as the Bills and Jets were both original teams in the AFL. Though the rivalry represents the differences between New York City and Upstate New York, it is not as intense as the Bills ' rivalries with the Dolphins and Patriots, and the teams ' fanbases either have begrudging respect or low - key annoyance for each other when not playing one another. Often times the rivalry has become characterized by ugly games and shared mediocrity, but it briefly heated up when former Jets head coach Rex Ryan became head coach of the Bills for two seasons. Buffalo leads the series 61 - 54 as of 2017, including a playoff win in 1981.
The Bills and Chiefs were also original teams in the AFL and have had a long history against each other, despite never being in the same division. This rivalry heated up recently as the Bills and Chiefs met in consecutive years from 2008 to 2015, and will meet again in 2017. The teams have played three playoff games, including the AFL Championship game that determined the AFL 's (later AFC) representative in the first Super Bowl, with Kansas City winning and going on to face the Green Bay Packers in the Super Bowl. Buffalo currently leads the series 25 - 21 - 1.
Though the two teams are in different divisions and did not start playing each other until after 1972, match - ups between the Bills and the Cleveland Browns occasionally get heated up due to the proximity and similarity between the cities of Buffalo and Cleveland. Like the Bills - Jets rivalry, the Bills and Browns often share bad luck and have had their share of ugly games. However, there have been other occasions when both teams have been competitive such as in the 1980s and most recently in 2007 and 2014. The rivalry also gained heat when former Bills safety Donte Whitner was with the Browns. The Browns currently lead the series 12 - 9, including a playoff win in 1990, though the Bills have outscored the Browns in the series.
The Browns shared a rivalry with the Bills ' predecessors in the All - America Football Conference, playing them twice in the AAFC playoffs before becoming one of three AAFC teams to join the NFL. The Bills were not selected to join the NFL and folded with the rest of the AAFC, leaving Buffalo without professional football until the current Bills were formed in 1959.
The Bills briefly developed a rivalry with the Dallas Cowboys as the two teams met in consecutive years in the Super Bowl in the 1990s.
The Buffalo Bills have retired two numbers in franchise history: No. 12 for Jim Kelly and No. 78 for Bruce Smith. Despite the fact that the Bills have only retired two jersey numbers in franchise history, the team has other numbers no longer issued to any player or in reduced circulation.
Since the earliest days of the team, the number 31 was not supposed to be issued to any other player. The Bills had stationery and various other team merchandise showing a running player wearing that number, and it was not supposed to represent any specific person, but the ' spirit of the team. ' In the first three decades of the team 's existence, the number 31 was only seen once: in 1969, when reserve running back Preston Ridlehuber damaged his number 36 jersey during a game, equipment manager Tony Marchitte gave him the number 31 jersey to wear while repairing the number 36. The number 31 was not issued again until 1990 when first round draft choice James (J.D.) Williams wore it for his first two seasons.
Number 15 was historically only issued sparingly after the retirement of Jack Kemp, but is apparently now in general circulation; Brandon Tate currently wears the number.
Number 1 has also only rarely been used, for reasons never explained. Kicker Mike Hollis, who played one season for the Bills in 2002, was the most recent to wear the number.
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Roster updated December 16, 2017 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active, 7 Inactive, 10 Practice squad
The Buffalo Bills Radio Network is flagshipped at WGR, AM 550 in Buffalo. John Murphy is the team 's current play - by - play announcer; he was a color commentator alongside, and eventually succeeded, longtime voice Van Miller after Miller 's retirement at the end of the 2003 NFL season. Mark Kelso serves as the color analyst. The Bills radio network has approximately seventeen affiliates in upstate New York and one affiliate, CJCL 590AM (The Fan) in Toronto. As of early 2012, it is composed mostly of WGR, Entercom 's sister stations WCMF (96.5 FM) and WROC - AM 950 in Rochester, and a fleet of independent AM and FM stations across upstate New York from Jamestown east to Albany. Previous flagship Citadel Broadcasting was purchased by Cumulus Media, who in turn ceased carrying Bills games at the end of the 2011 season, leaving the network without affiliates in Syracuse, Binghamton, and Erie. (The Syracuse affiliations were later picked up by Galaxy Communications.) Buffalo is one of ten teams contracted with Compass Media Networks to syndicate selected games nationwide.
During the preseason, most games are televised on Buffalo 's ABC affiliate, WKBW - TV channel 7, with several other affiliates in western New York. These games are simulcast on sister stations WTVH in Syracuse, WICU in Erie, WHAM - TV in Rochester, and for a period, CITY - TV in Toronto. CBS analyst and former Bills special teams player Steve Tasker does color commentary on these games; the play - by - play position is rotated between his CBS partner Andrew Catalon and Rob Stone. WHAM - TV sports anchor Mike Catalana is the sideline reporter. Since 2008, preseason games have been broadcast in high definition.
Beginning in the 2016 season, as per a new rights deal which covers rights to the team as well as its sister NHL franchise, the Buffalo Sabres, most team - related programming, including studio programming and the coach 's show, was re-located to MSG Western New York -- a joint venture of MSG and the team ownership. Preseason games will continue to air in simulcast on WKBW.
In the event regular season games are broadcast by ESPN, WKBW - TV will also hold the broadcast rights to that contest, with the station having won back the rights to cable games after WBBZ - TV held the rights for 2012 and 2013.
The Bills ' official mascot is Billy Buffalo, an eight - foot tall, anthropomorphic blue American bison who wears the jersey "number '' BB.
The Bills currently do not have cheerleaders. The Bills employed the Buffalo Jills, an independent organization, from 1967 to 2013; the Jills suspended operations prior to the 2014 season due to legal actions. The Bills and Jills are currently involved in a legal battle, in which the Jills allege they were employees, not independent contractors, and are seeking back pay.
The Bills are one of six teams in the NFL to designate an official marching band or drumline (the others being the Baltimore Ravens, Washington Redskins, New York Jets, Carolina Panthers and Seattle Seahawks). Since the last game of the 2013 season, this position has been served by the Stampede Drumline, known outside of Buffalo as Downbeat Percussion. The Bills have also used the full marching bands from Attica High School, the University of Pittsburgh and Syracuse University at home games in recent years.
The Bills have several theme songs associated with them. One is a variation of the Isley Brothers hit "Shout '', recorded by Scott Kemper, which served as the Bills ' official promotional song from 1987 through 1990s. It was officially replaced circa 2000 with "The Power of the Bills '', although "Shout '' remains in use. The Bills ' unofficial fight song, "Go Bills '', was penned by Bills head coach Marv Levy in the mid-1990s on a friendly wager with his players that he will write the song if the team won a particular game.
The Bills Backers are the official fan organization of the Buffalo Bills. It has over 200 chapters across North America, Europe and Oceania. Also notable is the Bills Mafia, a collection of Bills fans organized via Twitter beginning in 2010; the phrase "Bills Mafia '' had by 2017 grown to unofficially represent the broad community surrounding and encompassing the team as a whole, and players who join the Bills often speak of joining the Bills Mafia. Outsiders often treat the Bills ' fan base in derogatory terms, especially since the 2010s, in part because of negative press coverage of select fans ' wilder antics.
The Bills are one of the favorite teams of ESPN announcer Chris Berman, who picked the Bills to reach the Super Bowl nearly every year in the 1990s. Berman often uses the catchphrase "No one circles the wagons like the Buffalo Bills! '' Berman gave the induction speech for Bills owner Ralph Wilson when Wilson was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2009.
The Bills were also the favorite team of late NBC political commentator Tim Russert, a South Buffalo native, who often referred to the Bills on his Sunday morning talk show, Meet the Press. (His son, Luke, is also a notable fan of the team.) CNN 's Wolf Blitzer, also a Buffalo native, has proclaimed he is also a fan, as has CBS Evening News lead anchor and Tonawanda native Jeff Glor.
ESPN anchor Kevin Connors is also a noted Bills fan, dating to his time attending Ithaca College. Actor Nick Bakay, a Buffalo native, is also a well - known Bills fan; he has discussed the team in segments of NFL Top 10. Character actor William Fichtner, raised in Cheektowaga, is a fan, and did a commercial for the team in 2014. In 2015, Fichtner also narrated the ESPN 30 for 30 documentary on the Bills four Super Bowl appearances, "Four Falls of Buffalo ''. Former Olympic swimmer Summer Sanders has professed her fandom of the team.
Bills fans are particularly well known for their wearing of Zubaz zebra - printed sportswear; so much is the association between Bills fans and Zubaz that when a revival of the company opened their first brick - and - mortar storefront, it chose Western New York as its first location.
Buffalo 's rivalry with the Miami Dolphins is referenced on Steve Martin 's 1979 album Comedy Is Not Pretty! on the track "How To Meet A Girl. '' On the track, Martin simulates chatter about football at a party, and one "partier '' expresses disbelief that Buffalo could beat Miami -- at the time of the album 's release, the Dolphins had won 18 straight games over the Bills.
In the 1996 X-Files episode "Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man '', the titular character, a member of a shadowy government cabal, states that the Buffalo Bills will not win a Super Bowl while he lives.
The Buffalo Bills were featured on the direct - to - TV movie Second String, and in the Vincent Gallo drama Buffalo 66.
Actor Dean Cain was briefly a member of the Bills. Because of this, references to the Bills have appeared in the television series Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, in which Cain played the title character. In the first episode of season four, titled "Lord of the Flys '', Clark picks up a blue Buffalo Bills hat with the Charging Buffalo emblem in the center and uses it to help disguise himself. In a later episode, he lets it be known the Metropolis Mammoths are playing the Bills.
In an April 2011 episode of the television series 30 Rock, titled "100 '', Alec Baldwin 's character Jack Donaghy discovers that, in an alternate future, he would not only be wealthier and more successful, but he would also be the owner of a "New York football team. '' He later is disappointed to learn the team is not the New York Giants or New York Jets, but the Buffalo Bills.
The Bills are the team that eventually unseats the Orlando Breakers, the fictional NFL team that serves as the focus of the sitcom Coach in later seasons, in the playoffs.
In a March 2014 episode of the television series Family Guy entitled "3 Acts of God '', Peter Griffin -- along with his family and friends -- attends a game between the Buffalo Bills and New England Patriots at Gillette Stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts, which the Bills win. The episode also features Bills players Mario Williams and C.J. Spiller guest starring as themselves.
Several former Buffalo Bills players have earned a name in politics after their playing careers had ended, almost always as members of the Republican Party. The most famous of these was quarterback Jack Kemp, who was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from Western New York in 1971 -- two years after his playing career ended and remained there for nearly two decades, serving as the Republican Party nominee for Vice President of the United States under Bob Dole in 1996. Kemp 's backup, Ed Rutkowski, served as county executive of Erie County from 1979 to 1987. Former tight end Jay Riemersma, defensive tackle Fred Smerlas and defensive end Phil Hansen have all run for Congress, though all three either lost or withdrew from their respective races. Quarterback Jim Kelly and running back Thurman Thomas have also both been mentioned as potential candidates for political office, although both have declined all requests to date.
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the mozart effect refers to the now discounted finding that cognitive ability is boosted by | Mozart effect - wikipedia
The Mozart effect can refer to:
The term was first coined by Alfred A. Tomatis who used Mozart 's music as the listening stimulus in his work attempting to cure a variety of disorders. The approach has been popularized in Don Campbell 's book, The Mozart Effect, which is based on an experiment published in Nature suggesting that listening to Mozart temporarily boosted scores on one portion of the IQ test. As a result, the United States ' Governor of Georgia, Zell Miller, proposed a budget to provide every child born in Georgia with a CD of classical music.
The concept of the "Mozart effect '' was described by French researcher Dr. Alfred A. Tomatis in his 1991 book Pourquoi Mozart? (Why Mozart?). He used the music of Mozart in his efforts to "retrain '' the ear, and believed that listening to the music presented at differing frequencies helped the ear, and promoted healing and the development of the brain.
Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky (1993) investigated the effect of listening to music by Mozart on spatial reasoning, and the results were published in Nature. They gave research participants one of three standard tests of abstract spatial reasoning after they had experienced each of three listening conditions: the Sonata for Two Pianos in D major, K. 448 by Mozart, verbal relaxation instructions, and silence. They found a temporary enhancement of spatial - reasoning, as measured by spatial - reasoning sub tasks of the Stanford - Binet IQ test. Rauscher et al. show that the enhancing effect of the music condition is only temporary: no student had effects extending beyond the 15 - minute period in which they were tested. The study makes no statement of an increase in IQ in general (because IQ was never measured).
While Rauscher et al. only showed an increase in "spatial intelligence '', the results were popularly interpreted as an increase in general IQ. This misconception, and the fact that the music used in the study was by Mozart, had an obvious appeal to those who valued this music; the Mozart effect was thus widely reported. In 1994, New York Times music columnist Alex Ross wrote in a light - hearted article, "researchers (Rauscher and Shaw) have determined that listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter '', and presented this as the final piece of evidence that Mozart has dethroned Beethoven as "the world 's greatest composer. '' A 1997 Boston Globe article mentioned some of the Rauscher and Shaw results. It described one study in which three - and four - year - olds who were given eight months of private piano lessons scored 30 % higher on tests of spatio - temporal reasoning than control groups given computer lessons, singing lessons, and no training.
The 1997 book by Don Campbell, The Mozart Effect: Tapping the Power of Music to Heal the Body, Strengthen the Mind, and Unlock the Creative Spirit, discusses the theory that listening to Mozart (especially the piano concertos) may temporarily increase one 's IQ and produce many other beneficial effects on mental function. Campbell recommends playing specially selected classical music to infants, in the expectation that it will benefit their mental development.
After The Mozart Effect, Campbell wrote a follow - up book, The Mozart Effect For Children, and created related products. Among these are collections of music that he states harness the Mozart effect to enhance "deep rest and rejuvenation '', "intelligence and learning '', and "creativity and imagination ''. Campbell defines the term as "an inclusive term signifying the transformational powers of music in health, education, and well - being. It represents the general use of music to reduce stress, depression, or anxiety; induce relaxation or sleep; activate the body; and improve memory or awareness. Innovative and experimental uses of music and sound can improve listening disorders, dyslexia, attention deficit disorder, autism, and other mental and physical disorders and diseases ''.
These theories are controversial. The relationship of sound and music (both played and listened to) for cognitive function and various physiological metrics has been explored in studies with no definitive results.
The political impact of the theory was demonstrated on January 13, 1998, when Zell Miller, governor of Georgia, announced that his proposed state budget would include $105,000 a year to provide every child born in Georgia with a tape or CD of classical music. Miller stated "No one questions that listening to music at a very early age affects the spatial - temporal reasoning that underlies math and engineering and even chess. '' Miller played legislators some of Beethoven 's "Ode to Joy '' on a tape recorder and asked "Now, do n't you feel smarter already? '' Miller asked Yoel Levi, music director of the Atlanta Symphony, to compile a collection of classical pieces that should be included. State representative Homer DeLoach said "I asked about the possibility of including some Charlie Daniels or something like that, but they said they thought the classical music has a greater positive impact. Having never studied those impacts too much, I guess I 'll just have to take their word for that. ''
While some supportive reports have been published, studies with positive results have tended to be associated with any form of music that has energetic and positive emotional qualities. Moreover, the intellectual benefits of enhanced mood and arousal are not restricted to spatial - temporal reasoning, but extend to speed of processing and creative problem solving. Among children, some studies suggest no effect on IQ or spatial ability, whereas others suggest that the effect can be elicited with energetic popular music that the children enjoy. The weight of subsequent evidence supports either a null effect, or short - term effects related to increases in mood and arousal, with mixed results published after the initial report in Nature.
In 1999 a major challenge was raised to the existence of the Mozart effect by two teams of researchers. In a pair of papers published together under the title "Prelude or Requiem for the ' Mozart Effect '? '' Chabris reported a meta - analysis demonstrating that "any cognitive enhancement is small and does not reflect any change in IQ or reasoning ability in general, but instead derives entirely from performance on one specific type of cognitive task and has a simple neuropsychological explanation '', called "enjoyment arousal ''. For example, he cites a study that found that "listening either to Mozart or to a passage from a Stephen King story enhanced subjects ' performance in paper folding and cutting (one of the tests frequently employed by Rauscher and Shaw) but only for those who enjoyed what they heard ''. Steele et. al. found that "listening to Mozart produced a 3 - point increase relative to silence in one experiment and a 4 - point decrease in the other experiment ''. In another study, the effect was replicated with the original Mozart music, but eliminated when the tempo was slowed down and major chords were replaced by minor chords.
Another meta - analysis by Pietschnig, Voracek, and Formann (2010) combined results of 39 studies to answer the question as to whether or not the Mozart Effect exists. They concluded that there is little evidence to support the Mozart effect, as shown by small effect sizes. However, the most striking finding in this meta - analysis is the significantly larger effects published in studies affiliated with Rauscher or Rideout, with effect sizes more than three times higher for published studies affiliated with these founding members of the Mozart Effect. These systematic moderating effects due to lab affiliation call into question the existence of a Mozart Effect. In addition, this study also found strong evidence supporting a confounding publication bias when effect sizes of samples who listened to Mozart are compared to samples not exposed to a stimulus.
Despite implementing Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky 's (1995) suggestions of three key components that must be present to replicate the Mozart Effect, McCutcheon (2000) still failed to reproduce the Mozart Effect in a study with 36 adults. These conditions were: to ensure a task that taps into spatial components of mental imagery; a research design that does not include a pretest to avoid ceiling effects; a musical composition that is complex rather than repetitive and simple. Regardless of listening to classical music, jazz or silence, the study did not yield a significant effect on spatial reasoning performance.
The Mozart Effect is likely just an artifact of arousal and heightened mood. Arousal is the confounding variable that mediates the relationship between spatial ability and music that defines the Mozart Effect. The "neural resonance '' theory of Rauscher and colleagues which contends that Mozart 's music primes the neural pathways of spatial reasoning has been widely criticized.
Government bodies also became involved in analysing the wealth (some 300 + articles as of 2005) of reports. A German report concluded, for instance, that "... passively listening to Mozart -- or indeed any other music you enjoy -- does not make you smarter. But more studies should be done to find out whether music lessons could raise your child 's IQ in the long term ''.
Popular presentations of the "Mozart effect '', including Alex Ross 's comment that "listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter '' and Zell Miller 's "do n't you feel smarter '' query to the Georgia legislature, almost always tie it to "intelligence. '' Rauscher, one of the original researchers, has disclaimed this idea. In a 1999 reply to an article challenging the effect, published along with the article, she wrote (emphasis added):
Our results on the effects of listening to Mozart 's Sonata for Two Pianos in D Major K. 448 on spatial -- temporal task performance have generated much interest but several misconceptions, many of which are reflected in attempts to replicate the research. The comments by Chabris and Steele et al. echo the most common of these: that listening to Mozart enhances intelligence. We made no such claim. The effect is limited to spatial -- temporal tasks involving mental imagery and temporal ordering.
On efforts like Miller 's budget proposal, and the press attention surrounding the effect, Rauscher has said, "I do n't think it can hurt. I 'm all for exposing children to wonderful cultural experiences. But I do think the money could be better spent on music education programs. ''
Many scholars in the psychological community now view the claim that playing classical music to children can boost their intelligence to be a "myth. '' Emory University psychologist Scott Lilienfeld ranks Mozart Effect as number six in his book 50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology.
Music has been evaluated to see if it has other properties. The April 2001 edition of Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine assessed the possible health benefits of the music of Mozart. John Jenkins played Sonata K. 448 to patients with epilepsy and found a decrease in epileptiform activity. According to the British Epilepsy Organization, research has suggested that apart from Mozart 's K. 448 and Piano Concerto No. 23 (K. 488), only one other piece of music has been found to have a similar effect; a song by the Greek composer Yanni, entitled "Acroyali / Standing in Motion '' (version from Yanni Live at the Acropolis performed at the Acropolis). It was determined to have the "Mozart effect '', by the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine because it was similar to Mozart 's K. 448 in tempo, structure, melodic and harmonic consonance and predictability.
While it is clear that exposure to Mozart does not raise IQ, studies of the effects of music have explored as diverse areas as its links to seizure onset or research in animals suggesting that even exposure in - utero in rats improves their maze learning The original claim continues to influence public life. For instance a German sewage treatment plant plays Mozart music to break down the waste faster, reports the UK Guardian. Anton Stucki, chief operator of the Treuenbrietzen plant was quoted as saying, "We think the secret is in the vibrations of the music, which penetrate everything -- including the water, the sewage and the cells. ''
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who sings how far i'll go from moana | How Far I 'll Go - wikipedia
"How Far I 'll Go '' is a song from Disney 's 2016 animated feature film Moana. It was written and produced by Lin - Manuel Miranda. The song was performed in the film by American actress and singer Auliʻi Cravalho in her role as Moana. It was released along with the album on November 18, 2016. Canadian singer Alessia Cara also recorded the song for the Moana soundtrack. The song was nominated for Best Original Song at the 89th Academy Awards and Best Original Song at the 74th Golden Globe Awards but lost both to "City of Stars '' from La La Land.
"How Far I 'll Go '' was composed as Moana 's "I Want '' song, following in the long tradition of "I Want '' songs in 1990s Disney animated musicals. It replaced an earlier attempt called "More '', for which the demo version recorded by Marcy Harriell was released as an outtake on the deluxe version of the soundtrack album. Although Miranda has stressed that he is still "very proud of '' the song as a first draft, "More '' was not good enough in retrospect because it merely expressed Moana 's vague desire to see more since she had already figured out everything about the island. In contrast, "How Far I 'll Go '' expresses a deeper, richer message: Moana 's struggle with the irresistible impulse to explore beyond the reef notwithstanding her genuine love for her island, her family, and her people. As Miranda explained to People: "To me that 's much more complicated than, ' I hate it here and I want to get out, '... To say, ' I love it here, I love my parents, but why ca n't I stop walking to the ocean and fantasizing about getting out of here? ' And questioning that instinct? It 's even more confusing. And that 's a valid story too. ''
To make himself write a song more compelling than "More '', Miranda "went method ''. According to Miranda, he locked himself in his childhood bedroom at his parents ' residence for an entire weekend in order to force his mind back to age 16 (the same age as Moana in the film), a time when he was facing what seemed like an "impossible distance '' between the reality of his pleasant middle - class childhood which had no connection to show business whatsoever, and his dreams of a career in show business. He was well aware that he was composing the next Disney "I Want '' song after "Let It Go '' and that whatever he wrote had to be different from "Let It Go ''.
A music video for the song was released on December 12, 2016.
When the movie had its first theater release worldwide, the song numbered 44 versions, including a special Tahitian - language adaptation created specifically for the movie. For promotional purposes, South African singer Lira and Filipino singer and actress Janella Salvador recorded their own English - language versions of the song in order to play them over the end credits on the South African and Filipino release of the film, while Indonesian singer Maudy Ayunda and Malaysian singer Ayda Jebat recorded their own versions of the song respectively in Indonesian and Malaysian language.
On December 15, a 5 - languages mash - up was released online, featuring singers from Southeast Asian countries: Janella Salvador from the Philippines, Maudy Ayunda from Indonesia, Myra Molloy from Thailand, Ayda Jebat from Malaysia and Trần Minh Như from Vietnam. Shortly thereafter, a 24 - languages video was released on Disney 's Vevo channel.
In June 2017, a Māori - language version of the movie, featuring four voice - actors from the original English cast, was announced. Three weeks later, New Zealander Jaedyn Randell was introduced as Moana 's singing voice. The movie was released in September 2017. In the same year, Shruti Rane (Hindi) reprised her role in the Bengali - language version of the movie.
In November 2017, a Hawaiian - language dubbing was announced to be under way, with Auliʻi Cravalho reprising her role as Moana.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Canadian singer and songwriter Alessia Cara recorded "How Far I 'll Go '' for the Moana soundtrack, with the song being released ahead of the soundtrack on October 28, 2016.
Rolling Stone 's Brittany Spanos called the song "inspirational and sweet '' and went on to say "the uplifting song is a perfect fit into the Disney canon, with Cara belting lyrics about persevering to achieve her dreams in spite of her imperfections or detractors. '' US magazine Rap - Up said "the empowering anthem allows the Canadian songstress to deliver outstanding vocals about overcoming adversity to reach for goals '' and labeled it "a song with a message '' and an "emotionally - charged track. '' Taylor Weatherby of Billboard dubbed it a "bouncy, uplifting tune. '' Idolator 's Mike Wass said "the inspiring anthem is the perfect antidote to the general ugliness of 2016 '' and called it "a soaring ballad. ''
The official music video for the song, directed by Aya Tanimura, was released on November 3, 2016. Derek Lawrence of Entertainment Weekly described the video: "The video finds Cara roaming an empty beach as she belts out lyrics that reflect the film 's plot about a young Polynesian girl setting sail for an epic adventure. '' The video was filmed at El Matador Beach in Malibu, California.
In many versions of Moana, Alessia Cara 's version of the song played during the end credits. However, several localized adaptations of Cara 's version of the song were recorded for the end credits of the film as released in certain markets around the world.
Vajèn van den Bosch (nl) (Dutch), Laura Tesoro (Flemish) and Cerise Calixte (French) sang the song both for the end credits and the movie.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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when is the next saga comic coming out | Saga (Comics) - wikipedia
Saga is an epic space opera / fantasy comic book series written by Brian K. Vaughan and illustrated by Fiona Staples, published monthly by the American company Image Comics. The series is heavily influenced by Star Wars and is based on ideas Vaughan conceived both as a child and as a parent. It depicts a husband and wife, Alana and Marko, from long - warring extraterrestrial races, fleeing authorities from both sides of a galactic war as they struggle to care for their daughter, Hazel, who is born in the beginning of the series and who occasionally narrates the series as an unseen adult.
The comic was described in solicitations as "Star Wars meets Game of Thrones '', and by critics as evocative of both science fiction and fantasy epics such as The Lord of the Rings and classic works like Romeo and Juliet. It is Vaughan 's first creator - owned work to be published through Image Comics, and is the first time he employs narration in his comics writing.
The first issue of Saga was published on March 14, 2012, to positive reviews and a sold - out first printing. It was published in trade paperback form in October 2012. It has also been a consistent sales success, with its collected editions outselling those of The Walking Dead, another successful Image comic.
The series has been met with wide critical acclaim, and is one of the most celebrated comics being published in the United States. It has also garnered numerous awards, including twelve Eisner and seventeen Harvey Awards between 2013 and 2017. The first trade paperback collection won the 2013 Hugo Award for Best Graphic Story. It has also been noted for its diverse portrayal of ethnicity, sexuality and gender social roles, and for its treatment of war.
Writer Brian K. Vaughan conceived Saga in his childhood, calling it "a fictional universe that I created when I was bored in math class. I just kept building it. '' He was inspired by such influences as Star Wars, Flash Gordon and children 's books, and has also invoked the awe and wonder of first seeing the Silver Surfer, which seemed an "incredible and different '' concept to him. It was not until his wife became pregnant with his second daughter, however, that he conceived of the protagonists, the winged Alana and the horned Marko, two lovers from warring extraterrestrial races who struggle to survive with their newborn daughter, Hazel, who occasionally narrates the series. It was also at this point that the central theme that Vaughan wanted for the book emerged. Vaughan explains, "I wanted to write about parenthood, but I wanted to Trojan - horse it inside some sort of interesting genre story, to explore the overlap between artistic creation and the creation of a child. '' Vaughan, who intended to return to writing a comics series following the 2010 conclusion of his previous series, Ex Machina, and who notes that the publication of Saga # 1 coincided with the birth of his daughter, saw parallels between the caution advised by colleagues against launching a new book in the poor economy and those who cautioned against bringing a new child into the world, observing:
I realized that making comics and making babies were kind of the same thing and if I could combine the two, it would be less boring if I set it in a crazy sci - fi fantasy universe and not just have anecdotes about diaper bags... I did n't want to tell a Star Wars adventure with these noble heroes fighting an empire. These are people on the outskirts of the story who want out of this never - ending galactic war... I 'm part of the generation that all we do is complain about the prequels and how they let us down... And if every one of us who complained about how the prequels did n't live up to our expectations just would make our own sci - fi fantasy, then it would be a much better use of our time.
Vaughan explained that the main characters ' romance would be a major theme of the book. Touching upon the juxtaposition of the book 's mature subject matter with its Star Wars inspirations, Vaughan jokingly described the book as "Star Wars for perverts. ''
The book was announced at the 2011 San Diego Comic - Con International, and was billed as "Star Wars meets A Game of Thrones '' in solicitations. Saga represents the first time Vaughan has employed narration in his comics writing, a decision influenced by the whimsical interaction between the text and images in the children 's books he reads with his children, and by his desire to try something new that he felt would work well with Saga 's narrator, Hazel. It is also his first series to be published through Image Comics, whom he selected as the series ' publisher on the recommendation of writer Jay Faerber, who cited the creative freedom afforded by that publisher. Vaughan elaborated on his selection of Image thus:
I love all the other companies I 've worked with, but I think Image might be the only publisher left that can still offer a contract I would consider "fully creator - owned. '' Saga is a really important story to me, so I wanted a guarantee of no content restrictions or other creative interference, and I needed to maintain 100 % control and ownership of all non-publishing rights with the artist, including the right to never have our comic turned into a movie or television show or whatever... (Image Publisher) Eric Stephenson was the only publisher I spoke with who was thrilled to make that deal, and co-creator Fiona Staples and I did n't have to sign exclusives or agree to work on a bunch of corporate - owned titles to get it.
Although Vaughan has written for television, and has endeavored to have his previous works adapted into film, he stresses that he developed Saga strictly to be a comic book and not to be adapted to other media, explaining "I wanted to do something that was way too expensive to be TV and too dirty and grown - up to be a four - quadrant blockbuster. '' Vaughan has also indicated that he has an ending in mind for the series and that he plans five issues ahead, having written the first six issues as the first story arc, which would have ended with the two main characters dying on the rocketship launch pad in issue 5 if the series had not been successful. By June 2016, Vaughan indicated that he knew what the last page of the series ' final issue would be.
The series is illustrated by Fiona Staples, who was introduced to Vaughan by their mutual friend, writer Steve Niles, with whom Staples worked on Mystery Society. Vaughan, who did not meet Staples in person until just before their panel at the 2011 San Diego Comic - Con, explained his selection of Staples by describing his reaction upon first seeing her work, saying "Her artwork is incredible. (It) does n't look like anyone else. She is very unique. When I opened up this file I was like, ' This is going to work! ' '' Staples is co-owner of Saga and was given first billing on the cover of issue 31. In addition to designing all the characters, vehicles and alien races in the story, she provides painted covers and hand - letters Hazel 's narration using her own handwriting, which is the last thing she does after finishing the artwork on a page. Staples renders the characters in a pen - and - ink style line while using all - color settings inspired by video games and Japanese animation. At the 2012 Image Expo, Staples described the process by which she produces her art as harkening back to animation cels, in which emphasis is placed on figures and backgrounds. Vaughan has stated that Staples 's style has influenced the direction of the story. The character Ghüs, for example is entirely Staples 's creation. Another example is the organic forms of most of the series ' technology, such as the main characters ' wooden rocket ship, which is derived from Staples 's dislike of drawing mechanical objects. To design the series ' various planetary settings, Staples looks to the real world for inspiration and then exaggerates some elements of them. Some rooms on the planet Cleave, for example, were inspired by Cambodian architecture.
The book is priced at $2.99 and will remain at that price for the duration of its run, which Vaughan arranged as part of his contract with Image along with the stipulation that it never be less than 22 pages long. The first issue features 44 pages of story and no advertisements in both its print and digital versions. At the end of each issue is an old - fashioned letters column called "To Be Continued '' which prints readers letters submitted entirely through postal mail as it does not provide an email address for this purpose. Vaughan usually handles the column himself, including responding to letters.
The book 's release was celebrated with a launch party at Los Angeles ' Meltdown Comics which featured a public conversation with Vaughan 's former colleague, Lost co-creator Damon Lindelof, who had hired Vaughan as a writer / producer on that series in 2007. Vaughan also promoted the book by appearing at signings at Midtown Comics in Manhattan and Bergen Street Comics in Brooklyn during the week of the first issue 's release.
After the publication of issue 6 in August 2012, Vaughan announced that the series would take a two - month hiatus, after which the first six - issue story arc was published in trade paperback form in October for $9.99 before the series ' return in November, a practice that Vaughan and Staples would continue after each successive story arc and trade paperback publication. That same month, Vaughan and Staples promoted the series by appearing together at the 2012 New York Comic Con, their first appearance together since the series ' debut. Some retailers refused to display the trade paperback because its cover (a reuse of the first issue 's cover) depicts Alana breastfeeding Hazel.
In December 2014, Image published Saga Deluxe Edition Volume 1, a hardcover volume collecting the first 18 issues of the series, which comprise its first three - story arcs. Because Vaughn sees Saga as a story about Hazel, he and Staples decided to have each new hardcover volume feature an original image of that character at a different stage of her life. Because the first volume covers her birth and infancy, its cover features a closeup of Hazel nursing from her mother 's breast, set against the backdrop of Landfall and Wreath, which recalls the first issue 's cover. Eric Stephenson warned Vaughn and Staples that some retailers and distributors would object to this cover image, thus limiting the series ' audience, but after seeing Staples ' rendition of the image, Stephenson decided that sales would not be a problem.
Each issue of Saga is titled with a numerical Chapter, such as "Chapter 1 '' for the debut issue. Every six chapters comprise a story arc designated as a "Volume '' and are reprinted as trade paperbacks. Every three Volumes comprise a "Book '' and are collected as hardcover editions.
The opening Volume introduces the series ' leads, Alana and Marko, two lovers from different worlds whose people are at war with one another. Alana comes from the technologically advanced Landfall Coalition, so named after Landfall, the largest planet in the galaxy, and Marko is from Wreath, Landfall 's only satellite, whose people wield magic. Because the destruction of one of the worlds would send the other spinning out of orbit, the war was "outsourced '' to other worlds. Although peace was restored on the two home worlds, the conflict spread across all the other known planets, whose native species were forced to choose a side. As Landfall and Wreath were on opposite sides, Alana and Marko met when she was assigned to guard him in a prison on the planet Cleave after he became a prisoner of war. They escaped together twelve hours after meeting. In the beginning of the series ' first issue, Alana gives birth to their daughter, Hazel, who occasionally narrates the series. Their respective people are incredulous when it is suggested that they have voluntarily mated and they are pursued by both the Wreathers and the Landfallians, both because of the perceived betrayal of the two fugitives and to prevent knowledge of their pairing from spreading and damaging morale among their troops. On Landfall, Prince Robot IV is assigned by his father to capture him and comes into conflict with his counterpart from Wreath, a mercenary named The Will. The ghost of a dead girl named Izabel is bonded to Hazel and the four of them escape Cleave before being joined by Marko 's parents.
In the second Volume, more is revealed about Marko 's parents and his upbringing and his initial time with Alana. Marko 's ex-fiancée, Gwendolyn, joins The Will 's hunt as does a six - year - old sex slave rescued by The Will and Gwendolyn who takes the name Sophie. The family later takes refuge at the home of writer D. Oswald Heist (the author of Alana 's favorite novel), where they first come into contact with Prince Robot IV.
The third Volume, beginning in August 2013, which Vaughan intended as a "big tonal shift '', introduces the tabloid journalists Upsher and Doff, as they pursue their own investigation of Alana and Marko, who take refuge at the lighthouse home of author D. Oswald Heist. There, the family first comes into direct contact with, and manages to escape from, Prince Robot IV and Gwendolyn. By the end of the story, Hazel has begun to walk, and Upsher and Doff have been silenced by contract killer The Brand, The Will 's sister, using a substance that will kill them if they report their findings about the family to anyone else.
The fourth Volume, which begins Book Two, establishes the family living on the planet Gardenia, with Alana acting in an underground entertainment program called the Open Circuit in which all the actors wear masks. Hazel is now speaking in simple phrases, while Prince Robot IV 's son is born. A disgruntled robot janitor, Dengo, kills Prince Robot IV 's wife, kidnaps his infant son and journeys to Gardenia, where he kidnaps the family. Marko and Prince Robot IV team up with Yuma to pursue them. Meanwhile, The Brand teams with Gwendolyn and Sophie to acquire an elixir to heal The Will 's injuries.
The fifth Volume begins three months later. The family 's rocketship has set down in a frozen region of a planet, where Dengo meets with members of The Last Revolution, a radical anti-war group, who wish to use Hazel as a pawn in their campaign against Landfall and Wreath. Meanwhile, as Marko and Prince Robot IV struggle to maintain their alliance while in pursuit of their kidnapped loved ones, Alana and Yuma both deal with the consequences of their use of the drug Fadeway. By the end of the arc, Dengo has turned on the revolutionaries, but is himself killed by Prince Robot IV, who is united with his son. Marko and Alana are reunited, but Hazel and Klara are relegated to a Landfallian prison. The Brand, Gwendolyn and Sophie have acquired the elixir, but the Brand is killed in the process.
In the sixth Volume, Alana and Marko search for Hazel and Klara, who remain incarcerated in a detention center on Landfall. Upsher and Doff resume their investigation of the couple after hearing of The Brand 's death. The journalists are confronted by The Will, who has resumed his vendetta against Prince Robot IV. Meanwhile, Prince Robot is using the name Sir Robot and is raising his rapidly growing son, Squire. New characters introduced include Hazel 's sympathetic schoolteacher Noreen and a transgender female prisoner, Petrichor. The arc closes with Hazel successfully reunited with her parents and the revelation that Alana is once again pregnant.
The seventh Volume, "The War for Phang '', began with issue 37 and was released on August 31, 2016. It is the beginning of Book Three of the series, and as indicated by its title, Sophie 's home, the comet Phang, is the central setting. The family deals with the addition of Petrichor to the reunited family, and Alana 's second pregnancy.
The eighth Volume, "The Coffin '', finds the family dealing with the effects of Alana 's miscarriage after the events on Phang. Vaughan stated in an interview that Petrichor would continue to play an important role in Hazel 's development, and that what has happened to The Will is another subplot explored in the arc.
The first issue sold out of its first printing ahead of its March 14 release date. A second printing ordered for April 11, the same release date as issue # 2, also sold out, with a third printing arriving in stores on April 25. The issue ultimately went through five printings. By August it had sold over 70,000 copies in various printings. As of 2016, the collected editions of the series outsell those of The Walking Dead, another successful Image comic that has greater public visibility through the television series adapted from it.
The first trade paperback collection, Saga, Vol. 1, which collects the first six issues, was published October 10, 2012, and appeared at Number 6 on the New York Times Graphic Books Best Seller list the week of October 29. As of August 2013, it had sold 120,000 copies.
Although issue # 7 sold out, Image Comics PR & Marketing Director Jennifer deGuzman announced in a December 12, 2012 letter to retailers that it would not reprint select comics, such as that issue. DeGuzman explained the move as a result of decreasing orders on well - performing titles like Saga, despite critical acclaim and consistently selling out at a distributor level, and pointed to orders on Saga # 8, which decreased 4 % from orders on issue # 7. Rather than invest in second printings, deGuzman explained, Image would instead focus its attention on ensuring that the first printing garners the sales desired. This move displeased some retailers, which prompted Image Publisher Eric Stephenson to announce the following day that Image would indeed publish a second printing of issue # 7 at a considerable discount, but cautioned that the publisher would not be able to reprint every issue of the series indefinitely, and implored retailers not to under - order the series.
The second trade paperback collection immediately appeared at the top of the New York Times graphic books best - seller list.
The series was met with wide critical acclaim and is one of the most celebrated American comics being published. It holds an average score of 9.0 out of 10 at the review aggregator website Comic Book Roundup. This score is held by both the regular series and the collected volumes.
The first issue was widely acclaimed in publications such as Publishers Weekly, MTV, Ai n't it Cool News, Complex magazine, Comic Book Resources, iFanboy and ComicsAlliance; they all praised Vaughan 's ability to incorporate elements of different genres, establishing the vast setting and mythology, and introducing characters that engaged the reader. Multiple reviewers likened the book to a combination of sci - fi / fantasy works such as Star Wars and The Lord of the Rings and classic works of literature such as Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet and the New Testament. AICN singled - out the use of the newborn Hazel as a lone individual to chronicle large - scale events from a past perspective, and Alex Zalben of MTV Geek remarking that he could hear a John Williams score as he read the book. Multiple reviewers also lauded Vaughan for beginning the story with Hazel 's birth rather than hurting the story 's pace with copious exposition of Alana and Marko 's initial meeting and courtship. Todd Allen of The Beat approved of the book 's unique "flavor '', singling out the characters ' motivations, the immersiveness of its surrealist setting, the strangeness of the story 's various oddities and the timely nature of the story 's political undertones. Both Alex Evans of Weekly Comic Book Review and P.S. Hayes of Geeks of Doom called the series a "classic ''; Hayes also praised Image Comics for publishing such an "original '' series. Also widely praised was Fiona Staples ' artwork, which was characterized as "glorious '', with Zalben predicting that readers would "fall head over heels in love '' with it, and Greg McElhatton of Comic Book Resources positively comparing it to that of Leinil Francis Yu, specifically her use of delicate lines to frame characters with large, bold figures and Staples ' mixture of the familiar and the foreign together in her character designs to create a visually cohesive universe. AICN singled out Staples ' handling of grand, sweeping space shots and other genre trappings, as well as her mastery of facial expressions -- which AICN felt was perfectly suited to Vaughan 's subtle dialogue. Todd Allen of The Beat wrote that Staples ' landscapes at times play as much a part in the story as the foreground.
The subsequent issues that made up the series ' initial six - issue story arc also garnered similarly positive reviews, with three printings ordered for issue # 2, and second printings ordered for issues 3 -- 6. The series was included in IGN 's 2012 list of "The Comics We 're Thankful For This Year '' and took the # 1 spot in CBR 's "Top 10 Comics of 2012 ''. In August 2013, Douglas Wolk of Time magazine referred to the series as a "breakout hit '', calling it "mischievous, vulgar and gloriously inventive. ''
Joseph McCabe of The Nerdist included the hardcover Saga Deluxe Edition Volume 1 in that site 's Top 5 Comic Reprint Collections of 2014. That same year, Laura Sneddon of the British Science Fiction Association 's journal Vector listed Saga among her list of six groundbreaking science fiction comics.
In 2013 Saga won the three Eisner Awards it was nominated for: Best Continuing Series, Best New Series and Best Writer. That same year, the Vol. 1 trade paperback won the 2013 Hugo Award for Best Graphic Story. The series was also nominated for seven 2013 Harvey Awards and won six of those: Best Writer, Best Artist, Best Color, Best New Series, Best Continuing or Limited Series, and Best Single Issue or Story.
In 2014 the series won all three Eisners that it was nominated for: Best Painter / Multimedia Artist, Best Writer, and Best Continuing Series.
In 2015 the series was again nominated for the same three Eisner Awards it won the previous year and won two of them: Best Continuing Series and Best Penciller / Inker. That same year the fourth volume was awarded the Goodreads Choice Award for Graphic Novels & Comics in 2015.
On April 9, 2013, media reported that Apple Inc. had prohibited the sale of issue 12 of Saga through iOS, because two panels that depicted oral sex between men in a small, in - set image violated Apple 's restrictions on sexual content. This resulted in criticism by artists and writers, who pointed to similarly explicit content in previous issues and in other works sold through iTunes. William Gibson and others suggested that the restriction could have occurred specifically because the drawings in question depicted gay sex. A day later, digital distributor Comixology announced that it had been they, not Apple, who had chosen not to make the issue available based on their interpretation of Apple 's rules, and that after receiving clarification from Apple, the issue would now be sold via iOS.
In 2014, the series was included on the American Library Association 's list of the ten most frequently challenged books that year. It had been challenged for containing nudity and offensive language and for being "anti-family,... sexually explicit, and unsuited for age group. ''
In 2015, Skybound Entertainment began taking pre-orders for an 8 '' tall, hand - painted Lying Cat resin statue, which retails for $75.
In February 2016, Essential Sequential began taking orders for a posable, 19 - inch tall plushy Lying Cat doll that says, "Lying '' when its collar is pressed, scheduled to ship that May. Later that June, Skybound announced that at the following month 's San Diego Comic - Con, it would debut action figures based on the two lead characters, Alana and Marko, by McFarlane Toys. The five - inch figures are issued together in a two - pack, and are paired with a mace and a sword. The company also teamed with Yesterdays, a Southern California collectible enamel pin company, to produce Skybound 's first ever pin set, which includes two pins of Lying Cat and a pin of Ghüs, also to debut at that Comic - Con. The Ghüs pin is priced at $10.00, and the Lying Cat set at $15.00, and both were limited to 1000 units each.
In October 2017, Image Comics announced the introduction of Pop! Vinyl figures of Lying Cat, Alana, Marko, Isabel, Prince Robot IV and The Will from Funko and Skybound Entertainment, available in February 2018.
Although interest has been expressed in adapting Saga for film or TV, Vaughan and Staples reaffirmed their desire not to do so in an August 2013 interview, with Vaughan stating that the point of Saga as he conceived it was "to do absolutely everything I could n't do in a movie or a TV show. I 'm really happy with it just being a comic. '' Vaughan has stated that they are open to the possibility, though it is not a priority for them. However, merchandise based on the series has been produced, including a line of T - shirts featuring Lying Cat, which have become visible in popular media. In "Pac - Man Fever '', the April 24, 2013 episode of the American TV series Supernatural, the character Charlie Bradbury (played by Felicia Day) is seen wearing a Lying Cat T - shirt. Day, who has referred to Saga as the "best comic EVER '', indicated that show writer Robbie Thompson picked out the shirt.
The controversial cover of the comic 's first issue was referenced in "The Meemaw Materialization '', the February 4, 2016 episode of the American TV sitcom The Big Bang Theory. In the episode, Claire (Alessandra Torresani) is reading the first trade paperback of the series (which features the same cover as its first issue), and Raj Koothrappali (Kunal Nayyar) observes that "not a lot of comics have a woman with wings breastfeeding a baby right on the cover. '' Though The Big Bang Theory is often criticized for its portrayal of comic book fans, according to Comic Book Resources, a Twitter search indicated reaction to the scene by fans of Saga readers who saw it was mostly positive.
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who's won the most state of origin | State of Origin series - wikipedia
The State of Origin series is the annual best - of - three Australian rugby league football match series between two state representative sides, the New South Wales Blues and the Queensland Maroons.
Referred to as Australian sport 's greatest rivalry, the State of Origin series is one of Australia 's premier sporting events, attracting huge television audiences and usually selling out the stadiums in which the games are played. It is regularly described as being the pinnacle of rugby league, even in comparison with international competitions.
Players are selected to represent the Australian state in which they played their first senior rugby league game, hence the name ' state of origin '. Prior to 1980 players were only selected for interstate matches on the basis of where they were playing their club football at the time. In both 1980 and 1981 there were two interstate matches under the old selection rules and one experimental "State of Origin '' match. From 1982 onwards a best - of - three match series has been played around the middle of the rugby league season for the State of Origin shield. During the early years, the results were extraordinarily even. However, since 2006, Queensland has won every series except in 2014.
Since the 1908 establishment of rugby league in Australia, the sport 's two major states, New South Wales and Queensland, have played representative matches against each other which have continued into the "state of origin '' era which began in the 1980s. The two states ' teams are frequently referred to as the Blues and Maroons, reflecting the respective colours of their jerseys. These were the colours of the Australia national rugby league team 's jersey until the adoption of the green and gold. The Blues team is administered by the New South Wales Rugby League and the Maroons by the Queensland Rugby League. The New South Wales team are sometimes referred to by the nickname "Cockroaches '' and the Queensland team as "Cane Toads '', due to a marketing campaign used in the 1980s where the respective teams were caricatured as such.
Whilst other Australian states also have representative rugby league teams, they have not competed in State of Origin.
The first calls for a state of origin selection policy in interstate rugby football came before the schism between the union and league codes eventuated in Australia. In 1900 a journalist known as ' The Cynic ' wrote in The Referee that star rugby player and recent immigrant to Queensland, Stephen Spragg, should be able to play for his home state of New South Wales.
Since the beginning of Australian rugby league in 1908, an interstate competition between New South Wales and Queensland has been conducted from time to time. Until 1982 each team drew its players from the clubs based in that state. No consideration was given to the origins of the players themselves.
The first of these interstate games was played at Sydney 's Agricultural Ground on 11 July 1908, before Queensland had even commenced its club competition. New South Wales easily accounted for Queensland in a 43 -- 0 victory. The local media were unimpressed.
The interstate series was dominated by New South Wales, apart from a golden period for Queensland in the 1920s. From 1922 to 1925 Queensland defeated New South Wales 11 times in 12 matches. At the end of the 1925 season a Kangaroo team was to be picked for touring Great Britain. Instead of announcing an Australian team dominated by Queenslanders, the Australian Rugby League Board of Control informed the media that the Rugby Football League had decided that the Kiwis would provide stronger opposition, and that there would be no Australian tour. The period spanning 1922 to 1929 saw no Australian team play in Great Britain, the only such hiatus outside the two World Wars.
The New South Wales dominance of interstate football increased after 1956 when gaming machines were legalised for all registered clubs in New South Wales. This provided New South Wales football clubs with a revenue source unmatched by Queensland clubs. From this time on an increasing number of Queensland players moved to the much stronger Sydney competition, becoming ineligible for Queensland state selection. Paul Hogan famously told a Queensland Rugby League gathering in 1977 that "every time Queensland produces a good footballer, he finishes up being processed through a New South Wales poker machine. ''
Prior to 1956, NSW had won 75 % and Qld only 25 % of series played. From 1956 -- 1981, NSW dominance soared even higher and Qld wins dwindled to only 3.8 % with only 1 series win, in 1959.
By the 1970s the prestige of interstate matches had been seriously downgraded. Matches were played mid-week, so as not to interfere with the Sydney club competition, and the small crowds in New South Wales were hosted at suburban grounds. Interstate football reached its nadir in 1977 when the New South Wales Rugby Football League (NSWRFL) declined to host the Queensland team, and both interstate games were played in Queensland.
Former Queensland captain and Australian vice-captain Jack Reardon, who had later become a journalist, was the first to suggest that Sydney - based Queenslanders should be available for selection to represent their state.
Brisbane Courier - Mail reporter Hugh Lunn, Barry Maranta (the future co-founder of the Brisbane Broncos) and Maranta 's business partner Wayne Reid played a part in persuading QRL chairman Ron McAullife that the concept could be used in rugby league. Lunn told McAullife that "you can take the Queenslander out of Queensland, Ron, but you ca n't take the Queensland out of the Queenslander. '' McAuliffe was initially sceptical. "What if we recall our boys from Sydney to play, and we are beaten. Where would we go from there? '' Reid spoke to NSWRFL president Kevin Humphreys and suggested that a one - off state of origin match could be used as a Test Match selection trial.
New South Wales clubs were reticent in their support of the concept and set two conditions:
Three Sydney clubs remained opposed to the plan: St. George Dragons, South Sydney Rabbitohs and Eastern Suburbs Roosters. As these clubs were refusing to release players, Humphreys threatened to make the game an official Australian Rugby League trial, which would make release mandatory. The clubs backed down.
After Queensland lost the first two interstate matches in 1980 (35 -- 3 and 17 -- 7, the second game in front of only 1,638 Sydneysiders) it was announced that a ' state of origin ' match would take place on 8 July at Lang Park in Brisbane. The New South Wales media gave both the event, and Queensland 's chance of winning it, little credence, calling the game a "three day wonder ''. Australia 's 1978 captain Bob Fulton called the match "the non-event of the century ''. Ron MacAullife however, was now committed to the concept and vigorously promoted the match. Thousands of tickets were sold before the game had been officially sanctioned. Although interstate matches in Brisbane had still been well attended (24,653 had attended the opening match of the 1979 series), few expected the sell - out crowd of 33,210 Queensland rugby league fans, delighted to see their heroes in the likes of Arthur Beetson representing their home state for the first time ever. Queensland convincingly beat New South Wales 20 -- 10.
I was strongly against such a match, but last night 's gripping clash showed that such a fixture would be a welcome addition to the League program.
In 1981 the first two interstate matches were again played under the old selection rules. As New South Wales won the first two matches in the series, state of origin selection rules were used once more in the third match. Although New South Wales ran out to an early 15 -- 0 lead in the game, Queensland rallied to win 22 -- 15.
The interest generated by the experimental state of origin matches of 1980 and 1981 and the potential for financial rewards were enough to convince the authorities to play all three games under state of origin rules the following year.
The State of Origin format is the only possible way to allow the interstate series to survive.
Despite the Maroons ' success so far in the State of Origin experiments, the New South Wales media dismissed the seriousness of the Queensland threat to the Blues ' long - held dominance in series wins. Queensland however, under the leadership of immortal captain Wally Lewis, was inspired by this, and for the first three State of Origin series Queensland won 2 matches to 1.
However, in 1985, under the leadership of captain Steve Mortimer, New South Wales won the deciding match in front of 29,068 spectators at the Sydney Cricket Ground, claiming the series for the first time. The following year the Blues were able to go one better and complete the first state of origin whitewash, taking the series 3 -- 0.
Barry Gomersall, from Sarina, Queensland (1945 -- 2007) was notorious for his refereeing of nine State of Origin matches between 1982 and 1988. Queensland rugby league team won seven of those matches, leading to accusations of bias and match - fixing. Gomersall himself did little to disassociate himself from those claims, famously referring to the only two matches under his control won by New South Wales rugby league team; "Surely anyone 's entitled to two bad games ''. Queenslanders, on the other hand, were generally of the view that Sydney referees were no more to be relied on to give unbiased rulings in the games they controlled.
After Queensland had won the 1987 series 2 -- 1, a fourth game was played at Long Beach, California to showcase rugby league to the American public.
In Origin: Rugby League 's Greatest Contest 1980 -- 2002 (2003) Queensland writer Jack Gallaway tells a story:
In 1987 the Australian Rugby League (ARL), New South Wales Rugby League and Queensland Rugby League agreed that the match would only count towards the players ' individual statistics. On 15 July 2003 the Australian Rugby League (whose primary members are originally from the New South Wales Rugby League) announced that the fourth 1987 game was to be classified as an official match, and that a win in the state of origin match on 16 July 2003 would take New South Wales into the overall lead.
ARL and NSWRL chief executive Geoff Carr said: "There had been some debate over whether the Origin fixture... in 1987 was counted as an official match but a search of ARL records has confirmed the status conferred on that clash by the game 's governing body at the time. In announcing the match in Big League in April 1987, Ken Arthurson, the ARL 's chief executive in 1987, was quoted as saying ' It 's an exciting experiment but the match is n't and wo n't be billed as an exhibition match '. ''
After the controversy of the match played in the United States, the Queensland halves pairing of Allan Langer and Wally Lewis led the Maroons in their 3 -- 0 series wins in both 1988 and 1989. The rise of the Canberra Raiders in the then Winfield Cup club competition produced for the Blues the formidable halves combination of Ricky Stuart and Laurie Daley who brought New South Wales back from defeat with two wins in the opening games of the 1990 series. It was evident that as the rivalry between the two states grew, the Origin matches had become much more physical forward orientated game than the open running play seen in earlier series.
As the great Queensland players from the 1980s began to retire from the game, the Maroons struggled with a team of fresh faces and considerable inexperience. The 1992, 1993 and 1994 series all went to NSW as the talent and experience of Blues players such as Brett Mullins, Daley and Stuart in the backs and Benny Elias and Bradley Clyde in the forwards gave the Blues the edge when the games were on the line. It was n't until the upheaval of the Super League war in 1995 that the Maroons were able to again clinch a series.
A main cause for concern for Queensland was the fact that the Brisbane Broncos, its players and many other Queenslanders were not aligned with the ARL prohibiting any players signed with the Super League to play for the Maroons. Despite this the Queenslanders won the 1995 series 3 -- 0 in a shocking white - wash. The 1996 series saw the off - field contract dramas put aside as all players were allowed, regardless of contract, state of origin selection. Having the majority of the Queenslanders back did n't help the Maroons though as the Blues 1996 white - wash with a 3 -- 0 series win of their own.
The Australian game divided in 1997 into two competitions, one run by the ARL and one by the News Limited - owned Super League, and an interstate series was played in each. Under the Super League banner there was a Tri-Origin series with a New Zealand side added to the competition. The ARL meanwhile stuck to its traditional format. The teams were selected using origin rules, and New South Wales and Queensland met twice. These matches do not count towards the official state of origin record. As with the premiership, players were spread between two representative tournaments as well.
The competitions merged again in 1998 as the current National Rugby League, and the series that year proved to be enthralling as both sides won a game each away from home, setting up a decider at the Sydney Football Stadium where 39,000 fans witnessed the visiting Queenslanders take the series 2 -- 1. The end of the decade saw a dramatic series with each side taking one game each and game three ending in a draw. Queensland were awarded the series as at the time the previous winners retained the interstate honours.
The early to mid-2000s saw New South Wales starting to assert its traditional interstate dominance, causing some commentators (who?) to question State of Origin ' future. However, this imbalance tipped in the third and deciding game of the 2006 State of Origin series, which is seen as the starting point of Queensland 's unprecedented dynasty. The 2008 series was won by Queensland making it three series in a row. New South Wales won Game 1 on 21 May 2008, however Queensland won Game 2 on 11 June 2008, and also Game 3 on 2 July 2008. Queensland followed this up by winning the first two games of the 2009 series becoming the first state to win four series in a row.
Queensland won its historic, record breaking, fifth consecutive Origin series with a 23 -- 18 win in the third and final match of the State of Origin, 2010. This was the first Queensland team to win all three consecutive State of Origin Games in 15 years. Queensland full back Billy Slater won man of the match in the third game and was awarded the Wally Lewis Medal as Man of the Series in 2010.
The 2010 State of Origin series was also the second televised program in Australia to be shot in 3D 1080i DVB - T as well as being simultaneously broadcast in regular 576i and 1080i DVB - T and PAL.
In the first game of the 2011 series Queensland defeated New South Wales 16 -- 12. In the second game of the 2011 series New South Wales defeated Queensland 18 -- 8. Queensland won the series 34 -- 24 in the 2011 decider in what was Queensland captain Darren Lockyer 's 36th and final game. Cameron Smith won man of the match in both the first and third game and was awarded the Wally Lewis Medal as Man of the Series.
In 2012, then NRL CEO David Gallop introduced the Under - 20s State of Origin for Toyota Cup players which saw New South Wales winning. Queensland went on to win an historic 7th series win in 2012, winning the final game by 1 point.
In 2013, New South Wales defeated Queensland 14 to 6 in game 1, Queensland defeated New South Wales 26 to 6 in game 2, while in game 3 Queensland defeated New South Wales 12 to 10 to take out the overall Origin title for the eighth consecutive time. The 2013 series set a new State of Origin television ratings record for a whole series since the 2001 introduction of the ratings system.
In 2014, New South Wales defeated Queensland 12 - 8 in the first game of the series, and 6 - 4 in the second. In the third game Queensland defeated New South Wales 32 - 8 after scoring the first try of the game in the 37th minute, with Queensland leading 6 - 2 in the first half. This gave the Blues the first series win in 8 years.
In 2015, Queensland defeated New South Wales 11 - 10 in game 1 played in Sydney, New South Wales defeated Queensland 26 - 18 in game 2 played in Melbourne, Queensland defeated New South Wales 52 - 6 in game 3 played in Brisbane, winning the series 2 - 1.
In 2016, Queensland defeated New South Wales 6 - 4 in game 1 and clinched the series with a 26 - 16 win in the second match. New South Wales closed off the series with a 18 - 14 win over Queensland.
In 2017, New South Wales won Game 1, 28 - 4 sparking the New South Wales media to start proclaiming the beginning of the Blues Dynasty. Queensland won Game 2, 18 - 16 after making changes to the team with the returning Billy Slater and Johnathan Thurston, who kicked the winning goal for Queensland. Thurston injured his shoulder in the 30th minute of the match, essentially disabling it as he played out the whole match. Thurston was later ruled out for the rest of the year after scans revealed his shoulder needed a reconstruction, ending his representative career as he announced 2017 would be his last representative year. In Game 3, New South Wales went in with an unchanged lineup for all three games, the first to do so since 1996. Queensland dominated the Blues, winning 22 - 6, with Queensland Winger Dane Gagai winning the Wally Lewis Medal for Best Player in the series. It also had Johnathan Thurston raise the Origin Shield with Queensland Captain Cameron Smith, before being chaired off the ground by his teammates, ending Thurston 's representative career on a high note.
In 2013, each individual game in the series drew a higher Australian television audience than any other sporting event. In recent years the series has gained popularity outside of New South Wales and Queensland, with games played in Melbourne drawing record crowds and local television ratings comparable to those of many Victorian AFL matches. Internationally, the series is televised in 91 countries, and is a national obsession in Papua New Guinea, occasionally sparking riots, violence and deaths. It also draws a strong following in neighbouring New Zealand.
Within Australia, Nine Network is the main broadcaster for the series, with replays airing on Fox Sports. The series is also broadcast on radio by ABC Grandstand.
Setanta Sports broadcasts live matches in Asia. In the United States, Fox Soccer televised all matches live using the Nine feed since 2011, with the coverage moving to Fox Sports 2 when Fox Soccer was discontinued in August 2013. Premier Sports broadcasts live coverage of State of Origin in the UK.
Another twist on the coverage was Roy and HG 's State of Origin commentary on Australian youth radio network Triple J. This broadcast was presented by the characters "Rampaging '' Roy Slaven and HG Nelson (played by John Doyle and Greig Pickhaver), who commentated the game with a unique comedic style. Roy and HG 's broadcasts began in the late 1980s, and continued until 2008. Roy and HG moved from Triple J to radio network Triple M in 2009, at which point the duo ceased their State of Origin commentary.
Under State of Origin rules players were previously selected for the state in which they first played senior (or registered) rugby league. In 2012, the NSWRL, CRL, QRL and ARLC agreed on new criteria in determining Origin eligibility, to encompass other factors, such as place of birth. Players must also be eligible to represent Australia at international level.
From time to time the selection of players under the State of Origin rules creates controversy. Since 1980, Queensland has completed just the 7 series with a team completely made up of players of a Queensland birth, while for New South Wales the total is only 6. However, place of birth has only been a relevant factor in eligibility since 2012.
An issue of contention has been the selection of players such as Peter Sterling, Ken Nagas, James McManus, Israel Folau and Greg Inglis. Folau was born and raised in New South Wales but is eligible to play for Queensland as he played his first senior rugby league match in Queensland. Ken Nagas was born and raised in Queensland but decided to play for New South Wales, Peter Sterling was born in Toowoomba, Queensland and raised in Wagga Wagga, Newcastle & Sydney, all in New South Wales, while McManus was born in Scotland and was raised in the Northern Territory, but was ruled eligible to play for New South Wales in the 2009 series.
The selection of Greg Inglis by Queensland was disputed. The Queensland Rugby League selected him based on the fact that either Wavell State High School or Brisbane Norths was Inglis ' first senior football, making him eligible for both states per the rules at the time. However Inglis had previously played for Hunter Sports High School in Newcastle, New South Wales, in the Arrive Alive Cup; considered to be a senior competition. Hunter Sports High coach Steve Dunn said "there was some talk the other day that he was actually brought to Queensland before his 16th birthday but I was coach of the team. He played for us at 16, he 's a Blue ''. The controversy led to the creation of the "That 's In Queensland '' viral video.
Due to the clarification of selection rules the Sims brothers are eligible for different States. Tariq and Ashton are eligible for New South Wales while Korbin Sims is eligible for Queensland. Previously father and son combinations, such as Steve and Mat Rogers have represented different states. This duo was especially notable because Mat was born in New South Wales and played for Queensland while Steve was born in Queensland and played for New South Wales. Steve Rogers played his first senior game of rugby League for the Southport Tigers on Queenslands Gold Coast
Foreign born players have also represented each state. New Zealand has had several players, such as Brad Thorn, Ben Te'o, Craig Smith, Willie Mason, Tonie Carroll, James Tamou and Karmichael Hunt play Origin. Tamou 's selection by New South Wales in 2012 was controversial as he was born in Palmerston North and played for the Junior Kiwis, lived in New Zealand until he moved to Sydney when he was 13 and was included in the New Zealand Kiwis training squad for the 2011 Four Nations. Both Hunt and Tamou played for Australia before being selected for State of Origin. Other players, such as Sam Kasiano and Jason Taumalolo are also eligible, creating concern in the New Zealand Rugby League. Apart from representing Queensland, Brad Thorn is also a dual rugby international, having played international rugby league for Australia, and international rugby union for the All Blacks.
Papua New Guinea - born Adrian Lam and Fijian - born Lote Tuqiri, Akuila Uate and Petero Civoniceva have also played Origin. Benny Elias was born in Lebanon and has played for and captained NSW. Mario Fenech was born in Malta and has played for NSW. The most recent case of a foreign born player being selected was the selection of former Samoan international, Ben Te'o, by Queensland in game three of the 2012 season.
A report into eligibility based on a player 's birth state showed; "Of the 18 series that QLD has won, it had the greater percentage of non-State (born) players in its side on 14 of those occasions -- revealing a 77.8 % dependency. Of the 13 series that NSW has won, on five of those occasions it had the higher percentage of non-State (born) players across the series -- revealing a 38.5 % dependency. ''
Of the 36 full series played, Queensland have won 21, New South Wales 13, with 2 series drawn (Queensland retained the Shield on both occasions as the previous year 's winner). With the addition of three one - off games that were played in 1980, 1981 and 1987, the total number of games played is 108. Queensland have won 58, New South Wales have won 48, with 2 matches being drawn.
The series of 1999 and 2002 are considered drawn series, as both New South Wales and Queensland won a single game of each 3 match series, with the final game concluding in a draw. At that time there was no overtime rule to break the deadlock, and by the same set of rules, Queensland retained the shield as they were the previous holders, but did not win the series. Due to controversy around the second drawn series, and the rule awarding the series champions to Queensland, the rules were subsequently changed to rule out drawn matches and series. Equal points at the close of full - time are now resolved with the golden point method.
From 1992 to 2003 the Wally Lewis Medal was awarded by the Queensland Rugby League for the Queensland player of the series. Since 2003 it has been awarded to the player of the series, irrespective of state. The following players have been awarded the Wally Lewis Medal for player of the series. Cameron Smith has won the medal a record four times.
The award was originally a Queensland only award from Lewis ' retirement in 1992 until 2003, where the best player of the series could win the award, regardless of their state. The Ron McAuliffe Medal replaced the Wally Lewis Medal as the Queensland exclusive award.
These records that are about to be shown are mainly about the stadium 's and players of the game. All this info can be found at http://afltables.com/rl/soo/records.html.
The Under 20s State of Origin has only had six seasons so far (2012 to 2017) with only one game a year, instead of three. New South Wales has won all of them. They play for the Darren Lockyer Shield.
The Women 's State of Origin is the Women 's rugby league version of the game, and has been running since 1999. The players play for the Nellie Doherty Cup. Furthermore, the current record for series won in the competition rests with Queensland, who won every series from 1999 - 2014, a better straight record than their male counterparts.
Queensland: 1808 Points
New South Wales: 1656 Points
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how many teeth do sharks have in their lifetime | Shark tooth - wikipedia
A shark tooth is one of the numerous teeth of a shark. A shark tooth contains resistant calcium phosphate materials. Sharks continually shed their teeth; some Carcharhiniformes shed approximately 35,000 teeth in a lifetime, replacing those that fall out. There are four basic types of shark teeth: dense flattened, needle - like, pointed lower with triangular upper, and non-functional. The type of tooth that a shark has depends on its diet and feeding habits.
In some formations, shark 's teeth are a common fossil. These fossils can be analyzed for information on shark evolution and biology; they are often the only part of the shark to be fossilized. Fossil teeth comprise much of the fossil record of the Elasmobranchii, extending back to hundreds of millions of years. Shark teeth are also useful in conducting research about the structure of teeth, shark migration patterns, and identifying shark species.
The most ancient types of sharks date back to 450 million years ago, during the Late Ordovician period, and are mostly known by their fossilised teeth. However, the most commonly found fossil shark teeth are from the Cenozoic era (the last 66 million years).
There are four basic types of shark teeth that vary according to the diet of the shark; those species that have dense flattened teeth for crushing, those that have long needle - like teeth for gripping, those that have pointed lower teeth for gripping and triangular upper teeth with serrated edges for cutting, and those that have teeth that are tiny, greatly reduced, and non-functional.
Dense flattened teeth are used to crush prey like bivalves and crustaceans. These Sharks include nurse sharks and angel sharks. They are typically found at the bottom of the ocean floor because this is the habitat in which their prey live. Their teeth are flat in order to easily crack open the shells their prey uses for protection.
Sharks with needle - like teeth commonly feed on small to medium fish and or other small sharks. Their teeth are especially effective for their prey because they can easily grip their slippery and narrow meals. Some examples are the blue shark and bull sharks. These sharks specifically use their teeth to feed on small prey like squid, flounder, stingrays, and even hammerhead sharks.
This combination of pointed lower teeth with triangular upper teeth are especially useful for cutting prey that consist of large mammals and fish. The combination of teeth entails serrated edges to cut the larger prey into smaller portions in order to easily swallow the pieces. The most famously known shark with these teeth is the Great White shark, which feeds on animals such as sea lions, dolphins, other sharks, and even small whales.
The teeth of plankton - feeders, such as the basking shark and whale shark, are greatly reduced and non-functional. (1) These sharks filter feed on prey by opening their mouths to let tiny organisms get sucked into their mouths to feed without using their teeth at all.
As one species evolves into another, its teeth may become difficult to classify, exhibiting characteristics of both species. For example, teeth from Carcharocles auriculatus as it evolved into C. angustidens, are difficult to definitively identify as coming from either species.
A commonly referred to transition is the evolution of Isurus hastalis, the Extinct Giant Mako, into the Great White shark, Carcharodon carcharias. There exist teeth that are believed to represent the transition between the two species. These teeth, from Carcharodon sp. are characterised by the wider, flatter crowns of the Extinct Giant Mako. However, they also exhibit partial, fading serrations, which are more pronounced near the root, and disappear towards the tip of the tooth - serrations being found in Great Whites but not Extinct Giant Makos.
C. megalodon teeth are the largest of any shark, extinct or living, and are among the most sought after types of shark teeth in the world. This shark lived during the late Oligocene epoch and Neogene period, about 28 to 1.5 million years ago, and ranged to a maximum length of 60 ft. The smallest teeth are only 1.2 cm (0.5 in) in height, while the largest teeth are in excess of 17.7 cm (7.0 in). The smaller teeth ranging from 31⁄2 '' and 41⁄2 '' are more common finds, while teeth over 5 '', 6 '', and 7 '' are more rare. These teeth are in extremely high demand by collectors and private investors, and they can fetch steep prices according to their size and deterioration. The larger teeth can cost as much as 3,000 dollars.
Shark teeth can not be collected from just any type of rock. Any fossils, including fossil shark teeth, are preserved in sedimentary rocks after falling from their mouth. The sediment that the teeth were found in is used to help determine the age of the shark tooth due to the fossilization process. Shark teeth are most commonly found between the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. Only after about 10,000 years will a shark tooth fossilize. The teeth commonly found are not white because they are covered with sediment from fossilization. The sediment prevents oxygen and bacteria from attacking and decaying the tooth.
Fossilized shark teeth can often be found in or near river bed banks, sand pits, and beaches. These teeth are typically worn, because they were frequently moved and redeposited in different areas repeatedly before settling down. Other locations, however, yield perfect teeth that were hardly moved during the ages. These teeth are typically fragile, and great care should be taken while excavating them. Phosphate pits, containing mostly fossil bones and teeth, or kaolin pits, are ideal places to look for fossil shark teeth. One of the most notable phosphate mines is in Central Florida, Polk County, and is known as Bone Valley. Most of the teeth found here range from 3 to 10 million years old. Near New Caledonia, up until the practice was banned, fishermen and commercial vessels used to dredge the sea floor for megalodon teeth. In the state of Georgia, shark teeth are found so often that they decided to make shark teeth the official state fossil in 1976.
In taxonomy, shark teeth are counted as follows: rows of teeth are counted along the line of the jaw, while series of teeth are counted from the front of the jaw inward. A single tooth row includes one or more functional teeth at the front of the jaw, and multiple replacement teeth behind this. For example, the jaws of a bull shark can have 50 rows of teeth in 7 series, with the outermost series functional, but most sharks have 5 series with the average shark having about 15 rows of teeth in each jaw. The small teeth at the symphysis, where the two halves of the jaw meet, are usually counted separately from the main teeth on either side. Sharks are also known to lose at least one tooth per week. Due to their specific arrangement of rows and series however, lost teeth can be replaced within a day.
Identification of most sharks are found through a combination of tooth counts and tooth shapes. Teeth can even lead to the identification of shark species like the requiem shark. The fossilized records of teeth helps illustrate evolutionary history, and isolated teeth are used to study and analyze specific linear measurements of the species. In order to identify teeth and specific information about the teeth, research can be done on a shark tooth. This research may uncover many different aspects about the tooth itself, and the shark species. This proves complicated, however, due to the fact that most fossilized teeth are found mixed and scattered. To collect information on basic - life history and get dispersal estimates of a shark tooth, molecular - based technology is very efficient. To further shark population studies, collection of mtDNA can be extracted from shark jaws and teeth. To study the caries - reducing effect in sharks, studies are done on the fluorine atoms that are bound covalently to calcium atoms in the teeth. Each tooth has a complex fluorapatite structure enameloid. In order to reduce effects of deterioration in the teeth, it is useful to sample only the surface of the enameloid of the tooth for this specific research. Studying and researching shark teeth betters our understandings of shark feeding behaviors, evolutionary changes, and mechanisms. This helps us to identify the teeth, and even the species.
The oldest known records of fossilized shark teeth are by Pliny the Elder, who believed that these triangular objects fell from the sky during lunar eclipses.
According to Renaissance accounts, large, triangular fossil teeth often found embedded in rocky formations were believed to be petrified tongues of dragons and snakes and so were referred to as "tongue stones '' or "glossopetrae ''. Glossopetrae were commonly thought to be a remedy or cure for various poisons and toxins; they were used in the treatment of snake bites. Due to this ingrained belief, many noblemen and royalty wore these "tongue stones '' as pendants or kept them in their pockets as good - luck charms.
This interpretation was corrected in 1611 by the Italian naturalist Fabio Colonna, who recognized them as ancient shark teeth, and, in 1667, by the Danish naturalist Nicolaus Steno, who discussed their composition and famously produced a depiction of a shark 's head bearing such teeth. He mentioned his findings in a book, The Head of a Shark Dissected, which also contained an illustration of a C. megalodon tooth, previously considered to be a tongue stone.
In Oceania and America, shark teeth were commonly used for tools, especially on weapons such as clubs and daggers, but also as blades to carve wood and as tools for food preparation. For example, various weapons edged with shark teeth were used by the Native Hawaiians (see example here), who called them leiomano. Some types were reserved for royalty. The Guaitaca (Weittaka) of coastal Brazil tipped their arrows with shark teeth. The remains of shark tooth - edged weapons, as well as chert replicas of shark teeth, have been found in the Cahokia mounds of the upper Mississippi River valley, more than 1,000 km (620 mi) from the ocean. It is reported that the rongorongo tablets of Easter Island were first shaped and then inscribed using a hafted shark tooth.
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summary of harry potter and the prisoner of azkaban in 100 words | Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban - wikipedia
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban is a fantasy novel written by British author J.K. Rowling and the third novel in the Harry Potter series. The book follows Harry Potter, a young wizard, in his third year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. Along with friends Ronald Weasley and Hermione Granger, Harry investigates Sirius Black, an escaped prisoner from Azkaban who they believe is one of Lord Voldemort 's old allies.
The book was published in the United Kingdom on 8 July 1999 by Bloomsbury and in the United States on 8 September 1999 by Scholastic Inc. Rowling found the book easy to write, finishing it just a year after she had begun writing it. The book sold 68,000 copies in just three days after its release in the United Kingdom and since has sold over three million in the country. The book won the 1999 Whitbread Children 's Book Award, the Bram Stoker Award, the 2000 Locus Award for Best Fantasy Novel, and was short - listed for other awards, including the Hugo.
The film adaptation of the novel was released in 2004, grossing more than $796 million and earned notable critical acclaim. Video games loosely based on Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban were also released for several platforms, and most obtained favourable reviews.
Harry is back at the Dursleys, where he sees on Muggle television that a prisoner named Sirius Black has escaped. Harry involuntarily inflates Aunt Marge when she comes to visit after she insults Harry and his parents. This leads to his running away and being picked up by the Knight Bus. He travels to the Leaky Cauldron where he meets Cornelius Fudge, the Minister for Magic, who asks Harry to stay in Diagon Alley for the remaining three weeks before the start of the school year at Hogwarts.
The night before he is expected to leave for Hogwarts, Harry learns from Arthur Weasley that Sirius Black is a convicted murderer in the wizarding world, and he warns Harry that it is believed Black will attempt to murder Harry next. On the way to Hogwarts a Dementor boards the train, causing Harry to faint. Following the incident, Harry is helped by the new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher Remus Lupin. Harry, Ron, and Hermione learn that the Dementors will be patrolling the school in an attempt to catch Black.
Later on, Lupin 's Defence Against the Dark Arts sessions prove far better than those of Gilderoy Lockhart 's (Harry 's uselessly vain ex-teacher). They have a fun lesson on Boggarts (see Magical Creatures in Harry Potter) and then learn about more Dark Creatures. When Lupin supposedly falls ill, the much hated Potions Master Professor Snape temporarily takes over teaching Defence Against the Dark Arts and torments the class, much to their dismay.
At Hogwarts, Harry has several problems with the Dementors, including an episode at a Quidditch match during which he faints and falls off his broomstick from high in the air. His broom is blown away and smashed by the Whomping Willow. Working with Harry outside class, Lupin teaches him the Patronus Charm to repel Dementors.
On an unauthorised visit to the village of Hogsmeade (thanks to The Marauder 's Map, given to him by George Weasley and Fred Weasley), Harry overhears some of his teachers talking with Fudge about Black. They reveal that Black was a friend of Harry 's parents but he betrayed them and gave Voldemort access to their house. They also mention that Black killed thirteen Muggles and his former friend Peter Pettigrew.
Ron and Hermione 's friendship later suffers when Ron believes that Hermione 's cat, Crookshanks, ate his rat, Scabbers. At Christmas Harry receives a mysterious present, a late - model Firebolt broom. Fearing it might be cursed, Hermione reports the gift to Professor McGonagall, which leads to more bad feelings between her and Ron and Harry.
Ron, Hermione, and Harry join the effort to save Hagrid 's hippogriff, Buckbeak, from being executed for attacking Draco Malfoy, after Draco provoked him. Their efforts are unsuccessful, but Scabbers reappears shortly after they hear Buckbeak being executed.
Ron chases Scabbers, only to be attacked by a big black dog, which Harry has seen several times before. The dog drags Ron through a tunnel under the Whomping Willow into the Shrieking Shack. Harry and Hermione follow, and there is a brief standoff when they find Ron with Sirius Black, who has transformed from the dog. Lupin enters, and they explain the situation to Harry and his friends: Lupin is a werewolf, which led to his friends James Potter, Sirius Black, and Peter Pettigrew becoming animagi. Lupin explains that Scabbers is Pettigrew in his animal form; he has been hiding from Black, whom he had framed for the murders of Harry 's parents and the thirteen Muggles.
Snape arrives to apprehend Black but Harry, Ron, and Hermione knock him unconscious. Lupin and Black transform Pettigrew back into human form and prepare to kill him, but they are stopped by Harry, as he feels his father would not have wanted it. He convinces them to give Pettigrew to the Dementors instead.
As they move back toward Hogwarts, Lupin turns into a werewolf and becomes violent, having missed a dose of his Wolfsbane potion. Pettigrew escapes again, and Black prevents Lupin from attacking the others in werewolf form. Some Dementors approach Harry, Ron and Hermione.
When they wake up in the hospital, Harry, Ron, and Hermione are told that Black has been sentenced to receive the Dementor 's kiss, which removes the soul of the recipient. Dumbledore advises Hermione and Harry to use Hermione 's time - turner, a device she has been using to double - up on classes; this permits them to go back in time and save Buckbeak, who carries Black away to safety.
Sadly, Snape lets slip that Lupin is a werewolf, leading to his resignation. Harry visits Lupin before he leaves, and as they say goodbye, Lupin is certain that they will meet again sometime soon (see Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix).
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban is the third book in the Harry Potter series. The first, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone (Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone in the US), was published by Bloomsbury on 26 June 1997 and the second, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, was published on 2 July 1998. Rowling started to write the Prisoner of Azkaban the day after she finished The Chamber of Secrets.
Rowling 's favourite aspect of this book was introducing the character Remus Lupin, Rowling additionally said in 2004 that Prisoner of Azkaban was "the best writing experience I ever had... I was in a very comfortable place writing (number) three. Immediate financial worries were over, and press attention was n't yet by any means excessive ''.
Gregory Maguire wrote a review in The New York Times for Prisoner of Azkaban: in it he said, "So far, in terms of plot, the books do nothing new, but they do it brilliantly... so far, so good. '' In a newspaper review in The New York Times, it was said that "' The Prisoner of Azkaban ' may be the best ' Harry Potter ' book yet ''. A reviewer for Kidsreads.com said, "This crisply - paced fantasy will leave you hungry for the four additional Harry books that J.K. Rowling is working on. Harry 's third year is a charm. Do n't miss it. '' Kirkus Reviews did not give a starred review but said, "a properly pulse - pounding climax... The main characters and the continuing story both come along so smartly... that the book seems shorter than its page count: have readers clear their calendars if they are fans, or get out of the way if they are not. '' Martha V. Parravano also gave a positive review for The Horn Book Magazine, calling it "quite a good book. '' In addition, a Publishers Weekly review said, "Rowling 's wit never flags, whether constructing the workings of the wizard world... or tossing off quick jokes... The Potter spell is holding strong.
However, Anthony Holden, who was one of the judges against Prisoner of Azkaban for the Whitbread Award, was negative about the book, saying that the characters are "all black - and - white '', and the "story - lines are predictable, the suspense minimal, the sentimentality cloying every page ''.
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban won several awards, including the 1999 Booklist Editors ' Choice Award, the 1999 Bram Stoker Award for Best Work for Young Readers, the 1999 FCGB Children 's Book Award, the 1999 Whitbread Book of the Year for children 's books., and the 2000 Locus Award for Best Fantasy Novel,. It was also nominated for the 2000 Hugo Award for Best Novel but lost to A Deepness in the Sky. Prisoner of Azkaban additionally won the 2004 Indian Paintbrush Book Award and the 2004 Colorado Blue Spruce Young Adult Book Award. Additionally, it was named an American Library Association Notable Children 's Book in 2000 as well as one of their Best Books for Young Adults. As with the previous two books in the series, Prisoner of Azkaban won the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize Gold Medal for children aged 9 -- 11 and made the top of the New York Times Best Seller list. In both cases, it was the last in the series to do so. However, in the latter case, a Children 's Best Sellers list was created just before the release of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire in July 2000 in order to free up more room on the original list. In 2003, the novel was listed at number 24 on the BBC 's survey The Big Read.
Prisoner of Azkaban sold more than 68,000 copies in the UK within three days of publication, which made it the fastest selling British book of the time. The sales total by 2012 is said by The Guardian to be 3,377,906.
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was released in hardcover in the UK on 8 July 1999 and in the US on 8 September. The British paperback edition was released on 1 April 2000, while the US paperback was released 2 October 2001.
Bloomsbury additionally released an adult edition with a different cover design to the original, in paperback on 10 July 2004 and in hardcover on October 2004. A hardcover special edition, featuring a green border and signature, was released on 8 July 1999. In May 2004, Bloomsbury released a Celebratory Edition, with a blue and purple border. On 1 November 2010, they released the 10th anniversary Signature edition illustrated by Clare Mellinsky and in July 2013 a new adult cover illustrated by Andrew Davidson, both these editions were designed by Webb & Webb Design Limited.
Beginning on 27 August 2013, Scholastic will release new covers for the paperback editions of Harry Potter in the United States to celebrate 15 years of the series. The covers were designed by the author and illustrator Kazu Kibuishi.
An illustrated version of Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was released on October 3, 2017, and was illustrated by Jim Kay who illustrates the previous two instalments. This includes over 115 new illustrations and will be followed by Illustrated editions of the following 4 novels in the future.
The film version of Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was released in 2004 and was directed by Alfonso Cuarón from a screenplay by Steve Kloves. The film débuted at number one at the box office and held that position for two weeks. It made a total of $796.7 million worldwide, which made it the second highest - grossing film of 2004 behind Shrek 2. However, among all eight entries in the Harry Potter franchise, Prisoner of Azkaban grossed the lowest. The film ranks at number 471 in Empire magazine 's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time.
Three unique video games by different developers were released in 2004 by Electronic Arts, loosely based on the book:
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who plays foggy's ex girlfriend in daredevil | List of Daredevil characters - wikipedia
Daredevil is an American web television series created for Netflix by Drew Goddard, based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the films of the franchise, and is the first in a series of shows that will lead up to a Defenders crossover miniseries. The series stars Charlie Cox as Matt Murdock / Daredevil, as well as Deborah Ann Woll, Elden Henson, Rosario Dawson, and Vincent D'Onofrio. Toby Leonard Moore, Vondie Curtis - Hall, Bob Gunton, and Ayelet Zurer join them for the first season, while Jon Bernthal, Élodie Yung, and Stephen Rider join them for the second. In addition to original characters, several other characters based on various Marvel properties also appear throughout the series.
Matt Murdock (portrayed by Charlie Cox) was blinded in a car accident as a child, which heightened his other senses. Approached by the elderly and blind ninja Stick, Murdock trains to hone his senses so he can ' see ' using them, and also learns martial arts, with Stick wanting a soldier for his secret war. Stick leaves Murdock when he realizes that the boy wants a father figure, and Murdock eventually attends Columbia University School of Law. Meeting Foggy Nelson, the two graduate and intern at the law firm Landman and Zack, but Murdock grows uncomfortable with the firm 's lack of morals, just as he begins to take vigilante action against those he knows the law can not prosecute. Murdock and Nelson decide to start their own law firm, and through their first client, Karen Page become embroiled in the politics of post Incident Hell 's Kitchen. Murdock and his allies are able to take down crime lord Wilson Fisk using the law, and when Fisk escapes custody, Murdock defeats him as the vigilante, who is christened ' Daredevil ' by the media.
At the end of May 2014, Cox was cast as Murdock. The idea of casting Cox as Daredevil came from Marvel 's Chief Creative Officer Joe Quesada in 2012, before Marvel Studios gained the rights to the character from 20th Century Fox. Cox wanted to be involved with the series after reading the first two scripts for the series, telling his agent "These are two of the best TV scripts I 've read ''. Season one showrunner Steven DeKnight stated that "He 's not super strong. He 's not invulnerable. In every aspect, he 's a man that 's just pushed himself to the limits, he just has senses that are better than a normal human 's. He is human. '' On the character 's "grey '' morals, he said, "He 's a lawyer by day, and he 's taken this oath. But every night he breaks that oath, and goes out and does very violent things. I really liked the flawed heroes, the human heroes. '' The character 's Catholicism plays a large role in the series, with DeKnight calling him "one of the most, if not the most, religious characters in the Marvel Universe ''. Cox, who was raised Catholic, found that helpful, saying, "You grow up steeped in that. If you 're in church, standing in front of the altar, you sort of automatically know how to respond. It all kicks in -- you genuflect, you sit in the pew. I did n't have to pretend any of that. '' On how the name Daredevil is revealed in the series, DeKnight explained that "We talked about, do we do one of the versions in the comics where when he was a kid people used to taunt him with the name Daredevil, but that did n't quite feel like our world. At one point we were going to have Ben Urich (Vondie Curtis - Hall) give him the name, but the timing was n't right from where he 's in his black outfit and then gets his suit, which is after Ben 's untimely demise. There was something technically tricky of somebody actually saying the words, "Hey you 're some kind of Daredevil. '' The solution was to play that off - screen and then hit it in the paper that he 's been given this name Daredevil. '' Skylar Gaertner plays a young Matt Murdock.
Murdock 's suits are differentiated more by texture than color, with a limited palette, "Because, obviously, he ca n't see his colors, but he has to know anything he chooses is going to coordinate with one another. '' Cox 's size changed throughout the series as he continued to work out. For Murdock 's sunglasses, Maslansky worked with series prop master Michael Jortner to make something that had to "be correct for this current, modern date and it also had to pay homage to what was familiar to fans ''. Close to 100 different versions of the prop were created for Cox to try.
Murdock begins the season wearing a black costume (called the "vigilante outfit '' by production), inspired by the one worn by the character in Frank Miller 's The Man Without Fear, rather than the more traditional red, horned suit. This was done to highlight the formation of Matt Murdock as Daredevil, with the costume evolving over time as the character develops. Quesada conceptualized the look based on DeKnight 's specifications. Maslansky noted that they wanted the outfit to "look like something that Matt Murdock could put together himself, that he could either order off the Internet or shop around town... I went to army / navy stores. I went online. I looked at athletic clothing, compression clothing, military stuff and construction stuff... we wound up with pretty practical choices for him. His shirts are compression shirts and his pants wound up being from an army / navy store '' Concerning the black mask, Maslansky noted that a balance between aesthetic and safety was required, and that "It 's made out of a cotton mesh. Layers and layers of it. It has to really conform to his head, but at the same time, he had to be able to see through it. ''
On the red suit that Murdock gets at the end of the first season, Maslansky said, "We wanted something that looked militaristic and functional, but also dramatic and sexy '' adding that it was "tricky '' making it practical. To begin the process of creating the suit, Quesada contacted Ryan Meinerding and the costume artists and design team at Marvel Studios, who all contributed design ideas, with one of Meinerding 's ultimately being picked. Quesada, who previously worked as an artist on Daredevil comics, gave several suggestions, including the use of rivets and "architectural '' shapes as a reference to the creation of New York City. The suit is intended to look like a Kevlar vest, and the black sections are an homage to comic panels where the artists highlighted certain areas with red, with "deeper portions '' in shadow. On the mask, Meinerding noted the difficulty in designing the entire top half of a face that is intended to match the bottom half of an actor 's face, "because half of his face has to be covered and has its own expression and the actor 's face is going to be doing something else ''. For the billy clubs used by Daredevil in the series, which were designed by Andy Park, "There was a discussion early in the process, because Charlie Cox (and his stunt double) Chris Brewster are both right handed, of having the billy clubs holster on the right leg. But Daredevil wears those billy clubs on the left hand side. So while it would have been easier to place the holster on the right we all felt that we had to keep to the classic profile and keep them on the left. ''
Talking about why the traditional ' DD ' does n't appear on Murdock 's red suit, and other difficulties with adapting the suit to live action, DeKnight explained that "he got the suit before he got the name. We talked a lot about DD on the suit, which is one of the more problematic emblems in superhero - dom. It 's a little wonky. His suit in the comics is very difficult to translate to screen, especially in this world that is grounded and gritty. There are some practical difficulties. The Daredevil outfit in the comics, his mask only covers half his nose. It does n't come all the way down to the tip. We discovered when we were trying to design it that if you did n't bring it all the way down, you could clearly tell it was Charlie. Not only did we have the suspension of belief that nobody would know "hey, that 's Matt Murdock '' we also had the practical problem of it becoming almost impossible when it came to switching in and out our stunt double. So we had to make that adjustment. ''
On portraying the character, Cox said, "There are so many aspects. There 's the blindness and physicality. Making a show is about human emotion, conflict and turmoil. When meeting a man who 's a lawyer by day and believes in law and justice and then a man by night is someone who takes the law into his own hands. He deals with battles dealing with that concept. '' Elaborating on the difficulties of playing the character, Cox said, "I put on a shirt but I ca n't look where the buttons are, because Daredevil would n't know where the buttons are, but I also ca n't fumble. '' Cox worked with blind consultant Joe Strechay, and was conscious of what his eyes were doing at all times, to ensure they would not look at or react to something unlike a blind person. Cox later explained that, unlike the Marvel comic book character, his version of Daredevil would not be a "man without fear '', saying "Someone who does not have fear -- literally does not experience fear -- is not that interesting. The way I like to think about it is that he is a man with fear, but he on a daily basis decides to confront that fear and to overcome it. So the title of ' the man without fear ' is almost a title that the public in his world gives him just because of what he does. But inside himself, he 's very afraid at times. And he finds a way to confront those fears and punch through it. '' Cox "had to do a lot of gym work '' to change his physique to equal that of the more muscular character as drawn in the comics.
With the introduction of Elektra in season two, Loeb talked about how Élodie Yung 's portrayal of the character, with which "you never quite know if Elektra 's telling you the truth '', would affect Murdock, saying, "Matt, who has this sort of ability to be a human lie detector, because he 's emotionally attached to her, it skews his ability to be able to know whether or not she 's telling the truth or he 's being manipulated, or is she actually not manipulating him? That kind of interaction, and I think the natural emotion that was going on between Charlie and Elodie that we captured on film, added a great deal of spark to it. '' Cox called Murdock 's relationship with Elecktra "the superhero version of the very toxic love relationship you have in your 20s, where you 're on - again off - again for two years, and you never quite get over that person. Part of you is always with that one great true love you had, even though it was always doomed and it was never going to work. '' Ahead of the third season, Cox felt that after the events of The Defenders, where Murdock is presumed dead, it would present Murdock "with some pretty interesting options when he reengages with life. Will he reconnect with people? Will he find Foggy and let him know he 's okay? Will he not? I 'm very excited to find out what his game plan is going to be, once he gets his shit together. ''
Karen Page (portrayed by Deborah Ann Woll) discovers corruption in her place of employment, Union Allied, and is subsequently framed for murder, and then subject of attempted murder, with Murdock and Nelson helping her with the former, and the vigilante with the latter. Joining Murdock and Nelson, Page is determined to take down the corruption in Hell 's Kitchen, and works with reporter Ben Urich to expose Fisk. When Fisk 's assistant James Wesley discovers their investigation, which lead to Fisk 's beloved mother, Wesley kidnaps Page and attempts to blackmail her. Page kills Wesley with his own gun in self - defense and escapes, but becomes traumatized by the incident enough to sympathize Punisher 's goals.
Woll was cast as Page in July 2014. On creating the character of Karen Page, after portraying Jessica Hamby in True Blood from 2008 -- 14, Woll said, "I 'm already starting to notice huge differences between the two characters... I can feel myself go, ' Oh, if this was Jessica she would do this, ' but wanting to kind of steer differently than that. It 's always going to be me in some way. I think, as an actor, that 's part of it. '' Woll had not previously read any Daredevil comics, and turned to her boyfriend who is "a huge comic book fan '' for guidance. She also added that Page 's backstory would be different than the one from the comics, saying, "In the comic books, in the beginning Karen is very innocent, and then towards the end she 's really swung a full 180, she 's in a lot of trouble, so I wanted to find a way to make her both of those things at the same time. Can she be a really wonderful, kind person who is a little bit attracted to danger? She 's not just always getting into trouble because ' Oh, silly woman! ' Karen is actually looking for it, and she wo n't let her fear stop her from finding the truth. '' Woll does not watch the series, which helped in the second season where Page was unaware of Murdoch 's role as Daredevil, as she never saw Cox acting as Daredevil in the costume.
Maslansky looked to Page 's backstory within the show when designer her costumes, with Page having dreams and fantasies of a life in New York along the lines of Katharine Hepburn and Lauren Bacall, and dressing according to those thoughts ("retro, slim skirts, tighter fitting tops and slim dresses ''). Maslansky also said that "Page embodies innocence and knowingness. We referenced the comic illustrations and updated them, then built her wardrobe with the same retro nod as for the other characters... Her look is body conscious and professional. ''
Explaining why Page does not tell Murdock and Nelson that she has killed Wesley, DeKnight said, "There 's something that happened in Karen 's past -- we allude to it, Ben alludes to it -- and when she grabs the gun she says, "You think this is the first time I 've ever shot somebody? '' That 's a secret from her past that she does n't want anyone to know. The fact that she shot him once, you can explain that as self - defense; but then she pretty much unloaded the gun into him. That crosses a bit of a line. The last thing she would want is for those two to be horrified by what she 's done. ''
Franklin "Foggy '' Percy Nelson (portrayed by Elden Henson) met Matt Murdock at law school and became best friends with him. After interning together at Landman and Zack, Nelson and Murdock start their own law firm in Hell 's Kitchen, where Nelson wants to fight for ' the little guy '. His friendship with Murdock falters after he discovers the latter 's vigilante activities, but they become close again following their defeat of Fisk.
Henson joined the cast as Nelson in June 2014, and in April 2015 he spoke of his excitement for the character 's role in the series, saying "I was really excited as I was getting the scripts and reading that Foggy was n't just a useless sidekick. He 's not just comic relief. I mean, he is some of those things. He does have comic relief, but it was exciting to know that these other characters would have their own path and their own things that they 're dealing with. '' Maslansky noted that "In the original comics illustrations Foggy wears a bowtie and his color palette is lively. We updated his look but did n't stray from his overall distinctive style -- quirky but not flamboyant. He favors warm colors and printed shirts. His ties are patterned with animals or objects. Even his socks are patterned and colorful. The audience may never see them, but the actor does. Foggy has one particular accessory that helps define his look, a vintage tie - bar w / the letter ' F '. We imagine it was a gift from his father. ''
James Wesley (portrayed by Toby Leonard Moore) is Wilson Fisk 's right - hand man and friend who does a lot of his hands - on work. After discovering that Page met with Fisk 's beloved mother while investigating Fisk, Wesley confronts Page in an attempt to blackmail her and is killed by Page with his own gun in self - defense.
Moore was announced as cast in the role of Wesley in October 2014. Moore described Wesley as an "interesting character to play, because in one moment he can be incredibly charming, and in the next, dastardly as all hell, manipulative and Machiavellian, but always loyal to Wilson Fisk. '' Talking about the killing of Wesley by Page, and if it was due to carelessness on the behalf of the former, DeKnight said "It was a moment of underestimating Karen Page. We always knew he was going to die; that was decided at the beginning of the season that Karen was going to kill Wesley at some point but the mechanics of "how '' were tricky. It 's not so much a moment of carelessness as it was underestimating Karen. He dies because Wilson Fisk is worried about him. That moment when Fisk calls him is the split - second distraction that allows Karen to grab the gun. ''
Ben Urich (portrayed by Vondie Curtis - Hall) is an investigative journalist for the New York Bulletin, struggling with the lack of interest in the crime pieces that made him successful during his youth, and with his sick wife for whom he can barely afford to keep in hospital or move to a retirement home. He agrees to work with Page in her investigation of Fisk, but after he learns that Urich met with his mother while investigating him, Fisk breaks into Urich 's apartment and strangles him to death.
Curtis - Hall joined the series as Urich in October 2015. The decision to kill off Urich, an iconic comic book character, was made by Marvel before DeKnight joined the show. He explained that Marvel "really wanted to show that toward the end of the season because we knew we 'd get some sympathy for Fisk, to have him do something truly terrible that would propel Matt into that final endgame in the confrontation with Fisk. And to let the audience know that the gloves were off: just because he was a beloved character in the comics, does n't mean he 's safe... Urich gets murdered because he committed the unforgivable sin in Fisk 's mind: he went to Fisk 's mother. The last thing you want to do with Fisk is at all involve, insult, drag through the mud the women in his life he loves. That will be a serious trigger for him. ''
Leland Owlsley (portrayed by Bob Gunton) is an accountant who works for Fisk, controlling the money for all of Fisk 's allies as well. Owlsley disapproves of Fisk 's relationship with Vanessa Marianna, and he works with Madame Gao to have the former killed in an assassination attempt made to look like an attempt on Fisk. Though the attempt fails, Fisk is extremely angered by the event, and when he discovers that Owlsley has been taking Fisk 's money for himself, Fisk throws Owlsley down an elevator shaft, killing him.
Gunton was added to the cast in October 2014.
Vanessa Marianna (portrayed by Ayelet Zurer) is an art gallery curator who catches the eye of Fisk, and is acceptive of his line of work. Growing close with Fisk, Marianna helps him come out to New York as an apparently legitimate businessman, and when Fisk 's true dealings are revealed, she accepts his offer of marriage. When Fisk is defeated by Daredevil and imprisoned, Marianna leaves the country on her own.
Zurer joined the cast as Marianna in October 2014. Clinical psychologist Dr. Andrea Letamendi noted that Marianna "allows us to see the compassion Fisk has, and it 's genuine that he 's so loving and heartfelt and compassionate -- he has this sense of connection to humanity. It 's so interesting to have that dynamic and that this incredibly intelligent, powerful woman brings it out in him. '' Maslansky looked to Marianna 's backstory in the show, with the character coming into the series as a mysterious yet glamorous femme fatale, dressing in high - end, couture clothing; "she needed to appeal to (Fisk). He would n't go for just any chick in a pair of old jeans and a t - shirt. ''
Claire Temple (portrayed by Rosario Dawson) is a nurse who helps Murdock when she finds him beaten and injured, and after he saves her from some Russians who are using her to get to him, she becomes his confidant and near - full - time nurse. The two have a falling out when Murdock explains that a relationship between the two would not work, but she still helps him on occasion when needed.
Rosario Dawson joined the cast in June 2014, and her role was revealed to be that of Temple in October of that year. The character is an amalgam of Temple and Night Nurse. DeKnight noted that the character was originally "going to be the actual Night Nurse from the comics... we had her name in a script and it came back that it was possible (the feature side) were going to use her '' and "had plans for her down the road, '' necessitating the team to use the more obscure comics character Claire Temple as her name. Maslansky revealed that "Claire Temple 's look is effortless and casual; she exudes an unstudied sensuality. She wears slim boyfriend jeans and shirts that skim rather than hug the body. Her clothing might indicate a woman who has travelled or at least has an interest in cultures other than her own. ''
Dawson explained that "(her) character is a normal person and she becomes more heroic in a way that she maybe did n't expect '', and went on to state that "She 's not a love interest -- she 's this skeptical eye looking at this strange situation. She 's the one who can be like, "You 're not really good at this. '' That makes it feel more real. '' On her character 's relationship to Murdock, Dawson said that "The show explores how necessary it is for two people to finally have their masks off with each other. For Matt Murdock, this is the first person he has that 's going to be able to see that transition for him. For her, she 's someone who also throws herself into the fray and had made it her life mission to help, even if that means risking her own life. But she gets confronted with the question: How far will you go? What does it mean if you 're helping someone who is maybe going to hurt other people? ''
Wilson Fisk (portrayed by Vincent D'Onofrio) was abused alongside his mother by his father, until he killed him as a boy and his mother helped him cover it up. Fisk grew up wanting to make Hell 's Kitchen a better place, where there are no people like his father, and planned to buy the entire neighborhood, demolish it, and build a new and better Hell 's Kitchen. He received opposition from Murdock as both a lawyer and a vigilante, and began to lose the trust of his allies after he began seeing Marianna. His dealings are exposed to the FBI by a whistle - blower that Murdock protected, and when he attempts to escape custody he is defeated in combat by Murdock as Daredevil and incarcerated at Ryker 's Island. During his incarceration, Wilson Fisk works to gain control of the inmates while being visited by his lawyer Benjamin Donovan. When Punisher is sent to Ryker 's Island, Wilson Fisk manipulates Punisher into killing a rival inmate and later orchestrates Punisher 's escape.
D'Onofrio, who was cast as Fisk in June 2014, stated that he hoped his portrayal of Fisk was a new way to look at the character, and that it would be the definitive portrayal of the character. "Our Fisk, he 's a child and he 's a monster, '' D'Onofrio said. "Every move that he makes and everything that he does in our story comes from his foundation of morality inside himself. '' In December 2014, DeKnight detailed that "Fisk has very many different aspects so it 's not all, "I want to conquer the city and make a lot of money ''. In our story, we tell the story of how he met his wife Vanessa and how they fell in love -- our antagonist actually has a love story. That 's the love story you 're following, the one you 're invested in, and seeing how that affects him and changes him. '' He also said that "if you 're looking for a juicy, multi-faceted crime drama, Wilson Fisk was the obvious choice to play the antagonist... (he) really felt like the right yin to the yang for Matt, and for what we wanted to do this season. '' Concerning Fisk not being called Kingpin during the first season, like he is in the comics, DeKnight explained that "I think there is a, dare I say, critical mass where things get a little bit silly. You know if in the last five minutes we went, "Oh they called him Daredevil! Oh they called him Kingpin! '' It 's a little too much. Also there was no real natural way to get to Kingpin. It felt a little off. There is a point down the line to get there. '' Discussing Fisk 's fighting style, compared to Daredevil 's, series stunt coordinator Philip J Silvera said that, "I feel like they 're almost two sides to the same coin. They 're both doing things for their city. And it 's a tricky thing with their two characters. I think when you get the Fisk character to a certain point, it just becomes pure rage, and all thought process is out the window... The brutality is just relentless with him. When he gets into this mode, he just keeps going until he 's done. And that 's it. He will drive for you. That is the Kingpin, that is D'Onofrio. He 's a very smooth, calculating individual, but when you bring the rage out in him, he 's like a bulldozer. '' Cole Jensen plays a young Wilson Fisk.
Maslansky explained that "Wilson Fisk has a specific look. His choices reflect the man he is and the man he 's become. As with Matt Murdock 's costumes, I was influenced by the comics with the same stipulation that they feel authentic and modern. We dressed Fisk in current style, embracing a slim silhouette. It 's classic and consistent. His clothing was custom - made by a highly skilled tailor, Michael Andrews who 's well versed in modern design details. '' Significant props used for Fisk in the series are his father 's cufflinks, on which Maslansky said, "(Fisk 's father) would have bought them in the 1950s or ' 60s -- a mid-century design. We searched for the perfect vintage cufflinks. We finally landed on a sterling silver pair with interesting negative space. We knew from reading ahead we 'd need many duplicates. I redesigned them, adding more detail -- a tiger 's eye stone and a portion of it cast in gold. They retained a mid-century look, enhanced to become unique in the world. ''
Frank Castle (portrayed by Jon Bernthal) is a vigilante who aims to clean up Hell 's Kitchen by any means necessary, no matter how lethal the results, which earns him the name ' The Punisher ' from the media.
In June 2015, Marvel announced that Jon Bernthal was cast as Castle for the second season. DeKnight and the writers had discussed introducing the character in a post-credits scene during the first - season finale, but were unable due to the way that Netflix begins the next episode during the credits of the current one. The scene would have seen Owlsley escape rather than be killed by Fisk, only to be killed by Castle, whose face would not be revealed, but whose iconic skull insignia would have been featured. DeKnight felt that this "was the right decision. I think there 's a better, more organic way to introduce him to the world. '' DeKnight also noted that this version of Punisher would be "completely the Marvel version, '' as previous portrayals did not appear under the Marvel Studios / Marvel Television banner. He also felt Bernthal 's Punisher would not be as "graphically violent '' as in Punisher: War Zone. Goddard felt that television was the best fit for the character, as the writers are "able to do things on the small screen that fit that character better than if we had to water him down for the movies. '' Season two showrunners Doug Petrie and Marco Ramirez talked about creating their version of the character following the film versions, with Ramirez saying, "even if you know the character, you 've never seen him like this. That was the big thing we wanted. There are four movies, eight hours and four actors. We 've seen this guy. We think we know who he is, but even we learned that he 's so much more. '' Petrie said, "We hope to make people forget what they 've seen before, whether they 've loved it or not. ''
Petrie stated that Son of Sam, Bernard Goetz, and Travis Bickle from Taxi Driver were influences on the character, as well as current events, saying, "Taking lethal justice into your own hands in America in 2015 is tricky shit. We have not shied away from the rich complicated reality of Now. If you 've got a gun and you 're not the police you 're going to incite strong feelings. '' He added that the writers hoped to "stir the pot '' and "get people to think '' when watching Punisher. Bernthal added that "This character has resonated with law enforcement and military... and the best thing about him is that if he offends you, he just does n't care. '' In order to get in the correct mindset to portray Castle, Bernthal trained with military members, along with receiving weapon training. Bernthal also "had to put myself in as dark of place as possible '' to connect with "the emptiness inside '' Castle, and isolate himself, including walking across the Brooklyn Bridge to get to set "to shed any outside influence of joy. ''
Rosario Dawson, who felt Matt Murdock behaved like the Punisher in season one, felt it would "be really interesting to see how (the writers) differentiate '' the two in the second season. Describing the character, Bernthal said, "As a man who put his (life) on the line and really went through the ultimate sacrifice for this country in his involvement in the military. He 's a guy who brought the war home with him (in) the worst possible way. There are a lot of iterations of this character and in all of them it 's a man who 's gone through this unbelievable trauma and what 's interesting about our take on him is how this trauma reshapes his own philosophy. '' Bernthal also talked about the character 's ' superpowers ', saying, "If I got one thing from the comics, I think, as far as superpowers... his superpower is his rage. His superpower is that he is not going to quit, and he is going to go forward no matter what. And that 's as human and grounded a quality as I think as this sort of genre could have ''.
Elektra Natchios (portrayed by Élodie Yung) is a mysterious and dangerous woman from Murdock 's past.
In July 2015, Marvel announced that Yung had been cast as Elektra for the second season, after the character had initially been referred to in the first season. Describing Elektra 's effect on Murdock, Petrie called her "the best bad girlfriend you can possibly have. She does everything wrong and attractive, she 's (Matt 's) id, the wild side. Matt is always taming his wild side. Elektra just lets it out. He 's both repulsed and deeply drawn to that. '' Talking about the character, Yung said, "What I tried to capture by reading the comics is I wanted to keep the coldness that Elektra has. And I had conversations at length with Doug (Petrie) and Marco (Ramirez). We think Elektra is kind of a sociopath. This world is a game for her. It 's like a chess game, and what motivates her is what she wants. She 'll use anything she needs to use to get to her goal, and if she needs to kill people, she would. '' However, "we wanted to create a character with different layers. I think Elektra is n't a bad person. She 's not a good person. She 's a person with different traits, with layers, and she 's seeking for who she is. '' Lily Chee plays a young Elektra.
Blake Tower (portrayed by Stephen Rider) is a New York assistant district attorney under Samantha Reyes who assists Daredevil "with information to help track down and capture criminals. '' Following Samantha Reyes ' death, Tower is sworn in as the new district attorney.
In September 2015, Rider joined the cast of the second season as Tower.
Father Lantom (portrayed by Peter McRobbie) is a Catholic priest and confidante for Murdock.
McRobbie appears throughout the series as Lantom. Series writer Ruth Fletcher Gage called Lantom "almost Matt 's therapist. He was used in a lot of different ways. We wanted him to be someone who would actually discuss the things Matt brought to him. '' Writer Christos Gage added, "Father Lantom really was supposed to be a catalyst to force Matt to question his own view on things and his own feelings about what he was going to do. ''
Turk Barrett (portrayed by Rob Morgan) is a small - time criminal working for Wilson Fisk whom Daredevil beats for information.
Brett Mahoney (portrayed by Royce Johnson) is a police sergeant at the New York City Police Department 's 15th Precinct who is friends with Matt Murdock and Foggy Nelson. Foggy regularly bribes him with cigars for his mother. He also is a reluctant ally of Matt 's alter ego Daredevil, feeding him information on confidential matters. After Detective Carl Hoffman turns himself in and exposes the truth about Wilson Fisk, Mahoney was shown to have a pleased look on him as the FBI arrests Officer Corbin and his fellow corrupt police officers for their involvement with Wilson Fisk. He is promoted to the pay grade of Detective - Sergeant in "Regrets Only, '' after taking credit for the arrest of Frank Castle.
Carl Hoffman (portrayed by Daryl Edwards) is a detective with the New York City Police Department 's 15th Precinct and partner of Christian Blake that is secretly on Wilson Fisk 's side. After being forced to kill Blake on Wilson Fisk 's orders, Hoffman goes into hiding with Leland Owlsey 's help where he becomes a target of the police officers on Fisk 's side. Upon being rescued by Daredevil, Hoffman turns himself over to Sgt. Brett Mahoney, leading to Fisk 's exposure and the arrest of him and those involved.
Christian Blake (portrayed by Chris Tardio) is a corrupt detective with the New York City Police Department 's 15th Precinct who is secretly in the employ of Wilson Fisk, and is partnered with Carl Hoffman. After Daredevil attacks him and grabs his phone, obtaining crucial information, Fisk arranges for Blake to be shot by an ESU sniper outside the scene of a standoff, along with two other officers. Blake survives and Fisk subsequently has Hoffman kill Blake by injecting a poison into his IV line. Hoffman 's subsequent guilt over Blake 's death leads him to turn against Fisk and snitch on him to the FBI.
Madame Gao (portrayed by Wai Ching Ho) is an accomplished woman with her own heroin trade in Hell 's Kitchen who allies with Wilson Fisk.
Nobu Yoshioka (portrayed by Peter Shinkoda) is a Japanese businessman and head of a Yakuza branch who allies with Wilson Fisk. He is also a member of The Hand. Nobu is believed to be burned to death during a fight against Murdock.
It was originally reported by Deadline.com that the name of Shinkoda 's character would be "Hachiro '', a name that was given to a different character in the second season. On the character 's motivations, Shinkoda said, "I think that he 's driven almost religiously, like Matt, except that the stakes may be higher for Nobu than Matt. The way I played it, I assumed he may be a member of The Hand, he 's part of some program that 's been going for hundreds of years. I think he has global plans. They 're huge. They 're not only affecting him. '' In the ninth episode of the first season, the writers almost introduced Kirigi as the opponent Murdock would face, instead of Nobu.
Vladimir Ranskahov (portrayed by Nikolai Nikolaeff) is a Russian mafia member trying to make a name for himself in America with his brother Anatoly. He is later killed by the police officers on Wilson Fisk 's side while buying Daredevil time to get away.
Josie (portrayed by Susan Varon) is the owner of a bar frequented by Murdock, Nelson, and Page.
Doris Urich (portrayed by Adriane Lenox) is the sick wife of Ben Urich. Despite being hospitalized, she gives her full support for her husband when he begins to investigate Wilson Fisk 's crimes. After Ben is killed, Doris attends the funeral and reveals to Karen Page that Ben had set up a life insurance plan making her financially set for the rest of her life.
Mitchell Ellison (portrayed by Geoffrey Cantor) is the Editor - in - Chief of the New York Bulletin and Ben Urich 's boss, who does not believe Urich 's findings on Wilson Fisk 's illegal activities. By the second season, Ellison helps Karen Page with info revolving around Punisher and Blacksmith and eventually offers her a job at the New York Bulletin.
Shirley Benson (portrayed by Suzanne H. Smart) is an administrator at Metro - General Hospital.
Elena Cardenas (portrayed by Judith Delgado) is one of the first clients of Nelson and Murdock. She lives in a housing tenement inhibiting Fisk 's plan. Elena is later killed on the orders of Wilson Fisk.
There had been some intention for Cardenas ' demise to be much more graphic, with the character being blown up and only her arms being found afterwards, though this was found to be "going too far ''. DeKnight explained, "We ended up killing her later to wrap it into the story. And at the time we were thinking ' We ca n't blow her up! That 's too much! ' And then of course eight months later I watch Jessica Jones and they blow up that old neighbor woman and all that 's left is like an arm, and I 'm thinking ' Hey, wait a minute! ' ''
Marci Stahl (portrayed by Amy Rutberg) is Nelson 's ex-girlfriend who works for the corporate law firm Landman and Zack (where Nelson and Murdock once interned). She is hired by the law firm Hogarth, Chao & Benowitz after Nelson and Murdock take down Fisk and following Parish Landman 's arrest.
Stick (portrayed by Scott Glenn) is a mysterious martial artist and Matt Murdock 's mentor, who is in his late 90s. He is the leader of The Chaste, who wages a war against The Hand and its quest to retrieve the Black Sky.
Marvel announced in September 2014 that Glenn was joining the series as Stick. DeKnight initially wanted Sonny Chiba for the role, "but that did n't quite work out. '' Glenn, who had been brought up in early conversations by the writers, was reconsidered following his performance in The Leftovers. Glenn had never played a blind character before, calling it a challenge to integrate the blindness, being a martial arts master, and the emotional aspect to the character. He also added that Stick was "on the high - volume side '' of stunts for the show. To prepare for the role, Glenn had to "learn completely about the world of comic books... and who Stick (was) in relationship to the Daredevil. ''
Francis (portrayed by Tom Walker) is the head of Fisk 's security who was charged with even protecting Vanessa Marianna. Following Fisk 's arrest, Francis flees in a helicopter with Vanessa.
Melvin Potter (portrayed by Matt Gerald) is a machinist swayed to Wilson Fisk 's services who later creates the Daredevil costume for Murdock. He continues to upgrade the suit for Murdock and provides a suit for Natchios.
Samantha Reyes (portrayed by Michelle Hurd) is a New York District Attorney, who goes against Nelson and Murdock for the People v. Frank Castle trial. This is due to her playing a role in Castle 's family 's deaths and covered them up. Reyes is killed by a sniper working for the Blacksmith.
Hurd reprises her role from Jessica Jones.
Louisa Delgado (portrayed by Marilyn Torres) is a nurse who works at Metro General Hospital with Temple. She is killed by members of The Hand.
Hirochi (portrayed by Ron Nakahara) is a high - ranking member of The Hand working as an Roxxon Energy Corporation executive.
Stan Gibson (portrayed by John Pirkis) is a Roxxon Energy Corporation accountant blackmailed by The Hand through their kidnapping of his son. Stan leads Daredevil to the Farm, a drug factory which also turns children into Hand members. Daredevil rescues his son and Gibson, his son, and the children to Metro - General Hospital. Gibson is killed by his son with a scalpel.
The following is a supplementary list of guest stars that appear in lesser roles or make significant cameo appearances. The characters are listed by the MCU media or season in which they first appeared.
Pat Kiernan appears as himself throughout the series, while Stan Lee makes a cameo appearance through an on set photograph at the NYPD 's 15th Precinct. In Iron Fist, Lee 's character is identified as NYPD Captain Irving Forbush. Bonale Fambrini appears as a Black Sky.
Allison Winn, Doug Plaut, Massiel Mordan, and Shari Abdul play incubators for The Hand 's chemical farm alongside Daniel Gibson.
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how to make a 2 solution from a 10 solution | Solution - focused brief therapy - wikipedia
Solution - focused (brief) therapy (SFBT) is a goal - directed collaborative approach to psychotherapeutic change that is conducted through direct observation of clients ' responses to a series of precisely constructed questions. Based upon social constructionist thinking and Wittgensteinian philosophy SFBT focuses on addressing what clients want to achieve exploring the history and provenance of problem (s). SF therapy sessions typically focus on the present and future, focusing on the past only to the degree necessary for communicating empathy and accurate understanding of the client 's concerns.
The solution - focused brief therapy approach grew from the work of American social workers Steve de Shazer, Insoo Kim Berg, and their team at the Milwaukee Brief Family Therapy Center (BFTC) in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. A private training and therapy institute, BFTC was started by dissatisfied former staff members from a Milwaukee agency who were interested in exploring brief therapy approaches then being developed at the Mental Research Institute (MRI) in Palo Alto, CA. The initial group included married partners, Steve de Shazer, Insoo Berg, Jim Derks, Elam Nunnally, Marilyn La Court and Eve Lipchik. Their students included John Walter, Jane Peller, Michele Weiner - Davis and Yvonne Dolan. Steve de Shazer and Berg, primary developers of the approach, co-authored an update of SFBT in 2007, shortly before their respective deaths.
The solution - focused approach was developed inductively rather than deductively; Berg, de Shazer and their team spent thousands of hours carefully observing live and recorded therapy sessions. Any behaviors or words on the part of the therapist that reliably led to positive therapeutic change on the part of the clients were painstakingly noted and incorporated into the SFBT approach. In most traditional psychotherapeutic approaches starting with Freud, practitioners assumed that it was necessary to make an extensive analysis of the history and cause of their clients ' problems before attempting to develop any sort of solution. Solution - focused therapists see the therapeutic change process quite differently. Informed by the observations of Steve de Shazer, recognizing that although "causes of problems may be extremely complex, their solutions do not necessarily need to be ''.
Questions and compliments are the primary tools of the solution - focused approach. SF therapists and counselors deliberately refrain from making interpretations and rarely confront their clients. Instead, they focus on identifying the client 's goals, generating a detailed description of what life will be like when the goal is accomplished and the problem is either gone or coped with satisfactorily. In order to develop effective solutions, they search diligently through the client 's life experiences for "exceptions '', e.g. times when some aspect of the client 's goal was already happening to some degree, utilizing these to co-construct uniquely appropriate and effective solutions.
SF therapists typically begin the therapeutic process by joining with client competencies. As early in the interview as respectfully possible to do so, SF therapist / counselors invite the client to envision their preferred future by describing what their life will be like when the problem is either gone or being coped with so satisfactorily that it no longer constitutes a problem. The therapist and client then pay particular attention to any behaviors on the client 's part that contribute to moving in the direction of the client 's goal, whether these are small increments or larger changes. To support this approach, detailed questions are asked about how the client managed to achieve or maintain the current level of progress, any recent positive changes and how the client developed new and existing strengths, resources, and positive traits; and especially, about any exceptions to client - perceived problems.
Solution focused therapists believe personal change is already constant. By helping people identify positive directions for change in their life and to attend to changes currently in process they wish to continue, SFBT therapists help clients construct a concrete vision of a preferred future for themselves.
SFBT therapists support clients to identify times in their life when things matched more closely with the future they prefer. Differences and similarities between the two occasions are examined. By bringing small successes to awareness, and supporting clients to repeat their successful choices and behaviors, when the problem is not there or less severe, therapist facilitate client movement towards goals and preferred futures they have identified.
One way of understanding the practice of SFBT is displayed through the acronym MECSTAT, which stands for Miracle questions, Exception questions, Coping questions, Scaling questions, Time - out, Accolades and Task.
The miracle question or "problem is gone '' question is a method of questioning that a coach, therapist, or counselor can utilize to invite the client to envision and describe in detail how the future will be different when the problem is no longer present.
A traditional version of the miracle question would go like this:
Whilst relatively easy to state, the miracle question requires considerable skill to ask well. The question must be asked slowly with close attention to the person 's non-verbal communication to ensure that the pace matches the person 's ability to follow the question. Initial responses frequently include a sense of "I do n't know. '' To ask the question well this should be met with respectful silence to give the person time to fully absorb the question.
Once the miracle day has been thoroughly explored the worker can follow this with scales, on a scale where 0 = worst things have ever been and 10 = the miracle day, with questions such as: Where are you now? Where would things need to be for you to know that you did n't need to see me any more? What will be the first things that will let you know you are 1 point higher? In this way the miracle question is not so much a question as a series of questions.
There are many different versions of the miracle question depending on the context and the client.
In a specific situation, the counselor may ask,
The client, in this example, (a child) may respond by saying,
The counselor wants the client to develop positive goals, or what they will do - rather than what they will not do -- to better ensure success. So, the counselor may ask the client, "What will you be doing instead when someone calls you names? ''
Scaling questions invite clients to employ measuring and tracking of their own experience, in a non-threatening way. Scaling and measuring are useful tools to identify differences for clients. Goals and progress towards goals are often facilitated by subjective measuring and scaling.
SFBT is famous for inviting clients to get very specific about such subjective measuring and scaling; for example, by asking questions that invite clients to establish their own polarity; and then, measure their progress -- forwards and backwards -- towards the more desirable pole. SFBT innovated language to make this invitation to more internal rigor sound natural to clients: What is "the worst the problem has ever been? '' (zero or one). What is "the best things could ever possibly be? '' (ten). The client is asked to rate their current position on their own scale. Questions are used to elicit useful details of behavior to measure by, resources and support (e.g. "what 's stopping you from slipping one point lower down the scale? ''). Clients are then invited to calibrate their own progress precisely (e.g. "on a day when you are one point higher on the scale, what tells you this is a ' one point higher ' day? ''). Similarly preferred futures can be discussed in light of the client 's own scale (e.g. "where on the scale would be good enough? What would a day at that point on the scale feel like; what would you do differently? '')
Proponents of SFBT insist there are always times when the identified problem is less severe or absent for clients. The counselor seeks to encourage the client to identify these occurrences and maximize their frequency. What happened that was different? What did you do that was different? The goal is for clients to repeat what has worked in the past, and support confidence in taking more and more "baby steps '' towards their ideal scenes. This concept and practice was influenced by Milton Erickson.
Coping questions are designed to elicit information about client resources that will have gone unnoticed by them. Even the most hopeless story has within it examples of coping that can be drawn out: "I can see how things have been really difficult for you, yet I am struck by the fact you get up each morning and do everything necessary to get the kids off to school. How do you do that? '' Genuine curiosity and admiration can help to highlight strengths without appearing to contradict the client 's perception of the problem. An initial summary "I can see how things have been really difficult for you '' is for them true and validates their story. The second part "you manage to get up each morning etc. '', is also a truism, but one that counters the problem - focused narrative. Undeniably, they cope and coping questions start to gently and supportively challenge the problem - focused narrative.
Solution focused therapists attempt to create a judgement - free zone for clients where what is going well, what areas of life are problem - free are discussed. Problem - free talk can be useful for uncovering hidden resources, to help the person relax, or become more naturally pro-active, for example. Solution focused therapists may talk about seemingly irrelevant life experiences such as leisure activities, meeting with friends, relaxing and managing conflict. This often uncovers client values, beliefs and strengths. From this discussion the therapist can use these strengths and resources to move the therapy forward. For example; if a client wants to be more assertive it may be that under certain life situations they are assertive. This strength from one part of their life can then be transferred - generalized to another area where new behavior is desired. Perhaps a client is struggling with their child because the child gets aggressive and calls the parent names. If the parent continually retaliates and also gets angry, perhaps they can recall another area of their life where they remain calm even under pressure; or maybe, they have trained a dog successfully who now behaves and can identify how kindness, patience and consistency were keys to eliciting the dog 's good behavior. This could lead to discussion of using kindness, patience and consistency to create healthy boundaries the child might cooperate with.
Dan Jones, in his Becoming a Brief Therapist book writes:
'... it is in the problem free areas you find most of the resources to help the client. It also relaxes them and helps build rapport, and it can give you ideas to use for treatment... Everybody has natural resources that can be utilised. These might be events... or talk about friends or family... The idea behind accessing resources is that it gives you something to work with that you can use to help the client to achieve their goal... Even negative beliefs and opinions can be utilised as resources '.
A key task in SFBT is supporting clients to identify and attend to their own internal competencies, skills and resources; as well as their immediate support systems and supportive social networks. This focus helps the client construct narratives as internally competent and externally supported. Expanding language here often identifies new ways to bring existing resources to bear upon present problems. Therapists empower clients to identify their own resources by way of scaling questions, problem - free talk, and during exception - seeking.
Resources can be Internal: the client 's skills, strengths, qualities, beliefs that are useful to them and their capacities, or External: supportive relationships such as, partners, family, friends, faith or religious groups and also support groups.
Solution Focused Brief Therapy is one of a family of approaches, known as systems therapies, that have been developed over the past 50 years or so, first in the USA, and eventually evolving around the world, including Europe. The title SFBT, and the specific steps involved in its practice, are attributed to husband and wife Steve de Shazer and Insoo Kim Berg, two American social workers, and their team at The Brief Family Therapy Center in Milwaukee, USA. Core members of this team were Eve Lipchik, Wallace Gingerich, Elam Nunnally, Alex Molnar, and Michele Weiner - Davis. Their work in the early 1980s built on that of a number of other innovators, among them Milton Erickson, and the group at the Mental Research Institute at Palo Alto -- Gregory Bateson, Donald deAvila Jackson, Paul Watzlawick, John Weakland, Virginia Satir, Jay Haley, Richard Fisch, Janet Beavin Bavelas and others.
Many of the concepts of brief therapy were independently discovered by several therapists, in their own practices, over several decades in the 1950s (notably Milton Erickson), as described by authors such as Haley, and became popularized in the 1960s and 1970s.
Solution Focused Brief Therapy has branched out in numerous spectrums - indeed, the approach is now known in other fields as simply Solution Focus or Solutions Oriented Therapy. Most notably, the field of Addiction Counseling has taken up SFBT as one of the most cost - effective means to treat problem drinking. Johns Hopkins University, the Center for Solutions in Cando, ND, and notable others, have implemented SFBT as part of their program, where they use it as part of a partial hospitalization and in residential treatment facility for both adolescents and adults.
The field of Christian Pastoral counseling has also seen Solution Focused Brief Therapy make inroads into its practices where it is referred to as Solution Focused Pastoral Counseling or Brief Pastoral Counseling.
Solution - focused counseling is a solution focused brief therapy model. Various similar, yet distinct, models have been referred to as solution - focused counseling. For example, Jeffrey Guterman developed a solution - focused approach to counseling in the 1990s. This model is an integration of solution - focused principles and techniques, postmodern theories, and a strategic approach to eclecticism.
Solution - focused consulting is an approach to organizational change management that is built upon the principles and practices of solution - focused therapy. While therapy is for individuals and families, Solution - Focused consulting is being used as a change process for organizational groups of every size, from small teams to large business units.
A contemporary therapy linking the solution focused brief therapy model back to the hypnotherapy of Milton H Erickson, the hypnotherapist who inspired Steve de Shazer and Insoo Kim Berg. Solution Focused Hypnotherapy (SFH) adopts practical, modern strategies that include the best of solution focused brief therapy (SFBT), cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), neuro - linguistic programming (NLP) and direct hypnosis.
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the us food stamp program which provides coupons | Supplemental Nutrition Assistance program - wikipedia
The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), formerly known as the Food Stamp Program, provides food - purchasing assistance for low - and no - income people living in the United States. It is a federal aid program, administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, under the Food and Nutrition Service (FNS), though benefits are distributed by each U.S. state 's Division of Social Services or Children and Family Services.
SNAP benefits cost $70.9 billion in fiscal year 2016 and supplied roughly 44.2 million Americans with an average of $125.51 for each person per month in food assistance. Beneficiaries and costs increased sharply with the Great Recession, peaked in 2013 and have declined through 2016 as the economy recovered. It is the largest nutrition program of the fifteen administered by FNS and is a component of the federal social safety net for low - income Americans.
The amount of SNAP benefits received by a household depends on the household 's size, income, and expenses. For most of its history, the program used paper - denominated "stamps '' or coupons -- worth US $ 1 (brown), $5 (blue), and $10 (green) -- bound into booklets of various denominations, to be torn out individually and used in single - use exchange. Because of their 1: 1 value ratio with actual currency, the coupons were printed by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. Their rectangular shape resembled a U.S. dollar bill (although about one - half the size), including intaglio printing on high - quality paper with watermarks. In the late 1990s, the Food Stamp Program was revamped, with some states phasing out actual stamps in favor of a specialized debit card system known as Electronic Benefit Transfer (EBT), provided by private contractors. EBT has been implemented in all states since June 2004. Each month, SNAP food stamp benefits are directly deposited into the household 's EBT card account. Households may use EBT to pay for food at supermarkets, convenience stores, and other food retailers, including certain farmers ' markets.
The idea for the first FSP has been credited to various people, most notably U.S. Secretary of Agriculture Henry Wallace and the program 's first administrator, Milo Perkins. Of the program, Perkins said, "We got a picture of a gorge, with farm surpluses on one cliff and under - nourished city folks with outstretched hands on the other. We set out to find a practical way to build a bridge across that chasm. '' The program operated by permitting people on relief to buy orange stamps equal to their normal food expenditures; for every US $1 worth of orange stamps purchased, fifty cents ' worth of blue stamps were received. Orange stamps could be used to buy any food; blue stamps could be used only to buy food determined by the Department to be surplus.
Over the course of nearly four years, the first FSP reached approximately 20 million people in nearly half of the counties in the U.S., at a total cost of $262 million. At its peak, the program assisted an estimated 4 million people. The first recipient was Mabel McFiggin of Rochester, New York; the first retailer to redeem the stamps was Joseph Mutolo; and the first retailer caught violating program rules was Nick Salzano in October 1939. The program ended when the conditions that brought the program into being (unmarketable food surpluses and widespread unemployment) ceased to exist.
The eighteen years between the end of the first FSP and the inception of the next were filled with studies, reports, and legislative proposals. Prominent U.S. Senators actively associated with attempts to enact a food stamp program during this period included George Aiken, Robert M. La Follette, Jr., Hubert Humphrey, Estes Kefauver, and Stuart Symington. From 1954 on, U.S. Representative Leonor Sullivan strove to pass food - stamp - program legislation.
On September 21, 1959, P.L. 86 - 341 authorized the Secretary of Agriculture to operate a food - stamp system through January 31, 1962. The Eisenhower Administration never used the authority. However, in fulfillment of a campaign promise made in West Virginia, President John F. Kennedy 's first Executive Order called for expanded food distribution and, on February 2, 1961, he announced that food stamp pilot programs would be initiated. The pilot programs would retain the requirement that the food stamps be purchased, but eliminated the concept of special stamps for surplus foods. A Department spokesman indicated the emphasis would be on increasing the consumption of perishables.
Of the program, U.S. Representative Leonor K. Sullivan of Missouri asserted, "... the Department of Agriculture seemed bent on outlining a possible food stamp plan of such scope and magnitude, involving some 25 million persons, as to make the whole idea seem ridiculous and tear food stamp plans to smithereens. ''
The Food Stamp Act of 1964 appropriated $75 million to 350,000 individuals in 40 counties and three cities. The measure drew overwhelming support from House Democrats, 90 percent from urban areas, 96 percent from the suburbs, and 87 percent from rural areas. Republican lawmakers opposed the initial measure: only 12 percent of urban Republicans, 11 percent from the suburbs, and 5 percent from rural areas voted affirmatively. President Lyndon B. Johnson hailed food stamps as "a realistic and responsible step toward the fuller and wiser use of an agricultural abundance ''.
Rooted in congressional logrolling, the act was part of a larger appropriation that raised price supports for cotton and wheat. Rural lawmakers supported the program so that their urban colleagues would not dismantle farm subsidies. Food stamps, along with Medicaid, Head Start, and the Job Corps were foremost among the growing anti-poverty programs.
President Johnson called for a permanent food - stamp program on January 31, 1964, as part of his "War on Poverty '' platform introduced at the State of the Union a few weeks earlier. Agriculture Secretary Orville Freeman submitted the legislation on April 17, 1964. The bill eventually passed by Congress was H.R. 10222, introduced by Congresswoman Sullivan. One of the members on the House Committee on Agriculture who voted against the FSP in Committee was then Representative Bob Dole.
As a Senator, Dole became a staunch supporter of the program, after he worked with George McGovern to produce a bipartisan solution to two of the main problems associated with food stamps: cumbersome purchase requirements and lax eligibility standards. Dole told Congress regarding the new provisions, "I am confident that this bill eliminates the greedy and feeds the needy. '' The law was intended to strengthen the agricultural economy and provide improved levels of nutrition among low - income households; however, the practical purpose was to bring the pilot FSP under congressional control and to enact the regulations into law.
The major provisions were:
The Agriculture Department estimated that participation in a national FSP would eventually reach 4 million, at a cost of $360 million annually, far below the actual numbers.
In April 1965, participation topped half a million. (Actual participation was 561,261 people.) Participation topped 1 million in March 1966, 2 million in October 1967, 3 million in February 1969, 4 million in February 1970, 5 million one month later in March 1970, 6 million two months later in May 1970, 10 million in February 1971, and 15 million in October 1974. Rapid increases in participation during this period were primarily due to geographic expansion.
The early 1970s were a period of growth in participation, concern about the cost of providing food stamp benefits, and questions about administration, primarily timely certification. During this time, the issue was framed that would dominate food stamp legislation ever after: how to balance program access with program accountability. Three major pieces of legislation shaped this period, leading up to massive reform to follow:
P.L. 91 - 671 (January 11, 1971) established uniform national standards of eligibility and work requirements; required that allotments be equivalent to the cost of a nutritionally adequate diet; limited households ' purchase requirements to 30 percent of their income; instituted an outreach requirement; authorized the Agriculture Department to pay 62.5 percent of specific administrative costs incurred by States; expanded the FSP to Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands of the United States; and provided $1.75 billion appropriations for Fiscal Year 1971.
Agriculture and Consumer Protection Act of 1973 (P.L. 93 - 86, August 10, 1973) required States to expand the program to every political jurisdiction before July 1, 1974; expanded the program to drug addicts and alcoholics in treatment and rehabilitation centers; established semi-annual allotment adjustments, SSI cash - out, and bi-monthly issuance; introduced statutory complexity in the income definition (by including in - kind payments and providing an accompanying exception); and required the Department to establish temporary eligibility standards for disasters.
P.L. 93 - 347 (July 12, 1974) authorized the Department to pay 50 percent of all states ' costs for administering the program and established the requirement for efficient and effective administration by the States.
In accordance with P.L. 93 - 86, the FSP began operating nationwide on July 1, 1974. (The program was not fully implemented in Puerto Rico until November 1, 1974.) Participation for July 1974 was almost 14 million.
Once a person is a beneficiary of the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) Program he (or she) may be automatically eligible for Food Stamps depending on his (or her) state 's laws. How much money in food stamps they receive also varies by state. Supplemental Security Income was created in 1974.
Both the outgoing Republican Administration and the new Democratic Administration offered Congress proposed legislation to reform the FSP in 1977. The Republican bill stressed targeting benefits to the neediest, simplifying administration, and tightening controls on the program; the Democratic bill focused on increasing access to those most in need and simplifying and streamlining a complicated and cumbersome process that delayed benefit delivery as well as reducing errors, and curbing abuse. The chief force for the Democratic Administration was Robert Greenstein, Administrator of the Food and Nutrition Service (FNS).
In Congress, major players were Senators George McGovern, Jacob Javits, Humphrey, and Dole and Congressmen Foley and Richmond. Amid all the themes, the one that became the rallying cry for FSP reform was "EPR '' -- eliminate the purchase requirement -- because of the barrier to participation the purchase requirement represented. The bill that became the law (S. 275) did eliminate the purchase requirement. It also:
In addition to EPR, the Food Stamp Act of 1977 included several access provisions:
The integrity provisions of the new program included fraud disqualifications, enhanced Federal funding for States ' anti-fraud activities, and financial incentives for low error rates.
The House Report for the 1977 legislation points out that the changes in the Food Stamp Program are needed without reference to upcoming welfare reform since "the path to welfare reform is, indeed, rocky... ''
EPR was implemented January 1, 1979. Participation that month increased 1.5 million over the preceding month.
The large and expensive FSP proved to be a favorite subject of close scrutiny from both the Executive Branch and Congress in the early 1980s. Major legislation in 1981 and 1982 enacted cutbacks including:
Electronic Benefits Transfer (EBT) began in Reading, Pennsylvania, in 1984.
Recognition of the severe domestic hunger problem in the latter half of the 1980s led to incremental expansions of the FSP in 1985 and 1987, such as elimination of sales tax on food stamp purchases, reinstitution of categorical eligibility, increased resource limit for most households ($2,000), eligibility for the homeless, and expanded nutrition education. The Hunger Prevention Act of 1988 and the Mickey Leland Memorial Domestic Hunger Relief Act in 1990 foretold the improvements that would be coming. The 1988 and 1990 legislation accomplished the following:
Throughout this era, significant players were principally various committee chairmen: Congressmen Leland, Hall, Foley, Leon Panetta, and, de la Garza and Senator Patrick Leahy.
By 1993, major changes in food stamp benefits had arrived. The final legislation provided for $2.8 billion in benefit increases over Fiscal Years 1984 - 1988. Leon Panetta, in his new role as OMB Director, played a major role as did Senator Leahy. Substantive changes included:
In December 1979, participation finally surpassed 20 million. In March 1994, participation hit a new high of 28 million.
The mid-1990s was a period of welfare reform. Prior to 1996, the rules for the cash welfare program, Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), were waived for many states. With the enactment of the 1996 welfare reform act, called the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA), AFDC, an entitlement program, was replaced that with a new block grant to states called Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF).
Although the Food Stamp Program was reauthorized in the 1996 Farm Bill, the 1996 welfare reform made several changes to the program, including:
As a result of all these changes, "participation rates plummeted '' in the late 1990s, according to Slate online magazine.
The Balanced Budget Act of 1997 (BBA) and the Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Act of 1998 (AREERA) made some changes to these provisions, most significantly:
The fiscal year 2001 agriculture appropriations bill included two significant changes. The legislation increased the excess shelter cap to $340 in fiscal year 2001 and then indexed the cap to changes in the Consumer Price Index for All Consumers each year beginning in fiscal year 2002. The legislation also allowed states to use the vehicle limit they use in a TANF assistance program, if it would be result in a lower attribution of resources for the household.
In the late 1990s, the Food Stamp Program was revamped, with some states phasing out actual stamps in favor of a specialized debit card system known as Electronic Benefit Transfer (EBT), provided by private contractors. Many states merged the use of the EBT card for public welfare programs as well, such as cash assistance. The move was designed to save the government money by not printing the coupons, make benefits available immediately instead of requiring the recipient to wait for mailing or picking up the booklets in person, and reduce theft and diversion.
The 2008 farm bill renamed the Food Stamp Program as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (beginning October 2008) and replaced all references to "stamp '' or "coupon '' in federal law with "card '' or "EBT. ''
SNAP benefits temporarily increased with the passage of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA), a federal stimulus package to help Americans affected by the Great Recession. Beginning in April 2009 and continuing through the expansion 's expiration on November 1, 2013, the ARRA appropriated $45.2 billion to increase monthly benefit levels to an average of $133. This amounted to a 13.6 percent funding increase for SNAP recipients.
This temporary expansion expired on November 1, 2013, resulting in a relative benefit decrease for SNAP households; on average, benefits decreased by 5 percent. According to a Center on Budget and Policy Priorities report, the maximum monthly benefit for a family of four dropped from $668 to $632, while the maximum monthly benefit for an individual dropped from $200 to $189.
In June 2014, Mother Jones reported that "Overall, 18 percent of all food benefits money is spent at Walmart, '' and that Walmart had submitted a statement to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission stating,
Our business operations are subject to numerous risks, factors, and uncertainties, domestically and internationally, which are outside our control. These factors include... changes in the amount of payments made under the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Plan and other public assistance plans, (and) changes in the eligibility requirements of public assistance plans.
Companies that have lobbied on behalf of SNAP include PepsiCo, Coca - Cola, and the grocery chain Kroger. Kraft Foods, which receives "One - sixth (of its) revenues... from food stamp purchases '' also opposes food stamp cuts.
Because SNAP is a mandatory, or entitlement, program, the federal government is required to fund the benefits of all eligible participants. There are income and resource requirements for SNAP, as well as specific requirements for immigrants, elderly persons and persons with disabilities.
For income, individuals and households may qualify for benefits if they earn a gross monthly income that is 130 % (or less) of the federal poverty level for a specific household size. For example: the SNAP - eligible gross monthly income is $1,245 or less for an individual. For a household of 4, the SNAP eligible gross monthly income is $2,552 or less. Gross monthly income is the amount an individual makes each month before any deductions, i.e. taxes, insurance, pensions, etc.
There is also a resource requirement for SNAP, although eligibility requirements vary slightly from state to state. Generally speaking, households may have up to $2,250 in a bank account or other countable sources. If at least one person is age 60 or older and / or has disabilities, households may have $3,250 in countable resources.
The lack of affordable housing in urban areas means that money that could have been spent on food is spent on housing expenses. Housing is generally considered affordable when it costs 30 % or less of total household income; rising housing costs have made this ideal difficult to attain.
This is especially true in New York City, where 28 % of rent stabilized tenants spend more than half their income on rent. Among lower income families the percentage is much higher. According to an estimate by the Community Service Society, 65 % of New York City families living below the federal poverty line are paying more than half of their income toward rent.
The current eligibility criteria attempt to address this, by including a deduction for "excess shelter costs ''. This applies only to households that spend more than half of their net income on rent. For the purpose of this calculation, a household 's net income is obtained by subtracting certain deductions from their gross (before deductions) income. If the household 's total expenditures on rent exceed 50 % of that net income, then the net income is further reduced by the amount of rent that exceeds 50 % of net income. For 2007, this deduction can be no more than $417, except in households that include an elderly or disabled person. Deductions include:
The adjusted net income, including the deduction for excess shelter costs, is used to determine whether a household is eligible for food stamps.
The 2002 Farm Bill restores SNAP eligibility to most legal immigrants that:
Certain non-citizens, such as those admitted for humanitarian reasons and those admitted for permanent residence, may also be eligible for SNAP. Eligible household members can get SNAP benefits even if there are other members of the household that are not eligible.
To apply for SNAP benefits, an applicant must first fill out a program application and return it to the state or local SNAP office. Each state has a different application, which is usually available online. There is more information about various state applications processes, including locations of SNAP offices in various state, displayed on an interactive Outreach Map found on the FNS website. Individuals who believe they may be eligible for SNAP benefits may use the Food and Nutrition Services ' SNAP Screening Tool, which can help gauge eligibility.
As per USDA rules, households can use SNAP benefits to purchase:
Additionally, restaurants operating in certain areas may be permitted to accept SNAP benefits from eligible candidates like elderly, homeless or disabled people in return for affordable meals.
However, the USDA clearly mentions that households can not use SNAP benefits to purchase the following:
Soft drinks, candy, cookies, snack crackers, and ice cream are classified as food items and are therefore eligible items. Seafood, steak, and bakery cakes are also food items and are therefore eligible items.
Energy drinks which have a nutrition facts label are eligible foods, but energy drinks which have a supplement facts label are classified by the FDA as supplements, and are therefore not eligible.
Live animals and birds may not be purchased; but live fish and shellfish are eligible foods. Pumpkins are eligible, but inedible gourds and solely ornamental pumpkins are not.
Gift baskets containing both food and non-food items "are not eligible for purchase with SNAP benefits if the value of the non-food items exceeds 50 percent of the purchase price. Items such as birthday and other special occasion cakes are eligible as long as the value of non-edible decorations does not exceed 50 percent of the price. ''
States are allowed under federal law to administer SNAP in different ways. As of April 2015, the USDA had published eleven periodic State Options Reports outlining variations in how states have administered the program. The USDA 's most recent State Options Report, published in April 2015, summarizes:
SNAP 's statutes, regulations, and waivers provide State agencies with various policy options. State agencies use this flexibility to adapt their programs to meet the needs of eligible, low ‐ income people in their States. Modernization and technology have provided States with new opportunities and options in administering the program. Certain options may facilitate program design goals, such as removing or reducing barriers to access for low - income families and individuals, or providing better support for those working or looking for work. This flexibility helps States better target benefits to those most in need, streamline program administration and field operations, and coordinate SNAP activities with those of other programs.
Some areas of differences among states include: when and how frequently SNAP recipients must report household circumstances; on whether the state agency acts on all reported changes or only some changes; whether the state uses a simplified method for determining the cost of doing business in cases where an applicant is self - employed; and whether legally obligated child support payments made to non-household members are counted as an income exclusion rather than a deduction.
State agencies also have an option to call their program SNAP; whether to continue to refer to their program under its former name, the Food Stamp Program; or whether to choose an alternate name. Among the 50 states plus the District of Columbia, 32 call their program SNAP; five continue to call the program the Food Stamp Program; and 16 have adopted their own name. For example, California calls its SNAP implementation "CalFresh '', while Arizona calls its program "Nutrition Assistance ''.
According to January 2015 figures reported by the Census Bureau and USDA and compiled by USA Today, the states and district with the most food stamp recipients per capita are:
According to June 2009 figures reported by the state agencies, the USDA, and Census Bureau, and compiled by the New York Times, the individual counties with the highest levels of SNAP usage were:
During the recession of 2008, SNAP participation hit an all - time high. Arguing in support for SNAP, the Food Research and Action Center argued that "putting more resources quickly into the hands of the people most likely to turn around and spend it can both boost the economy and cushion the hardships on vulnerable people who face a constant struggle against hunger. '' Researchers have found that every $1 that is spent from SNAP results in $1.73 of economic activity. In California, the cost - benefit ratio is even higher: for every $1 spent from SNAP between $3.67 to $8.34 is saved in health care costs. The Congressional Budget Office also rated an increase in SNAP benefits as one of the two most cost - effective of all spending and tax options it examined for boosting growth and jobs in a weak economy.
A summary statistical report indicated that an average of 44.2 million people used the program in FY 2016, down from 45.8 million in 2015 and below the 2013 peak of 47.6 million. SNAP is able to support 75 % of those eligible for the program. Nearly 72 percent of SNAP participants are in families with children; more than one - quarter of participants are in households with seniors or people with disabilities.
As of 2013, more than 15 % of the U.S. population receive food assistance, and more than 20 % in Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oregon and Tennessee. Washington D.C. was the highest share of the population to receive food assistance at over 23 %.
According to the United States Department of Agriculture (based on a study of data gathered in Fiscal Year 2010), statistics for the food stamp program are as follows:
Amounts paid to program beneficiaries rose from $28.6 billion in 2005 to $76.1 billion in 2013, falling back to $66.6 billion by 2016. This increase was due to the high unemployment rate (leading to higher SNAP participation) and the increased benefit per person with the passing of ARRA. SNAP average monthly benefits increased from $96.18 per person to $133.08 per person. Other program costs, which include the Federal share of State administrative expenses, Nutrition Education, and Employment and Training, amounted to roughly $3.7 million in 2013. There were cuts into the program 's budget introduced in 2014 that were estimated to save $8.6 billion over 10 years. Some of the states are looking for measures within the states to balance the cuts, so they would not affect the recipients of the federal aid program.
While SNAP participants and other low - income nonparticipants spend similar amounts on food spending, SNAP participants tend to still experience greater food insecurity than nonparticipants. This is believed to be a reflection of welfare of individuals who take the time to apply for SNAP benefits than the shortcomings of SNAP. The theory behind this is that those households facing the greatest hardships are the most likely to bear of the burden of applying for program benefits. Therefore, SNAP participants tend to be, on average, less food secure than other low - income nonparticipants.
Self - selection by more food - needy households into SNAP makes it difficult to observe positive effects on food security from survey data. While SNAP participants and other low - income nonparticipants spend similar amounts on food spending, SNAP participants tend to still experience greater food insecurity than nonparticipants. This is believed to be a reflection of welfare of individuals who take the time to apply for SNAP benefits than the shortcomings of SNAP. In other words, households facing the greatest hardships are the most likely to bear of the burden of applying for program benefits. Statistical models that control for this endogeneity suggest that SNAP receipt reduces the likelihood of being food insecure and very food insecure by roughly 30 percent and 20 percent, respectively.
Because SNAP is a means tested, entitlement program, participation rates are closely related to the number of individuals living in poverty in a given time period. In periods of economic recession, SNAP enrollment tends to increase and in periods of prosperity, SNAP participation tends to be lower. Unemployment is therefore also related to SNAP participation. However, ERS data shows that poverty and SNAP participation levels have continued to rise following the 2008 recession, even though unemployment rates have leveled off. Poverty levels are the strongest correlates for program participation.
A 2016 study found that SNAP benefits lead to greater expenditures on housing, transportation, and education by beneficiaries.
The purpose of the Food Stamp Program as laid out in its implementation was to assist low - income households in obtaining adequate and nutritious diets. According to Peter H. Rossi, a sociologist whose work involved evaluation of social programs, "the program rests on the assumption that households with restricted incomes may skimp on food purchases and live on diets that are inadequate in quantity and quality, or, alternatively skimp on other necessities to maintain an adequate diet ''. Food stamps, as many like Rossi, MacDonald, and Eisinger contend, are used not only for increasing food but also as income maintenance. Income maintenance is money that households are able to spend on other things because they no longer have to spend it on food. According to various studies shown by Rossi, because of income maintenance only about $0.17 -- $0.47 more is being spent on food for every food stamp dollar than was spent prior to individuals receiving food stamps.
Studies are inconclusive as to whether SNAP has a direct effect on the nutritional quality of food choices made by participants. Unlike other federal programs that provide food subsidies, i.e. the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC), SNAP does not have nutritional standards for purchases. Critics of the program suggest that this lack of structure represents a missed opportunity for public health advancement and cost containment. In April, 2013, the USDA research body, the Economic Research Service (ERS), published a study that examined diet quality in SNAP participants compared to low - income nonparticipants. The study revealed a difference in diet quality between SNAP participants and low - income nonparticipants, finding that SNAP participants score slightly lower on the Healthy Eating Index (HEI) than nonparticipants. The study also concluded that SNAP increases the likelihood that participants will consume whole fruit by 23 percentage points. However, the analysis also suggests that SNAP participation decreases participants ' intake of dark green / orange vegetables by a modest amount.
A 2016 study found no evidence that SNAP increased expenditures on tobacco by beneficiaries.
The USDA 's Economic Research Service explains: "SNAP is a counter-cyclical government assistance program -- it provides assistance to more low - income households during an economic downturn or recession and to fewer households during an economic expansion. The rise in SNAP participation during an economic downturn results in greater SNAP expenditures which, in turn, stimulate the economy. ''
In 2011, Secretary of Agriculture Tom Vilsack gave a statement regarding SNAP benefits: "Every dollar of SNAP benefits generates $1.84 in the economy in terms of economic activity. '' Vilsack 's estimate was based on a 2002 USDA study which found that "ultimately, the additional $5 billion of FSP (Food Stamp Program) expenditures triggered an increase in total economic activity (production, sales, and value of shipments) of $9.2 billion and an increase in jobs of 82,100, '' or $1.84 stimulus for every dollar spent.
A January 2008 report by Moody 's Analytics chief economist Mark Zandi analyzed measures of the Economic Stimulus Act of 2008 and found that in a weak economy, every $1 in SNAP expenditures generates $1.73 in real GDP increase, making it the most effective stimulus among all the provisions of the act, including both tax cuts and spending increases.
A 2010 report by Kenneth Hanson published by the USDA 's Economic Research Service estimated that a $1 billion increase in SNAP expenditures increases economic activity (GDP) by $1.79 billion (i.e., the GDP multiplier is 1.79). The same report also estimated that the "preferred jobs impact... are the 8,900 full - time equivalent jobs plus self - employed or the 9,800 full - time and part - time jobs plus self - employed from $1 billion of SNAP benefits. ''
In March 2013, the Washington Post reported that one - third of Woonsocket, Rhode Island 's population used food stamps, putting local merchants on a "boom or bust '' cycle each month when EBT payments were deposited. The Post stated that "a federal program that began as a last resort for a few million hungry people has grown into an economic lifeline for entire towns. '' And this growth "has been especially swift in once - prosperous places hit by the housing bust ''.
In addition to local town merchants, national retailers are starting to take in an increasing large percentage of SNAP benefits. For example, "Walmart estimates it takes in about 18 % of total U.S. outlays on food stamps. ''
In March 2012, the USDA published its fifth report in a series of periodic analyses to estimate the extent of trafficking in SNAP; that is, selling or otherwise converting SNAP benefits for cash payouts. Although trafficking does not increase costs to the Federal Government, it diverts benefits from their intended purpose of helping low - income families access a nutritious diet. The FNS aggressively acts to control trafficking by using SNAP purchase data to identify suspicious transaction patterns, conducting undercover investigations, and collaborating with other investigative agencies.
Trafficking diverted an estimated one cent of each SNAP dollar ($330 million annually) from SNAP benefits between 2006 and 2008. Trafficking has declined over time from nearly 4 percent in the 1990s. About 8.2 percent of all stores trafficked from 2006 to 2008 compared to the 10.5 percent of SNAP authorized stores involved in trafficking in 2011. A variety of store characteristics and settings were related to the level of trafficking. Although large stores accounted for 87.3 percent of all SNAP redemptions, they only accounted for about 5.4 percent of trafficking redemptions. Trafficking was much less likely to occur among publicly owned than privately owned stores and was much less likely among stores in areas with less poverty rather than more. The total annual value of trafficked benefits increased at about the same rate as overall program growth. The current estimate of total SNAP dollars trafficked is higher than observed in the previous 2002 -- 2005 time period. This increase is consistent, however, with the almost 37 percent growths in average annual SNAP benefits from the 2002 -- 2005 study periods to the most recent one. The methodology used to generate these estimates has known limitations. However, given variable data and resources, it is the most practical approach available to FNS. Further improvements to SNAP trafficking estimates would require new resources to assess the prevalence of trafficking among a random sample of stores.
The USDA report released in August 2013 says the dollar value of trafficking increased to 1.3 percent, up from 1 percent in the USDA 's 2006 - 2008 survey, and "About 18 percent of those stores classified as convenience stores or small groceries were estimated to have trafficked. For larger stores (supermarkets and large groceries), only 0.32 percent were estimated to have trafficked. In terms of redemptions, about 17 percent of small groceries redemptions and 14 percent of convenience store redemptions were estimated to have been trafficked. This compares with a rate of 0.2 percent for large stores. ''
The USDA, in December 2011, announced new policies to attempt to curb waste, fraud, and abuse. These changes will include stiffer penalties for retailers who are caught participating in illegal or fraudulent activities. "The department is proposing increasing penalties for retailers and providing states with access to large federal databases they would be required to use to verify information from applicants. SNAP benefit fraud, generally in the form of store employees buying EBT cards from recipients is widespread in urban areas, with one in seven corner stores engaging in such behavior, according to a recent government estimate. There are in excess of 200,000 stores, and we have 100 agents spread across the country. Some do undercover work, but the principal way we track fraud is through analyzing electronic transactions '' for suspicious patterns, USDA Under Secretary Kevin Concannon told The Washington Times. Also, states will be given additional guidance that will help develop a tighter policy for those seeking to effectively investigate fraud and clarifying the definition of trafficking.
According to the Government Accountability Office, at a 2009 count, there was a payment error rate of 4.36 % of SNAP benefits down from 9.86 % in 1999. A 2003 analysis found that two - thirds of all improper payments were the fault of the caseworker, not the participant. There are also instances of fraud involving exchange of SNAP benefits for cash and / or for items not eligible for purchase with EBT cards. In 2011, the Michigan program raised eligibility requirements for full - time college students, to save taxpayer money and to end student use of monthly SNAP benefits.
In Maine, incidents of recycling fraud have occurred in the past where individuals once committed fraud by using their EBT cards to buy canned or bottled beverages (requiring a deposit to be paid at the point of purchase for each beverage container), dump the contents out so the empty beverage container could be returned for deposit redemption, and thereby, allowed these individuals to eventually purchase non-EBT authorized products with cash from the beverage container deposits.
The State of Utah developed a system called "eFind '' to monitor, evaluate and cross-examine qualifying and reporting data of recipients assets. Utah 's eFind system is a "back end, '' web - based system that gathers, filters, and organizes information from various federal, state, and local databases. The data in eFind is used to help state eligibility workers determine applicants ' eligibility for public assistance programs, including Medicaid, CHIP, the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), and child care assistance. When information is changed in one database, the reported changes become available to other departments utilizing the system. This system was developed with federal funds and it is available to other states free of charge.
The USDA only reports direct fraud and trafficking in benefits, which was officially estimated at $858 million in 2012. The Cato Institute reports that there was another $2.2 billion in erroneous payouts in 2009. Cato also reported that the erroneous payout rate dropped significantly from 5.6 percent in 2007 to 3.8 percent in 2011.
The 2008 Farm Bill authorized $20 million to be spent on pilot projects to determine whether incentives provided to SNAP recipients at the point - of - sale would increase the purchase of fruits, vegetables, or other healthful foods. Fifteen states expressed interest in having the pilot program and, ultimately, five states submitted applications to be considered for HIP. Hampden County, Massachusetts was selected as the Healthy Incentives Pilot (HIP) site. HIP is designed to take place from August 2010 to April 2013 with the actual operation phase of the pilot program scheduled to last 15 months, from November 2011 to January 2013.
HIP offers select SNAP recipients a 30 % subsidy on produce, which is credited to the participant 's EBT card, for 15 months. 7,500 households will participate HIP and an equal number will not; the differences between the two groups will be analyzed to see the effects of the program. Produce, under the HIP, is defined as fresh, frozen, canned, or dried fruits and vegetables that do not have any added sugar, salt, fat, or oil.
The Massachusetts Department of Transitional Assistance (DTA) is the state agency responsible for SNAP. DTA has recruited retailers to take part in HIP and sell more produce, planned for the EBT system change with the state EBT vendor, and hired six new staff members dedicated to HIP. DTA has agreed to provide FNS with monthly reports, data collection and evaluation.
Periodically, proposals have been raised to restrict SNAP benefits from being used to purchase various categories or types of food which have been criticized as "junk food '' or "luxury items ''. However, Congress and the Department of Agriculture have repeatedly rejected such proposals on both administrative burden and personal freedom grounds. The Food and Nutrition Service noted in 2007 that no federal standards exist to determine which foods should be considered "healthy '' or not, that "vegetables, fruits, grain products, meat and meat alternatives account for nearly three - quarters of the money value of food used by food stamp households '' and that "food stamp recipients are no more likely to consume soft drinks than are higher - income individuals, and are less likely to consume sweets and salty snacks. '' Thomas Farley and Russell Sykes argued that the USDA should reconsider the possibility of restricting "junk food '' purchases with SNAP in order to encourage healthy eating, along with incentivizing the purchase of healthy items through a credit or rebate program that makes foods such as fresh vegetables and meats cheaper. They also noted that many urban food stores do a poor job of stocking healthy foods and instead favor high - profit processed items.
General:
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how many seasons are there in sword art online | List of Sword Art Online Episodes - wikipedia
Sword Art Online is a science fantasy anime series adapted from the light novel series of the same title written by Reki Kawahara and illustrated by Abec. It was produced by A-1 Pictures, Genco, and the SAO Project, and directed by Tomohiko Itō. It is divided into the "Aincrad '' and "Fairy Dance '' arcs. The story of the first season follows the adventures of Kazuto "Kirito '' Kirigaya and Asuna Yuuki, two players who are trapped in the virtual world of "Sword Art Online '' (SAO). They are tasked to clear all 100 Floors and defeat the final boss in order to be freed from the game. Three months after the death game, Kazuto discovers that Asuna is being held captive in "ALfheim Online '' (ALO), a spiritual successor to SAO, where the players assume the roles of fairies. Kazuto enters the game and allies himself with his sister Suguha "Leafa '' Kirigaya to rescue Asuna from captivity.
The series aired from July 8 to December 23, 2012, on Tokyo Metropolitan Television, spanning 25 episodes. It was later broadcast by 12 other stations. Aniplex of America announced that the English dubbed version will air on Adult Swim 's Toonami block starting from July 27, 2013. The first DVD and Blu - ray Disc volumes were released in Japan on October 24, 2012, and it concluded on June 26, 2013, with all nine volumes containing a bonus Sword Art Offline (ソード アート ・ オフライン, Sōdo Āto Ofurain) episode. In North America, Aniplex of America released the series in four Blu - ray / DVD volumes on August 13, 2013. In Australasia, Madman Entertainment distributed the four volumes in DVD and Blu - ray format. In Europe, Manga Entertainment first released all four volumes on December 16, 2013. A special episode of the anime titled Sword Art Online: Extra Edition (ソード アート ・ オンライン Extra Edition, Sōdo Āto Onrain Ekisutora Edikushon) was globally released on December 31, 2013. A second season, Sword Art Online II began in July 2014.
Five pieces of theme music were used for the series: two opening themes and three ending themes. For the first 14 episodes, the opening theme song is "Crossing Field '' performed by LiSA, and the ending theme is "Yume Sekai '' (ユメセカイ, lit. "Dream World '') performed by Haruka Tomatsu. The second opening theme, used from episode 15 onwards, is "Innocence '' performed by Eir Aoi. While its second ending theme, used from episodes 15 to 24, is "Overfly '' sung by Luna Haruna. The third ending theme, "Crossing Field '' was used for the final episode. The extra edition 's main theme is "Niji no Oto '' (虹 の 音, Sound of the Rainbow) by Eir Aoi. The original score for the series is composed by Yuki Kajiura. A film, Sword Art Online: Ordinal Scale, was released on February 18, 2017.
Sword Art Online: Extra Edition is a special anime episode which was simulcast worldwide on December 31, 2013. In Japan, it was premiered on two broadcast channels: Tokyo MX and BS 11. While in other countries, the special was streamed via the Internet on Daisuki and Crunchyroll. The extra edition was directed by Tomohiko Itō and screenplayed by the creator, Reki Kawahara and Munemasa Nakamoto. It recounts the events of the original Sword Art Online anime, told in retrospect by the series characters and features new footage.
The main theme song is "Niji no Oto '' (虹 の 音, Sound of the Rainbow) by Eir Aoi. "Crossing Field '' by LiSA, "Overfly '' by Luna Haruna, and "Innocence '' by Eir Aoi are all insert songs.
Aniplex, in partnership with Sony Music Entertainment Japan, distributed the episodes in nine volumes in DVD and Blu - ray format across Japan. Sword Art Online: Extra Edition was released on April 23, 2014, in DVD and Blu - ray limited editions, including a bonus Sword Art Offline: Extra Edition episode.
In North America, Aniplex of America released the series in four DVD and Blu - ray volumes beginning on August 13, 2013. In Australasia, Madman Entertainment released volume one in DVD and Blu - ray on December 18, 2013, and concluded with volume four on March 19, 2014. In Europe, Manga Entertainment began to release the anime on December 16, 2013. Sword Art Online: Extra Edition was licensed by Aniplex of America and released by Blu - ray and DVD in North America on December 23, 2014.
Sword Art Offline is a series of bonus episodes released in their own DVD and Blu - ray volumes in Japan. The show has 10 episodes, including the extra edition. Aniplex of America announced that they will include those episodes in the English version of the volumes with English subtitles.
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which type of cable might be required for installation in a drop ceiling | Dropped ceiling - wikipedia
A dropped ceiling is a secondary ceiling, hung below the main (structural) ceiling. It may also be referred to as a drop ceiling, T - bar ceiling, false ceiling, suspended ceiling, grid ceiling, drop in ceiling, drop out ceiling, or ceiling tiles and is a staple of modern construction and architecture in both residential and commercial applications.
Dropped ceilings and ceiling tiles were being used in Japan for aesthetic reasons as early as the Muromachi Period (1337 to 1573). Blackfriars Theater in London, England, built in 1596, had dropped ceilings to aid acoustics.
U.S. Patent No. 1,470,728 for modern dropped ceilings was applied for by E.E. Hall on May 28, 1919 and granted on October 16, 1923. Initially modern dropped ceilings were built using interlocking tiles and the only way to provide access for repair or inspection of the area above the tiles was by starting at the edge of the ceiling, or at a designated "key tile '', and then removing contiguous tiles one at a time until the desired place of access was reached. Once the repair or inspection was completed, the tiles had to be reinstalled. This process could be very time - consuming and expensive. On September 8, 1958 Donald A. Brown of Westlake, Ohio filed for a patent for Accessible Suspended Ceiling Construction. This invention provided suspended ceiling construction in which access may readily be obtained at any desired location. Patent Number US 2,984,946 A was granted on May 23, 1961. Brown has sometimes been credited as being the inventor of the dropped ceiling even though other patents preceded his as shown in the table below.
Effective building design requires balancing multiple objectives: aesthetics, acoustics, environmental factors, and integration with the building 's infrastructure -- not to mention cost of construction as well as long - term operation costs.
Modern dropped ceilings were initially created to hide the building infrastructure, including piping, wiring, and / or ductwork, by creating a plenum space above the dropped ceiling, while allowing access for repairs and inspections. Drop ceilings may also be used to hide problems, such as structural damage. Further, drop out ceilings can also conceal the sprinkler systems while still providing full fire suppression functionality.
For many years, dropped ceilings were made of basic white tiles, but modern innovations now offer a plethora of options in sizes, colors, materials (including retro designs and faux leather, wood, or metal), visual effects and shapes, patterns, and textures as well as support systems and ways to access the plenum. Custom runs of specialty ceiling tiles can be done at relatively low cost compared with the past.
Acoustic balance and control was another early objective of dropped ceilings. A noisy room can overstimulate occupants, while a too quiet interior may seem dull and uninviting.
The acoustic performance of suspended ceilings has improved dramatically over the years, with enhanced sound absorption and attenuation. This is sometimes achieved by adding insulation known as Sound Attenuation Batts (SABs), more commonly referred to as "sound batts '', above the panels to help deaden sounds and keep adjacent rooms quieter.
Indoor environmental quality includes ventilation, VOC emissions, lighting and thermal system control, thermal comfort, use of daylight for natural illumination, acoustics, and optimization of outdoor view availability.
Many manufacturers of modern dropped ceilings include sustainability as an objective. Sustainable features may include:
Integration with mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) is important with dropped ceilings, since most of these systems are by definition above the ceiling. Fortunately, most ceiling system products are now designed with this integration in mind. Decisions here can also affect aesthetics as well as access and maintenance.
Dropped ceilings may have an improved return on investment (ROI) over open ceilings
A typical dropped ceiling consists of a grid - work of metal channels in the shape of an upside - down "T '', suspended on wires from the overhead structure. These channels snap together in a regularly spaced pattern of cells. Each cell is then filled with lightweight ceiling tiles or "panels '' which simply drop into the grid. The primary grid types are "Standard 1 '' (15 / 16 face), Slimline (9 / 16 '' grid), and concealed grid.
In the United States the cell size in the suspension grids is typically either 2 ft × 2 ft or 2 ft × 4 ft and the ceiling tiles are the same size. In Europe the cell size in the suspension grids is 600 × 600 mm, while the ceiling tiles are slightly smaller at 595mm x 595mm or 595mm x 1195mm.
An older, less common type of dropped ceiling is the concealed grid system. This type of dropped ceiling employs a method of interlocking panels into each other and the grid with the use of small strips of metal called ' splines ', thus making it difficult to remove panels to gain access above the ceiling without damaging the installation or the panels. Normally, these type of ceilings will have a "key panel '' (usually in the corner) which can be removed, allowing for the other panels to be slid out of the grid (a series of metal channels called ' z bars ') one by one, until eventually removing the desired panel. This type of ceiling is more commonly found in older installations or installations where access to above the ceiling is generally considered unnecessary.
This system has some major disadvantages compared to the more common "drop panel '' system, most notably the difficulty in removing and reattaching panels from the grid, which in some cases can cause irreparable damage to the panels removed. Finding replacement panels for this type of dropped ceiling is becoming increasingly more difficult as demand for them is slowing, as is production of the parts. Small clips are still available which allow tiles to be inserted into gaps in the ceiling where a tile is missing, they work by being placed on the edge of a concealed tile, then being slid along as the tile is placed to ' lock ' it in place.
With similar advantages to a dropped ceiling, a stretch ceiling is often used to conceal pipework, wires or the existing ceiling. On top of this there is usually a broad choice of colour or texture and the membrane can be manipulated into a variety of shapes.
A stretch ceiling is a suspended ceiling system and it is made of three main components
When installing a stretch ceiling, semi-concealed plastic / aluminum track, the preferred choice for most architects and designers, is cut to size and fixed to the perimeter of the ceiling area. The membrane is stretched and the harpoon or catch edge is clipped into the track. Stretching is aided by heating up the membrane or sheet prior to fitting.
Approved Drop out (or drop - out) ceilings allow the installation of a dropped ceiling beneath existing fire sprinklers because the tiles, sometimes called melt - out ceiling tiles, are heat sensitive and designed to fall from the dropped ceiling suspension grid in the event of a fire, allowing the sprinklers to do their job.
Drop out ceiling tiles can add to the aesthetic appeal of a ceiling since the fire sprinklers are hidden by the tiles. Commonly made from vinyl or expanded polystyrene, drop out ceiling tiles are available in multiple sizes and finishes from a variety of manufacturers.
Installation is subject to the local Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ) and, in the U.S., must meet the standards listed in the section below at a minimum.
The standards listed below are in addition to those for ceiling tiles in general. No clips, fasteners, or impediments of any kind can be used to limit the ceiling tile 's ability to drop from the suspension system without restraint in the event of a fire unless these have been used in the testing process. Painting can void an approval. Note that additional local requirements may exist.
In older buildings the space above the dropped ceiling was often used as a plenum space for ventilation systems, requiring only enclosed ducts that deliver fresh air into the room below, with return air entering the ceiling space through open grilles across the ceiling. This practice is now used less frequently in new construction.
In the event that the dropped ceiling is used as a plenum, low - voltage cables and wiring not installed inside conduit need to use a special low - smoke and low - toxicity wire insulation which will tend to char and stop burning on its own. This helps to protect building occupants so that they are not poisoned with toxic chemicals sucked through the ventilation system in the event of a fire, and helps to prevent fires from spreading inside the hidden plenum space. This special low - smoke cable is typically referred to as plenum cable or Low Smoke Zero Halogen (LSZH or LS0H) cable. While twisted pair cable for networking and telephone service is the most common form of plenum cable, coaxial cable also needs to be plenum - rated for safety.
High - voltage electrical equipment (generally regarded as being over 50 volts) is not permitted to be exposed in the plenum space above a drop ceiling. High voltage wiring must be enclosed in conduit or raceways, and must be physically isolated from low - voltage wiring. High voltage electrical devices similarly must be enclosed in a plenum space, inside a metallic container. Similarly, electrical outlets for domestic powered devices are not permitted inside the plenum space, though outlets can be installed on ceiling tiles inside electrical boxes, with the sockets exposed on the exterior bottom face of the drop ceiling. The purpose of these restrictions is to limit flame spread inside the unseen plenum space, in the event of high voltage equipment or wiring failure. Low voltage cabling is permitted because current flow is typically negligible so the risk of overheating and fire is limited.
In earthquake prone areas (e.g., California) diagonal wire stays are often required by building codes in order to ensure the ceiling grid wo n't sway laterally during an earthquake, which can lead to partial or total collapse of the ceiling grid on the occupants below during a severe tremor. Compression posts may also be added to keep the ceiling from bouncing vertically during an earthquake.
Lighting fixtures and other devices installed in a dropped ceiling are required to be firmly secured to the dropped ceiling framework. In the event of a fire above a dropped ceiling it is often necessary for firemen to have to pull down the ceiling in a hurry to quickly gain access to the conflagration. Loose fixtures merely resting in the framework by force of gravity can become unseated and swing down on their armorflex power cables to hit the firemen below. Binding the fixtures to the framework assures that if the framework must be pulled down the fixture will come down with it and not become a pendulous swinging hazard to the firemen.
To address fire safety, ceiling tiles made from mineral fibres, plastic, tin, composite, or fire - rated wood panels can be used within the construction to meet acceptable standards / ratings. Some tiles, in specific situations, can provide the needed additional resistance to meet the "time rating '' required for various fire code, city ordinance, commercial, or other similar building construction regulations. Fire ratings for ceiling panels vary based on the materials used, the preparation of each panel, and the safety testing and third party evaluation done to determine where and how they can be safely installed. In the UK it can be required for the tiles from certain manufacturers to be clipped into the grid with special ceiling clips in order to provide a fire rating; there are special tiles designed for the underside of mezzanine floors however that can give a fire rating without being clipped.
Drop out ceilings have a further advantage in that they can be mounted underneath fire sprinklers, thus hiding the sprinklers for a more attractive appearance. When installed underneath fire sprinklers, certain requirements for materials, applications, installation, and maintenance of drop out ceilings must be met in order to comply with fire safety regulations. (The white paper Drop - out Ceiling Panels -- A Discussion on Their Use With Fire Sprinklers, referenced by the article, is available here)
Another advantage of a dropped ceiling is that the easily removed ceiling panels offer instant access to the plenum, greatly simplifying repairs or alterations.
Wiring and piping installed behind traditional plaster or wallboard ceilings is extremely difficult to modify once the finished ceiling is in place. Wires must either be fished through hollow spaces in the walls behind the finished ceiling, or the ceiling must be demolished in order for wiring or piping changes to be made.
In contrast, the tiles and other parts of a dropped or stretch ceiling are easily removed to allow access to the area above the grid to do any necessary wiring or plumbing modifications. In the event of remodelling, nearly all components of the grid can be dismantled and reassembled somewhere else.
In office buildings, the drop ceiling is often used in conjunction with hollow steel studs to construct small office spaces out of a much larger cavernous space. Wiring and other services are run through the open ceiling, down through the hollow stud walls, and to outlets in the work areas. If business needs change, the office spaces are easily dismantled and the overall cavernous space reconfigured with a different floor plan.
In older buildings that have seen multiple renovations over time, it is not uncommon for a dropped ceiling to have been installed in one renovation and then subsequently removed in another, its installation having been an inexpensive fix to prolong the time between major renovations.
One disadvantage with this ceiling system is reduced headroom. Clearance is required between the grid and any pipes or ductwork above to install the ceiling tiles and light fixtures. In general, a minimum clearance of 100 to 200 millimetres (4 to 8 in) is often needed between the lowest obstruction and the level of the ceiling grid. A direct - mount grid may work for those who want the convenience of a dropped ceiling, but have limited headroom. Stretch ceiling supports require less than one inch of vertical space, and no space is required for tiles to be lifted out with a stretch ceiling, but a greater clearance space may be chosen to allow room for MEC or for aesthetic reasons.
Dropped ceilings generally conceal many of the functional and structural elements of a building, creating an aesthetic paradigm that discourages the use of functional building systems as aesthetic design elements. Concealing these elements makes the complexity of today 's advanced building technologies more difficult to appreciate. It is also more difficult to perform maintenance on or diagnose problems with the concealed systems.
As a renovation tool, dropped ceilings are a quick and inexpensive way to repair a ceiling or reduce HVAC costs. Some materials may show their age quickly -- for example, mineral fiber sags, is damaged easily when handled, and stains easily, but stretch ceiling, tin and vinyl do not have these characteristics.
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where did the great in great britain come from | Great Britain - wikipedia
Great Britain, also known as Britain, is a large island in the north Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of 209,331 km (80,823 sq mi), Great Britain is the largest of the British Isles, the largest European island, and the ninth - largest island in the world. In 2011 the island had a population of about 61 million people, making it the world 's third-most populous island after Java in Indonesia and Honshu in Japan. The island of Ireland is situated to the west of it, and together these islands, along with over 1,000 smaller surrounding islands, comprise the British Isles archipelago.
The island is dominated by a maritime climate with quite narrow temperature differences between seasons. Politically, the island is part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and constitutes most of its territory. Most of England, Scotland, and Wales are on the island. The term "Great Britain '' often extends to include surrounding islands that form part of England, Scotland, and Wales, and is also sometimes loosely applied to the UK as a whole.
A single Kingdom of Great Britain resulted from the union of the Kingdom of England (which had already comprised the present - day countries of England and Wales) and the Kingdom of Scotland by the 1707 Acts of Union. More than a hundred years before, in 1603, King James VI, King of Scots, had inherited the throne of England, but it was not until 1707 that the two countries ' parliaments agreed to form a political union. In 1801, Great Britain united with the neighbouring Kingdom of Ireland, forming the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, which was renamed the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland '' after the Irish Free State seceded in 1922.
The archipelago has been referred to by a single name for over 2000 years: the term ' British Isles ' derives from terms used by classical geographers to describe this island group. By 50 BC Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a collective name for the British Isles. However, with the Roman conquest of Britain the Latin term Britannia was used for the island of Great Britain, and later Roman - occupied Britain south of Caledonia.
The earliest known name for Great Britain is Albion (Greek: Ἀλβίων) or insula Albionum, from either the Latin albus meaning "white '' (referring to the white cliffs of Dover, the first view of Britain from the continent) or the "island of the Albiones '', first mentioned in the Massaliote Periplus in the 6th century BC, and by Pytheas.
The oldest mention of terms related to Great Britain was by Aristotle (c. 384 -- 322 BC), or possibly by Pseudo-Aristotle, in his text On the Universe, Vol. III. To quote his works, "There are two very large islands in it, called the British Isles, Albion and Ierne ''.
Pliny the Elder (c. AD 23 -- 79) in his Natural History records of Great Britain: "Its former name was Albion; but at a later period, all the islands, of which we shall just now briefly make mention, were included under the name of ' Britanniæ. ' ''
The name Britain descends from the Latin name for Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons. Old French Bretaigne (whence also Modern French Bretagne) and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The French form replaced the Old English Breoton, Breoten, Bryten, Breten (also Breoton - lond, Breten - lond). Britannia was used by the Romans from the 1st century BC for the British Isles taken together. It is derived from the travel writings of the Pytheas around 320 BC, which described various islands in the North Atlantic as far north as Thule (probably Norway).
Marcian of Heraclea, in his Periplus maris exteri, described the island group as αἱ Πρεττανικαὶ νῆσοι (the Prettanic Isles).
The peoples of these islands of Prettanike were called the Πρεττανοί, Priteni or Pretani. Priteni is the source of the Welsh language term Prydain, Britain, which has the same source as the Goidelic term Cruithne used to refer to the early Brythonic - speaking inhabitants of Ireland. The latter were later called Picts or Caledonians by the Romans.
The Greco - Egyptian scientist Ptolemy referred to the larger island as great Britain (μεγάλης Βρεττανίας - megális Brettanias) and to Ireland as little Britain (μικρής Βρεττανίας - mikris Brettanias) in his work Almagest (147 -- 148 AD). In his later work, Geography (c. 150 AD), he gave the islands the names Alwion, Iwernia, and Mona (the Isle of Man), suggesting these may have been the names of the individual islands not known to him at the time of writing Almagest. The name Albion appears to have fallen out of use sometime after the Roman conquest of Britain, after which Britain became the more commonplace name for the island.
After the Anglo - Saxon period, Britain was used as a historical term only. Geoffrey of Monmouth in his pseudohistorical Historia Regum Britanniae (c. 1136) refers to the island as Britannia major ("Greater Britain ''), to distinguish it from Britannia minor ("Lesser Britain ''), the continental region which approximates to modern Brittany, which had been settled in the fifth and sixth centuries by migrants from Britain. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Cecily the daughter of Edward IV of England, and James the son of James III of Scotland, which described it as "this Nobill Isle, callit Gret Britanee ''. It was used again in 1604, when King James VI and I styled himself "King of Great Brittaine, France and Ireland ''.
Great Britain refers geographically to the island of Great Britain, politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination. However, it is sometimes used loosely to refer to the whole of the United Kingdom.
Similarly, Britain, can refer to either all islands in Great Britain, the largest island, or the political grouping of counties. There is no clear distinction, even in government documents: the UK government yearbooks have used both "Britain '' and "United Kingdom ''.
GB and GBR are used instead of UK in some international codes to refer to the United Kingdom, including the Universal Postal Union, international sports teams, NATO, the International Organization for Standardization country codes ISO 3166 - 2 and ISO 3166 - 1 alpha - 3, and international licence plate codes.
On the Internet,. uk is the country code top - level domain for the United Kingdom. A. gb top - level domain was used to a limited extent, but is now obsolete because the domain name registrar will not take new registrations.
In the Olympics, Team GB is used by the British Olympic Association to represent the Great Britain and Northern Ireland Olympic team.
Politically, Great Britain refers to the whole of England, Scotland and Wales in combination, but not Northern Ireland; it includes islands, such as the Isle of Wight, Anglesey, the Isles of Scilly, the Hebrides and the island groups of Orkney and Shetland, that are part of England, Wales, or Scotland. It does not include the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands, which are self - governing dependent territories.
The political union that joined the kingdoms of England and Scotland happened in 1707 when the Acts of Union ratified the 1706 Treaty of Union and merged the parliaments of the two nations, forming the Kingdom of Great Britain, which covered the entire island. Before this, a personal union had existed between these two countries since the 1603 Union of the Crowns under James VI of Scotland and I of England.
The island was first inhabited by people who crossed over the land bridge from the European mainland. Human footprints have been found from over 800,000 years ago in Norfolk and traces of early humans have been found (at Boxgrove Quarry, Sussex) from some 500,000 years ago and modern humans from about 30,000 years ago.
Until about 14,000 years ago, Great Britain was connected to Ireland, and as recently as 8,000 years ago it retained a land connection to the continent, with an area of mostly low marshland joining it to what are now Denmark and the Netherlands. In Cheddar Gorge, near Bristol, the remains of animal species native to mainland Europe such as antelopes, brown bears, and wild horses have been found alongside a human skeleton, ' Cheddar Man ', dated to about 7150 BC. Thus, animals and humans must have moved between mainland Europe and Great Britain via a crossing. Great Britain became an island at the end of the last glacial period when sea levels rose due to the combination of melting glaciers and the subsequent isostatic rebound of the crust.
Great Britain 's Iron Age inhabitants are known as Britons; they spoke Celtic languages.
The Romans conquered most of the island (up to Hadrian 's Wall, in northern England) and this became the Ancient Roman province of Britannia. In the course of the 500 years after the Roman Empire fell, the Britons of the south and east of the island were assimilated or displaced by invading Germanic tribes (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, often referred to collectively as Anglo - Saxons). At about the same time, Gaelic tribes from Ireland invaded the north - west, absorbing both the Picts and Britons of northern Britain, eventually forming the Kingdom of Scotland in the 9th century. The south - east of Scotland was colonised by the Angles and formed, until 1018, a part of the Kingdom of Northumbria. Ultimately, the population of south - east Britain came to be referred to as the English people, so - named after the Angles.
Germanic speakers referred to Britons as Welsh. This term came to be applied exclusively to the inhabitants of what is now Wales, but it also survives in names such as Wallace and in the second syllable of Cornwall. Cymry, a name the Britons used to describe themselves, is similarly restricted in modern Welsh to people from Wales, but also survives in English in the place name of Cumbria. The Britons living in the areas now known as Wales, Cumbria and Cornwall were not assimilated by the Germanic tribes, a fact reflected in the survival of Celtic languages in these areas into more recent times. At the time of the Germanic invasion of Southern Britain, many Britons emigrated to the area now known as Brittany, where Breton, a Celtic language closely related to Welsh and Cornish and descended from the language of the emigrants, is still spoken. In the 9th century, a series of Danish assaults on northern English kingdoms led to them coming under Danish control (an area known as the Danelaw). In the 10th century, however, all the English kingdoms were unified under one ruler as the kingdom of England when the last constituent kingdom, Northumbria, submitted to Edgar in 959. In 1066, England was conquered by the Normans, who introduced a Norman - speaking administration that was eventually assimilated. Wales came under Anglo - Norman control in 1282, and was officially annexed to England in the 16th century.
On 20 October 1604 King James, who had succeeded separately to the two thrones of England and Scotland, proclaimed himself "King of Great Brittaine, France, and Ireland ''. When James died in 1625 and the Privy Council of England was drafting the proclamation of the new king, Charles I, a Scottish peer, Thomas Erskine, 1st Earl of Kellie, succeeded in insisting that it use the phrase "King of Great Britain '', which James had preferred, rather than King of Scotland and England (or vice versa). While that title was also used by some of James 's successors, England and Scotland each remained legally separate countries, each with its own parliament, until 1707, when each parliament passed an Act of Union to ratify the Treaty of Union that had been agreed the previous year. This created a single kingdom out of two, with a single parliament, with effect from 1 May 1707. The Treaty of Union specified the name of the new all - island state as "Great Britain '', while describing it as "One Kingdom '' and "the United Kingdom ''. To most historians, therefore, the all - island state that existed between 1707 and 1800 is "Great Britain '' or the "Kingdom of Great Britain ''.
Great Britain lies on the European continental shelf, part of the Eurasian Plate. Situated off the north - west coast of continental Europe, it is separated from the mainland by the North Sea and by the English Channel, which narrows to 34 km (18 nmi; 21 mi) at the Straits of Dover. It stretches over about ten degrees of latitude on its longer, north - south axis and occupies an area of 209,331 km (80,823 sq mi), excluding the smaller surrounding islands. The North Channel, Irish Sea, St George 's Channel and Celtic Sea separate the island from the island of Ireland to its west. The island is physically connected with continental Europe via the Channel Tunnel, the longest undersea rail tunnel in the world, completed in 1993. The island is marked by low, rolling countryside in the east and south, while hills and mountains predominate in the western and northern regions. It is surrounded by over 1,000 smaller islands and islets. The greatest distance between two points is 968.0 km (601 ⁄ mi) (between Land 's End, Cornwall and John o ' Groats, Caithness), 838 miles (1,349 km) by road.
The English Channel is thought to have been created between 450,000 and 180,000 years ago by two catastrophic glacial lake outburst floods caused by the breaching of the Weald - Artois Anticline, a ridge that held back a large proglacial lake, now submerged under the North Sea. Around 10,000 years ago, during the Devensian glaciation with its lower sea level, Great Britain was not an island, but an upland region of continental northwestern Europe, lying partially underneath the Eurasian ice sheet. The sea level was about 120 metres (390 ft) lower than today, and the bed of the North Sea was dry and acted as a land bridge, now known as Doggerland, to the Continent. It is generally thought that as sea levels gradually rose after the end of the last glacial period of the current ice age, Doggerland became submerged beneath the North Sea, cutting off what was previously the British peninsula from the European mainland by around 6500 BC.
Great Britain has been subject to a variety of plate tectonic processes over a very extended period of time. Changing latitude and sea levels have been important factors in the nature of sedimentary sequences, whilst successive continental collisions have affected its geological structure with major faulting and folding being a legacy of each orogeny (mountain - building period), often associated with volcanic activity and the metamorphism of existing rock sequences. As a result of this eventful geological history, the island shows a rich variety of landscapes.
The oldest rocks in Great Britain are the Lewisian gneisses, metamorphic rocks found in the far north west of the island and in the Hebrides (with a few small outcrops elsewhere), which date from at least 2,700 Ma (Ma = million years ago). South of the gneisses are a complex mixture of rocks forming the North West Highlands and Grampian Highlands in Scotland. These are essentially the remains of folded sedimentary rocks that were deposited between 1,000 Ma and 670 Ma over the gneiss on what was then the floor of the Iapetus Ocean.
At the present time the north of the island is rising as a result of the weight of Devensian ice being lifted. Southern and eastern Britain is sinking, generally estimated at 1 mm (1 / 25 inch) per year, with the London area sinking at double the speed partly due to the continuing compaction of the recent clay deposits.
Animal diversity is modest, as a result of factors including the island 's small land area, the relatively recent age of the habitats developed since the last glacial period and the island 's physical separation from continental Europe, and the effects of seasonal variability. Great Britain also experienced early industrialisation and is subject to continuing urbanisation, which have contributed towards the overall loss of species. A DEFRA (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) study from 2006 suggested that 100 species have become extinct in the UK during the 20th century, about 100 times the background extinction rate. However, some species, such as the brown rat, red fox, and introduced grey squirrel, are well adapted to urban areas.
Rodents make up 40 % of the mammal species. These include squirrels, mice, voles, rats and the recently reintroduced European beaver. There is also an abundance of rabbits, hares, hedgehogs, shrews, moles and several species of bat. Carnivorous mammals include the fox, badger, otter, weasel, stoat and elusive wildcat. Various species of seal, whale and dolphin are found on or around British shores and coastlines. The largest land - based wild animals today are deer. The red deer is the largest species, with roe deer and fallow deer also prominent; the latter was introduced by the Normans. Sika deer and two more species of smaller deer, muntjac and Chinese water deer, have been introduced, muntjac becoming widespread in England and parts of Wales while Chinese water deer are restricted mainly to East Anglia. Habitat loss has affected many species. Extinct large mammals include the brown bear, grey wolf and wild boar; the latter has had a limited reintroduction in recent times.
There is a wealth of birdlife, 583 species in total, of which 258 breed on the island or remain during winter. Because of its mild winters for its latitude, Great Britain hosts important numbers of many wintering species, particularly ducks, geese and swans. Other well known bird species include the golden eagle, grey heron, kingfisher, pigeon, sparrow, pheasant, partridge, and various species of crow, finch, gull, auk, grouse, owl and falcon. There are six species of reptile on the island; three snakes and three lizards including the legless slowworm. One snake, the adder, is venomous but rarely deadly. Amphibians present are frogs, toads and newts.
In a similar sense to fauna, and for similar reasons, the flora is impoverished compared to that of continental Europe. The flora comprises 3,354 vascular plant species, of which 2,297 are native and 1,057 have been introduced. The island has a wide variety of trees, including native species of birch, beech, ash, hawthorn, elm, oak, yew, pine, cherry and apple. Other trees have been naturalised, introduced especially from other parts of Europe (particularly Norway) and North America. Introduced trees include several varieties of pine, chestnut, maple, spruce, sycamore and fir, as well as cherry plum and pear trees. The tallest species are the Douglas firs; two specimens have been recorded measuring 65 metres or 212 feet. The Fortingall Yew in Perthshire is the oldest tree in Europe.
There are at least 1,500 different species of wildflower. Some 107 species are particularly rare or vulnerable and are protected by the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. It is illegal to uproot any wildflowers without the landowner 's permission. A vote in 2002 nominated various wildflowers to represent specific counties. These include red poppies, bluebells, daisies, daffodils, rosemary, gorse, iris, ivy, mint, orchids, brambles, thistles, buttercups, primrose, thyme, tulips, violets, cowslip, heather and many more. There are also many species of algae and mosses across the island.
There are many species of fungi including lichen - forming species, and the mycobiota is less poorly known than in many other parts of the world. The most recent checklist of Basidiomycota (bracket fungi, jelly fungi, mushrooms and toadstools, puffballs, rusts and smuts), published in 2005, accepts over 3600 species. The most recent checklist of Ascomycota (cup fungi and their allies, including most lichen - forming fungi), published in 1985, accepts another 5100 species. These two lists did not include conidial fungi (fungi mostly with affinities in the Ascomycota but known only in their asexual state) or any of the other main fungal groups (Chytridiomycota, Glomeromycota and Zygomycota). The number of fungal species known very probably exceeds 10,000. There is widespread agreement among mycologists that many others are yet to be discovered.
London is the capital of England and the whole of the United Kingdom, and is therefore the seat of the United Kingdom 's government. Edinburgh and Cardiff are the capitals of Scotland and Wales, respectively, and house their devolved governments.
In the Late Bronze Age, Britain was part of a culture called the Atlantic Bronze Age, held together by maritime trading, which also included Ireland, France, Spain and Portugal. In contrast to the generally accepted view that Celtic originated in the context of the Hallstatt culture, since 2009, John T. Koch and others have proposed that the origins of the Celtic languages are to be sought in Bronze Age Western Europe, especially the Iberian Peninsula. Koch et al. 's proposal has failed to find wide acceptance among experts on the Celtic languages.
All the modern Brythonic languages (Breton, Cornish, Welsh) are generally considered to derive from a common ancestral language termed Brittonic, British, Common Brythonic, Old Brythonic or Proto - Brythonic, which is thought to have developed from Proto - Celtic or early Insular Celtic by the 6th century AD. Brythonic languages were probably spoken before the Roman invasion at least in the majority of Great Britain south of the rivers Forth and Clyde, though the Isle of Man later had a Goidelic language, Manx. Northern Scotland mainly spoke Pritennic, which became Pictish, which may have been a Brythonic language. During the period of the Roman occupation of Southern Britain (AD 43 to c. 410), Common Brythonic borrowed a large stock of Latin words. Approximately 800 of these Latin loan - words have survived in the three modern Brythonic languages. Romano - British is the name for the Latinised form of the language used by Roman authors.
British English is spoken in the present day across the island, and developed from the Old English brought to the island by Anglo - Saxon settlers from the mid 5th century. Some 1.5 million people speak Scots -- a variety of English which some consider to be a distinct language. An estimated 700,000 people speak Welsh, an official language in Wales. In parts of north west Scotland, Scottish Gaelic remains widely spoken. There are various regional dialects of English, and numerous languages spoken by some immigrant populations.
Christianity has been the largest religion by number of adherents since the Early Middle Ages: it was introduced under the ancient Romans, developing as Celtic Christianity. According to tradition, Christianity arrived in the 1st or 2nd century. The most popular form is Anglicanism (known as Episcopalism in Scotland). Dating from the 16th century Reformation, it regards itself as both Catholic and Reformed. The Head of the Church is the monarch of the United Kingdom, as the Supreme Governor. It has the status of established church in England. There are just over 26 million adherents to Anglicanism in Britain today, although only around one million regularly attend services. The second largest Christian practice is the Latin Rite of the Roman Catholic Church, which traces its history to the 6th century with Augustine 's mission and was the main religion for around a thousand years. There are over 5 million adherents today, 4.5 million in England and Wales and 750,000 in Scotland, although fewer than a million Catholics regularly attend mass.
The Church of Scotland, a form of Protestantism with a Presbyterian system of ecclesiastical polity, is the third most numerous on the island with around 2.1 million members. Introduced in Scotland by clergyman John Knox, it has the status of national church in Scotland. The monarch of the United Kingdom is represented by a Lord High Commissioner. Methodism is the fourth largest and grew out of Anglicanism through John Wesley. It gained popularity in the old mill towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire, also amongst tin miners in Cornwall. The Presbyterian Church of Wales, which follows Calvinistic Methodism, is the largest denomination in Wales. There are other non-conformist minorities, such as Baptists, Quakers, the United Reformed Church (a union of Congregationalists and English Presbyterians), Unitarians. The first patron saint of Great Britain was Saint Alban. He was the first Christian martyr dating from the Romano - British period, condemned to death for his faith and sacrificed to the pagan gods. In more recent times, some have suggested the adoption of St Aidan as another patron saint of Britain. From Ireland, he worked at Iona amongst the Dál Riata and then Lindisfarne where he restored Christianity to Northumbria.
The three constituent countries of the United Kingdom have patron saints: Saint George and Saint Andrew are represented in the flags of England and Scotland respectively. These two flags combined to form the basis of the Great Britain royal flag of 1604. Saint David is the patron saint of Wales. There are many other British saints. Some of the best known are Cuthbert, Columba, Patrick, Margaret, Edward the Confessor, Mungo, Thomas More, Petroc, Bede, and Thomas Becket.
Numerous other religions are practised. Jews have inhabited Britain since 1070. Jews were expelled from England in 1290 but allowed to return in 1656. There were also Jewish migrations from Lithuania. The 2001 census recorded that Islam had around 1.5 million adherents. More than 1 million people practise either Hinduism, Sikhism, or Buddhism -- religions introduced from the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia.
Coordinates: 53 ° 50 ′ N 2 ° 25 ′ W / 53.833 ° N 2.417 ° W / 53.833; - 2.417
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how many prince and princess are there in england | British royal family - wikipedia
The British royal family comprises Queen Elizabeth II and her close relations. There is no strict legal or formal definition of who is or is not a member of the British royal family.
Those who at the time are entitled to the style His or Her Royal Highness (HRH), and any styled His or Her Majesty (HM), are normally considered members, including those so styled before the beginning of the current monarch 's reign. By this criterion, a list of the current royal family will usually include the monarch, the children and male - line grandchildren of the monarch and previous monarchs, the children of the eldest son of the Prince of Wales, and all their current or widowed spouses.
Some members of the royal family have official residences named as the places from which announcements are made in the Court Circular about official engagements they have carried out. The state duties and staff of some members of the royal family are funded from a parliamentary annuity, the amount of which is fully refunded by the Queen to the Treasury.
Since 1917, when King George V changed the name of the royal house from Saxe - Coburg and Gotha, members of the royal family belong, either by birth or by marriage, to the House of Windsor. Senior titled members of the royal family do not usually use a surname, although since 1960 Mountbatten - Windsor, incorporating Prince Philip 's adopted surname of Mountbatten, has been prescribed as a surname for Elizabeth II 's direct descendants who do not have royal styles and titles, and it has sometimes been used when required for those who do have such titles. In 2014 the royal family were regarded as British cultural icons, with young adults from abroad naming the family among a group of people that they most associated with UK culture.
On 30 November 1917, King George V issued letters patent defining the styles and titles of members of the royal family; the text of the notice from the London Gazette is:
Whitehall, 11th December, 1917.
In 1996 Queen Elizabeth II modified these letters patent, and this Notice appeared in the London Gazette:
The QUEEN has been pleased by Letters Patent under the Great Seal of the Realm dated 21st August 1996, to declare that a former wife (other than a widow until she shall remarry) of a son of a Sovereign of these Realms, of a son of a son of a Sovereign and of the eldest living son of the eldest son of The Prince of Wales shall not be entitled to hold and enjoy the style, title or attribute of Royal Highness.
On 31 December 2012, letters patent were issued to extend a title and a style borne by members of the royal family to additional persons to be born, and this Notice appeared in the London Gazette:
The QUEEN has been pleased by Letters Patent under the Great Seal of the Realm dated 31 December 2012 to declare that all the children of the eldest son of The Prince of Wales should have and enjoy the style, title and attribute of Royal Highness with the titular dignity of Prince or Princess prefixed to their Christian names or with such other titles of honour.
Members and relatives of the British royal family historically represented the monarch in various places throughout the British Empire, sometimes for extended periods as viceroys, or for specific ceremonies or events. Today, they often perform ceremonial and social duties throughout the United Kingdom and abroad on behalf of the United Kingdom. Aside from the monarch, their only constitutional role in the affairs of government is to serve, if eligible and when appointed by letters patent, as a Counsellor of State, two or more of whom exercise the authority of the Crown (within stipulated limits) if the monarch is indisposed or abroad. In the other countries of the Commonwealth royalty do not serve as Counsellors of State, although they may perform ceremonial and social duties on behalf of individual states or the organisation.
The Queen, her consort, her children and grandchildren, as well as all former sovereigns ' children and grandchildren, hold places in the first sections of the official orders of precedence in England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. Wives of the said enjoy their husbands ' precedence, and husbands of princesses are unofficially but habitually placed with their wives as well. However, the Queen changed the private order of precedence in the royal family in favour of Princesses Anne and Alexandra, who henceforth take private precedence over the Duchess of Cornwall, who is otherwise the realm 's highest ranking woman after the Queen herself. She did not alter the relative precedence of other born - princesses, such as the daughters of her younger sons.
This is a list of members of the royal family as of 2018:
There are a few immediate family members (a spouse and the children and grandchildren of its current full or deceased members) using no royal style who sometimes appear in listings:
Notes
As the royal family is shared by other Commonwealth realms, its members will often also conduct official and non-official duties outside the United Kingdom, on behalf of the relevant state.
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