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who sang amarillo by morning before george strait | Amarillo by Morning (song) - wikipedia
"Amarillo by Morning '' is a country music song written by Terry Stafford and Paul Fraser, and recorded by Stafford in 1973. Several cover versions have since been made, including a major 1983 hit for George Strait.
Members of the Western Writers of America chose it as one of the Top 100 Western songs of all time.
Stafford conceived the song after playing with his band at a rodeo in San Antonio, Texas, and then driving back to his home in Amarillo, Texas.
Stafford recorded the song on his Say, Has Anybody Seen My Sweet Gypsy Rose album, released in 1973. The single was released August 2, 1973, by Atlantic Records with the master number 26867. The single "Say, Has Anybody Seen My Sweet Gypsy Rose '' had been previously released as an A-side 45 (Atlantic Master 26868; June 7, 1973), but due to the success of "Amarillo by Morning '', the single was re-released October 4, 1973, as the A-side (Atlantic Master 26867 - 1 stereo and Atlantic Master 26867 - 2 mono), with "Say, Has Anybody Seen My Sweet Gypsy Rose '' on the B - side. The song entered the Cash Box Country Looking Ahead chart November 3, 1973, the Cash Box Country chart on December 15, 1973, peaking at # 37, the Billboard Country chart December 1, 1973, peaking at # 31, the Record World Country chart December 15, 1973, peaking at # 50, and Canada RPM Country chart January 26, 1974, peaking at number 38.
The song has been covered by numerous artists, including rodeo champion Chris LeDoux in 1975 on his album Life as a Rodeo Man, Asleep at the Wheel and John Arthur Martinez on his 2004 album Lone Starry Night.
South Texas recording artist Clifton Jansky from San Antonio recorded the song in November 1979 in Ludwig Studios in Houston, Texas. He had a regional hit in Texas, Oklahoma, New Mexico and Louisiana. Three years later, he exchanged soundtracks with Kelly Schoppa in Houston. He traded his soundtrack to "Amarillo by Morning '' for a duet that Kelly had recorded in Nashville with Janie Fricke and no money changed hands. George Strait heard Kelly 's version in 1982 and decided to record Amarillo by Morning in 1983. It has become George Strait 's signature song since then.
Canadian indie rock artist Fancey covered the song on his 2018 album of 1960s and 70s country songs County Fair. Brazilian singer Zé Ramalho has also recorded the song.
It was covered in 1983 by George Strait. It appeared on Strait 's 1982 album Strait from the Heart (LP MCA 5320). It was released on MCA as a single, release number 52162. The publisher 's release was January 14, 1983, and the full release came February 16, 1983. The single entered the Billboard Country chart February 12, 1983, peaking at # 4.
Kevin John Coyne of Country Universe gave the song an A grade, saying that he has "finally found his niche as a performer. '' He goes on to say that the "simple arrangement and understated delivery are the defining elements of just about every Strait record since. ''
The song is regularly played at rodeos. The song was named "# 12 country song of all - time '' by Country Music Television. Development Counsellors International and USA Today named the song one of the top ten songs about a place, number 7.
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what is jack and jill went up the hill about | Jack and Jill (nursery rhyme) - wikipedia
"Jack and Jill '' (sometimes "Jack and Gill '', particularly in earlier versions) is a traditional English nursery rhyme. The Roud Folk Song Index classifies this tune and its variations as number 10266. The rhyme dates back at least to the 18th century and exists with different numbers of verses each with a number of variations.
Jack and Jill Went up the hill To fetch a pail of water Jack fell down And broke his crown, And Jill came tumbling after.
Only a few more verses have been added to the rhyme, including a version with a total of 15 stanzas in a chapbook of the 19th century. The dab verse, probably added as part of these extensions, has become a standard part of the nursery rhyme. Early versions took the form:
Up Jack got, And home did trot As fast as he could caper; To old Dame Dob, Who patched his nob With vinegar and brown paper.
By the early 20th century this had been modified in some collections, such as L.E. Walter 's, Mother Goose 's Nursery Rhymes (London, 1919) to:
Up Jack got And home did trot, As fast as he could caper; And went to bed And plastered his head With vinegar and brown paper.
A third verse, sometimes added to the rhyme, was first recorded in a 19th - century chapbook and took
Twentieth - century versions of this verse include:
When Jill came in How she did grin To see Jack 's paper plaster; Mother vexed Did whip her next For causing Jack 's disaster.
As presented above and as presented in the accompanying published images, the rhyme is made up of six - line stanzas with a rhyming scheme of aabccb and a trochaic rhythm (with the stress falling on the first of a pair of syllables). Alternatively, if these stanzas were viewed as quatrains with internal rhymes, this would be an example of ballad form, a common form for nursery rhymes. The melody commonly associated with the rhyme was first recorded by the composer and nursery rhyme collector James William Elliott in his National Nursery Rhymes and Nursery Songs (1870). The Roud Folk Song Index, which catalogues folk songs and their variations by number, classifies the song as 10266.
The phrase "Jack and Jill '' was in use in England as early as the 16th century to indicate a boy and a girl. A comedy with the title Jack and Jill was performed at the Elizabethan court in 1567 - 68, and the phrase was used twice by Shakespeare: in A Midsummer Night 's Dream, which contains the line, "Jack shall have Jill; Nought shall go ill '' (III: ii: 460 - 2), and in Love 's Labour 's Lost, which has the lines, "Our wooing doth not end like an old play; Jack hath not Jill '' (V: ii: 874 -- 5). These lines suggest that it was a phrase which indicated a romantically attached couple, as in the proverb "a good Jack makes a good Jill ''.
The earliest known printed version comes from a reprint of John Newbery 's Mother Goose 's Melody, thought to have been first published in London around 1765. The rhyming of "water '' with "after '' was taken by Iona and Peter Opie to suggest that the first verse may date from the first half of the 17th century. A musical arrangement by Charles Burney was published in 1777.
Several theories have been advanced to explain its origins and to suggest meanings for the lyrics.
The game has traditionally been seen as a nonsense verse, particularly as the couple go up a hill to find water, which is often incorrectly thought to be only found at the bottom of hills. Vinegar and brown paper were a home cure used as a method to draw out bruises on the body.
Jack is the most common name used in English - language nursery rhymes and represented an archetypal Everyman hero by the 18th century, while Jill or Gill had come to mean a young girl or a sweetheart by the end of the Middle Ages.
However, the woodcut that accompanied the first recorded version of the rhyme showed two boys (not a boy and a girl) and used the spelling Gill not Jill.
The true origin of the rhyme is unknown, but there are several theories. Complicated metaphors are often said to exist within the lyrics, as is common with nursery rhyme exegesis. Most explanations post-date the first publication of the rhyme and have no corroborating evidence. These include the suggestion by S. Baring - Gould in the 19th century that the rhyme is related to a narrative in the 13th - century Prose Edda section Gylfaginning composed by Icelander Snorri Sturluson. In Gylfaginning, Hjúki and Bil, brother and sister respectively in Norse mythology, were taken up from the earth by the moon (personified as the god Máni) as they were fetching water from the well called Byrgir, bearing on their shoulders the cask called Saegr and the pole called Simul. Around 1835, John Bellenden Ker suggested that Jack and Jill were two priests; this was enlarged by Katherine Elwes in 1930 to indicate that Jack represented Cardinal Wolsey (c. 1471 -- 1530) and Jill was Bishop Tarbes, who negotiated the marriage of Mary Tudor to the French king in 1514.
It has also been suggested that the rhyme records the attempt by King Charles I to reform the taxes on liquid measures. He was blocked by Parliament, so subsequently ordered that the volume of a Jack (1 / 8 pint) be reduced, but the tax remained the same. This meant that he still received more tax, despite Parliament 's veto. Hence "Jack fell down and broke his crown '' (many pint glasses in the UK still have a line marking the 1 / 2 pint level with a crown above it) "and Jill came tumbling after ''. The reference to "Jill '' (actually a "gill '', or 1 / 4 pint) is said to reflect that the gill dropped in volume as a consequence.
The suggestion has also been made that Jack and Jill represent Louis XVI of France, who was deposed and beheaded in 1793 (lost his crown), and his Queen Marie Antoinette (who came tumbling after), a theory made difficult by the fact that the earliest printing of the rhyme pre-dates those events. However, as the previous paragraph refers to King Charles I being in conflict with Parliament, the phrase "broke his crown '' could also refer to that King 's beheading in 1649.
There is also a local belief that the rhyme records events in the village of Kilmersdon in Somerset in 1697 when a local spinster became pregnant; the putative father is said to have died from a rock fall and the woman died in childbirth soon after.
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what kind of mossberg 500 do i have | Mossberg 500 - wikipedia
Mossberg 500 is a series of pump action shotguns manufactured by O.F. Mossberg & Sons. The 500 series comprises widely varying models of hammerless repeaters, all of which share the same basic receiver and action, but differ in bore size, barrel length, choke options, magazine capacity, stock and forearm materials. Model numbers included in the 500 series are the 500, 505, 510, 535, and 590.
Introduced in 1960, all model 500s are based on the same basic concept designed by Carl Benson. Originally using a single action bar, that was known to bind and even break, this was changed to dual action bars in 1970, following the expiration of Remington 's patent on the double action bar design. A single large locking lug is used to secure the breech. The magazine tube is located below the barrel, and is screwed into the receiver. The slide release is located to the left rear of the trigger guard, and the safety is located on the upper rear of the receiver (often called a "tang safety '').
Sights vary from model to model, from simple bead sight to a receiver mounted ghost ring or an integrated base for a telescopic sight. Most models come with the receiver drilled and tapped for the installation of a rear sight or a scope base. The factory scope base is attached to the barrel via a cantilever - type mount, which places the scope over the receiver but keeps it with the barrel if the barrel is removed.
Intended for use in harsh and dirty conditions, such as waterfowl hunting or combat, the Model 500 series is designed to be easy to clean and maintain. All Model 500s feature interchangeable barrels (given a particular gun 's magazine capacity -- a barrel designed for a five - shot tube will not fit a gun with a seven - shot tube), which may be removed without the use of tools, by loosening a screw on the end of the magazine tube, allowing the barrel to be removed.
Dual action bars connect the fore - end to the bolt, and generous clearances between the steel action bars and their receiver channels reduce wear on the aluminium receiver while allowing the shotgun to function with the presence of dirt or debris. The Model 500 's bolt locks into a recess located on the top of the steel barrel instead of the receiver itself, thus allowing the use of lightweight aluminum instead of steel. The trigger housing and safety button are made of plastic to reduce cost.
The trigger assembly, which includes the trigger, hammer, sear, and trigger body with guard, can be removed by pushing out one retaining pin and pulling downwards on the guard (if a pistol grip is installed, it usually must be removed first as virtually all such grips obstruct the removal of the trigger body). The elevator can be removed by putting the gun on safety and squeezing the sides together, freeing the pivot pins from the receiver. The fore - end can then be moved to the rear, allowing the bolt and bolt carrier to drop out, and then the forend can be removed by moving it forward. The cartridge stop and interrupter will then fall free, leaving just the ejector and the safety in the receiver, held in by screws. The magazine spring and follower may be removed by unscrewing the tube from the receiver (this may be difficult on some new 500s). This level of field stripping is sufficient to allow all components to be cleaned.
The name "Model 500 '' covers an entire family of pump shotguns designed to chamber 3 - inch (76 mm) "magnum '' shells. The standard model holds five 2.75 - inch (70 mm) or five 3 - inch (76 mm) shells in the magazine and one in the chamber. The Model 500 is available in 12 gauge, 20 gauge, and. 410 bore, with the 12 gauge being the most popular and having the most optional features available. A 16 gauge was offered at one time but has been discontinued.
The standard finish for the Model 500 is an anodized aluminum alloy receiver and a polished and blued barrel. Some models come with a matte black matte - anodized receiver, and a matte blued barrel. Some 500 models are anodized to look parkerized, with parkerized barrels. This is also true of the 590 series since an aluminum receiver can not be parkerized.
Mossberg also offers camouflage painted models, in a number of different patterns. Stocks are either wood or composite, with the composite stocks being matte black or camouflage to match the rest of the gun. A special model called the Mariner is available with the Marinecote finish, an electroless - nickel finish that is highly corrosion resistant. Mariner models use the black composite stocks.
The primary difference between the Model 500 and Model 590 is in magazine tube design. The Model 500 magazines are closed at the muzzle end, and the barrel is held in place by bolting into a threaded hole at the end of the magazine tube. Model 590 magazines are designed to be opened at the muzzle end, and the barrels fit around the magazine tube and are held on by a capnut at the end. The Model 500 magazine facilitates easy barrel changes, as the barrel bolt serves no function other than holding the barrel in place. The Model 590 magazine facilitates easy cleaning and parts replacement, as removing the nut allows removal of the magazine spring and follower.
Both the Model 500 and Model 590 have polymer trigger guards & safeties and standard barrels. The Model 590A1 has an aluminum trigger guard & safety, a heavier barrel, and a bayonet lug (although some versions of the 590 also have bayonet lugs), intended for military use under extreme conditions and rough handling; the metal trigger guard was added in response to the 3443G materials requirements, and the heavy barrel was added at the request of the Navy to prevent barrel deformation if the shotgun caught in the closing of heavy steel ship doors. Some 590A1s have a sling swivel on the back of the bayonet lug, some do not. The 590A1 usually has a swivel mount on the stock even when there is no corresponding mount on the forward end of the weapon. The 590A1 is generally sold through military and law enforcement channels, though in most jurisdictions the 18.5 - inch (47 cm) and 20 - inch (51 cm) barreled models are available and may be legally purchased by any non prohibited persons. 590A1s with 14 '' barrels are Title II firearms, and may be purchased only by non-prohibited persons in NFA - legal states, after completing BATF transfer forms.
The riot gun versions of the pistol grip Model 500 (Persuader, Cruiser, Road Blocker, and Mariner) are available with an 18.5 - inch (47 cm) and 20 - inch (51 cm) barrel depending on magazine capacity. The 590 is only available with a 20 - inch (510 mm) barrel and flush - fit magazine tube. The 590A1 is available with a 14 - inch (36 cm), 18.5 - inch, or 20 - inch (510 mm) barrel. One model sold as Model 590 - SP (catalog item 51663) is technically a 590A1, as it uses the heavy barrel and military trigger group, but unlike models designated 590A1 it is sold on the civilian market.
Unlike Model 500 and 590 shotguns (with the exception of ghost - ring sight 590 models), Model 590A1 shotguns can not be easily fitted with the common factory 500 heat shield, due to the heavier barrel. A heat shield and bayonet lug are required for military 3443G Type I riot shotguns, and some 590A1s are so equipped. The 590A1 heat shield, p / n 16335P, is available for purchase from Mossberg for about the same price as the 500 heat shield.
The standard Model 500 uses a 14 - inch (36 cm) length of pull (LOP) for the stock, which is suitable for adult shooters of average or greater size. The Bantam models use a 13 - inch (33 cm) LOP stock and a forend that sits further back than the standard model. The Super Bantam stock includes two recoil pads and a stock spacer.
By using the short pad, the LOP can be reduced to 12 inches (30 cm); with the spacer and longer pad, the LOP is 13 inches (330 mm). A number of different models are offered with Bantam and Super Bantam stocks, or they can be ordered as accessories and fitted to any Model 500.
The new Model 505 Youth shotgun, introduced in 2005, is similar to the Bantam but scaled down further. The 505 has a 12 - inch (30 cm) LOP buttstock (compared to a standard model 's 14 inches or 36 centimetres, or a Bantam 's 13 inches or 33 centimetres), a 20 - inch (51 cm) barrel, and a four - shot magazine tube. The 505 is available in 20 gauge and. 410 bore. Parts are not interchangeable with other model 500 variants.
The Model 535, new for 2005, is similar to the Model 500, but with a lengthened receiver that can fire 3.5 - inch (89 mm) shells, in addition to 2.75 - inch (70 mm) and 3 - inch (76 mm) shells. The 535 is a less expensive alternative to the Mossberg 835 Ulti - Mag, but the 535 lacks the 835 's overbored barrel. The non-overbored barrel of the 535 does, however, allow the use of slugs, which can not be used in the overbored barrel of the 835.
Model 535 barrels are not interchangeable with Model 500 or Model 835 barrels, but 535 barrels are available in smoothbore and rifled in a variety of vent ribbed, barrel lengths and different sights. The 535 is also available in a tactical model with ghost ring sights and a collapsible pistol grip buttstock. Although Model 500 barrels can be used with Model 535 receivers, magazine tubes from the Model 500 must also be used because of the magazine tube length difference.
The Model 500 comes in a variety of different receiver configurations, whose main difference is the magazine configuration. The basic Model 500 comes with a magazine tube capable of holding five 2.75 - inch (70 mm) shells, which is called a six - shot model (a full magazine plus a round in the chamber). The 500 is also available with an extended magazine tube that holds seven rounds, making an eight - shot model. The 590A1 is available with five - and eight - shot magazines, sold as six - and nine - shot models respectively. The Model 590A1 also allows the use of magazine extensions in place of the magazine cap to further increase the capacity of ammunition.
The variants with the extended magazine tubes use different barrels, as the barrel is held in place by attaching at the end of the magazine tube. The shortest barrel length available for the eight - and nine - shot models is 20 inches (51 cm), which fits flush with the long magazine tube. A ribbed 28 - inch (71 cm) modified choke field barrel was also manufactured for the 8 - shot model 500. The shortest barrel for Title I six - shot models is 18.0 inches (46 cm), while military and law enforcement personnel (as well private persons in NFA states) can also get a 14 - inch (36 cm) barrel (the 590 Compact), which uses a special 5 - shot magazine.
The Model 500 is available in many variants, for a wide variety of applications. The ease of changing barrels on the Model 500 means that a single shotgun may be equipped by the owner with a number of barrels, each for a different purpose. As sold, the Model 500 is generally classed into two broad categories: field models and special purpose models.
Field models are the basic sporting models. They are available with a variety of barrel lengths and finishes, and may be set up for waterfowl hunting, upland game hunting, turkey hunting, or shooting slugs. Most smoothbore models come with interchangeable choke tubes and vent rib barrels, while the slug models come with rifle sights or scope bases, and may have smooth cylinder bore or rifled barrels.
Special purpose models are intended for self defense, police, or military use. The Model 590 and the eight - shot Model 500s are only sold as special purpose models. Special purpose models have short barrels, either 18.5 inches (47 cm) for the six - shot models, or 20 inches (51 cm) for the eight - and nine - shot models, but the barrels are fully interchangeable with all models of the same magazine tube length and in the 500 family. Most models come with special designations like SPX, Tactical, Mariner, etc.
Special purpose models may be equipped with a variety of specialty parts which may include adjustable stock, "Speedfeed '' stock that holds 4 additional rounds of ammunition, pistol grip, ghost ring and fiber optic sights, picatinny rail, forearm band, heatshield, ported barrel, muzzle brake, and even a bayonet lug. All special purpose models come only in black trim with either blued, non-glare matte blue, or parkerized finishes and come with drilled and tapped receivers for scope and optics mounting.
It should be noted that "Special Purpose '' models are not the same as "Law Enforcement '' models; the latter have heavier duty barrels, safeties, trigger guards, and will stand up to harder use.
Mossberg shotguns currently designated "law enforcement models '' are 590A1s. 590A1s differ from other 500 / 590 shotguns, in that they have heavy barrels, metal trigger guards, and metal safeties. 590A1s are available in 14 - inch (36 cm), 18.5 - inch (47 cm), and 20 - inch (51 cm) barrels. The 590A1 is also used by the U.S. and allied armed forces, having been designed to meet the stricter standards outlined by the U.S. Army.
Model 500s were also previously sold as law enforcement combos in 12 gauge with both 18.5 - inch (47 cm) and 28 - inch (71 cm) barrels, birch buttstock, pistol grip and sling.
The model 500 HS410, or "Home Security '' model, is only available in. 410, and is specifically designed for defensive use. It comes with a youth - sized stock, a vertical foregrip, and a special muzzle brake and spreader choke (to help produce wider patterns when using buckshot) on an 18.5 - inch (47 cm) bead sight barrel. The. 410, while by far the least powerful common shotgun chambering, remains a formidable weapon. A 90 - grain slug generates energy close to (and in some manufacturer claims, exceeding) a. 357 Magnum when fired from a full length barrel. The HS410 is targeted at the novice user who desires a simple, easy to use, and effective defensive weapon. It is packaged with an introductory video covering use and safety, and some versions have a laser sight mounted in the foregrip.
The Mossberg 500 has always been marketed as a multi-purpose firearm. Mossberg sells a wide variety of accessory stocks and barrels, allowing many configurations to be made (including, in the past, a bullpup configured model 500). Mossberg is also the only company to ever offer a double - action - only model. The model 590DA offers a longer, heavier trigger pull to reduce the chance of an accidental discharge by the operator, and was targeted at the police market.
With the appropriate parts, the same Model 500 can be a field gun, a slug gun, defensive weapon for civilian, police, or military use, trap and skeet gun, or. 50 caliber (12.7 mm) rifled muzzleloader.
Mossberg has also sold "combination '' sets, with a single receiver and more than one barrel. Common examples included a 28 - inch (71 cm) field barrel packaged with an 18.5 - inch (47 cm) cylinder bore barrel for defensive use, or a field barrel and a slug barrel, or a slug barrel and a. 50 caliber muzzleloading rifle barrel.
A unique item offered by Mossberg for the Model 500 is a line launcher kit. It uses special blank cartridge to propel a shaft with an optional floating head and a light rope attached to it; a canister hung below the barrel to hold the line spool. A test of the Mossberg 500 with line launcher by the BoatUS Foundation showed an average range of over 330 feet (100 m) with the floating head. Distances of 700 feet (210 m) are claimed for the non-floating long distance head.
All Mossberg models including the 835, 535, 500, 505 and 590 (except for Special - Purpose and Law Enforcement models) are shipped with a wooden dowel with two rubber O - rings, also called a duck plug, located in the tube magazine. This is to comply with U.S. migratory bird laws. This dowel reduces and regulates the number of shells that can be loaded in the magazine to 2. This can be removed by taking off the barrel, pointing the shotgun downward, and shaking it back and forth lightly until the dowel shows out of the end of the magazine tube. It must then be pulled out, the O - rings prevent it from just falling out. Except for the Maverick 88, all Mossberg models have a pre-drilled receiver for installation of an upper Picatinny rail for mounting various optics such as red dot sights. Some models can be bought with the rail and accessories already installed.
Mossberg also markets a less expensive shotgun under the Maverick Arms name, the Mossberg Maverick 88, in blued finish with synthetic stocks, and in appearance is virtually identical to the 500 model. Maverick and Mossberg shotguns share many interchangeable parts but Maverick shotguns differ in some ways, such as lacking sling swivel studs and having cross-bolt safeties instead of tang safeties, which makes the trigger group non interchangeable with the model 500 shotgun. The one piece forearm can be replaced with OEM or after market parts with the addition of an action slide tube, as the factory forearm has the action bars pinned into place. The Maverick series also does not come drilled and tapped for rail mounts like the 500 models. There are two basic models of the 88, the 88 field and the 88 security, with a cartridge capacity of 6 or 8 shots, and they can not have their magazines easily extended without machining. The factory warranty on Maverick shotguns are limited to one year.
Mossberg claims the Model 500 is the only shotgun to pass the U.S. Army 's Mil - Spec 3443E test, "a brutal and unforgiving torture test with 3,000 rounds of full power 12 gauge buckshot ''. (The updated 3443G specification requires a metal trigger guard, so only the Model 590A1 variants, which have a heavier barrel and use metal trigger groups instead of the standard Model 500 's plastic trigger groups, will fit the requirements.) The 500M MILS have the metal trigger group, and the heavier 20in barrel.
While the Marines officially switched to the semi-automatic M1014 Combat Shotgun in 1999, various branches of the U.S. military are still acquiring pump shotguns.
In 2009, U.S. Special Forces Groups procured Military Enhancement Kits to provide a standardized shotgun configuration based on the Mossberg 500. The kits included a collapsible stock, "shotgun retention system '', 1913 receiver rail, forend rail system and breaching barrels. A total of 1301 shotguns were converted with the first unit being equipped in July 2009. The majority of the kits convert the standard issue shotgun to a 14 '' compact model with a 16 '' accessory breaching barrel, H92239 - 09 - P - 0113.
As of 2012, the U.S. Army is in the process of replacing the M500 with the M26 Modular Accessory Shotgun System, of which 9,000 are funded and under contract. The new shotgun is designed to be mounted in an underbarrel configuration on an M4 Carbine, similar to the M203 or M320 grenade launchers, or used as a stand - alone weapon.
Mossberg produced 2 U.S. military versions of the model 500, the 500 MILS and the 500M MILS, the difference being the location of the upper sling swivel. The model numbers contain a U.S. prefix to the serial number. These particular models (500 MILS & 500M MILS) contain all metal parts, are parkerized with a 20 - inch barrel. The magazine capacity is 6 + 1.
General:
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just an old fashioned love song three dog night lyrics | An old fashioned love song - wikipedia
"An Old Fashioned Love Song '' is a 1971 song written by Paul Williams and performed by the American pop - rock band Three Dog Night. Chuck Negron performed the lead vocal on this track. Taken as the lead single from their 1971 album, Harmony, the song peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in December 1971, becoming the band 's seventh top - ten hit. It was Three Dog Night 's first record to top the U.S. easy listening chart. It reached number two in Canada. Its lyrics suggest the straightforward and melodic nature of the tune: Just an old fashioned love song / Comin ' down in three part harmony / Just an old fashioned love song / One I 'm sure they wrote for you and me.
According to the Karen Carpenter biography Little Girl Blue by Randy L. Schmidt, Williams originally intended the song for The Carpenters, who were in the middle of a string of hits with their own brand of "old fashioned love songs, '' including two of Williams ' own compositions, "We 've Only Just Begun '' and "Rainy Days and Mondays. '' Although this was the first song Williams had written specifically for the Carpenters, Richard Carpenter rejected it, and so Williams offered the song to Three Dog Night. The Carpenters never recorded the song, but did perform it live on television with Carol Burnett a few months later.
The song 's composer Paul Williams recorded his own version of the song he had written, which was included on his 1971 album Just an Old Fashioned Love Song. Williams later performed the song when he appeared on The Muppet Show in 1976. He also sang a portion of the song for an episode of The Odd Couple in 1974.
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who plays dr murphy on the good doctor | The Good Doctor (TV series) - wikipedia
The Good Doctor is an American medical - drama television series, developed by David Shore, based on the 2013 South Korean series of the same name. The show is produced by Sony Pictures Television and ABC Studios, with Shore serving as showrunner. The series began airing on ABC on September 25, 2017.
The series stars Freddie Highmore as Shaun Murphy, a young surgical resident with autism and savant syndrome at San Jose St. Bonaventure Hospital. Antonia Thomas, Nicholas Gonzalez, Chuku Modu, Beau Garrett, Hill Harper, Richard Schiff, and Tamlyn Tomita also star in the show. The series received a put pilot commitment at ABC after a previous attempted series did not move forward at CBS Television Studios in 2015; The Good Doctor was ordered to series in May 2017. On October 3, 2017, ABC picked up the series for a full season of 18 episodes.
The series follows Shaun Murphy, a young surgeon with autism and savant syndrome from a small town, where he had a troubled childhood. He relocates to join the prestigious surgical department at San Jose St. Bonaventure Hospital.
In May 2014, CBS Television Studios began development on an American remake of the hit South Korean medical drama Good Doctor with Daniel Dae Kim as producer. Kim explained the appeal of adapting the series as "something that can fit into a recognizable world, with a breadth of characters that can be explored in the long run ''. The story of a pediatric surgeon with Asperger syndrome was to be set in Boston and projected to air in August 2015. However, CBS did not pick up the project and it moved to Sony Pictures Television, with a put pilot commitment from ABC in October 2016. The series is developed by David Shore, who is executive producing alongside Kim, Sebastian Lee, and David Kim. ABC officially ordered the series to pilot in January 2017.
On May 11, 2017, ABC ordered the show to series as a co-production with Sony Pictures Television and ABC Studios, and it was officially picked up for a full season of 18 episodes on October 3, 2017.
On February 17, 2017, Antonia Thomas was cast as Dr. Claire Browne, a strong - willed and talented doctor who forms a special connection with Shaun. A week later, Freddie Highmore was cast in the lead role as Dr. Shaun Murphy, a young surgeon with autism; and Nicholas Gonzalez was cast as Dr. Neil Melendez, the boss of the surgical residents at the hospital. The next month, Chuku Modu was cast as resident Dr. Jared Unger; Hill Harper as head of surgery Dr. Horace Andrews; Irene Keng as resident Dr. Elle McLean; and Richard Schiff was cast as Dr. Ira Glassman, President of the San Jose St. Bonaventure Hospital and mentor to Shaun. He was shortly followed by Beau Garrett as hospital board member Jessica Preston and a friend of Dr. Glassman. With the series order in May, Modu 's character was revealed to have changed to Dr. Jared Kalu; Harper 's character changed to Dr. Marcus Andrews; and Schiff 's character changed to Dr. Aaron Glassman. In September 2017, Tamlyn Tomita was promoted to the principal cast as Allegra Aoki.
Production on the pilot took place from March 21 to April 6, 2017 in Vancouver, British Columbia. Filming for the rest of the season began on July 26, 2017, and is set to conclude on March 1, 2018. The Surrey, British Columbia city hall serves as the fictional San Jose St. Bonaventure Hospital in exterior shots.
Although The Good Doctor is set in San Jose, California, the real San Jose is rarely seen. In one of those scenes, an helicopter supposedly bound for San Francisco was clearly headed in the wrong direction.
Dan Romer serves as the primary composer for the series.
The Good Doctor began airing on September 25, 2017, on ABC in the United States, and on CTV in Canada. Sky Living acquired the broadcast rights for the United Kingdom and Ireland. Seven Network airs the series in Australia.
A full length trailer was released for ABC 's May 2017 Upfront presentation, which / Film 's Ethan Anderton described the concept as feeling like "House meets Rain Man, that just might be enough to make it interesting ''. However, he questioned "how long can audiences be entranced by both the brilliance of (Highmore 's) character 's savant skills and the difficulties that come from his autism in the workplace. '' Daniel Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter felt the trailer was "both kinda progressive and really dated ''. He added, "Too much felt on - the - nose -- especially Hill Harper as the main character 's detractor and Richard Schiff as his noble defender '', while also commentating that "On - the - nose / premise is how you have to trailer a show like this, and maybe spaced out over 43 minutes it wo n't grate. '' Ben Travers and Steve Greene for IndieWire called it "a serious trailer for a serious subject. The first glimpse of Highmore 's character hints that they 're toeing the line between presenting a thoughtful depiction of his condition and using his perceptive abilities as a kind of secret weapon. '' The trailer had been viewed over 25.4 million times after a week of its release, including over 22 million views on Facebook.
The pilot was screened at ABC 's PaleyFest event on September 9, 2017.
The series premiere earned a 2.2 / 9 rating in the 18 - to 49 - year - old demographic, with 11.22 million total viewers, making it the most watched Monday drama debut on ABC in 21 years, since Dangerous Minds in September 1996, and the highest rated Monday drama in the 18 -- 49 demographic in 8.5 years, since Castle in March 2009. Factoring live plus seven - day ratings, the pilot was watched by a total of 19.2 million viewers and set a record for DVR viewers with 7.9 million, surpassing the record of 7.67 million set by the pilot of Designated Survivor in 2016. According to TV Guide Magazine 's November 13 - 26 issue, the October 9 episode attracted 18.2 million viewers beating out both NCIS and The Big Bang Theory for the most viewed primetime show that week.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 52 % approval rating with an average rating of 5.6 / 10 based on 29 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "The Good Doctor 's heavy - handed bedside manner undermines a solid lead performance, but under all the emotionally manipulative gimmickry, there 's still plenty of room to improve. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 53 out of 100 based on 15 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Giving his first impression of the series ' pilot for TVLine, Matt Webb Mitovich stated, "The Good Doctor boasts great DNA... (and) has the potential to be a refreshingly thought - provoking hospital drama, based on the buttons pushed in the pilot alone. '' He enjoyed the "warm dynamic '' of Schiff and Highmore, while describing Thomas ' character as "our emotional ' in ' to Shaun 's distinct, distant world ''. He noted that "it takes a while to build up momentum, '' but concluded that "the very final scene packs quite a punch, as Dr. Murphy unwittingly puts a colleague on notice. ''
The New York Times television critic, James Poniewozik notes in his Critic 's Notebook column, that for the most part the drama is a "hospital melodrama with whiz - bang medical science, a dash of intra-staff romance and shameless sentimentality. '' Discussing the main characters of Dr. Aaron Glassman (Richard Schiff) and Dr. Shaun Murphy (Freddie Highmore), however, Poniewozik writes that "Mr. Schiff is convincing in the role and Mr. Highmore is striking in his. ''
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what does it mean daylight saving time ends | Daylight saving time - wikipedia
Daylight saving time (DST), also daylight savings time (United States), also summer time (United Kingdom and others), is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months so that evening daylight lasts longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use daylight saving time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring and adjust them backward in the autumn to standard time. In effect, DST causes a lost hour of sleep in the spring and an extra hour of sleep in the fall.
George Hudson proposed the idea of daylight saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria - Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30, 1916. Many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s.
DST is generally not observed near the equator, where sunrise times do not vary enough to justify it. Some countries observe it only in some regions; for example, southern Brazil observes it while equatorial Brazil does not. Only a minority of the world 's population uses DST, because Asia and Africa generally do not observe it.
DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates and timings may be confusing.
Industrialized societies generally follow a clock - based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, and the coordination of mass transit, for example, usually remain constant year - round. In contrast, an agrarian society 's daily routines for work and personal conduct are more likely governed by the length of daylight hours and by solar time, which change seasonally because of the Earth 's axial tilt. North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater the further one moves away from the tropics.
By synchronously resetting all clocks in a region to one hour ahead of standard time, individuals who follow such a year - round schedule will wake an hour earlier than they would have otherwise; they will begin and complete daily work routines an hour earlier, and they will have available to them an extra hour of daylight after their workday activities. However, they will have one less hour of daylight at the start of each day, making the policy less practical during winter.
While the times of sunrise and sunset change at roughly equal rates as the seasons change, proponents of Daylight Saving Time argue that most people prefer a greater increase in daylight hours after the typical "nine to five '' workday. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, but the actual effect on overall energy use is heavily disputed.
The manipulation of time at higher latitudes (for example Iceland, Nunavut or Alaska) has little impact on daily life, because the length of day and night changes more extremely throughout the seasons (in comparison to other latitudes), and thus sunrise and sunset times are significantly out of phase with standard working hours regardless of manipulations of the clock. DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. The effect also varies according to how far east or west the location is within its time zone, with locations farther east inside the time zone benefiting more from DST than locations farther west in the same time zone.
Although they did not fix their schedules to the clock in the modern sense, ancient civilizations adjusted daily schedules to the sun more flexibly than DST does, often dividing daylight into twelve hours regardless of daytime, so that (for example) each daylight hour became progressively longer during spring and shorter during autumn. For example, the Romans kept time with water clocks that had different scales for different months of the year: at Rome 's latitude the third hour from sunrise, hora tertia, started by modern standards at 09: 02 solar time and lasted 44 minutes at the winter solstice, but at the summer solstice it started at 06: 58 and lasted 75 minutes. From the fourteenth century onwards, equal - length civil hours supplanted unequal ones, so civil time no longer varies by season. Unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies.
During his time as an American envoy to France (1776 - 1785), Benjamin Franklin, publisher of the old English proverb "Early to bed, and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise '', anonymously published a letter in the Journal de Paris suggesting that Parisians economize on candles by rising earlier to use morning sunlight. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells and firing cannons at sunrise. Despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST; 18th - century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this soon changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklin 's day.
In 1810, the Spanish National Assembly, Cortes of Cádiz, issued a regulation that moved the sitting of certain meeting times forward by one hour from 1 May to 30 September in recognition of seasonal changes but did not actually change the clocks. It also acknowledged that private businesses were in the practice of changing their opening hours to suit daylight conditions but did so on their own volition.
The New Zealand entomologist George Hudson first proposed modern DST. Hudson 's shift - work job gave him leisure time to collect insects and led him to value after - hours daylight. In 1895 he presented a paper to the Wellington Philosophical Society proposing a two - hour daylight - saving shift, and after considerable interest was expressed in Christchurch, he followed up with an 1898 paper. Many publications credit DST proposal to the prominent English builder and outdoorsman William Willett, who independently conceived DST in 1905 during a pre-breakfast ride, when he observed with dismay how many Londoners slept through a large part of a summer day. An avid golfer, Willett also disliked cutting short his round at dusk. His solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The Liberal Party member of parliament (MP) Robert Pearce took up Willett 's proposal, introducing the first Daylight Saving Bill to the House of Commons on February 12, 1908. A select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearce 's bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915.
Port Arthur, Ontario, Canada, was the first city in the world to enact DST on July 1, 1908. This was followed by Orillia, Ontario, introduced by William Sword Frost while mayor from 1911 to 1912.
The first states to adopt DST (German: Sommerzeit) nationally were those of the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria - Hungary commencing April 30, 1916 as a way to conserve coal during wartime. Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed. Russia and a few other countries waited until the next year, and the United States adopted daylight saving in 1918.
Broadly speaking, most jurisdictions abandoned daylight saving time in the years after the war ended in 1918 (with some notable exceptions including Canada, the UK, France, Ireland, and the United States). However, many different places adopted it for periods of time during the following decades and it became common during World War II. It became widely adopted, particularly in North America and Europe, starting in the 1970s as a result of the 1970s energy crisis.
Since then, the world has seen many enactments, adjustments, and repeals. For specific details, see Daylight saving time by country.
Clock shifts are usually scheduled at, or soon after, midnight and on a weekend to lessen disruption to weekday schedules. A one - hour shift is customary but twenty minute and two hour shifts have been used in the past. In all countries that use daylight saving, the clock is advanced in spring and set back in autumn; the spring change reduces the length of that day and the autumn change increases it. For a midnight shift in spring, a digital display of local time would appear to jump from 11: 59: 59.9 to 01: 00: 00.0.
The time at which clocks are to be shifted differs across jurisdictions. The European Union has a coordinated shift, shifting all zones at the same instant, at 01: 00 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which means that it changes at 02: 00 Central European Time (CET) or 03: 00 Eastern European Time (EET), the result is that the time differences across European time zone remain constant. North America shifts at 02: 00 but at the local time and is consequently uncoordinated so that, for example, Mountain Time is, for one hour, zero hours ahead of Pacific Time instead of one hour ahead in the autumn and two hours instead of one ahead of Pacific Time in the spring.
The dates on which clocks are to be shifted also vary with location and year, consequently, the time differences between regions also vary throughout the year. For example, Central European Time is usually six hours behind North American Eastern Time, except for a few weeks in March and October / November, while the United Kingdom and mainland Chile could be five hours apart during the northern summer, three hours during the southern summer, and four hours a few weeks per year. Since 1996, European Summer Time has been observed from the last Sunday in March to the last Sunday in October; previously the rules were not uniform across the European Union. Starting in 2007, most of the United States and Canada observe DST from the second Sunday in March to the first Sunday in November, almost two - thirds of the year. Moreover, the beginning and ending dates are roughly reversed between the northern and southern hemispheres because spring and autumn are displaced six months. For example, mainland Chile observes DST from the second Saturday in October to the second Saturday in March, with transitions at 24: 00 local time. In some countries time is governed by regional jurisdictions within the country so that some jurisdictions shift and others do not; this is currently the case in Australia, Brazil, Canada, Mexico, and the United States.
From year to year, the shift dates may change for political and social reasons. The 2007 U.S. change was part of the Energy Policy Act of 2005; previously, from 1987 through 2006, the start and end dates were the first Sunday in April and the last Sunday in October, and Congress retains the right to go back to the previous dates now that an energy - consumption study has been done. Proponents for permanently retaining November as the month for ending DST point to Halloween as a reason to delay the change -- to provide extra daylight on October 31. In the past, Australian state jurisdictions not only changed at different local times but sometimes on different dates; for example, in 2008 most DST - observing states shifted clocks forward on October 5 but Western Australia shifted on October 26.
Daylight saving has caused controversy since it began. Winston Churchill argued that it enlarges "the opportunities for the pursuit of health and happiness among the millions of people who live in this country '' and pundits have dubbed it "Daylight Slaving Time ''. Historically, retailing, sports, and tourism interests have favored daylight saving, while agricultural and evening entertainment interests have opposed it, and its initial adoption had been prompted by energy crises and war.
The fate of Willett 's 1907 proposal illustrates several political issues involved. The proposal attracted many supporters, including Arthur Balfour, Churchill, David Lloyd George, Ramsay MacDonald, Edward VII (who used half - hour DST at Sandringham or "Sandringham time ''), the managing director of Harrods, and the manager of the National Bank. However, the opposition was stronger: it included Prime Minister H.H. Asquith, Christie (the Astronomer Royal), George Darwin, Napier Shaw (director of the Meteorological Office), many agricultural organizations, and theatre owners. After many hearings the proposal was narrowly defeated in a parliamentary committee vote in 1909. Willett 's allies introduced similar bills every year from 1911 through 1914, to no avail. The U.S. was even more skeptical: Andrew Peters introduced a DST bill to the United States House of Representatives in May 1909, but it soon died in committee.
After Germany led the way with starting DST (German: Sommerzeit) during World War I on April 30, 1916 together with its allies to alleviate hardships from wartime coal shortages and air raid blackouts, the political equation changed in other countries; the United Kingdom used DST first on May 21, 1916. U.S. retailing and manufacturing interests led by Pittsburgh industrialist Robert Garland soon began lobbying for DST, but were opposed by railroads. The U.S. 's 1917 entry to the war overcame objections, and DST was established in 1918.
The war 's end swung the pendulum back. Farmers continued to dislike DST, and many countries repealed it after the war. Britain was an exception: it retained DST nationwide but over the years adjusted transition dates for several reasons, including special rules during the 1920s and 1930s to avoid clock shifts on Easter mornings. Now under a European Community directive summer time begins annually on the last Sunday in March, which may be Easter Sunday (as in 2016). The U.S. was more typical: Congress repealed DST after 1919. President Woodrow Wilson, like Willett an avid golfer, vetoed the repeal twice but his second veto was overridden. Only a few U.S. cities retained DST locally thereafter, including New York so that its financial exchanges could maintain an hour of arbitrage trading with London, and Chicago and Cleveland to keep pace with New York. Wilson 's successor Warren G. Harding opposed DST as a "deception ''. Reasoning that people should instead get up and go to work earlier in the summer, he ordered District of Columbia federal employees to start work at 08: 00 rather than 09: 00 during summer 1922. Some businesses followed suit though many others did not; the experiment was not repeated.
Since Germany 's adoption in 1916, the world has seen many enactments, adjustments, and repeals of DST, with similar politics involved.
The history of time in the United States includes DST during both world wars, but no standardization of peacetime DST until 1966. In May 1965, for two weeks, St. Paul, Minnesota and Minneapolis, Minnesota were on different times, when the capital city decided to join most of the nation by starting Daylight Saving Time while Minneapolis opted to follow the later date set by state law. In the mid-1980s, Clorox (parent of Kingsford Charcoal) and 7 - Eleven provided the primary funding for the Daylight Saving Time Coalition behind the 1987 extension to U.S. DST, and both Idaho senators voted for it based on the premise that during DST fast - food restaurants sell more French fries, which are made from Idaho potatoes.
In 1992, after a three - year trial of daylight saving in Queensland, Australia, a referendum on daylight saving was held and defeated with a 54.5 % ' no ' vote -- with regional and rural areas strongly opposed, while those in the metropolitan south - east were in favor. In 2005, the Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association and the National Association of Convenience Stores successfully lobbied for the 2007 extension to U.S. DST. In December 2008, the Daylight Saving for South East Queensland (DS4SEQ) political party was officially registered in Queensland, advocating the implementation of a dual - time zone arrangement for daylight saving in South East Queensland while the rest of the state maintains standard time. DS4SEQ contested the March 2009 Queensland state election with 32 candidates and received one percent of the statewide primary vote, equating to around 2.5 % across the 32 electorates contested. After a three - year trial, more than 55 % of Western Australians voted against DST in 2009, with rural areas strongly opposed. On April 14, 2010, after being approached by the DS4SEQ political party, Queensland Independent member Peter Wellington, introduced the Daylight Saving for South East Queensland Referendum Bill 2010 into the Queensland parliament, calling for a referendum at the next state election on the introduction of daylight saving into South East Queensland under a dual - time zone arrangement. The Bill was defeated in the Queensland parliament on June 15, 2011.
In the UK the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents supports a proposal to observe SDST 's additional hour year - round, but is opposed in some industries, such as postal workers and farmers, and particularly by those living in the northern regions of the UK.
In some Muslim countries, DST is temporarily abandoned during Ramadan (the month when no food should be eaten between sunrise and sunset), since the DST would delay the evening dinner. Ramadan took place in July and August in 2012. This concerns at least Morocco, although Iran keeps DST during Ramadan. Most Muslim countries do not use DST, partially for this reason.
The 2011 declaration by Russia that it would stay in DST all year long was subsequently followed by a similar declaration from Belarus. Russia 's plan generated widespread complaints due to the dark of wintertime morning, and thus was abandoned in 2014. The country changed its clocks to Standard Time on October 26, 2014 and intends to stay there permanently.
Proponents of DST generally argue that it saves energy, promotes outdoor leisure activity in the evening (in summer), and is therefore good for physical and psychological health, reduces traffic accidents, reduces crime or is good for business. Groups that tend to support DST are urban workers, retail businesses, outdoor sports enthusiasts and businesses, tourism operators, and others who benefit from having more hours of light after the end of a typical workday in the warmer months.
Opponents argue that actual energy savings are inconclusive, that DST increases health risks such as heart attack, that DST can disrupt morning activities, and that the act of changing clocks twice a year is economically and socially disruptive and cancels out any benefit. Farmers have tended to oppose DST.
Having a common agreement about the day 's layout or schedule confers so many advantages that a standard schedule over whole countries or large areas has generally been chosen over ad hoc efforts in which some people get up earlier and others do not. The advantages of coordination are so great that many people ignore whether DST is in effect by altering their nominal work schedules to coordinate with television broadcasts or daylight. DST is commonly not observed during most of winter, because the days are shorter then; workers may have no sunlit leisure time, and students may need to leave for school in the dark. Since DST is applied to many varying communities, its effects may be very different depending on their culture, light levels, geography, and climate. Because of this variation, it is hard to make generalized conclusions about the absolute effects of the practice. The costs and benefits may differ from place to place. Some areas may adopt DST simply as a matter of coordination with others rather than for any direct benefits.
A 2017 meta - analysis of 44 studies found that DST leads to electricity savings of only 0.34 % during the days when DST applies. The meta - analysis furthermore found that "electricity savings are larger for countries farther away from the equator, while subtropical regions consume more electricity because of DST. '' This means that DST may conserve electricity in some countries, such as Canada and the United Kingdom, but be wasteful in other places, such as Mexico, the southern United States, and northern Africa. The savings in electricity may also be offset by extra use of other types of energy, such as heating fuel.
The period of Daylight Saving Time before the longest day is shorter than the period after, in several countries including the United States and Europe. For example, in the U.S. the period of Daylight Saving Time is defined by the Energy Policy Act of 2005. The period for Daylight Saving Time was extended by changing the start date from the first Sunday of April to the second Sunday of March, and the end date from the last Sunday in October to the first Sunday in November.
DST 's potential to save energy comes primarily from its effects on residential lighting, which consumes about 3.5 % of electricity in the United States and Canada. (For comparison, air conditioning uses 16.5 % of energy in the United States.) Delaying the nominal time of sunset and sunrise reduces the use of artificial light in the evening and increases it in the morning. As Franklin 's 1784 satire pointed out, lighting costs are reduced if the evening reduction outweighs the morning increase, as in high - latitude summer when most people wake up well after sunrise. An early goal of DST was to reduce evening usage of incandescent lighting, once a primary use of electricity. Although energy conservation remains an important goal, energy usage patterns have greatly changed since then. Electricity use is greatly affected by geography, climate, and economics, so the results of a study conducted in one place may not be relevant to another country or climate.
Several studies have suggested that DST increases motor fuel consumption. The 2008 DOE report found no significant increase in motor gasoline consumption due to the 2007 United States extension of DST.
The undisputed winners of DST are the retailers, sporting goods makers, and other businesses that benefit from extra afternoon sunlight. Having more hours of sunlight in between the end of the typical workday and bedtime induces customers to shop and to participate in outdoor afternoon sports. People are more likely to stop by a store on their way home from work if the sun is still up. In 1984, Fortune magazine estimated that a seven - week extension of DST would yield an additional $30 million for 7 - Eleven stores, and the National Golf Foundation estimated the extension would increase golf industry revenues $200 million to $300 million. A 1999 study estimated that DST increases the revenue of the European Union 's leisure sector by about 3 %.
Conversely, DST can harm some farmers, young children, who have difficulty getting enough sleep at night when the evenings are bright, and others whose hours are set by the sun. One reason why farmers oppose DST is that grain is best harvested after dew evaporates, so when field hands arrive and leave earlier in summer, their labor is less valuable. Dairy farmers are another group who complain of the change. Their cows are sensitive to the timing of milking, so delivering milk earlier disrupts their systems. Today some farmers ' groups are in favor of DST.
DST also hurts prime - time television broadcast ratings, drive - ins and other theaters.
Changing clocks and DST rules has a direct economic cost, entailing extra work to support remote meetings, computer applications and the like. For example, a 2007 North American rule change cost an estimated $500 million to $1 billion, and Utah State University economist William F. Shughart II has estimated the lost opportunity cost at around US $1.7 billion. Although it has been argued that clock shifts correlate with decreased economic efficiency, and that in 2000 the daylight - saving effect implied an estimated one - day loss of $31 billion on U.S. stock exchanges, the estimated numbers depend on the methodology. The results have been disputed, and the original authors have refuted the points raised by disputers.
In 1975 the U.S. DOT conservatively identified a 0.7 % reduction in traffic fatalities during DST, and estimated the real reduction at 1.5 % to 2 %, but the 1976 NBS review of the DOT study found no differences in traffic fatalities. In 1995 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety estimated a reduction of 1.2 %, including a 5 % reduction in crashes fatal to pedestrians. Others have found similar reductions. Single / Double Summer Time (SDST), a variant where clocks are one hour ahead of the sun in winter and two in summer, has been projected to reduce traffic fatalities by 3 % to 4 % in the UK, compared to ordinary DST. However, accidents do increase by as much as 11 % during the two weeks that follow the end of British Summer Time. It is not clear whether sleep disruption contributes to fatal accidents immediately after the spring clock shifts. A correlation between clock shifts and traffic accidents has been observed in North America and the UK but not in Finland or Sweden. If this effect exists, it is far smaller than the overall reduction in traffic fatalities. A 2009 U.S. study found that on Mondays after the switch to DST, workers sleep an average of 40 minutes less, and are injured at work more often and more severely.
DST likely reduces some kinds of crime, such as robbery and sexual assault, as fewer potential victims are outdoors after dusk. Artificial outdoor lighting has a marginal and sometimes even contradictory influence on crime and fear of crime.
In several countries, fire safety officials encourage citizens to use the two annual clock shifts as reminders to replace batteries in smoke and carbon monoxide detectors, particularly in autumn, just before the heating and candle season causes an increase in home fires. Similar twice - yearly tasks include reviewing and practicing fire escape and family disaster plans, inspecting vehicle lights, checking storage areas for hazardous materials, reprogramming thermostats, and seasonal vaccinations. Locations without DST can instead use the first days of spring and autumn as reminders.
A 2017 study in the American Economic Journal: Applied Economics estimated that "the transition into DST caused over 30 deaths at a social cost of $275 million annually, '' primarily by increasing sleep deprivation.
DST has mixed effects on health. In societies with fixed work schedules it provides more afternoon sunlight for outdoor exercise. It alters sunlight exposure; whether this is beneficial depends on one 's location and daily schedule, as sunlight triggers vitamin D synthesis in the skin, but overexposure can lead to skin cancer. DST may help in depression by causing individuals to rise earlier, but some argue the reverse. The Retinitis Pigmentosa Foundation Fighting Blindness, chaired by blind sports magnate Gordon Gund, successfully lobbied in 1985 and 2005 for U.S. DST extensions. DST shifts are associated with higher rates of ischemic stroke in the first two days after the shift, though not in the week thereafter.
Clock shifts were found to increase the risk of heart attack by 10 percent, and to disrupt sleep and reduce its efficiency. Effects on seasonal adaptation of the circadian rhythm can be severe and last for weeks. A 2008 study found that although male suicide rates rise in the weeks after the spring transition, the relationship weakened greatly after adjusting for season. A 2008 Swedish study found that heart attacks were significantly more common the first three weekdays after the spring transition, and significantly less common the first weekday after the autumn transition. A 2013 review found little evidence that people slept more on the night after the fall DST shift, even though it is often described as allowing people to sleep for an hour longer than normal. The same review stated that the lost hour of sleep resulting from the spring shift appears to result in sleep loss for at least a week afterward. In 2015, two psychologists recommended that DST be abolished, citing its disruptive effects on sleep as one reason for this recommendation.
The government of Kazakhstan cited health complications due to clock shifts as a reason for abolishing DST in 2005. In March 2011, Dmitri Medvedev, president of Russia, claimed that "stress of changing clocks '' was the motivation for Russia to stay in DST all year long. Officials at the time talked about an annual increase in suicides.
An unexpected adverse effect of daylight saving time may lie in the fact that an extra part of morning rush hour traffic occurs before dawn and traffic emissions then cause higher air pollution than during daylight hours.
In 2017, researchers at the University of Washington and the University of Virginia reported that judges who experienced sleep deprivation as a result of DST tended to issue longer sentences.
DST 's clock shifts have the obvious disadvantage of complexity. People must remember to change their clocks; this can be time - consuming, particularly for mechanical clocks that can not be moved backward safely. People who work across time zone boundaries need to keep track of multiple DST rules, as not all locations observe DST or observe it the same way. The length of the calendar day becomes variable; it is no longer always 24 hours. Disruption to meetings, travel, broadcasts, billing systems, and records management is common, and can be expensive. During an autumn transition from 02: 00 to 01: 00, a clock reads times from 01: 00: 00 through 01: 59: 59 twice, possibly leading to confusion.
Damage to a German steel facility occurred during a DST transition in 1993, when a computer timing system linked to a radio time synchronization signal allowed molten steel to cool for one hour less than the required duration, resulting in spattering of molten steel when it was poured. Medical devices may generate adverse events that could harm patients, without being obvious to clinicians responsible for care. These problems are compounded when the DST rules themselves change; software developers must test and perhaps modify many programs, and users must install updates and restart applications. Consumers must update devices such as programmable thermostats with the correct DST rules or manually adjust the devices ' clocks. A common strategy to resolve these problems in computer systems is to express time using the Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) rather than the local time zone. For example, Unix - based computer systems use the UTC - based Unix time internally.
Some clock - shift problems could be avoided by adjusting clocks continuously or at least more gradually -- for example, Willett at first suggested weekly 20 - minute transitions -- but this would add complexity and has never been implemented.
DST inherits and can magnify the disadvantages of standard time. For example, when reading a sundial, one must compensate for it along with time zone and natural discrepancies. Also, sun - exposure guidelines such as avoiding the sun within two hours of noon become less accurate when DST is in effect.
As explained by Richard Meade in the English Journal of the (American) National Council of Teachers of English, the form daylight savings time (with an "s '') was already in 1978 much more common than the older form daylight saving time in American English ("the change has been virtually accomplished ''). Nevertheless, even dictionaries such as Merriam - Webster 's, American Heritage, and Oxford, which describe actual usage instead of prescribing outdated usage (and therefore also list the newer form), still list the older form first. This is because the older form is still very common in print and preferred by many editors. ("Although daylight saving time is considered correct, daylight savings time (with an "s '') is commonly used. ") The first two words are sometimes hyphenated (daylight - saving (s) time). Merriam - Webster 's also lists the forms daylight saving (without "time ''), daylight savings (without "time ''), and daylight time. The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style explains the development and current situation as follows: "Although the singular form daylight saving time is the original one, dating from the early 20th century -- and is preferred by some usage critics -- the plural form is now extremely common in AmE. (...) The rise of daylight savings time appears to have resulted from the avoidance of a miscue: when saving is used, readers might puzzle momentarily over whether saving is a gerund (the saving of daylight) or a participle (the time for saving). (...) Using savings as the adjective -- as in savings account or savings bond -- makes perfect sense. More than that, it ought to be accepted as the better form. ''
In Britain, Willett 's 1907 proposal used the term daylight saving, but by 1911 the term summer time replaced daylight saving time in draft legislation. The same or similar expressions are used in many other languages: Sommerzeit in German, zomertijd in Dutch, kesäaika in Finnish, horario de verano or hora de verano in Spanish, and heure d'été in French.
The name of local time typically changes when DST is observed. American English replaces standard with daylight: for example, Pacific Standard Time (PST) becomes Pacific Daylight Time (PDT). In the United Kingdom, the standard term for UK time when advanced by one hour is British Summer Time (BST), and British English typically inserts summer into other time zone names, e.g. Central European Time (CET) becomes Central European Summer Time (CEST).
The North American English mnemonic "spring forward, fall back '' (also "spring ahead... '', "spring up... '', and "... fall behind '') helps people remember in which direction to shift the clocks.
Changes to DST rules cause problems in existing computer installations. For example, the 2007 change to DST rules in North America required that many computer systems be upgraded, with the greatest impact on e-mail and calendar programs. The upgrades required a significant effort by corporate information technologists.
Some applications standardize on UTC to avoid problems with clock shifts and time zone differences. Likewise, most modern operating systems internally handle and store all times as UTC and only convert to local time for display.
However, even if UTC is used internally, the systems still require external leap second updates and time zone information to correctly calculate local time as needed. Many systems in use today base their date / time calculations from data derived from the tz database also known as zoneinfo.
The tz database maps a name to the named location 's historical and predicted clock shifts. This database is used by many computer software systems, including most Unix - like operating systems, Java, and the Oracle RDBMS; HP 's "tztab '' database is similar but incompatible. When temporal authorities change DST rules, zoneinfo updates are installed as part of ordinary system maintenance. In Unix - like systems the TZ environment variable specifies the location name, as in TZ = ': America / New_York '. In many of those systems there is also a system - wide setting that is applied if the TZ environment variable is not set: this setting is controlled by the contents of the / etc / localtime file, which is usually a symbolic link or hard link to one of the zoneinfo files. Internal time is stored in timezone - independent epoch time; the TZ is used by each of potentially many simultaneous users and processes to independently localize time display.
Older or stripped - down systems may support only the TZ values required by POSIX, which specify at most one start and end rule explicitly in the value. For example, TZ = ' EST5EDT, M3. 2.0 / 02: 00, M11. 1.0 / 02: 00 ' specifies time for the eastern United States starting in 2007. Such a TZ value must be changed whenever DST rules change, and the new value applies to all years, mishandling some older timestamps.
As with zoneinfo, a user of Microsoft Windows configures DST by specifying the name of a location, and the operating system then consults a table of rule sets that must be updated when DST rules change. Procedures for specifying the name and updating the table vary with release. Updates are not issued for older versions of Microsoft Windows. Windows Vista supports at most two start and end rules per time zone setting. In a Canadian location observing DST, a single Vista setting supports both 1987 -- 2006 and post-2006 time stamps, but mishandles some older time stamps. Older Microsoft Windows systems usually store only a single start and end rule for each zone, so that the same Canadian setting reliably supports only post-2006 time stamps.
These limitations have caused problems. For example, before 2005, DST in Israel varied each year and was skipped some years. Windows 95 used rules correct for 1995 only, causing problems in later years. In Windows 98, Microsoft marked Israel as not having DST, forcing Israeli users to shift their computer clocks manually twice a year. The 2005 Israeli Daylight Saving Law established predictable rules using the Jewish calendar but Windows zone files could not represent the rules ' dates in a year - independent way. Partial workarounds, which mishandled older time stamps, included manually switching zone files every year and a Microsoft tool that switches zones automatically. In 2013, Israel standardized its daylight saving time according to the Gregorian calendar.
Microsoft Windows keeps the system real - time clock in local time. This causes several problems, including compatibility when multi booting with operating systems that set the clock to UTC, and double - adjusting the clock when multi booting different Windows versions, such as with a rescue boot disk. This approach is a problem even in Windows - only systems: there is no support for per - user timezone settings, only a single system - wide setting. In 2008 Microsoft hinted that future versions of Windows will partially support a Windows registry entry RealTimeIsUniversal that had been introduced many years earlier, when Windows NT supported RISC machines with UTC clocks, but had not been maintained. Since then at least two fixes related to this feature have been published by Microsoft.
The NTFS file system used by recent versions of Windows stores the file with a UTC time stamp, but displays it corrected to local -- or seasonal -- time. However, the FAT filesystem commonly used on removable devices stores only the local time. Consequently, when a file is copied from the hard disk onto separate media, its time will be set to the current local time. If the time adjustment is changed, the timestamps of the original file and the copy will be different. The same effect can be observed when compressing and uncompressing files with some file archivers. It is the NTFS file that changes seen time. This effect should be kept in mind when trying to determine if a file is a duplicate of another, although there are other methods of comparing files for equality (such as using a checksum algorithm). A ready clue is if the time stamps differ by precisely 1 hour.
A move to "permanent daylight saving time '' (staying on summer hours all year with no time shifts) is sometimes advocated and is currently implemented in some jurisdictions such as Argentina, Belarus, Canada (e.g. Saskatchewan), Iceland, Turkey, Namibia, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It could be a result of following the timezone of a neighbouring region, political will, or other causes. Advocates cite the same advantages as normal DST without the problems associated with the twice yearly time shifts. However, many remain unconvinced of the benefits, citing the same problems and the relatively late sunrises, particularly in winter, that year - round DST entails.
Russia switched to permanent DST from 2011 to 2014, but the move proved unpopular because of the late sunrises in winter, so the country switched permanently back to standard time in 2014 for the whole Russian Federation. The United Kingdom and Ireland also experimented with year - round summer time between 1968 and 1971, and put clocks forward by an extra hour during World War II.
In the IANA time zone database, permanent daylight saving time is considered standard time that has been added by an hour.
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li shang i'll make a man out of you | I 'll Make a Man Out of You - wikipedia
"I 'll Make a Man out of You '' is a song written by composer Matthew Wilder and lyricist David Zippel for Walt Disney Pictures ' 36th animated feature film Mulan (1998). Appearing on the film 's soundtrack Mulan: An Original Walt Disney Records Soundtrack, "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' is performed by American singer Donny Osmond as the singing voice of Captain Li Shang in lieu of American actor BD Wong, who provides the character 's speaking voice. The song also features appearances by Lea Salonga as Mulan, Eddie Murphy as Mushu, and Harvey Fierstein, Jerry Tondo and Wilder himself as Yao, Chien - Po and Ling, respectively. Murphy 's line, however, is the only one to be spoken instead of sung.
"I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' was written to replace the song "We 'll Make a Man of You '' after the film 's original songwriter Stephen Schwartz departed from the project in favor of working on DreamWorks ' The Prince of Egypt (1998). Prior to Mulan, Osmond had auditioned for the role of Hercules in Disney 's Hercules (1997), a role for which he was ultimately turned down by the directors because they felt that he sounded too old. Disney eventually cast Osmond as the singing voice of Shang because his singing voice is similar to Wong 's speaking voice. An up - tempo military - style song, "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' is performed by Shang during a rigorous training montage in which his young, inexperienced soldiers attempt to justify their worth. The song 's title is considered ironic because Mulan, who relies on intelligence, ultimately proves more competent than her male comrades, including Captain Li Shang, who takes a liking to her.
"I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' has received mostly positive reviews from film and music critics, some of whom dubbed it the film 's best song, while praising Osmond 's performance. Critics have also drawn comparisons between the song and Disney 's Hercules, while likening Mulan 's role and transformation to actress Demi Moore 's performance as Lieutenant Jordan O'Neil in the film G.I. Jane (1997). The song has since appeared on several "best of '' Disney songs lists, including those of Total Film and the New York Post. Discussed by film critics, film historians, academic journalists and feminists, the song has gone on to be recorded and covered in several different languages -- namely Mandarin, Cantonese and Spanish -- by entertainers Jackie Chan and Cristian Castro, respectively.
"I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' was written by composer Matthew Wilder and lyricist David Zippel, who were hired to write the songs for Mulan because, according to co-director Tony Bancroft, "Disney was trying to find different songwriters that... would give kind of different sound to each of the songs. '' While Zippel, a Broadway lyricist, was recruited because the directors were impressed by the songwriter 's work on Disney 's Hercules (1997), at the time Wilder, a pop singer and record producer, was best known for his hit single "Break My Stride ''. Bancroft believes that, although the songwriters "had two different sensibilities... I think the (y) blend worked well together, especially on (' I 'll Make a Man Out of You ') ''.
Originally, songwriter Stephen Schwartz, who had just recently worked as a lyricist opposite composer Alan Menken on Disney 's Pocahontas (1995) and The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996), was slated to write the lyrics for Mulan, but he was replaced by Zippel "at the last moment. '' Schwartz had written a song called "We 'll Make a Man of You '' for "when Mulan is trying to learn to be a soldier ''. The song was eventually replaced by Wilder and Zippel 's "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' when Schwartz was forced to resign from Mulan by Disney executives Peter Schneider and Michael Eisner because the songwriter had also agreed to write the songs for rival film studio DreamWorks ' animated feature film The Prince of Egypt (1998). According to The Musical Theater of Stephen Schwartz: From Godspell to Wicked and Beyond, Schwartz believed that he would have been able to work on both films simultaneously, but ultimately chose The Prince of Egypt instead because he felt pressured by Disney.
Before Mulan, American singer Donny Osmond had auditioned for the lead role in Hercules, a role for which he was ultimately not cast because the directors felt that his voice sounded "too old '' and "too deep '' for the character. Osmond later revealed in an interview with People that he was so embarrassed by his Hercules audition that he had nearly considered ending his singing career prematurely. A few months later, Disney contacted Osmond with interest in casting him as the singing voice of Shang after comparing his audition tapes to BD Wong and determining that both actors have "very similar voices. '' In one scene, Osmond 's character, Shang, is hit in the stomach while singing "I 'll Make a Man Out of You ''. In order to sound as realistic as possible, Osmond punched himself in the stomach several times while recording the song.
"I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' is performed by Captain Li Shang during Mulan 's training montage, which has also been identified as the film 's "boot camp sequence. '' The scene explores Shang 's attempt to train his newly recruited squadron of incompetent soldiers in the hopes of ultimately transforming into a skilled army. Occupying a significant portion of the film 's plot, Shang promises to turn his team of "rag - tag recruits '' into men. The musical number is used to "compress dramatic time or narrate '' in a more compelling way than had solely dialogue been used. The scene begins with Shang shooting an arrow into the top of a tall pole and challenging all of his soldiers to retrieve it, each of whom fail until Mulan eventually succeeds. According to the book Into the Closet: Cross-Dressing and the Gendered Body in Children 's Literature and Film by Victoria Flanagan, Mulan is successful in retrieving the arrow because she uses "an ingenuity that is based upon her ability to incorporate aspects of femininity into her masculine performance. '' By the end of the scene, all of the soldiers have improved dramatically and the results of their practice and training are finally revealed. In what Joshua and Judges author Athalya Brenner called "a humorous reversal toward the end of the movie, '' Mulan and her male comrades disguise themselves as concubines in order to infiltrate the palace and rescue the emperor while "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' reprises in the background.
Critics have observed ways in which the scene explores Mulan 's growth and transformation as the character evolves from a clumsy, inexperienced recruit into one of the army 's most skilled soldiers, in spite of her gender. According to the book Literacy, Play and Globalization: Converging Imaginaries in Children 's Critical and Cultural Performances, the montage depicts Mulan 's gender as "an obstacle to overcome. '' Author Phyllis Frus wrote in her book Beyond Adaptation: Essays on Radical Transformations of Original Works, "The need for inexperienced young men to go through a rigorous training results in a sequence common to many films, '' and that the scene "show 's the challenges Ping / Mulan faces due to her '' inexperience. As observed by Juanita Kwok in the book Film Asia: New Perspectives on Film for English, the irony of the scene lies within the fact that "Mulan proves herself more competent than any of the men. '' The author also observed that the scene 's first refrain accompanies shots of Shang, while its second "coincides with Mulan climbing to the top of the pole. '' Additionally, while the earlier, all - female musical number "Honor to Us All '' "functions as an account of the constructedness of female gender, '' "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' "juxtaposes and makes explicit the contention that gender is a cultural product, '' according to Johnson Cheu, author of Diversity in Disney Films: Critical Essays on Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Sexuality and Disability. The Representation of Gender in Walt Disney 's "Mulan '' believes that the song emphasizes desirable masculine traits, namely "discipline... tranquility, celerity, strength and fearlessness, '' while Shang, according to Putting the Grail Back into Girl Power: How a Girl Saved Camelot, and why it Matters, "views (femininity) as comparable to weakness. '' In her article Disney 's "Mulan '' -- the "True '' Deconstructed Heroine?, Lisa Brocklebank argued the song explores themes such as othering, ostracism and abjection.
Critics have drawn similarities between the "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' sequence and Hercules ' training montage in Disney 's Hercules (1997), as well as actress Demi Moore 's role as Lieutenant Jordan O'Neil in the film G.I. Jane (1997). In the book Ways of Being Male: Representing Masculinities in Children 's Literature, author John Stephens wrote that although both Mulan and Hercules depict "the active male body as spectacle, '' Mulan 's is less "straight - forward '' due to the character 's gender. Michael Dequina of The Movie Report observed that "Mulan 's transformation is highly reminiscent of Demi Moore 's in last year 's Disney drama G.I. Jane, but Mulan oneups that film 's hour - long toughening process by efficiently covering the same ground during a single, rousing musical number. ''
Written in common time at a tempo of 110 beats per minute and starting out in the key of E minor, "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' has been identified as a "heroic power ballad '' and anthem that features an upbeat, "thumping '' rhythm. The Disney Song Encyclopedia described the song as a "rhythmic military song. '' Beginning with "a military - style drum '' introduction, "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '', which is immediately preceded by the emotional ballad "Reflection '' on the film 's soundtrack album, "breaks up the slower pace of the songs, '' according to Filmtracks.com. Similar to the song "A Girl Worth Fighting For '', the "ironically titled '' "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' "play (s) off Mulan 's secret '' because Shang is unaware that she is actually a girl, as observed by Jeffrey Gantz of The Phoenix. Johnson Cheu, author of Diversity in Disney Films: Critical Essays on Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Sexuality and Disability, received the song as a counterpart to the all - female musical number "Honor to Us All ''. Going into the last verse, the song 's key shifts up to F minor and later towards the end, "the backing track falls into silence and (Osmond 's) vocals come to the fore. '' Osmond 's vocal range spans one octave, from D to F. Beginning with two verses, followed by a bridge, a refrain, a final verse and repeated choruses, the song is a total of three minutes and twenty - one seconds in length.
Entertainment Weekly identified the number as the film 's "rambunctious peak. '' According to Victoria Flanagan, author of Into the Closet: Gender and Cross-dressing in Children 's Fiction: Cross-Dressing and the Gendered Body in Children 's Literature and Film, "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' is "a playful parody of conventional masculinity. '' The lyric "I 'll make a man out of you '' is constantly repeated and reinforced by Shang. According to author John Stephens of Ways of Being Male: Representing Masculinities in Children 's Literature, the song 's lyrics "initially define masculinity in opposition to femininity, '' with its first verse beginning, "Let 's get down to business / To defeat the Huns / Did they send me daughters / When I asked for sons? '' Its chorus reads, "You must be swift as the coursing river / With all the force of the great typhoon / With all the strength of a raging fire / Mysterious as the dark side of the moon '' which, according to Ways of Being Male: Representing Masculinities in Children 's Literature, "essentializes masculinity by asserting that it embodies the speed, strength and power of the natural world, and yet contains this within an aura of tranquility and mystery. '' According to Beyond Adaptation: Essays on Radical Transformations of Original Works, these lyrics "add a hint of darkness as they celebrate male prowess '' by suggesting that one who has "acquired fiery strength '' is also "untamed as the moon 's dark side. '' The song has been noted by the New York Post for its "slew of one - liners from supporting characters. '' According to The Phoenix, Osmond performs the song 's lyrics with "grit. '' Meanwhile, the singer is backed up by a macho - sounding choir repeatedly chanting "Be a man! ''
"I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' has been met with mostly positive reviews from both film and music critics. Irving Tan of Sputnikmusic wrote, "there has n't been a single chorus in all of post-Mulan pop music that has managed to rival the roaring power in the refrain. '' Scott Chitwood of ComingSoon.net reviewed "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' as "a stirring, testosterone filled piece, '' describing the scene as "amusing. '' Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the song "has a comparable infectious punch, '' concluding, "it 's the only song in the movie that escapes Disneyfied blandness. '' Jeff Vice of the Deseret News observed that Wong and Osmond 's "voices sound eerily similar. '' Tom Henry of The Blade enjoyed Osmond 's delivery, describing the singer 's performance as "solid. '' Lloyd Paseman of The Register - Guard called "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' a favorite of his. While exploring "The History of Movie Training Montages '', Chris Giblin of Men 's Fitness opined, "Mulan served as proof that the fitness montage can work amazingly well in movies for kids. '' Giblin continued, "it has the best lyrics of any serious fitness / sports montage song. Overall, a very strong montage. '' Disney.com itself cites "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' as a "song that was so epic, so legendary, that it requires an out loud sing along anytime we hear it. ''
Despite dubbing the film 's songs its "weak link, '' TV Guide wrote that the musical numbers are "crafted with a knowing, almost camp wink that 's totally in keeping with the subtext of the film, '' concluding that "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' sounds like a Village People song. Writing for The Seattle Times, Moira Macdonald criticized Wilder and Zippel 's songs as "forgettable, '' calling "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' "annoying. '' The Phoenix 's Jeffrey Gantz wrote that "Donny Osmond shows some grit, but he 's still the voice of the Whitebread West. '' Amazon.ca 's Jason Verlinde commented, "Unfortunately, the voice of Donny Osmond, relegated to anthems such as ' I 'll Make a Man Out of You ' does n't really enhance the story line ''.
Total Film ranked "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' twenty - ninth on its list of the "30 Best Disney Songs ''. Similarly, M ranked the song twentieth on its list of the "Top 20 Disney Songs of All Time ''. Author Stephanie Osmanski cited "Did they send me daughters when I asked for sons? '' as her favourite lyric. Gregory E. Miller of the New York Post cited I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' as one of "The best (and the most underrated) Disney songs, '' writing, "Captain Shang 's battle - preparation anthem is the movie 's most quotable, with a memorable chorus and a slew of one - liners from supporting characters. '' PopSugar ranked the song the nineteenth "Catchiest Disney Song ''. On Empire 's list of the twenty "Most Awesome Training Montages In Cinema History '', "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' was ranked 14th. The author identified it as "a solid training montage in which Mulan and her friends go from hapless duffers to fearless warriors in just over two minutes. '' Similarly, Men 's Fitness also ranked "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' among the greatest training montages in film history. Stephen Fiorentine of Sneaker Report wrote that "Training montages are n't limited to just live - action movies. With movies like Mulan and Hercules, Disney mastered the art of the montage in their animated films. ''
When Mulan was released in China, Hong Kong actor Jackie Chan was hired to dub the voice of Shang and record "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' in Mandarin and Cantonese. The special edition DVD release of Mulan features a music video of Chan performing the song. The video also depicts Chan performing martial arts - inspired choreography. Positively received, Scott Chitwood of ComingSoon.net called Chan 's rendition "a fun addition for Chan fans, '' while Nancy Churnin of The Dallas Morning News wrote that he performed the song "very ably. '' Mexican singer Cristian Castro, who voiced Shang in the film 's Latin American release, recorded "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' in Spanish, titled "Hombres de Acción serán hoy ''.
In July 2013, a parody of the song was uploaded to YouTube titled "I 'll Make a Mann Out Of You ''. The video uses the song with animation made in Source Filmmaker in which the Soldier from Team Fortress 2 motivates his fellow RED teammates against the BLU team. In October 2014, a parody of "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' was uploaded to YouTube entitled "I 'll Make a ' Mon Out of You ''. A mashup of Mulan and the popular Pokémon franchise, the video features Digimon Gatomon attempting to masquerade as Pokémon Meowth in lieu of Mulan, while Ash occupies the role of Shang as his trainer, according to Smosh. Another parody of the song, based on the Dragon Ball franchise was uploaded to YouTube by TeamFourStar.
Credits adapted from the website Discogs.
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where does the aorta connect to the heart | Aorta - wikipedia
Ascending aorta:
Arch of aorta (supra - aortic vessels):
Descending aorta, thoracic part:
Descending aorta, abdominal part:
Terminal branches:
The aorta is the main artery in the human body, originating from the left ventricle of the heart and extending down to the abdomen, where it splits into two smaller arteries (the common iliac arteries). The aorta distributes oxygenated blood to all parts of the body through the systemic circulation.
In anatomical sources, the aorta is usually divided into sections.
One way of classifying a part of the aorta is by anatomical compartment, where the thoracic aorta (or thoracic portion of the aorta) runs from the heart to the diaphragm. The aorta then continues downward as the abdominal aorta (or abdominal portion of the aorta) diaphragm to the aortic bifurcation.
Another system divides the aorta with respect to its course and the direction of blood flow. In this system, the aorta starts as the ascending aorta then travels superiorly from the heart and then makes a hairpin turn known as the aortic arch. Following the aortic arch, the aorta then travels inferiorly as the descending aorta. The descending aorta has two parts. The aorta begins to descend in the thoracic cavity, and consequently is known as the thoracic aorta. After the aorta passes through the diaphragm, it is known as the abdominal aorta. The aorta ends by dividing into two major blood vessels, the common iliac arteries and a smaller midline vessel, the median sacral artery.
The ascending aorta begins at the opening of the aortic valve in the left ventricle of the heart. It runs through a common pericardial sheath with the pulmonary trunk. These two blood vessels twist around each other, causing the aorta to start out posterior to the pulmonary trunk, but end by twisting to its right and anterior side. The transition from ascending aorta to aortic arch is at the pericardial reflection on the aorta.
At the root of the ascending aorta, the lumen has three small pockets between the cusps of the aortic valve and the wall of the aorta, which are called the aortic sinuses or the sinuses of Valsalva. The left aortic sinus contains the origin of the left coronary artery and the right aortic sinus likewise gives rise to the right coronary artery. Together, these two arteries supply the heart. The posterior aortic sinus does not give rise to a coronary artery. For this reason the left, right and posterior aortic sinuses are also called left - coronary, right - coronary and non-coronary sinuses.
The aortic arch loops over the left pulmonary artery and the bifurcation of the pulmonary trunk, to which it remains connected by the ligamentum arteriosum, a remnant of the fetal circulation that is obliterated a few days after birth. In addition to these blood vessels, the aortic arch crosses the left main bronchus. Between the aortic arch and the pulmonary trunk is a network of autonomic nerve fibers, the cardiac plexus or aortic plexus. The left vagus nerve, which passes anterior to the aortic arch, gives off a major branch, the recurrent laryngeal nerve, which loops under the aortic arch just lateral to the ligamentum arteriosum. It then runs back to the neck.
The aortic arch has three major branches: from proximal to distal, they are the brachiocephalic trunk, the left common carotid artery, and the left subclavian artery. The brachiocephalic trunk supplies the right side of the head and neck as well as the right arm and chest wall, while the latter two together supply the left side of the same regions.
The aortic arch ends and the descending aorta begins at the level of the intervertebral disc between the fourth and fifth thoracic vertebrae.
The thoracic descending aorta gives rise to the intercostal and subcostal arteries, as well as to the superior and inferior left bronchial arteries and variable branches to the esophagus, mediastinum, and pericardium. Its lowest pair of branches are the superior phrenic arteries, which supply the diaphragm, and the subcostal arteries for the twelfth rib.
The abdominal aorta begins at the aortic hiatus of the diaphragm at the level of the twelfth thoracic vertebra. It gives rise to lumbar and musculophrenic arteries, renal and middle suprarenal arteries, and visceral arteries (the celiac trunk, the superior mesenteric artery and the inferior mesenteric artery). It ends in a bifurcation into the left and right common iliac arteries. At the point of the bifurcation, there also springs a smaller branch, the median sacral artery.
The ascending aorta develops from the outflow tract which initially starts as a single tube connecting the heart with the aortic arches (which will form the great arteries) in early development, but then is separated into the aorta and the pulmonary trunk.
The aortic arches start as five pairs of symmetrical arteries connecting the heart with the dorsal aorta, and then undergo a significant remodelling to form the final asymmetrical structure of the great arteries, with the 3rd pair of arteries contributing to the common carotids, the right 4th forming the base and middle part of the right subclavian artery and the left 4th being the central part of the aortic arch. The smooth muscle of the great arteries and the population of cells that form the aorticopulmonary septum that separates the aorta and pulmonary artery is derived from cardiac neural crest. This contribution of the neural crest to the great artery smooth muscle is unusual as most smooth muscle is derived from mesoderm. In fact the smooth muscle within the abdominal aorta is derived from mesoderm, and the coronary arteries, which arise just above the semilunar valves, possess smooth muscle of mesodermal origin. A failure of the aorticopulmonary septum to divide the great vessels results in persistent truncus arteriosus.
The aorta is an elastic artery, and as such is quite distensible. The aorta consists of a heterogeneous mixture of smooth muscle, nerves, intimal cells, endothelial cells, fibroblast - like cells, and a complex extracellular matrix. The vascular wall consists of several layers known as the tunica externa, tunica media, and tunica intima. The thickness of the aorta requires an extensive network of tiny blood vessels called vasa vasorum, which feed the tunica externa and tunica media outer layers of the aorta. The aortic arch contains baroreceptors and chemoreceptors that relay information concerning blood pressure and blood pH and carbon dioxide levels to the medulla oblongata of the brain. This information is processed by the brain and the autonomic nervous system mediates the homeostatic responses.
Within the tunica media, smooth muscle and the extracellular matrix are quantitatively the largest components of the aortic vascular wall. The fundamental unit of the aorta is the elastic lamella, which consists of smooth muscle and elastic matrix. The medial layer of the aorta consist of concentric musculoelastic layers (the elastic lamella) in mammals. The smooth muscle component does not dramatically alter the diameter of the aorta but rather serves to increase the stiffness and viscoelasticity of the aortic wall when activated. The elastic matrix dominates the biomechanical properties of the aorta. The elastic matrix forms lamellae, consisting of elastic fibers, collagens (predominately type III), proteoglycans, and glycoaminoglycans.
Variations may occur in the location of the aorta, and the way in which arteries branch off the aorta. The aorta, normally on the left side of the body, may be found on the right in dextrocardia, in which the heart is found on the right, or situs inversus, in which the location of all organs are flipped.
Variations in the branching of individual arteries may also occur. For example, the left vertebral artery may arise from the aorta, instead of the left common carotid artery.
In patent ductus arteriosus, a congenital disorder, the fetal ductus arteriosis fails to close, leaving an open vessel connecting the pulmonary artery to the proximal descending aorta.
The aorta supplies all of the systemic circulation, which means that the entire body, except for the respiratory zone of the lung, receives its blood from the aorta. Broadly speaking, branches from the ascending aorta supply the heart; branches from the aortic arch supply the head, neck and arms; branches from the thoracic descending aorta supply the chest (excluding the heart and the respiratory zone of the lung); and branches from the abdominal aorta supply the abdomen. The pelvis and legs get their blood from the common iliac arteries.
The pulsatile nature of blood flow creates a pulse wave that is propagated down the arterial tree, and at bifurcations reflected waves rebound to return to semilunar valves and the origin of the aorta. These return waves create the dicrotic notch displayed in the aortic pressure curve during the cardiac cycle as these reflected waves push on the aortic semilunar valve. With age, the aorta stiffens such that the pulse wave is propagated faster and reflected waves return to the heart faster before the semilunar valve closes, which raises the blood pressure. The stiffness of the aorta is associated with a number of diseases and pathologies, and noninvasive measures of the pulse wave velocity are an independent indicator of hypertension. Measuring the pulse wave velocity (invasively and non-invasively) is a means of determining arterial stiffness. Maximum aortic velocity may be noted as V or less commonly as AoV.
Mean arterial pressure (MAP) is highest in the aorta and the MAP decreases across the circulation from aorta to arteries to arterioles to capillaries to veins back to atrium. The difference between aortic and right atrial pressure accounts for blood flow in the circulation. When the left ventricle contracts to force blood into the aorta, the aorta expands. This stretching gives the potential energy that will help maintain blood pressure during diastole, as during this time the aorta contracts passively. This Windkessel effect of the great elastic arteries has important biomechanical implications. The elastic recoil helps conserve the energy from the pumping heart and smooth out the pulsatile nature created by the heart. Aortic pressure is highest at the aorta and becomes less pulsatile and lower pressure as blood vessels divide into arteries, arterioles, and capillaries such that flow is slow and smooth for gases and nutrient exchange.
All amniotes have a broadly similar arrangement to that of humans, albeit with a number of individual variations. In fish, however, there are two separate vessels referred to as aortas. The ventral aorta carries de-oxygenated blood from the heart to the gills; part of this vessel forms the ascending aorta in tetrapods (the remainder forms the pulmonary artery). A second, dorsal aorta carries oxygenated blood from the gills to the rest of the body, and is homologous with the descending aorta of tetrapods. The two aortas are connected by a number of vessels, one passing through each of the gills. Amphibians also retain the fifth connecting vessel, so that the aorta has two parallel arches.
The word ' Aorta ' stems from the Late Latin Latin: aorta from aortē (Greek: ἀορτή), from aeirō, "I lift, raise '' (Greek: ἀείρω) This term was first applied by Aristotle when describing the aorta and describes accurately how it seems to be ' suspended ' above the heart.
The function of the aorta has been documented in the Talmud, where it is noted as one of three major vessels entering or leaving the heart, and where perforation is linked to death.
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take me to the river to pray ella | Ghost (Ella Henderson song) - wikipedia
"Ghost '' is the debut single by British singer and songwriter Ella Henderson. It was released on 8 June 2014 as the lead single from her debut studio album, Chapter One (2014). Henderson co-wrote the song with Kenan Williams and its producers, Ryan Tedder and Noel Zancanella.
The music video was filmed in New Orleans, Louisiana in March 2014. The song entered at number one on the UK Singles Chart, as well as in the Republic of Ireland. It has also peaked within the top ten of the charts in Australia, Belgium, Germany, Hungary and New Zealand. Since its release, it has sold over 1.2 million copies in the UK and in excess of one million in the US. It was also the sixth best - selling single of 2014 in the UK.
On 18 November 2012, Henderson finished in sixth place on the ninth series of The X Factor, despite being the favourite to win. On 15 December, whilst being interviewed on The Saturday Night Show in Ireland, she revealed that she had signed a record deal with Sony Music. On 22 January 2013, Henderson confirmed she had signed to Simon Cowell 's record label Syco Music. Regarding her decision to sign with Syco, Henderson said, "The most important thing I was looking for was to be involved creatively, and which label presents me with the best team to bring the best out of me. The fact that Cowell is letting me be involved creatively is overwhelming. ''
"Ghost '' was co-written by Henderson, Kenan Williams, OneRepublic frontman Ryan Tedder and record producer Noel Zancanella and produced by Tedder and Zancanella. The song was recorded at Tedder 's recording studio in Denver by Smith Carlson on 12 January 2014, Henderson 's 18th birthday. In March 2014, Henderson announced that it would be her debut single, and released on 8 June 2014. The song received its debut radio airplay on Capital FM on 10 May 2014.
Lewis Corner of Digital Spy gave the song a positive review, stating:
"The end result, Ella 's first single ' Ghost ', would make a worthy winner 's launch, let alone someone who fell victim to the mid-series shock elimination. "I keep going to the river to pray / ' Cos I need something that can wash out the pain, '' Henderson professes over stomping Americana - folk beats and taut guitar twangs, falling somewhere between the rootsy heart of Adele and the pop sensibility of Leona Lewis. It 's dark, it 's brooding and it 's full of pain, but most importantly for Ella 's concerns, it 's an unforgettable debut. ''
"Ghost '' was commercially successful, entering at number one on the UK Singles Chart on 15 June, selling 132,000 copies in its first week on sale. The song remained number one in the UK for a second week, outselling 5 Seconds of Summer 's "Do n't Stop '' by 3,000 copies. The single has been certified Platinum by the BPI for sales of over 600,000 copies in the UK. It was the sixth best - selling song of 2014 in the UK, selling 750,000 copies.
In the Republic of Ireland, the song debuted at the top of the Irish Singles Chart. It has also charted in the top 10 of the singles charts in Australia, Belgium, Germany, Hungary and New Zealand.
"Ghost '' debuted at number 75 on Billboard Hot 100. On the week ending January 24, 2015, the song jumped from number 41 to number 28. On the following week, it jumped to number 22 and rose from number 14 to number 10 on Hot Digital Songs and became her first top 10. As of January 31, 2015, it has sold over 1,000,000 copies in the US alone. The song peaked at number 11 on US Mainstream Top 40.
The official music video was filmed in New Orleans, Louisiana on 10 March 2014. The video was released to YouTube on 23 April 2014. The video shows Henderson performing the track in a red - lit motel.
Another video was released for the Switch remix of the song on 14 April 2014. This video, directed by Jem Talbot, features a young woman (played by Samara Zwain) exploring an empty house and reminiscing on a relationship.
On 26 May 2014, Henderson performed "Ghost '' for the first time on the first live semi-final of Britain 's Got Talent. She also performed an acoustic cover for 4Music. Henderson also performed the song at the Capital Summertime Ball on 22 June. Henderson made her American television debut on 6 August as she performed "Ghost '' on Good Morning America. She later made her Australian television debut on 18 August when she sang the song on The X Factor Australia. Henderson has also performed the song on Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve. Henderson also performed the song on the 14 February 2015 at the NBA All - Stars weekend.
It has also been performed on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, and The Voice in both the US and Germany. The song was covered three times by contestants on her origin show, The X Factor, in series 11 -- firstly by Only The Young at judges ' houses, next by Paul Akister in the first live performance by a contestant in that series, and then by Andrea Faustini, who sang the song with Henderson in the celebrity duets round of the final.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who are on the tapes for 13 reasons why | 13 Reasons Why - Wikipedia
13 Reasons Why (stylized onscreen as TH1RTEEN R3ASONS WHY) is an American teen drama web television series developed for Netflix by Brian Yorkey, based on the 2007 novel Thirteen Reasons Why by Jay Asher. The series revolves around seventeen - year - old high school student, Clay Jensen, and his deceased friend Hannah Baker, who has killed herself after having to face a culture of gossip and sexual assault at her high school and a lack of support from her friends and her school. A box of cassette tapes recorded by Hannah in the lead up to her suicide detail thirteen reasons why she ended her life. The series is produced by July Moon Productions, Kicked to the Curb Productions, Anonymous Content and Paramount Television, with Yorkey and Diana Son serving as showrunners.
Dylan Minnette stars as Clay, while Katherine Langford plays Hannah. Christian Navarro, Alisha Boe, Brandon Flynn, Justin Prentice, Miles Heizer, Ross Butler, Devin Druid, Amy Hargreaves, Derek Luke, Kate Walsh, and Brian d'Arcy James also star. A film from Universal Pictures based on Thirteen Reasons Why began development in February 2011, with Selena Gomez set to star as Hannah, before being shelved in favor of a television series and Netflix ordering the show straight to series in October 2015, with Gomez instead serving as an executive producer.
The first season was released on Netflix on March 31, 2017. It received positive reviews from critics and audiences, who praised its subject matter and acting, particularly the performances of Minnette and Langford. For her performance, Langford received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actress in a Drama Series. However, its graphic depiction of issues such as suicide and rape, along with other mature content prompted concerns from mental health professionals. In response, Netflix added a warning card and from March 2018, a video that plays at the start of each season warning viewers about its themes.
In May 2017, Netflix renewed 13 Reasons Why for a second season; filming began the next month and concluded that December. The second season was released on May 18, 2018, and received negative reviews from critics and mixed reviews from audiences. A third season was ordered in June 2018 and is set to be released in 2019. Critical and audience reaction to the series has been divided, with the program generating controversy between audiences and industry reviewers.
In season one, seventeen year old Clay Jensen returns home from school one day to find a mysterious box on his porch. Inside he discovers seven cassette tapes recorded by Hannah Baker, his deceased classmate and unrequited love, who killed herself two weeks earlier. On the tapes, Hannah unfolds an intensely emotional audio diary, detailing why she decided to end her life. It appears each person who receives this package of old - style tapes is fundamentally related to why she killed herself. Clay is not the first to receive the tapes, but there is implied detail as to how he should pass the tapes on after hearing them. There appears to be an order to distribution of the tapes, with an additional copy held by an overseer should the plan go awry. Each tape recording refers to a different person involved in Hannah 's life contributing to a reason for her suicide. The tapes refer to both friends and enemies.
In season two, months after Hannah 's suicide, Clay and the other people mentioned on the tapes, as well as close friends and Hannah 's family members, become embroiled in a civil legal battle between Hannah 's parents and Liberty High School. Alleging negligence on the part of the school, Hannah 's mother pursues her perception of justice, while her reluctance to settle pre-trial and her personal circumstances eventually break up her marriage with Hannah 's father. The story unfolds with narratives illustrating Hannah 's story told by those who present in court at trial.
Clay, who perceives himself as Hannah 's failed protector, embarks on an investigation using whatever evidence he can find in an effort to impact on the civil case between Hannah 's parents and the school. Clay also endeavours to expose the corrupted culture of the High School and its favour of wealthy, sports savvy male students over the average student, which especially compromises the integrity of young girls such as Hannah.
Throughout season two, Clay appears to be communicating with the ghost of Hannah as a plot narrative device.
Clay Jensen finds a box filled with audio cassette tapes anonymously left on his front doorstep. He plays the first in his father 's boombox and realizes they have been recorded by his recently deceased classmate Hannah Baker, before he accidentally drops and breaks the boombox when surprised by his mother. Clay steals his friend Tony 's Walkman to continue listening. Clay listens to the first tape, in which Hannah begins to relate the experiences that led to her suicide. She starts by sharing the story of her first kiss, with Justin Foley, who goes on to inadvertently spread a salacious rumor that begins the sequence of events leading to her suicide. Clay is revealed, through numerous short flashbacks, to have been in love with Hannah and to have worked with her at the local movie theater. It is revealed in this episode that Hannah has put her friend Tony in charge of the tapes.
Hannah reminisces about her friendship with two other new students: Jessica, who moves frequently because her father is in the Air Force, and Alex, whom they met at a coffee shop. Jessica and Alex eventually begin a relationship and stop spending time with Hannah. When Alex breaks up with Jessica, she very publicly blames Hannah. In the present, Hannah 's mother, Olivia, finds a note in her daughter 's textbook that leads her to believe Hannah was being bullied. Clay asks Jessica about the tapes, which results in Bryce Walker 's circle of peers meeting to discuss how Clay is listening to Hannah 's recordings.
As Clay attempts to pursue a romantic relationship with Hannah, her relationships are threatened by a "best / worst list '' made by Alex Standall, who has put a "target '' on Hannah. In the present, Hannah 's mother, Olivia Baker, seeks out the school principal about her suspicion of bullying and makes a disturbing discovery. In the midst of his investigation, Clay turns to Alex for answers, who not only feels regret for his actions on the tapes, but also warns Clay against trusting Tony, whom Clay later sees in a violent exchange with his brothers. As Justin tries to recuperate from his recent slump, Bryce strong - arms Clay and Alex into a drinking contest in an alleyway.
Hannah hears someone outside her window, and confesses to her friend, Courtney, that she has a stalker. Courtney offers to help her catch the offender in the act. While waiting for the stalker to arrive, they play an alcohol - fueled game of truth or dare that leads to the two of them kissing on Hannah 's bed. The stalker, school photographer Tyler Down, takes a photo of the girls and sends it around the school. This effectively ends Courtney and Hannah 's friendship as Courtney distances herself from Hannah to avoid being revealed as one of the people in the photograph. In the present, Clay goes to Hannah 's house and talks to her mother, though is unable to admit how close he and Hannah were. He also confronts Tony about the incident with his brothers. Tony responds that "people have to make their own justice '' and proves he has an extra set of tapes. Inspired by this, Clay takes a naked picture of Tyler and sends it around the school in revenge.
Courtney, afraid of her classmates finding out about her sexuality, spreads a rumor that the girls in the leaked photos are Hannah and Laura, an openly lesbian classmate. Courtney also adds to the rumor about Hannah and Justin, worsening Hannah 's poor reputation. In the present, Clay takes Courtney to visit Hannah 's grave. She leaves, not ready to face her involvement in the loss of her classmate or be more open about her sexuality. Tony arrives with Clay 's bike and gives him a tape with the song he and Hannah danced to at the Winter Formal. Later, Justin, Zach and Alex force Clay into the car with them by stealing his bike and scare him into silence about the tapes by driving over the speed limit. They are pulled over by the police but face no consequences as the officer is revealed to be Alex 's father. Clay denies knowing Hannah to his mother, who has been asked to represent the school in the lawsuit the Bakers are bringing.
Hannah 's date on Valentine 's Day with Marcus does not go as planned due to the rumors that she is promiscuous. In the present, Alex gets into a fight with Montgomery and they both must appear before the student honor board. Clay helps Sheri on an assignment, and they nearly hook up, but Sheri reveals she is only there because she is on the tapes and wants Clay to like her despite her role in Hannah 's death.
After Hannah refuses to go out with Zach, he gets revenge by sabotaging her emotionally during a class project. Zach removes compliments from Hannah 's box, affecting her self - confidence. In the present, Clay hears Zach 's tape and keys his car in an act of revenge, but things turn out to be different than they appeared. Clay is now having both auditory and visual hallucinations of Hannah during the day, including seeing her dead body on the floor of the basketball court during a game and hearing her tape playing over the school 's intercom system. He returns the tapes to Tony, unable to continue listening.
Hannah is touched by poetry recited by fellow student Ryan Shaver, and joins the Evergreen Poetry Club, a place where people write and perform their own poetry, and listen and critique others. Hannah presents some extremely revealing and confessional poetry at the poetry club after Ryan encourages her. Ryan betrays her by publishing the poem without her knowledge or consent in his school magazine. Almost everyone in school finds the poem hilarious, but Clay is both touched and disturbed by it, not realizing Hannah is the author. In the present day, Tony confides to Clay about the night of Hannah 's death, and Clay takes back the tapes. Clay later gives the poem to Hannah 's mother.
While hiding in Jessica 's room during a party, Hannah witnesses Bryce Walker raping an unconscious and intoxicated Jessica. In the present, Marcus warns Clay the worst is yet to come and again attempts to scare him into silence about the tapes, this time by planting drugs in his backpack to get him suspended from school. Clay finally admits to his mother that he and Hannah were close. After getting suspicious legal advice from his mother, he goes to Justin 's apartment to retrieve his bike and talk about getting justice for Jessica. Justin finally admits that what happened in the tapes is real, and claims it is better if Jessica does not know the truth.
After the party, Hannah gets a ride home from her classmate, cheerleader Sheri Holland. They have what appears to be a minor accident, knocking over a stop sign. While Hannah wants to call the police to report it, Sheri refuses to do so, because she is afraid she will get in trouble. While Hannah is on her way to find a phone to call the authorities, the downed stop sign causes a serious accident at that intersection, resulting in the death of Clay 's friend Jeff Atkins, which was incorrectly considered a drunk driving accident. When Hannah tries to tell Clay about the stop sign, he pushes her away, thinking she is being unnecessarily dramatic. In the present, Jessica 's behavior becomes more erratic. Clay finds out that Sheri is trying to make up for her mistake in her own way, and he tells Jeff 's parents that Jeff was sober when he died.
With Tony 's support, Clay finally listens to his tape and is overcome with guilt to the point of contemplating his own suicide because he feels he did not do enough to prevent Hannah 's death. Tony manages to calm him down. Justin finds out Jessica is at Bryce 's home. He confronts her there and admits that Bryce raped her on the night of the party, causing her to break up with him. Olivia Baker finds a list with the names of all the people on the tapes, although she does not know what the list means.
After accidentally losing her parents ' store 's earnings, a depressed Hannah stumbles upon a party being thrown by Bryce. The night ends in tragedy when she ends up alone with him, and he rapes her in his hot tub. This leads Hannah to create a list of people (the one that her mother found in the previous episode) who she feels were responsible for leading her to her current circumstances, which becomes the inspiration for the creation of the tapes. In the present, everyone on Hannah 's list is subpoenaed to testify in the lawsuit between the Bakers and the school. The subjects of the tapes disagree over what to do. Tyler eventually suggests they pin everything on Bryce, but Alex refuses and says they should tell the truth. Sheri turns herself in. Clay goes to Bryce 's house, on the pretext of buying marijuana, to confront him about the events of the night he raped Hannah. Clay provokes Bryce to attack him and is badly beaten. However, Clay has been secretly recording their conversation and gets Bryce to admit that he raped Hannah. An unknown teenager with a gunshot wound to the head is treated by paramedics.
Hannah begins to record the tapes and then visits Mr. Porter to tell him about her rape. Hannah secretly records the conversation, hoping he will help her. When he does not, she heads to a post office, and mails the tapes to Justin Foley, then she goes home and takes her own life by slitting her wrists. In the present, Clay gives Tony the tape of his conversation with Bryce to copy. He confronts Mr. Porter about meeting with Hannah on her last day. He also hands over the tapes, including the additional tape containing Bryce 's confession. Clay tells Porter that he is the subject of the final tape. The depositions begin, Marcus and Courtney deny their involvement in Hannah 's death as much as possible. Zach and Jessica admit their mistakes. Before his deposition, Tyler hides ammunition and guns in his room, and then reveals the existence of the tapes during his interview. Alex is revealed to have been the teenager with the gunshot wound; he is in critical condition at the hospital. Justin leaves town out of guilt, but not before telling Bryce about the tapes. Jessica finally tells her father about her rape. At school, Clay reaches out to Skye Miller, his former friend, to avoid repeating the same mistakes he made with Hannah.
Five months after the events of the first season, Hannah 's trial moves to court. Tyler is the first to testify in the trial and does so truthfully. Skye and Clay are dating, but Clay starts to have hallucinations of Hannah. Mr. Porter confronts Bryce in the bathroom about raping Hannah. Jessica returns to school, as does Alex who survived his suicide attempt, but has lost much of his memory from before it, including the contents of Hannah 's tapes. Tony is given the note Hannah left him the night she died, and is later seen burning it. Clay finds a Polaroid photograph in his locker, with a note saying "Hannah was n't the only one ''.
Courtney reveals that she is a lesbian and had feelings for Hannah during her testimony. A group of protesters gather at the court to demand justice for Hannah, but Jessica and Alex are both threatened to avoid revealing anything incriminating when they testify. Skye and Clay fight over her suspicion that Clay is still in love with Hannah, and Skye is hospitalized soon after leaving Clay 's house. Meanwhile, Tyler befriends a classmate named Cyrus.
Clay, riding home on his bicycle, is hit intentionally by a car, injuring him slightly. He visits Skye in hospital, but she breaks up with him. Clay and Alex try to encourage Jessica to reveal information about Bryce during her testimony, but she fails after seeing incriminating pictures of her stuck to the board in a classroom. Olivia asks her afterwards if she was the girl on the ninth tape, but Jessica does not answer. After discovering Jessica had been contacted by Justin, Clay finds him homeless in Oakland with Tony 's help. With no other option, Clay lets Justin stay in his bedroom with him. Skye 's parents move her to a psychiatric facility, and tell Clay not to contact her. Tyler meets the rest of Cyrus ' friends while Bryce is asked to testify.
Marcus lies about what happened with Hannah the night they went out on Valentine 's Day during his testimony (in order to protect his reputation) and briefly mentions Bryce, angering him. Cyrus and Tyler hear of Marcus ' lies and prank him, going to a nearby field afterwards to shoot guns. Clay finds out that Justin has been taking heroin and he and Sheri help him onto the path to sobriety. Jessica shows the threatening note she was left before her testimony to Mr Porter. Alex continues to be frustrated about not being able to remember anything and asks Clay for the tapes, who sends them to him. Jessica and Alex skip school and share a kiss. Clay also finds a second Polaroid photograph in his locker, which shows Bryce having sex with an unconscious girl, alongside a note saying "he wo n't stop ''.
Tyler is confronted by Mr. Porter, who suspects he was behind the pictures of Jessica found in the classroom before her testimony, but he denies involvement. Ryan testifies and talks about Hannah 's poems, saying they were written about Justin and that she and Justin maintained contact even after falling out. Afterwards, Olivia invites Ryan to help her decipher Hannah 's poems for additional clues, but Ryan soon leaves after Olivia mentions missing pages in Hannah 's journal, which Ryan had torn out. Clay realizes the Polaroid photos were taken at school and attempts to find out where. Chlöe meets with Bryce 's parents and his mother notices bruises on her. Jessica attends her first group therapy session. Mr. Porter finds a brick thrown through his car window, with a threatening note attached; he later confronts Justin 's mother and is arrested after a violent incident with her boyfriend.
Zach testifies and reveals that he and Hannah had a romantic relationship the summer before she died, but they kept it secret. After the testimony, Clay reacts angrily and confronts Zach, ignoring his apologies, while Bryce teases Zach about his relationship, prompting a small fight between them. Justin returns to school and talks to Jessica, but she asks him to leave. He then faints after seeing Bryce, and on his return to Clay 's house, has to hide as someone breaks in, at which point Clay 's parents find out he has been staying there, but allow it to continue.
During Clay 's testimony, he is forced to reveal he and Hannah did drugs at a small party one night and spent the night together, and Clay ignored a comment Hannah made the next morning about wanting to die. Alex 's birthday party is derailed after a number of arguments break out. When Clay leaves the birthday party, he finds a Polaroid photograph left on his car, with a note reading "The Clubhouse ''. After reading comments posted online about his testimony, Clay anonymously uploads Hannah 's tapes to the Internet. Meanwhile, Bryce is seen having sex with Chlöe without getting proper consent.
After the release of the tapes, Bryce returns to school to find his locker vandalized and his "confession tape '' Clay recorded being shared among students. After Marcus is blackmailed, he calls Bryce a rapist during a speech at a ceremony, in front of a large group of parents and students, in order to protect his own reputation. Clay finally contacts Skye again and meets with her at the psychiatric facility, but she tells him she is moving to a different state. Justin overdoses on heroin, but Alex saves his life -- he then returns to his mother 's home.
When testifying, Mr. Porter reveals that since Hannah 's death he has come to believe that Hannah was raped by Bryce. He then emotionally apologizes to Hannah 's mother for the part he played in her suicide. Justin steals money from his mother 's boyfriend, and when confronted by his mother, leaves her some suggesting she leave too in order to escape the relationship. Bryce confronts and threatens Clay under the assumption that it was Clay who blackmailed Marcus into publicly accusing Bryce of rape. Later, Clay is violently beaten at school by four masked students. He is then approached by Cyrus who invites him to join him and Tyler in vandalizing the school that evening, but when he does, he sees a group of students entering a storage shed next to the baseball field, which he correctly guesses is the location of The Clubhouse. He texts Justin and they reconvene. Meanwhile, Olivia contacts a girl, Sarah, and her mother and asks them not to testify.
Tony is asked to testify, but chooses not to reveal that Hannah left him her tapes because he owed her a favor after she helped him evade arrest. During Sarah 's testimony, she reveals Hannah was part of a trio of girls who bullied her at another high school. After an argument between Tyler and Mackenzie, his friendship with Cyrus breaks down. Offering marijuana, Sheri tempts some male students into taking her to The Clubhouse, where Bryce takes a picture of her and two other boys on a Polaroid camera, placing the photograph in a box filled with many others. She learns the code to unlock the door and shares it with Clay and Justin. During a baseball game, Zach confronts Bryce, tells him he knows Hannah was not lying, and quits the game. He goes to The Clubhouse to find Clay and Justin there, and hands Clay the box of Polaroid photographs taken in the Clubhouse, confessing that it was him who had given Clay the first three photographs. Clay reviews the photographs at home with Justin and Sheri, and they find a pair of photographs which show Bryce raping Chlöe. Clay also finds a picture of Hannah.
While testifying, Bryce lies and claims that he and Hannah had a casual sexual relationship, and that she falsely accused him of rape after he brought an end to it. When Bryce returns to school, Justin attacks him and a fight breaks out, which evolves into a mass brawl. Jessica shows Chlöe the two pictures of Bryce and her in The Clubhouse, and Chlöe confesses that she posted the pictures of Jessica in the classroom before she testified. Olivia, her legal team, and Jessica ask Chlöe to testify, and she agrees, but on the stand she testifies that she remembers Bryce having sex with her and remembers consenting. The box of Polaroid photographs taken from The Clubhouse is stolen from Clay 's car, and Alex is sent a package containing a gun and a threatening letter. Bryce 's mother later asks him whether he was telling the truth in his testimony, and, after being pressed, he confesses to raping Hannah. Flashbacks reveal that Bryce wanted a relationship with Hannah and was rejected himself. Clay becomes mentally tormented by hallucinations of Hannah, to the point where he contemplates both murdering Bryce and killing himself, but Justin manages to calm him down.
Justin receives a death threat before going to testify, but he tells of Bryce raping Jessica during his testimony nonetheless. After Alex realizes that Montgomery is responsible for intimidating people during the trial, Alex, Clay, Justin, Tony, Zach, and Scott confront Montgomery and he admits to stealing the box of Polaroid photos. However, after Montgomery takes Alex to a deserted location to retrieve them, he reveals he was lying and escapes. As a result, Jessica is encouraged by her friends to report her case of sexual assault to the police. After the Baker trial concludes and the jury find the school district not responsible for Hannah 's death, both Bryce and Justin are arrested outside the courtroom for their involvement in Jessica 's rape. Mr. Porter is fired after a performance review, and Tyler is placed on a diversion program after one of his social media posts reveals it was him who vandalized the school.
Universal Studios purchased film rights to the novel on February 8, 2011, with Selena Gomez cast to play Hannah Baker. On October 29, 2015, it was announced that Netflix would be making a television adaptation of the book with Gomez instead serving as an executive producer. Tom McCarthy was hired to direct the first two episodes. The series is produced by Anonymous Content and Paramount Television with Gomez, McCarthy, Joy Gorman, Michael Sugar, Steve Golin, Mandy Teefey, and Kristel Laiblin serving as executive producers.
Filming for the show took place in the Northern Californian towns of Vallejo, Benicia, San Rafael, Crockett and Sebastopol during the summer of 2016. The 13 - episode first season and the special were released on Netflix on March 31, 2017.
Therapy dogs were present on set for the actors because of the intense and emotional content of the series.
On May 7, 2017, it was announced that Netflix had renewed the series for a second season. Filming for the second season began on June 12, 2017, but was briefly halted in October in response to the then - ongoing Northern California wildfires happening around the areas where the series was being filmed. Production on the second season wrapped in December 2017. The second season was released on May 18, 2018.
On June 6, 2018, Netflix renewed the series for a third season, which is set to be released in 2019.
The marketing analytics firm Jumpshot determined the first season was the second-most viewed Netflix season in the first 30 days after it premiered, garnering 48 % of the viewers that the second season of Daredevil received, which was the most viewed season according to Jumpshot. The series also showed an 18 % increase in week - over-week viewership from week one to week two. Jumpshot, which "analyzes click - stream data from an online panel of more than 100 million consumers '', looked at the viewing behavior and activity of the company 's U.S. members, factoring in the relative number of U.S. Netflix viewers who watched at least one episode of the season.
The first season has received positive reviews from critics, with much of the praise for the show being aimed at its acting, directing, story, visuals, improvements upon its source material, and mature approach to dark and adult subject matter. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 80 % approval rating with an average rating of 7.2 / 10, based on 51 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "13 Reasons Why complements its bestselling source material with a gripping look at adolescent grief whose narrative maturity belies its YA milieu. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 76 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating generally favorable reviews.
Jesse Schedeen of IGN praised 13 Reasons Why, giving it a 9.2 out of 10, "Amazing '', stating that the show is "a very powerful and hard - hitting series '' and "ranks among the best high school dramas of the 21st century ''. Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe gave a glowing review for the show, saying, "The drama is sensitive, consistently engaging, and, most importantly, unblinking. '' Maureen Ryan of Variety asserts that the show "is undoubtedly sincere, but it 's also, in many important ways, creatively successful '' and called it "simply essential viewing ''. Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly gave the entire season a score of B+, calling the show "a frank, authentically affecting portrait of what it feels like to be young, lost and too fragile for the world ''. Daniel Feinberg of The Hollywood Reporter also praised the show, calling it "an honorably mature piece of young - adult adaptation '', and citing its performances, direction, relevance and maturity as some of the show 's strongest points.
The acting, particularly Katherine Langford as Hannah and Dylan Minnette as Clay, was frequently mentioned and widely lauded in several reviews. Schedeen of IGN praised the cast, particularly Minnette and Langford, stating: "Langford shines in the lead role... (and) embodies that optimism and that profound sadness (of Hannah 's) as well. Minnette 's Clay is, by design, a much more stoic and reserved character... and does a fine job in what 's often a difficult role. '' Gilbert of The Boston Globe praised the chemistry of Langford and Minnette, saying that "watching these two young actors together is pure pleasure '', while Schedeen of IGN also agreed, saying that they are "often at their best together, channeling just the right sort of warm but awkward chemistry you 'd expect from two teens who ca n't quite admit to their feelings for one another ''. Feinberg of The Hollywood Reporter also praises both actors: "Langford 's heartbreaking openness makes you root for a fate you know is n't possible. The actress ' performance is full of dynamic range, setting it against Minnette 's often more complicated task in differentiating between moods that mostly go from uncomfortable to gloomy to red - eyed, hygiene - starved despair. ''
Ryan of Variety also gave praise to not only the two leads, but also the supporting cast of actors, particularly Kate Walsh 's performance as Hannah 's mother, which Ryan describes as "career - best work ''. Positive mentions from various critics, such as Ryan, Feinberg and Schedeen, were also given to the supporting cast of actors (most particularly Alisha Boe, Miles Heizer and Christian Navarro 's respective performances of Jessica, Alex and Tony). Liz Shannon Miller of Indiewire, who enjoyed the show and gave it a positive score of B+, gave praise to the racial, gender and complex diversity of its supporting cast of teens.
Another aspect frequently mentioned within reviews was the show 's mature and emotional approach to its dark and adult subject matter. This was favorably reviewed by critics, such as Miller of Indiewire, particularly her statement that "the adult edges to this story ring with honesty and truth. '' Miller, and Feinberg of The Hollywood Reporter, also stated that the show can be difficult to watch at times, while Schedeen of IGN states that it is "an often depressing and even uncomfortable show to watch... a pretty emotionally draining experience, particularly towards the end as the pieces really start to fall into place. ''
Numerous critics also praised several other aspects of the show. Feinberg highlighted the show 's directors, saying: "A Sundance - friendly gallery of directors including Tom McCarthy, Gregg Araki and Carl Franklin keeps the performances grounded and the extremes from feeling exploitative '', while Gilbert of The Boston Globe praised the storytelling: "The storytelling techniques are powerful... (as it) builds on the world established in the previous hour, as we continually encounter new facets of Hannah 's life and new characters. The background on the show keeps getting deeper, richer. ''
Conversely, the series has also received criticism over its portrayal of teen angst. Mike Hale of The New York Times wrote a critical review, writing, "the show does n't make (Hannah 's) downward progress convincing. It too often feels artificial, like a very long public service announcement. '' He also criticized the plot device that has Clay listening to the tapes one by one instead of all in one sitting like the other teens did, which Hale felt was unbelievable: "It makes no sense as anything but a plot device, and you 'll find yourself, like Clay 's antagonists, yelling at him to listen to the rest of tapes already. ''
Writing for The Guardian, Rebecca Nicholson praised some aspects of the show, including the performances from Minnette and Walsh, but was troubled by much of the plot, writing, "a storyline that suggests the love of a sweet boy might have sorted all this out added to an uneasy feeling that stayed with me ''. Nicholson was skeptical that the show would appeal to older viewers, unlike other series set in high school such as Freaks and Geeks and My So - Called Life: "It lacks the crossover wit of its forebears... It 's too tied up in conveying the message that terrible behaviour can have horrible consequences to deal in any subtleties or shades of feeling. It 's largely one - note -- and that note is horrifying. ' It has to get better, ' implores one student towards the end, but given its fairly open ending, an apparent season two setup, it does not seem as if there 's much chance of that happening. ''
Washington Post television critic Hank Stuever wrote a negative review, finding 13 Reasons Why "contrived '' and implausible: "There are 13 episodes lasting 13 super-sullen hours -- a passive - aggressive, implausibly meandering, poorly written and awkwardly acted effort that is mainly about miscommunication, delivering no more wisdom or insight about depression, bullying and suicide than one of those old ABC Afterschool Specials people now mock for being so corny. '' He also wrote that he found Hannah 's suicide tapes "a protracted example of the teenager who fantasizes how everyone will react when she 's gone. The story... strikes me as remarkably, even dangerously, naive in its understanding of suicide, up to and including a gruesome, penultimate scene of Hannah opening her wrists in a bathtub. ''
David Wiegand of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the series a tepid review, saying that it was plagued by character inconsistencies, particularly Hannah. He praised Langford 's "stunning performance '' but noted, "There are times when we simply do n't believe the characters, when what they do or say is n't consistent with who we 've been led to believe they are... At times, (Hannah) is self - possessed and indifferent at best to the behavior of the popular kids. At other times, though, relatively minor misperceived slights seem to send her into an emotional tailspin. No doubt, teenagers embody a constant whirl of conflicting emotions, but the script pushes the bounds of credibility here and there. '' He noted that overall, the series worked: "The structure is gimmicky and the characters inconsistent, but there are still at least 13 Reasons Why the series is worthy. ''
The second season received largely mixed to negative reviews from critics, with criticism aimed at the poor execution of its topics; many declared it unnecessary. Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 27 % with an average rating of 5.5 / 10, based on 25 reviews. The site 's critical consensus states, "By deviating from its source material, 13 Reasons Why can better explore its tenderly crafted characters; unfortunately, in the process, it loses track of what made the show so gripping in the first place. '' On Metacritic the season has an average score of 49 out of 100, based on 16 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Catherine Pearson from DigitalSpy wrote a negative review, calling the season "even more problematic '' than the first. She ends the review saying that, "Unrelenting depression seems to shroud the season, briefly lifted only to collapse back down as the show 's thirteenth episode, once again, delivers a deeply disturbing scene of suffering. '' Jordan Davidson from The Mighty wrote that he "felt sick '' after watching the final episode of the season.
A scene in which the character Tyler is attacked and sexually assaulted during the finale also caused controversy from fans and critics of the series, with some describing it as "unnecessary '' and "traumatizing ''. The series ' showrunner has defended the scene, saying that it was included in an attempt to "(tell) truthful stories about things that young people go through in as unflinching a way as we can ''.
The series has generated controversy over its portrayal of suicide and self - harm, prompting Netflix to add strong advisory warnings prior to the first, twelfth, and thirteenth episodes. School psychologists and educators expressed concern about the series.
The superintendent of Palm Beach County, Florida schools reportedly told parents that their schools had seen an increase in suicidal and self - harming behavior from students, and that some of those students "have articulated associations of their at - risk behavior to the 13 Reasons Why Netflix series ''.
The Australian youth mental health service for 12 -- 25 year - olds, Headspace, issued a warning in late April 2017 over the graphic content featured in the series, due to the increased number of calls to the service following the show 's release in the country. Netflix however, demonstrably complied with the Australian viewer ratings system, by branding the series as "MA15 + '' when streamed via its own interface. They accompanied its presentation with additional warnings and viewer advice, and ensured that counselling referrals were included and not easily skipped at the conclusion of each episode, even including an Australian accent in the voice over for those referrals every fifth episode. The "MA15 + '' rating in Australia requires a guardian to accompany a minor to an Australian cinema to allow admission of those under 18 years of age. "MA15 + '' also prohibits the admission of anyone under the age of 15, requiring proof - of - age identification.
In response to the graphic nature of the show and New Zealand 's high youth suicide rate, which was the highest among the 34 OECD countries during 2009 to 2012, the Office of Film & Literature Classification in the country created a new rating, "RP18 '', allowing individuals aged 18 and over to watch the series alone and those below having to watch it with supervision from a parent or guardian.
-- Executive producer Selena Gomez, in defense of the controversy surrounding the series
In April 2017, the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) in the United States released a statement regarding the series, saying: "Research shows that exposure to another person 's suicide, or to graphic or sensationalized accounts of death, can be one of the many risk factors that youth struggling with mental health conditions cite as a reason they contemplate or attempt suicide. '' NASP sent a letter to school mental health professionals across the country about the series, reportedly a first for NASP in response to a television show. The following month, the United States Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (SCCAP) released a statement also noting how strongly the show may serve as a trigger for self - injury among vulnerable youth. They lamented the depiction of mental health professionals as ineffective for youth who have experienced trauma and may have been considering suicide. The statement implored Netflix to add a tag following each episode with mental health resources, and a reminder that depression and suicide can be effectively treated by a qualified mental health professional, such as a clinical child psychologist, using evidence - based practice.
Similarly, clinical psychologists such as Daniel J. Reidenberg and Erika Martinez, as well as mental health advocate MollyKate Cline of Teen Vogue magazine, have expressed concerns regarding the risk of suicide contagion. However, Eric Beeson, a counselor at The Family Institute at Northwestern University noted that "it 's unlikely that one show alone could trigger someone to attempt suicide. '' Mental health professionals have also criticized the series ' depiction of suicide itself, much of which violates widely promulgated recommendations for reporting on actual suicides or not depicting them in fiction, in order to not encourage copycat suicides. The season finale, which depicts Hannah 's suicide in graphic detail, has been particularly criticized in this regard. Nic Sheff, a writer for the show, has defended it as intended to dispel the myth that suicides "quietly drift off '', and recalled how he himself was deterred from a suicide attempt by recalling a survivor 's account of how painful and horrifying it was.
The NASP statement also criticized the show 's suggestion that bullying alone led Hannah to take her life, noting that while it may be a contributing factor, suicidal ideations far more often result from the bullied person having a treatable mental illness without adequate coping mechanisms. Alex Moen, a school counselor in Minneapolis, took issue with the show 's entire plotline as "... essentially a fantasy of what someone who is considering suicide might have -- that once you commit suicide, you can still communicate with your loved ones, and people will suddenly realize everything that you were going through and the depth of your pain... That the cute, sensitive boy will fall in love with you and seek justice for you, and you 'll be able to orchestrate it, and in so doing kind of still be able to live. '' Other counselors criticized the depiction of Hannah 's attempt to reach out to Mr. Porter as dangerously misleading, since not only does he miss obvious signs of her suicidal ideations, but says he can not report her sexual assault to the police without her identifying the assailant. School counselors are often portrayed as ineffective or clueless in popular culture, Moen says, but Porter 's behavior in the series goes beyond that, to being unethical and possibly illegal. "It 's ridiculous! Counselors are not police. We do n't have to launch an investigation. We bring whatever information we do have to the police '', she told Slate.
In May 2017, the Canadian Mental Health Association (CMHA) along with the Centre for Suicide Prevention (CSP) released a statement with similar concerns to the ones raised by NASP. CMHA believed that the series may glamorize suicide, and that some content may lead to distress in viewers, particularly in younger viewers. Furthermore, the portrayal of Hannah 's suicide does not follow the media guidelines as set out by the Canadian Association for Suicide Prevention (CASP) and the American Association of Suicidology. CMHA and CASP did praise the show for raising awareness about "... this preventable health concern, '' adding that, "Raising awareness needs to be done in a safe and responsible manner. A large and growing body of Canadian and international research has found clear links between increases in suicide rates and harmful media portrayals of suicide. '' Ways in which the portrayals of suicide may cause harm, according to CMHA and CASP, include the following: "They may simplify suicide, such as, by suggesting that bullying alone is the cause; they may make suicide seem romantic, such as, by putting it in the context of a Hollywood plot line; they may portray suicide as a logical or viable option; they may display graphic representations of suicide which may be harmful to viewers, especially young ones; and / or they may advance the false notion that suicides are a way to teach others a lesson. ''
One study found the release of 13 Reasons Why corresponded with between 900,000 and 1,500,000 more suicide - related searches in the United States, including a 26 % increase in searches for "how to commit suicide, '' an 18 % increase for "commit suicide, '' and a 9 % increase for "how to kill yourself. '' A review, however, found that it is unclear if searching for information about suicide on the Internet relates to the risk of suicide.
With the release of the first season of the series, Netflix also released 13 Reasons Why: Beyond the Reasons, an aftershow documentary television film. The 29 - minute documentary featured cast and crew of the series, and mental health professionals discussing their experiences working on the show and dealing with difficult issues, including bullying, depression and sexual assault. A second Beyond the Reasons special was released with the second season of the series.
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when did the sixpence go out of circulation | Sixpence (British coin) - wikipedia
The sixpence (6d; / ˈsɪkspəns /), sometimes known as a tanner or sixpenny bit, was a coin worth one - fortieth of a pound sterling, or six pence. It was first minted in the reign of Edward VI and circulated until 1980. Following decimalisation in 1971 it had a value of 2 ⁄ new pence. The coin was made from silver from its introduction in 1551 to 1947, and thereafter in cupronickel.
Prior to Decimal Day in 1971 there were 240 pence in one pound sterling. Twelve pence made a shilling, and twenty shillings made a pound. Values less than a pound were usually written in shillings and pence, e.g. 42 old pence (17 ⁄ p) would be three shillings and sixpence (3 / 6), often pronounced "three and six ''. Values of less than a shilling were simply written in terms of pence, e.g. eight pence would be 8d.
The first sixpences were minted in 1551, during the reign of Edward VI. They came about as a result of the debasement of silver coinage in the 1540s, in particular the silver testoon, which fell in value from 12d to 6d. The debased testoon was likely useful in everyday transactions, and it was decided that new coinage should be introduced with the express denomination of six pence. The testoon decreased in value because, unlike today, the value of coins was determined by the market value of the metal they contained, and during the reign of Henry VIII the purity of silver in coinage had fallen significantly.
Sixpences were minted during the reign of every British monarch after Edward VI, as well as during the Commonwealth, with a vast number of variations and alterations over the years. During the reign of George II a number of issues were designed by John Sigismund Tanner, one time Chief Engraver of the Royal Mint, and it has been suggested that this is the origin of the nickname "tanner '', which was a popular name for the coin until decimalisation. An alternative explanation for the nickname is that it comes from Angloromani word tawno meaning small thing.
The Royal Mint undertook a massive recoinage programme in 1816, with large quantities of gold and silver coin being minted. Previous issues of silver coinage had been irregular, and the previous issue, minted in 1787, did little to alleviate the chronic shortage of silver coinage in general circulation. New silver coinage was to be of. 925 (sterling) standard, with silver coins to be minted at 66 shillings to the pound weight. Hence, newly minted sixpences weighed 43.636 grains or 2.828 grams.
The Royal Mint debased the silver coinage in 1920 from 92.5 % silver to 50 % silver. Sixpences of both alloys were minted that year. This debasement was done because of the rising price of silver around the world, and followed the global trend of elimination, or reduction in purity, of the silver in coinage. The minting of silver coinage of the pound sterling ceased completely in 1946 for similar reasons, exacerbated by the costs of the Second World War. New "silver '' coinage was instead minted in cupronickel, an alloy of copper and nickel containing no silver at all.
Beginning with Lord Wrottesley 's proposals in the 1820s, there were various attempts to decimalise the pound sterling over the next century and a half. These attempts came to nothing significant until the 1960s when the need for a currency more suited to simple monetary calculations became pressing. The decision to decimalise was announced in 1966, with the pound to be divided into 100, rather than 240, pence. Decimal Day was set for 15 February 1971, and a whole range of new coins were introduced. Sixpences continued to be legal tender with a value of 2 ⁄ new pence until 30 June 1980.
Sixpences issued during the reign of Edward VI feature a three - quarter portrait of the king on the obverse, with a Tudor rose to the left, and the denomination VI to the right. Surrounding the portrait is the inscription EDWARD VI DG AGL FRA Z HIB REX, or similar, meaning "Edward VI, by the Grace of God, King of England, France and Ireland ''. All sixpences minted under subsequent kings and queens bear a similar inscription on the obverse identifying the monarch (or Lord Protector during the Commonwealth), with the portrait usually flipping left - facing to right - facing or vice versa between monarchs. The reverse features the escutcheon of the Royal Arms of England, surrounded by the inscription POSVI DEVM ADIVTORE MEVM, or a variant, meaning "I have made God my helper ''.
Starting with Elizabeth, the coins have the year of minting stamped on the reverse. Unusually, the sixpences minted in 1561 and 1562 were milled, i.e. produced by machine rather than by hand, with the press of the Frenchman Eloy Mestrelle, who had been granted authority to mint coins by the queen. Although of higher quality than hammered coins, Mestrelle 's sixpences were more expensive to produce, and machine - struck coinage ceased to be minted in 1572. The coins remained in circulation for over a hundred years, but it took until the reign of Charles II for milled coins of the pound sterling to be minted again. Sixpences minted after the Tudor period no longer bear the Tudor rose on the obverse.
Early sixpences of James I feature the alternative reverse inscription EXVRGAT DEVS DISSIPENTVR INIMICI, meaning "Let God arise and His enemies be scattered '', becoming QVAE DEVS CONIVNXIT NEMO SEPARET, meaning "What God hath put together let no man put asunder '' after 1604. Charles I sixpences follow the usual design, except that coins minted after 1630 do not bear a date, and the reverse inscription reads CHRISTO AVSPICE REGNO, meaning "I reign under the auspices of Christ ''.
During the beginning of Oliver Cromwell 's Protectorship there was no portrait minted on the obverse - instead there is a wreathed shield featuring St George 's Cross, surrounded by the inscription THE COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND. The reverse features the combined arms of England and Ireland, surrounded by the inscription GOD WITH VS. In 1656 the minting of milled coinage resumed, this time with the press of the Frenchman Peter Blondeau. The obverse of Cromwell 's milled coinage features a portrait in the manner of a Roman emperor, surrounded by an inscription similar to those on the coins of earlier monarchs.
With the exception of a handful of early examples, Charles II sixpences continued to be machine - struck, and continued the usual practice of having a portrait of the monarch on the obverse. The reverse features a new design consisting of four shields arranged in a cross, with the inscription detailing the style of the monarch split across both sides of the coin. With minor changes, such as the device at the centre of the shields, and the designs between the shields, this basic design continued to be minted until the reign of George III.
Those coins minted after the great recoinage of 1816 bear the royal coat of arms on the reverse, surrounded by the Garter, which bears the words HONI SOIT QUY MAL Y PENSE, Middle French for "Evil be to him who evil thinks ''. George IV sixpences are similar to those of his predecessor, but on some issues the Garter surrounding the shield is replaced by floral emblems representing England, Scotland and Ireland, with the inscription ANNO DATE (e.g. ANNO 1821) below.
William IV sixpences have a simpler reverse, composed of the words SIX PENCE in the middle, with a crown above, the date below, and a wreath surrounding. With the exception of a withdrawn 1887 issue, Victoria and Edward VII sixpences share this reverse. The reverse of the 1887 issue is broadly the same as the post-1816 George III coins. This reverse is shared with the half - sovereign, and since the two are of a similar size, a problem arose with people passing off sixpences as half - sovereigns. The government agreed to remove the coin from circulation in November 1887 and change the reverse.
The reverse of George V sixpences minted prior to 1920 are identical to those of his predecessor. Those minted between 1920 and 1926 feature an alternative reverse design composed of a crown surmounted by a lion, and those minted after 1926 feature six oak sprigs divided by six acorns. Only a handful of Edward VIII sixpences were ever minted, and none of these entered circulation. These feature a reverse that is different again, composed of six interlinked rings, with the inscription SIXPENCE below and part of the monarch 's style inscribed above. Unusually, the profile of Edward VIII on coins faces the same way as that of his predecessor.
George VI sixpences feature two different reverses, both featuring a crowned Royal Cypher. Those minted prior to 1949 feature a more angular font than those minted later. These later coins do not bear the abbreviation IND IMP, since the king was no longer Emperor of India. The final change in the design of the sixpence came in 1953 when a new reverse was designed for the sixpences of Elizabeth II. These coins feature a floral design by Edgar Fuller and Cecil Thomas on the reverse, consisting of a rose, thistle, shamrock and leek, representing the four Home Nations. In 2016 the Royal Mint began minting legal tender decimal sixpence coins in silver. The new reverse was designed by John Bergdahl.
As the supply of silver threepence coins slowly disappeared, Royal Mint sixpences replaced them as the coins traditionally put into Christmas puddings.
In Britain, there is a well - known tradition of the bride wearing "Something old, something new, something borrowed, something blue, and a silver sixpence in her shoe ''. A silver sixpence in the bride 's shoe is a traditional good luck wedding gesture, and customarily it is the father of the bride who places the sixpence as a token of him wishing her prosperity, love and happiness in her marriage.
They are also used as a good luck charm by Royal Air Force aircrew who have them sewn behind their wings or brevets, a custom dating back to the Second World War.
In A Midsummer Night 's Dream (Act 4, Scene 2), we learn that by his absence (ensorcelled in Titania 's bower) Bottom the Weaver will forgo sixpence a day for life from the Duke. In Elizabethan times, six pence was roughly a day 's wage for rustic labour in the provinces. With it, one might buy two dinners, six performances of Hamlet among the groundlings at the Globe Theatre, or an unbound copy of the play itself.
In David Copperfield, Charles Dickens describes how its protagonist dealt with a street carman about taking his travel box to a coach office in London: "I told him mine, which was down that street there, and which I wanted him to take to the Dover coach office for sixpence '', then he replying: "Done with you for a tanner! ''
The sixpence also features in other works of popular culture and literature. It appears in the title of the British writer Somerset Maughan 's 1919 novel, The Moon and Sixpence, and appears in both the title and as a plot device in Michael Paraskos 's novel In Search of Sixpence. Half a Sixpence is the title of the 1963 West End stage musical, and the subsequent 1967 musical film version, of H.G. Wells ' novel Kipps.
"I 've Got Sixpence '' a traditional song, runs:
An elaborated version was published in 1941, words and music by Elton Box & Desmond Cox.: the singer tells the tale of spending twopence (per verse) until he has "no - pence to send home to my wife -- poor wife. ''
Some guitarists prefer the rigidity of a coin to the flexibility of a more traditional plastic plectrum. Most notably Brian May of Queen and Ian Bairnson of The Alan Parsons Project, and. May at some time even had sixpence - sized coins featuring his own head struck by the Royal Mint, which he used, gave away, and sold as his signature plectrum.
Sixpence None the Richer (also known as Sixpence) is an American rock / pop band whose name was inspired by a passage from the book Mere Christianity by C.S. Lewis.
Penguin Books initially sold books in the 1930s through Woolworths and other high street stores for sixpence.
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who was the first treasurer of the united states | Treasurer of the United States - wikipedia
The Treasurer of the United States is an official in the United States Department of the Treasury who was originally charged with the receipt and custody of government funds, though many of these functions have been taken over by different bureaus of the Department. Responsibility for oversight of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, the United States Mint, and the United States Savings Bonds Division (now the Savings Bond Marketing Office within the Bureau of the Public Debt) was assigned to the Treasurer in 1981. As of 2002 the Office of the Treasurer underwent a major reorganization. The Treasurer now advises the Director of the Mint, the Director of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, the Deputy Secretary and the Secretary of the Treasury on matters relating to coinage, currency and the production of other instruments by the United States.
The Treasurer 's signature, as well as the Treasury Secretary 's, appear on Federal Reserve Notes.
President Harry S. Truman appointed Georgia Neese Clark as the first woman Treasurer in 1949. Since then, every subsequent Treasurer has been a woman, and seven of the past eleven Treasurers have also been Hispanic.
Requirement for Senate confirmation for the appointment was dropped as of August 10, 2012.
Since 1949, the length of time the office has been vacant totals 3,688 days, more than 10 years.
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what are the duties of the attorney general of the united states | United States Attorney General - wikipedia
The United States Attorney General (A.G.) is the head of the United States Department of Justice per 28 U.S.C. § 503, concerned with legal affairs, and is the chief lawyer of the United States government. In cases of the federal death penalty, the power to seek the death penalty rests with the Attorney General.
Under Article II Sec. 2 of the Constitution the Attorney General is nominated by the President and appointed with the advice and consent of Congress. The Constitution is clear that the Attorney General may be impeached by Congress. As to whether the Attorney General may be summarily removed by the President, no provision of the Constitution grants this power. The decisional law suggests that the President has the power to remove an official engaged in purely executive functions or an official whose duties immediately affect the President 's ability to fulfill his constitutional responsibilities, Bowsher v. Synar (1986), but provides little or no guidance as to whether the office of Attorney General falls within these general guidelines.
Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1789 which, besides other things, established the Office of the Attorney General. The original duties of this officer were "to prosecute and conduct all suits in the Supreme Court in which the United States shall be concerned, and to give his or her advice and opinion upon questions of law when required by the President of the United States, or when requested by the heads of any of the departments. ''
The Department of Justice was established in 1870 to support the Attorney General in the discharge of their responsibilities.
The Attorney General, the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, and the Secretary of Defense are generally regarded as the four most important cabinet officials because of the importance and age of their departments.
It is the practice for the Attorney General, along with many other public officials, to give resignation with effect on the Inauguration Day (January 20) of a new President. The Deputy Attorney General, who is also required to tender their resignation, is commonly requested to stay on and act as Attorney General pending the confirmation by the Senate of the new Attorney General.
For example, on the inauguration of President Donald Trump on January, 20, 2017, the tenure of the then Attorney General Loretta Lynch was brought to an end, and the Deputy Attorney General Sally Yates, who had also tendered her resignation, was asked to stay on and be Acting Attorney General until the confirmation of the new Attorney General Jeff Sessions, who had been nominated for the office in November 2016 by then - President - elect Donald Trump. However, Yates was dismissed by Trump on January 30, 2017 before Sessions had been confirmed. Dana Boente automatically succeeded Yates as Acting Attorney General as the next available successor in the line of succession. Boente, who was the United States Attorney for the Eastern District of Virginia, was the most senior Justice Department official whose resignation had not been accepted by Trump. When Sessions was confirmed and sworn in as Attorney General on February 9, 2017, Boente became Acting Deputy Attorney General. On March 10, 2017, Sessions oversaw the firing of 46 United States Attorneys, leaving only his acting Deputy Dana Boente and nominated Deputy Rod Rosenstein in place. Rosenstein 's appointment was subject to Senate confirmation. Rosenstein was confirmed on April 25, 2017 and became Deputy Attorney General on April 26, 2017, and Boente reverted to his permanent position.
As of May 12, 2017, 205 of the 207 senior Justice Department positions subject to presidential appointment were still awaiting nomination and then confirmation. Hearings by the Senate Committee on the Judiciary of four presidential nominees are still to take place. Deputy United States Attorneys, who are career officials, were left in an acting capacity for the Attorneys.
No party (1) Federalist (3) Democratic - Republican (5) Democratic (34) Whig (4) Republican (38)
As of March 2018, there are eleven, living former US Attorneys General, the oldest being Ramsey Clark (served 1967 -- 1969, born 1927). The most recent Attorney General to die was Janet Reno (served 1993 -- 2001, born 1938) on November 7, 2016.
On February 9, 2017, President Donald Trump signed an Executive Order which modified the line of succession for the Attorney General. Under Executive Order 13762 signed by President Obama on January 13, 2017, before leaving office, the line of succession was:
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who owns the king james version of the bible | King James Version - wikipedia
The King James Version (KJV), also known as the King James Bible (KJB) or simply the Authorized Version (AV), is an English translation of the Christian Bible for the Church of England, begun in 1604 and completed in 1611. The books of the King James Version include the 39 books of the Old Testament, an intertestamental section containing 14 books of the Apocrypha, and the 27 books of the New Testament.
It was first printed by Robert Barker, the King 's Printer, and was the third translation into English approved by the English Church authorities: The first had been the Great Bible, commissioned in the reign of King Henry VIII (1535), and the second had been the Bishops ' Bible, commissioned in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1568). In January 1604, King James I convened the Hampton Court Conference, where a new English version was conceived in response to the problems of the earlier translations perceived by the Puritans, a faction of the Church of England. The translation is noted for its "majesty of style '', and has been described as one of the most important books in English culture and a driving force in the shaping of the English - speaking world.
James gave the translators instructions intended to ensure that the new version would conform to the ecclesiology of, and reflect the episcopal structure of, the Church of England and its belief in an ordained clergy. The translation was done by 47 scholars, all of whom were members of the Church of England. In common with most other translations of the period, the New Testament was translated from Greek, the Old Testament from Hebrew and Aramaic, and the Apocrypha from Greek and Latin. In the Book of Common Prayer (1662), the text of the Authorized Version replaced the text of the Great Bible for Epistle and Gospel readings (but not for the Psalter, which substantially retained Coverdale 's Great Bible version), and as such was authorised by Act of Parliament.
By the first half of the 18th century, the Authorized Version had become effectively unchallenged as the English translation used in Anglican and English Protestant churches, except for the Psalms and some short passages in the Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England. Over the course of the 18th century, the Authorized Version supplanted the Latin Vulgate as the standard version of scripture for English - speaking scholars. With the development of stereotype printing at the beginning of the 19th century, this version of the Bible became the most widely printed book in history, almost all such printings presenting the standard text of 1769 extensively re-edited by Benjamin Blayney at Oxford, and nearly always omitting the books of the Apocrypha. Today the unqualified title "King James Version '' usually indicates this Oxford standard text.
The title of the first edition of the translation, in Early Modern English, was "THE HOLY BIBLE, Conteyning the Old Testament, AND THE NEW: Newly Translated out of the Originall tongues: & with the former Translations diligently compared and reuised, by his Maiesties speciall Comandement ''. The title page carries the words "Appointed to be read in Churches '', and F.F. Bruce suggests it was "probably authorised by order in council '' but no record of the authorisation survives "because the Privy Council registers from 1600 to 1613 were destroyed by fire in January 1618 / 19 ''.
For many years it was common not to give the translation any specific name. In his Leviathan of 1651, Thomas Hobbes referred to it as the English Translation made in the beginning of the Reign of King James. A 1761 "Brief Account of the various Translations of the Bible into English '' refers to the 1611 version merely as a new, compleat, and more accurate Translation, despite referring to the Great Bible by its name, and despite using the name "Rhemish Testament '' for the Douay - Rheims Bible version. Similarly, a "History of England '', whose fifth edition was published in 1775, writes merely that (a) new translation of the Bible, viz., that now in Use, was begun in 1607, and published in 1611.
King James 's Bible is used as the name for the 1611 translation (on a par with the "Genevan Bible '' or the "Rhemish Testament '') in Charles Butler 's Horae Biblicae (first published 1797). Other works from the early 19th century confirm the widespread use of this name on both sides of the Atlantic: it is found both in a "Historical sketch of the English translations of the Bible '' published in Massachusetts in 1815, and in an English publication from 1818, which explicitly states that the 1611 version is "generally known by the name of King James 's Bible ''. This name was also found as King James ' Bible (without the final "s ''): for example in a book review from 1811. The phrase "King James 's Bible '' is used as far back as 1715, although in this case it is not clear whether this is a name or merely a description.
The use of Authorized Version or Authorised Version, capitalized and used as a name, is found as early as 1814. For some time before this, descriptive phrases such as "our present, and only publicly authorised version '' (1783), "our Authorised version '' (1792), and "the authorized version '' (1801, uncapitalized) are found. The Oxford English Dictionary records a usage in 1824. In Britain, the 1611 translation is generally known as the "Authorised Version '' today.
As early as 1814, we find King James ' version, evidently a descriptive phrase, being used. "The King James Version '' is found, unequivocally used as a name, in a letter from 1855. The next year King James Bible, with no possessive, appears as a name in a Scottish source. In the United States, the "1611 translation '' (actually editions following the standard text of 1769, see below) is generally known as the King James Version today.
The followers of John Wycliffe undertook the first complete English translations of the Christian scriptures in the 14th century. These translations were banned in 1409 due to their association with the Lollards. The Wycliffe Bible pre-dated the printing press but was circulated very widely in manuscript form, often inscribed with a date earlier than 1409 to avoid the legal ban. As the text translated in the various versions of the Wycliffe Bible was the Latin Vulgate, and as it contained no heterodox readings, there was in practice no way by which the ecclesiastical authorities could distinguish the banned version; consequently many Catholic commentators of the 15th and 16th centuries (such as Thomas More) took these manuscript English Bibles to represent an anonymous earlier orthodox translation.
In 1525, William Tyndale, an English contemporary of Martin Luther, undertook a translation of the New Testament. Tyndale 's translation was the first printed Bible in English. Over the next ten years, Tyndale revised his New Testament in the light of rapidly advancing biblical scholarship, and embarked on a translation of the Old Testament. Despite some controversial translation choices, and in spite of Tyndale 's execution on charges of heresy for having made the translated bible, the merits of Tyndale 's work and prose style made his translation the ultimate basis for all subsequent renditions into Early Modern English. With these translations lightly edited and adapted by Myles Coverdale, in 1539, Tyndale 's New Testament and his incomplete work on the Old Testament became the basis for the Great Bible. This was the first "authorised version '' issued by the Church of England during the reign of King Henry VIII. When Mary I succeeded to the throne in 1553, she returned the Church of England to the communion of the Roman Catholic faith and many English religious reformers fled the country, some establishing an English - speaking colony at Geneva. Under the leadership of John Calvin, Geneva became the chief international centre of Reformed Protestantism and Latin biblical scholarship.
These English expatriates undertook a translation that became known as the Geneva Bible. This translation, dated to 1560, was a revision of Tyndale 's Bible and the Great Bible on the basis of the original languages. Soon after Elizabeth I took the throne in 1558, the flaws of both the Great Bible and the Geneva Bible (namely, that the Geneva Bible did not "conform to the ecclesiology and reflect the episcopal structure of the Church of England and its beliefs about an ordained clergy '') became painfully apparent. In 1568, the Church of England responded with the Bishops ' Bible, a revision of the Great Bible in the light of the Geneva version. While officially approved, this new version failed to displace the Geneva translation as the most popular English Bible of the age -- in part because the full Bible was only printed in lectern editions of prodigious size and at a cost of several pounds. Accordingly, Elizabethan lay people overwhelmingly read the Bible in the Geneva Version -- small editions were available at a relatively low cost. At the same time, there was a substantial clandestine importation of the rival Douay -- Rheims New Testament of 1582, undertaken by exiled Roman Catholics. This translation, though still derived from Tyndale, claimed to represent the text of the Latin Vulgate.
In May 1601, King James VI of Scotland attended the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland at St Columba 's Church in Burntisland, Fife, at which proposals were put forward for a new translation of the Bible into English. Two years later, he ascended to the throne of England as James I.
The newly crowned King James convened the Hampton Court Conference in 1604. That gathering proposed a new English version in response to the perceived problems of earlier translations as detected by the Puritan faction of the Church of England. Here are three examples of problems the Puritans perceived with the Bishops and Great Bibles:
First, Galatians iv. 25 (from the Bishops ' Bible). The Greek word susoichei is not well translated as now it is, bordereth neither expressing the force of the word, nor the apostle 's sense, nor the situation of the place. Secondly, psalm cv. 28 (from the Great Bible), ' They were not obedient; ' the original being, ' They were not disobedient. ' Thirdly, psalm cvi. 30 (also from the Great Bible), ' Then stood up Phinees and prayed, ' the Hebrew hath, ' executed judgment. '
Instructions were given to the translators that were intended to limit the Puritan influence on this new translation. The Bishop of London added a qualification that the translators would add no marginal notes (which had been an issue in the Geneva Bible). King James cited two passages in the Geneva translation where he found the marginal notes offensive to the principles of divinely ordained royal supremacy: Exodus 1: 19, where the Geneva Bible notes had commended the example of civil disobedience to the Egyptian Pharaoh showed by the Hebrew midwives, and also II Chronicles 15: 16, where the Geneva Bible had criticized King Asa for not having executed his idolatrous ' mother ', Queen Maachah (Maachah had actually been Asa 's grandmother, but James considered the Geneva Bible reference as sanctioning the execution of his own mother Mary, Queen of Scots). Further, the King gave the translators instructions designed to guarantee that the new version would conform to the ecclesiology of the Church of England. Certain Greek and Hebrew words were to be translated in a manner that reflected the traditional usage of the church. For example, old ecclesiastical words such as the word "church '' were to be retained and not to be translated as "congregation ''. The new translation would reflect the episcopal structure of the Church of England and traditional beliefs about ordained clergy.
James ' instructions included several requirements that kept the new translation familiar to its listeners and readers. The text of the Bishops ' Bible would serve as the primary guide for the translators, and the familiar proper names of the biblical characters would all be retained. If the Bishops ' Bible was deemed problematic in any situation, the translators were permitted to consult other translations from a pre-approved list: the Tyndale Bible, the Coverdale Bible, Matthew 's Bible, the Great Bible, and the Geneva Bible. In addition, later scholars have detected an influence on the Authorized Version from the translations of Taverner 's Bible and the New Testament of the Douay -- Rheims Bible. It is for this reason that the flyleaf of most printings of the Authorized Version observes that the text had been "translated out of the original tongues, and with the former translations diligently compared and revised, by His Majesty 's special commandment. '' As the work proceeded, more detailed rules were adopted as to how variant and uncertain readings in the Hebrew and Greek source texts should be indicated, including the requirement that words supplied in English to ' complete the meaning ' of the originals should be printed in a different type face.
The task of translation was undertaken by 47 scholars, although 54 were originally approved. All were members of the Church of England and all except Sir Henry Savile were clergy. The scholars worked in six committees, two based in each of the University of Oxford, the University of Cambridge, and Westminster. The committees included scholars with Puritan sympathies, as well as High Churchmen. Forty unbound copies of the 1602 edition of the Bishops ' Bible were specially printed so that the agreed changes of each committee could be recorded in the margins. The committees worked on certain parts separately and the drafts produced by each committee were then compared and revised for harmony with each other. The scholars were not paid directly for their translation work, instead a circular letter was sent to bishops encouraging them to consider the translators for appointment to well - paid livings as these fell vacant. Several were supported by the various colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, while others were promoted to bishoprics, deaneries and prebends through royal patronage.
The committees started work towards the end of 1604. King James I of England, on 22 July 1604, sent a letter to Archbishop Bancroft asking him to contact all English churchmen requesting that they make donations to his project.
Right trusty and well beloved, we greet you well. Whereas we have appointed certain learned men, to the number of 4 and 50, for the translating of the Bible, and in this number, divers of them have either no ecclesiastical preferment at all, or else so very small, as the same is far unmeet for men of their deserts and yet we in ourself in any convenient time can not well remedy it, therefor we do hereby require you, that presently you write in our name as well to the Archbishop of York, as to the rest of the bishops of the province of Cant. (erbury) signifying unto them, that we do well and straitly charge everyone of them... that (all excuses set apart) when a prebend or parsonage... shall next upon any occasion happen to be void... we may commend for the same some such of the learned men, as we shall think fit to be preferred unto it... Given unto our signet at our palace of West. (minister) on 2 and 20 July, in the 2nd year of our reign of England, France, and of Ireland, and of Scotland xxxvii. ''
They had all completed their sections by 1608, the Apocrypha committee finishing first. From January 1609, a General Committee of Review met at Stationers ' Hall, London to review the completed marked texts from each of the six committees. The General Committee included John Bois, Andrew Downes and John Harmar, and others known only by their initials, including "AL '' (who may be Arthur Lake), and were paid for their attendance by the Stationers ' Company. John Bois prepared a note of their deliberations (in Latin) -- which has partly survived in two later transcripts. Also surviving of the translators ' working papers are a bound - together set of marked - up corrections to one of the forty Bishops ' Bibles -- covering the Old Testament and Gospels, and also a manuscript translation of the text of the Epistles, excepting those verses where no change was being recommended to the readings in the Bishops ' Bible. Archbishop Bancroft insisted on having a final say making fourteen further changes, of which one was the term "bishopricke '' at Acts 1: 20.
The original printing of the Authorized Version was published by Robert Barker, the King 's Printer, in 1611 as a complete folio Bible. It was sold looseleaf for ten shillings, or bound for twelve. Robert Barker 's father, Christopher, had, in 1589, been granted by Elizabeth I the title of royal Printer, with the perpetual Royal Privilege to print Bibles in England. Robert Barker invested very large sums in printing the new edition, and consequently ran into serious debt, such that he was compelled to sub-lease the privilege to two rival London printers, Bonham Norton and John Bill. It appears that it was initially intended that each printer would print a portion of the text, share printed sheets with the others, and split the proceeds. Bitter financial disputes broke out, as Barker accused Norton and Bill of concealing their profits, while Norton and Bill accused Barker of selling sheets properly due to them as partial Bibles for ready money. There followed decades of continual litigation, and consequent imprisonment for debt for members of the Barker and Norton printing dynasties, while each issued rival editions of the whole Bible. In 1629 the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge successfully managed to assert separate and prior royal licences for Bible printing, for their own university presses -- and Cambridge University took the opportunity to print revised editions of the Authorized Version in 1629, and 1638. The editors of these editions included John Bois and John Ward from the original translators. This did not, however, impede the commercial rivalries of the London printers, especially as the Barker family refused to allow any other printers access to the authoritative manuscript of the Authorized Version.
Two editions of the whole Bible are recognized as having been produced in 1611, which may be distinguished by their rendering of Ruth 3: 15; the first edition reading "he went into the city '', where the second reads "she went into the city. ''; these are known colloquially as the "He '' and "She '' Bibles.
The original printing was made before English spelling was standardized, and when printers, as a matter of course, expanded and contracted the spelling of the same words in different places, so as to achieve an even column of text. They set v for initial u and v, and u for u and v everywhere else. They used long s for non-final s. The glyph j occurs only after i, as in the final letter in a Roman numeral. Punctuation was relatively heavy, and differed from current practice. When space needed to be saved, the printers sometimes used ye for the, (replacing the Middle English thorn with the continental y), set ã for an or am (in the style of scribe 's shorthand), and set & for and. On the contrary, on a few occasions, they appear to have inserted these words when they thought a line needed to be padded. Later printings regularized these spellings; the punctuation has also been standardized, but still varies from current usage norms.
The first printing used a black letter typeface instead of a roman typeface, which itself made a political and a religious statement. Like the Great Bible and the Bishops ' Bible, the Authorized Version was "appointed to be read in churches ''. It was a large folio volume meant for public use, not private devotion; the weight of the type mirrored the weight of establishment authority behind it. However, smaller editions and roman - type editions followed rapidly, e.g. quarto roman - type editions of the Bible in 1612. This contrasted with the Geneva Bible, which was the first English Bible printed in a roman typeface (although black - letter editions, particularly in folio format, were issued later).
In contrast to the Geneva Bible and the Bishops ' Bible, which had both been extensively illustrated, there were no illustrations at all in the 1611 edition of the Authorized Version, the main form of decoration being the historiated initial letters provided for books and chapters -- together with the decorative title pages to the Bible itself, and to the New Testament.
In the Great Bible, readings derived from the Vulgate but not found in published Hebrew and Greek texts had been distinguished by being printed in smaller roman type. In the Geneva Bible, a distinct typeface had instead been applied to distinguish text supplied by translators, or thought needful for English grammar but not present in the Greek or Hebrew; and the original printing of the Authorized Version used roman type for this purposed, albeit sparsely and inconsistently. This results in perhaps the most significant difference between the original printed text of the King James Bible and the current text. When, from the later 17th century onwards, the Authorized Version began to be printed in roman type, the typeface for supplied words was changed to italics, this application being regularised and greatly expanded. This was intended to de-emphasise the words.
The original printing contained two prefatory texts; the first was a formal Epistle Dedicatory to "the most high and mighty Prince '' King James. Many British printings reproduce this, while most non-British printings do not.
The second preface was called Translators to the Reader, a long and learned essay that defends the undertaking of the new version. It observes the translators ' stated goal, that they, "never thought from the beginning that (they) should need to make a new translation, nor yet to make of a bad one a good one,... but to make a good one better, or out of many good ones, one principal good one, not justly to be excepted against; that hath been our endeavour, that our mark. '' They also give their opinion of previous English Bible translations, stating, "We do not deny, nay, we affirm and avow, that the very meanest translation of the Bible in English, set forth by men of our profession, (for we have seen none of theirs (Roman Catholics) of the whole Bible as yet) containeth the word of God, nay, is the word of God. '' As with the first preface, some British printings reproduce this, while most non-British printings do not. Almost every printing that includes the second preface also includes the first. The first printing contained a number of other apparatus, including a table for the reading of the Psalms at matins and evensong, and a calendar, an almanac, and a table of holy days and observances. Much of this material became obsolete with the adoption of the Gregorian Calendar by Britain and its colonies in 1752, and thus modern editions invariably omit it.
So as to make it easier to locate a particular passage, each chapter was headed by a brief precis of its contents with verse numbers. Later editors freely substituted their own chapter summaries, or omitted such material entirely. Pilcrow marks are used to indicate the beginnings of paragraphs except after the book of Acts.
The Authorized Version was meant to replace the Bishops ' Bible as the official version for readings in the Church of England. No record of its authorization exists; it was probably effected by an order of the Privy Council but the records for the years 1600 to 1613 were destroyed by fire in January 1618 / 19 and it is commonly known as the Authorized Version in the United Kingdom. The King 's Printer issued no further editions of the Bishops ' Bible, so necessarily the Authorized Version replaced it as the standard lectern Bible in parish church use in England.
In the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, the text of the Authorized Version finally supplanted that of the Great Bible in the Epistle and Gospel readings -- though the Prayer Book Psalter nevertheless continues in the Great Bible version.
The case was different in Scotland, where the Geneva Bible had long been the standard church bible. It was not until 1633 that a Scottish edition of the Authorized Version was printed -- in conjunction with the Scots coronation in that year of Charles I. The inclusion of illustrations in the edition raised accusations of Popery from opponents of the religious policies of Charles and William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury. However, official policy favoured the Authorized Version, and this favour returned during the Commonwealth -- as London printers succeeded in re-asserting their monopoly on Bible printing with support from Oliver Cromwell -- and the "New Translation '' was the only edition on the market. F.F. Bruce reports that the last recorded instance of a Scots parish continuing to use the "Old Translation '' (i.e. Geneva) as being in 1674.
The Authorized Version 's acceptance by the general public took longer. The Geneva Bible continued to be popular, and large numbers were imported from Amsterdam, where printing continued up to 1644 in editions carrying a false London imprint. However, few if any genuine Geneva editions appear to have been printed in London after 1616, and in 1637 Archbishop Laud prohibited their printing or importation. In the period of the English Civil War, soldiers of the New Model Army were issued a book of Geneva selections called "The Soldiers ' Bible ''. In the first half of the 17th century the Authorized Version is most commonly referred to as "The Bible without notes '', thereby distinguishing it from the Geneva "Bible with notes ''. There were several printings of the Authorized Version in Amsterdam -- one as late as 1715 which combined the Authorized Version translation text with the Geneva marginal notes; one such edition was printed in London in 1649. During the Commonwealth a commission was established by Parliament to recommend a revision of the Authorized Version with acceptably Protestant explanatory notes, but the project was abandoned when it became clear that these would nearly double the bulk of the Bible text. After the English Restoration, the Geneva Bible was held to be politically suspect and a reminder of the repudiated Puritan era. Furthermore, disputes over the lucrative rights to print the Authorized Version dragged on through the 17th century, so none of the printers involved saw any commercial advantage in marketing a rival translation. The Authorized Version became the only current version circulating among English - speaking people.
A small minority of critical scholars were slow to accept the latest translation. Hugh Broughton, the most highly regarded English Hebraist of his time (but who had been excluded from the panel of translators because of his utterly uncongenial temperament), issued in 1611 a total condemnation of the new version, criticizing especially the translators ' rejection of word - for - word equivalence and stated that "he would rather be torn in pieces by wild horses than that this abominable translation (KJV) should ever be foisted upon the English people ''. Walton 's London Polyglot of 1657 disregards the Authorized Version (and indeed the English language) entirely. Walton 's reference text throughout is the Vulgate. The Vulgate Latin is also found as the standard text of scripture in Thomas Hobbes 's Leviathan of 1651, indeed Hobbes gives Vulgate chapter and verse numbers (e.g., Job 41: 24, not Job 41: 33) for his head text. In Chapter 35: ' The Signification in Scripture of Kingdom of God ', Hobbes discusses Exodus 19: 5, first in his own translation of the ' Vulgar Latin ', and then subsequently as found in the versions he terms "... the English translation made in the beginning of the reign of King James '', and "The Geneva French '' (i.e. Olivétan). Hobbes advances detailed critical arguments why the Vulgate rendering is to be preferred. For most of the 17th century the assumption remained that, while it had been of vital importance to provide the scriptures in the vernacular for ordinary people, nevertheless for those with sufficient education to do so, Biblical study was best undertaken within the international common medium of Latin. It was only in 1700 that modern bilingual Bibles appeared in which the Authorized Version was compared with counterpart Dutch and French Protestant vernacular Bibles.
In consequence of the continual disputes over printing privileges, successive printings of the Authorized Version were notably less careful than the 1611 edition had been -- compositors freely varying spelling, capitalization and punctuation -- and also, over the years, introducing about 1,500 misprints (some of which, like the omission of "not '' from the commandment "Thou shalt not commit adultery '' in the "Wicked Bible '', became notorious). The two Cambridge editions of 1629 and 1638 attempted to restore the proper text -- while introducing over 200 revisions of the original translators ' work, chiefly by incorporating into the main text a more literal reading originally presented as a marginal note. A more thoroughly corrected edition was proposed following the Restoration, in conjunction with the revised 1662 Book of Common Prayer, but Parliament then decided against it.
By the first half of the 18th century, the Authorized Version was effectively unchallenged as the sole English translation in current use in Protestant churches, and was so dominant that the Roman Catholic Church in England issued in 1750 a revision of the 1610 Douay - Rheims Bible by Richard Challoner that was very much closer to the Authorized Version than to the original. However, general standards of spelling, punctuation, typesetting, capitalization and grammar had changed radically in the 100 years since the first edition of the Authorized Version, and all printers in the market were introducing continual piecemeal changes to their Bible texts to bring them into line with current practice -- and with public expectations of standardized spelling and grammatical construction.
Over the course of the 18th century, the Authorized Version supplanted the Hebrew, Greek and the Latin Vulgate as the standard version of scripture for English speaking scholars and divines, and indeed came to be regarded by some as an inspired text in itself -- so much so that any challenge to its readings or textual base came to be regarded by many as an assault on Holy Scripture. This has been contemptuously labelled "AVolatry '', a play on the name "Authorized Version '' (AV) and idolatry.
By the mid-18th century the wide variation in the various modernized printed texts of the Authorized Version, combined with the notorious accumulation of misprints, had reached the proportion of a scandal, and the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge both sought to produce an updated standard text. First of the two was the Cambridge edition of 1760, the culmination of 20 - years work by Francis Sawyer Parris, who died in May of that year. This 1760 edition was reprinted without change in 1762 and in John Baskerville 's fine folio edition of 1763. This was effectively superseded by the 1769 Oxford edition, edited by Benjamin Blayney, though with comparatively few changes from Parris 's edition; but which became the Oxford standard text, and is reproduced almost unchanged in most current printings. Parris and Blayney sought consistently to remove those elements of the 1611 and subsequent editions that they believed were due to the vagaries of printers, while incorporating most of the revised readings of the Cambridge editions of 1629 and 1638, and each also introducing a few improved readings of their own. They undertook the mammoth task of standardizing the wide variation in punctuation and spelling of the original, making many thousands of minor changes to the text. In addition, Blayney and Parris thoroughly revised and greatly extended the italicization of "supplied '' words not found in the original languages by cross-checking against the presumed source texts. Blayney seems to have worked from the 1550 Stephanus edition of the Textus Receptus, rather than the later editions of Beza that the translators of the 1611 New Testament had favoured; accordingly the current Oxford standard text alters around a dozen italicizations where Beza and Stephanus differ. Like the 1611 edition, the 1769 Oxford edition included the Apocrypha, although Blayney tended to remove cross-references to the Books of the Apocrypha from the margins of their Old and New Testaments wherever these had been provided by the original translators. Altogether, the standardization of spelling and punctuation caused Blayney 's 1769 text to differ from the 1611 text in around 24,000 places. Since that date, a few further changes have been introduced to the Oxford standard text. The Oxford University Press paperback edition of the "Authorized King James Version '' provides Oxford 's standard text, and also includes the prefatory section "The Translators to the Reader ''.
The 1611 and 1769 texts of the first three verses from I Corinthians 13 are given below.
(1611) 1. Though I speake with the tongues of men & of Angels, and haue not charity, I am become as sounding brasse or a tinkling cymbal. 2 And though I haue the gift of prophesie, and vnderstand all mysteries and all knowledge: and though I haue all faith, so that I could remooue mountaines, and haue no charitie, I am nothing. 3 And though I bestowe all my goods to feede the poore, and though I giue my body to bee burned, and haue not charitie, it profiteth me nothing.
(1769) 1. Though I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, and have not charity, I am become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal. 2 And though I have the gift of prophecy, and understand all mysteries, and all knowledge; and though I have all faith, so that I could remove mountains, and have not charity, I am nothing. 3 And though I bestow all my goods to feed the poor, and though I give my body to be burned, and have not charity, it profiteth me nothing.
There are a number of superficial edits in these three verses: 11 changes of spelling, 16 changes of typesetting (including the changed conventions for the use of u and v), three changes of punctuation, and one variant text -- where "not charity '' is substituted for "no charity '' in verse two, in the erroneous belief that the original reading was a misprint.
A particular verse for which Blayney 's 1769 text differs from Parris 's 1760 version is Matthew 5: 13, where Parris (1760) has
Ye are the salt of the earth: but if the salt have lost his savour, wherewith shall it be salted? it is thenceforth good for nothing but to be cast out, and to be troden under foot of men.
Blayney (1769) changes ' lost his savour ' to ' lost its savour ', and troden to trodden.
For a period, Cambridge continued to issue Bibles using the Parris text, but the market demand for absolute standardization was now such that they eventually adapted Blayney 's work, but omitted some of the idiosyncratic Oxford spellings. By the mid-19th century, almost all printings of the Authorized Version were derived from the 1769 Oxford text -- increasingly without Blayney 's variant notes and cross references, and commonly excluding the Apocrypha. One exception to this was a scrupulous original - spelling, page - for - page, and line - for - line reprint of the 1611 edition (including all chapter headings, marginalia, and original italicization, but with Roman type substituted for the black letter of the original), published by Oxford in 1833. Another important exception was the 1873 Cambridge Paragraph Bible, thoroughly revised, modernized and re-edited by F.H.A. Scrivener, who for the first time consistently identified the source texts underlying the 1611 translation and its marginal notes. Scrivener, like Blayney, opted to revise the translation where he considered the judgement of the 1611 translators had been faulty. In 2005, Cambridge University Press released its New Cambridge Paragraph Bible with Apocrypha, edited by David Norton, which followed in the spirit of Scrivener 's work, attempting to bring spelling to present - day standards. Norton also innovated with the introduction of quotation marks, while returning to a hypothetical 1611 text, so far as possible, to the wording used by its translators, especially in the light of the re-emphasis on some of their draft documents. This text has been issued in paperback by Penguin books.
From the early 19th century the Authorized Version has remained almost completely unchanged -- and since, due to advances in printing technology, it could now be produced in very large editions for mass sale, it established complete dominance in public and ecclesiastical use in the English - speaking Protestant world. Academic debate through that century, however, increasingly reflected concerns about the Authorized Version shared by some scholars: (a) that subsequent study in oriental languages suggested a need to revise the translation of the Hebrew Bible -- both in terms of specific vocabulary, and also in distinguishing descriptive terms from proper names; (b) that the Authorized Version was unsatisfactory in translating the same Greek words and phrases into different English, especially where parallel passages are found in the synoptic gospels; and (c) in the light of subsequent ancient manuscript discoveries, the New Testament translation base of the Greek Textus Receptus could no longer be considered to be the best representation of the original text.
Responding to these concerns, the Convocation of Canterbury resolved in 1870 to undertake a revision of the text of the Authorized Version, intending to retain the original text "except where in the judgement of competent scholars such a change is necessary ''. The resulting revision was issued as the Revised Version in 1881 (New Testament), 1885 (Old Testament) and 1894 (Apocrypha); but, although it sold widely, the revision did not find popular favour, and it was only reluctantly in 1899 that Convocation approved it for reading in churches.
By the early 20th century, editing had been completed in Cambridge 's text, with at least 6 new changes since 1769, and the reversing of at least 30 of the standard Oxford readings. The distinct Cambridge text was printed in the millions, and after the Second World War "the unchanging steadiness of the KJB was a huge asset. '' The Cambridge edition is preferred by scholars.
The Authorized Version maintained its effective dominance throughout the first half of the 20th century. New translations in the second half of the 20th century displaced its 250 years of dominance (roughly 1700 to 1950), but groups do exist -- sometimes termed the King James Only movement -- that distrust anything not in agreement with the Authorized Version.
F.H.A. Scrivener and D. Norton have both written in detail on editorial variations which have occurred through the history of the publishing of the Authorized Version from 1611 to 1769. In the 19th century, there were effectively three main guardians of the text. Norton identified five variations among the Oxford, Cambridge and London (Eyre and Spottiswoode) texts of 1857, such as the spelling of "farther '' or "further '' at Matthew 26: 39.
In the 20th century, variation between the editions was reduced to comparing the Cambridge to the Oxford. Distinctly identified Cambridge readings included "or Sheba '' (Joshua 19: 2), "sin '' (2 Chronicles 33: 19), "clifts '' (Job 30: 6), "vapour '' (Psalm 148: 8), "flieth '' (Nahum 3: 16), "further '' (Matthew 26: 39) and a number of other references. In effect the Cambridge was considered the current text in comparison to the Oxford. These are instances where both Oxford and Cambridge have now diverged from Blayney 's 1769 Edition. The distinctions between the Oxford and Cambridge editions have been a major point in the Bible version debate, and a potential theological issue, particularly in regard to the identification of the Pure Cambridge Edition.
Cambridge University Press introduced a change at 1 John 5: 8 in 1985, reversing its longstanding tradition of printing the word "spirit '' in lower case by using a capital letter "S ''. A Rev. Hardin of Bedford, Pennsylvania, wrote a letter to Cambridge inquiring about this verse, and subsequently received a reply from Dr. Cooper on June 3, 1985, admitting that it was a "matter of some embarrassment regarding the lower case ' s ' in Spirit ''.
Like Tyndale 's translation and the Geneva Bible, the Authorized Version was translated primarily from Greek, Hebrew and Aramaic texts, although with secondary reference both to the Latin Vulgate, and to more recent scholarly Latin versions; two books of the Apocrypha were translated from a Latin source. Following the example of the Geneva Bible, words implied but not actually in the original source were distinguished by being printed in distinct type (albeit inconsistently), but otherwise the translators explicitly rejected word - for - word equivalence. F.F Bruce gives an example from Romans Chapter 5:
2 By whom also wee have accesse by faith, into this grace wherein wee stand, and rejoyce in hope of the glory of God. 3 And not onely so, but we glory in tribulations also, knowing that tribulation worketh patience:
The English terms "rejoice '' and "glory '' stand for the same word in the Greek original. In Tyndale, Geneva and the Bishops ' Bibles, both instances are translated "rejoice ''. In the Douay -- Rheims New Testament, both are translated "glory ''. Only in the Authorized Version does the translation vary between the two verses.
In obedience to their instructions, the translators provided no marginal interpretation of the text, but in some 8,500 places a marginal note offers an alternative English wording. The majority of these notes offer a more literal rendering of the original (introduced as "Heb '', "Chal '', "Gr '' or "Lat ''), but others indicate a variant reading of the source text (introduced by "or ''). Some of the annotated variants derive from alternative editions in the original languages, or from variant forms quoted in the fathers. More commonly, though, they indicate a difference between the literal original language reading and that in the translators ' preferred recent Latin versions: Tremellius for the Old Testament, Junius for the Apocrypha, and Beza for the New Testament. At thirteen places in the New Testament (e.g. Luke 17: 36 and Acts 25: 6) a marginal note records a variant reading found in some Greek manuscript copies; in almost all cases reproducing a counterpart textual note at the same place in Beza 's editions. A few more extensive notes clarify Biblical names and units of measurement or currency. Modern reprintings rarely reproduce these annotated variants -- although they are to be found in the New Cambridge Paragraph Bible. In addition, there were originally some 9,000 scriptural cross-references, in which one text was related to another. Such cross-references had long been common in Latin Bibles, and most of those in the Authorized Version were copied unaltered from this Latin tradition. Consequently the early editions of the KJV retain many Vulgate verse references -- e.g. in the numbering of the Psalms. At the head of each chapter, the translators provided a short précis of its contents, with verse numbers; these are rarely included in complete form in modern editions.
Also in obedience to their instructions, the translators indicated ' supplied ' words in a different typeface; but there was no attempt to regularise the instances where this practice had been applied across the different companies; and especially in the New Testament, it was used much less frequently in the 1611 edition than would later be the case. In one verse, 1 John 2: 23, an entire clause was printed in roman type (as it had also been in the Great Bible and Bishop 's Bible); indicating a reading then primarily derived from the Vulgate, albeit one for which the later editions of Beza had provided a Greek text.
In the Old Testament the translators render the Tetragrammaton YHWH by "the LORD '' (in later editions in small capitals as LORD), or "the LORD God '' (for YHWH Elohim, יהוה אלהים), except in four places by "IEHOVAH '' (Exodus 6: 3, Psalm 83: 18, Isaiah 12: 2 and Isaiah 26: 4) and three times in a combination form. (Genesis 22: 14, Exodus 17: 15, Judges 6: 24) However, if the Tetragrammaton occurs with the Hebrew word adonai (Lord) then it is rendered not as the "Lord LORD '' but as the "Lord God ''. (Psalm 73: 28, etc.) In later editions as "Lord GOD '' with "GOD '' in small capitals indicating to the reader that God 's name appears in the original Hebrew.
For their Old Testament, the translators used a text originating in the editions of the Hebrew Rabbinic Bible by Daniel Bomberg (1524 / 5), but adjusted this to conform to the Greek LXX or Latin Vulgate in passages to which Christian tradition had attached a Christological interpretation. For example, the Septuagint reading "They pierced my hands and my feet '' was used in Psalm 22: 16 (vs. the Masoretes ' reading of the Hebrew "like lions my hands and feet ''). Otherwise, however, the Authorized Version is closer to the Hebrew tradition than any previous English translation -- especially in making use of the rabbinic commentaries, such as Kimhi, in elucidating obscure passages in the Masoretic Text; earlier versions had been more likely to adopt LXX or Vulgate readings in such places. Following the practice of the Geneva Bible, the books of 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras in the medieval Vulgate Old Testament were renamed ' Ezra ' and ' Nehemiah '; 3 Esdras and 4 Esdras in the Apocrypha being renamed ' 1 Esdras ' and ' 2 Esdras '.
For their New Testament, the translators chiefly used the 1598 and 1588 / 89 Greek editions of Theodore Beza, which also present Beza 's Latin version of the Greek and Stephanus 's edition of the Latin Vulgate. Both of these versions were extensively referred to, as the translators conducted all discussions amongst themselves in Latin. F.H.A. Scrivener identifies 190 readings where the Authorized Version translators depart from Beza 's Greek text, generally in maintaining the wording of the Bishop 's Bible and other earlier English translations. In about half of these instances, the Authorized Version translators appear to follow the earlier 1550 Greek Textus Receptus of Stephanus. For the other half, Scrivener was usually able to find corresponding Greek readings in the editions of Erasmus, or in the Complutensian Polyglot. However, in several dozen readings he notes that no printed Greek text corresponds to the English of the Authorized Version, which in these places derives directly from the Vulgate. For example, at John 10: 16, the Authorized Version reads "one fold '' (as did the Bishops ' Bible, and the 16th - century vernacular versions produced in Geneva), following the Latin Vulgate "unum ovile '', whereas Tyndale had agreed more closely with the Greek, "one flocke '' (μία ποίμνη). The Authorized Version New Testament owes much more to the Vulgate than does the Old Testament; still, at least 80 % of the text is unaltered from Tyndale 's translation.
Unlike the rest of the Bible, the translators of the Apocrypha identified their source texts in their marginal notes. From these it can be determined that the books of the Apocrypha were translated from the Septuagint -- primarily, from the Greek Old Testament column in the Antwerp Polyglot -- but with extensive reference to the counterpart Latin Vulgate text, and to Junius 's Latin translation. The translators record references to the Sixtine Septuagint of 1587, which is substantially a printing of the Old Testament text from the Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209, and also to the 1518 Greek Septuagint edition of Aldus Manutius. They had, however, no Greek texts for 2 Esdras, or for the Prayer of Manasses, and Scrivener found that they here used an unidentified Latin manuscript.
The translators appear to have otherwise made no first - hand study of ancient manuscript sources, even those that -- like the Codex Bezae -- would have been readily available to them. In addition to all previous English versions (including, and contrary to their instructions, the Rheimish New Testament which in their preface they criticized); they made wide and eclectic use of all printed editions in the original languages then available, including the ancient Syriac New Testament printed with an interlinear Latin gloss in the Antwerp Polyglot of 1573. In the preface the translators acknowledge consulting translations and commentaries in Chaldee, Hebrew, Syrian, Greek, Latin, Spanish, French, Italian, and German.
The translators took the Bishop 's Bible as their source text, and where they departed from that in favour of another translation, this was most commonly the Geneva Bible. However, the degree to which readings from the Bishop 's Bible survived into final text of the King James Bible varies greatly from company to company, as did the propensity of the King James translators to coin phrases of their own. John Bois 's notes of the General Committee of Review show that they discussed readings derived from a wide variety of versions and patristic sources; including explicitly both Henry Savile 's 1610 edition of the works of John Chrysostom and the Rheims New Testament, which was the primary source for many of the literal alternative readings provided for the marginal notes.
A number of Bible verses in the King James Version of the New Testament are not found in more recent Bible translations, where these are based on modern critical texts. In the early seventeenth century, the source Greek texts of the New Testament used for the production of Protestant bible versions depended mainly on manuscripts of the late Byzantine text - type, and with minor variations contained what became known as the Textus Receptus. With the subsequent identification of much earlier manuscripts, most modern textual scholars value the evidence of manuscripts belonging to the Alexandrian family as better witnesses to the original text of the biblical authors, without giving it, or any family, automatic preference.
A primary concern of the translators was to produce an appropriate Bible, dignified and resonant in public reading. Although the Authorized Version 's written style is an important part of its influence on English, research has found only one verse -- Hebrews 13: 8 -- for which translators debated the wording 's literary merits. While they stated in the preface that they used stylistic variation, finding multiple English words or verbal forms in places where the original language employed repetition, in practice they also did the opposite; for example, 14 different Hebrew words were translated into the single English word "prince ''.
In a period of rapid linguistic change the translators avoided contemporary idioms, tending instead towards forms that were already slightly archaic, like verily and it came to pass. The pronouns thou / thee and ye / you are consistently used as singular and plural respectively, even though by this time you was often found as the singular in general English usage, especially when addressing a social superior (as is evidenced, for example, in Shakespeare). For the possessive of the third person pronoun, the word its, first recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary in 1598, is avoided. The older his is usually employed, as for example at Matthew 5: 13: "if the salt have lost his savour, wherewith shall it be salted? ''; in other places of it, thereof or bare it are found. Another sign of linguistic conservativism is the invariable use of - eth for the third person singular present form of the verb, as at Matthew 2: 13: "the Angel of the Lord appeareth to Joseph in a dreame ''. The rival ending - (e) s, as found in present - day English, was already widely used by this time (for example, it predominates over - eth in the plays of Shakespeare and Marlowe). Furthermore, the translators preferred which to who or whom as the relative pronoun for persons, as in Genesis 13: 5: "And Lot also which went with Abram, had flocks and heards, & tents '' although who (m) is also found.
The Authorized Version is notably more Latinate than previous English versions, especially the Geneva Bible. This results in part from the academic stylistic preferences of a number of the translators -- several of whom admitted to being more comfortable writing in Latin than in English -- but was also, in part, a consequence of the royal proscription against explanatory notes. Hence, where the Geneva Bible might use a common English word -- and gloss its particular application in a marginal note -- the Authorized Version tends rather to prefer a technical term, frequently in Anglicized Latin. Consequently, although the King had instructed the translators to use the Bishops ' Bible as a base text, the New Testament in particular owes much stylistically to the Catholic Rheims New Testament, whose translators had also been concerned to find English equivalents for Latin terminology. In addition, the translators of the New Testament books transliterate names found in the Old Testament in their Greek forms rather than in the forms closer to the Old Testament Hebrew (e.g. "Elias '' and "Noe '' for "Elijah '' and "Noah '', respectively).
While the Authorized Version remains among the most widely sold, modern critical New Testament translations differ substantially from it in a number of passages, primarily because they rely on source manuscripts not then accessible to (or not then highly regarded by) early 17th - century Biblical scholarship. In the Old Testament, there are also many differences from modern translations that are based not on manuscript differences, but on a different understanding of Ancient Hebrew vocabulary or grammar by the translators. For example, in modern translations it is clear that Job 28: 1 -- 11 is referring throughout to mining operations, which is not at all apparent from the text of the Authorized Version.
The King James version contains several mistranslations; especially in the Old Testament where the knowledge of Hebrew and cognate languages was uncertain at the time. Most of these are minor and do not significantly change the meaning compared to the source material. Among the most commonly cited errors is in the Hebrew of Job and Deuteronomy, where רֶאֵם "Re'em '' with the probable meaning of "wild - ox, aurochs '', is translated in the KJV as "unicorn ''; following in this the Vulgate unicornis and several medieval rabbinic commentators. The translators of the KJV note the alternative rendering, "rhinocerots '' (sic) in the margin at Isaiah 34: 7. On a similar note Martin Luther 's German translation had also relied on the Vulgate Latin on this point, consistently translating רֶאֵם using the German word for unicorn, "Einhorn. '' Otherwise, the translators on several occasions mistakenly interpreted a Hebrew descriptive phrase as a proper name (or vice versa); as at 2 Samuel 1: 18 where ' the Book of Jasher ' סֵפֶר הַיׇּשׇׁר properly refers not to a work by an author of that name, but should rather be rendered as "the Book of the Upright. ''
Despite royal patronage and encouragement, there was never any overt mandate to use the new translation. It was not until 1661 that the Authorized Version replaced the Bishops Bible in the Epistle and Gospel lessons of the Book of Common Prayer, and it never did replace the older translation in the Psalter. In 1763 The Critical Review complained that "many false interpretations, ambiguous phrases, obsolete words and indelicate expressions... excite the derision of the scorner ''. Blayney 's 1769 version, with its revised spelling and punctuation, helped change the public perception of the Authorized Version to a masterpiece of the English language. By the 19th century, F.W. Faber could say of the translation, "It lives on the ear, like music that can never be forgotten, like the sound of church bells, which the convert hardly knows how he can forego. ''
The Authorized Version has been called "the most influential version of the most influential book in the world, in what is now its most influential language '', "the most important book in English religion and culture '', and "the most celebrated book in the English - speaking world ''. David Crystal has estimated that it is responsible for 257 idioms in English, examples include feet of clay and reap the whirlwind. Furthermore, prominent atheist figures such as the late Christopher Hitchens and Richard Dawkins have praised the King James Version as being "a giant step in the maturing of English literature '' and "a great work of literature '', respectively, with Dawkins then adding, "A native speaker of English who has never read a word of the King James Bible is verging on the barbarian ''.
Although the Authorized Version 's former monopoly in the English - speaking world has diminished -- for example, the Church of England recommends six other versions in addition to it -- it is still the most used translation in the United States, especially as the Scofield Reference Bible for Evangelicals. In addition, in the Orthodox Church in America, the King James Version is used liturgically, and was made "the ' official ' translation for a whole generation of American Orthodox ''. The later Service Book of the Antiochian Archdiocese, in vogue today, also uses the King James Version. The King James Version is also one of the versions authorized to be used in the services of the Episcopal Church and the Anglican Communion, as it is the historical Bible of this Church.
The Authorized Version is in the public domain in most of the world. However, in the United Kingdom, the right to print, publish and distribute it is a Royal prerogative and the Crown licenses publishers to reproduce it under letters patent. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland the letters patent are held by the Queen 's Printer, and in Scotland by the Scottish Bible Board. The office of Queen 's Printer has been associated with the right to reproduce the Bible for centuries, the earliest known reference coming in 1577. In the 18th century all surviving interests in the monopoly were bought out by John Baskett. The Baskett rights descended through a number of printers and, in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, the Queen 's Printer is now Cambridge University Press, who inherited the right when they took over the firm of Eyre & Spottiswoode in 1990.
Other royal charters of similar antiquity grant Cambridge University Press and Oxford University Press the right to produce the Authorized Version independently of the Queen 's Printer. In Scotland the Authorized Version is published by Collins under licence from the Scottish Bible Board. The terms of the letters patent prohibit any other than the holders, or those authorized by the holders, from printing, publishing or importing the Authorized Version into the United Kingdom. The protection that the Authorized Version, and also the Book of Common Prayer, enjoy is the last remnant of the time when the Crown held a monopoly over all printing and publishing in the United Kingdom. Almost all provisions granting copyright in perpetuity were abolished by the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, but because the Authorized Version is protected by royal prerogative rather than copyright, it will remain protected, as specified in CDPA s171 (1) (b).
Cambridge University Press permits the reproduction of at most 500 verses for "liturgical and non-commercial educational use '' if their prescribed acknowledgement is included, the quoted verses do not exceed 25 % of the publication quoting them and do not include a complete Bible book. For use beyond this, the Press is willing to consider permission requested on a case - by - case basis and in 2011 a spokesman said the Press generally does not charge a fee but tries to ensure that a reputable source text is used.
Translations of the books of the Biblical apocrypha were necessary for the King James version, as readings from these books were included in the daily Old Testament lectionary of the Book of Common Prayer. Protestant Bibles in the 16th century included the books of the Apocrypha -- generally, following the Luther Bible, in a separate section between the Old and New Testaments to indicate they were not considered part of the Old Testament text -- and there is evidence that these were widely read as popular literature, especially in Puritan circles; The Apocrypha of the King James Version has the same 14 books as had been found in the Apocrypha of the Bishop 's Bible; however, following the practice of the Geneva Bible, the first two books of the Apocrypha were renamed 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras, as compared to the names in the Thirty - nine Articles, with the corresponding Old Testament books being renamed Ezra and Nehemiah. Starting in 1630, volumes of the Geneva Bible were occasionally bound with the pages of the Apocrypha section excluded. In 1644 the Long Parliament forbade the reading of the Apocrypha in Church and in 1666 the first editions of the King James Bible without the Apocrypha were bound.
The standardization of the text of the Authorized Version after 1769 together with the technological development of stereotype printing made it possible to produce Bibles in large print - runs at very low unit prices. For commercial and charitable publishers, editions of the Authorized Version without the Apocrypha reduced the cost, while having increased market appeal to non-Anglican Protestant readers.
With the rise of the Bible societies, most editions have omitted the whole section of Apocryphal books. The British and Foreign Bible Society withdrew subsidies for bible printing and dissemination in 1826, under the following resolution:
That the funds of the Society be applied to the printing and circulation of the Canonical Books of Scripture, to the exclusion of those Books and parts of Books usually termed Apocryphal;
The American Bible Society adopted a similar policy. Both societies eventually reversed these policies in light of 20th - century ecumenical efforts on translations, the ABS doing so in 1964 and the BFBS in 1966.
The King James Only movement advocates the superiority of the King James Version over all other English translations. Most adherents of the movement believe that the Textus Receptus is very close, if not identical, to the original autographs thereby making it the ideal Greek source for the translation. They argue that most modern English translations are based on a corrupted New Testament text that relies primarily on the Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus manuscripts.
Footnotes
Citations
Chronological order of publication (newest first)
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how much of the pacific plate is oceanic crust vs continental crust | Pacific Plate - wikipedia
The Pacific Plate is an oceanic tectonic plate that lies beneath the Pacific Ocean. At 103 million square kilometres (40,000,000 sq mi), it is the largest tectonic plate.
The Pacific Plate contains an interior hot spot forming the Hawaiian Islands.
Hillis and Müller are reported to consider the Bird 's Head Plate to be moving in unison with the Pacific Plate. Bird considers them to be unconnected.
The north - eastern side is a divergent boundary with the Explorer Plate, the Juan de Fuca Plate and the Gorda Plate forming respectively the Explorer Ridge, the Juan de Fuca Ridge and the Gorda Ridge. In the middle of the eastern side is a transform boundary with the North American Plate along the San Andreas Fault, and a boundary with the Cocos Plate. The south - eastern side is a divergent boundary with the Nazca Plate forming the East Pacific Rise.
The southern side is a divergent boundary with the Antarctic Plate forming the Pacific - Antarctic Ridge.
The western side, the plate is bounded by the Okhotsk Plate at the Kuril - Kamchatka Trench and the Japan Trench, forms a convergent boundary by subducting under the Philippine Sea Plate creating the Mariana Trench, has a transform boundary with the Caroline Plate, and has a collision boundary with the North Bismarck Plate.
In the south - west, the Pacific Plate has a complex but generally convergent boundary with the Indo - Australian Plate, subducting under it north of New Zealand forming the Tonga Trench and the Kermadec Trench. The Alpine Fault marks a transform boundary between the two plates, and further south the Indo - Australian Plate subducts under the Pacific Plate forming the Puysegur Trench. The southern part of Zealandia, which is to the east of this boundary, is the plate 's largest block of continental crust.
The northern side is a convergent boundary subducting under the North American Plate forming the Aleutian Trench and the corresponding Aleutian Islands.
The Pacific Plate is almost entirely oceanic crust, but it contains some continental crust in New Zealand, Baja California, and coastal California.
The Pacific Plate has the distinction of showing one of the largest areal sections of the oldest members of seabed geology being entrenched into eastern Asian oceanic trenches. A geologic map of the Pacific Ocean seabed shows not only the geologic sequences, and associated Ring of Fire zones on the ocean 's perimeters, but the various ages of the seafloor in a stairstep fashion, youngest to oldest, the oldest being consumed into the Asian oceanic trenches. The oldest member disappearing by way of the Plate Tectonics cycle is early - Cretaceous (145 to 137 million years ago).
All maps of the Earth 's ocean floor geology show ages younger than 145 million years, only about 1 / 30 of the Earth 's 4.55 billion year history.
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who is the main character in wizard of oz | List of Oz characters - wikipedia
This is a list of characters in the original sequel Oz books by American author L. Frank Baum, and in the later continued Oz series by his grandson Roger S. Baum, Ruth Plumly Thompson, John R. Neill, Jack Snow, Rachel Cosgrove Payes, Eloise Jarvis McGraw and Lauren McGraw, Dick Martin, Eric Shanower, and Sherwood Smith. Characters from Gregory Maguire 's Wicked are not included, as his works, among others such as the work of March Laumer, are considered "heretical '' in Baum scholarship (The term "heretical '' was first applied to these books by Dr. Stephen J. Teller of Pittsburg State University in the Winter 1988 issue of The Baum Bugle and appears regularly in Oz fandom).
The A-B - Sea Serpent is a 200 - foot - long snake made up of a series of alphabet blocks that appeared in The Royal Book of Oz. He lives in Mer City where he teaches the merchildren their letters
Abatha the Good Witch of the East is the title character in Eric Shanower 's graphic novel, The Blue Witch of Oz. She fell under a spell during a custody battle with her brother - in - law over custody of her son.
Agnes is a dragon who appeared in The Giant Horse of Oz. She is the close friend and assistant of the Good Witch of the North.
The Army of Oogaboo appears in the book Tik - Tok of Oz. They have been formed from different Oogaboo citizens by Queen Ann Soforth.
It consists of:
Aunt Em and Uncle Henry appear in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. Both are Dorothy Gale 's guardian aunt and uncle. They live a joyless and gray life on a small farm on the prairies of Kansas. Neither Henry nor Em believe their niece when she tells them she 's been to the Land of Oz, but consider her a mere dreamer, as her dead mother had been. However, after they are facing foreclosure on their farm, Dorothy arranges with Princess Ozma to bring them to Oz, so they can escape their bleak fates and be safe and finally content. Eventually, they permanently move to Oz in The Emerald City of Oz and take jobs in the Emerald City.
Belfaygor of Bourne, of the Land of the Barons in the Quadling Country, is a major character in Ruth Plumly Thompson 's Jack Pumpkinhead of Oz.
He is in love with Shirley Sunshine, but because of a magic spell poorly cast by his Miserable Mesmerizer when he asked for a beard for his wedding day, his beard grows at such a rapid rate that he must carry scissors to constantly cut it. This causes severe problems when sleeping, and when he is locked in a prison cell with Peter Brown, Jack Pumpkinhead, and Snif the Iffin, all except Jack get a close - call as his beard grows in the night, filling so much of the cell that it makes it difficult to breathe.
Belfaygor 's curse is often brought up in discussions of the inconsistencies about aging and death in the Land of Oz, as it indicates that mitosis continues to exist in Oz.
The beard disappears when he is caught and released from the pirate sack Peter found in The Gnome King of Oz, after which he vows never to grow one again.
Bell - snickle is the major villain of The Scalawagons of Oz. He is described as being like a blue - green buckwheat cake, and is proud to be a mystery. He interferes with the flabber - gas that operates the Scalawagons, sending them out of control. After his defeat, Jenny Jump used him as a rubber stamp in her shop.
Betsy Bobbin is a young American girl who appears in Tik - Tok of Oz. She comes to the Land of Oz along with her companion Hank the talking mule after being shipwrecked. Both Besty and Hank become good friends and companions to Dorothy Gale, Princess Ozma, and several other Ozians. They also appear in several more Oz books.
Billina is Dorothy 's pet hen on the Kansas farm and appears in the book Ozma of Oz. In the story, she saves the citizens of Oz from being turned into decor objects by the evil Nome King. She is quite sassy, talkative, and is portrayed in later Oz books as being the matriarch of a large colony of chicks. Eventually, Billina chooses to stay in Oz and live in the Emerald City 's royal palace. She is a major character in Walt Disney 's 1985 live action film Return to Oz, in which she helps Dorothy save the Land of Oz from near extinction.
Blinkem is the attendant of the King of Bunnybury who first appears in The Emerald City of Oz.
Boq is a minor character who appears in the beginning of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. He is depicted as a wealthy Munchkin man with a large family who offers Dorothy Gale and Toto shelter after throwing a lavish banquet in Dorothy 's honor upon her arrival to the Land of Oz. Boq plays a much larger role in the Wicked books and the successful Broadway musical of the same. In Wicked, Boq is a Munchkin who attends Shiz University with Elphaba and Galinda.
In the musical adaptation of Wicked (but not in Baum 's or Gregory Maguire 's books), Boq becomes the Tin Woodman.
Bristle is a white rabbit from Bunnybury who first appears in The Emerald City of Oz. He works as the Keeper of the Wicket which is a name given to the Doorman of Bunnybury. He can only admit visitors with an order or letter of introduction from Ozma of Oz or Glinda the Good. When visitors are admitted, Bristle reduces them to the size of a rabbit before letting them into the village itself.
Button - Bright (real name Saladin Paracelsus de Lambertine Evagne von Smith), is a little boy who appears in The Road to Oz. He is the first American child besides Dorothy Gale to accidentally emigrate to the Land of Oz. Because his real given name is rather long, he 's called "Button - Bright '', because his mother says he is as bright as a button. In the sequel Oz books, he is often the main character in subplots that deal with him getting lost and being found again. Button - Bright is also a main character in the book Sky Island.
Cap'n Bill Weedles first appears in The Scarecrow of Oz, and several sequel Oz books after that. He is a former sea captain with a wooden leg.
Cayke (or Cayke the Cookie Cook as she is also called) is a character who appears in the book The Lost Princess of Oz (1917). She is a Yip, a resident of a remote plateau in Oz; she is noted for the delicious cookies she bakes in her diamond - studded gold dishpan. Cayke knows that the dishpan has magic powers; she admits to the Frogman that without it she is a poor cook, and her cookies are "pretty poor stuff and no better than any woman could make who does not own (her) diamond - studded gold dishpan. '' However, she has no idea that her magic dishpan can carry its occupants anywhere they desire to go. Ugu the shoemaker steals Cayke 's dishpan and uses it to kidnap Ozma and steal all the magic in the Land of Oz.
When Cayke discovers her dishpan has gone missing, she is greatly distressed, and causes quite a fuss by wailing and screaming. After the Frogman, who is thought to be extremely wise by all of the Yips, tells her that the dishpan has been stolen by someone outside of the country of the Yips, she leaves the plateau where the Yips live and travels the general land of Oz to find it. This trip makes her the first Yip to leave the plateau. Though the Frogman joins her, she was prepared to go alone, showing her courage and determination. Cayke is a relatively simple woman, but she is honest except with the truth will hurt someone 's feelings. and seems to be generally good natured, if a little ill - tempered at times.
According to Cayke, the diamond - studded gold dishpan has been passed down in her family, from her mother and all of her grandmothers since the beginning of time; but its origin is never disclosed.
Cayke makes a brief appearance in Jeff Freedman 's 1994 novel The Magic Dishpan of Oz (her dishpan plays a much greater role there).
The China Princess is a delicate and beautiful figurine made of china who appears in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. She lives in the tiny hidden enclave called "Dainty China Country '' in the Quadling Country of the Land of Oz. She, like all the other china people, can not leave their enclave or they will become lifeless and stiff.
Chiss is a four - legged fictional creature in The Patchwork Girl of Oz. Chiss resembles a porcupine the size of a ten - bushel basket and has the ability to shoot its quills from its body. It apparently does not have the ability to grow new quills, as it must gather up its quills and put them back in its body after firing them. In the Oz book, Chiss threw its quills at Ojo the Lucky and his party, but Scraps the Patchwork Girl shielded the group from the quills. The group took Chiss 's quills with them so that the creature could not attack anyone again.
Chopfyt is a character in The Tin Woodman of Oz. His name is a portmanteau of Nick Chopper and Fyter the Tin Soldier, as he was made from the limbs of Fyter and the Tin Woodman (including Fyter 's head) and secured with magic "meat glue '' by Ku - Klip. He eventually marries the Tin Man 's love interest Nimmie Amee.
Cinnamon Bunn, Esquire is a bun man who is one of the important citizens of Bunbury.
The Cowardly Lion is a talking lion who lives in the Land of Oz. He appears in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and becomes one of Dorothy Gale 's first companions in Oz, joining her and the Scarecrow and Tin Woodman as he is in search of courage. At the end of the book, he becomes King of the Beasts in the dark forest in Oz 's southern quadrant called Quadling Country, though this is rarely brought up in later Oz books. In the sequels he appears in minor roles as Ozma 's bodyguard and beast of burden, along with the Hungry Tiger. In The Cowardly Lion of Oz, a lion collector seeks to capture him, while he seeks to restore his courage.
Dorothy Gale is the main character and adolescent protagonist in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900), and the several other sequel Oz books. She is depicted as being a very young, heroic and sweet tempered orphan girl from a small farm on the prairies of Kansas. Baum never reveals Dorothy 's age, but she is thought to be no older than twelve years old. In appearance she is described as having chubby little hands, a round rosy face, big earnest eyes filled with awe and a merry laugh. She has a small pet dog she calls Toto, and loves dearly. After her first adventure in the Land of Oz, she returns to Kansas via the charmed Silver Shoes, (Ruby Slippers in the classic MGM musical of 1939) she obtained while there but lost between worlds when she was teleported back. Not much later, she unexpectedly returns to Oz again, thus having several more adventures before permanently settling there as an official princess of Oz in the book The Emerald City of Oz (1910).
Dr. Pipt is sometimes called "The Crooked Magician. '' He first appears in The Patchwork Girl of Oz. He is so crooked that his legs are nearly as handy as his arms. When he sits, one knee is under his chin and the other behind his back. Dr. Pipt lives in the Munchkin Country with his wife Margolotte. He is notable for creating the Patchwork Girl (who was created by Dr. Pipt 's Margolotte) and the Glass Cat. He was deprived of his magic abilities by Glinda for doing magic without a permit. Glinda also straightened his crooked limbs.
He also invented the Powder of Life, although in The Marvelous Land of Oz, its invention is credited to a Dr. Nikidik, another crooked magician from the Gillikin Country. In an article in the Spring 1965 issue of The Baum Bugle, Lee Speth argues that Nikidik faked his death in the earlier book, to assume a new identity as Pipt.
Ervic is a major character in Glinda of Oz. Displaying "courage, cleverness, and ingenuity, '' Ervic is often considered one of Baum 's strongest male characters (as the author 's male characters often tend to be ineffectual).
When Queen Coo - ee - oh launches her submarine attack on the Flatheads, Ervic is one of the young men in her flagship. The Flatheads quickly dispatch with Coo - ee - oh, as they simply wanted revenge on her personally, but as she is the only one who knows the magic to get back to the submerged city, the young men sit in the boat, unsure what to do. Ervic is approached by the Three Adepts at Magic who are stranded in the form of fish. They wish him to catch them in a bucket and to follow their instructions, and that if he does so, he will save himself, his city, and his companions. They help him get the boat to shore and have him carry the bucket to Reera the Red. Reera is a beautiful young woman who practices Yookoohoo (transformation - only) magic for her own amusement. Reera is interested by his impertinence with her, and Ervic very shrewdly manipulates her into restoring the Adepts to human form, taking quite a bit of time and waiting for her to ask permission to transform them several times. The Adepts are able to assist the raising of the city, and with Coo - ee - oh gone, Lady Aurex is named Queen of the Skeezers by Princess Ozma, and for his valiance, Aurex names Ervic her Prime Minister.
Eureka is a pink (occasionally purple) kitten who belongs to Dorothy Gale. She was given to Dorothy by her Uncle Henry who found her as a stray, he tells Dorothy he named her Eureka because the word means "I found it! '' She appears in several Oz books beginning with Dorothy and the Wizard in Oz (1908). She is often portrayed as conniving and deceitful, but overall has a good heart.
Evoldo is the late king of the Land of Ev, a monarchy across the Deadly Desert from Oz. He is discussed and pictured in Ozma of Oz, but has died before the adventure takes place. Evoldo was a cruel despot; after purchasing Tik - Tok, the clockwork man, and giving him his name, Evoldo sold his wife and ten children (five boys, five girls) to the Nome King in exchange for a long life. Later, regretting this bargain, he locked Tik - Tok in a stone chamber and committed suicide by jumping into the Nonestic Ocean.
The Foolish Owl is a blue owl that resides in Munchkin Country and first appeared in The Patchwork Girl of Oz. She and the Wise Donkey work as public advisors.
The Frogman is a human - sized frog who appears as a character who is first introduced in The Lost Princess of Oz (1917). He was once an ordinary frog, and his similarity to Professor Woggle - Bug is rather clear, though unlike the Woggle - Bug, he is not thoroughly educated, and is much more interested in dandy fashion. He accidentally bathes in the Truth Pond, and is thereafter magically compelled to speak only the truth.
In 1986, March Laumer made him, with the proper name Frederick Fraukx, the title character of The Frogman of Oz: The Oz Book for 1947, along with a U.S. Navy frogman. The Frogman is a crucial character in Jeff Freedman 's 1994 novel The Magic Dishpan of Oz.
Captain Fyter the Tin Soldier is a character who is first introduced in The Tin Woodman of Oz. After the Tin Woodman left his beloved Nimmie Amee after losing his heart (as he felt he could not love her), Fyter, a member of the Munchkin army, met and fell in love with her when he found her crying over her lost love. Unfortunately, she was a ward to the Wicked Witch of the East, who made Fyter 's sword do what the Woodman 's axe did and cut off his limbs, which Ku - Klip the tin smith replaced with tin limbs (although Fyter is not bothered by his lack of a heart). Nimmie Amee agreed to marry him, but on the day of their wedding, a storm rose up, and the rain rusted Fyter so badly that he was frozen in place along a little used forest path. There he stood for years until he was discovered by the Tin Woodman, the Scarecrow, Woot the Wanderer, and Polychrome the Rainbow 's Daughter. Once lubricated and restored to life, Fyter accompanies the group of adventurers on their quest to find Nimmie Amee, intending to fulfill his vow of marriage (although he is willing to give her up if she chooses the Woodman over him). When they finally find her, she is happily married to Chopfyt, the assembled and combined "meat '' parts of the two men. Finding Nimmie Amee happily married, they return to the Emerald City where Captain Fyter joins the Royal Army of Oz. Eventually, Ozma sends Fyter to keep order among the wild inhabitants of the unknown areas of the Gillikin Country.
Gayelette was an ancient princess and sorceress who lived in a ruby palace in the northern quadrant called Gillikin Country of the Land of Oz. She was the original owner and creator of the charmed Golden Cap which had a curse cast upon it that compelled the creatures called Winged Monkeys long before the Wicked Witch of the West surfaced.
Bungle, the Glass Cat is a cat made of glass who was brought to life by the magic "Powder of Life '' potion in The Patchwork Girl of Oz (1913). She is portrayed as vain and aloof, due to the fact that she has clearly visible pink brains and a transparent glass heart.
Glinda is the Good Witch of the South who appears in the end of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900). She is the sorceress who rules over the southern quadrant called Quadling Country in the Land of Oz. Her overall character is a figure that many of the other Oz characters consult when in trouble or in need of any assistance. Glinda is described as being highly intelligent, wise and independent. Outwardly, she is very beautiful despite the hundreds of years she has lived and is always honest, kind and gentle to everyone who encounters her. She also is one of the most powerful and respected woman in Oz and the official protector of Oz 's rightful ruler, the child Queen Princess Ozma.
The Good Witch of the North is named Locasta -- Tattypoo. She appears in the beginning of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900). She is the first witch Dorothy Gale encounters upon her unexpected arrival to the Land of Oz. She is the official ruler of Oz 's northern quadrant called Gillikin Country but is a very dear friend to the Munchkins. She is described as being very old in appearance and has a jolly and humble personality. She wears a magic white hat that can transform into a magic chalkboard, which she can consult for advice. After Dorothy 's farmhouse landed in Munchkin Country and killed the Wicked Witch of the East, the Good Witch of the North gives Dorothy the dead witch 's charmed Silver Shoes and kisses her on the forehead for protection while on her journey. She is mentioned in the book The Road to Oz (1909) but does not physically feature again until The Giant Horse of Oz (1928).
The Good Witch of the South is named Glinda. She became the official ruler of the southern quadrant called Quadling Country in the Land of Oz, after she vanquished the Wicked Witch of the South.
The Graham Gems are six roguish graham - flour muffin children from Bunbury who first appear in The Emerald City of Oz.
The Great Royal Marshmallow is a marshmallow man that rules over the Candy Country. In Dorothy of Oz, Dorothy and Toto are brought before the Great Royal Marshmallow by the Royal Sheriff when they broke the law of picking lollipops. The Great Royal Marshmallow was not pleased with what the Royal Sheriff told him as Dorothy learns the Great Royal Marshmallow is depressed due to a stomachache. Dorothy convinces the Royal Sheriff to let her help the Great Royal Marshmallow get rid of his stomachache. Dorothy tells the Great Royal Marshmallow to stick to eating marshmallows for a while until his stomach is feeling better. When the Great Royal Marshmallow pardons Dorothy and Toto of their crime, Dorothy tells the Great Royal Marshmallow that she came to the Land of Oz upon being told by Glinda the Good Witch that the Land of Oz is in danger. The Great Royal Marshmallow helps Dorothy by having his subjects give Dorothy some supplies for her journey ranging from baskets containing fruits, an assortment of candy, and an assortment of nuts. The Great Royal Marshmallow has the Royal Sheriff escort Dorothy and Toto to the border as he tells Dorothy that Princess Gayelette can help her.
The Guardian of the Gates is a character in several of the Oz books. He is never known by any other name, but he is depicted as a singular character who lives in a small room, based on its description significantly larger than a standard guardhouse, in the wall that surrounds the Emerald City. In The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900) and The Marvelous Land of Oz (1904), his job is to adorn green spectacle glasses around the heads of all visitors to the Emerald City before they enter. This is done to protect their eyes from the thousands of glittering green gems within the city that are so precious and rare, they would cause blindness without the spectacles. The glasses can only be unclocked by a solid gold key that the Guardian always wears on a thick gold chain around his neck.
After The Marvelous Land of Oz he abandoned the practice, for General Jinjur 's Army of Revolt and Tippetarius had all entered the city without damage to their eyes. The spectacles were the idea of the Wizard of Oz to make the city appear greener than it actually is. The Guardian of the Gates appears only occasionally after this book, and his duty becomes significantly lighter.
In The Patchwork Girl of Oz (1913) when Ojo the Lucky reaches the city, he and his companions are taken into the Guardian 's room, where the Soldier with the Green Whiskers tells the Guardian of the Gates that he has a note from Ozma that Ojo is to be taken prisoner. So the Guardian of the Gates removes the traditional prison garb, a white robe that completely covers the prisoner, from a closet and places it on Ojo and leaves the Soldier with the Green Whiskers in charge of him.
In John R. Neill 's Oz books, the Guardian of the Gates and the Soldier with the Green Whiskers are frequently shown as friends, but the subsequent books of Jack Snow give the duty to Omby Amby (the Soldier 's name), and there is no entry for the Guardian of the Gates in Snow 's Who 's Who in Oz. In Neill 's The Scalawagons of Oz, the Guardian mentions a desire to visit his cousin, Oompa, which may explain, in - universe, why Omby Amby is fulfilling that function. Further confusion is created in the MGM movie, in which both roles are played by Frank Morgan, and publicity referred to the Guardian 's equivalent as "the Doorman '' and the Soldier 's equivalent as "the Guard ''. No other Guardian of the Gates is described in any of Baum 's books, aside from a stout woman who takes over the function during Jinjur 's rule. In The Marvelous Land of Oz musical, in which the role was originated by Steve Huke, the Guardian is conflated ± with the man interviewed doing housework, and he also claims to have a wife and ten children, a claim not made by anyone in the book.
The Guardian of the Gates had his own eponymous song, written in bass clef, in The Wizard of Oz musical extravaganza, by Baum and composer Paul Tietjens, but it was cut after only two performances and never made it to Broadway, although the sheet music was published for consumer use.
The Gump is a friendly mounted elk - like creature head who makes his first appearance in The Marvelous Land of Oz (1904). He was brought to life with the magic substance called the Powder of Life. He also appeared in Dorothy and the Wizard in Oz where he meets and talks to Dorothy until Ozma arrives (for some reason, she does n't like it when he talks). He is a main character in Walt Disney 's 1985 live action fantasy film Return to Oz, where he actually looks more like a green - furred moose.
Herby is a character featured in the Oz books of Ruth Plumly Thompson. He was introduced in her 1928 novel, The Giant Horse of Oz, as a medical doctor who had been transformed into a bottle of cough syrup by Mombi. He was freed from his transformation by Prince Philidor of Ozure Isles early in the novel, but retained a three - shelf medicine chest in his chest and cough drop eyes, and by the end of the novel, was proclaimed the Court Physician in the Emerald City palace, although, because Ozites are almost never sick and can not die of natural causes, he does not have much work to do, only treating occasional injuries.
Herby 's name probably derives from the medicinal herbs that would have been contained in his chest.
He appeared subsequently in Jack Pumpkinhead of Oz, Ojo in Oz, The Wishing Horse of Oz, Handy Mandy in Oz, and Ozoplaning with the Wizard of Oz.
Because of Herby 's late introduction to the Oz series, the character remains under copyright and can not appear in Oz Apocrypha, although, because of his general usefulness, allowing characters to get injured on their adventures without being stuck, he has in several cases. Mark Ellery Haas (1952 -- 2007), for example, built a story around him for a novel titled The Medicine Man of Oz. This book was actually published, but he sought to gain permission from The Baum Trust, which denied it to him, causing him to withdraw the published book subsequent to its publication. Although its author had no objection to the transfer of digital copies, published copies of this book are quite rare and command high prices on eBay.
The Hungry Tiger is a large, ferocious beast. Like his companion the Cowardly Lion, he serves as the bodyguard of Princess Ozma and beast of burden. He is always very, very hungry, and always professes a desire to eat a fat baby, which he never gets around to doing. In The Hungry Tiger of Oz (1926), he is hired as a prison guard to eat prisoners that try to escape, but he can not do it because of he has a conscience, so he just bites them instead.
Jack Pumpkinhead first appears in the second Oz book The Marvelous Land of Oz (1904). When Mombi animates a stick figure with a pumpkin for a head using the magic potion called "Powder of Life '' it comes to life and is named Jack, who then becomes friends with Mombi 's slave named Tip. He then becomes Tip 's companion for the rest of the book, and appears in several sequel books thereafter, including a titular appearance in Jack Pumpkinhead of Oz (1929). He is described as being a very timid and gentle character, one who would n't even harm a fly. Jack is also a main character in the 1985 fantasy film Return to Oz.
Jellia Jamb aka the "pretty green girl '', is the head maid of the Emerald City 's royal palace. She first appears in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900) and is first named in The Marvelous Land of Oz (1904). Jellia Jamb is portrayed as a rather sweet and organized girl when on duty, but mischievous and playful when off duty. She is said to be very pretty, with green hair and green eyes.
Jenny Jump is an important character in the four Oz books of John R. Neill.
Jenny begins as a fifteen - year - old in New Jersey, who one day finds a leprechaun stealing her cheese. She is clever enough to capture him with her stare, so that the leprechaun, called Siko Pompus must grant her a wish. She wishes to become a fairy, and the leprechaun transforms her. In the midst of this psychedelia, however, Jenny 's gaze falters, and the leprechaun eludes her control, leaving her part - fairy and part - human. Still, Jenny has remarkable new abilities. With her fairy foot, she leaps all the way to the Land of Oz, to begin her adventures.
Jenny is not a fan of the traditional, single - color fashions favored by the Ozites, and she sets up a shop with a magic turnstile that dresses people according to their personalities.
Neill 's text of The Wonder City of Oz was rewritten by an anonymous editor at Reilly & Lee, and that editor added some controversial changes to the story, in particular, involving Jenny Jump. These additions include creatures who live in the Deadly Desert called Heelers, who live on votes. Jenny is goaded into running against Princess Ozma as ruler of Oz. It is not taken very seriously by the Ozites, and it is decided that shoes will be used for votes in an Ozelection. The Ozelection and all that leads up to it is not in the manuscript. Furthermore, near the end of the novel, the Wizard casts a spell to make her younger and more obedient, some would say lobotomized. Neill was not enamored of these changes and did not illustrate them, and Jenny seems to have gone back to her old self in the two sequels.
Jenny is regularly accompanied by a Munchkin boy called Number Nine. She has him wear whistling breeches that alert her to his presence.
In The Runaway in Oz, Jenny helps get the story started by quarrelling with Scraps the Patchwork Girl; but once Scraps runs away, Jenny spends the rest of the book helping to look for her.
As Jenny is a copyrighted character, she is not found in modern Oz expanded universe stories, save Oziana magazine.
The Jester is a servant of Princess Gayelette and Prince Quelala.
In Dorothy of Oz, the Jester had gotten his hands on a wand of the Wicked Witch of the West and was possessed by her ghost. Under the Wicked Witch of the West 's possession, the Jester used the wand to turn Princess Gayelette, Prince Quelala, and their dinner guests into China Dolls. He even managed to do the same thing to Scarecrow, Tin Man, and Cowardly Lion as well as abduct the China Princess from the Dainty China Country. When Dorothy and Toto arrived in Princess Gayelette 's kingdom, they run into the Jester who points them to Princess Gayelette 's castle. When Dorothy learns about the Jester 's actions, she returns to the main hall and found that the Jester had turned Toto into a China Doll as the Jester shows Dorothy his China Doll collection. Dorothy came up with an idea to bring Glinda the Good Witch to the Jester under the condition that Toto, Scarecrow, Tin Man, and Cowardly Lion assists her. The Jester agrees to Dorothy 's deal, but Toto will remain with him. When the Scarecrow, Tin Man, and Cowardly Lion slipped into their China Doll disguises upon arrival outside of Princess Gayelette 's castle, Dorothy then meets up with the Jester who shows Dorothy his collection which is now on the outside. Dorothy takes the Jester to the red wagon where Dorothy has him open the crates where she claims that Glinda is in one of them claiming that Glinda turned herself, Scarecrow, Tin Man, and Cowardly Lion into china dolls. Dorothy then hears the voice of the Wicked Witch of the West 's ghost who suspects a trick and orders the Jester to turn Dorothy into a china doll quickly. As the Wicked Witch of the West 's ghost continues to warn the Jester of Dorothy 's trick, the Cowardly Lion 's tail came out of his disguise as the Jester prepares to attack. Dorothy reminds the Jester that jesters are supposed to make people happy causing the Jester to freeze in his tracks as the Wicked Witch of the West 's ghost urges the Jester to turn Dorothy into a china doll. The Jester gives up the wand as the Wicked Witch of the West 's ghost fades away. Thus, the spell is broken and everyone is returned to normal. Scarecrow, Tin Man, Cowardly Lion, and Toto rejoice now that the spell is broken. When Dorothy asks Princess Gayelette and Prince Quelala if the Jester can stay and jest for them again as a way to prove that he is sorry, Princess Gayelette accepts Dorothy 's deals and has the Jester entertain them again.
The Jester appears in Legends of Oz: Dorothy 's Return (loosely based on the Dorothy of Oz book) voiced by Martin Short. In the film, he is stated to be the brother of the Wicked Witch of the West.
Jinjur is the head of an all female army of revolt. She and her ladies attempt to overthrow the Emerald City and install Jinjur as the ruler of Oz in The Marvelous Land of Oz (1904). She also appears in several other Oz books.
Jim the Cab - Horse is a character in Dorothy and the Wizard in Oz (1908). Jim is depicted as an emaciated steed. He was originally charged with taking Dorothy home from the train station by pulling a carriage driven by Dorothy 's cousin Zeb Hugson. When a giant earthquake occurs, Jim and the occupants of his carriage fall deep into the earth and into the Land of the Mangaboos. As they enter a fairy country, Jim gains the ability to speak.
Throughout most of the book, Jim pulls the buggy that carries Dorothy, Zeb, and the Wizard of Oz. He is occasionally unhitched from his carriage when it is too cumbersome for the carriage to be pulled or when the travellers must rely on Jim 's powerful hooves to fight against creatures such as gargoyles. Upon arriving in Oz, he is regarded as an oddity because nobody has ever seen a flesh - and - blood horse; the only horse they have seen is the Saw - horse. He is treated as an honoured guest in the Emerald City and becomes somewhat haughty, bragging that he was a fast racehorse in his youth. However, his pride is hurt after losing a race to the Saw - horse and frequently asks Zeb when they will be able to return to Hugson 's Ranch. His wish is granted at the end of the book, when Ozma uses the magic belt to return Zeb and Jim to California.
Jinnicky the Red Jinn is a character who frequently appears in Ruth Plumly Thompson 's Oz books. He is depicted as a character who owns a lot of slaves and has his red body enclosed in a ginger jar. For long distance travel he uses a magic jinriskishka. He maintains a friendly but sincere rivalry with the Wizard of Oz and is anxious to stop Faleero in "The Purple Prince of Oz '' before the Wizard of Oz does.
John Dough is a name of several gingerbread men who appeared throughout literature, including in The Road to Oz, Baum 's 1906 novel John Dough and the Cherub, and perhaps in Baum 's never - finished fifteenth Oz book.
Johnny Cake is a popular johnnycake man from Bunbury who first appeared in The Emerald City of Oz.
Johnny Dooit is a fictional "handyman '' appearing in The Road to Oz. He is a little old man with a long beard who is friends with the Shaggy Man. His appearance in the novel is less than one chapter, in which he creates a Sand Boat to allow the Shaggy Man and his friends, Dorothy Gale, Button - Bright, and Polychrome to cross the Deadly Desert into the Land of Oz. Johnny has a tool chest from which he can pull out nearly any equipment he needs. At Ozma 's birthday party, he builds an aircraft out of contents of the trunk, puts the trunk inside, and flies away as an entertainment while getting himself to the next place he is needed, as he loves to work and keep busy.
In spite of Johnny 's brief appearance in the Oz series, appearing in no subsequent books, he was later used as a fairly important supporting character in Caliber Comics ' Oz, although Bill Bryan 's artwork made him appear much younger, and he lacked facial hair. He was frequently turned to for his engineering know - how. He is also the main character in Chris Dulabone 's Do It for Oz!
Kabumpo is an elephant who appears in several of the Ruth Plumly Thompson Oz books, including a titular role in Kabumpo in Oz.
The Kalidahs are a fictitious species of animal in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. They are mentioned and featured in the first half of the story when Dorothy Gale and her companions are traveling through the dark forest. A Kalidah is characterized as a ferocious monster having the head of a tiger and the body of a bear.
Although two kalidahs are killed in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, Baum had decided by The Magic of Oz that the inhabitants of Oz are immortal, so a kalidah, though pierced through the heart, survives.
Other Kalidahs appear in The Magic of Oz, where they bother Trot and Cap'n Bill. In The Patchwork Girl of Oz, Dr. Pipt keeps Kalidahs struck with his Liquid of Petrefaction by the entrance to his house. The creatures play an important part in Eric Shanower 's "Gugu and the Kalidahs. '' Phyllis Ann Karr 's short story "The Guardian Dove, '' published in the 1990 issue of Oziana, provides a detailed treatment of Kalidah culture.
The 1975 stage musical The Wiz includes a musical number "Kalidah Battle, '' featuring the Kalidah Queen and two of her gang. In the film adaptation of The Wiz, the Kalidahs are two red paper lantern - alike marionettes controlled by the Subway Peddler, the Wicked Witch of the West 's henchman. During the attack in the New York City Subway, it 's shown that the Kalidahs are able to separate from their strings, become two meters high and chase anyone the Peddler wants. After the Wicked Witch of West is defeated, when her henchmen (the Peddler included) and her slaves turn into Winkies by tearing their costumes and burning them, the Kalidahs may be destroyed in the process.
In The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz, the Kalidahs are portrayed by Statler and Waldorf.
Kaliko is a nome and lives in the Nome Kingdom, where he is, at least to start off with, the Chief Steward to his sadistic master, the Nome King Roquat the Red.
Kaliko is first encountered in Ozma of Oz, though he is identified only as the Chief Steward. In the book, Dorothy 's pet hen Billina overheard an argument between Kaliko and Roquat, and learned the secret. She was able to set the prisoners free. In The Emerald City of Oz, Roquat the Red plans to attack the Emerald City in revenge for his humiliation; we see Kaliko only very briefly.
The character of Kaliko is in his prime in Tik - Tok of Oz. Kaliko become king after old Ruggedo (whose name was changed from Roquat) was expelled from his kingdom by the Great Jinjin Tititihoochoo for tipping some members of a Rescue Expedition from Oz down a Hollow Tube and straight into the Land of the Fairies, which is under the governorship of Tititihoochoo. Kaliko promises to become a good king and offers to assist in rescuing the Shaggy Man 's brother. Ruggedo returns to the Nome Kingdom, and Kaliko takes him in upon Ruggedo 's promise to be good.
Kaliko has a brief role in Rinkitink in Oz, where he helps the cruel King Gos and Queen Cor hide the captive rulers of Pingaree from their "wizard '' son Prince Inga and his friend Rinkitink of Gilgad. Kaliko is essentially a good - natured person still, but refuses to surrender the prisoners upon Inga 's arrival as he feels himself bound to his promise made to Gos and Cor. However, Dorothy and the Wizard arrive from Oz and force Kaliko to give up the prisoners.
Kaliko makes some more appearances in the later Oz books of Ruth Plumly Thompson, where he appears to have changed from a "good '' Nome into a cruel Nome who harbors plans to rule Oz for himself, and adds himself to the list of Princess Ozma 's enemies. He, like all other Nomes, is afraid of eggs; and once he becomes king, he is a self - confessed "powerful sorcerer. ''
King Kinda Jolly of Kimbaloo is a character in The Lost King of Oz. The short and stout king of Kimbaloo, is a jolly little Gillikin in the kingdom known for its button trees and the crops they provide. Kinda Jolly wears a silver crown to match his silver beard, and is married to the sweet little Queen, Rosa Merry. He is leader of the 249 other male citizens of Kimbaloo, and in charge of the button crops. He loves his people dearly and is loved by them. He once hired the witch Mombi as a cook in his palace, against the advice of Hah Hoh, the town laugher of the kingdom, since he took pity on the friendless old woman, and did not know she was in fact a former witch.
King Kleaver is a cleaver and ruler of Utensia who first appeared in The Emerald City of Oz. He is the father of Prince Karver.
King Krewl is an evil dictator who appears in The Scarecrow of Oz.
In the 1914 film His Majesty, the Scarecrow of Oz, he was played by Raymond Russel.
In the 1925 film Wizard of Oz, he was played by Josef Swickard.
King Kynd was the former ruler of Jinxland. He fell into the great gulf that separates Jinxland from the Land of Oz and has not been seen since. His Prime Minister, Phearse, succeeded him as king. Kynd left behind an infant daughter named Gloria as seen in The Scarecrow of Oz.
King Pastoria was the rightful King of Oz until he was removed from power by Mombi. He is the father of Princess Ozma.
The King of Bunnybury is a white rabbit who rules Bunnybury as seen in The Emerald City of Oz. As king, he is very unhappy where he is not being allowed to run wild & free like the other rabbits.
The King of the Fairy Beavers appears in Baum 's John Dough and the Cherub and reappears in Snow 's The Shaggy Man of Oz. The King rules an underground kingdom. In both books, he helps the travelers to reach their final destination.
Ku - Klip is a character who is the originally unnamed tinsmith in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz who provided Nick Chopper with tin prostheses when the latter was cursed to dismember himself by the Wicked Witch of the East because of his love for the servant Nimmie Amee. In The Tin Woodman of Oz, we are introduced to a soldier named Captain Fyter, who met with the same fate due to his interest in Nimmie Amee, and Ku - Klip did the same for him.
After the witch was destroyed by Dorothy Gale 's house, Ku - Klip entered the witch 's house and took some of her magical devices, including a magic glue. He had thrown Chopper and Fyter 's discarded body parts into a barrel, and decided to use this glue (mislabeled "Meat Glue '' in John R. Neill 's illustrations) to assemble the parts from two men into a man called Chopfyt, but he finds he must substitute a tin arm as well. Nimmie Amee marries the assemblage and appears to be quite happy, but Princess Ozma takes the witch 's tools away from the smith so that he can not create any more unnatural beings. Ku - Klip continues to keep Nick Chopper 's flesh head, who finds the Tin Woodman 's claim to be him ludicrous, in a cabinet.
Lavender Bear is a colorful stuffed bear and the King of Bear Center who first appeared in The Lost Princess of Oz.
The Lonesome Duck is a character in The Magic of Oz; he makes brief but gaudy appearances in two of the book 's later chapters.
The Lonesome Duck first appears when Cap'n Bill and Trot are trapped on the Magic Isle in the Gillikin Country. He swims "swiftly and gracefully '' over to them, astonishing them with his "gorgeously colored plumage ''. In a brief conversation, the Duck explains why he is lonesome. Though he can not help free the two protagonists from their entrapment, he makes it slightly easier to bear, by conjuring large magic toadstools for them to sit on. Later, the rescue party searching for Trot and Cap'n Bill almost stumbles over the Lonesome Duck 's diamond palace, earning them a stern rebuke from its inhabitant. The text never specifies the Duck 's gender; the creature is consistently referred to as "it. '' Yet the general rule among birds is that the males are gaudier than the females.
See # Wicked Witch of the North
Mr. Muffin is a muffin man from Bunbury that first appears in The Emerald City of Oz.
Mr. Yoop is a giant from The Patchwork Girl of Oz.
He is a 21 ft. giant with a ravenous appetite for meat people and an orange marmalade. Mr. Yoop ate cows and sheep and sometimes knocked over people 's houses which led to him being apprehended and imprisoned in a mountain cage. Since his imprisonment, he has only eatten six ants and a monkey. He threatens passers - by: "They tell me meat is going up, but if I can manage to catch you, I 'm sure it will soon be going down. ''
The book The Tin Woodman of Oz revealed that he is the estranged husband of Mrs. Yoop and has been abusive towards her.
Mrs. Yoop is a wicked giantess and sorceress in The Tin Woodman of Oz. When she meets the Tin Woodman and his companions, she changes them into animal forms. She transforms Polychrome into a canary, the Tin Woodman into a tin owl, the Scarecrow into a stuffed brown bear, and Woot the Wanderer into a green monkey. She is the estranged wife of the imprisoned Mr. Yoop from The Patchwork Girl of Oz, who has been imprisoned for eating people. Unlike him, Mrs. Yoop is not a cannibal; she obtains food by means of her magical powers. The Green Monkey Spell proves irreversible and has to be transferred to somebody else. In this case Mrs. Yoop who becomes, and must now stay, a green monkey. She is a Yookoohoo, a special kind of witch, "an Artist of Transformations '' whose enchantments are extremely powerful. The other Yookoohoo in the Oz books is Red Reera in Glinda of Oz. Both Yookoohoos are specialists in magical transformations and are solitary, anti-social, and fiercely independent.
The Tin Woodman of Oz is a rarity in Baum 's Oz canon, in that the author 's manuscript of the book exists, and reveals the changes that Baum made for the printed version. Baum revised his original to make Mrs. Yoop more sinister; and he originally called Mrs. Yoop a "Whisp '' (an otherwise unknown term in the universe of Oz) rather than a Yookoohoo.
The Munchkins are a race of little people who wear blue and inhabit the Munchkin Country of Oz.
Nimmie Amee is the Munchkin maiden whom the Tin Woodman once loved in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. She was not named until The Tin Woodman of Oz, as Nick Chopper never went to find her after the Wizard gave him a "kind '' but not a "loving '' heart, until that novel 's protagonist, Woot the Wanderer, encouraged him to do so.
In The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, the Tin Woodman tells Dorothy Gale and the Scarecrow that the lady was a servant for an old woman who did not wish her to marry, and so sought the aid of the Wicked Witch of the East to place a spell on him that caused him to cut himself up with his axe while carrying on his livelihood. In The Tin Woodman of Oz, this was retconned, and in Nick 's new telling, she was directly enslaved by the Witch herself.
Nimmie Amee was aware of the spell, which occurred gradually, and was not bothered by his condition and still wished to marry him, but he lost interest when he lost his heart (In Wizard, he lost his heart after his head; in Tin Woodman, he lost his head last and the Witch ran around with it in her arms). Soon a soldier named Captain Fyter also wooed the lady, and the Witch dealt him the same blow, and he sought help from the same tinsmith, Ku - Klip. Fyter 's head and parts of Nick and his body were incorporated into Chopfyt, a new person, through the use of magic glue found in the Witch 's house. Ku - Klip was unable to find one arm, so he fashioned one out of tin. In this way, Chopfyt reminded her of both the men she loved, and she married him, and Baum presented them as a happy couple at the end of the novel, although Princess Ozma forbade Ku - Klip from ever doing such a thing again.
This character is totally absent in the 1939 musical film.
The Nome King (also referred to as Roquat, and later Ruggedo) is the evil and humorously stubborn ruler of an underground kingdom inhabited by the race of gnome minons, creatures who are half human and half rock. His mountain stands between the Land of Oz and the Land of Ev and is separated from both these two countries by the vast Deadly Desert. He appears in Ozma of Oz and several of the sequel Oz books. His evil plans usually involve kidnapping the rulers of Oz or taking over the universe. Even after he is deposed and defeated in Tik - Tok of Oz, he continues to make trouble for the inhabitants of Oz and all the Ozians in general. After a number of attempts on Oz 's peace and happiness, he meets his final canonical fate in Handy Mandy in Oz. He was also a main villain in Walt Disney 's 1985 live action fantasy film Return to Oz.
Ojo the Lucky is a Munchkin who appears in several Oz books, including The Patchwork Girl of Oz and Ojo in Oz
The Patchwork Girl aka Scraps, appears in several Oz books beginning with The Patchwork Girl of Oz. She is a life - size doll made out of various patches like those on a patchwork quilt. The book revolves around her being created by Margolotte and brought to life by the magic substance called Powder of Life, that was created by Margolotte 's husband Dr. Pipt. She was filled with a mixture of character traits. Originally intended to be an unquestioning humble slave, she comes to life as a rather zany acrobatic person with a tendency to break into spontaneous poetry, all thanks to Ojo the Unlucky messing with the formula for her "brain furniture '' and joining the adventure to find an antidote for petrification. In later books, she is often paired with the Scarecrow, being his main love interest.
The Phonograph (also referred to as The Troublesome Phonograph) is a character who appeared in The Patchwork Girl of Oz. It originally belonged to Dr. Pipt, until it was inadvertently brought to life when it was accidentally sprinkled with the Powder of Life. The Phonograph has a large gold - colored horn, and is screwed to a tall, four - legged table, which it uses for movement.
Once alive, it continued to bother the magician by playing loud and offensive "classical '' music, until it was at last forced from his home. It then tried to endear itself to the young Munchkin boy, Ojo, and his friends in much the same way, (first with classical, then jazz), but was finally scared off by the Shaggy Man, who threatened to "scatter its pieces across the country, as a matter of kindness to the people of Oz. '' The Phonograph has never been seen since.
The Phonograph 's name is Victor Columbia Edison, but was dubbed Vic for short, by the Patchwork Girl.
Polychrome is a luminous and ethereal sky fairy and the youngest daughter of the Rainbow. She first appears in The Road to Oz. She also appears in later Oz books in the series.
Pop Over is a puffed - up bread man and resident of Bunbury who appears in The Emerald City of Oz.
Prince Karver is a carving knife from Utensia that first appeared in The Emerald City of Oz. He is the son of King Kleaver.
Princess Langwidere is a character who appears in Baum 's third Oz book Ozma of Oz (1907) as a secondary villain. She is the vain and spoiled princess whom Dorothy and her company encounter when she visits the land of Ev which neighbors Oz. Langwidere has a collection of 30 exchangeable heads she keeps in a cabinet constructed of solid gold and studded with gems. The cabinet itself is held within a walk - in closet in the boudoir of Langwidere 's palace. Each head is said to be extremely beautiful, consisting of different bone structures that represents different ethnicities and are kept in their own separate cases lined with mirrors that Langwidere keeps locked with a ruby key she wears around her left wrist. Instead of changing her clothing like most princesses, she simply changes her heads to match her current state of mood whenever she pleases. She is portrayed as being a very reclusive and selfish creature, with a terrible temper when she wears Head # 17.
Princess Ozma is the ruler of Oz since the end of the second book, and has appeared in every book except the first. She had been transformed into a young boy named Tip by the witch Mombi earlier in the second book. In many of the books, she is depicted as a fairy princess of fourteen or fifteen years of age, though she was originally portrayed as not a fairy and much younger. She is the title character in Ozma of Oz and The Lost Princess of Oz, and The Road to Oz is about a journey to her birthday party.
In Jack Snow 's perhaps non-canon Murder in Oz, Ozma 's Tip persona reclaims his life, causing Ozma to die, and the Wizard has to find a way to have both Tip and Ozma alive and well at the same time.
Queen Ann Soforth is the ruler of Oogaboo who first appeared in Tik - Tok of Oz
Queen Coo - ee - oh was the Queen of the Skeezers in Glinda of Oz. Shortly after she is introduced, as an arrogant girl of about fifteen or sixteen, who proclaims herself the only Krumbic witch in the world, for she invented the art, the Su Dic of the Flatheads attacks her island kingdom, and she leads the defense aboard a submarine that opens into a boat. There a bucket of enchanted water is dumped upon her, and she becomes a vain, diamond - eyed swan with no memory of her magical abilities.
Her sudden transformation leaves her domed city stranded beneath the waters of the lake, as only she knew the spell. The Krumbic witchcraft proves to be a hybrid of dark arts mixed with magic learned from the Three Adepts at Magic who used to rule the Flatheads, while the three magic spells to operating the city are identified as the parts of her name.
Queen Lurline is a fairy queen who is mentioned in the Oz backstory as originally enchanting the country. She also appears in Baum 's The Life and Adventures of Santa Claus, as well as in the Wicked books.
The Rak is a flying fictional creature from the pages of Tik - Tok of Oz. The Rak is described as a large winged creature with glowing red eyes that can fly in the air, run like a deer, and swim like a fish. Inside its body is a glowing furnace of fire which allows the creature to breathe out smoke. Its smoky breath blankets the surrounding area like a thick, black fog with an aroma of salt and pepper. It is bigger than a hundred men and feeds on any living thing. Like most other animals in the land of Oz, the Rak can speak. The Rak 's vague descriptions given in the storybook lead one to believe that the Rak is a type of dragon.
In Tik - Tok of Oz, the Rak is briefly encountered by Queen Ann Soforth and her army and wounded by gunfire. Although its jaw, wing and leg are broken by the attack, the Rak does not die, as everything in the land of Oz lives an enchanted life and can not die.
Robin Brown is the protagonist of Merry Go Round in Oz. He is a small boy raised by an adoptive family of large boys who mistreat him before he escapes to Oz on Merry Go Round, a living Merry Go Round horse. He becomes King of Roundabout for a short time against his will.
Sally Lunn is an old lady from Bunbury who first appeared in The Emerald City of Oz.
The Sawhorse is a normal sawhorse that was brought to life by the Powder of Life.
The Scarecrow first appears in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, when he joins Dorothy to go to the Wizard in search of brains. When the Wizard leaves Oz, he makes the Scarecrow ruler, a position he holds until the middle of second book. Later, he moves to a corn - shaped house in the Winkie Country. The Scarecrow appears in many of the later books, including The Scarecrow of Oz (where he is the title character) and The Royal Book of Oz (where he researches his ancestry). He was played by Ray Bolger in the 1939 movie. That actor also played the Scarecrow 's Kansan counterpart, Hunk, who was one of Aunt Em and Uncle Henry 's three farm workers.
The Shaggy Man is a kind old wanderer who is dressed in rags.
Sir Hokus of Pokes is a character who is first introduced in The Royal Book of Oz by Ruth Plumly Thompson. His name is a reference to hocus pocus. He is an elderly knight in the vein of Don Quixote. Sir Hokus was discovered in the kingdom of Pokes, where he had been snoring for several centuries. Pokes is a small, sleepy (literally) kingdom by the road in Winkie Country, by the Winkie River. After joining Dorothy on an adventure, Sir Hokus returns with her to live at the Palace in the Emerald City. In later books he accompanies the main characters on several quests, and has a particularly significant adventure in The Yellow Knight of Oz and marries Princess Marygolden of Corabia. In that book, we learn that his current state is the result of magic of the Sultan of Samandra, a kingdom between Corumbia and Corabia where animals can not speak. His favorite steed, the Comfortable Camel is immediately stuck dumb upon entering it. At the end of the novel, he becomes the younger Corum, Prince of Corumbia, the Yellow Knight of Oz, struck with the pit of a magic date that turns his silver armor golden and transforms him into a young, blond - haired man. Although Sir Hokus 's disenchantment changed his appearance significantly, after his initial identification as Corum, he was referred to as Sir Hokus for the rest of the book. He does, however, receive a new steed, Stampedro, whom Speedy frees from enchantment and who facilitates Hokus 's restoration.
In later adventures he tends to be back to his old self, such as in The Scalawagons of Oz, when he play fights a two - headed Dragonette. Even Thompson showed him as his implicitly old self and referred to him as Sir Hokus in a brief appearance in the Emerald City in Yankee in Oz (1972).
Smith and Tinker, introduced in Ozma of Oz, are an inventor and an artist who worked out of a shop in the Land of Ev. They created the clockwork man Tik - Tok and sold him to Evoldo. They also created the Giant with the Hammer. Smith, the artist of the duo, painted a picture of a river that was so real that he fell in and drowned. Tinker, the inventor, made a ladder so tall that it reached to the moon. He climbed the ladder to the moon and once there pulled it up so no one could follow him.
The characters reappear in Mister Tinker in Oz and Oz Squad.
The Soldier with the Green Whiskers is Oz 's one - man army. He appears in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900) and the many sequel books. He is portrayed as having a very long green beard and carrying an unloaded rifle. He is alternately referred to as Omby Amby or Wantowin Battles.
Tik - Tok is a character who appeared in several Oz books, beginning with Oz of Ozma. He is a machine man controlled by clockwork, which needs to be wound regularly. Tik - Tok is often considered the first robot to appear in literature. He also appeared in Return to Oz where he is a main character.
The Tin Woodman first appears in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, joining Dorothy 's quest to see the Wizard in order to get a heart. He had originally been a human by the name of Nick Chopper, but gradually his human parts had been replaced with metal ones. After the Wicked Witch of the West is defeated, he becomes Emperor of the Winkies. He appears in many later Oz books, often alongside his friend the Scarecrow. In the eponymous Tin Woodman of Oz he searches for his lost love.
His Kansan counterpart in the 1939 movie was Hickory, one of Aunt Em and Uncle Henry 's three farm workers.
Tititi - Hoochoo, the Great Jinjin and Private Citizen, is a Peculiar Person, who rules an opposite land on the exact opposite side of the earth from Oz. Like the other people of that land, all his limbs are of a different color than the others, although he has no heart. The two places are connected by the Forbidden Tube, which was created by Hiergargo the Magician who wanted to save travel time between the two places and whose rash use of the tube destroyed him.
He appears in Tik - Tok of Oz.
Toto is Dorothy 's pet scruffy dog, and appears in most of the books she does, beginning with The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. Due to his appearance in the 1939 film, he has often been ranked near the top of list of on - screen canine characters.
Mayre "Trot '' Griffiths is a young girl who comes to Oz in The Scarecrow of Oz, along with her friend Cap'n Bill, and becomes a friend and companion of Dorothy, Ozma and Betsy. She is also the protagonist of The Sea Fairies and Sky Island.
Tugg is a wooden tugboat.
In Dorothy of Oz, Dorothy, Scarecrow, Tin Man, and Cowardly Lion design and build Tugg from the limbs of the Talking Trees that are on the banks of the Munchkin River, some straw to make it waterproof, vines to make the ropes that held them all together, and a foghorn out of a hollow log with vine for a cord. Using some water and wild red berries, Dorothy converted them into a paint so that she can draw Tugg 's mouth. When Tugg is named, Tugg starts to speak where he thanks the group for building him. Tugg tells the Talking Trees that he will travel the Munchkin River and tell them of what he has seen. Dorothy and her group board Tugg and they travel downstream. When Dorothy, Scarecrow, Tin Man, and Cowardly Lion were in the Gamekeeper 's maze, Tugg used his foghorn to help them get out before time ran out. Tugg then continues to carry the group down the Munchkin River until they reach the Munchkin Village. When Tugg gets close to where the Dainty China Country is located, Dorothy, Scarecrow, Tin Man, Cowardly Lion, and China Princess disembark as he heads back to the Talking Trees to tell them what he has seen on his journey. Dorothy states to Tugg that they will meet him again as soon as possible. Before her confrontation with the Jester, Dorothy has Wiser the Owl look for Tugg and tell him of their progress. After the Jester was freed from the possession of the Wicked Witch of the West 's wand, Tugg later appeared on the part of the Munchkin River near Princess Gayelette 's castle with Wiser and the dragons that were encountered along the way.
Tugg appears in Legends of Oz: Dorothy 's Return (based on the Dorothy of Oz book) voiced by Patrick Stewart. This version is an old tree who donates his body to make a tugboat for Dorothy, Marshal Mallow, China Princess, and Wiser the Owl to travel the Munchkin River on.
Ugu the Shoemaker is the villain of The Lost Princess of Oz He is morally ambiguous rather than pure evil; Baum states that Ugu "did not know he was wicked ''. He was once a shoemaker in Herku, located in the Winkie Country, until he discovered the magic recipes of his ancestors. Thereupon, he decided to become a powerful sorcerer and take possession of the Land of Oz as its ruler. He moved away from Herku and built a Wicker Castle in the west of the Winkie Country. After stealing the Magic Dishpan from Cayke, he used it to steal Glinda 's Magic Book of Records, the Wizard 's Black Bag of Magic and, ultimately, he kidnapped Princess Ozma in the process and hid her in the form of an Enchanted Peach Pit. He was finally defeated by Dorothy Gale, who used the Nome King 's Magic Belt to transform him into a dove. Realizing how much damage he had done, he only asked to remain a peaceful dove and apologize to Dorothy.
Unc Nunkie is a character from the fictional Oz book series by L. Frank Baum. He first appeared in The Patchwork Girl of Oz. Unc Nunkie is an elderly Munchkin who lived with his nephew, Ojo the Lucky, in the forests in Munchkin Country. Unc Nunkie was known for speaking primarily in one - word, monosyllabic sentences, though he very occasionally made a "long '' speech using two words. Locals attributed his laconic nature to concealment of royal blood.
Unc Nunkie was accidentally turned to stone by Dr. Pipt 's Liquid of Petrification, resulting in his nephew Ojo going on a quest to find the ingredients needed for the antidote. Ruth Plumly Thompson explored the "royal blood '' thread in Ojo in Oz. In Jack Pumpkinhead of Oz, he was the first person captured in Mogodore 's invasion when he attempted to warn the others of his arrival.
The Wicked Witch of the East is a character who is crushed by Dorothy 's house in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900). Prior to this, she ruled over the Munchkins and had possession of the magical Silver Shoes (Ruby Slippers in the 1939 musical) that made it possible for her to conquer the Munchkin Country in the undiscovered Land of Oz. She appears in the book Wicked under the name Nessarose by Gregory Maguire. She also appears in the Walt Disney 's live action film Oz the Great and Powerful, played by Rachel Weisz, who is named Evanora.
Mombi is a Wicked Witch of the North who is one of the series ' major antagonists. She first appears The Marvelous Land of Oz, when Tip escapes her power. It is revealed that she helped install the Wizard as ruler of Oz. She makes several more appearances in the Oz books before she, in a similar fate to her predecessor, the Wicked Witch of the West, is melted in "The Lost King of Oz. '' Mombi appears in the movie Return to Oz (where she was depicted with the traits of Princess Langwidere) and in later books of the Wicked series. She also appears in the animated film Journey Back to Oz where she is effectively voiced by Ethel Merman.
The Wicked Witch of the South is the previous ruler of the Quadling Country until the period when Ozma 's grandfather was king of Oz, when Glinda overthrew her.
The Wicked Witch of the West originated as the primary villain and main antagonist of L. Frank Baum 's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz book, in which she is given no name. She is described as being completely blind in one eye, and there is no mention of her having green skin. She rules the western quadrant called Winkie Country in the Land of Oz and enslaved many of the natives. She also owns a pack of killer wolves, black crows and stinging bees. When Dorothy Gale and company are sent by the Wizard to defeat her, she sends her collection of deadly pets to kill them but is unsuccessful. She then uses the Golden Cap to call upon the Winged Monkeys who destroy the Scarecrow and Tin Woodman, but capture Dorothy and the Cowardly Lion. She imprisons them in her castle before Dorothy melts her with a bucket of water when the Wicked Witch tried to steal one of her Silver Shoes. After her death in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, The Wicked Witch of the West is rarely referred to again in the later Oz books.
The Wicked Witch of the West 's most famous counterpart is played by Margaret Hamilton in the 1939 MGM musical film The Wizard of Oz. Though no name is given her in her witch guise, that actress also played the Witch 's Kansan counterpart, Miss Almira Gulch. Her goal is to get her sister 's ruby slippers from Dorothy who had been given them by Glinda. Her reasoning is that the slippers will make her the most powerful person in Oz; but we never learn why.
She is known as Evillene in the 1975 Broadway musical The Wiz originated by Mabel King, and reprised in the 1978 film adaptation of the same name. Of all stage, film and animated productions of the Oz story, The Wiz follows Baum 's book the most closely, and therefore she has no green skin.
Under the name Elphaba, she is the protagonist of the Gregory Maguire novel and Winnie Holzman / Stephen Schwartz 2003 musical Wicked, and is born green due to an elixir given by her father (the Wizard of Oz) to her mother (the wife of the governor of Munchkinland) during their adulterous affair. Discovering that she has real powers, the Wizard of Oz orders her arrest when she refuses to aid him in his terroristic control of Oz, and she is declared a wicked witch by the Wizard 's press secretary, Madame Morrible. Believing that the governor of Munchkinland is her real father, she is devastated when Glinda gives Dorothy the slippers of her sister Nessarose which had been given her by the governor and which she herself had cast a spell on to enable the disabled Nessarose to walk. Desperate to get these precious family heirlooms back from Dorothy, they confront one another at the castle of Prince Fiyero, Elphaba 's love interest, but is doused by the girl with a bucket of water. This kills her in the Maguire novel. It merely burns her in the musical -- and she uses her feigned death as a way to escape with Fiyero, whom she had turned into the Scarecrow to prevent him from being tortured by the Wizard 's soldiers.
In the 2013 motion picture Oz the Great and Powerful, her name is Theodora and she is played by Mila Kunis. She becomes a green wicked witch after being tricked into eating a magic apple that was offered by her sister, Evanora. In this adaptation, she is in love with the Wizard. His feelings are not mutual and she declares war against him.
The Wise Donkey is a character from A New Wonderland (The Magical Monarch of Mo) (1899 / 1903) and The Patchwork Girl of Oz (1913). He began life as an ordinary donkey in Phunniland (Mo, a land even stranger and less logical than Oz), but after consuming numerous books, he learned their contents and became a wise advisor to the King. He sometimes acts in his own interests, at least to the extent of making sure his are met when he aids others, such as suggesting an apple for rescuing Nuphsed, which does n't work, but when he is fed the apple, he gives an answer that does.
Somehow he was able to cross the Deadly Desert that surrounds Oz, and he took up residence with the Foolish Owl. He says he was visiting on the day Oz was cut off from the rest of the world, and was unable to return home. He is seen dusting his house when he is visited by Ojo, Scraps, and Bungle. He believes that someone as wise as he is should find the Foolish Owl unique and amusing. His logic is regarded by Scraps as so askew that she tells Diksey Horner that he sounds like the Wise Donkey.
Wiser the Owl is an owl who has an unlucky attraction to molasses.
In Dorothy of Oz, Dorothy and Toto encounter Wiser who mentioned that he got his name because he gets wiser every day. When Dorothy tells Wiser that she is here looking for Scarecrow, Tin Man, Cowardly Lion, and Glinda, Wiser tells Dorothy that she is in Gillikin Country and tells her to head to Candy Country and ask the Great Royal Marshmallow that rules over Candy Country. Wiser points Dorothy in the direction of the Candy Country and leaves while warning her to "watch out for the molasses. '' Unfortunately, Toto does n't heed the warning. While traveling to Glinda 's castle, Dorothy, Scarecrow, Tin Man, Cowardly Lion, and China Princess run into Wiser as Dorothy tells him of her next mission involving going to Quadling County to meet with Glinda. Wiser tells Dorothy to build a boat and drive it down the Munchkin River. Wiser tells Dorothy that the wood for the boat must come from the Talking Trees that grow along the banks of the Munchkin River. Before Dorothy 's confrontation with the Jester, Dorothy ends up encountering Wiser again. He asks if she has found Glinda. Dorothy then asks Wiser to help the Cowardly Lion with a crate and get him into his life - size china doll. After the Cowardly Lion is in his china doll disguise, Dorothy tells Wiser to find Tugg and tell him of their progress. After the Jester is freed from the possession of the Wicked Witch of the West 's wand, Wiser appears at the river banks near Princess Gayelette 's castle with Tugg and the dragons that Dorothy encountered along the way.
Wiser the Owl appears in Legends of Oz: Dorothy 's Return (based on the Dorothy of Oz book) voiced by Oliver Platt.
The Wizard of Oz is the title character of the first book. In that book, the characters journey to him for assistance with their problems. It is later revealed that he is a humbug circus performer named Oscar Diggs from Omaha, Nebraska; and that he had usurped Ozma 's throne with the assistance of Mombi (though this was later proven false). The Wizard later returns to Oz in the fourth book and later learns real magic from Glinda.
His Kansan counterpart in the 1939 musical film is the travelling magician / fortune teller, Professor Marvel.
The Woozy is a four - legged fictional creature from the pages of The Patchwork Girl of Oz. It is described as being dark blue in color and made up of all squares, flat surfaces and edges. Its head is an exact cube and its body is in the shape of a box twice as long as it is wide and high. All four of the Woozy 's legs are four - sided, as is its stubby tail. The Woozy hears via two openings in the upper corners of its head, has a flat nose and a mouth formed by an opening on lower edge of its head. When the Woozy gets angry, it has the ability to flash fire with its eyes. The Woozy lives in the Munchkin country in Oz and survives primarily on a diet of honey bees. The Munchkin farmers who raise the honey bees nearby drive the Woozy into the forest and confine it with a fence. Since the Woozy can not climb, he can not escape his prison (The Woozy does mention in the text that he can jump very high, but also mentions that he has a ferocious roar, which turns out to be completely untrue).
The creature is entirely hairless except for three stiff, stubby hairs on the end of its tail. Those three hairs were one of five required ingredients for the antidote to the Liquid of Petrification that Ojo, Scraps the Patchwork Girl, and Bungle set out to retrieve in the story. In return for some scraps of bread and cheese that Ojo feeds him, the Woozy agrees to give his hairs to the party. When it becomes clear that the hairs can not be removed from his tail, Ojo frees the Woozy and allows the creature to accompany the group.
Zebediah Hugson is a boy who is a distant cousin of Dorothy Gale, apparently related through Dorothy 's Aunt Em. He works for his uncle, Bill Hugson, at Hugson 's Ranch in California, where he also lives. Zeb appears in Dorothy and the Wizard in Oz (1908).
Zeb first meets Dorothy at Hugson 's Siding, when he picks her up in a carriage pulled by Jim the Cab - horse. On their way to the Hugson 's Ranch, an earthquake causes everyone to fall into the earth and into the Land of the Mangaboos. Zeb, Dorothy, Jim, and Dorothy 's kitten Eureka are soon joined by Oscar Diggs aka the Wizard of Oz. The travelers undertake a subterranean journey through the Valley of Voe, are briefly imprisoned in the Land of Naught, and encounter a cavern full of Dragonettes. Despite his reservations about being in a strange land, Zeb courageously defends his friends and helps them escape from the Land of Gargoyles by obtaining pairs of gargoyle wings.
After Ozma uses the Magic Belt to bring them to the Land of Oz, Zeb is welcomed as an honoured guest in the Emerald City. During the festivities held to celebrate the arrival of Dorothy and her friends, Zeb participates in a wrestling match with a Munchkin boy, which he loses, and then a boxing match, which Zeb wins. He later serves as one of the nine members of the jury during the trial of Eureka. While the Wizard accepts Ozma 's invitation to remain in Oz, Dorothy, Zeb, and their animals decide to return home. Though Zeb remarks that Oz is a nice country, he admits that he and Jim feel out of place in a fairy country and wishes to return to Hugson 's Ranch with Jim. Zeb 's last evening in Oz is described as being so wonderful, he never forgot it as long as he lived.
In the Oz Kids, he somehow came back to Oz and married Dorothy. The both of them had two children named Dot and Neddie Hugson.
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who played the cop in little miss sunshine | Little Miss Sunshine - wikipedia
Little Miss Sunshine is a 2006 American comedy - drama road film and the directorial debut of the husband - wife team of Jonathan Dayton and Valerie Faris. The screenplay was written by first - time writer Michael Arndt. The film stars Greg Kinnear, Steve Carell, Toni Collette, Paul Dano, Abigail Breslin, and Alan Arkin, and was produced by Big Beach Films on a budget of US $ 8 million. Filming began on June 6, 2005 and took place over 30 days in Arizona and Southern California.
The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 20, 2006, and its distribution rights were bought by Fox Searchlight Pictures for one of the biggest deals made in the history of the festival. The film had a limited release in the United States on July 26, 2006, and later expanded to a wider release starting on August 18.
Little Miss Sunshine had an international box office gross of $100.5 million. The film was nominated for four Academy Awards, including Best Picture, and won two: Best Original Screenplay for Michael Arndt and Best Supporting Actor for Alan Arkin. It also won the Independent Spirit Award for Best Feature and received numerous other accolades.
Sheryl Hoover is an overworked mother of two living in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Her brother, Frank, who is gay and a scholar of Proust, is temporarily living at home with the family after having attempted suicide. Sheryl 's husband Richard is a Type A personality striving to build a career as a motivational speaker and life coach. Dwayne, Sheryl 's son from a previous marriage, is a Nietzsche - reading teenager who has taken a vow of silence until he can accomplish his dream of becoming a test pilot. Richard 's foulmouthed father, Edwin, recently evicted from a retirement home for snorting heroin, lives with the family. Olive, the daughter of Richard and Sheryl and the youngest of the Hoover family, is an aspiring beauty queen who is coached by Edwin.
Olive learns she has qualified for the "Little Miss Sunshine '' beauty pageant that is being held in Redondo Beach, California in two days. Her parents and Edwin, who has been coaching her, want to support her, and Frank and Dwayne can not be left alone, so the whole family goes. Because they have little money, they go on an 800 - mile road trip in their yellow Volkswagen Type 2.
Family tensions play out on the highway and at stops along the way, amidst the aging VW van 's mechanical problems. When the van breaks down early on, the family learns that they must push the van until it is moving at about 20 mph before it is put into gear, at which point they have to run up to the side door and jump in. Later on, the van 's horn starts honking unceasingly by itself.
Throughout the road trip, the family suffers numerous personal setbacks and discover their need for each other 's support. Richard loses an important contract that would have jump - started his motivational business. Frank encounters the ex-boyfriend who, in leaving him for an academic rival, had prompted his suicide attempt. Edwin dies from a heroin overdose, resulting in the family smuggling the body out of a hospital and nearly having it discovered by the police. During the final leg of the trip, Dwayne discovers that he is color blind, which means he can not become a pilot, a realization that prompts him to finally break his silence, and shout his anger and disdain for his family.
The climax takes place at the beauty pageant. After a frantic race against the clock the family arrives at the hotel, and are curtly told by a pageant organizer that they are a couple minutes past the deadline. A sympathetic hired hand instead offers to register Olive on his own time. As Olive prepares for the pageant, the family sees Olive 's competition: slim, hypersexualized pre-teen girls with teased hair and capped teeth. They wear lip gloss, adult - like swimsuits, and glamorous evening wear while performing highly elaborate dance numbers with great panache. It quickly becomes apparent that Olive (plain, chubby, wearing large eyeglasses, and untrained in beauty pageant conventions) is a mere amateur by comparison.
As Olive 's turn to perform in the talent portion of the pageant draws near, Richard and Dwayne recognize that Olive is certain to be humiliated, and wanting to spare her feelings, run to the dressing room to talk her out of performing. Sheryl, however, insists that they "let Olive be Olive '', and Olive goes on stage. Olive 's hitherto - unrevealed dance that her Grandpa Edwin had choreographed for her is performed to Rick James ' song "Super Freak ''. Olive scandalizes and horrifies most of the audience and pageant judges with a burlesque performance that she joyfully performs while oblivious to their reactions. The pageant organizers are enraged and demand Sheryl and Richard remove Olive from the stage. Instead of removing her, one by one the members of the Hoover family join Olive on stage, dancing alongside her to show their support.
The family is next seen outside the hotel 's security office where they are given their freedom in return for a promise never to enter a beauty pageant in the state of California again. Piling into the van with the horn still honking, they happily smash through the barrier of the hotel 's toll booth and head back to their home in Albuquerque.
When choosing the cast for the film, directors Jonathan Dayton and Valerie Faris were assisted by casting directors Kim Davis and Justine Baddely who had worked with them on previous music videos. The directors had initially settled on Greg Kinnear to portray Richard Hoover. However, for the character of Sheryl Hoover, they considered several actresses before deciding on Australian actress Toni Collette. Davis and Baddely traveled to "every English - speaking country '' to search for the actress to portray Olive Hoover, and they finally chose actress Abigail Breslin through an audition when she was six. Paul Dano was cast as Dwayne two years before production began and in preparation for portraying his character, spent a few days taking his own vow of silence. Alan Arkin, who portrayed Edwin Hoover, was initially considered too young for the role.
The role of Frank, the suicidal Proust scholar, was originally written for Bill Murray, and there was also studio pressure for Robin Williams. The directing duo chose Steve Carell for the role a few months before filming began, and in an interview revealed: "When we met with Steve Carell, we did n't know he could do this based upon what he had done. But when we met with him and talked to him about the character, the tone of the movie and the way we were approaching it, he was right on the same page with us ''. Although known to Comedy Central viewers for many years as a correspondent on the highly rated satirical news program The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, at the time Carell was cast for Little Miss Sunshine, he was relatively unknown in Hollywood. Producers of the film were worried that he was not a big enough star and did not have much acting experience.
The script was written by Michael Arndt and was originally about an East Coast road trip from Maryland to Florida, but was shifted to a journey from New Mexico to California because of budget issues. Arndt started the script on May 23, 2000 and completed the first rough draft by May 26. He had initially planned on shooting the film himself by raising several thousand dollars and using a camcorder. Instead, he gave the screenplay to producers Ron Yerxa and Albert Berger who teamed up with Deep River Productions to find a potential director.
The producers met directors Dayton and Faris while producing Election and in turn gave the script to them to read in 2001. The directors commented later on the script stating: "This film really struck a chord. We felt like it was written for us. '' The script was purchased from first - time screenwriter Arndt for $250,000 by Marc Turtletaub, one of the film 's producers, on December 21, 2001. Yerxa and Berger remained as producers as they were responsible for finding the directors and cinematographer, assisting in the ending re-shoot, and helping bring the film to the Sundance Film Festival.
The film was pitched to several studios, and the only interested studio was Focus Features, who wanted to film it in Canada. After the studio attempted to have the film be centered on the character Richard Hoover, and Arndt disagreed, he was fired and replaced by another writer. The new writer added several scenes, including Richard 's confrontation with the character who dismisses his motivational technique business. A corporate change brought in a new studio head and Arndt was rehired when the new writer left after four weeks of rewriting the script. After two years of pre-production, Focus Features dropped the film in August 2004. Marc Turtletaub paid $400,000 to Focus Features to buy back the rights to the film and for development costs. He also paid for the $8 million budget, allowing Little Miss Sunshine to then be filmed.
Principal photography began on June 6, 2005. Filming took place over 30 days in Arizona and southern California, with scenes shot in keeping with the chronological order of the script. Arndt re-wrote the ending to the film six weeks before the film 's release at the Sundance Film Festival, and this was filmed in December 2005. Post-production was completed four days before its screening on nine screens at the Sundance Film Festival, where it had its premiere. The film was dedicated to Rebecca Annitto, the niece of producer Peter Saraf and an extra in scenes set in the diner and the convenience store, who was killed in a car accident on September 14, 2005.
When writing the script, Arndt chose the Volkswagen T2 Microbus to use for the road trip based on his experience with the vehicle and its practicality for filming: "I remember thinking, it 's a road trip, what vehicle are you going to put them in? And (the) VW bus just seems logical, just because you have these high ceilings and these clean sight lines where you can put the camera. In the front windshield looking back and seeing everybody. '' Five VW Microbuses were used for the family car as some were modified for different filming techniques. Three of the vans had engines, and the two without were mounted on trailers. During pre-production, the cinematographer used a basic video camera and set it up at angles inside the van to determine the best locations to shoot from during filming. Many of the problems associated with the van that were included in the plot (a broken clutch, a stuck horn, and a detached door), were based on similar problems that writer Arndt experienced during a childhood trip that involved the same type of vehicle.
While filming the scenes where the family pushes the van to get it started, a stunt coordinator was used to ensure the safety of the actors. In an interview, actor Greg Kinnear jokingly described how the scenes were filmed when he was driving: "I was going like 50 miles an hour in this ' 71 VW van that does n't have side air bags. Basically you 'd wait for this huge camera truck to come whizzing in front of us with the camera. ' Okay, go! ' I mean, it was insanity; it 's the most dangerous movie I 've ever made. '' While filming the scenes in the van, the actors would at times remain in the vehicle for three or four hours a day. For scenes in which Alan Arkin 's character was swearing excessively, Breslin had her headphones on and could not hear the dialogue, just like her character in the film. Only when she saw the film did she know what was being said. On July 25, 2006 Fox Searchlight Pictures invited VW bus owners to a screening at Vineland Drive - In theater in Industry, California. Over 60 of the vans were present at the screening.
Prior to writing the script, Arndt read in a newspaper about Arnold Schwarzenegger speaking to a group of high school students and saying "If there 's one thing in this world I hate, it 's losers. I despise them. '' As a result, Arndt developed his script lampooning the thought process: "And I thought there 's something so wrong with that attitude... I wanted to... attack that idea that in life you 're going up or you 're going down... So to a degree a child beauty pageant is the epitome of the ultimate stupid meaningless competition people put themselves through. '' Co-director Jonathan Dayton also commented on the importance of the pageant to the film: "As far as the pageant goes, it was very important to us that the film not be about pageants. It 's about being out of place, it 's about not knowing where you 're going to end up... '' All the girls acting as participants in the beauty pageant, except Abigail Breslin, were veterans of real beauty pageants. They looked the same and performed the same acts as they had in their real - life pageants. To prepare for filming, the directors attended several pageants in Southern California and met with a coordinator to learn more about the pageant process. A mother of a contestant in the film claimed that the film overplayed practices that the contestants go through: "Most pageants are n't quite like that, with shaving the girls ' legs, spraying them with fake tans and putting on so much makeup. ''
When Focus Features initially wanted to film in Canada, the directors opposed it, believing the costs of flying all of the pageant girls and their families would be excessive. The contestants and their families instead spent two weeks filming in a hotel in Ventura with most of the equipment and costumes being provided by the contestants ' parents. To make Breslin 's character the "plump '' figure as shown in the film, she had to wear a padded suit during filming. For Olive 's final scene involving her dancing routine, Breslin spent two weeks preparing with a choreographer.
Following the film 's premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 20, 2006, several studios placed bids; Fox Searchlight Pictures won, offering $10.5 million, plus 10 % of all the gross revenues. The deal occurred less than a day after the premiere and was one of the biggest deals made in the history of the festival. The previous year 's festival had the film Hustle & Flow receive $9 million from Paramount Classics and in 1999, Happy, Texas received $10 million from Miramax Films.
Little Miss Sunshine initially opened in seven theaters in the U.S. in its first week, earning $498,796. On July 29, 2006, the first Saturday after its initial limited release, Little Miss Sunshine earned a $20,335 per - theater average gross. It had the highest per - theater average gross of all the films shown in the United States every day for the first 21 days of its release, until being surpassed by the IMAX film Deep Sea 3D on August 15. In its third week of release Little Miss Sunshine entered the list of top ten highest grossing American films for the week. It remained in the top ten until the 11th week of release, when it dropped to 11th place. The highest position it reached was third, which occurred in its fifth week of release. The largest number of theaters the film appeared in was 1,602. Internationally, the film earned over $5 million in Australia, $3 million in Germany, $4 million in Spain, and $6 million combined in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Malta. Little Miss Sunshine has had gross receipts of $59,891,098 in the U.S. and $40,632,083 internationally for a total of $100,523,181.
The film received critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film received a 91 % positive aggregate rating, based on 211 reviews, with an average rating of 7.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Little Miss Sunshine succeeds thanks to a strong ensemble cast that includes Greg Kinnear, Steve Carell, Toni Collette, Alan Arkin, and Abigail Breslin, as well as a delightfully funny script. '' On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 80 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews. ''
Michael Medved gave Little Miss Sunshine four stars (out of four) saying that "... this startling and irresistible dark comedy counts as one of the very best films of the year... '' and that directors Jonathan Dayton and Valerie Faris, the movie itself, and actors Alan Arkin, Abigail Breslin, and Steve Carell deserved Oscar nominations. Joel Siegel issued a rarely awarded ' A ' rating, saying that "Orson Welles would have to come back to life for this not to make my year - end Top 10 list. '' Stella Papamichael of BBC News called the film "a winning blend of sophistication and silliness ''. USA Today 's Claudia Puig commented on Breslin 's depiction of Olive Hoover, "If Olive had been played by any other little girl, she would not have affected us as mightily as it did. ''
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly labeled the film with a ' C ' rating, calling the characters "walking, talking catalogs of screenwriter index - card data. '' Jim Ridley of The Village Voice called the movie a "rickety vehicle that travels mostly downhill '' and a "Sundance clunker. '' Liam Lacey of Globe and Mail criticized the film, stating "Though Little Miss Sunshine is consistently contrived in its characters ' too - cute misery, the conclusion, which is genuinely outrageous and uplifting, is almost worth the hype. '' Anna Nimouse of National Review wrote that the "film is praised as a ' feel - good ' film, perhaps for moviegoers who like bamboo under their fingernails. If you are miserable, then Little Miss Sunshine is the film for you. '' Paste Magazine named it one of the 50 Best Movies of the Decade (2000 -- 2009), ranking it at # 34.
Roger Ebert reflected on the film 's themes, writing "Little Miss Sunshine shows us a world in which there 's a form, a brochure, a procedure, a job title, a diet, a step - by - step program, a career path, a prize, a retirement community, to quantify, sort, categorize and process every human emotion or desire. Nothing exists that can not be compartmentalized or turned into a self - improvement mantra about ' winners and losers. ' '' Brian Tallerico of UGO.com also focused on the film 's themes: "Little Miss Sunshine teaches us to embrace that middle ground, acknowledging that life may just be a beauty pageant, where we 're often going to be outdone by someone prettier, smarter, or just plain luckier, but if we get up on that stage and be ourselves, everything will turn out fine. ''
The DVD was released on December 19, 2006. It includes a dual - disc widescreen / full screen format, two commentary tracks, four alternate endings, and a music video by DeVotchKa. In its first week of release, DVD sales totaled $19,614,299 and it was the sixth-most sold DVD of the week. By September 16, 2008 gross domestic DVD sales totaled $55,516,832. Rentals of the film from its release through April 15, 2007 totalled $46.32 million. The film was released on Blu - ray on February 10, 2009.
Little Miss Sunshine was nominated for and won multiple awards from numerous film organizations and festivals. It was nominated for four Academy Awards and was awarded two at the 79th Academy Awards: Michael Arndt received "Best Original Screenplay '' and Alan Arkin received "Best Supporting Actor ''. In addition, the AFI Awards deemed it the "Movie of the Year '', while the BAFTA Awards awarded it two awards out of six nominations with "Best Screenplay '' for Arndt and "Best Actor in a Supporting Role '' for Arkin. The Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards, Screen Actors Guild (SAG), and Washington D.C. Area Film Critics commended the film for its ensemble cast. Then 10 - year - old Abigail Breslin was nominated for several Best Supporting Actress and Breakthrough Performance awards.
The Deauville Film Festival awarded the film the "Grand Special Prize '' while the Palm Springs International Film Festival awarded it the "Chairman 's Vanguard Award ''. The Independent Spirit Awards awarded it four awards out of five nominations, including "Best Feature '' and "Best Director ''. The film 's soundtrack was nominated for "Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for Motion Picture, Television, or Other Visual Media '' at the Grammy Awards, but lost to Walk The Line. The film also had multiple nominations at the MTV Movie Awards, Satellite Awards, Chicago Film Critics Association Awards, and Golden Globe Awards, among others.
There was some controversy concerning how many producers should receive an award from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for their work in producing the film. In 1999, the Academy decided that up to a maximum of three producers are eligible to be included in an award for a film. The rule was implemented to prevent a large number of involved filmmakers to appear on stage when a film was receiving an award. The Producers Guild of America (PGA) has not set a limit of producers that can be honored for a film. In the case of Little Miss Sunshine, there were five producers (Marc Turtletaub, Peter Saraf, Albert Berger, Ron Yerxa, and David Friendly) and the Academy did not want to include Berger and Yerxa. The two producers were responsible for finding the script, introducing the directors to the other producers, choosing the cinematographer, assisting in the re-shoot of the ending, and helping bring the film to the Sundance Film Festival. The Academy acknowledged that the two were partners in the production process, but declared that only individual producers are recognized by the Academy. Deeming the two producers ' work as a collective effort, the Academy refused to consider either Berger or Yerxa for the award. Producer David Hoberman commented on the support for honoring all five producers, stating "If there are five people actually involved in producing a movie, there 's no reason why someone who 's made a good enough film to be nominated for an Academy Award should be precluded from being rewarded for the work they did. '' Lynda Obst who was affiliated with an Academy Award producer committee, also commented: "By and large, five people do n't make a movie. If this is an exception, then it 's a sad situation. But you do n't destroy a rule for an exception. ''
The PGA had previously honored all five of the producers. Albert Berger, reacting to the Academy 's decision while at a panel for the film, stated "No matter what the academy decided, we produced this movie. '' In June 2007, the Academy announced that they would allow exceptions for films that had more than three producers in the future, stating "The committee has the right, in what it determines to be a rare and extraordinary circumstance, to name any additional qualified producer as a nominee. ''
The score for Little Miss Sunshine was written by the Denver band DeVotchKa and composer Mychael Danna. Performed by DeVotchKa, much of the music was adapted from their pre-existing songs, such as "How It Ends '', which became "The Winner Is '', "The Enemy Guns '' and "You Love Me '' from the album How It Ends, and "La Llorona '' from Una Volta.
Directors Dayton and Faris were introduced to DeVotchKa 's music after hearing the song "You Love Me '' on Los Angeles ' KCRW radio station. The directors were so impressed with the music that they purchased iPods for cast members containing DeVotchKa albums. Mychael Danna was brought in to help arrange the pre-existing material and collaborate with DeVotchKa on new material for the film. The Little Miss Sunshine score was not eligible for Academy Award consideration due to the percentage of material derived from already written DeVotchKa songs. The DeVotchka song "Til the End of Time '' received a nomination for a 2006 Satellite Award as "Best Original Song ''. Both DeVotchKa and Danna received 2007 Grammy nominations for their work on the soundtrack.
The soundtrack reached # 42 on the "Top Independent Albums '' and 24 on "Top Soundtracks '' in the U.S. for 2006. It contains two songs by Sufjan Stevens ("No Man 's Land '' and "Chicago ''), and songs by Tony Tisdale ("Catwalkin ' '') and Rick James ("Super Freak ''). Two additional songs in the film that were written by Gordon Pogoda -- "Let It Go '' and "You 've Got Me Dancing '' (the latter of which he co-wrote with Barry Upton) -- are featured during the pageant scenes near the end of the film. "Super Freak '', the source music danced to by Olive during the pageant competition, was introduced during post-production by a suggestion from the music supervisor. Arndt 's screenplay had called for Prince 's song "Peach ''; during filming, the ZZ Top song "Gimme All Your Lovin ' '' was used.
A musical based on the film, with music and lyrics by William Finn and book and direction by James Lapine, was workshopped at the Sundance Institute Theatre Lab at White Oak in Yulee, Florida October 25 through November 7, 2009. It then premiered at the La Jolla Playhouse from February 15 through March 27, 2011. The cast features Hunter Foster, Malcolm Gets, Georgi James, Dick Latessa, Jennifer Laura Thompson, and Taylor Trensch.
On March 11, 2011 Malcolm Gets left the show. Ensemble member Andrew Samonsky took over the role of Uncle Frank, and understudy Ryan Wagner took over the role of Joshua Rose until the show closed on March 27, 2011. The musical premiered at Second Stage Theatre on October 15, 2013 (previews), and officially on November 14, 2013. The production closed on December 15, 2013. The cast features Hannah Rose Nordberg as Olive Hoover, Stephanie J. Block as Sheryl Hoover, Rory O'Malley as Frank Hoover, Wesley Taylor as Joshua Rose, Josh Lamon as Buddy, David Rasche as Grandpa Hoover, Jennifer Sanchez as Miss California and Logan Rowland as Dwayne Hoover.
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who appoints the district judges in a state | District courts of India - wikipedia
Coordinates: 22 ° 02 ′ 10 '' N 74 ° 54 ′ 02 '' E / 22.036 ° N 74.9005 ° E / 22.036; 74.9005
The District Courts (Hindi: ज़िला न्यायालय) of India are the district courts of the State governments in India for every district or for one or more districts together taking into account the number of cases, population distribution in the district. They administer justice in India at a district level. Salary of civil Judge (Jr. Division) at Entry Level
Civil Judge (Jr. Division) get allowances. Allowance are paid by Government. It includes -
(: 2) civil Judge (Jr. Division) (F / R) / Munsiff Magistrate First stage get Rs. 148000 / -. After completing 2 years of services.
(: 3) Civil Judge (Sr. Division) get Rs. 174000 / - per Month.
(: 4) Addl. Chief Judicial Magistrate (A.C.J.M Jr. Division) gets Rs. 182000 / - per month.
The highest court in each district is that of the District and Sessions Judge. This is the principal court of original civil jurisdiction besides High Court of the State and which derives its jurisdiction in civil matters primarily from the code of civil procedure. The district court is also a court of Sessions when it exercises its jurisdiction on criminal matters under Code of Criminal procedure. The district court is presided over by one District Judge appointed by the state Governor with on the advice of state chief justice In addition to the district judge there may be number of Additional District Judges and Assistant District Judges depending on the workload. The Additional District Judge and the court presided have equivalent jurisdiction as the District Judge and his district court.
However, the district judge has supervisory control over Additional and Assistant District Judges, including decisions on allocation of work among them. The District and Sessions judge is often referred to as "district judge '' when he presides over civil matters and "sessions judge '' when he presides over criminal matters. Being the highest judge at district level, the District Judge also enjoys the power to manage the state funds allocated for the development of judiciary in the district.
The district judge is also called "Metropolitan session judge '' when he is presiding over a district court in a city which is designated "Metropolitan area '' by the state. Other courts subordinated to district court in the Metropolitan area are also referred to with "metropolitan '' prefixed to the usual designation. An area is designated a metropolitan area by the concerned state Government if population of the area exceeds one million or more than that.
The judges of subordinate courts are appointed by the Governor in consultation with the chief justice of the High Court of the concerned State. A minimum of seven years of practise as a lawyer at bar is a necessary qualification for direct entry level to become a District Judge upon a written examination and oral interview by a committee of High court judges, the appointment of district judges is notified by the state Government. This is referred to as direct recruitment. District judges are also appointed by way of elevation of judges from courts subordinate to district courts provided they fulfill the minimum years of service but unfortunately the entry level district judge exams have caused the judges on the lower rungs of the Judiciary to become lax as their chances of filling up posts for the work they had done may never fructify to promotions because of posts later being filled up by lawyers directly becoming district judges.
The next level of ascendancy for a district judge who served sufficient number of years is the post of High court judge. High court Judges are usually appointed from a pool of advocates practicing at the Bar of the High court and District Judges who served for sufficient number of years. This has also caused District Judges to wane in their efficiency as they have come to realize that elevation of lawyers directly to High Court Judges dampens their process of being awarded with promotions for the work they 've put in over many years of service.
A district judge or Additional judge may be removed from his office by the governor on conformation from the high court collegiam.
The District Court or Additional District court exercises jurisdiction both on original side and appellate side in civil and criminal matters arising in the District. The territorial and pecuniary jurisdiction in civil matters is usually set in concerned state enactments on the subject of civil courts. On the criminal side, jurisdiction is exclusively derived from the criminal procedure code. As per this code the maximum sentence a Sessions Judge of district court may award to a convict is capital punishment.
The district court has appellate jurisdiction over all subordinate courts situated in the district on both civil and criminal matters. Subordinate courts, on the civil side (in ascending order) are, Junior Civil Judge Court, Principal Junior Civil Judge Court, Senior Civil Judge Court (also called sub-court). Subordinate courts, on the criminal side (in ascending order) are, Second Class Judicial Magistrate Court, First Class Judicial Magistrate Court, Chief Judicial Magistrate Court.
Certain matters on criminal side or civil side can not be tried by a lesser court than a district court. This gives the District Court original jurisdiction in such matters.
Appeals from the district courts lie to the High Court of the concerned state.
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roman influence in the east 168 bc translation | Campaign history of the Roman military - wikipedia
From its origin as a city - state on the peninsula of Italy in the 8th century BC, to its rise as an empire covering much of Southern Europe, Western Europe, Near East and North Africa to its fall in the 5th century AD, the political history of Ancient Rome was closely entwined with its military history. The core of the campaign history of the Roman military is an aggregate of different accounts of the Roman military 's land battles, from its initial defense against and subsequent conquest of the city 's hilltop neighbors on the Italian peninsula, to the ultimate struggle of the Western Roman Empire for its existence against invading Huns, Vandals and Germanic tribes. These accounts were written by various authors throughout and after the history of the Empire. Following the First Punic War, naval battles were less significant than land battles to the military history of Rome due to its encompassment of lands of the periphery and its unchallenged dominance of the Mediterranean Sea.
The Roman army battled first against its tribal neighbours and Etruscan towns within Italy, and later came to dominate the Mediterranean and at its height the provinces of Britannia and Asia Minor. As with most ancient civilizations, Rome 's military served the triple purpose of securing its borders, exploiting peripheral areas through measures such as imposing tribute on conquered peoples, and maintaining internal order. From the outset, Rome 's military typified this pattern, and the majority of Rome 's campaigns were characterised by one of two types. The first is the territorial expansionist campaign, normally begun as a counter-offensive, in which each victory brought subjugation of large areas of territory and allowed Rome to grow from a small town to a population of 55 million in the early empire when expansion was halted. The second is the civil war, which plagued Rome from its foundation to its eventual demise.
Roman armies were not invincible, despite their formidable reputation and host of victories, Romans "produced their share of incompetents '' who led Roman armies into catastrophic defeats. Nevertheless, it was generally the fate of even the greatest of Rome 's enemies, such as Pyrrhus and Hannibal, to win the battle but lose the war. The history of Rome 's campaigning is, if nothing else, a history of obstinate persistence overcoming appalling losses.
Knowledge of Roman history stands apart from other civilizations in the ancient world. Its chronicles, military and otherwise, document the city 's very foundation to its eventual demise. Although some histories have been lost, such as Trajan 's account of the Dacian Wars, and others, such as Rome 's earliest histories, are at least semi-apocryphal, the extant histories of Rome 's military history are extensive.
Rome 's earliest history, from the time of its founding as a small tribal village, to the downfall of its kings, is the least well preserved. Although the early Romans were literate to some degree, this void may be due to the lack of will to record their history at that time, or such histories as they did record were lost.
Although the Roman historian Livy (59 BC -- 17 AD) lists a series of seven kings of early Rome in his work Ab urbe condita, from its establishment through its earliest years, the first four kings (Romulus, Numa, Tullus Hostilius and Ancus Marcius) may be apocryphal. A number of points of view have been proposed. Grant and others argue that prior to the establishment of the Etruscan kingdom of Rome under the traditional fifth king, Tarquinius Priscus, Rome would have been led by a religious leader of some sort. Very little is known of Rome 's military history from this era, and what history has come down to us is more of a legendary than of factual nature. Traditionally, Romulus, after founding the city, fortified the Palatine Hill, and shortly thereafter, Rome was "equal to any of the surrounding cities in her prowess in war ''.
The first of the campaigns fought by the Romans in this legendary account are the wars with various Latin cities and the Sabines. According to Livy, the Latin village of Caenina responded to the event of the abduction of the Sabine women by invading Roman territory, but were routed and their village captured. The Latins of Antemnae and those of Crustumerium were defeated next in a similar fashion. The remaining main body of the Sabines attacked Rome and briefly captured the citadel, but were then convinced to conclude a treaty with the Romans under which the Sabines became Roman citizens.
There was a further war in the 8th century BC against Fidenae and Veii. In the 7th century BC there was a war with Alba Longa, a second war with Fidenae and Veii and a second Sabine War. Ancus Marcius led Rome to victory against the Latins and, according to the Fasti Triumphales, over the Veientes and Sabines also.
Lucius Tarquinius Priscus ' first war was waged against the Latins. Tarquinius took the Latin town of Apiolae by storm and took great booty from there back to Rome. According to the Fasti Triumphales, the war occurred prior to 588 BC.
His military ability was tested by an attack from the Sabines. Tarquinius doubled the numbers of equites to help the war effort, and defeat the Sabines. In the peace negotiations that followed, Tarquinius received the town of Collatia and appointed his nephew, Arruns Tarquinius, also known as Egerius, as commander of the garrison which he stationed in that city. Tarquinius returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph for his victories that, according to the Fasti Triumphales, occurred on 13 September 585 BC.
Subsequently, the Latin cities of Corniculum, old Ficulea, Cameria, Crustumerium, Ameriola, Medullia and Nomentum were subdued and became Roman.
Early in his reign, Servius Tullius warred against Veii and the Etruscans. He is said to have shown valour in the campaign, and to have routed a great army of the enemy. The war helped him to cement his position at Rome. According to the Fasti Triumphales, Servius celebrated three triumphs over the Etruscans, including on 25 November 571 BC and 25 May 567 BC (the date of the third triumph is not legible on the Fasti).
Early in his reign Tarquinius Superbus, Rome 's seventh and final king, called a meeting of the Latin leaders at which he persuaded them to renew their treaty with Rome and become her allies rather than her enemies, and it was agreed that the troops of the Latins would attend at a grove sacred to the goddess Ferentina on an appointed day to form a united military force with the troops of Rome. This was done, and Tarquin formed combined units of Roman and Latin troops.
Tarquin next began a war against the Volsci. He took the wealthy town of Suessa Pometia, with the spoils of which he commenced the erection of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus which his father had vowed. He also celebrated a triumph for his victory.
He was next engaged in a war with Gabii, one of the Latin cities, which had rejected the Latin treaty with Rome. Unable to take the city by force of arms, Tarquin had his son, Sextus Tarquinius, infiltrate the city, gain the trust of its people and command of its army. In time he killed or exiled the city 's leaders, and handed control of the city over to his father.
Tarquin also agreed to a peace with the Aequi, and renewed the treaty of peace between Rome and the Etruscans. According to the Fasti Triumphales, Tarquin also won a victory over the Sabines.
Tarquinius later went to war with the Rutuli. According to Livy, the Rutuli were, at that time, a very wealthy nation. Tarquinius was desirous of obtaining the booty which would come with victory over the Rutuli. Tarquin unsuccessfully sought to take the Rutulian capital, Ardea, by storm, and subsequently began an extensive siege of the city. The war was interrupted by the revolution which overthrew the Roman monarchy. The Roman army, camped outside Ardea, welcomed Lucius Junius Brutus as their new leader, and expelled the king 's sons. It is unclear what was the outcome of the siege, or indeed the war.
The first non-apocryphal Roman wars were wars of both expansion and defence, aimed at protecting Rome itself from neighbouring cities and nations and establishing its territory in the region. Florus writes that at this time "their neighbours, on every side, were continually harassing them, as they had no land of their own... and as they were situated, as it were, at the junction of the roads to Latium and Eturia, and, at whatever gate they went out, were sure to meet a foe. ''
In the semi-legendary period of the early republic, sources record Rome was twice attacked by Etruscan armies. About 509 BC war with Veii and Tarquinii was said to have been instigated by the recently overthrown king Tarquinius Superbus. Again in 508 BC Tarquin persuaded the king of Clusium, Lars Porsenna, to wage war on Rome, resulting in a siege of Rome and afterwards a peace treaty.
Initially, Rome 's immediate neighbours were either Latin towns and villages on a tribal system similar to that of Rome, or else tribal Sabines from the Apennine hills beyond. One by one, Rome defeated both the persistent Sabines and the local cities that were either under Etruscan control or else Latin towns that had cast off their Etruscan rulers, as had Rome. Rome defeated the Lavinii and Tusculi in the Battle of Lake Regillus in 496 BC, were defeated by the Veientes in the Battle of the Cremera in 477 BC, the Sabines in an unnamed battle in 449 BC, the Aequi in the Battle of Mons Algidus in 458 BC and the Battle of Corbione in 446 BC, the Volsci in the Battle of Corbione in 446 BC the Aurunci in the Battle of Aricia, the Capture of Fidenae in 435 BC and the Siege of Veii in 396 BC, and the Capture of Antium in 377 BC. After defeating the Veientes, the Romans had effectively completed the conquest of their immediate Etruscan neighbours, as well as secured their position against the immediate threat posed by the tribespeople of the Apennine hills.
However, Rome still controlled only a very limited area and the affairs of Rome were minor even to those in Italy and Rome 's affairs were only just coming to the attention of the Greeks, the dominant cultural force at the time. At this point the bulk of Italy remained in the hands of Latin, Sabine, Samnite and other peoples in the central part of Italy, Greek colonies to the south, and the Celtic people, including the Gauls, to the north.
By 390 BC, several Gallic tribes had begun invading Italy from the north as their culture expanded throughout Europe. Most of this was unknown to the Romans at this time, who still had purely local security concerns, but the Romans were alerted when a particularly warlike tribe, the Senones, invaded the Etruscan province of Siena from the north and attacked the town of Clusium, not far from Rome 's sphere of influence. The Clusians, overwhelmed by the size of the enemy in numbers and ferocity, called on Rome for help. Perhaps unintentionally the Romans found themselves not just in conflict with the Senones, but their primary target. The Romans met them in pitched battle at the Battle of the Allia around 390 -- 387 BC. The Gauls, under their chieftain Brennus, defeated the Roman army of around 15,000 troops and proceeded to pursue the fleeing Romans back to Rome itself and partially sacked the town before being either driven off or bought off.
Now that the Romans and Gauls had blooded one another, intermittent Roman - Gallic wars were to continue between the two in Italy for more than two centuries, including the Battle of Lake Vadimo, the Battle of Faesulae in 225 BC, the Battle of Telamon in 224 BC, the Battle of Clastidium in 222 BC, the Battle of Cremona in 200 BC, the Battle of Mutina in 194 BC, the Battle of Arausio in 105 BC, and the Battle of Vercellae in 101 BC. The Celtic problem would not be resolved for Rome until the final subjugation of all Gaul following the Battle of Alesia in 52 BC.
After swiftly recovering from the sack of Rome, the Romans immediately resumed their expansion within Italy. Despite their successes, their mastery of the whole of Italy was by no means assured. The Samnites were a people just as martial and as rich as the Romans and had the objective of their own to secure more lands in the fertile Italian plains on which Rome itself lay. The First Samnite War of between 343 BC and 341 BC that followed widespread Samnite incursions into Rome 's territory was a relatively short affair: the Romans beat the Samnites in both the Battle of Mount Gaurus in 342 BC and the Battle of Suessula in 341 BC but were forced to withdraw from the war before they could pursue the conflict further due to the revolt of several of their Latin allies in the Latin War.
Rome was therefore forced to contend by around 340 BC against both Samnite incursions into their territory and, simultaneously, in a bitter war against their former allies. Rome bested the Latins in the Battle of Vesuvius and again in the Battle of Trifanum, after which the Latin cities were obliged to submit to Roman rule. Perhaps due to Rome 's lenient treatment of their defeated foe, the Latins submitted largely amicably to Roman rule for the next 200 years.
The Second Samnite War, from 327 BC to 304 BC, was a much longer and more serious affair for both the Romans and Samnites, running for over twenty years and incorporating twenty - four battles that led to massive casualties on both sides. The fortunes of the two sides fluctuated throughout its course: the Samnites seized Neapolis in the Capture of Neapolis in 327 BC, which the Romans then re-captured before losing at the Battle of the Caudine Forks and the Battle of Lautulae. The Romans then proved victorious at the Battle of Bovianum and the tide turned strongly against the Samnites from 314 BC onwards, leading them to sue for peace with progressively less generous terms. By 304 BC the Romans had effectively annexed the greater degree of the Samnite territory, founding several colonies. This pattern of meeting aggression in force and so inadvertently gaining territory in strategic counter-attacks was to become a common feature of Roman military history.
Seven years after their defeat, with Roman dominance of the area looking assured, the Samnites rose again and defeated the Romans at the Battle of Camerinum in 298 BC, to open the Third Samnite War. With this success in hand they managed to bring together a coalition of several previous enemies of Rome, all of whom were probably keen to prevent any one faction dominating the entire region. The army that faced the Romans at the Battle of Sentinum in 295 BC included Samnites, Gauls, Etruscans and Umbrians. When the Roman army won a convincing victory over these combined forces it must have become clear that little could prevent Roman dominance of Italy and in the Battle of Populonia (282 BC) Rome destroyed the last vestiges of Etruscan power in the region.
By the beginning of the 3rd century, Rome had established itself in 282 BC as a major power on the Italian Peninsula, but had not yet come into conflict with the dominant military powers in the Mediterranean at the time: Carthage and the Greek kingdoms. Rome had all but completely defeated the Samnites, mastered its fellow Latin towns, and greatly reduced Etruscan power in the region. However, the south of Italy was controlled by the Greek colonies of Magna Grecia who had been allied to the Samnites, and continued Roman expansion brought the two into inevitable conflict.
In the naval Battle of Thurii, Tarentum appealed for military aid to Pyrrhus, ruler of Epirus. Motivated by his diplomatic obligations to Tarentum, and a personal desire for military accomplishment, Pyrrhus landed a Greek army of some 25,000 men and a contingent of war elephants on Italian soil in 280 BC, where his forces were joined by some Greek colonists and a portion of the Samnites who revolted against Roman control, taking up arms against Rome for the fourth time in seventy years.
The Roman army had not yet seen elephants in battle, and their inexperience turned the tide in Pyrrhus ' favour at the Battle of Heraclea in 280 BC, and again at the Battle of Ausculum in 279 BC. Despite these victories, Pyrrhus found his position in Italy untenable. Rome steadfastly refused to negotiate with Pyrrhus as long as his army remained in Italy. Furthermore, Rome entered into a treaty of support with Carthage, and Pyrrhus found that despite his expectations, none of the other Italic peoples would defect to the Greek and Samnite cause. Facing unacceptably heavy losses with each encounter with the Roman army, and failing to find further allies in Italy, Pyrrhus withdrew from the peninsula and campaigned in Sicily against Carthage, abandoning his allies to deal with the Romans.
When his Sicilian campaign was also ultimately a failure, and at the request of his Italian allies, Pyrrhus returned to Italy to face Rome once more. In 275 BC, Pyrrhus again met the Roman army at the Battle of Beneventum. This time the Romans had devised methods to deal with the war elephants, including the use of javelins, fire and, one source claims, simply hitting the elephants heavily on the head. While Beneventum was indecisive, Pyrrhus realised that his army had been exhausted and reduced by years of foreign campaigns, and seeing little hope for further gains, he withdrew completely from Italy.
The conflicts with Pyrrhus would have a great effect on Rome. It had shown that it was capable of pitting its armies successfully against the dominant military powers of the Mediterranean, and further showed that the Greek kingdoms were incapable of defending their colonies in Italy and abroad. Rome quickly moved into southern Italia, subjugating and dividing Magna Grecia. Effectively dominating the Italian peninsula, and with a proven international military reputation, Rome now began to look to expand from the Italian mainland. Since the Alps formed a natural barrier to the north, and Rome was none too keen to meet the fierce Gauls in battle once more, the city 's gaze turned to Sicily and the islands of the Mediterranean, a policy that would bring it into direct conflict with its former ally Carthage.
Rome first began to make war outside the Italian peninsula during the Punic wars against Carthage, a former Phoenician colony that had established on the north coast of Africa and developed into a powerful state. These wars, starting in 264 BC were probably the largest conflicts of the ancient world yet and saw Rome become the most powerful state of the Western Mediterranean, with territory in Sicily, North Africa, Iberia, and with the end of the Macedonian wars (which ran concurrently with the Punic wars) Greece as well. After the defeat of the Seleucid Emperor Antiochus III the Great in the Roman - Syrian War (Treaty of Apamea, 188 BC) in the eastern sea, Rome emerged as the dominant Mediterranean power and the most powerful city in the classical world.
The First Punic War began in 264 BC when settlements on Sicily began to appeal to the two powers between which they lay -- Rome and Carthage -- in order to solve internal conflicts. The willingness of both Rome and Carthage to become embroiled on the soil of a third party may indicate a willingness to test each other 's power without wishing to enter a full war of annihilation; certainly there was considerable disagreement within Rome about whether to prosecute the war at all. The war saw land battles in Sicily early on, such as the Battle of Agrigentum, but the theatre shifted to naval battles around Sicily and Africa. For the Romans, naval warfare was a relatively unexplored concept. Before the First Punic War in 264 BC there was no Roman navy to speak of, as all previous Roman wars had been fought on land in Italy. The new war in Sicily against Carthage, a great naval power, forced Rome to quickly build a fleet and train sailors.
Rome took to naval warfare "like a brick to water '' and the first few naval battles of the First Punic War such as the Battle of the Lipari Islands were catastrophic disasters for Rome, as might fairly be expected from a city that had no real prior experience of naval warfare. However, after training more sailors and inventing a grappling engine known as a Corvus, a Roman naval force under C. Duillius was able to roundly defeat a Carthaginian fleet at the Battle of Mylae. In just four years, a state without any real naval experience had managed to better a major regional maritime power in battle. Further naval victories followed at the Battle of Tyndaris and the Battle of Cape Ecnomus.
After having won control of the seas, a Roman force landed on the African coast under Marcus Regulus, who was at first victorious, winning the Battle of Adys and forcing Carthage to sue for peace. However, the terms of peace that Rome proposed were so heavy that negotiations failed, and in response, the Carthaginians hired Xanthippus of Carthage, a mercenary from the martial Greek city - state of Sparta, to reorganise and lead their army. Xanthippus managed to cut off the Roman army from its base by re-establishing Carthaginian naval supremacy and then defeated and captured Regulus at the Battle of Tunis.
Despite being defeated on African soil, the Romans with their newfound naval abilities, roundly beat the Carthaginians in naval battle again -- largely through the tactical innovations of the Roman fleet -- at the Battle of the Aegates Islands. Carthage was left without a fleet or sufficient coin to raise a new one. For a maritime power, the loss of their access to the Mediterranean stung financially and psychologically, and the Carthaginians again sued for peace, during which negotiations, Rome battled the Ligures tribe in the Ligurian War and the Insubres in the Gallic War.
Continuing distrust led to the renewal of hostilities in the Second Punic War when Hannibal Barca, a member of the Barcid family of Carthaginian nobility, attacked Saguntum, a city with diplomatic ties to Rome. Hannibal then raised an army in Iberia and famously crossed the Italian Alps with elephants to invade Italy. In the first battle on Italian soil at Ticinus in 218 BC Hannibal defeated the Romans under Scipio the Elder in a small cavalry fight. Hannibal 's success continued with victories in the Battle of the Trebia, the Battle of Lake Trasimene, where he ambushed an unsuspecting Roman army, and the Battle of Cannae, in what is considered one of the great masterpieces of tactical art, and for a while "Hannibal seemed invincible '', able to beat Roman armies at will.
In the three battles of Nola, Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus managed to hold off Hannibal but then Hannibal smashed a succession of Roman consular armies at the First Battle of Capua, the Battle of the Silarus, the Second Battle of Herdonia, the Battle of Numistro and the Battle of Asculum. By this time Hannibal 's brother Hasdrubal Barca sought to cross the Alps into Italy and join his brother with a second army. Despite being defeated in Iberia in the Battle of Baecula, Hasdrubal managed to break through into Italy only to be defeated decisively by Gaius Claudius Nero and Marcus Livius Salinator on the Metaurus River.
Unable to defeat Hannibal himself on Italian soil, and with Hannibal savaging the Italian countryside but unwilling or unable to destroy Rome itself, the Romans boldly sent an army to Africa with the intention of threatening the Carthaginian capital. In 203 BC at the Battle of Bagbrades the invading Roman army under Scipio Africanus Major defeated the Carthaginian army of Hasdrubal Gisco and Syphax and Hannibal was recalled to Africa. At the famous Battle of Zama Scipio decisively defeated -- perhaps even "annihilated '' -- Hannibal 's army in North Africa, ending the Second Punic War.
Carthage never managed to recover after the Second Punic War and the Third Punic War that followed was in reality a simple punitive mission to raze the city of Carthage to the ground. Carthage was almost defenceless and when besieged offered immediate surrender, conceding to a string of outrageous Roman demands. The Romans refused the surrender, demanding as their further terms of surrender the complete destruction of the city and, seeing little to lose, the Carthaginians prepared to fight. In the Battle of Carthage the city was stormed after a short siege and completely destroyed, its culture "almost totally extinguished ''.
Rome 's conflict with the Carthaginians in the Punic Wars led them into expansion in the Iberian peninsula of modern - day Spain and Portugal. The Punic empire of the Carthaginian Barcid family consisted of territories in Iberia, many of which Rome gained control of during the Punic Wars. Italy remained the main theatre of war for much of the Second Punic War, but the Romans also aimed to destroy the Barcid Empire in Iberia and prevent major Punic allies from linking up with forces in Italy.
Over the years, Rome had expanded along the southern Iberian coast until in 211 BC it captured the city of Saguntum. Following two major military expeditions to Iberia, the Romans finally crushed Carthaginian control of the peninsula in 206 BC, at the Battle of Ilipa, and the peninsula became a Roman province known as Hispania. From 206 BC onwards the only opposition to Roman control of the peninsula came from within the native Celtiberian tribes themselves, whose disunity prevented their security from Roman expansion.
Following two small - scale rebellions in 197 BC, in 195 -- 194 BC war broke out between the Romans and the Lusitani people in the Lusitanian War, in modern - day Portugal. By 179 BC, the Romans had mostly succeeded in pacifying the region and bringing it under their control.
About 154 BC, a major revolt was re-ignited in Numantia, which is known as the First Numantine War, and a long war of resistance was fought between the advancing forces of the Roman Republic and the Lusitani tribes of Hispania. The praetor Servius Sulpicius Galba and the proconsul Lucius Licinius Lucullus arrived in 151 BC and began the process of subduing the local population. In 150 BC, Galba betrayed the Lusitani leaders he had invited to peace talks and had them killed, ingloriously ending the first phase of the war.
The Lusitani revolted again in 146 BC under a new leader called Viriathus, invading Turdetania (southern Iberia) in a guerrilla war. The Lusitanians were initially successful, defeating a Roman army at the Battle of Tribola and going on to sack nearby Carpetania, and then besting a second Roman army at the First Battle of Mount Venus in 146 BC, again going on to sack another nearby city. In 144 BC, the general Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus campaigned successfully against the Lusitani, but failed in his attempts to arrest Viriathus.
In 144 BC, Viriathus formed a league against Rome with several Celtiberian tribes and persuaded them to rise against Rome too, in the Second Numantine War. Viriathus ' new coalition bested Roman armies at the Second Battle of Mount Venus in 144 BC and again at the failed Siege of Erisone. In 139 BC, Viriathus was finally killed in his sleep by three of his companions who had been promised gifts by Rome. In 136 and 135 BC, more attempts were made to gain complete control of the region of Numantia, but they failed. In 134 BC, the Consul Scipio Aemilianus finally succeeded in suppressing the rebellion following the successful Siege of Numantia.
Since the Roman invasion of the Iberian peninsula had begun in the south in the territories around the Mediterranean controlled by the Barcids, the last region of the peninsula to be subdued lay in the far north. The Cantabrian Wars or Astur - Cantabrian Wars, from 29 BC to 19 BC, occurred during the Roman conquest of these northern provinces of Cantabria and Asturias. Iberia was fully occupied by 25 BC and the last revolt put down by 19 BC
Rome 's preoccupation with its war with Carthage provided an opportunity for Philip V of the kingdom of Macedon in northern Greece to attempt to extend his power westward. Philip sent ambassadors to Hannibal 's camp in Italy, to negotiate an alliance as common enemies of Rome. However, Rome discovered the agreement when Philip 's emissaries, along with emissaries from Hannibal, were captured by a Roman fleet. Desiring to prevent Philip from aiding Carthage in Italy and elsewhere, Rome sought out land allies in Greece to fight a proxy war against Macedon on its behalf and found partners in the Aetolian League of Greek city - states, the Illyrians to the north of Macedon and the kingdom of Pergamon and the city - state of Rhodes, which lay across the Aegean from Macedon.
The First Macedonian War saw the Romans involved directly in only limited land operations. When the Aetolians sued for peace with Philip, Rome 's small expeditionary force, with no more allies in Greece, was ready to make peace. Rome had achieved its objective of pre-occupying Philip and preventing him from aiding Hannibal. A treaty was drawn up between Rome and Macedon at Phoenice in 205 BC which promised Rome a small indemnity, formally ending the First Macedonian War.
Macedon began to encroach on territory claimed by several other Greek city states in 200 BC and these pleaded for help from their newfound ally Rome. Rome gave Philip an ultimatum that he must submit Macedonia to being essentially a Roman province. Philip, unsurprisingly, refused and, after initial internal reluctance for further hostilities, Rome declared war against Philip in the Second Macedonian War. In the Battle of the Aous Roman forces under Titus Quinctius Flamininus defeated the Macedonians, and in a second larger battle under the same opposing commanders in 197 BC, in the Battle of Cynoscephalae, Flamininus again beat the Macedonians decisively. Macedonia was forced to sign the Treaty of Tempea, in which it lost all claim to territory in Greece and Asia, and had to pay a war indemnity to Rome.
Between the second and third Macedonian wars Rome faced further conflict in the region due to a tapestry of shifting rivalries, alliances and leagues all seeking to gain greater influence. After the Macedonians had been defeated in the Second Macedonian War in 197 BC, the Greek city - state of Sparta stepped into the partial power vacuum in Greece. Fearing the Spartans would take increasing control of the region, the Romans drew on help from allies to prosecute the Roman - Spartan War, defeating a Spartan army at the Battle of Gythium in 195 BC. They also fought their former allies the Aetolian League in the Aetolian War, against the Istrians in the Istrian War, against the Illyrians in the Illyrian War, and against Achaia in the Achaean War.
Rome now turned its attentions to Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire to the east. After campaigns as far abroad as Bactria, India, Persia and Judea, Antiochus moved to Asia Minor and Thrace to secure several coastal towns, a move that brought him into conflict with Roman interests. A Roman force under Manius Acilius Glabrio defeated Antiochus at the Battle of Thermopylae and forced him to evacuate Greece: the Romans then pursued the Seleucids beyond Greece, beating them again in naval battles at the Battle of the Eurymedon and Battle of Myonessus, and finally in a decisive engagement of the Battle of Magnesia.
In 179 BC Philip died and his talented and ambitious son, Perseus of Macedon, took his throne and showed a renewed interest in Greece. He also allied himself with the warlike Bastarnae, and both this and his actions in Greece possibly violated the treaty signed with the Romans by his father or, if not, certainly was not "behaving as (Rome considered) a subordinate ally should ''. Rome declared war on Macedonia again, starting the Third Macedonian War. Perseus initially had greater military success against the Romans than his father, winning the Battle of Callicinus against a Roman consular army. However, as with all such ventures in this period, Rome responded by simply sending another army. The second consular army duly defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC and the Macedonians, lacking the reserve of the Romans and with King Perseus captured, duly capitulated, ending the Third Macedonian War.
The Fourth Macedonian War, fought from 150 BC to 148 BC, was the final war between Rome and Macedon and began when Andriscus usurped the Macedonian throne. The Romans raised a consular army under Quintus Caecilius Metellus, who swiftly defeated Andriscus at the Second battle of Pydna.
Under Lucius Mummius, Corinth was destroyed following a siege in 146 BC, leading to the surrender and thus conquest of the Achaean League (see Battle of Corinth).
Rome had, in the earlier Punic Wars, gained large tracts of territory in Africa, which they consolidated in the following centuries. Much of that land had been granted to the kingdom of Numidia, a kingdom on the north African coast approximating to modern Algeria, in return for its past military assistance. The Jugurthine War of 111 -- 104 BC was fought between Rome and Jugurtha of Numidia and constituted the final Roman pacification of Northern Africa, after which Rome largely ceased expansion on the continent after reaching natural barriers of desert and mountain. In response to Jugurtha 's usurpation of the Numidian throne, a loyal ally of Rome since the Punic Wars, Rome intervened. Jugurtha impudently bribed the Romans into accepting his usurpation and was granted half the kingdom. Following further aggression and further bribery attempts, the Romans sent an army to depose him. The Romans were defeated at the Battle of Suthul but fared better at the Battle of the Muthul and finally defeated Jugurtha at the Battle of Thala, the Battle of Mulucha, and the Battle of Cirta (104 BC). Jugurtha was finally captured not in battle but by treachery, ending the war.
Memories of the sack of Rome by Celtic tribes from Gaul in 390 / 387 BC, had been made into a legendary account that was taught to each generation of Roman youth, were still prominent despite their historical distance. In 121 BC, Rome came into contact with the Celtic tribes of the Allobroges and the Arverni, both of which they defeated with apparent ease in the First Battle of Avignon near the Rhone river and the Second Battle of Avignon, the same year.
The Cimbrian War (113 -- 101 BC) was a far more serious affair than the earlier clashes of 121 BC. The Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutons or Teutones migrated from northern Europe into Rome 's northern territories, where they clashed with Rome and her allies. The Cimbrian War was the first time since the Second Punic War that Italia and Rome itself had been seriously threatened, and caused great fear in Rome. The opening action of the Cimbrian War, the Battle of Noreia in 112 BC, ended in defeat and near disaster for the Romans. In 105 BC the Romans were defeated at the Battle of Arausio and was the costliest Rome had suffered since the Battle of Cannae. After the Cimbri inadvertently granted the Romans a reprieve by diverting to plunder Iberia, Rome was given the opportunity to carefully prepare for and successfully meet the Cimbri and Teutons in the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (102 BC) and the Battle of Vercellae (101 BC) where both tribes were virtually annihilated, ending the threat.
The extensive campaigning abroad by Rome, and the rewarding of soldiers with plunder from those campaigns, led to the trend of soldiers becoming increasingly loyal to their commanders rather than to the state, and a willingness to follow their generals in battle against the state. Rome was plagued by several slave uprisings during this period, in part because in the past century vast tracts of land had been given to veterans who farmed by use of slaves and who came to greatly outnumber their Roman masters. In the last century BC, at least twelve civil wars and rebellions occurred. This pattern did not break until Octavian (later Caesar Augustus) ended it by becoming a successful challenger to the Senate 's authority, and was made princeps (emperor).
Between 135 BC and 71 BC there were three Servile Wars against the Roman state; the third, and most serious, may have involved the revolution of 120,000 to 150,000 slaves. Additionally, in 91 BC the Social War broke out between Rome and its former allies in Italy, collectively known as the Socii, over the grievance that they shared the risk of Rome 's military campaigns, but not its rewards. Despite defeats such as the Battle of Fucine Lake, Roman troops defeated the Italian militias in decisive engagements, notably the Battle of Asculum. Although they lost militarily, the Socii achieved their objectives with the legal proclamations of the Lex Julia and Lex Plautia Papiria, which granted citizenship to more than 500,000 Italians.
The internal unrest reached its most serious stage in the two civil wars or marches upon Rome by the consul Lucius Cornelius Sulla at the beginning of 82 BC. In the Battle of the Colline Gate at the very door of the city of Rome, a Roman army under Sulla bested an army of the Roman senate and its Samnite allies. Whatever the merits of his grievances against those in power of the state, his actions marked a watershed of the willingness of Roman troops to wage war against one another that was to pave the way for the wars of the triumvirate, the overthrowing of the Senate as the de facto head of the Roman state, and the eventual endemic usurpation of power by contenders for the emperor - ship in the later Empire.
Mithridates the Great was the ruler of Pontus, a large kingdom in Asia Minor, from 120 to 63 BC. He is remembered as one of Rome 's most formidable and successful enemies who engaged three of the most prominent generals of the late Roman Republic: Sulla, Lucullus, and Pompey the Great. In a pattern familiar from the Punic Wars, the Romans came into conflict with him after the two states ' spheres of influence began to overlap. Mithridates antagonised Rome by seeking to expand his kingdom, and Rome for her part seemed equally keen for war and the spoils and prestige that it might bring. After conquering western Anatolia (modern Turkey) in 88 BC, Roman sources claim that Mithridates ordered the killing of the majority of the 80,000 Romans living there. In the subsequent First Mithridatic War, the Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla forced Mithridates out of Greece proper after the Battle of Chaeronea and later Battle of Orchomenus but then had to return to Italy to answer the internal threat posed by his rival Marius; consequently, Mithridates VI was defeated but not destroyed. A peace was made between Rome and Pontus, but this proved only a temporary lull.
The Second Mithridatic War began when Rome tried to annex Bithynia as a province. In the Third Mithridatic War, first Lucius Licinius Lucullus and then Pompey the Great were sent against Mithridates. Mithridates was finally defeated by Pompey in the night - time Battle of the Lycus. After defeating Mithridates, Pompey invaded Caucacus, subjugated the Kingdom of Iberia and established Roman control over Colchis.
The Mediterranean had at this time fallen into the hands of pirates, largely from Cilicia. Rome had destroyed many of the states that had previously policed the Mediterranean with fleets, but had failed to step into the gap created. The pirates had seized the opportunity of a relative power vacuum and had not only strangled shipping lanes but had plundered many cities on the coasts of Greece and Asia, and had even made descents upon Italy itself. After the Roman admiral Marcus Antonius Creticus (father of the triumvir Marcus Antonius) failed to clear the pirates to the satisfaction of the Roman authorities, Pompey was nominated his successor as commander of a special naval task force to campaign against them. It supposedly took Pompey just forty days to clear the western portion of the western Mediterranean of pirates, and restore communication between Iberia, Africa, and Italy. Plutarch describes how Pompey first swept their craft from the Mediterranean in a series of small actions and through the promise of honouring the surrender of cities and craft. He then followed the main body of the pirates to their strongholds on the coast of Cilicia, and destroyed them there in the naval Battle of Korakesion.
During a term as praetor in Iberia, Pompey 's contemporary Julius Caesar of the Roman Julii clan defeated the Calaici and Lusitani in battle. Following a consular term, he was then appointed to a five - year term as Proconsular Governor of Transalpine Gaul (current southern France) and Illyria (the coast of Dalmatia). Not content with an idle governorship, Caesar strove to find reason to invade Gaul, which would give him the dramatic military success he sought. To this end he stirred up popular nightmares of the first sack of Rome by the Gauls and the more recent spectre of the Cimbri and Teutones. When the Helvetii and Tigurini tribes began to migrate on a route that would take them near (not into) the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul, Caesar had the barely sufficient excuse he needed for his Gallic Wars, fought between 58 BC and 49 BC. After slaughtering the Helvetii tribe, Caesar prosecuted a "long, bitter and costly '' campaign against other tribes across the breadth of Gaul, many of whom had fought alongside Rome against their common enemy the Helvetii, and annexed their territory to that of Rome. Plutarch claims that the campaign cost a million Gallic lives. Although "fierce and able '' the Gauls were handicapped by internal disunity and fell in a series of battles over the course of a decade.
Caesar defeated the Helvetii in 58 BC at the Battle of the Arar and Battle of Bibracte, the Belgic confederacy known as the Belgae at the Battle of the Axona, the Nervii in 57 BC at the Battle of the Sabis, the Aquitani, Treviri, Tencteri, Aedui and Eburones in unknown battles, and the Veneti in 56 BC. In 55 and 54 BC he made two expeditions to Britain. In 52 BC, following the Siege of Avaricum and a string of inconclusive battles, Caesar defeated a union of Gauls led by Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia, completing the Roman conquest of Transalpine Gaul. By 50 BC, the entirety of Gaul lay in Roman hands. Caesar recorded his own accounts of these campaigns in Commentarii de Bello Gallico ("Commentaries on the Gallic War '').
Gaul never regained its Celtic identity, never attempted another nationalist rebellion, and remained loyal to Rome until the fall of the Western Empire in 476 AD. However, although Gaul itself was to thereafter remain loyal, cracks were appearing in the political unity of Rome 's governing figures -- partly over concerns over the loyalty of Caesar 's Gallic troops to his person rather than the state -- that were soon to drive Rome into a lengthy series of civil wars.
By 59 BC an unofficial political alliance known as the First Triumvirate was formed between Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus to share power and influence. It was always an uncomfortable alliance given that Crassus and Pompey intensely disliked one another. In 53 BC, Crassus launched a Roman invasion of the Parthian Empire. After initial successes, he marched his army deep into the desert; but here his army was cut off deep in enemy territory, surrounded and slaughtered at the Battle of Carrhae in "the greatest Roman defeat since Hannibal '' in which Crassus himself perished. The death of Crassus removed some of the balance in the Triumvirate and, consequently, Caesar and Pompey began to move apart. While Caesar was fighting against Vercingetorix in Gaul, Pompey proceeded with a legislative agenda for Rome that revealed that he was at best ambivalent towards Caesar and perhaps now covertly allied with Caesar 's political enemies. In 51 BC, some Roman senators demanded that Caesar would not be permitted to stand for Consul unless he turned over control of his armies to the state, and the same demands were made of Pompey by other factions. Relinquishing his army would leave Caesar defenceless before his enemies. Caesar chose Civil War over laying down his command and facing trial. The triumvirate was shattered and conflict was inevitable.
Pompey initially assured Rome and the senate that he could defeat Caesar in battle should he march on Rome. However, by the spring of 49 BC, when Caesar crossed the Rubicon river with his invading forces and swept down the Italian peninsula towards Rome, Pompey ordered the abandonment of Rome. Caesar 's army was still under - strength, with certain units remaining in Gaul, but on the other hand Pompey himself only had a small force at his command, and that with uncertain loyalty having served under Caesar. Tom Holland attributes Pompey 's willingness to abandon Rome to waves of panicking refugees as an attempt to stir ancestral fears of invasions from the north. Pompey 's forces retreated south towards Brundisium, and then fled to Greece. Caesar first directed his attention to the Pompeian stronghold of Iberia but following campaigning by Caesar in the Siege of Massilia and Battle of Ilerda he decided to attack Pompey in Greece. Pompey initially defeated Caesar at the Battle of Dyrrachium in 48 BC but failed to follow up on the victory. Pompey was decisively defeated in the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC despite outnumbering Caesar 's forces two to one. Pompey fled again, this time to Egypt, where he was murdered in an attempt to ingratiate the country with Caesar and avoid a war with Rome.
Pompey 's death did not see the end of the civil wars since initially Caesar 's enemies were manifold and Pompey 's supporters continued to fight on after his death. In 46 BC Caesar lost perhaps as much as a third of his army when his former commander Titus Labienus, who had defected to the Pompeians several years earlier, defeated him at the Battle of Ruspina. However, after this low point Caesar came back to defeat the Pompeian army of Metellus Scipio in the Battle of Thapsus, after which the Pompeians retreated yet again to Iberia. Caesar defeated the combined forces of Titus Labienus and Gnaeus Pompey the Younger at the Battle of Munda in Iberia. Labienus was killed in the battle and the Younger Pompey captured and executed.
Despite his military success, or probably because of it, fear spread of Caesar, now the primary figure of the Roman state, becoming an autocratic ruler and ending the Roman Republic. This fear drove a group of senators naming themselves The Liberators to assassinate him in 44 BC. Further civil war followed between those loyal to Caesar and those who supported the actions of the Liberators. Caesar 's supporter Mark Antony condemned Caesar 's assassins and war broke out between the two factions. Antony was denounced as a public enemy, and Octavian was entrusted with the command of the war against him. In the Battle of Forum Gallorum Antony, besieging Caesar 's assassin Decimus Brutus in Mutina, defeated the forces of the consul Pansa, who was killed, but Antony was then immediately defeated by the army of the other consul, Hirtius. At the Battle of Mutina Antony was again defeated in battle by Hirtius, who was killed. Although Antony failed to capture Mutina, Decimus Brutus was murdered shortly thereafter.
Octavian betrayed his party, and came to terms with Caesarians Antony and Lepidus and on 26 November 43 BC the Second Triumvirate was formed, this time in an official capacity. In 42 BC Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fought the indecisive Battle of Philippi with Caesar 's assassins Marcus Brutus and Cassius. Although Brutus defeated Octavian, Antony defeated Cassius, who committed suicide. Brutus also committed suicide shortly afterwards.
Civil war flared again when the Second Triumvirate of Octavian, Lepidus and Mark Antony failed just as the first had almost as soon as its opponents had been removed. The ambitious Octavian built a power base and then launched a campaign against Mark Antony. Together with Lucius Antonius, Mark Antony 's wife Fulvia raised an army in Italy to fight for Antony 's rights against Octavian but she was defeated by Octavian at the Battle of Perugia. Her death led to partial reconciliation between Octavian and Antony who went on to crush the army of Sextus Pompeius, the last focus of opposition to the second triumvirate, in the naval Battle of Naulochus.
As before, once opposition to the triumvirate was crushed, it started to tear at itself. The triumvirate expired on the last day of 33 BC and was not renewed in law and in 31 BC, war began again. At the Battle of Actium, Octavian decisively defeated Antony and Cleopatra in a naval battle near Greece, using fire to destroy the enemy fleet.
Octavian went on to become Emperor under the name Augustus and, in the absence of political assassins or usurpers, was able to greatly expand the borders of the Empire.
Early Imperial campaigns in Germania
Marcomannic Wars (participating Roman units)
Roman -- Alemannic Wars
Gothic War
Visigothic Wars
Vandalic Wars
Anglo - Saxon Wars
Ostrogothic Wars
Secure from interior enemies, Rome achieved great territorial gains in both the East and the West. In the West, following humiliating defeats at the hands of the Sugambri, Tencteri and Usipetes tribes in 16 BC, Roman armies pushed north and east out of Gaul to subdue much of Germania. The Pannonian revolt in 6 AD forced the Romans to cancel their plan to cement their conquest of Germania. Despite the loss of a large army almost to the man of Varus ' famous defeat at the hands of the Germanic leader Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD, Rome recovered and continued its expansion up to and beyond the borders of the known world. Roman armies under Germanicus pursued several more campaigns against the Germanic tribes of the Marcomanni, Hermunduri, Chatti, Cherusci, Bructeri, and Marsi. Overcoming several mutinies in the armies along the Rhine, Germanicus defeated the Germanic tribes of Arminius in a series of battles culminating in the Battle of the Weser River.
After Caesar 's preliminary low - scale invasions of Britain, the Romans invaded in force in 43 AD, forcing their way inland through several battles against British tribes, including the Battle of the Medway, the Battle of the Thames, the Battle of Caer Caradoc and the Battle of Mona. Following a general uprising in which the Britons sacked Colchester, St Albans and London, the Romans suppressed the rebellion in the Battle of Watling Street and went on to push as far north as central Scotland in the Battle of Mons Graupius. Tribes in modern - day Scotland and Northern England repeatedly rebelled against Roman rule and two military bases were established in Britannia to protect against rebellion and incursions from the north, from which Roman troops built and manned Hadrian 's Wall.
On the continent, the extension of the Empire 's borders beyond the Rhine hung in the balance for some time, with the emperor Caligula apparently poised to invade Germania in 39 AD, and Cnaeus Domitius Corbulo crossing the Rhine in 47 AD and marching into the territory of the Frisii and Chauci. Caligula 's successor, Claudius, ordered the suspension of further attacks across the Rhine, setting what was to become the permanent limit of the Empire 's expansion in this direction.
Further east, Trajan turned his attention to Dacia, an area north of Macedon and Greece and east of the Danube that had been on the Roman agenda since before the days of Caesar when they had beaten a Roman army at the Battle of Histria. In 85 AD, the Dacians had swarmed over the Danube and pillaged Moesia and initially defeated an army the Emperor Domitian sent against them, but the Romans were victorious in the Battle of Tapae in AD 88 and a truce was drawn up.
Emperor Trajan recommenced hostilities against Dacia and, following an uncertain number of battles, defeated the Dacian general Decebalus in the Second Battle of Tapae in 101 AD. With Trajan 's troops pressing towards the Dacian capital Sarmizegethusa, Decebalus once more sought terms. Decebalus rebuilt his power over the following years and attacked Roman garrisons again in 105 AD. In response Trajan again marched into Dacia, besieging the Dacian capital in the Siege of Sarmizethusa, and razing it to the ground. With Dacia quelled, Trajan subsequently invaded the Parthian empire to the east, his conquests taking the Roman Empire to its greatest extent. Rome 's borders in the east were indirectly governed through a system of client states for some time, leading to less direct campaigning than in the west in this period.
The Kingdom of Armenia between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea became a focus of contention between Rome and the Parthian Empire, and control of the region was repeatedly gained and lost. The Parthians forced Armenia into submission from 37 AD but in 47 AD the Romans retook control of the kingdom and offered it client kingdom status. Under Nero, the Romans fought a campaign between 55 and 63 AD against the Parthian Empire, which had again invaded Armenia. After gaining Armenia once more in 60 AD and subsequently losing it again in 62 AD, the Romans sent Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo in 63 AD into the territories of Vologases I of Parthia. Corbulo succeeded in returning Armenia to Roman client status, where it remained for the next century.
In 69 AD, Marcus Salvius Otho, governor of Lusitania, had the Emperor Galba murdered and claimed the throne for himself. However, Vitellius, governor of the province of Germania Inferior, had also claimed the throne and marched on Rome with his troops. Following an inconclusive battle near Antipolis, Vitellius ' troops attacked the city of Placentia in the Assault of Placentia, but were repulsed by the Othonian garrison.
Otho left Rome on March 14, and marched north towards Placentia to meet his challenger. In the Battle of Locus Castorum the Othonians had the better of the fighting, and Vitellius ' troops retreated to Cremona. The two armies met again on the Via Postunia, in the First Battle of Bedriacum, after which the Othonian troops fled back to their camp in Bedriacum, and the next day surrendered to the Vitellian forces. Otho decided to commit suicide rather than fight on.
Meanwhile, the forces stationed in the Middle East provinces of Judaea and Syria had acclaimed Vespasian as emperor and the Danubian armies of the provinces of Raetia and Moesia also acclaimed Vespasian as emperor. Vespasian 's and Vitellius ' armies met in the Second Battle of Bedriacum, after which the Vitellian troops were driven back into their camp outside Cremona, which was taken. Vespasian 's troops then attacked Cremona itself, which surrendered.
Under pretence of siding with Vespasian, Civilis of Batavia had taken up arms and induced the inhabitants of his native country to rebel. The rebelling Batavians were immediately joined by several neighbouring German tribes including the Frisii. These forces drove out the Roman garrisons near the Rhine and defeated a Roman army at the Battle of Castra Vetera, after which many Roman troops along the Rhine and in Gaul defected to the Batavian cause. However, disputes soon broke out amongst the different tribes, rendering co-operation impossible; Vespasian, having successfully ended the civil war, called upon Civilis to lay down his arms, and on his refusal his legions met him in force, defeating him in the Battle of Augusta Treverorum.
Prelude
Major conflicts
The first Jewish - Roman War, sometimes called The Great Revolt, was the first of three major rebellions by the Jews of Judaea Province against the Roman Empire. Judea was already a troubled region with bitter violence among several competing Jewish sects and a long history of rebellion The Jews ' anger turned on Rome following robberies from their temples and Roman insensitivity -- Tacitus says disgust and repulsion -- towards their religion. The Jews began to prepare for armed revolt. Early successes, including the repulse of the First Siege of Jerusalem and the Battle of Beth - Horon, only attracted greater attention from Rome and Emperor Nero appointed general Vespasian to crush the rebellion. Vespasian led his forces in a methodical clearance of the areas in revolt. By the year 68 AD, Jewish resistance in the North had been crushed. A few towns and cities held out for a few years before falling to the Romans, leading to the Siege of Masada in 73 AD and the Second Siege of Jerusalem.
In 115 AD, revolt broke out again in the province, leading to the second Jewish - Roman war known as the Kitos War, and again in 132 AD in what is known as Bar Kokhba 's revolt. Both were brutally crushed.
By the 2nd century AD the territories of Persia were controlled by the Arsacid dynasty and known as the Parthian Empire. Due in large part to their employment of powerful heavy cavalry and mobile horse archers, Parthia was the most formidable enemy of the Roman Empire in the east. As early as 53 BC, the Roman general Crassus had invaded Parthia, but he was killed and his army was defeated at the Battle of Carrhae. In the years following Carrhae, the Romans were divided in civil war and hence unable to campaign against Parthia. Trajan also campaigned against the Parthians from 114 -- 117 AD and briefly captured their capital Ctesiphon, putting the puppet ruler Parthamaspates on the throne. However, rebellions in Babylonia and the Jewish revolts in Judea made it difficult to maintain the captured province and the territories were abandoned.
A revitalised Parthian Empire renewed its assault in 161 AD, defeating two Roman armies and invading Armenia and Syria. Emperor Lucius Verus and general Gaius Avidius Cassius were sent in 162 AD to counter the resurgent Parthia. In this war, the Parthian city of Seleucia on the Tigris was destroyed and the palace at the capital Ctesiphon was burned to the ground by Avidius Cassius in 164 AD. The Parthians made peace but were forced to cede western Mesopotamia to the Romans.
In 197 AD, Emperor Septimius Severus waged a brief and successful war against the Parthian Empire in retaliation for the support given to a rival for the imperial throne Pescennius Niger. The Parthian capital Ctesiphon was sacked by the Roman army, and the northern half of Mesopotamia was restored to Rome.
Emperor Caracalla, the son of Severus, marched on Parthia in 217 AD from Edessa to begin a war against them, but he was assassinated while on the march. In 224 AD, the Parthian Empire was crushed not by the Romans but by the rebellious Persian vassal king Ardashir I, who revolted, leading to the establishment of Sassanid Empire of Persia, which replaced Parthia as Rome 's major rival in the East.
Throughout the Parthian wars, tribal groups along the Rhine and Danube took advantage of Rome 's preoccupation with the eastern frontier (and the plague that the Romans suffered from after bringing it back from the east) and launched a series of incursions into Roman territories, including the Marcomannic Wars.
After Varus ' defeat in Germania in the 1st century, Rome had adopted a largely defensive strategy along the border with Germania, constructing a line of defences known as limes along the Rhine. Although the exact historicity is unclear, since the Romans often assigned one name to several distinct tribal groups, or conversely applied several names to a single group at different times, some mix of Germanic peoples, Celts, and tribes of mixed Celto - Germanic ethnicity were settled in the lands of Germania from the 1st century onwards. The Cherusci, Bructeri, Tencteri, Usipi, Marsi, and Chatti of Varus ' time had by the 3rd century either evolved into or been displaced by a confederacy or alliance of Germanic tribes collectively known as the Alamanni, first mentioned by Cassius Dio describing the campaign of Caracalla in 213 AD.
In around 166 AD, several Germanic tribes pushed across the Danube, striking as far as Italy itself in the Siege of Aquileia in 166 AD, and the heartland of Greece in the Sack of Eleusis.
Although the essential problem of large tribal groups on the frontier remained much the same as the situation Rome faced in earlier centuries, the 3rd century saw a marked increase in the overall threat, although there is disagreement over whether external pressure increased, or Rome 's ability to meet it declined. The Carpi and Sarmatians whom Rome had held at bay were replaced by the Goths and likewise the Quadi and Marcomanni that Rome had defeated were replaced by the greater confederation of the Alamanni.
The assembled warbands of the Alamanni frequently crossed the limes, attacking Germania Superior such that they were almost continually engaged in conflicts with the Roman Empire, whilst Goths attacked across the Danube in battles such as the Battle of Beroa and Battle of Philippopolis in 250 AD and the Battle of Abrittus in 251 AD, and both Goths and Heruli ravaged the Aegean and, later, Greece, Thrace and Macedonia. However, their first major assault deep into Roman territory came in 268 AD. In that year the Romans were forced to denude much of their German frontier of troops in response to a massive invasion by another new Germanic tribal confederacy, the Goths, from the east. The pressure of tribal groups pushing into the Empire was the end result of a chain of migrations with its roots far to the east: Huns from the Russian steppe attacked the Goths, who in turn attacked the Dacians, Alans and Sarmatians at or within Rome 's borders. The Goths first appeared in history as a distinct people in this invasion of 268 AD when they swarmed over the Balkan peninsula and overran the Roman provinces of Pannonia and Illyricum and even threatened Italia itself.
The Alamanni seized the opportunity to launch a major invasion of Gaul and northern Italy. However, the Visigoths were defeated in battle that summer near the modern Italian - Slovenian border and then routed in the Battle of Naissus that September by Gallienus, Claudius and Aurelian, who then turned and defeated the Alemanni at the Battle of Lake Benacus. Claudius ' successor Aurelian defeated the Goths twice more in the Battle of Fanum Fortunae and the Battle of Ticinum. The Goths remained a major threat to the Empire but directed their attacks away from Italy itself for several years after their defeat. By 284 AD, Gothic troops were serving on behalf of the Roman military as federated troops.
The Alamanni on the other hand resumed their drive towards Italy almost immediately. They defeated Aurelian at the Battle of Placentia in 271 AD but were beaten back for a short time after they lost the battles of Fano and Pavia later that year. They were beaten again in 298 AD at the battles of Lingones and Vindonissa but fifty years later they were resurgent again, making incursions in 356 AD at the Battle of Reims, in 357 AD at the Battle of Strasbourg, in 367 AD at the Battle of Solicinium and in 378 AD at Battle of Argentovaria. In the same year the Goths inflicted a crushing defeat on the Eastern Empire at the Battle of Adrianople, in which the Eastern Emperor Valens was massacred along with tens of thousands of Roman troops.
At the same time, Franks raided through the North Sea and the English Channel, Vandals pressed across the Rhine, Iuthungi against the Danube, Iazyges, Carpi and Taifali harassed Dacia, and Gepids joined the Goths and Heruli in attacks round the Black Sea. At around the same time, lesser - known tribes such as the Bavares, Baquates and Quinquegentanei raided Africa.
At the start of the 5th century, the pressure on Rome 's western borders was growing intense. However, it was not only the western borders that were under threat: Rome was also under threat both internally and on its eastern borders.
Year of the Six Emperors (238)
Reign of Gordian III (238 -- 244)
Reign of Philip the Arab (244 -- 249)
Reign of Decius and Herennius Etruscus (249 -- 251)
Reign of Trebonianus Gallus (251 -- 253)
Reign of Aemilianus (253)
Reign of Valerian & Gallienus (253 -- 260)
Reign of Gallienus (260 -- 268)
Reign of Postumus (260 -- 269) (Gallic Empire)
Reign of Victorinus (269 -- 271)
Reign of Aurelian (270 -- 275)
An army that was often willing to support its general over its emperor, meant that if commanders could establish sole control of their army, they could usurp the imperial throne from that position. The so - called Crisis of the Third Century describes the turmoil of murder, usurpation and in - fighting that followed the murder of the Emperor Alexander Severus in 235 AD. However, Cassius Dio marks the wider imperial decline as beginning in 180 AD with the ascension of Commodus to the throne, a judgement with which Gibbon concurred, and Matyszak states that "the rot... had become established long before '' even that.
Although the crisis of the 3rd century was not the absolute beginning of Rome 's decline, it nevertheless did impose a severe strain on the empire as Romans waged war on one another as they had not done since the last days of the Republic. Within the space of a single century, twenty - seven military officers declared themselves emperors and reigned over parts of the empire for months or days, all but two meeting with a violent end. The time was characterized by a Roman army that was as likely to be attacking itself as it was an outside invader, reaching a low point around 258 AD. Ironically, while it was these usurpations that led to the breakup of the Empire during the crisis, it was the strength of several frontier generals that helped reunify the empire through force of arms.
The situation was complex, often with three or more usurpers in existence at once. Septimius Severus and Pescennius Niger, both rebel generals declared to be emperors by the troops they commanded, clashed for the first time in 193 AD at the Battle of Cyzicus, in which Niger was defeated. However, it took two further defeats at the Battle of Nicaea later that year and the Battle of Issus the following year, for Niger to be destroyed. Almost as soon as Niger 's userpation had been ended, Severus was forced to deal with another rival for the throne in the person of Clodius Albinus, who had originally been allied to Severus. Albinus was proclaimed emperor by his troops in Britain and, crossing over to Gaul, defeated Severus ' general Virius Lupus in battle, before being in turn defeated and killed in the Battle of Lugdunum by Severus himself.
After this turmoil, Severus faced no more internal threats for the rest of his reign, and the reign of his successor Caracalla passed uninterrupted for a while until he was murdered by Macrinus, who proclaimed himself emperor. Despite Macrinus having his position ratified by the Roman senate, the troops of Varius Avitus declared him to be emperor instead, and the two met in battle at the Battle of Antioch in 218 AD, in which Macrinus was defeated. However, Avitus himself, after taking the imperial name Elagabalus, was murdered shortly afterwards and Alexander Severus was proclaimed emperor by both the Praetorian Guard and the senate who, after a short reign, was murdered in turn. His murderers were working on behalf of the army who were unhappy with their lot under his rule and who raised in his place Maximinus Thrax. However, just as he had been raised by the army, Maximinus was also brought down by them and despite winning the Battle of Carthage against the senate 's newly proclaimed Gordian II, he too was murdered when it appeared to his forces as though he would not be able to best the next senatorial candidate for the throne, Gordian III.
Gordian III 's fate is not certain, although he may have been murdered by his own successor, Philip the Arab, who ruled for only a few years before the army again raised a general, Decius, by their proclamation to emperor, who then defeated Philip in the Battle of Verona. Several succeeding generals avoided battling usurpers for the throne by being murdered by their own troops before battle could commence. The lone exception to this rule was Gallienus, emperor from 260 to 268 AD, who confronted a remarkable array of usurpers, most of whom he defeated in pitched battle. The army was mostly spared further infighting until around 273 AD, when Aurelian defeated the Gallic usurper Tetricus in the Battle of Chalons. The next decade saw an incredible number of usurpers, sometimes three at the same time, all vying for the imperial throne. Most of the battles are not recorded, due primarily to the turmoil of the time, until Diocletian, a usurper himself, defeated Carinus at the Battle of the Margus and become emperor.
Some small measure of stability again returned at this point, with the empire split into a Tetrarchy of two greater and two lesser emperors, a system that staved off civil wars for a short time until 312 AD. In that year, relations between the tetrarchy collapsed for good and Constantine I, Licinius, Maxentius and Maximinus jostled for control of the empire. In the Battle of Turin Constantine defeated Maxentius, and in the Battle of Tzirallum, Licinius defeated Maximinus. From 314 AD onwards, Constantine defeated Licinius in the Battle of Cibalae, then the Battle of Mardia, and then again at the Battle of Adrianople, the Battle of the Hellespont and the Battle of Chrysopolis.
Constantine then turned upon Maxentius, beating him in the Battle of Verona and the Battle of Milvian Bridge in the same year. Constantine 's son Constantius II inherited his father 's rule and later defeated the usurper Magnentius in first the Battle of Mursa Major and then the Battle of Mons Seleucus.
Successive emperors Valens and Theodosius I also defeated usurpers in, respectively, the Battle of Thyatira, and the battles of the Save and the Frigidus.
After overthrowing the Parthian confederacy, the Sassanid Empire that arose from its remains pursued a more aggressive expansionist policy than their predecessors and continued to make war against Rome. In 230 AD, the first Sassanid emperor attacked Roman territory first in Armenia and then in Mesopotamia but Roman losses were largely restored by Severus within a few years. In 243 AD, Emperor Gordian III 's army retook the Roman cities of Hatra, Nisibis and Carrhae from the Sassanids after defeating the Sassanids at the Battle of Resaena but what happened next is unclear: Persian sources claim that Gordian was defeated and killed in the Battle of Misikhe but Roman sources mention this battle only as an insignificant setback and suggest that Gordian died elsewhere.
Certainly, the Sassanids had not been cowed by the previous battles with Rome and in 253 AD the Sassanids under Shapur I penetrated deeply into Roman territory several times, defeating a Roman force at the Battle of Barbalissos and conquering and plundering Antiochia in 252 AD following the Siege of Antiochia. The Romans recovered Antioch by 253 AD, and Emperor Valerian gathered an army and marched eastward to the Sassanid borders. In 260 AD at the Battle of Edessa the Sassanids defeated the Roman army and captured the Roman Emperor Valerian.
By the late 3rd century, Roman fortunes on the eastern frontier improved dramatically. During a period of civil upheaval in Persia, emperor Carus led a successful campaign into Persia essentially uncontested, sacking Ctesiphon in 283 AD. During the reign of the Tetrarchy, emperors Diocletian and Galerius brought a decisive conclusion to the war, sacking Ctesiphon in 299 AD and expanding the Roman eastern frontier dramatically with the Treaty of Nisibis. The treaty brought lasting peace between Rome and the Sassanids for almost four decades until the end of Constantine the Great 's reign. In 337 AD, Shapur II broke the peace and began a 26 - year conflict, attempting with little success to conquer Roman fortresses in the region. After early Sassanid successes including the Battle of Amida in 359 AD and the Siege of Pirisabora in 363 AD, Emperor Julian met Shapur in 363 AD in the Battle of Ctesiphon outside the walls of the Persian capital. The Romans were victorious but were unable to take the city, and were forced to retreat due to their vulnerable position in the middle of hostile territory. Julian was killed in the Battle of Samarra during the retreat, possibly by one of his own men.
There were several future wars, although all brief and small - scale, since both the Romans and the Sassanids were forced to deal with threats from other directions during the 5th century. A war against Bahram V in 420 AD over the persecution of the Christians in Persia led to a brief war that was soon concluded by treaty and in 441 AD a war with Yazdegerd II was again swiftly concluded by treaty after both parties battled threats elsewhere.
Many theories have been advanced in way of explanation for decline of the Roman Empire, and many dates given for its fall, from the onset of its decline in the 3rd century to the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Militarily, however, the Empire finally fell after first being overrun by various non-Roman peoples and then having its heart in Italy seized by Germanic troops in a revolt. The historicity and exact dates are uncertain, and some historians do not consider that the Empire fell at this point.
The Empire became gradually less Romanised and increasingly Germanic in nature: although the Empire buckled under Visigothic assault, the overthrow of the last Emperor Romulus Augustus was carried out by federated Germanic troops from within the Roman army rather than by foreign troops. In this sense had Odoacer not renounced the title of Emperor and named himself "King of Italy '' instead, the Empire might have continued in name. Its identity, however, was no longer Roman -- it was increasingly populated and governed by Germanic peoples long before 476 AD. The Roman people were by the 5th century "bereft of their military ethos '' and the Roman army itself a mere supplement to federated troops of Goths, Huns, Franks and others fighting on their behalf.
Rome 's last gasp began when the Visigoths revolted around 395 AD. Led by Alaric I, they attempted to seize Constantinople, but were rebuffed and instead plundered much of Thrace in northern Greece. In 402 AD they besieged Mediolanum, the capital of Roman Emperor Honorius, defended by Roman Gothic troops. The arrival of the Roman Stilicho and his army forced Alaric to lift his siege and move his army towards Hasta (modern Asti) in western Italy, where Stilicho attacked it at the Battle of Pollentia, capturing Alaric 's camp. Stilicho offered to return the prisoners in exchange for the Visigoths returning to Illyricum but upon arriving at Verona, Alaric halted his retreat. Stilicho again attacked at the Battle of Verona and again defeated Alaric, forcing him to withdraw from Italy.
In 405 AD, the Ostrogoths invaded Italy itself, but were defeated. However, in 406 AD an unprecedented number of tribes took advantage of the freezing of the Rhine to cross en masse: Vandals, Suevi, Alans and Burgundians swept across the river and met little resistance in the Sack of Moguntiacum and the Sack of Treviri, completely overrunning Gaul. Despite this grave danger, or perhaps because of it, the Roman army continued to be wracked by usurpation, in one of which Stilicho, Rome 's foremost defender of the period, was put to death.
It is in this climate that, despite his earlier setback, Alaric returned again in 410 AD and managed to sack Rome. The Roman capital had by this time moved to the Italian city of Ravenna, but some historians view 410 AD as an alternative date for the true fall of the Roman Empire. Without possession of Rome or many of its former provinces, and increasingly Germanic in nature, the Roman Empire after 410 AD had little in common with the earlier Empire. By 410 AD, Britain had been mostly denuded of Roman troops, and by 425 AD was no longer part of the Empire, and much of western Europe was beset "by all kinds of calamities and disasters '', coming under barbarian kingdoms ruled by Vandals, Suebians, Visigoths and Burgundians.
The remainder of Rome 's territory -- if not its nature -- was defended for several decades following 410 AD largely by Flavius Aëtius, who managed to play off each of Rome 's barbarian invaders against one another. In 436 AD he led a Hunnic army against the Visigoths at the Battle of Arles, and again in 436 AD at the Battle of Narbonne. In 451 AD he led a combined army, including his former enemy the Visigoths, against the Huns at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, beating them so soundly that although they later sacked Concordia, Altinum, Mediolanum, Ticinum, and Patavium, they never again directly threatened Rome. Despite being the only clear champion of the Empire at this point Aëtius was slain by the Emperor Valentinian III 's own hand, leading Sidonius Apollinaris to observe, "I am ignorant, sir, of your motives or provocations; I only know that you have acted like a man who has cut off his right hand with his left ''.
Carthage, the second largest city in the empire, was lost along with much of North Africa in 439 AD to the Vandals, and the fate of Rome seemed sealed. By 476 AD, what remained of the Empire was completely in the hands of federated Germanic troops and when they revolted, led by Odoacer and deposed the Emperor Romulus Augustus there was nobody to stop them. Odoacer happened to hold the part of the Empire around Italy and Rome but other parts of the Empire were ruled by Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Franks, Alans and others. The Empire in the West had fallen, and its remnant in Italy was no longer Roman in nature. The Eastern Roman Empire and the Goths continued to fight over Rome and the surrounding area for many years, though by this point Rome 's importance was primarily symbolic.
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what is the most important type of communication in the deep sea | Underwater diving - wikipedia
descending below the surface of the water to interact with the environment
Underwater diving, as a human activity, is the practice of descending below the water 's surface to interact with the environment. Immersion in water and exposure to high ambient pressure have physiological effects that limit the depths and duration possible in ambient pressure diving. Humans are not physiologically and anatomically well adapted to the environmental conditions of diving, and various equipment has been developed to extend the depth and duration of human dives, and allow different types of work to be done.
In ambient pressure diving, the diver is directly exposed to the pressure of the surrounding water. The ambient pressure diver may dive on breath - hold, or use breathing apparatus for scuba diving or surface - supplied diving, and the saturation diving technique reduces the risk of decompression sickness (DCS) after long - duration deep dives. Atmospheric diving suits (ADS) may be used to isolate the diver from high ambient pressure. Crewed submersibles can extend depth range, and remotely controlled or robotic machines can reduce risk to humans.
The environment exposes the diver to a wide range of hazards, and though the risks are largely controlled by appropriate diving skills, training, types of equipment and breathing gases used depending on the mode, depth and purpose of diving, it remains a relatively dangerous activity. Diving activities are restricted to maximum depths of about 40 metres (130 ft) for recreational scuba diving, 530 metres (1,740 ft) for commercial saturation diving, and 610 metres (2,000 ft) wearing atmospheric suits. Diving is also restricted to conditions which are not excessively hazardous, though the level of risk acceptable can vary.
Recreational diving (sometimes called sport diving or subaquatics) is a popular leisure activity. Technical diving is a form of recreational diving under especially challenging conditions. Professional diving (commercial diving, diving for research purposes, or for financial gain) involve working underwater. Public safety diving is the underwater work done by law enforcement, fire rescue, and underwater search and recovery dive teams. Military diving includes combat diving, clearance diving and ships husbandry. Deep sea diving is underwater diving, usually with surface supplied equipment, and often refers to the use of standard diving dress with the traditional copper helmet. Hard hat diving is any form of diving with a helmet, including the standard copper helmet, and other forms of free - flow and lightweight demand helmets. The history of breath - hold diving goes back at least to classical times, and there is evidence of prehistoric hunting and gathering of seafoods that may have involved underwater swimming. Technical advances allowing the provision of breathing gas to a diver underwater at ambient pressure are recent, and self - contained breathing systems developed at an accelerated rate following the Second World War.
Immersion in water and exposure to cold water and high pressure have physiological effects on the diver which limit the depths and duration possible in ambient pressure diving. Breath - hold endurance is a severe limitation, and breathing at high ambient pressure adds further complications, both directly and indirectly. Technological solutions have been developed which can greatly extend depth and duration of human ambient pressure dives, and allow useful work to be done underwater.
Immersion of the human body in water affects the circulation, renal system, fluid balance, and breathing, because the external hydrostatic pressure of the water provides support against the internal hydrostatic pressure of the blood. This causes a blood shift from the extravascular tissues of the limbs into the chest cavity, and fluid losses known as immersion diuresis compensate for the blood shift in hydrated subjects soon after immersion. Hydrostatic pressure on the body from head - out immersion causes negative pressure breathing which contributes to the blood shift.
The blood shift causes an increased respiratory and cardiac workload. Stroke volume is not greatly affected by immersion or variation in ambient pressure, but slowed heartbeat reduces the overall cardiac output, particularly because of the diving reflex in breath - hold diving. Lung volume decreases in the upright position, owing to cranial displacement of the abdomen from hydrostatic pressure, and resistance to air flow in the airways increases because of the decrease in lung volume. There appears to be a connection between pulmonary edema and increased pulmonary blood flow and pressure, which results in capillary engorgement. This may occur during higher intensity exercise while immersed or submerged.
Cold shock response is the physiological response of organisms to sudden cold, especially cold water, and is a common cause of death from immersion in very cold water, such as by falling through thin ice. The immediate shock of the cold causes involuntary inhalation, which if underwater can result in drowning. The cold water can also cause heart attack due to vasoconstriction; the heart has to work harder to pump the same volume of blood throughout the body, and for people with heart disease, this additional workload can cause the heart to go into arrest. A person who survives the initial minute after falling into cold water can survive for at least thirty minutes provided they do not drown. The ability to stay afloat declines substantially after about ten minutes as the chilled muscles lose strength and co-ordination.
The diving reflex is a response to immersion that overrides the basic homeostatic reflexes. It optimises respiration by preferentially distributing oxygen stores to the heart and brain, which allows extended periods underwater. It is exhibited strongly in aquatic mammals (seals, otters, dolphins and muskrats), and also exists in other mammals, including humans. Diving birds, such as penguins, have a similar diving reflex. The diving reflex is triggered by chilling the face and holding the breath. The cardiovascular system constricts peripheral blood vessels, slows the pulse rate, redirects blood to the vital organs to conserve oxygen, releases red blood cells stored in the spleen, and, in humans, causes heart rhythm irregularities. Aquatic mammals have evolved physiological adaptations to conserve oxygen during submersion, but apnea, slowed pulse rate, and vasoconstriction are shared with terrestrial mammals.
Hypothermia is reduced body temperature that happens when a body loses more heat than it generates. Hypothermia is a major limitation to swimming or diving in cold water. The reduction in finger dexterity due to pain or numbness decreases general safety and work capacity, which in turn increases the risk of other injuries. Body heat is lost much more quickly in water than in air, so water temperatures that would be tolerable as outdoor air temperatures can lead to hypothermia, which may lead to death from other causes in inadequately protected divers.
Breath - hold diving by an air - breathing animal is limited to the physiological capacity to perform the dive on the oxygen available until it returns to a source of fresh breathing gas, usually the air at the surface. As this internal oxygen supply reduces, the animal experiences an increasing urge to breathe caused by buildup of carbon dioxide and lactate in the blood, followed by loss of consciousness due to central nervous system hypoxia. If this occurs underwater, it will drown.
Blackouts in freediving can occur when the breath is held long enough for metabolic activity to reduce the oxygen partial pressure sufficiently to cause loss of consciousness. This is accelerated by exertion, which uses oxygen faster, or by hyperventilation, which reduces the carbon dioxide level in the blood. Lower carbon dioxide levels increase the oxygen - haemoglobin affinity, reducing availability of oxygen to brain tissue towards the end of the dive (Bohr effect); they also suppress the urge to breathe, making it easier to hold the breath to the point of blackout. This can happen at any depth.
Ascent - induced hypoxia is caused by a drop in oxygen partial pressure as ambient pressure is reduced. The partial pressure of oxygen at depth may be sufficient to maintain consciousness but only at that depth and not at the reduced pressures nearer the surface.
Barotrauma, an example of dysbarism, is physical damage to body tissues caused by a difference in pressure between a gas space inside, or in contact with the body, and the surrounding gas or fluid. It typically occurs when the organism is exposed to a large change in ambient pressure, such as when a diver ascends or descends. When diving, the pressure differences which cause the barotrauma are changes in hydrostatic pressure.
The initial damage is usually due to over-stretching the tissues in tension or shear, either directly by expansion of the gas in the closed space, or by pressure difference hydrostatically transmitted through the tissue.
Barotrauma generally manifests as sinus or middle ear effects, DCS, lung overpressure injuries, and injuries resulting from external squeezes. Barotraumas of descent are caused by preventing the free change of volume of the gas in a closed space in contact with the diver, resulting in a pressure difference between the tissues and the gas space, and the unbalanced force due to this pressure difference causes deformation of the tissues resulting in cell rupture. Barotraumas of ascent are also caused when the free change of volume of the gas in a closed space in contact with the diver is prevented. In this case the pressure difference causes a resultant tension in the surrounding tissues which exceeds their tensile strength. Besides tissue rupture, the overpressure may cause ingress of gases into the tissues and further afield through the circulatory system. This can cause blockage of circulation at distant sites, or interfere with the normal function of an organ by its presence.
Provision of breathing gas at ambient pressure can greatly prolong the duration of a dive, but there are other problems that may result from this technological solution. Absorption of metabolically inert gases is increased as a function of time and pressure, and these may both produce undesirable effects immediately, as a consequence of their presence in the tissues in the dissolved state, such as nitrogen narcosis and high pressure nervous syndrome, or cause problems when coming out of solution within the tissues during decompression.
Other problems arise when the concentration of metabolically active gases is increased. These range from the toxic effects of oxygen at high partial pressure, through buildup of carbon dioxide due to excessive work of breathing, increased dead space, or inefficient removal, to the exacerbation of the toxic effects of contaminants in the breathing gas due to the increased concentration at high pressures. Hydrostatic pressure differences between the interior of the lung and the breathing gas delivery, increased breathing gas density due to ambient pressure, and increased flow resistance due to higher breathing rates may all cause increased work of breathing and fatigue of the respiratory muscles.
Underwater vision is affected by the clarity and the refractive index of the medium. Visibility underwater is reduced because light passing through water attenuates rapidly with distance, leading to lower levels of natural illumination. Underwater objects are also blurred by scattering of light between the object and the viewer, resulting in lower contrast. These effects vary with the wavelength of the light, and the colour and turbidity of the water. The human eye is optimised for air vision, and when it is immersed in direct contact with water, visual acuity is adversely affected by the difference in refractive index between water and air. Provision of an airspace between the cornea and the water can compensate, but causes scale and distance distortion. Artificial illumination can improve visibility at short range. Stereoscopic acuity, the ability to judge relative distances of different objects, is considerably reduced underwater, and this is affected by the field of vision. A narrow field of vision caused by a small viewport in a helmet results in greatly reduced stereoacuity, and an apparent movement of a stationary object when the head is moved. These effects lead to poorer hand - eye coordination.
Water has different acoustic properties from those of air. Sound from an underwater source can propagate relatively freely through body tissues where there is contact with the water as the acoustic properties are similar. When the head is exposed to the water, some sound is transmitted by the eardrum and middle ear, but a significant part reaches the cochlea independently, by bone conduction. Some sound localisation is possible, though difficult. Human hearing underwater, in cases where the diver 's ear is wet, is less sensitive than in air. Frequency sensitivity underwater also differs from that in air, with a consistently higher threshold of hearing underwater; sensitivity to higher frequency sounds is reduced the most. The type of headgear affects noise sensitivity and noise hazard depending on whether transmission is wet or dry. Human hearing underwater is less sensitive with wet ears than in air, and a neoprene hood causes substantial attenuation. When wearing a helmet, hearing sensitivity is similar to that in surface air, as it is not greatly affected by the breathing gas or chamber atmosphere composition or pressure. Because sound travels faster in heliox than in air, voice formants are raised, making divers ' speech high - pitched and distorted, and hard to understand for people not used to it. The increased density of breathing gases under pressure has a similar and additive effect.
Tactile sensory perception in divers may be impaired by the environmental protection suit and low temperatures. The combination of instability, equipment, neutral buoyancy and resistance to movement by the inertial and viscous effects of the water encumbers the diver. Cold causes losses in sensory and motor function and distracts from and disrupts cognitive activity. The ability to exert large and precise force is reduced.
Balance and equilibrium depend on vestibular function and secondary input from visual, organic, cutaneous, kinesthetic and sometimes auditory senses which are processed by the central nervous system to provide the sense of balance. Underwater, some of these inputs may be absent or diminished, making the remaining cues more important. Conflicting input may result in vertigo, disorientation and motion sickness. The vestibular sense is essential in these conditions for rapid, intricate and accurate movement. Proprioceptive perception makes the diver aware of personal position and movement, in association with the vestibular and visual input, and allows the diver to function effectively in maintaining physical equilibrium and balance in the water. In the water at neutral buoyancy, the proprioceptive cues of position are reduced or absent. This effect may be exacerbated by the diver 's suit and other equipment.
Taste and smell are not very important to the diver in the water but more important to the saturation diver while in accommodation chambers. There is evidence of a slight decrease in threshold for taste and smell after extended periods under pressure.
There are several modes of diving based on the diving equipment used.
The ability to dive and swim underwater while holding one 's breath is considered a useful emergency skill, an important part of water sport and Navy safety training, and an enjoyable leisure activity. Underwater diving without breathing apparatus can be categorised as underwater swimming, snorkelling and freediving. These categories overlap considerably. Several competitive underwater sports are practised without breathing apparatus.
Freediving precludes the use of external breathing devices, and relies on the ability of divers to hold their breath until resurfacing. The technique ranges from simple breath - hold diving to competitive apnea dives. Fins and a diving mask are often used in free diving to improve vision and provide more efficient propulsion. A short breathing tube called a snorkel allows the diver to breathe at the surface while the face is immersed. Snorkelling on the surface with no intention of diving is a popular water sport and recreational activity.
Scuba diving is diving with a self - contained underwater breathing apparatus, which is completely independent of surface supply. Scuba gives the diver mobility and horizontal range far beyond the reach of an umbilical hose attached to surface - supplied diving equipment (SSDE). Scuba divers engaged in armed forces covert operations may be referred to as frogmen, combat divers or attack swimmers.
Open circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled, and consist of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure which is supplied to the diver through a diving regulator. They may include additional cylinders for decompression gas or emergency breathing gas.
Closed - circuit or semi-closed circuit rebreather scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases. The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of open circuit, so a smaller cylinder or cylinders may be used for an equivalent dive duration. They far extend the time spent underwater as compared to open circuit for the same gas consumption. Rebreathers produce fewer bubbles and less noise than scuba which makes them attractive to covert military divers to avoid detection, scientific divers to avoid disturbing marine animals, and media divers to avoid bubble interference.
A scuba diver moves underwater by using fins attached to the feet; external propulsion can be provided by a diver propulsion vehicle, or a towboard pulled from the surface. Other equipment includes a diving mask to improve underwater vision, a protective diving suit, equipment to control buoyancy, and equipment related to the specific circumstances and purpose of the dive. Scuba divers are trained in the procedures and skills appropriate to their level of certification by instructors affiliated to the diver certification organisations which issue these diver certifications. These include standard operating procedures for using the equipment and dealing with the general hazards of the underwater environment, and emergency procedures for self - help and assistance of a similarly equipped diver experiencing problems. A minimum level of fitness and health is required by most training organisations, and a higher level of fitness may be needed for some applications.
An alternative to self - contained breathing systems is to supply breathing gases from the surface through a hose. When combined with a communication cable, a pneumofathometer hose and a safety line it is called the diver 's umbilical, which may include a hot water hose for heating, video cable and breathing gas reclaim line. More basic equipment that uses only an air hose is called an airline or hookah system. This allows the diver to breathe using an air supply hose from a cylinder or compressor at the surface. Breathing gas is supplied through a mouth - held demand valve or light full - face mask. It is used for work such as hull cleaning and archaeological surveys, for shellfish harvesting, and as snuba, a shallow water activity typically practised by tourists and those who are not scuba - certified.
Saturation diving lets professional divers live and work under pressure for days or weeks at a time. After working in the water, the divers rest and live in a dry pressurised underwater habitat on the bottom or a saturation life support system of pressure chambers on the deck of a diving support vessel, oil platform or other floating platform at a similar pressure to the work depth. They are transferred between the surface accommodation and the underwater workplace in a pressurised closed diving bell. Decompression at the end of the dive may take many days, but since it is done only once for a long period of exposure, rather than after each of many shorter exposures, the overall risk of decompression injury to the diver and the total time spent decompressing are reduced. This type of diving allows greater work efficiency and safety.
Commercial divers refer to diving operations where the diver starts and finishes the diving operation at atmospheric pressure as surface oriented, or bounce diving. The diver may be deployed from the shore or a diving support vessel and may be transported on a diving stage or in a diving bell. Surface - supplied divers almost always wear diving helmets or full face diving masks. The bottom gas can be air, nitrox, heliox or trimix; the decompression gases may be similar, or may include pure oxygen. Decompression procedures include in - water decompression or surface decompression in a deck chamber.
A wet bell with a gas filled dome provides more comfort and control than a stage and allows for longer time in water. Wet bells are used for air and mixed gas, and divers can decompress on oxygen at 12 metres (40 ft). Small closed bell systems have been designed that can be easily mobilised, and include a two - man bell, a handling frame and a chamber for decompression after transfer under pressure (TUP). Divers can breathe air or mixed gas at the bottom and are usually recovered with the chamber filled with air. They decompress on oxygen supplied through built in breathing systems (BIBS) towards the end of the decompression. Small bell systems support bounce diving down to 120 metres (390 ft) and for bottom times up to 2 hours.
A relatively portable surface gas supply system using high pressure gas cylinders for both primary and reserve gas, but using the full diver 's umbilical system with pneumofathometer and voice communication, is known in the industry as "scuba replacement ''.
Compressor diving is a rudimentary method of surface - supplied diving used in some tropical regions such as the Philippines and the Caribbean. The divers swim with a half mask and fins and are supplied with air from an industrial low - pressure air compressor on the boat through plastic tubes. There is no reduction valve; the diver holds the hose end in his mouth with no demand valve or mouthpiece and allows excess air to spill out between the lips.
Submersibles and rigid atmospheric diving suits (ADS) enable diving to be carried out in a dry environment at normal atmospheric pressure. An ADS is a small one - person articulated submersible which resembles a suit of armour, with elaborate joints to allow bending, while maintaining an internal pressure of one atmosphere. An ADS can be used for dives of up to about 700 metres (2,300 ft) for many hours. It eliminates the majority of physiological dangers associated with deep diving -- the occupant need not decompress, there is no need for special gas mixtures, and there is no danger of nitrogen narcosis -- at the expense of higher cost, complex logistics and loss of dexterity.
Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) and remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs) can carry out some functions of divers. They can be deployed at greater depths and in more dangerous environments. An AUV is a robot which travels underwater without requiring real - time input from an operator. AUVs constitute part of a larger group of unmanned undersea systems, a classification that includes non-autonomous ROVs, which are controlled and powered from the surface by an operator / pilot via an umbilical or using remote control. In military applications AUVs are often referred to as unmanned undersea vehicles (UUVs).
Diving may be performed for various reasons, both personal and professional. Recreational diving is purely for enjoyment and has several specialisations and technical disciplines to provide more scope for varied activities for which specialist training can be offered, such as cave diving, wreck diving, ice diving and deep diving.
There are various aspects of professional diving that range from part - time work to lifelong careers. Professionals in the recreational dive industry include instructor trainers, dive instructors, assistant instructors, divemasters, dive guides, and scuba technicians. Commercial diving is industry related and includes civil engineering tasks such as in oil exploration, offshore construction, dam maintenance and harbour works. Commercial divers may also be employed to perform tasks related to marine activities, such as naval diving, including the repair and inspection of boats and ships, marine salvage or aquaculture.
Other specialist areas of diving include military diving, with a long history of military frogmen in various roles. They can perform roles including direct combat, infiltration behind enemy lines, placing mines, bomb disposal or engineering operations.
In civilian operations, police forces keep police diving units to perform search and rescue operations, and to recover evidence. In some cases diver rescue teams may also be part of a fire department, paramedical service or lifeguard unit, and this may be classed as public safety diving. There are also professional divers such as underwater photographers and videographers, who record the underwater world, and scientific divers in fields of study which involve the underwater environment, including marine biologists, geologists, hydrologists, oceanographers and underwater archaeologists.
The choice between scuba and surface supplied diving equipment is based on both legal and logistical constraints. Where the diver requires mobility and a large range of movement, scuba is usually the choice if safety and legal constraints allow. Higher risk work, particularly commercial diving, may be restricted to surface supplied equipment by legislation and codes of practice.
Freediving as a widespread means of hunting and gathering, both for food and other valuable resources such as pearls and coral, dates from before 4500 BCE. By classical Greek and Roman times commercial diving applications such as sponge diving and marine salvage were established. Military diving goes back at least as far as the Peloponnesian War, with recreational and sporting applications being a recent development. Technological development in ambient pressure diving started with stone weights (skandalopetra) for fast descent. The diving bell is one of the earliest types of equipment for underwater work and exploration. Its use was first described by Aristotle in the 4th century BCE. In the 16th and 17th centuries CE, diving bells became more useful when a renewable supply of air could be provided to the diver at depth, and progressed to surface supplied diving helmets -- in effect miniature diving bells covering the diver 's head and supplied with compressed air by manually operated pumps -- which were improved by attaching a waterproof suit to the helmet. In the early 19th century these became the standard diving dress, which made a far wider range of marine civil engineering and salvage projects practicable.
Limitations in mobility of the surface supplied systems encouraged the development of both open circuit and closed circuit scuba in the 20th century, which allow the diver a much greater autonomy. These became popular during the Second World War for clandestine military operations, and post-war for scientific, search and rescue, media diving, recreational and technical diving. The heavy free - flow surface supplied copper helmets evolved into lightweight demand helmets, which are more economical with breathing gas, important for deeper dives using expensive helium based breathing mixtures. Saturation diving reduced the risks of DCS for deep and long exposures.
An alternative approach was the development of the ADS or armoured suit, which isolates the diver from the pressure at depth, at the cost of mechanical complexity and limited dexterity. The technology first became practicable in the middle 20th century. Isolation of the diver from the environment was taken further by the development of remotely operated underwater vehicles in the late 20th century, where the operator controls the ROV from the surface, and autonomous underwater vehicles, which dispense with an operator altogether. All of these modes are still in use and each has a range of applications where it has advantages over the others, though diving bells have largely been relegated to a means of transport for surface supplied divers. In some cases combinations are particularly effective, such as the simultaneous use of surface orientated or saturation surface supplied diving equipment and work or observation class remotely operated vehicles.
By the late 19th century, as salvage operations became deeper and longer, an unexplained malady began afflicting the divers; they would suffer breathing difficulties, dizziness, joint pain and paralysis, sometimes leading to death. The problem was already well known among workers building tunnels and bridge footings operating under pressure in caissons and was initially called caisson disease; it was later renamed the bends because the joint pain typically caused the sufferer to stoop. Early reports of the disease had been made at the time of Charles Pasley 's salvage operation, but scientists were still ignorant of its causes.
French physiologist Paul Bert was the first to understand it as DCS. His work, La Pression barométrique (1878), was a comprehensive investigation into the physiological effects of air pressure, both above and below the normal. He determined that inhaling pressurised air caused nitrogen to dissolve into the bloodstream; rapid depressurisation would then release the nitrogen into its gaseous state, forming bubbles that could block the blood circulation and potentially cause paralysis or death. Central nervous system oxygen toxicity was also first described in this publication and is sometimes referred to as the "Paul Bert effect ''.
John Scott Haldane designed a decompression chamber in 1907, and he produced the first decompression tables for the Royal Navy in 1908 after extensive experiments with animals and human subjects. These tables established a method of decompression in stages -- it remains the basis for decompression methods to this day. Following Haldane 's recommendation, the maximum safe operating depth for divers was extended to 61 metres (200 ft).
The US Navy continued research into decompression, and in 1915 the first Bureau of Construction and Repair decompression tables were developed by French and Stilson. Experimental dives were conducted in the 1930s, forming the basis for the 1937 US Navy air decompression tables. Surface decompression and oxygen use were also researched in the 1930s. The US Navy 1957 tables were developed to correct problems found in the 1937 tables.
In 1965 Hugh LeMessurier and Brian Andrew Hills published their paper, A thermodynamic approach arising from a study on Torres Strait diving techniques, which suggested that decompression following schedules based on conventional models results in asymptomatic bubble formation which must then be re-dissolved at the decompression stops before it can be eliminated. This is slower than allowing the gas to be eliminated while it is still in solution, and indicates the importance of minimising bubble phase gas for efficient decompression.
M.P. Spencer showed that Doppler ultrasonic methods can detect venous bubbles in asymptomatic divers, and Dr Andrew Pilmanis showed that safety stops reduced bubble formation. In 1981 D.E. Yount described the Varying Permeability Model, proposing a mechanism of bubble formation. Several other bubble models followed. The pathophysiology of DCS is not yet fully understood, but decompression practice has reached a stage where the risk is fairly low, and most incidences are successfully treated by therapeutic recompression and hyperbaric oxygen therapy. Mixed breathing gases are used to reduce the effects of the hyperbaric environment on ambient pressure divers.
The diving environment is limited by accessibility and risk, but includes water and occasionally other liquids. Most underwater diving is done in the shallower coastal parts of the oceans, and inland bodies of fresh water, including lakes, dams, quarries, rivers, springs, flooded caves, reservoirs, tanks, swimming pools, and canals, but may also be done in large bore ducting and sewers, power station cooling systems, cargo and ballast tanks of ships, and liquid - filled industrial equipment. The environment may affect gear configuration: for instance, freshwater is less dense than saltwater, so less added weight is needed to achieve diver neutral buoyancy in freshwater dives. Water temperature, visibility and movement also affect the diver and the dive plan. Diving in liquids other than water may present special problems due to density, viscosity and chemical compatibility of diving equipment, as well as possible environmental hazards to the diving team.
Benign conditions, sometimes also referred to as confined water, are environments of low risk, where it is extremely unlikely or impossible for the diver to get lost or entrapped, or be exposed to hazards other than the basic underwater environment. These conditions are suitable for initial training in the critical survival skills, and include swimming pools, training tanks, aquarium tanks and some shallow and protected shoreline areas.
Open water is unrestricted water such as a sea, lake or flooded quarry, where the diver has direct vertical access to the surface of the water in contact with the atmosphere. Open water diving implies that if a problem arises, the diver can directly ascend vertically to the atmosphere to breathe air.
An overhead or penetration diving environment is where the diver enters a space from which there is no direct, purely vertical ascent to the safety of breathable atmosphere at the surface. Cave diving, wreck diving, ice diving and diving inside other natural or artificial underwater structures or enclosures are examples. The restriction on direct ascent increases the risk of diving under an overhead, and this is usually addressed by adaptations of procedures and use of equipment such as redundant breathing gas sources and guide lines to indicate the route to the exit.
Night diving can allow the diver to experience a different underwater environment, because many marine animals are nocturnal. Altitude diving, for example in mountain lakes, requires modifications to the decompression schedule because of the reduced atmospheric pressure.
The recreational diving depth limit set by the EN 14153 - 2 / ISO 24801 - 2 level 2 "Autonomous Diver '' standard is 20 metres (66 ft). The recommended depth limit for more extensively trained recreational divers ranges from 30 metres (98 ft) for PADI divers, (this is the depth at which nitrogen narcosis symptoms generally begin to be noticeable in adults), 40 metres (130 ft) specified by Recreational Scuba Training Council, 50 metres (160 ft) for divers of the British Sub-Aqua Club and Sub-Aqua Association breathing air, and 60 metres (200 ft) for teams of 2 to 3 French Level 3 recreational divers, breathing air.
For technical divers, the recommended maximum depths are greater on the understanding that they will use less narcotic gas mixtures. 100 metres (330 ft) is the maximum depth authorised for divers who have completed Trimix Diver certification with IANTD or Advanced Trimix Diver certification with TDI. 332 metres (1,089 ft) is the world record depth on scuba (2014). Commercial divers using saturation techniques and heliox breathing gases routinely exceed 100 metres (330 ft), but they are also limited by physiological constraints. Comex Hydra 8 experimental dives reached a record open water depth of 534 metres (1,752 ft) in 1988. ADS are mainly constrained by the technology of the articulation seals, and a US Navy diver has dived to 610 metres (2,000 ft) in one.
The common term for a place at which one may dive is a dive site. As a general rule, professional diving is done where the work needs to be done, and recreational diving is done where conditions are suitable. There are many recorded and publicised recreational dive sites which are known for their convenience, points of interest, and frequently favourable conditions. Diver training facilities for both professional and recreational divers generally use a small range of dive sites which are familiar and convenient, and where conditions are predictable and the risk is relatively low.
Underwater diver training is normally given by a qualified instructor who is a member of one of many diver training agencies or is registered with a government agency. Basic diver training entails the learning of skills required for the safe conduct of activities in an underwater environment, and includes procedures and skills for the use of diving equipment, safety, emergency self - help and rescue procedures, dive planning, and use of dive tables. Diving hand signals are used to communicate underwater. Professional divers will also learn other methods of communication.
An entry level diver must learn the techniques of breathing underwater through a demand regulator, including clearing it of water and recovering it if dislodged from the mouth, and clearing the mask if it is flooded. These are critical survival skills, and if not competent the diver is at a high risk of drowning. A related skill is sharing breathing gas with another diver, both as the donor and the recipient. This is usually done with a secondary demand valve carried for this purpose. Technical and professional divers will also learn how to use a backup gas supply carried in an independent scuba set, known as the emergency gas supply or bailout cylinder.
To avoid injury during descent, divers must be competent at equalising the ears, sinuses and mask; they must also learn not to hold their breath while ascending, to avoid barotrauma of the lungs. The speed of ascent must be controlled to avoid DCS, which requires buoyancy control skills. Good buoyancy control and trim also allow the diver to manoeuvre and move about safely, comfortably and efficiently, using swimfins for propulsion.
Some knowledge of physiology and the physics of diving is considered necessary by most diver certification agencies, as the diving environment is alien and relatively hostile to humans. The physics and physiology knowledge required is fairly basic, and helps the diver to understand the effects of the diving environment so that informed acceptance of the associated risks is possible. The physics mostly relates to gases under pressure, buoyancy, heat loss, and light underwater. The physiology relates the physics to the effects on the human body, to provide a basic understanding of the causes and risks of barotrauma, DCS, gas toxicity, hypothermia, drowning and sensory variations. More advanced training often involves first aid and rescue skills, skills related to specialised diving equipment, and underwater work skills. Further training is required to develop the skills necessary for diving in a wider range of environments, with specialised equipment, and to become competent to perform a variety of underwater tasks.
The medical aspects of diving and hyperbaric exposure include examination of divers to establish medical fitness to dive, diagnosis and treatment of diving disorders, treatment by recompression and hyperbaric oxygen therapy, toxic effects of gases in a hyperbaric environment, and treatment of injuries incurred while diving which are not directly associated with depth or pressure.
Medical fitness to dive is the medical and physical suitability of a diver to function safely in the underwater environment using underwater diving equipment and procedures. Depending on the circumstances it may be established by a signed statement by the diver that he or she does not suffer from any of the disqualifying conditions and is able to manage the ordinary physical requirements of diving, by a detailed medical examination by a physician registered as a medical examiner of divers following a prescribed procedural checklist, attested by a legal document of fitness to dive issued by the medical examiner and recorded on a national database, or by alternatives between these extremes.
Diving medicine is the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of conditions caused by exposing divers to the underwater environment. It includes the effects on the body of pressure on gases, the diagnosis and treatment of conditions caused by marine hazards and how fitness to dive affects a diver 's safety. Hyperbaric medicine is another field associated with diving, since recompression in a hyperbaric chamber with hyperbaric oxygen therapy is the definitive treatment for two of the most important diving - related illnesses, DCS and arterial gas embolism.
Diving medicine deals with medical research on issues of diving, the prevention of diving disorders, treatment of diving accident injuries and diving fitness. The field includes the effect on the human body of breathing gases and their contaminants under high pressure, and the relationship between the state of physical and psychological health of the diver and safety. In diving accidents it is common for multiple disorders to occur together and interact with each other, both causatively and as complications. Diving medicine is a branch of occupational medicine and sports medicine, and first aid and recognition of symptoms of diving disorders are important parts of diver education.
Risk is a combination of hazard, vulnerability and likelihood of occurrence, which can be the probability of a specific undesirable consequence of a hazard, or the combined probability of undesirable consequences of all the hazards of an activity.
The presence of a combination of several hazards simultaneously is common in diving, and the effect is generally increased risk to the diver, particularly where the occurrence of an incident due to one hazard triggers other hazards with a resulting cascade of incidents. Many diving fatalities are the result of a cascade of incidents overwhelming the diver, who should be able to manage any single reasonably foreseeable incident.
Commercial diving operations may expose the diver to more and sometimes greater hazards than recreational diving, but the associated occupational health and safety legislation is less tolerant of risk than recreational, particularly technical divers, may be prepared to accept. Commercial diving operations are also constrained by the physical realities of the operating environment, and expensive engineering solutions are often necessary to control risk. A formal hazard identification and risk assessment is a standard and required part of the planning for a commercial diving operation, and this is also the case for offshore diving operations. The occupation is inherently hazardous, and great effort and expense are routinely incurred to keep the risk within an acceptable range. The standard methods of reducing risk are followed where possible.
Statistics on injuries related to commercial diving are normally collected by national regulators. In the UK the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) is responsible for the overview of about 5,000 commercial divers; in Norway the corresponding authority is the Petroleum Safety Authority Norway (PSA), which has maintained the DSYS database since 1985, gathering statistics on over 50,000 diver - hours of commercial activity per year. The risks of dying during recreational, scientific or commercial diving are small, and for scuba diving, deaths are usually associated with poor gas management, poor buoyancy control, equipment misuse, entrapment, rough water conditions and pre-existing health problems. Some fatalities are inevitable and caused by unforeseeable situations escalating out of control, but the majority of diving fatalities can be attributed to human error on the part of the victim. According to a North American 1972 analysis of calendar year 1970 data, diving was, based on man hours, 96 times more dangerous than driving a car. According to a 2000 Japanese study, every hour of recreational diving is 36 to 62 times riskier than driving.
Scuba diving fatalities have a major financial impact by way of lost income, lost business, insurance premium increases and high litigation costs. Equipment failure is rare in open circuit scuba, and when the cause of death is recorded as drowning, it is usually the consequence of an uncontrollable series of events in which drowning is the endpoint because it occurred in water, while the initial cause remains unknown. Air embolism is also frequently cited as a cause of death, often as a consequence of other factors leading to an uncontrolled and badly managed ascent, occasionally aggravated by medical conditions. About a quarter of diving fatalities are associated with cardiac events, mostly in older divers. There is a fairly large body of data on diving fatalities, but in many cases the data is poor due to the standard of investigation and reporting. This hinders research which could improve diver safety.
Artisanal fishermen and gatherers of marine organisms in less developed countries may expose themselves to relatively high risk using diving equipment if they do not understand the physiological hazards, particularly if they use inadequate equipment.
Divers operate in an environment for which the human body is not well suited. They face special physical and health risks when they go underwater or use high pressure breathing gas. The consequences of diving incidents range from merely annoying to rapidly fatal, and the result often depends on the equipment, skill, response and fitness of the diver and diving team. The hazards include the aquatic environment, the use of breathing equipment in an underwater environment, exposure to a pressurised environment and pressure changes, particularly pressure changes during descent and ascent, and breathing gases at high ambient pressure. Diving equipment other than breathing apparatus is usually reliable, but has been known to fail, and loss of buoyancy control or thermal protection can be a major burden which may lead to more serious problems. There are also hazards of the specific diving environment, and hazards related to access to and egress from the water, which vary from place to place, and may also vary with time. Hazards inherent in the diver include pre-existing physiological and psychological conditions and the personal behaviour and competence of the individual. For those pursuing other activities while diving, there are additional hazards of task loading, of the dive task and of special equipment associated with the task.
The major factors influencing diving safety are the environment, the diving equipment and the performance of the diver and the dive team. The underwater environment is alien, both physically and psychologically stressful, and usually not amenable to control, though divers can be selective in the conditions in which they are willing to dive. The other factors must be controlled to mitigate the overall stress on the diver and allow the dive to be completed in acceptable safety. The equipment is critical to diver safety for life support, but is generally reliable, controllable and predictable in its performance.
Human factors are the physical or cognitive properties of individuals, or social behaviour specific to humans, which influences functioning of technological systems as well as human - environment equilibrium. Human error is inevitable and everyone makes mistakes at some time, and the consequences of these errors are varied and depend on many factors. Most errors are minor and do not cause harm, but in a high risk environment, such as in diving, errors are more likely to have catastrophic consequences. Examples of human error leading to accidents are available in vast numbers, as it is the direct cause of 60 % to 80 % of all accidents. Human error and panic are considered to be the leading causes of diving accidents and fatalities. A study by William P. Morgan indicates that over half of all divers in the survey had experienced panic underwater at some time during their diving career, and these findings were independently corroborated by a survey that suggested 65 % of recreational divers have panicked under water. Panic frequently leads to errors in a diver 's judgement or performance, and may result in an accident. The safety of underwater diving operations can be improved by reducing the frequency of human error and the consequences when it does occur.
Only 4.46 % of the recreational diving fatalities in a 1997 study were attributable to a single contributory cause. The remaining fatalities probably arose as a result of a progressive sequence of events involving two or more procedural errors or equipment failures, and since procedural errors are generally avoidable by a well - trained, intelligent and alert diver, working in an organised structure, and not under excessive stress, it was concluded that the low accident rate in professional scuba diving is due to this factor. The study also concluded that it would be impossible to completely eliminate all minor contraindications of scuba diving, as this would result in overwhelming bureaucracy and bring all diving to a halt.
Risk management is obtained by the usual measures of engineering controls, administrative controls and procedures, and personal protective equipment, including hazard identification and risk assessment (HIRA), protective equipment, medical screening, training and standardised procedures. Professional divers are generally legally obliged to carry out and formally record these measures, and though recreational divers are not legally required to do many of them, competent recreational divers, and particularly technical divers, generally perform them informally but routinely, and they are an important part of technical diver training. For example, a medical statement or examination for fitness, pre-dive site assessment and briefing, safety drills, thermal protection, equipment redundancy, alternative air source, buddy checks, buddy or team diving procedures, dive planning, underwater hand signals, and carrying first aid and oxygen administration equipment are all routinely part of technical diving.
Inshore and inland commercial and military diving is regulated by legislation in many countries. Responsibility of the employer, client and diving personnel is specified in these cases; offshore commercial diving may take place in international waters, and is often done following the guidelines of a voluntary membership organisation such as the International Marine Contractors Association (IMCA), which publishes codes of accepted best practice which their member organisations are expected to follow.
Recreational diver training and dive leading are industry regulated in some countries, and only directly regulated by government in a subset of them. In the UK, HSE legislation includes recreational diver training and dive leading for reward; in the US and South Africa industry regulation is accepted, though non-specific health and safety legislation still applies. In Israel recreational diving activities are regulated by the Recreational Diving Act, 1979.
The legal responsibility for recreational diving service providers is usually limited as far as possible by waivers which they require the customer to sign before engaging in any diving activity. The extent of responsibility of recreational buddy divers is unclear and has been the subject of considerable litigation. It is probable that it varies between jurisdictions. In spite of this lack of clarity, buddy diving is recommended by recreational diver training agencies as safer than solo diving, and some service providers insist that customers dive in buddy pairs.
Media related to Underwater diving at Wikimedia Commons
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what is the type of government of indonesia | Government of Indonesia - wikipedia
The term Government of Indonesia (Indonesian: Pemerintah Indonesia) can have a number of different meanings. At its widest, it can refer collectively to the three traditional branches of government -- the Executive branch, Legislative branch and Judicial branch. The term is also used colloquially to mean the Executive and Legislature together, as these are the branches of government responsible for day - to - day governance of the nation and lawmaking. At its narrowest, the term is used to refer to the Executive Branch in form of the Cabinet of Indonesia as this is the branches of government responsible for day - to - day governance.
An era of Liberal Democracy (Indonesian: Demokrasi Liberal) in Indonesia began on August 17, 1950 following the dissolution of the federal United States of Indonesia less than a year after its formation, and ended with the imposition of martial law and President Sukarno 's decree regarding the introduction of Guided Democracy on July 5, 1957. It saw a number of important events, including the 1955 Bandung Conference, Indonesia 's first general and Constitutional Assembly elections, and an extended period of political instability, with no cabinet lasting as long as two years.
Guided Democracy (Indonesian: Demokrasi Terpimpin) was the political system in place in Indonesia from 1957 until the New Order began in 1966. It was the brainchild of President Sukarno, and was an attempt to bring about political stability. Sukarno believed that Western - style democracy was inappropriate for Indonesia 's situation. Instead, he sought a system based on the traditional village system of discussion and consensus, which occurred under the guidance of village elders.
Indonesia 's transition to the "New Order '' in the mid-1960s, ousted the country 's first president, Sukarno, after 22 years in the position. One of the most tumultuous periods in the country 's modern history, it was the commencement of Suharto 's 31 - year presidency.
Described as the great dhalang ("puppet master ''), Sukarno drew power from balancing the opposing and increasingly antagonistic forces of the army and Indonesian Communist Party (PKI). By 1965, the PKI extensively penetrated all levels of government and gained influence at the expense of the army.
On 30 September 1965, six of the military 's most senior officers were killed in an action (generally labelled an "attempted coup '') by the so - called 30 September Movement, a group from within the armed forces. Within a few hours, Major General Suharto mobilised forces under his command and took control of Jakarta. Anti-communists, initially following the army 's lead, went on a violent purge of communists throughout the country, killing an estimated half million people and destroying the PKI, which was officially blamed for the crisis.
The politically weakened Sukarno was forced to transfer key political and military powers to General Suharto, who had become head of the armed forces. In March 1967, the Indonesian parliament (MPRS) named General Suharto acting president. He was formally appointed president one year later. Sukarno lived under virtual house arrest until his death in 1970. In contrast to the stormy nationalism, revolutionary rhetoric, and economic failure that characterised the early 1960s under the left - leaning Sukarno, Suharto 's pro-Western "New Order '' stabilised the economy but continued the policies of Pancasila.
The New Order (Indonesian: Orde Baru) is the term coined by the second Indonesian President Suharto to characterise his regime as he came to power in 1966. Suharto used this term to contrast his rule with that of his predecessor, Sukarno (dubbed the "Old Order, '' or Orde Lama). The term "New Order '' in more recent times has become synonymous with the Suharto years (1966 -- 1998).
Immediately following the attempted coup in 1965, the political situation was uncertain, but the Suharto 's New Order found much popular support from groups wanting a separation from Indonesia 's problems since its independence. The ' generation of 66 ' (Angkatan 66) epitomised talk of a new group of young leaders and new intellectual thought. Following Indonesia 's communal and political conflicts, and its economic collapse and social breakdown of the late 1950s through to the mid-1960s, the "New Order '' was committed to achieving and maintaining political order, economic development, and the removal of mass participation in the political process. The features of the "New Order '' established from the late 1960s were thus a strong political role for the military, the bureaucratisation and corporatisation of political and societal organisations, and selective but effective repression of opponents. Strident anti-communism remained a hallmark of the regime for its subsequent 32 years.
Within a few years, however, many of its original allies had become indifferent or averse to the New Order, which comprised a military faction supported by a narrow civilian group. Among much of the pro-democracy movement which forced Suharto to resign in the 1998 Indonesian Revolution and then gained power, the term "New Order '' has come to be used pejoratively. It is frequently employed to describe figures who were either tied to the Suharto period, or who upheld the practises of his authoritarian regime, such as corruption, collusion and nepotism (widely known by the acronym KKN: korupsi, kolusi, nepotisme).
The Post-Suharto era in Indonesia began with the fall of Suharto in 1998 during which Indonesia has been in a period of transition, an era known in Indonesia as Reformasi (English: Reform). A more open and liberal political - social environment ensued following the resignation of authoritarian President Suharto, ending the three decades of the New Order period.
A constitutional reform process lasted from 1999 to 2002, with four constitutional amendments producing important changes.
Among these are term limits of up to 2 five - year terms for the President and Vice-President, and measures to institute checks and balances. The highest state institution is the People 's Consultative Assembly (MPR), whose functions previously included electing the president and vice-president (since 2004 the president has been elected directly by the people), establishing broad guidelines of state policy, and amending the constitution. The 695 - member MPR includes all 550 members of the People 's Representative Council (DPR) (the House of Representatives) plus 130 "regional representatives '' elected by the twenty - six provincial parliaments and sixty - five appointed members from societal groups
The DPR, which is the premier legislative institution, originally included 462 members elected through a mixed proportional / district representational system and thirty - eight appointed members of the armed forces (TNI) and police (POLRI). TNI / POLRI representation in the DPR and MPR ended in 2004. Societal group representation in the MPR was eliminated in 2004 through further constitutional change.
Having served as rubberstamp bodies in the past, the DPR and MPR have gained considerable power and are increasingly assertive in oversight of the executive branch. Under constitutional changes in 2004, the MPR became a bicameral legislature, with the creation of the Dewan Perwakilan Daerah (DPD), in which each province is represented by four members, although its legislative powers are more limited than those of the DPR. Through his appointed cabinet, the president retains the authority to conduct the administration of the government.
A general election in June 1999 produced the first freely elected national, provincial and regional parliaments in over forty years. In October 1999 the MPR elected a compromise candidate, Abdurrahman Wahid, as the country 's fourth president, and Megawati Sukarnoputri -- a daughter of Sukarno, the country 's first president -- as the vice-president. Megawati 's PDI - P party had won the largest share of the vote (34 %) in the general election, while Golkar, the dominant party during the Soeharto era, came in second (22 %). Several other, mostly Islamic parties won shares large enough to be seated in the DPR. Further democratic elections took place in 2004 and 2009.
The president and vice-president are selected by vote of the citizens for five - year terms. Prior to 2004, they were chosen by People 's Consultative Assembly. The last election was held 9 July 2014. The President of Indonesia is directly elected for a maximum of two five - year terms, and is the head of state, commander - in - chief of Indonesian armed forces and responsible for domestic governance and policy - making and foreign affairs. The president appoints a cabinet, members of which do not have to be elected members of the legislature.
The People 's Consultative Assembly (Indonesian: Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, MPR) is the legislative branch in Indonesia 's political system. Following elections in 2004, the MPR became a bicameral parliament, with the creation of the DPD as its second chamber in an effort to increase regional representation. The Regional Representatives Council (Indonesian: Dewan Perwakilan Daerah, DPD) is the upper house of The People 's Consultative Assembly. The lower house is The People 's Representative Council (Indonesian: Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, DPR), sometimes referred to as the House of Representatives, which has 550 members, elected for a five - year term by proportional representation in multi-member constituencies.
The Indonesian Supreme Court (Indonesian: Mahkamah Agung) is the highest level of the judicial branch. Its judges are appointed by the president. The Constitutional Court rules on constitutional and political matters (Indonesian: Mahkamah Konstitusi), while a Judicial Commission (Indonesian: Komisi Yudisial) oversees the judges.
The Audit Board of Indonesia (Indonesian: Badan Pemeriksa Keuangan) is the high state body that responsible to check the management and accountability of state finances conducted by the Central Government, Local Government, other State Institutions, Bank Indonesia, State - Owned Enterprises (Indonesian: Badan Usaha Milik Negara, BUMN), Public Service Board (Indonesian: Badan Layanan Umum, BLU), Territory - Owned Enterprise (Indonesian: Badan Usaha Milik Daerah, BUMD), and institutions or other entities that manage state finances.
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which three countries were known as the axis powers during world war ii | Axis powers - wikipedia
The Axis powers (German: Achsenmächte; Italian: Potenze dell'Asse; Japanese: 枢軸 国 Sūjikukoku), also known as the Axis and the Rome -- Berlin -- Tokyo Axis, were the nations that fought in World War II against the Allied forces. The Axis powers agreed on their opposition to the Allies, but did not completely coordinate their activity.
The Axis grew out of the diplomatic efforts of Germany, Italy, and Japan to secure their own specific expansionist interests in the mid-1930s. The first step was the treaty signed by Germany and Italy in October 1936. Benito Mussolini declared on 1 November that all other European countries would from then on rotate on the Rome -- Berlin axis, thus creating the term "Axis ''. The almost simultaneous second step was the signing in November 1936 of the Anti-Comintern Pact, an anti-communist treaty between Germany and Japan. Italy joined the Pact in 1937. The "Rome -- Berlin Axis '' became a military alliance in 1939 under the so - called "Pact of Steel '', with the Tripartite Pact of 1940 leading to the integration of the military aims of Germany, Italy and Japan.
At its zenith during World War II, the Axis presided over territories that occupied large parts of Europe, North Africa, and East Asia. There were no three - way summit meetings and cooperation and coordination was minimal, with slightly more between Germany and Italy. The war ended in 1945 with the defeat of the Axis powers and the dissolution of their alliance. As in the case of the Allies, membership of the Axis was fluid, with some nations switching sides or changing their degree of military involvement over the course of the war.
The term "axis '' was first applied to the Italo - German relationship by the Italian prime minister Benito Mussolini in September 1923, when he wrote in the preface to Roberto Suster 's Germania Repubblica that "there is no doubt that in this moment the axis of European history passes through Berlin '' (non v'ha dubbio che in questo momento l'asse della storia europea passa per Berlino). At the time he was seeking an alliance with the Weimar Republic against Yugoslavia and France in the dispute over the Free State of Fiume.
The term was used by Hungary 's prime minister Gyula Gömbös when advocating an alliance of Hungary with Germany and Italy in the early 1930s. Gömbös ' efforts did affect the Italo - Hungarian Rome Protocols, but his sudden death in 1936 while negotiating with Germany in Munich and the arrival of Kálmán Darányi, his successor, ended Hungary 's involvement in pursuing a trilateral axis. Contentious negotiations between the Italian foreign minister, Galeazzo Ciano, and the German ambassador, Ulrich von Hassell, resulted in a Nineteen - Point Protocol, signed by Ciano and his German counterpart, Konstantin von Neurath, in 1936. When Mussolini publicly announced the signing on 1 November, he proclaimed the creation of a Rome -- Berlin axis.
Italy under Duce Benito Mussolini had pursued a strategic alliance of Italy with Germany against France since the early 1920s. Prior to becoming head of government in Italy as leader of the Italian Fascist movement, Mussolini had advocated alliance with recently defeated Germany after the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 settled World War I. He believed that Italy could expand its influence in Europe by allying with Germany against France. In early 1923, as a goodwill gesture to Germany, Italy secretly delivered weapons for the German Army, which had faced major disarmament under the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles.
In September 1923, Mussolini offered German Chancellor Gustav Stresemann a "common policy '': he sought German military support against potential French military intervention over Italy 's diplomatic dispute with Yugoslavia over Fiume, should an Italian seizure of Fiume result in war between Italy and Yugoslavia. The German ambassador to Italy in 1924 reported that Mussolini saw a nationalist Germany as an essential ally for Italy against France, and hoped to tap into the desire within the German army and the German political right for a war of revenge against France.
During the Weimar Republic, the German government did not respect the Treaty of Versailles that it had been pressured to sign, and various government figures at the time rejected Germany 's post-Versailles borders. General Hans von Seeckt (head of the Reichswehr command from 1920 to 1926) supported an alliance between Germany and the Soviet Union to invade and partition Poland between them and restore the German - Russian border of 1914. Gustav Streseman as German foreign minister in 1925 declared that the reincorporation of territories lost to Poland and Danzig in the Treaty of Versailles was a major task of German foreign policy. The Reichswehr Ministry memorandum of 1926 declared its intention to seek the reincorporation of German territory lost to Poland as its first priority, to be followed by the return of the Saar territory, the annexation of Austria, and remilitarization of the Rhineland.
Since the 1920s Italy had identified the year 1935 as a crucial date for preparing for a war against France, as 1935 was the year when Germany 's obligations under the Treaty of Versailles were scheduled to expire.
Meetings took place in Berlin in 1924 between Italian General Luigi Capello and prominent figures in the German military, such as von Seeckt and Erich Ludendorff, over military collaboration between Germany and Italy. The discussions concluded that Germans still wanted a war of revenge against France but were short on weapons and hoped that Italy could assist Germany.
However at this time Mussolini stressed one important condition that Italy must pursue in an alliance with Germany: that Italy "must... tow them, not be towed by them ''. Italian foreign minister Dino Grandi in the early 1930s stressed the importance of "decisive weight '', involving Italy 's relations between France and Germany, in which he recognized that Italy was not yet a major power, but perceived that Italy did have strong enough influence to alter the political situation in Europe by placing the weight of its support onto one side or another. However Grandi stressed that Italy must seek to avoid becoming a "slave of the rule of three '' in order to pursue its interests, arguing that although substantial Italo - French tensions existed, Italy would not unconditionally commit itself to an alliance with Germany, just as it would neither unconditionally commit itself to an alliance with France over conceivable Italo - German tensions. Grandi 's attempts to maintain a diplomatic balance between France and Germany were challenged in 1932 by pressure from the French, who had begun to prepare an alliance with Britain and the United States against the threat of a revanchist Germany. The French government warned Italy that it had to choose whether to be on the side of the pro-Versailles powers or that of the anti-Versailles revanchists. Grandi responded that Italy would be willing to offer France support against Germany if France gave Italy its mandate over Cameroon and allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia. France refused Italy 's proposed exchange for support, as it believed Italy 's demands were unacceptable and the threat from Germany was not yet immediate.
On 23 October 1932, Mussolini declared support for a Four Power Directorate that included Britain, France, Germany, and Italy, to bring about an orderly treaty revision outside of what he considered the outmoded League of Nations. The proposed Directorate was pragmatically designed to reduce French hegemony in continental Europe, in order to reduce tensions between the great powers in the short term to buy Italy relief from being pressured into a specific war alliance while at the same time allowing them to benefit from diplomatic deals on treaty revisions.
In 1932, Gyula Gömbös and the Party of National Unity rose to power in Hungary, and immediately sought an alliance with Italy. Gömbös sought to alter Hungary 's post -- Treaty of Trianon borders, but knew that Hungary alone was not capable of challenging the Little Entente powers by forming an alliance with Austria and Italy. Mussolini was elated by Gömbös ' offer of alliance with Italy, and they cooperated in seeking to persuade Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss to join a tripartite economic agreement with Italy and Hungary. At the meeting between Gömbös and Mussolini in Rome on 10 November 1932, the question came up of the sovereignty of Austria in relation to the predicted rise to power in Germany of the Nazi Party. Mussolini was worried about Nazi ambitions towards Austria, and indicated that at least in the short term he was committed to maintaining Austria as a sovereign state. Italy had concerns over a Germany which included Austria laying land claims to German - populated territories of the South Tyrol (also known as Alto - Adige) within Italy, which bordered Austria on the Brenner Pass. Gömbös responded to Mussolini that as the Austrians primarily identified as Germans, the Anschluss of Austria to Germany was inevitable, and advised that it would be better for Italy to have a friendly Germany across the Brenner Pass than a hostile Germany bent on entering the Adriatic. Mussolini said he hoped the Anschluss could be postponed as long as possible until the breakout of a European war that he estimated would begin in 1938.
In 1933, Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power in Germany. His first diplomatic visitor was Gömbös. In a letter to Hitler within a day of his being appointed Chancellor, Gömbös told the Hungarian ambassador to Germany to remind Hitler "that ten years ago, on the basis of our common principles and ideology, we were in contact via Dr. Scheubner - Richter ''. Gömbös told the Hungarian ambassador to inform Hitler of Hungary 's intentions "for the two countries to cooperate in foreign and economic policy ''.
Hitler had advocated an alliance between Germany and Italy since the 1920s. Shortly after being appointed Chancellor, Hitler sent a personal message to Mussolini, declaring "admiration and homage '' and declaring his anticipation of the prospects of German - Italian friendship and even alliance. Hitler was aware that Italy held concerns over potential German land claims on South Tyrol, and assured Mussolini that Germany was not interested in South Tyrol. Hitler in Mein Kampf had declared that South Tyrol was a non-issue considering the advantages that would be gained from a German -- Italian alliance. After Hitler 's rise to power, the Four Power Directorate proposal by Italy had been looked at with interest by Britain, but Hitler was not committed to it, resulting in Mussolini urging Hitler to consider the diplomatic advantages Germany would gain by breaking out of isolation by entering the Directorate and avoiding an immediate armed conflict. The Four Power Directorate proposal stipulated that Germany would no longer be required to have limited arms and would be granted the right to re-armament under foreign supervision in stages. Hitler completely rejected the idea of controlled rearmament under foreign supervision.
Mussolini did not trust Hitler 's intentions regarding Anschluss nor Hitler 's promise of no territorial claims on South Tyrol. Mussolini informed Hitler that he was satisfied with the presence of the anti-Marxist government of Dollfuss in Austria, and warned Hitler that he was adamantly opposed to Anschluss. Hitler responded in contempt to Mussolini that he intended "to throw Dollfuss into the sea ''. With this disagreement over Austria, relations between Hitler and Mussolini steadily became more distant.
Hitler attempted to break the impasse with Italy over Austria by sending Hermann Göring to negotiate with Mussolini in 1933 to convince Mussolini to press the Austrian government to appoint members of Austria 's Nazis to the government. Göring claimed that Nazi domination of Austria was inevitable and that Italy should accept this, as well as repeating to Mussolini of Hitler 's promise to "regard the question of the South Tyrol frontier as finally liquidated by the peace treaties ''. In response to Göring 's visit with Mussolini, Dollfuss immediately went to Italy to counter any German diplomatic headway. Dollfuss claimed that his government was actively challenging Marxists in Austria and claimed that once the Marxists were defeated in Austria, that support for Austria 's Nazis would decline.
In 1934, Hitler and Mussolini met for the first time, in Venice. The meeting did not proceed amicably. Hitler demanded that Mussolini compromise on Austria by pressuring Dollfuss to appoint Austrian Nazis to his cabinet, to which Mussolini flatly refused the demand. In response, Hitler promised that he would accept Austria 's independence for the time being, saying that due to the internal tensions in Germany (referring to sections of the Nazi SA that Hitler would soon kill in the Night of the Long Knives) that Germany could not afford to provoke Italy. Galeazzo Ciano told the press that the two leaders had made a "gentleman 's agreement '' to avoid interfering in Austria.
Several weeks after the Venice meeting, on 25 July 1934, Austrian Nazis assassinated Dollfuss. Mussolini was outraged as he held Hitler directly responsible for the assassination that violated Hitler 's promise made only weeks ago to respect Austrian independence. Mussolini rapidly deployed several army divisions and air squadrons to the Brenner Pass, and warned that a German move against Austria would result in war between Germany and Italy. Hitler responded by both denying Nazi responsibility for the assassination and issuing orders to dissolve all ties between the German Nazi Party and its Austrian branch, which Germany claimed was responsible for the political crisis.
Italy effectively abandoned diplomatic relations with Germany while turning to France in order to challenge Germany 's intransigence by signing a Franco - Italian accord to protect Austrian independence. French and Italian military staff discussed possible military cooperation involving a war with Germany should Hitler dare to attack Austria. As late as May 1935, Mussolini spoke of his desire to destroy Hitler.
Relations between Germany and Italy recovered due to Hitler 's support of Italy 's invasion of Ethiopia in 1935, while other countries condemned the invasion and advocated sanctions against Italy.
Interest in Germany and Japan in forming an alliance began when Japanese diplomat Oshima Hiroshi visited Joachim von Ribbentrop in Berlin in 1935. Oshima informed von Ribbentrop of Japan 's interest in forming a German -- Japanese alliance against the Soviet Union. Von Ribbentrop expanded on Oshima 's proposal by advocating that the alliance be based in a political context of a pact to oppose the Comintern. The proposed pact was met with mixed reviews in Japan, with a faction of ultra-nationalists within the government supporting the pact while the Japanese Navy and the Japanese Foreign Ministry were staunchly opposed to the pact. There was great concern in the Japanese government that such a pact with Germany could disrupt Japan 's relations with Britain, endangering years of a beneficial Anglo - Japanese accord, that had allowed Japan to ascend in the international community in the first place. The response to the pact was met with similar division in Germany; while the proposed pact was popular amongst the upper echelons of the Nazi Party, it was opposed by many in the Foreign Ministry, the Army, and the business community who held financial interests in China to which Japan was hostile.
On learning of German -- Japanese negotiations, Italy also began to take an interest in forming an alliance with Japan. Italy had hoped that due to Japan 's long - term close relations with Britain, that an Italo - Japanese alliance could pressure Britain into adopting a more accommodating stance towards Italy in the Mediterranean. In the summer of 1936, Italian Foreign Minister Ciano informed Japanese Ambassador to Italy, Sugimura Yotaro, "I have heard that a Japanese -- German agreement concerning the Soviet Union has been reached, and I think it would be natural for a similar agreement to be made between Italy and Japan ''. Initially Japan 's attitude towards Italy 's proposal was generally dismissive, viewing a German -- Japanese alliance against the Soviet Union as imperative while regarding an Italo - Japanese alliance as secondary, as Japan anticipated that an Italo - Japanese alliance would antagonize Britain that had condemned Italy 's invasion of Ethiopia. This attitude by Japan towards Italy altered in 1937 after the League of Nations condemned Japan for aggression in China and faced international isolation, while Italy remained favourable to Japan. As a result of Italy 's support for Japan against international condemnation, Japan took a more positive attitude towards Italy and offered proposals for a non-aggression or neutrality pact with Italy.
The "Axis powers '' formally took the name after the Tripartite Pact was signed by Germany, Italy, and Japan on 27 September 1940, in Berlin. The pact was subsequently joined by Hungary (20 November 1940), Romania (23 November 1940), Slovakia (24 November 1940), and Bulgaria (1 March 1941).
The Axis powers ' primary goal was territorial expansion at the expense of their neighbors. In ideological terms, the Axis described their goals as breaking the hegemony of the plutocratic Western powers and defending civilization from communism. The Axis championed a number of variants on fascism, militarism, and autarky.
The Axis population in 1938 was 258.9 million, while the Allied population (excluding the Soviet Union and the United States, which later joined the Allies) was 689.7 million. Thus the Allied powers outnumbered the Axis powers by 2.7 to 1. The leading Axis states had the following domestic populations: Germany 75.5 million (including 6.8 million from recently annexed Austria), Japan 71.9 million (excluding its colonies), and Italy 43.4 million (excluding its colonies). The United Kingdom (excluding its colonies) had a population of 47.5 million and France (excluding its colonies) 42 million.
The wartime gross domestic product (GDP) of the Axis was $911 billion at its highest in 1941 in international dollars by 1990 prices. The GDP of the Allied powers was $1,798 billion. The United States stood at $1,094 billion, more than the Axis combined.
The burden of the war upon participating countries has been measured through the percentage of gross national product (GNP) devoted to military expenditures. Nearly one - quarter of Germany 's GNP was committed to the war effort in 1939, and this rose to three - quarters of GNP in 1944, prior to the collapse of the economy. In 1939, Japan committed 22 percent of its GNP to its war effort in China; this rose to three - quarters of GNP in 1944. Italy did not mobilize its economy; its GNP committed to the war effort remained at prewar levels.
Italy and Japan lacked industrial capacity; their economies were small, dependent on international trade, external sources of fuel and other industrial resources. As a result, Italian and Japanese mobilization remained low, even by 1943.
Among the three major Axis powers, Japan had the lowest per capita income, while Germany and Italy had an income level comparable to the United Kingdom.
Hitler in 1941 described the outbreak of World War II as the fault of the intervention of Western powers against Germany during its war with Poland, describing it as the result of "the European and American warmongers ''. Hitler denied accusations by the Allies that he wanted a World War, and invoked anti-Semitic claims that the war was wanted and provoked by politicians of Jewish origin or associated with Jewish interests. However Hitler clearly had designs for Germany to become the dominant and leading state in the world, such as his intention for Germany 's capital of Berlin to become the Welthauptstadt ("World Capital ''), renamed Germania. The German government also justified its actions by claiming that Germany inevitably needed to territorially expand because it was facing an overpopulation crisis that Hitler described: "We are overpopulated and can not feed ourselves from our own resources ''. Thus expansion was justified as an inevitable necessity to provide lebensraum ("living space '') for the German nation and end the country 's overpopulation within existing confined territory, and provide resources necessary to its people 's well - being. Since the 1920s, the Nazi Party publicly promoted the expansion of Germany into territories held by the Soviet Union. However, from 1939 to 1941, the Nazi regime claimed to have discarded those plans in light of improved relations with the Soviet Union via the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact, and claimed that central Africa was where Germany sought to achieve lebensraum. Hitler publicly claimed that Germany wanted to settle the lebensraum issue peacefully through diplomatic negotiations that would require other powers to make concessions to Germany. At the same time however Germany did prepare for war in the cause of lebensraum, and in the late 1930s Hitler emphasized the need for a military build - up to prepare for a potential clash between the peoples of Germany and the Soviet Union.
Germany justified its war against Poland on the issues of German minority within Poland and Polish opposition to the incorporation of the ethnically German - majority Free City of Danzig into Germany. While Hitler and the Nazi party before taking power openly talked about destroying Poland and were hostile to Poles, after gaining power until February 1939 Hitler tried to conceal his true intentions towards Poland, and signed a 10 - year Non-Aggression Pact in 1934, revealing his plans to only to his closest associates. Relations between Germany and Poland altered from the early to the late 1930s, as Germany sought rapprochement with Poland to avoid the risk of Poland entering the Soviet sphere of influence, and appealed to anti-Soviet sentiment in Poland. The Soviet Union in turn at this time competed with Germany for influence in Poland. At the same time Germany was preparing for a war with Poland and was secretly preparing the German minority in Poland for a war. And since 1935 weapons were being smuggled and gathered in frontier Polish regions by German intelligence. In November 1938, Germany organized German paramilitary units in the Polish region of Pomerania that were trained to engage in diversion, sabotage as well as murder and ethnic cleansing upon a German invasion of Poland. At the end of 1938 one of the first editions of Sonderfahndungsbuch Polen was printed by the Nazis, containing several thousand names of Poles targeted for execution and imprisonment after an invasion of Poland From late 1938 to early 1939, Germany in talks with Poland suggested that as reward for Poland transferring territories in Pomerania to Germany that Poland could annex Ukrainian territories from the Soviet Union after a war with Soviet Union. In January 1939, Ribbentrop held negotiations with Józef Beck, the Polish minister of foreign affairs; and Edward Rydz - Śmigły, the commander - in - chief of the Polish Army; in which Ribbentrop urged them to have Poland enter the Anti-Comintern Pact and work together with Germany for a mutual war in the East, whereby Poland would take Slovakia and Ukraine. Ribbentrop in private discussion with German officials stated that he hoped that by offering Poland large new territories in the Soviet Union, that Germany would gain not only from Polish cooperation in a war with the Soviet Union, but also that Poland would cooperate by transferring the Polish Corridor to Germany in exchange for these gains, because though it would lose access to the Baltic Sea, it would gain access to the Black Sea via Ukraine. However Beck refused to discuss German demands for the Corridor and was recalcitrant to the idea of a war with the Soviet Union. The Polish government distrusted Hitler and saw the plan as a threat to Polish sovereignty, practically subordinating Poland to the Axis and the Anti-Comintern Bloc while reducing the country to a state of near - servitude as its entire trade with Western Europe through the Baltic Sea would become dependent on Germany.
A diplomatic crisis erupted following Hitler demanding that the Free City of Danzig be annexed to Germany, as it was led by a Nazi government seeking annexation to Germany. Germany used legal precedents to justify its intervention against Poland and annexation of the Free City of Danzig (led by a local Nazi government that sought incorporation into Germany) in 1939. Germany noted one such violation as being in 1933 when Poland sent additional troops into the city in violation of the limit of Polish troops admissible to Danzig as agreed to by treaty. Hitler believed that Poland could be pressured to cede claimed territory through diplomatic means combined with the threat of military force, and believed that Germany could gain such concessions from Poland without provoking a war with Britain or France. Hitler believed that Britain 's guarantee of military support to Poland was a bluff, and with a German - Soviet agreement on both countries recognizing their mutual interests involving Poland. The Soviet Union had diplomatic grievances with Poland since the Soviet - Polish War of 1919 -- 1921 in which the Soviets agreed that North - eastern Poland, Western Belarus and Western Ukraine will become part of restored Polish state after intense fighting in those years over the territories, and the Soviet Union sought to regain those territories.
Poland rejected Germany 's demands and Germany in response prepared a general mobilization on the morning of 30 August 1939. Hitler believed that one of two outcomes would occur. The first was that the British would accept Germany 's demands and pressure Poland to agree to them. The second was that a conflict with Poland would be an isolated conflict, as Britain would not engage in a war with both Germany and the Soviet Union. At midnight 30 August 1939, German foreign minister Joachim Ribbentrop was expecting the arrival of the British ambassador Nevile Henderson as well as a Polish plenipotentiary to negotiate terms with Germany. Only Henderson arrived, and Henderson informed Ribbentrop that no Polish plenipotentiary was arriving. Ribbentrop became extremely upset and demanded the immediate arrival of a Polish diplomat, informing Henderson that the situation was "damned serious! '', and read out to Henderson Germany 's demands that Poland accept Germany annexing Danzig as well as Poland granting Germany the right to increase the connection of the infrastructure of East Prussia to mainland Germany by building an extraterritorial highway and railway that passed through the Polish Gdansk Pomerania, and a plebiscite to determine whether the Polish Corridor, that had a mixed composition of ethnic Poles and ethnic Germans, should remain within Poland or be transferred to Germany.
Germany justified its invasion of the Low Countries of Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands in May 1940 by claiming that it suspected that Britain and France were preparing to use the Low Countries to launch an invasion of the industrial Ruhr region of Germany. When war between Germany versus Britain and France appeared likely in May 1939, Hitler declared that the Netherlands and Belgium would need to be occupied, saying: "Dutch and Belgian air bases must be occupied... Declarations of neutrality must be ignored ''. In a conference with Germany 's military leaders on 23 November 1939, Hitler declared to the military leaders that "We have an Achilles heel, the Ruhr '', and said that "If England and France push through Belgium and Holland into the Ruhr, we shall be in the greatest danger '', and thus claimed that Belgium and the Netherlands had to be occupied by Germany to protect Germany from a British - French offensive against the Ruhr, irrespective of their claims to neutrality.
In April 1941, shortly after Germany and Yugoslavia completed negotiations for Yugoslavia to join the Axis, a coup d'état occurred in Yugoslavia that led to the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia. Germany needed access to the territory held by Yugoslavia to allow German forces to have a direct route to travel through, to reach and rescue Italian military forces that were faltering in their campaign in Greece. There was substantial animosity towards the alliance amongst Serbs, Yugoslavia 's largest ethnic group, who had fought German Austrians and Germany on the side of the Allies in World War I, and three Serb cabinet ministers resigned their positions in protest after the alliance was signed. Hitler initially attempted to be conciliatory to the Serbs who held animosity to the agreement, saying that he "understood the feelings '' of those Serbs who opposed the alliance. Amidst the negotiations, Hitler expressed concern to Italian foreign minister Ciano that he sensed trouble coming in Belgrade. A coup d'état occurred in Yugoslavia in which a government rose to power and abandoned its association with the Axis. Hitler accused the coup of being engineered by the British. The coup was at least partly supported by the British though there was substantial patriotic enthusiasm against the Pact with rallies in Belgrade. At the rallies in Belgrade immediately after the coup, people were heard to be shouting "Better war than pact! '' and waving British, American, and French flags. Days after the coup d'état, Hitler ordered the German General Staff to plan for an invasion of Yugoslavia.
Germany 's invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 involved issues of lebensraum, anti-communism, and Soviet foreign policy. Hitler in his early years as Nazi leader had claimed that he would be willing to accept friendly relations with Russia on the tactical condition that Russia agree to return to the borders established by the German -- Russian peace agreement of the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk signed by Vladimir Lenin of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic in 1918 which gave large territories held by Russia to German control in exchange for peace. Hitler in 1921 had commended the Treaty of Brest Litovsk as opening the possibility for restoration of relations between Germany and Russia, saying:
Through the peace with Russia the sustenance of Germany as well as the provision of work were to have been secured by the acquisition of land and soil, by access to raw materials, and by friendly relations between the two lands.
From 1921 to 1922 Hitler evoked rhetoric of both the achievement of lebensraum involving the acceptance of a territorially reduced Russia as well as supporting Russian nationals in overthrowing the Bolshevik government and establishing a new Russian government. However Hitler 's attitudes changed by the end of 1922, in which he then supported an alliance of Germany with Britain to destroy Russia. Later Hitler declared how far into Russia he intended to expand Germany to:
Asia, what a disquieting reservoir of men! The safety of Europe will not be assured until we have driven Asia back behind the Urals. No organized Russian state must be allowed to exist west of that line.
Policy for lebensraum planned mass expansion of Germany 's borders as far eastwards as the Ural Mountains. Hitler planned for the "surplus '' Russian population living west of the Urals to be deported to the east of the Urals. After Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, the Nazi regime 's stance towards an independent, territorially - reduced Russia was affected by pressure beginning in 1942 from the German Army on Hitler to endorse a Russian national liberation army led by Andrey Vlasov that officially sought to overthrow Joseph Stalin and the communist regime and establish a new Russian state. Initially the proposal to support an anti-communist Russian army was met with outright rejection by Hitler, however by 1944 as Germany faced mounting losses on the Eastern Front, Vlasov 's forces were recognized by Germany as an ally, particularly by Reichsführer - SS Heinrich Himmler.
After the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact was signed, in 1940 when Molotov arrived in Berlin on a diplomatic visit during which Ribbentrop stated that Germany was directing its lebensraum southward. Ribbentrop described to Molotov that further extension of Germany 's lebensraum was now going to be founded in Central Africa, and suggested that Germany would accept the Soviet Union taking part in the partitioning of the British Empire upon a British defeat in the war.
Germany and the Soviet Union in 1940 were in dispute over their respective influences in the Balkans, Bulgaria, the Danube and the Turkish Straits. The Soviet seizure of Bessarabia from Romania in June 1940 placed the Soviet -- Romanian frontier dangerously close to Romania 's oil fields in Ploiești that Germany needed oil trade from to support its war effort. When negotiations with Molotov led to no resolution, Hitler determined that Britain was only continuing to fight in hope of Soviet intervention and therefore the defeat of the Soviet Union would result in the defeat of Britain and in July 1940 began planning for a possible invasion of the Soviet Union.
After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the outbreak of war between Japan and the United States, Germany supported Japan by declaring war on the US. During the war Germany denounced the Atlantic Charter and the Lend - Lease Act that the US adopted to support the Allied powers prior to entry into the alliance, as imperialism directed at dominating and exploit countries outside of the continental Americas. Hitler denounced American President Roosevelt 's invoking of the term "freedom '' to describe US actions in the war, and accused the American meaning of "freedom '' to be the freedom for democracy to exploit the world and the freedom for plutocrats within such democracy to exploit the masses.
At the end of World War I, German citizens felt that their country had been humiliated as a result of the Treaty of Versailles, which included a war guilt clause and forced Germany to pay enormous reparations payments and forfeit territories formerly controlled by German Empire and all its colonies. The pressure of the reparations on the German economy led to hyperinflation during the early 1920s. In 1923 the French occupied the Ruhr region when Germany defaulted on its reparations payments. Although Germany began to improve economically in the mid-1920s, the Great Depression created more economic hardship and a rise in political forces that advocated radical solutions to Germany 's woes. The Nazis, under Hitler, promoted the nationalist stab - in - the - back legend stating that Germany had been betrayed by Jews and Communists. The party promised to rebuild Germany as a major power and create a Greater Germany that would include Alsace - Lorraine, Austria, Sudetenland, and other German - populated territories in Europe. The Nazis also aimed to occupy and colonize non-German territories in Poland, the Baltic states, and the Soviet Union, as part of the Nazi policy of seeking Lebensraum ("living space '') in eastern Europe.
Germany renounced the Versailles treaty and remilitarized the Rhineland in March 1936. Germany had already resumed conscription and announced the existence of a German air force, the Luftwaffe, and naval force, the Kriegsmarine in 1935. Germany annexed Austria in 1938, the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia, and the Memel territory from Lithuania in 1939. Germany then invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia in 1939, creating the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and the country of Slovakia.
On 23 August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact, which contained a secret protocol dividing eastern Europe into spheres of influence. Germany 's invasion of its part of Poland under the Pact eight days later triggered the beginning of World War II. By the end of 1941, Germany occupied a large part of Europe and its military forces were fighting the Soviet Union, nearly capturing Moscow. However, crushing defeats at the Battle of Stalingrad and the Battle of Kursk devastated the German armed forces. This, combined with Western Allied landings in France and Italy, led to a three - front war that depleted Germany 's armed forces and resulted in Germany 's defeat in 1945.
There was substantial internal opposition within the German military to the Nazi regime 's aggressive strategy of rearmament and foreign policy in the 1930s. From 1936 to 1938, Germany 's top four military leaders, Ludwig Beck, Werner von Blomberg, Werner von Fritsch, Walther von Reichenau, were all in opposition to the rearmament strategy and foreign policy. They criticized the hurried nature of rearmament, the lack of planning, Germany 's insufficient resources to carry out a war, the dangerous implications of Hitler 's foreign policy, and the increasing subordination of the army to the Nazi Party 's rules. These four military leaders were outspoken and public in their opposition to these tendencies. The Nazi regime responded with contempt to the four military leaders ' opposition, and Nazi members brewed a false crass scandal that alleged that the two top army leaders von Blomberg and von Fritsch were homosexual lovers, in order to pressure them to resign. Though started by lower - ranking Nazi members, Hitler took advantage of the scandal by forcing von Blomberg and von Fritsch to resign and replaced them with opportunists who were subservient to him. Shortly afterwards Hitler announced on 4 February 1938 that he was taking personal command over Germany 's military with the new High Command of the Armed Forces with the Führer as its head.
The opposition to the Nazi regime 's aggressive foreign policy in the military became so strong from 1936 to 1938, that considerations of overthrowing the Nazi regime were discussed within the upper echelons of the military and remaining non-Nazi members of the German government. Minister of Economics, Hjalmar Schacht met with Beck in 1936 in which Schacht declared to Beck that he was considering an overthrow of the Nazi regime and was inquiring what the stance was by the German military on support of an overthrow of the Nazi regime. Beck was lukewarm to the idea, and responded that if a coup against the Nazi regime began with support at the civilian level, the military would not oppose it. Schacht considered this promise by Beck to be inadequate because he knew that without the support of the army, any coup attempt would be crushed by the Gestapo and the SS. However, by 1938, Beck became a firm opponent of the Nazi regime out of his opposition to Hitler 's military plans of 1937 -- 38 that told the military to prepare for the possibility of a world war as a result of German annexation plans for Austria and Czechoslovakia.
The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was created from the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia. Shortly after Germany annexed the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia, Slovakia declared its independence. The new Slovak State allied itself with Germany. The remainder of the country was occupied by German military forces and organized into the Protectorate. Czech civil institutions were preserved but the Protectorate was considered within the sovereign territory of Germany.
The General Government was the name given to the territories of occupied Poland that were not directly annexed into German provinces, but like Bohemia and Moravia was considered within the sovereign territory of Germany.
Belgium quickly surrendered to Germany, and the Belgian King remained in the country during the German military occupation from 1940 to 1944. The Belgian King cooperated closely with Germany and repeatedly sought assurances that Belgian rights would be retained once Germany achieved total victory. However, Hitler intended to annex Belgium and its Germanic population into the Greater Germanic Reich, initiated by the creation of Reichskommissariat Belgien, an authority run directly by the German government that sought the incorporation of the territory into the planned Germanic Reich. However Belgium was soon occupied by Allied forces in 1944.
Reichskommissariat Niederlande was an occupation authority and territory established in the Netherlands in 1940 designated as a colony to be incorporated into the planned Greater Germanic Reich.
Reichskommissariat Norwegen was established in Norway in 1940. Like the Reichskommissariats in Belgium and the Netherlands, its Germanic peoples were to be incorporated into the Greater Germanic Reich. In Norway, the Quisling regime, headed by Vidkun Quisling, was installed by the Germans as a client regime during the occupation, while king Haakon VII and the legal government were in exile. Quisling encouraged Norwegians to serve as volunteers in the Waffen - SS, collaborated in the deportation of Jews, and was responsible for the executions of members of the Norwegian resistance movement.
About 45,000 Norwegian collaborators joined the pro-Nazi party Nasjonal Samling (National Union), and some police units helped arrest many Jews. However, Norway was one of the first countries where resistance during World War II was widespread before the turning point of the war in 1943. After the war, Quisling and other collaborators were executed. Quisling 's name has become an international eponym for traitor.
Reichskommissariat Ostland was established in the Baltic region in 1941. Unlike the western Reichskommissariats that sought the incorporation of their majority Germanic peoples, Ostland were designed for settlement by Germans who would displace the non-Germanic majority living there, as part of lebensraum.
Reichskommissariat Ukraine was established in Ukraine in 1941. Like Ostland it was slated for settlement by Germans.
The Military Administration in Serbia was established on occupied Yugoslav territory in April 1941, following the invasion of the country. On 30 April a pro-German Serbian administration was formed under Milan Aćimović to serve as a civil administration in the military occupation zone. A joint Partisan and Chetnik uprising in late 1941 became a serious concern for the Germans, as most of their forces were deployed to Russia; only three divisions were in the country. On 13 August 546 Serbs, including some of the country 's prominent and influential leaders, issued an appeal to the Serbian nation that condemned the Partisan and royalist resistance as unpatriotic. Two weeks after the appeal, with the Partisan and royalist insurgency beginning to gain momentum, 75 prominent Serbs convened a meeting in Belgrade and formed a Government of National Salvation under Serbian General Milan Nedić to replace the existing Serbian administration. The Germans were short of police and military forces in Serbia, and came to rely on poorly armed Serbian formations, the Serbian State Guard and Serbian Volunteer Corps, to maintain order. These forces, however, were not able to contain the resistance, and for the most of the war large parts of Serbia were under control of the Partisans or Chetniks (the two resistance movements soon became mutually - hostile). The Government of National Salvation, imbued with few powers upon formation, saw its functions further decreased and taken over by the Wehrmacht occupation authorities as the war progressed. After the initial mass revolts, the German authorities instituted an extreme regime of reprisals, proclaiming that 100 civilians would be executed for every German soldier killed, and 50 for each one wounded. These measures were actually implemented on more than one occasion: large - scale shootings took place in the Serbian towns of Kraljevo and Kragujevac during October 1941.
Duce Benito Mussolini described Italy 's declaration of war against the Western Allies of Britain and France in June 1940 as the following: "We are going to war against the plutocratic and reactionary democracies of the West who have invariably hindered the progress and often threatened the very existence of the Italian people ''. Italy condemned the Western powers for enacting sanctions on Italy in 1935 for its actions in the Second Italo - Ethiopian War that Italy claimed was a response to an act of Ethiopian aggression against tribesmen in Italian Eritrea in the Walwal incident of 1934. Italy, like Germany, also justified its actions by claiming that Italy needed to territorially expand to provide spazio vitale ("vital space '') for the Italian nation.
In October 1938 in the aftermath of the Munich Agreement, Italy demanded concessions from France to yield to Italy: a free port at Djibouti, control of the Addis Ababa - Djibouti railroad, Italian participation in the management of Suez Canal Company, some form of French - Italian condominium over Tunisia, and the preservation of Italian culture in French - held Corsica with no French assimilation of the people. Italy opposed the French monopoly over the Suez Canal because under the French - dominated Suez Canal Company all Italian merchant traffic to its colony of Italian East Africa was forced to pay tolls upon entering the canal. Mussolini hoped that in light of Italy 's role in settling the Munich Agreement that prevented the outbreak of war, that Britain would react by putting pressure on France to yield to Italy 's demands to preserve the peace. France refused to accept Italy 's demands as it was widely suspected that Italy 's true intentions were territorial acquisition of Nice, Corsica, Tunisia, and Djibouti and not the milder official demands put forth. Relations between Italy and France deteriorated with France 's refusal to accept Italy 's demands. France responded to Italy 's demands with threatening naval maneuvers as a warning to Italy. As tensions between Italy and France grew, Hitler made a major speech on 30 January 1939 in which he promised German military support in the case of an unprovoked war against Italy.
Italy justified its intervention against Greece in October 1940 on the allegation that Greece was being used by Britain against Italy, Mussolini informed this to Hitler, saying: "Greece is one of the main points of English maritime strategy in the Mediterranean ''.
Italy justified its intervention against Yugoslavia in April 1941 by appealing to both Italian irredentist claims and the fact of Albanian, Croatian, and Macedonian separatists not wishing to be part of Yugoslavia. Croatian separatism soared after the assassination of Croatian political leaders in the Yugoslav parliament in 1928 including the death of Stjepan Radić, and Italy endorsed Croatian separatist Ante Pavelić and his fascist Ustaše movement that was based and trained in Italy with the Fascist regime 's support prior to intervention against Yugoslavia.
In the late 19th century, after Italian unification, a nationalist movement had grown around the concept of Italia irredenta, which advocated the incorporation into Italy of Italian - populated areas still under foreign rule. There was a desire to annex Dalmatian territories, which had formerly been ruled by the Venetians, and which consequently had Italian - speaking elites. The intention of the Fascist regime was to create a "New Roman Empire '' in which Italy would dominate the Mediterranean. In 1935 -- 1936 Italy invaded and annexed Ethiopia and the Fascist government proclaimed the creation of the "Italian Empire ''. Protests by the League of Nations, especially the British, who had interests in that area, led to no serious action, although The League did try to enforce economic sanctions upon Italy, but to no avail. The incident highlighted French and British weakness, exemplified by their reluctance to alienate Italy and lose her as their ally. The limited actions taken by the Western powers pushed Mussolini 's Italy towards alliance with Hitler 's Germany anyway. In 1937 Italy left the League of Nations and joined the Anti-Comintern Pact, which had been signed by Germany and Japan the preceding year. In March / April 1939 Italian troops invaded and annexed Albania. Germany and Italy signed the Pact of Steel on May 22.
Italy entered World War II on 10 June 1940. In September 1940 Germany, Italy, and Japan signed the Tripartite Pact.
Italy was ill - prepared for war, in spite of the fact that it had continuously been involved in conflict since 1935, first with Ethiopia in 1935 -- 1936 and then in the Spanish Civil War on the side of Francisco Franco 's Nationalists. Mussolini refused to heed warnings from his minister of exchange and currency, Felice Guarneri, who said that Italy 's actions in Ethiopia and Spain meant that Italy was on the verge of bankruptcy. By 1939 military expenditures by Britain and France far exceeded what Italy could afford. As a result of Italy 's economic difficulties its soldiers were poorly paid, often being poorly equipped and poorly supplied, and animosity arose between soldiers and class - conscious officers; these contributed to low morale amongst Italian soldiers. Military planning was deficient, as the Italian government had not decided on which theatre would be the most important. Power over the military was overcentralized to Mussolini 's direct control; he personally undertook to direct the ministry of war, the navy, and the air force. The navy did not have any aircraft carriers to provide air cover for amphibious assaults in the Mediterranean, as the Fascist regime believed that the air bases on the Italian Peninsula would be able to do this task. Italy 's army had outmoded artillery and the armoured units used outdated formations not suited to modern warfare. Diversion of funds to the air force and navy to prepare for overseas operations meant less money was available for the army; the standard rifle was a design that dated back to 1891. The Fascist government failed to learn from mistakes made in Ethiopia and Spain; it ignored the implications of the Italian Fascist volunteer soldiers being routed at the Battle of Guadalajara in the Spanish Civil War. Military exercises by the army in the Po Valley in August 1939 disappointed onlookers, including King Victor Emmanuel III. Mussolini who was angered by Italy 's military unpreparedness, dismissed Alberto Pariani as Chief of Staff of the Italian military in 1939.
Italy 's only strategic natural resource was an abundance of aluminum. Petroleum, iron, copper, nickel, chrome, and rubber all had to be imported. The Fascist government 's economic policy of autarky and a recourse to synthetic materials was not able to meet the demand. Prior to entering the war, the Fascist government sought to gain control over resources in the Balkans, particularly oil from Romania. The agreement between Germany and the Soviet Union to invade and partition Poland between them resulted in Hungary that bordered the Soviet Union after Poland 's partition, and Romania viewing Soviet invasion as an immediate threat, resulting in both countries appealing to Italy for support, beginning in September 1939. Italy - then still officially neutral - responded to appeals by the Hungarian and Romanian governments for protection from the Soviet Union, by proposing a Danube - Balkan neutrals bloc. The proposed bloc was designed to increase Italian influence in the Balkans: it met resistance from France, Germany, and the Soviet Union that did not want to lose their influence in the Balkans; however Britain, who believed that Italy would not enter the war on Germany 's side, supported the neutral bloc. The efforts to form the bloc failed by November 1939 after Turkey made an agreement that it would protect Allied Mediterranean territory, along with Greece and Romania.
Initially upon the outbreak of war between Germany and the Allies, Mussolini pursued a non-belligerent role for Italy out of concerns that Germany may not win its war with the Allies. However Mussolini in private grew anxious that Italy not intervening in support of Germany in September 1939 upon Britain and France waging war on Germany, would eventually result in retribution by Germany if Italy did not get involved in the war on Germany 's side.
By early 1940, Italy was still a non-belligerent, and Mussolini communicated to Hitler that Italy was not prepared to intervene soon. By March 1940, Mussolini decided that Italy would intervene, but the date was not yet chosen. His senior military leadership unanimously opposed the action because Italy was unprepared. No raw materials had been stockpiled and the reserves it did have would soon be exhausted, Italy 's industrial base was only one - tenth of Germany 's, and even with supplies the Italian military was not organized to provide the equipment needed to fight a modern war of a long duration. An ambitious rearmament program was impossible because of Italy 's limited reserves in gold and foreign currencies and lack of raw materials. Mussolini ignored the negative advice.
An April 1938 report by German Naval High Command (OKM) warned that Italy as a combatant ally would be a serious "burden '' to Germany if a war between Germany and Britain occurred, and recommended that it would be preferable for Germany to seek for Italy to be a "benevolent neutral '' during the war. On 18 March 1940, Hitler told Mussolini in person that the war would be over by the summer and that Italy 's military involvement was not required.
Mussolini on 29 May 1940 discussed the situation of the Italian Army in which he acknowledged that it was not ideal but believed that it was satisfactory, and discussed the timeline for a declaration of war on Britain and France. He said: "a delay of two weeks or a month would not be an improvement, and Germany could think we entered the war when the risk was very small... And this could be a burden on us when peace comes. ''
After entering the war in 1940, Italy had been slated to be granted a series of territorial concessions from France that Hitler had agreed to with Italian foreign minister Ciano, that included Italian annexation of claimed territories in southeastern France, a military occupation of southeastern France up to the river Rhone, and receiving the French colonies of Tunisia and Djibouti. However, on 22 June 1940, Mussolini suddenly informed Hitler that Italy was abandoning its claims "in the Rhone, Corsica, Tunisia, and Djibouti '', instead requesting a demilitarized zone along the French border, and on 24 June Italy agreed to an armistice with the Vichy regime to that effect. Later on 7 July 1940, the Italian government changed its decision, and Ciano attempted to make an agreement with Hitler to have Nice, Corsica, Tunisia, and Djibouti be transferred to Italy; Hitler adamantly rejected any new settlement or separate French - Italian peace agreement for the time being prior to the defeat of Britain in the war. However Italy continued to press Germany for the incorporation of Nice, Corsica, and Tunisia into Italy, with Mussolini sending a letter to Hitler in October 1940, informing him that as the 850,000 Italians living under France 's current borders formed the largest minority community, that ceding these territories to Italy would be beneficial to both Germany and Italy as it would reduce France 's population from 35 million to 34 and forestall any possibility of resumed French ambitions for expansion or hegemony in Europe. Germany had considered the possibility of invading and occupying the non-occupied territories of Vichy France including occupying Corsica; Germany capturing the Vichy French fleet for use by Germany, in December 1940 with the proposed Operation Attila. An invasion of Vichy France by Germany and Italy took place with Case Anton in November 1942.
In mid-1940, in response to an agreement by Romanian Conducător Ion Antonescu to accept German "training troops '' to be sent to Romania, both Mussolini and Stalin in the Soviet Union were angered by Germany 's expanding sphere of influence into Romania, and especially because neither was informed in advance of the action in spite of German agreements with Italy and the Soviet Union at that time. Mussolini in a conversation with Ciano responded to Hitler 's deployment of troops into Romania, saying: "Hitler always faces me with accomplished facts. Now I 'll pay him back by his same currency. He 'll learn from the papers that I have occupied Greece. So the balance will be re-established. ''. However Mussolini later decided to inform Hitler in advance of Italy 's designs on Greece. Upon hearing of Italy 's intervention against Greece, Hitler was deeply concerned as he said that the Greeks were not bad soldiers that Italy might not win in its war with Greece, as he did not want Germany to become embroiled in a Balkan conflict.
By 1941, Italy 's attempts to run an autonomous campaign from Germany 's, collapsed as a result of military setbacks in Greece, North Africa, and Eastern Africa; and the country became dependent and effectively subordinate to Germany. After the German - led invasion and occupation of Yugoslavia and Greece, that had both been targets of Italy 's war aims, Italy was forced to accept German dominance in the two occupied countries. Furthermore, by 1941, German forces in North Africa under Erwin Rommel effectively took charge of the military effort ousting Allied forces from the Italian colony of Libya, and German forces were stationed in Sicily in that year. Germany 's insolence towards Italy as an ally was demonstrated that year when Italy was pressured to send 350,000 "guest workers '' to Germany who were used as forced labour. While Hitler was disappointed with the Italian military 's performance, he maintained overall favorable relations with Italy because of his personal friendship with Mussolini.
Mussolini by mid-1941 recognized that Italy 's war objectives had failed. Mussolini henceforth believed that Italy was left with no choice in such a subordinate status other than to follow Germany in its war and hope for a German victory. However Germany supported Italian propaganda of the creation of a "Latin Bloc '' of Italy, Vichy France, Spain, and Portugal to ally with Germany against the threat of communism, and after the German invasion of the Soviet Union, the prospect of a Latin Bloc seemed plausible. From 1940 to 1941, Francisco Franco of Spain had endorsed a Latin Bloc of Italy, Vichy France, Spain and Portugal, in order to balance the countries ' powers to that of Germany; however, the discussions failed to yield an agreement.
After the invasion and occupation of Yugoslavia, Italy annexed numerous Adriatic islands and a portion of Dalmatia that was formed into the Italian Governorship of Dalmatia including territory from the provinces of Spalato, Zara, and Cattaro. Though Italy had initially larger territorial aims that extended from the Velebit mountains to the Albanian Alps, Mussolini decided against annexing further territories due to a number of factors, including that Italy held the economically valuable portion of that territory within its possession while the northern Adriatic coast had no important railways or roads and because a larger annexation would have included hundreds of thousands of Slavs who were hostile to Italy, within its national borders. Mussolini and foreign minister Ciano demanded that the Yugoslav region of Slovenia to be directly annexed into Italy, however in negotiations with German foreign minister Ribbentrop in April 1941, Ribbentrop insisted on Hitler 's demands that Germany be allocated the eastern Slovenia while Italy would be allocated western Slovenia, Italy conceded to this German demand and Slovenia was partitioned between Germany and Italy.
With the commencing of the Allies ' Operation Torch against Vichy French - held Morocco and Algeria, Germany and Italy intervened in Vichy France and in Vichy French - held Tunisia. Italy seized military control over a significant portion of southern France and Corsica, while a joint German - Italian force seized control over most of Tunisia. When the issue of sovereign control over Tunisia arose from seizure of control by the German - Italian force from Vichy French control, Ribbentrop proclaimed Italian predominance in Tunisia. However, in spite of Germany 's claim to respect Italian predominance, Germans supervised public services and local government in Tunisia, and the German presence was more popular in Tunisia with both the local Arab population and Vichy French collaborators since Germany had no imperial aspirations in Tunisia while Italy did.
Internal opposition by Italians to the war and the Fascist regime accelerated by 1942, though significant opposition to the war had existed at the outset in 1940, as police reports indicated that many Italians were secretly listening to the BBC rather than Italian media in 1940. Underground Catholic, Communist, and socialist newspapers began to become prominent by 1942.
In spring 1941, Victor Emmanuel III visited Italian soldiers on the front in Yugoslavia and Albania, he was dismayed by the Fascist regime 's brutal imperialism in Dalmatia, Slovenia, and Montenegro because he suspected it would impose impossible burdens on Italy by creating new enemies among the occupied peoples that Italy would be forced to fight. Victor Emmanuel was disappointed with the Italian military 's performance in the war, as he noted the army, navy, and air force could not drop their mutual jealousies and competition to work together. Furthermore, he feared that overly ambitious generals attempting to win promotion were attempting to persuade Mussolini to divert military resources in an ever - widening field of action. In June 1941, Mussolini 's decision to follow Germany by waging war on the Soviet Union in which Victor Emmanuel was informed at the last moment giving him time only to advice to Mussolini against sending anything more than a token force to fight against the Soviet Union; his advice was not taken. A few weeks after Italy 's declaration of war against the Soviet Union, a senior general of the Carabinieri informed the royal palace that the military police were awaiting a royal order to act against the Fascist regime. In September 1941, Victor Emmanuel held a private discussion with Ciano, in which Ciano said to the King that Fascism was doomed. In 1942, opposition to Italy 's involvement in the war expanded among the Fascist regime 's senior officials, with Giuseppe Bottai in private stating that he and other Fascist officials should have resigned from office when Mussolini declared war on Britain and France in June 1940, while Dino Grandi approached the King urging him to dismantle Mussolini 's dictatorship in order to withdraw Italy from the war as he saw Italy facing ruin. By January 1943, King Victor Emmanuel III was persuaded by the Minister of the Royal Household, the Duke of Acquarone that Mussolini had to be removed from office.
In March 1943, the first sign of serious rebellion by Italians against the Fascist regime and the war began with a strike by factory workers who were joined by soldiers singing communist songs and even rank - in - file Fascist party members. The Fascist regime also faced passive resistance by civil servants who had begun to refuse to obey orders or pretend to obey orders.
On 25 July 1943, following the Allied invasion of Sicily, King Victor Emmanuel III dismissed Mussolini, placed him under arrest, and began secret negotiations with the Western Allies. An armistice was signed on 8 September 1943, and Italy joined the Allies as a co-belligerent. On 12 September 1943, Mussolini was rescued by the Germans in Operation Oak and placed in charge of a puppet state called the Italian Social Republic (Repubblica Sociale Italiana / RSI, or Repubblica di Salò) in northern Italy. The war went on for months as the Allies, the Italian Co-Belligerent Army and the partisans contended the Social Republic 's forces and its German allies. Some areas in Northern Italy were liberated from the Germans as late as May, 1945. Mussolini was killed by Communist partisans on 28 April 1945 while trying to escape to Switzerland.
The Dodecanese Islands were an Italian dependency from 1912 to 1943.
Montenegro was an Italian dependency from 1941 to 1943 known as the Governorate of Montenegro that was under the control of an Italian military governor. Initially, the Italians intended that Montenegro would become an "independent '' state closely allied with Italy, reinforced through the strong dynastic links between Italy and Montenegro, as Queen Elena of Italy was a daughter of the last Montenegrin king Nicholas I. The Italian - backed Montenegrin nationalist Sekula Drljević and his followers attempted to create a Montenegrin state. On 12 July 1941, they proclaimed the "Kingdom of Montenegro '' under the protection of Italy. In less than 24 hours, that triggered a general uprising against the Italians. Within three weeks, the insurgents managed to capture almost all the territory of Montenegro. Over 70,000 Italian troops and 20,000 of Albanian and Muslim irregulars were deployed to suppress the rebellion. Drljevic was expelled from Montenegro in October 1941. Montenegro then came under full direct Italian control. With the Italian capitulation of 1943, Montenegro came directly under the control of Germany.
Albania was an Italian protectorate and dependency from 1939 to 1943. In spite of Albania 's long - standing protection and alliance with Italy, on 7 April 1939 Italian troops invaded Albania, five months before the start of the Second World War. Following the invasion, Albania became a protectorate under Italy, with King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy being awarded the crown of Albania. An Italian governor controlled Albania. Albanian troops under Italian control were sent to participate in the Italian invasion of Greece and the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia. Following Yugoslavia 's defeat, Kosovo was annexed to Albania by the Italians.
Politically and economically dominated by Italy from its creation in 1913, Albania was occupied by Italian military forces in 1939 as the Albanian king Zog l fled the country with his family. The Albanian parliament voted to offer the Albanian throne to the King of Italy, resulting in a personal union between the two countries.
The Albanian army, having been trained by Italian advisors, was reinforced by 100,000 Italian troops. A Fascist militia was organized, drawing its strength principally from Albanians of Italian descent.
Albania served as the staging area for the Italian invasions of Greece and Yugoslavia. Albania annexed Kosovo in 1941 when Yugoslavia was dissolved, creating a Greater Albania.
Albanian troops were dispatched to the Eastern Front to fight the Soviets as part of the Italian Eighth Army.
Albania declared war on the United States in 1941.
When the Fascist regime of Italy fell, in September 1943 Albania fell under German occupation.
Italian East Africa was an Italian colony existing from 1936 to 1943. Prior to the invasion and annexation of Ethiopia into this united colony in 1936, Italy had two colonies, Eritrea and Somalia since the 1880s.
Libya was an Italian colony existing from 1912 to 1943. The northern portion of Libya was incorporated directly into Italy in 1939, however the region remained united as a colony under a colonial governor.
There was also a minor Italian concession territory in Tientsin, Republic of China.
The Japanese government justified its actions by claiming that it was seeking to unite East Asia under Japanese leadership in a Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere that would free East Asians from domination and rule by clients of Western powers and particularly the United States. Japan invoked themes of Pan-Asianism and said that the Asian people needed to be free from Western influence.
The United States opposed the Japanese war in China, and recognized Chiang Kai - Shek 's Nationalist Government as the legitimate government of China. As a result, the United States sought to bring the Japanese war effort to a halt by imposing an embargo on all trade between the United States and Japan. Japan was dependent on the United States for 80 percent of its petroleum, and as a consequence the embargo resulted in an economic and military crisis for Japan, as Japan could not continue its war effort against China without access to petroleum.
In order to maintain its military campaign in China with the major loss of petroleum trade with the United States, Japan saw the best means to secure an alternative source of petroleum in the petroleum - rich and natural - resources - rich Southeast Asia. This threat of retaliation by Japan to the total trade embargo by the United States was known by the American government, including American Secretary of State Cordell Hull who was negotiating with the Japanese to avoid a war, fearing that the total embargo would pre-empt a Japanese attack on the Dutch East Indies.
Japan identified the American Pacific fleet based in Pearl Harbor as the principal threat to its designs to invade and capture Southeast Asia. Thus Japan initiated the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 as a means to inhibit an American response to the invasion of Southeast Asia, and buy time to allow Japan to consolidate itself with these resources to engage in a total war against the United States, and force the United States to accept Japan 's acquisitions. On 7 December 1941 Japan declared war on the United States and the British Empire.
The Empire of Japan, a constitutional monarchy ruled by Hirohito, was the principal Axis power in Asia and the Pacific. Under the emperor were a political cabinet and the Imperial General Headquarters, with two chiefs of staff. By 1945 the Emperor of Japan was more than a symbolic leader; he played a major role in devising a strategy to keep himself on the throne.
At its peak, Japan 's Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere included Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, large parts of China, Malaysia, French Indochina, Dutch East Indies, The Philippines, Burma, a small part of India, and various Pacific Islands in the central Pacific.
As a result of the internal discord and economic downturn of the 1920s, militaristic elements set Japan on a path of expansionism. As the Japanese home islands lacked natural resources needed for growth, Japan planned to establish hegemony in Asia and become self - sufficient by acquiring territories with abundant natural resources. Japan 's expansionist policies alienated it from other countries in the League of Nations and by the mid-1930s brought it closer to Germany and Italy, who had both pursued similar expansionist policies. Cooperation between Japan and Germany began with the Anti-Comintern Pact, in which the two countries agreed to ally to challenge any attack by the Soviet Union.
Japan entered into conflict against the Chinese in 1937. The Japanese invasion and occupation of parts of China resulted in numerous atrocities against civilians, such as the Nanking massacre and the Three Alls Policy. The Japanese also fought skirmishes with Soviet -- Mongolian forces in Manchukuo in 1938 and 1939. Japan sought to avoid war with the Soviet Union by signing a non-aggression pact with it in 1941.
Japan 's military leaders were divided on diplomatic relationships with Germany and Italy and the attitude towards the United States. The Imperial Japanese Army was in favour of war with the United States, but the Imperial Japanese Navy was generally strongly opposed. When Prime Minister of Japan General Hideki Tojo refused American demands that Japan withdraw its military forces from China, a confrontation became more likely. War with the United States was being discussed within the Japanese government by 1940. Commander of the Combined Fleet Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto was outspoken in his opposition, especially after the signing of the Tripartite Pact, saying on 14 October 1940: "To fight the United States is like fighting the whole world. But it has been decided. So I will fight the best I can. Doubtless I shall die on board Nagato (his flagship). Meanwhile Tokyo will be burnt to the ground three times. Konoe and others will be torn to pieces by the revengeful people, I (should n't) wonder. '' In October and November 1940, Yamamoto communicated with Navy Minister Oikawa, and stated, "Unlike the pre-Tripartite days, great determination is required to make certain that we avoid the danger of going to war. ''
With the European powers focused on the war in Europe, Japan sought to acquire their colonies. In 1940 Japan responded to the German invasion of France by occupying French Indochina. The Vichy France regime, a de facto ally of Germany, accepted the takeover. The allied forces did not respond with war. However, the United States instituted an embargo against Japan in 1941 because of the continuing war in China. This cut off Japan 's supply of scrap metal and oil needed for industry, trade, and the war effort.
To isolate the US forces stationed in the Philippines and to reduce US naval power, the Imperial General Headquarters ordered an attack on the US naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on 7 December 1941. They also invaded Malaya and Hong Kong. Initially achieving a series of victories, by 1943 the Japanese forces were driven back towards the home islands. The Pacific War lasted until the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The Soviets formally declared war in August 1945 and engaged Japanese forces in Manchuria and northeast China.
Taiwan, then known as Formosa, was a Japanese dependency established in 1895.
Korea was a Japanese protectorate and dependency formally established by the Japan -- Korea Treaty of 1910.
The South Pacific Mandate were territories granted to Japan in 1919 in the peace agreements of World War I, that designated to Japan the German South Pacific islands. Japan received these as a reward by the Allies of World War I, when Japan was then allied against Germany.
Japan occupied the Dutch East Indies during the war. Japan planned to transform these territories into a client state of Indonesia and sought alliance with Indonesian nationalists including future Indonesian President Sukarno, however these efforts did not deliver the creation of an Indonesian state until after Japan 's surrender.
In addition to the 3 major Axis powers, 4 more countries and 2 puppet regimes signed the Tri-Partite Pact as its member states. Of the 4 countries, Romania, Hungary and Bulgaria participated in various Axis military operations with their national armed forces, while the 4th, Yugoslavia, saw its pro-Nazi government overthrown in a coup merely days after it signed the Pact, and the membership was reversed.
The 2 puppet regimes that signed the Tri-Partite Pact, Tiso - led Slovakia and the Independent State of Croatia are listed among the client states section below.
The Kingdom of Bulgaria was ruled by Тsar Boris III when it signed the Tripartite Pact on 1 March 1941. Bulgaria had been on the losing side in the First World War and sought a return of lost ethnically and historically Bulgarian territories, specifically in Macedonia and Thrace (all within Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Kingdom of Greece and Turkey). During the 1930s, because of traditional right - wing elements, Bulgaria drew closer to Nazi Germany. In 1940 Germany pressured Romania to sign the Treaty of Craiova, returning to Bulgaria the region of Southern Dobrudja, which it had lost in 1913. The Germans also promised Bulgaria -- if it joined the Axis -- an enlargement of its territory to the borders specified in the Treaty of San Stefano.
Bulgaria participated in the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia and Greece by letting German troops attack from its territory and sent troops to Greece on April 20. As a reward, the Axis powers allowed Bulgaria to occupy parts of both countries -- southern and south - eastern Yugoslavia (Vardar Banovina) and north - eastern Greece (parts of Greek Macedonia and Greek Thrace). The Bulgarian forces in these areas spent the following years fighting various nationalist groups and resistance movements. Despite German pressure, Bulgaria did not take part in the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union and actually never declared war on the Soviet Union. The Bulgarian Navy was nonetheless involved in a number of skirmishes with the Soviet Black Sea Fleet, which attacked Bulgarian shipping.
Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the Bulgarian government declared war on the Western Allies. This action remained largely symbolic (at least from the Bulgarian perspective), until August 1943, when Bulgarian air defense and air force attacked Allied bombers, returning (heavily damaged) from a mission over the Romanian oil refineries. This turned into a disaster for the citizens of Sofia and other major Bulgarian cities, which were heavily bombed by the Allies in the winter of 1943 -- 1944.
On 2 September 1944, as the Red Army approached the Bulgarian border, a new Bulgarian government came to power and sought peace with the Allies, expelled the few remaining German troops, and declared neutrality. These measures however did not prevent the Soviet Union from declaring war on Bulgaria on 5 September, and on 8 September the Red Army marched into the country, meeting no resistance. This was followed by the coup d'état of 9 September 1944, which brought a government of the pro-Soviet Fatherland Front to power. After this, the Bulgarian army (as part of the Red Army 's 3rd Ukrainian Front) fought the Germans in Yugoslavia and Hungary, sustaining numerous casualties. Despite this, the Paris Peace Treaty treated Bulgaria as one of the defeated countries. Bulgaria was allowed to keep Southern Dobruja, but had to give up all claims to Greek and Yugoslav territory.
Hungary, ruled by Regent Admiral Miklós Horthy, was the first country apart from Germany, Italy, and Japan to adhere to the Tripartite Pact, signing the agreement on 20 November 1940. Slovakia had been a client state of Germany since 1938.
Political instability plagued the country until Miklós Horthy, a Hungarian nobleman and Austro - Hungarian naval officer, became regent in 1920. Hungarian nationalists desired to recover territories lost through the Trianon Treaty. The country drew closer to Germany and Italy largely because of a shared desire to revise the peace settlements made after World War I. Many people sympathized with the anti-Semitic policy of the Nazi regime. Due to its pro-German stance, Hungary received favourable territorial settlements when Germany annexed Czechoslovakia in 1938 -- 1939 and received Northern Transylvania from Romania via the Vienna Awards of 1940. Hungarians permitted German troops to transit through their territory during the invasion of Yugoslavia, and Hungarian forces took part in the invasion. Parts of Yugoslavia were annexed to Hungary; the United Kingdom immediately broke off diplomatic relations in response.
Although Hungary did not initially participate in the German invasion of the Soviet Union, Hungary declared war on the Soviet Union on 27 June 1941. Over 500,000 soldiers served on the Eastern Front. All five of Hungary 's field armies ultimately participated in the war against the Soviet Union; a significant contribution was made by the Hungarian Second Army.
On 25 November 1941, Hungary was one of thirteen signatories to the revived Anti-Comintern Pact. Hungarian troops, like their Axis counterparts, were involved in numerous actions against the Soviets. By the end of 1943, the Soviets had gained the upper hand and the Germans were retreating. The Hungarian Second Army was destroyed in fighting on the Voronezh Front, on the banks of the Don River. In 1944, with Soviet troops advancing toward Hungary, Horthy attempted to reach an armistice with the Allies. However, the Germans replaced the existing regime with a new one. After fierce fighting, Budapest was taken by the Soviets. A number of pro-German Hungarians retreated to Italy and Germany, where they fought until the end of the war.
Relations between Germany and the regency of Miklós Horthy collapsed in Hungary in 1944. Horthy was forced to abdicate after German armed forces held his son hostage as part of Operation Panzerfaust. Hungary was reorganized following Horthy 's abdication in December 1944 into a totalitarian fascist regime called the Government of National Unity, led by Ferenc Szálasi. He had been Prime Minister of Hungary since October 1944 and was leader of the anti-Semitic fascist Arrow Cross Party. In power, his government was a puppet regime with little authority, and the country was effectively under German control. Days after the Szálasi government took power, the capital of Budapest was surrounded by the Soviet Red Army. German and Hungarian fascist forces tried to hold off the Soviet advance but failed. In March 1945, Szálasi fled to Germany as the leader of a government in exile, until the surrender of Germany in May 1945.
When war erupted in Europe in 1939, the Kingdom of Romania was pro-British and allied to the Poles. Following the invasion of Poland by Germany and the Soviet Union, and the German conquest of France and the Low Countries, Romania found itself increasingly isolated; meanwhile, pro-German and pro-Fascist elements began to grow.
The August 1939 Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact between Germany and the Soviet Union contained a secret protocol ceding Bessarabia, and Northern Bukovina to the Soviet Union. On June 28, 1940, the Soviet Union occupied and annexed Bessarabia, as well as part of northern Romania and the Hertza region. On 30 August 1940, Germany forced Romania to cede Northern Transylvania to Hungary as a result of the Second Vienna Award. Southern Dobruja was ceded to Bulgaria in September 1940. In an effort to appease the Fascist elements within the country and obtain German protection, King Carol II appointed the General Ion Antonescu as Prime Minister on September 6, 1940.
Two days later, Antonescu forced the king to abdicate and installed the king 's young son Michael (Mihai) on the throne, then declared himself Conducător ("Leader '') with dictatorial powers. The National Legionary State was proclaimed on 14 September, with the Iron Guard ruling together with Antonescu as the sole legal political movement in Romania. Under King Michael I and the military government of Antonescu, Romania signed the Tripartite Pact on November 23, 1940. German troops entered the country on 10 October 1941, officially to train the Romanian Army. Hitler 's directive to the troops on 10 October had stated that "it is necessary to avoid even the slightest semblance of military occupation of Romania ''. The entrance of German troops in Romania determined Italian dictator Benito Mussolini to launch an invasion of Greece, starting the Greco - Italian War. Having secured Hitler 's approval in January 1941, Antonescu ousted the Iron Guard from power.
Romania was subsequently used as a platform for invasions of Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union. Despite not being involved militarily in the Invasion of Yugoslavia, Romania requested that Hungarian troops not operate in the Banat. Paulus thus modified the Hungarian plan and kept their troops west of the Tisza.
Romania 's military industry was small but versatile, able to copy and produce thousands of French and Soviet mortars, hundreds of German 37 mm anti-aircraft guns, 200 British Vickers Model 1931 75 mm anti-aircraft guns, hundreds of French 47 mm anti-tank guns, thousands of Czechoslovak machine guns and 126 French Renault UE armored tractors. Original products include the Orița M1941 sub-machinegun, the 75 mm Reșița Model 1943 anti-tank gun with a muzzle velocity of over 1 km / second of which up to 400 were made and about a hundred tank destroyers, the most notable being the Mareșal tank destroyer, which is credited with being the inspiration for the German Hetzer. Romania also built sizable warships, such as the minelayer Amiral Murgescu and the submarines Rechinul and Marsuinul. Hundreds of originally - designed aircraft were also produced, such as the fighter IAR - 80 and the light bomber IAR - 37. Romania had also been a major power in the oil industry since the 1800s. It was one of the largest producers in Europe and the Ploiești oil refineries provided about 30 % of all Axis oil production.
Romania joined the German - led invasion of the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941. Antonescu was the only foreign leader Hitler consulted on military matters and the two would meet no less than ten times throughout the war. Romania re-captured Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina during Operation Munchen before conquering further Soviet territory and establishing the Transnistria Governorate. After the Siege of Odessa, the city became the capital of the Governorate. Romanian troops fought their way into the Crimea alongside German troops and contributed significantly to the Siege of Sevastopol. Later, Romanian mountain troops joined the German campaign in the Caucasus, reaching as far as Nalchik. After suffering devastating losses at Stalingrad, Romanian officials began secretly negotiating peace conditions with the Allies. By 1943, the tide began to turn. The Soviets pushed further west, retaking Ukraine and eventually launching an unsuccessful invasion of eastern Romania in the spring of 1944. Romanian troops in the Crimea helped repulse initial Soviet landings, but eventually all of the peninsula was re-conquered by Soviet forces and the Romanian Navy evacuated over 100,000 German and Romanian troops, an achievement which earned Romanian Admiral Horia Macellariu the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross. During the Jassy - Kishinev Offensive of August 1944, Romania switched sides on August 23, 1944. Romanian troops then fought alongside the Soviet Army until the end of the war, reaching as far as Czechoslovakia and Austria.
Yugoslavia was largely surrounded by members of the pact and now bordered the German Reich. From late 1940 Hitler sought a non-aggression pact with Yugoslavia. In February 1941, Hitler called for Yugoslavia 's accession to the Tripartite Pact, the Yugoslav delayed. In March, divisions of the German army arrived at the Bulgarian - Yugoslav border and permission was sought for them to pass through to attack Greece. On 25 March 1941, fearing that Yugoslavia would be invaded otherwise, the Yugoslav government signed the Tripartite Pact with significant reservations. Unlike other Axis powers, Yugoslavia was not obliged to provide military assistance, nor to provide its territory for Axis to move military forces during the war. Less than two days later, after demonstrations in the streets of Belgrade, Prince Paul and the government were removed from office by a coup d'état. Seventeen - year - old King Peter was declared to be of age. The new Yugoslav government under General Dušan Simović, refused to ratify Yugoslavia 's signing of the Tripartite Pact, and started negotiations with Great Britain and Soviet Union. Winston Churchill commented that "Yugoslavia has found its soul ''; however, Hitler invaded and quickly took control.
Various countries fought side by side with the Axis powers for a common cause. These countries were not signatories of the Tripartite Pact and thus not formal members of the Axis.
Although Finland never signed the Tripartite Pact and legally (de jure) was not a part of the Axis, it was Axis - aligned in its fight against the Soviet Union. Finland signed the revived Anti-Comintern Pact of November 1941.
The August 1939 Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact between Germany and the Soviet Union contained a secret protocol dividing much of eastern Europe and assigning Finland to the Soviet sphere of influence. After unsuccessfully attempting to force territorial and other concessions on the Finns, the Soviet Union tried to invade Finland in November 1939 during the Winter War, intending to establish a communist puppet government in Finland. The conflict threatened Germany 's iron - ore supplies and offered the prospect of Allied interference in the region. Despite Finnish resistance, a peace treaty was signed in March 1940, wherein Finland ceded some key territory to the Soviet Union, including the Karelian Isthmus, containing Finland 's second - largest city, Viipuri, and the critical defensive structure of the Mannerheim Line. After this war, Finland sought protection and support from the United Kingdom and non-aligned Sweden, but was thwarted by Soviet and German actions. This resulted in Finland being drawn closer to Germany, first with the intent of enlisting German support as a counterweight to thwart continuing Soviet pressure, and later to help regain lost territories.
In the opening days of Operation Barbarossa, Germany 's invasion of the Soviet Union, Finland permitted German planes returning from mine dropping runs over Kronstadt and Neva River to refuel at Finnish airfields before returning to bases in East Prussia. In retaliation, the Soviet Union launched a major air offensive against Finnish airfields and towns, which resulted in a Finnish declaration of war against the Soviet Union on 25 June 1941. The Finnish conflict with the Soviet Union is generally referred to as the Continuation War.
Finland 's main objective was to regain territory lost to the Soviet Union in the Winter War. However, on 10 July 1941, Field Marshal Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim issued an Order of the Day that contained a formulation understood internationally as a Finnish territorial interest in Russian Karelia.
Diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Finland were severed on 1 August 1941, after the British bombed German forces in the Finnish village and port of Petsamo. The United Kingdom repeatedly called on Finland to cease its offensive against the Soviet Union, and declared war on Finland on 6 December 1941, although no other military operations followed. War was never declared between Finland and the United States, though relations were severed between the two countries in 1944 as a result of the Ryti - Ribbentrop Agreement.
Finland maintained command of its armed forces and pursued war objectives independently of Germany. Germans and Finns did work closely together during Operation Silverfox, a joint offensive against Murmansk. Finland refused German requests to participate actively in the Siege of Leningrad, and also granted asylum to Jews, while Jewish soldiers continued to serve in its army.
The relationship between Finland and Germany more closely resembled an alliance during the six weeks of the Ryti - Ribbentrop Agreement, which was presented as a German condition for help with munitions and air support, as the Soviet offensive coordinated with D - Day threatened Finland with complete occupation. The agreement, signed by President Risto Ryti but never ratified by the Finnish Parliament, bound Finland not to seek a separate peace.
After Soviet offensives were fought to a standstill, Ryti 's successor as president, Marshall Mannerheim, dismissed the agreement and opened secret negotiations with the Soviets, which resulted in a ceasefire on 4 September and the Moscow Armistice on 19 September 1944. Under the terms of the armistice, Finland was obliged to expel German troops from Finnish territory, which resulted in the Lapland War. Finland signed a peace treaty with the Allied powers in 1947.
The Free City of Danzig, a semi-autonomous city - state under League of Nations protection, briefly aided the Nazis at the beginning of the invasion of Poland, attacking Polish territories bordering the city. The Free City of Danzig Police and militia fought with German soldiers during the Battle of Westerplatte and the attack on the Polish post office in Danzig. After the end of the Polish campaign, Danzig was annexed into Germany.
The Kingdom of Iraq was briefly an ally of the Axis, fighting the United Kingdom in the Anglo - Iraqi War of May 1941.
Anti-British sentiments were widespread in Iraq prior to 1941. Seizing power on 1 April 1941, the nationalist government of Prime Minister Rashid Ali repudiated the Anglo - Iraqi Treaty of 1930 and demanded that the British abandon their military bases and withdraw from the country. Ali sought support from Germany and Italy in expelling British forces from Iraq.
On 9 May 1941, Mohammad Amin al - Husayni, the Mufti of Jerusalem and associate of Ali, declared holy war against the British and called on Arabs throughout the Middle East to rise up against British rule. On 25 May 1941, the Germans stepped up offensive operations in the Middle East.
Hitler issued Order 30: "The Arab Freedom Movement in the Middle East is our natural ally against England. In this connection special importance is attached to the liberation of Iraq... I have therefore decided to move forward in the Middle East by supporting Iraq. ''
Hostilities between the Iraqi and British forces began on 2 May 1941, with heavy fighting at the RAF air base in Habbaniyah. The Germans and Italians dispatched aircraft and aircrew to Iraq utilizing Vichy French bases in Syria, which would later invoke fighting between Allied and Vichy French forces in Syria.
The Germans planned to coordinate a combined German - Italian offensive against the British in Egypt, Palestine, and Iraq. Iraqi military resistance ended by 31 May 1941. Rashid Ali and the Mufti of Jerusalem fled to Iran, then Turkey, Italy, and finally Germany, where Ali was welcomed by Hitler as head of the Iraqi government - in - exile in Berlin. In propaganda broadcasts from Berlin, the Mufti continued to call on Arabs to rise up against the British and aid German and Italian forces. He also helped recruit Muslim volunteers in the Balkans for the Waffen - SS.
Thailand waged the Franco - Thai War in October 1940 to May 1941 to reclaim territory from French Indochina. It became a formal ally of Japan from 25 January 1942. footer = (First) Plaek Phibunsongkhram, Chief of the Thai Army and Prime Minister from 1938 until 1944. (Second) King Ananda Mahidol. During the war he stayed in neutral Switzerland. He returned to Thailand in 1945. Japanese forces invaded Thailand 's territory an hour and a half before the attack on Pearl Harbor, (because of the International Dateline, the local time was on the morning of 8 December 1941). Only hours after the invasion, Prime Minister Field Marshal Phibunsongkhram ordered the cessation of resistance against the Japanese. On 21 December 1941, a military alliance with Japan was signed and on 25 January 1942, Sang Phathanothai read over the radio Thailand 's formal declaration of war on the United Kingdom and the United States. The Thai ambassador to the United States, Mom Rajawongse Seni Pramoj, did not deliver his copy of the declaration of war. Therefore, although the British reciprocated by declaring war on Thailand and considered it a hostile country, the United States did not.
The Thais and Japanese agreed that Shan State and Kayah State were to be under Thai control. The rest of Burma was to be under Japanese control. On 10 May 1942, the Thai Phayap Army entered Burma 's eastern Shan State, which had been claimed by Siamese kingdoms. Three Thai infantry and one cavalry division, spearheaded by armoured reconnaissance groups and supported by the air force, engaged the retreating Chinese 93rd Division. Kengtung, the main objective, was captured on 27 May. Renewed offensives in June and November saw the Chinese retreat into Yunnan. The area containing the Shan States and Kayah State was annexed by Thailand in 1942. The areas were ceded back to Burma in 1945.
The Free Thai Movement ("Seri Thai '') was established during these first few months. Parallel Free Thai organizations were also established in the United Kingdom. Queen Rambai Barni was the nominal head of the British - based organization, and Pridi Banomyong, the regent, headed its largest contingent, which was operating within Thailand. Aided by elements of the military, secret airfields and training camps were established, while Office of Strategic Services and Force 136 agents slipped in and out of the country.
As the war dragged on, the Thai population came to resent the Japanese presence. In June 1944, Phibun was overthrown in a coup d'état. The new civilian government under Khuang Aphaiwong attempted to aid the resistance while maintaining cordial relations with the Japanese. After the war, U.S. influence prevented Thailand from being treated as an Axis country, but the British demanded three million tons of rice as reparations and the return of areas annexed from Malaya during the war. Thailand also returned the portions of British Burma and French Indochina that had been annexed. Phibun and a number of his associates were put on trial on charges of having committed war crimes and of collaborating with the Axis powers. However, the charges were dropped due to intense public pressure. Public opinion was favourable to Phibun, as he was thought to have done his best to protect Thai interests.
The collaborationist administrations of German - occupied countries in Europe had varying degrees of autonomy, and not all of them qualified as fully recognized sovereign states. The General Government in occupied Poland was a German administration, not a Polish government. In occupied Norway, the National Government headed by Vidkun Quisling -- whose name came to symbolize pro-Axis collaboration in several languages -- was subordinate to the Reichskommissariat Norwegen. It was never allowed to have any armed forces, be a recognized military partner, or have autonomy of any kind. In the occupied Netherlands, Anton Mussert was given the symbolic title of "Führer of the Netherlands ' people ''. His National Socialist Movement formed a cabinet assisting the German administration, but was never recognized as a real Dutch government. The following list of German client states includes only those entities that were officially considered to be independent countries allied with Germany. They were under varying degrees of German influence and control, but were not ruled directly by Germans.
After the Italian armistice, a vacuum of power opened up in Albania. The Italian occupying forces were rendered largely powerless, as the National Liberation Movement took control of the south and the National Front (Balli Kombëtar) took control of the north. Albanians in the Italian army joined the guerrilla forces. In September 1943 the guerrillas moved to take the capital of Tirana, but German paratroopers dropped into the city. Soon after the battle, the German High Command announced that they would recognize the independence of a greater Albania. They organized an Albanian government, police, and military in collaboration with the Balli Kombëtar. The Germans did not exert heavy control over Albania 's administration, but instead attempted to gain popular appeal by giving their political partners what they wanted. Several Balli Kombëtar leaders held positions in the regime. The joint forces incorporated Kosovo, western Macedonia, southern Montenegro, and Presevo into the Albanian state. A High Council of Regency was created to carry out the functions of a head of state, while the government was headed mainly by Albanian conservative politicians. Albania was the only European country occupied by the Axis powers that ended World War II with a larger Jewish population than before the war. The Albanian government had refused to hand over their Jewish population. They provided Jewish families with forged documents and helped them disperse in the Albanian population. Albania was completely liberated on November 29, 1944.
The Government of National Salvation, also referred to as the Nedić regime, was the second Serbian puppet government, after the Commissioner Government, established on the Territory of the (German) Military Commander in Serbia during World War II. It was appointed by the German Military Commander in Serbia and operated from 29 August 1941 to October 1944. The Serbian puppet state enjoyed significant support. The Prime Minister throughout was General Milan Nedić. The Government of National Salvation was evacuated from Belgrade to Kitzbühel, Germany in the first week of October 1944 before the German withdrawal from Serbia was complete.
Racial laws were introduced in all occupied territories with immediate effects on Jews and Roma people, as well as causing the imprisonment of those opposed to Nazism. Several concentration camps were formed in Serbia and at the 1942 Anti-Freemason Exhibition in Belgrade the city was pronounced to be free of Jews (Judenfrei). On 1 April 1942, a Serbian Gestapo was formed. An estimated 120,000 people were interned in German - run concentration camps in Nedić 's Serbia between 1941 and 1944. 50,000 to 80,000 were killed during this period. Serbia became the second country in Europe, following Estonia, to be proclaimed Judenfrei (free of Jews). Approximately 14,500 Serbian Jews -- 90 percent of Serbia 's Jewish population of 16,000 -- were murdered in World War II.
Collaborationist armed formations forces were involved, either directly or indirectly, in the mass killings of Jews, Roma and those Serbs who sided with any anti-German resistance or were suspects of being a member of such. These forces were also responsible for the killings of many Croats and Muslims; however, some Croats who took refuge in Nedić 's Serbia were not discriminated against. After the war, the Serbian involvement in many of these events and the issue of Serbian collaboration were subject to historical revisionism by later public figures.
Nedić himself was captured by the Americans when they occupied the former territory of Austria, and was subsequently handed over to the Yugoslav communist authorities to act as a witness against war criminals, on the understanding he would be returned to American custody to face trial by the Allies. The Yugoslav authorities refused to return Nedić to United States custody. He died on 4 February 1946 after either jumping or falling out of the window of a Belgrade hospital, under circumstances which remain unclear.
Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini formed the Italian Social Republic (Repubblica Sociale Italiana in Italian) on 23 September 1943, succeeding the Kingdom of Italy as a member of the Axis.
Mussolini had been removed from office and arrested by King Victor Emmanuel III on 25 July 1943. After the Italian armistice, in a raid led by German paratrooper Otto Skorzeny, Mussolini was rescued from arrest.
Once restored to power, Mussolini declared that Italy was a republic and that he was the new head of state. He was subject to German control for the duration of the war.
The Slovak Republic under President Josef Tiso signed the Tripartite Pact on 24 November 1940.
Slovakia had been closely aligned with Germany almost immediately from its declaration of independence from Czechoslovakia on 14 March 1939. Slovakia entered into a treaty of protection with Germany on 23 March 1939.
Slovak troops joined the German invasion of Poland, having interest in Spiš and Orava. Those two regions, along with Cieszyn Silesia, had been disputed between Poland and Czechoslovakia since 1918. The Poles fully annexed them following the Munich Agreement. After the invasion of Poland, Slovakia reclaimed control of those territories.
Slovakia invaded Poland alongside German forces, contributing 50,000 men at this stage of the war.
Slovakia declared war on the Soviet Union in 1941 and signed the revived Anti-Comintern Pact in 1941. Slovak troops fought on Germany 's Eastern Front, furnishing Germany with two divisions totaling 80,000 men. Slovakia declared war on the United Kingdom and the United States in 1942.
Slovakia was spared German military occupation until the Slovak National Uprising, which began on 29 August 1944, and was almost immediately crushed by the Waffen SS and Slovak troops loyal to Josef Tiso.
After the war, Tiso was executed and Slovakia once again became part of Czechoslovakia. The border with Poland was shifted back to the pre-war state. Slovakia and the Czech Republic finally separated into independent states in 1993.
Italy occupied several nations and set up clients in those regions to carry out administrative tasks and maintain order.
The Principality of Monaco was officially neutral during the war. The population of the country was largely of Italian descent and sympathized with Italy. Its prince was a close friend of the Vichy French leader, Marshal Philippe Pétain, an Axis collaborator. A fascist regime was established under the nominal rule of the prince when the Italian Fourth Army occupied the country on November 10, 1942 as a part of Case Anton. Monaco 's military forces, consisting primarily of police and palace guards, collaborated with the Italians during the occupation. German troops occupied Monaco in 1943, and Monaco was liberated by Allied forces in 1944.
On 10 April 1941, the Independent State of Croatia (Nezavisna Država Hrvatska, or NDH) declared itself a member of the Axis, co-signing the Tripartite Pact. The NDH remained a member of the Axis until the end of Second World War, its forces fighting for Germany even after its territory had been overrun by Yugoslav Partisans. On 16 April 1941, Ante Pavelić, a Croatian nationalist and one of the founders of the Ustaše ("Croatian Liberation Movement ''), was proclaimed Poglavnik (leader) of the new regime.
Initially the Ustaše had been heavily influenced by Italy. They were actively supported by Mussolini 's Fascist regime in Italy, which gave the movement training grounds to prepare for war against Yugoslavia, as well as accepting Pavelić as an exile and allowing him to reside in Rome. Italy intended to use the movement to destroy Yugoslavia, which would allow Italy to expand its power through the Adriatic. Hitler did not want to engage in a war in the Balkans until the Soviet Union was defeated. The Italian occupation of Greece was not going well; Mussolini wanted Germany to invade Yugoslavia to save the Italian forces in Greece. Hitler reluctantly agreed; Yugoslavia was invaded and the Independent State of Croatia was created. Pavelić led a delegation to Rome and offered the crown of Croatia to an Italian prince of the House of Savoy, who was crowned Tomislav II, King of Croatia, Prince of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Voivode of Dalmatia, Tuzla and Knin, Prince of Cisterna and of Belriguardo, Marquess of Voghera, and Count of Ponderano. The next day, Pavelić signed the Contracts of Rome with Mussolini, ceding Dalmatia to Italy and fixing the permanent borders between the NDH and Italy. Italian armed forces were allowed to control all of the coastline of the NDH, effectively giving Italy total control of the Adriatic coastline.
However, strong German influence began to be asserted soon after the NDH was founded. When the King of Italy ousted Mussolini from power and Italy capitulated, the NDH became completely under German influence.
The platform of the Ustaše movement proclaimed that Croatians had been oppressed by the Serb - dominated Kingdom of Yugoslavia, and that Croatians deserved to have an independent nation after years of domination by foreign empires. The Ustaše perceived Serbs to be racially inferior to Croats and saw them as infiltrators who were occupying Croatian lands. They saw the extermination of Serbs as necessary to racially purify Croatia. While part of Yugoslavia, many Croatian nationalists violently opposed the Serb - dominated Yugoslav monarchy, and assassinated Alexander I of Yugoslavia, together with the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization. The regime enjoyed support amongst radical Croatian nationalists. Ustashe forces fought against communist Yugoslav Partisan guerrilla throughout the war.
Upon coming to power, Pavelić formed the Croatian Home Guard (Hrvatsko domobranstvo) as the official military force of the NDH. Originally authorized at 16,000 men, it grew to a peak fighting force of 130,000. The Croatian Home Guard included an air force and navy, although its navy was restricted in size by the Contracts of Rome. In addition to the Croatian Home Guard, Pavelić was also the supreme commander of the Ustaše militia, although all NDH military units were generally under the command of the German or Italian formations in their area of operations.
The Ustaše government declared war on the Soviet Union, signed the Anti-Comintern Pact of 1941, and sent troops to Germany 's Eastern Front. Ustaše militia were garrisoned in the Balkans, battling the communist partisans.
The Ustaše government applied racial laws on Serbs, Jews, Romani people, as well as targeting those opposed to the fascist regime, and after June 1941 deported them to the Jasenovac concentration camp or to German camps in Poland. The racial laws were enforced by the Ustaše militia. The exact number of victims of the Ustaše regime is uncertain due to the destruction of documents and varying numbers given by historians. According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, DC, between 320,000 and 340,000 Serbs were killed in the NDH.
Following the German invasion of Greece and the flight of the Greek government to Crete and then Egypt, the Hellenic State was formed in May 1941 as a puppet state of both Italy and Germany. Initially, Italy had wished to annex Greece, but was pressured by Germany to avoid civil unrest such as had occurred in Bulgarian - annexed areas. The result was Italy accepting the creation of a puppet regime with the support of Germany. Italy had been assured by Hitler of a primary role in Greece. Most of the country was held by Italian forces, but strategic locations (Central Macedonia, the islands of the northeastern Aegean, most of Crete, and parts of Attica) were held by the Germans, who seized most of the country 's economic assets and effectively controlled the collaborationist government. The puppet regime never commanded any real authority, and did not gain the allegiance of the people. It was somewhat successful in preventing secessionist movements like the Vlach "Roman Legion '' from establishing themselves. By mid-1943, the Greek Resistance had liberated large parts of the mountainous interior ("Free Greece ''), setting up a separate administration there. After the Italian armistice, the Italian occupation zone was taken over by the German armed forces, who remained in charge of the country until their withdrawal in autumn 1944. In some Aegean islands, German garrisons were left behind, and surrendered only after the end of the war.
The Empire of Japan created a number of client states in the areas occupied by its military, beginning with the creation of Manchukuo in 1932. These puppet states achieved varying degrees of international recognition.
The Japanese Army and Burma nationalists, led by Aung San, seized control of Burma from the United Kingdom during 1942. A State of Burma was formed on 1 August under the Burmese nationalist leader Ba Maw. The Ba Maw regime established the Burma Defence Army (later renamed the Burma National Army), which was commanded by Aung San.
The Kingdom of Cambodia was a short - lived Japanese puppet state that lasted from 9 March 1945 to 15 August 1945.
The Japanese entered Cambodia in mid-1941, but allowed Vichy French officials to remain in administrative posts. The Japanese calls for an "Asia for the Asiatics '' won over many Cambodian nationalists.
This policy changed during the last months of the war. The Japanese wanted to gain local support, so they dissolved French colonial rule and pressured Cambodia to declare its independence within the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Four days later, King Sihanouk declared Kampuchea (the original Khmer pronunciation of Cambodia) independent. Co-editor of the Nagaravatta, Son Ngoc Thanh, returned from Tokyo in May and was appointed foreign minister.
On the date of Japanese surrender, a new government was proclaimed with Son Ngoc Thanh as prime minister. When the Allies occupied Phnom Penh in October, Son Ngoc Thanh was arrested for collaborating with the Japanese and was exiled to France. Some of his supporters went to northwestern Cambodia, which had been under Thai control since the French - Thai War of 1940, where they banded together as one faction in the Khmer Issarak movement, originally formed with Thai encouragement in the 1940s.
During the Second Sino - Japanese War, Japan advanced from its bases in Manchuria to occupy much of East and Central China. Several Japanese puppet states were organized in areas occupied by the Japanese Army, including the Provisional Government of the Republic of China at Beijing, which was formed in 1937, and the Reformed Government of the Republic of China at Nanjing, which was formed in 1938. These governments were merged into the Reorganized National Government of China at Nanjing on 29 March 1940. Wang Jingwei became head of state. The government was to be run along the same lines as the Nationalist regime and adopted its symbols.
The Nanjing Government had no real power; its main role was to act as a propaganda tool for the Japanese. The Nanjing Government concluded agreements with Japan and Manchukuo, authorising Japanese occupation of China and recognising the independence of Manchukuo under Japanese protection. The Nanjing Government signed the Anti-Comintern Pact of 1941 and declared war on the United States and the United Kingdom on 9 January 1943.
The government had a strained relationship with the Japanese from the beginning. Wang 's insistence on his regime being the true Nationalist government of China and in replicating all the symbols of the Kuomintang led to frequent conflicts with the Japanese, the most prominent being the issue of the regime 's flag, which was identical to that of the Republic of China.
The worsening situation for Japan from 1943 onwards meant that the Nanking Army was given a more substantial role in the defence of occupied China than the Japanese had initially envisaged. The army was almost continuously employed against the communist New Fourth Army.
Wang Jingwei died on 10 November 1944, and was succeeded by his deputy, Chen Gongbo. Chen had little influence; the real power behind the regime was Zhou Fohai, the mayor of Shanghai. Wang 's death dispelled what little legitimacy the regime had. The state stuttered on for another year and continued the display and show of a fascist regime.
On 9 September 1945, following the defeat of Japan, the area was surrendered to General He Yingqin, a nationalist general loyal to Chiang Kai - shek. The Nanking Army generals quickly declared their alliance to the Generalissimo, and were subsequently ordered to resist Communist attempts to fill the vacuum left by the Japanese surrender. Chen Gongbo was tried and executed in 1946.
The Arzi Hukumat - e-Azad Hind, the Provisional Government of Free India was a state that was recognized by nine Axis governments. It was led by Subhas Chandra Bose, an Indian nationalist who rejected Mohandas K. Gandhi 's nonviolent methods for achieving independence. The First INA faltered after its leadership objected to being a propaganda tool for Japanese war aims, and the role of I Kikan. It was revived by the Indian Independence League with Japanese support in 1942 after the ex-PoWs and Indian civilians in South - east Asia agreed to participate in the INA venture on the condition it was led by Subhash Chandra Bose. Bose declared India 's independence on October 21, 1943. The Indian National Army was committed as a part of the U Go Offensive. It played a largely marginal role in the battle, and suffered serious casualties and had to withdraw with the rest of Japanese forces after the siege of Imphal was broken. It was later committed to the defence of Burma against the Allied offensive. It suffered a large number of desertions in this latter part. The remaining troops of the INA maintained order in Rangoon after the withdrawal of Ba Maw 's government. although The provisional government was given nominal control of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands from November 1943 to August 1945.
Mengjiang was a Japanese puppet state in Inner Mongolia. It was nominally ruled by Prince Demchugdongrub, a Mongol nobleman descended from Genghis Khan, but was in fact controlled by the Japanese military. Mengjiang 's independence was proclaimed on 18 February 1936, following the Japanese occupation of the region.
The Inner Mongolians had several grievances against the central Chinese government in Nanking, including their policy of allowing unlimited migration of Han Chinese to the region. Several of the young princes of Inner Mongolia began to agitate for greater freedom from the central government, and it was through these men that Japanese saw their best chance of exploiting Pan-Mongol nationalism and eventually seizing control of Outer Mongolia from the Soviet Union.
Japan created Mengjiang to exploit tensions between ethnic Mongolians and the central government of China, which in theory ruled Inner Mongolia. When the various puppet governments of China were unified under the Wang Jingwei government in March 1940, Mengjiang retained its separate identity as an autonomous federation. Although under the firm control of the Japanese Imperial Army, which occupied its territory, Prince Demchugdongrub had his own independent army.
Mengjiang vanished in 1945 following Japan 's defeat in World War II. As Soviet forces advanced into Inner Mongolia, they met limited resistance from small detachments of Mongolian cavalry, which, like the rest of the army, were quickly overwhelmed.
Fears of Thai irredentism led to the formation of the first Lao nationalist organization, the Movement for National Renovation, in January 1941. The group was led by Prince Phetxarāt and supported by local French officials, though not by the Vichy authorities in Hanoi. This group wrote the current Lao national anthem and designed the current Lao flag, while paradoxically pledging support for France. The country declared its independence in 1945.
The liberation of France in 1944, bringing Charles de Gaulle to power, meant the end of the alliance between Japan and the Vichy French administration in Indochina. The Japanese had no intention of allowing the Gaullists to take over, and in March 1945 they staged a military coup in Hanoi. Some French units fled over the mountains to Laos, pursued by the Japanese, who occupied Viang Chan in March 1945 and Luang Phrabāng in April. King Sīsavāngvong was detained by the Japanese, but his son Crown Prince Savāngvatthanā called on all Lao to assist the French, and many Lao died fighting against the Japanese occupiers.
Prince Phetxarāt opposed this position. He thought that Lao independence could be gained by siding with the Japanese, who made him Prime Minister of Luang Phrabāng, though not of Laos as a whole. The country was in chaos, and Phetxarāt 's government had no real authority. Another Lao group, the Lao Sēri (Free Lao), received unofficial support from the Free Thai movement in the Isan region.
Manchukuo, in the northeast region of China, had been a Japanese puppet state in Manchuria since the 1930s. It was nominally ruled by Puyi, the last emperor of the Qing Dynasty, but was in fact controlled by the Japanese military, in particular the Kwantung Army. While Manchukuo ostensibly was a state for ethnic Manchus, the region had a Han Chinese majority.
Following the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the independence of Manchukuo was proclaimed on 18 February 1932, with Puyi as head of state. He was proclaimed the Emperor of Manchukuo a year later. The new Manchu nation was recognized by 23 of the League of Nations ' 80 members. Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union were among the major powers who recognised Manchukuo. Other countries who recognized the State were the Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, El Salvador, and Vatican City. Manchukuo was also recognised by the other Japanese allies and puppet states, including Mengjiang, the Burmese government of Ba Maw, Thailand, the Wang Jingwei regime, and the Indian government of Subhas Chandra Bose. The League of Nations later declared in 1934 that Manchuria lawfully remained a part of China. This precipitated Japanese withdrawal from the League. The Manchukuoan state ceased to exist after the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in 1945.
After the surrender of the Filipino and American forces in Bataan Peninsula and Corregidor Island, the Japanese established a puppet state in the Philippines in 1942. The following year, the Philippine National Assembly declared the Philippines an independent Republic and elected José Laurel as its President. There was never widespread civilian support for the state, largely because of the general anti-Japanese sentiment stemming from atrocities committed by the Imperial Japanese Army. The Second Philippine Republic ended with Japanese surrender in 1945, and Laurel was arrested and charged with treason by the US government. He was granted amnesty by President Manuel Roxas, and remained active in politics, ultimately winning a seat in the post-war Senate.
The Empire of Vietnam was a short - lived Japanese puppet state that lasted from 11 March to 23 August 1945.
When the Japanese seized control of French Indochina, they allowed Vichy French administrators to remain in nominal control. This French rule ended on 9 March 1945, when the Japanese officially took control of the government. Soon after, Emperor Bảo Đại voided the 1884 treaty with France and Trần Trọng Kim, a historian, became prime minister.
The state suffered through the Vietnamese Famine of 1945 and replaced French - speaking schools with Vietnamese language schools, taught by Vietnamese scholars.
States listed in this section were not officially members of the Axis, but at some point during the war engaged in cooperation with one or more Axis members on level that makes their neutrality disputable.
Denmark was occupied by Germany after April 1940 but never joined the Axis. On 31 May 1939, Denmark and Germany signed a treaty of non-aggression, which did not contain any military obligations for either party. On April 9, Germany attacked Scandinavia, and the speed of the German invasion of Denmark prevented King Christian X and the Danish government from going into exile. They had to accept "protection by the Reich '' and the stationing of German forces in exchange for nominal independence. Denmark coordinated its foreign policy with Germany, extending diplomatic recognition to Axis collaborator and puppet regimes, and breaking diplomatic relations with the Allied governments - in - exile. Denmark broke diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union and signed the Anti-Comintern Pact in 1941. However the United States and Britain ignored Denmark and worked with Denmark 's ambassadors when it came to dealings about using Iceland, Greenland, and the Danish merchant fleet against Germany.
In 1941 Danish Nazis set up the Frikorps Danmark. Thousands of volunteers fought and many died as part of the German Army on the Eastern Front. Denmark sold agricultural and industrial products to Germany and made loans for armaments and fortifications. The German presence in Denmark, including the construction of the Danish paid for part of the Atlantic Wall fortifications and was never reimbursed.
The Danish protectorate government lasted until 29 August 1943, when the cabinet resigned after the regularly scheduled and largely free election concluding the Folketing 's current term. The Germans imposed martial law, and Danish collaboration continued on an administrative level, with the Danish bureaucracy functioning under German command. The Danish navy scuttled 32 of its larger ships; Germany seized 64 ships and later raised and refitted 15 of the sunken vessels. 13 warships escaped to Sweden and formed a Danish naval flotilla in exile. Sweden allowed formation of a Danish military brigade in exile; it did not see combat. The resistance movement was active in sabotage and issuing underground newspapers and blacklists of collaborators.
Relations between the Soviet Union and the major Axis powers were generally hostile before 1938. In the Spanish Civil War, the Soviet Union gave military aid to the Second Spanish Republic, against Spanish Nationalist forces, which were assisted by Germany and Italy. However, the Nationalist forces were victorious. The Soviets suffered another political defeat when their ally Czechoslovakia was partitioned and taken over by Germany in 1938 -- 39. In 1938 and 1939, the USSR fought and defeated Japan in two separate border conflicts, at Lake Khasan and Khalkhin Gol. The latter was a major Soviet victory that led the Japanese Army to avoid war with the Soviets and instead call for expansion south.
In 1939 the Soviet Union considered forming an alliance with either Britain and France or with Germany. When negotiations with Britain and France failed, they turned to Germany and signed the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact in August 1939. Germany was now freed from the risk of war with the Soviets, and was assured a supply of oil. This included a secret protocol whereby the independent countries of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Romania were divided into spheres of interest of the parties. The Soviet Union had been forced to cede Western Belarus and Western Ukraine to Poland after losing the Soviet - Polish War of 1919 -- 1921, and the Soviet Union sought to regain those territories.
On 1 September, barely a week after the pact had been signed, Germany invaded Poland. The Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east on 17 September and on 28 September signed a secret treaty with Nazi Germany to arrange coordination of fighting against Polish resistance. The Soviets targeted intelligence, entrepreneurs, and officers, committing a string of atrocities that culminated in the Katyn massacre and mass relocation to the Gulag in Siberia.
Soon thereafter, the Soviet Union occupied the Baltic countries of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, and annexed Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina from Romania. The Soviet Union attacked Finland on 30 November 1939, which started the Winter War. Finnish defences prevented an all - out invasion, resulting in an interim peace, but Finland was forced to cede strategically important border areas near Leningrad.
The Soviet Union provided material support to Germany in the war effort against Western Europe through a pair of commercial agreements, the first in 1939 and the second in 1940, which involved exports of raw materials (phosphates, chromium and iron ore, mineral oil, grain, cotton, and rubber). These and other export goods transported through Soviet and occupied Polish territories allowed Germany to circumvent the British naval blockade.
In October and November 1940, German - Soviet talks about the potential of joining the Axis took place in Berlin. Joseph Stalin later personally countered with a separate proposal in a letter on 25 November that contained several secret protocols, including that "the area south of Batum and Baku in the general direction of the Persian Gulf is recognized as the center of aspirations of the Soviet Union '', referring to an area approximating present day Iraq and Iran, and a Soviet claim to Bulgaria. Hitler never responded to Stalin 's letter. Shortly thereafter, Hitler issued a secret directive on the invasion of the Soviet Union.
Germany ended the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact by invading the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa on 22 June 1941. That resulted in the Soviet Union becoming one of the main members of the Allies.
Germany then revived its Anti-Comintern Pact, enlisting many European and Asian countries in opposition to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union and Japan remained neutral towards each other for most of the war by the Soviet - Japanese Neutrality Pact. The Soviet Union ended the Soviet - Japanese Neutrality Pact by invading Manchukuo on 9 August 1945, due to agreements reached at the Yalta Conference with Roosevelt and Churchill.
Caudillo Francisco Franco 's Spanish State gave moral, economic, and military assistance to the Axis powers, while nominally maintaining neutrality. Franco described Spain as a member of the Axis and signed the Anti-Comintern Pact in 1941 with Hitler and Mussolini. Members of the ruling Falange party in Spain held irredentist designs on Gibraltar. Falangists also supported Spanish colonial acquisition of Tangier, French Morocco and northwestern French Algeria. In addition, Spain held ambitions on former Spanish colonies in Latin America. In June 1940 the Spanish government approached Germany to propose an alliance in exchange for Germany recognizing Spain 's territorial aims: the annexation of the Oran province of Algeria, the incorporation of all Morocco, the extension of Spanish Sahara southward to the twentieth parallel, and the incorporation of French Cameroons into Spanish Guinea. Spain invaded and occupied the Tangier International Zone, maintaining its occupation until 1945. The occupation caused a dispute between Britain and Spain in November 1940; Spain conceded to protect British rights in the area and promised not to fortify the area. The Spanish government secretly held expansionist plans towards Portugal that it made known to the German government. In a communiqué with Germany on 26 May 1942, Franco declared that Portugal should be annexed into Spain.
Franco had previously won the Spanish Civil War with the help of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Both were eager to establish another fascist state in Europe. Spain owed Germany over $212 million for supplies of matériel during the Spanish Civil War, and Italian combat troops had actually fought in Spain on the side of Franco 's Nationalists.
From 1940 to 1941, Franco endorsed a Latin Bloc of Italy, Vichy France, Spain, and Portugal, with support from the Vatican in order to balance the countries ' powers to that of Germany. Franco discussed the Latin Bloc alliance with Pétain of Vichy France in Montpellier, France in 1940, and with Mussolini in Bordighera, Italy.
When Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, Franco immediately offered to form a unit of military volunteers to join the invasion. This was accepted by Hitler and, within two weeks, there were more than enough volunteers to form a division -- the Blue Division (División Azul) under General Agustín Muñoz Grandes.
The possibility of Spanish intervention in World War II was of concern to the United States, which investigated the activities of Spain 's ruling Falange party in Latin America, especially Puerto Rico, where pro-Falange and pro-Franco sentiment was high, even amongst the ruling upper classes. The Falangists promoted the idea of supporting Spain 's former colonies in fighting against American domination. Prior to the outbreak of war, support for Franco and the Falange was high in the Philippines. The Falange Exterior, the international department of the Falange, collaborated with Japanese forces against U.S. and Filipino forces in the Philippines through the Philippine Falange.
Although officially neutral, Marshal Philippe Pétain 's "Vichy regime '' collaborated with the Axis from its creation on 10 July 1940. It retained full control of the non-occupied part of France until November 1942 -- when the whole of France was occupied by Germany -- and of a large part of France 's colonial empire, until the colonies gradually fell under Free French control.
The German invasion army entered Paris on 14 June 1940, following the battle of France. Pétain became the last Prime Minister of the French Third Republic on 16 June 1940. He sued for peace with Germany and on 22 June 1940, the French government concluded an armistice with Hitler. Under the terms of the agreement, Germany occupied two - thirds of France, including Paris. Pétain was permitted to keep an "armistice army '' of 100,000 men within the unoccupied southern zone. This number included neither the army based in the French colonial empire nor the French fleet. In Africa the Vichy regime was permitted to maintain 127,000. The French also maintained substantial garrisons at the French - mandated territory of Syria and Greater Lebanon, the French colony of Madagascar, and in French Somaliland. Some members of the Vichy government pushed for closer cooperation, but they were rebuffed by Pétain. Neither did Hitler accept that France could ever become a full military partner, and constantly prevented the buildup of Vichy 's military strength.
After the armistice, relations between the Vichy French and the British quickly worsened. Although the French had told Churchill they would not allow their fleet to be taken by the Germans, the British launched several naval attacks, the most notable of which was against the Algerian harbour of Mers el - Kebir on 3 July 1940. Though Churchill defended his controversial decision to attack the French fleet, the action deteriorated greatly the relations between France and Britain. German propaganda trumpeted these attacks as an absolute betrayal of the French people by their former allies.
On 10 July 1940, Pétain was given emergency "full powers '' by a majority vote of the French National Assembly. The following day approval of the new constitution by the Assembly effectively created the French State (l'État Français), replacing the French Republic with the government unofficially called "Vichy France, '' after the resort town of Vichy, where Pétain maintained his seat of government. This continued to be recognised as the lawful government of France by the neutral United States until 1942, while the United Kingdom had recognised de Gaulle 's government - in - exile in London. Racial laws were introduced in France and its colonies and many French Jews were deported to Germany. Albert Lebrun, last President of the Republic, did not resign from the presidential office when he moved to Vizille on 10 July 1940. By 25 April 1945, during Pétain 's trial, Lebrun argued that he thought he would be able to return to power after the fall of Germany, since he had not resigned.
In September 1940, Vichy France was forced to allow Japan to occupy French Indochina, a federation of French colonial possessions and protectorates encompassing modern day Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. The Vichy regime continued to administer them under Japanese military occupation. French Indochina was the base for the Japanese invasions of Thailand, Malaya, and the Dutch East Indies. In 1945, under Japanese sponsorship, the Empire of Vietnam and the Kingdom of Kampuchea were proclaimed as Japanese puppet states.
On 26 September 1940, de Gaulle led an attack by Allied forces on the Vichy port of Dakar in French West Africa. Forces loyal to Pétain fired on de Gaulle and repulsed the attack after two days of heavy fighting, drawing Vichy France closer to Germany.
During the Anglo -- Iraqi War of May 1941, Vichy France allowed Germany and Italy to use air bases in the French mandate of Syria to support the Iraqi revolt. British and Free French forces attacked later Syria and Lebanon in June -- July 1941, and in 1942 Allied forces took over French Madagascar. More and more colonies abandoned Vichy, joining the Free French territories of French Equatorial Africa, Polynesia, New Caledonia and others who had sided with de Gaulle from the start.
In November 1942 Vichy French troops briefly resisted the landing of Allied troops in French North Africa for a couple of days, until Admiral François Darlan negotiated a local ceasefire with the Allies. In response to the landings, Axis troops invaded the non-occupied zone in southern France and ended Vichy France as an entity with any kind of autonomy; it then became a puppet government for the occupied territories.
In June 1943, the formerly Vichy - loyal colonial authorities in French North Africa led by Henri Giraud came to an agreement with the Free French to merge with their own interim regime with the French National Committee (Comité Français National, CFN) to form a provisional government in Algiers, known as the French Committee of National Liberation (Comité Français de Libération Nationale, CFLN) initially led by Darlan. After his assassination De Gaulle emerged as the uncontested French leader. The CFLN raised more troops and re-organised, re-trained and re-equipped the Free French military, in cooperation with Allied forces in preparation of future operations against Italy and the German Atlantic wall.
In 1943 the Milice, a paramilitary force which had been founded by Vichy, was subordinated to the Germans and assisted them in rounding up opponents and Jews, as well as fighting the French Resistance. The Germans recruited volunteers in units independent of Vichy. Partly as a result of the great animosity of many right - wingers against the pre-war Front Populaire, volunteers joined the German forces in their anti-communist crusade against the USSR. Almost 7,000 joined Légion des Volontaires Français (LVF) from 1941 to 1944. The LVF then formed the cadre of the Waffen - SS Division Charlemagne in 1944 -- 1945, with a maximum strength of some 7,500. Both the LVF and the Division Charlemagne fought on the eastern front.
Deprived of any military assets, territory or resources, the members of the Vichy government continued to fulfil their role as German puppets, being quasi-prisoners in the so - called "Sigmaringen enclave '' in a castle in Baden - Württemberg at the end of the war in May 1945.
On 7 December 1941, Japan attacked the US naval bases in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. According to the stipulation of the Tripartite Pact, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy were required to come to the defense of their allies only if they were attacked. Since Japan had made the first move, Germany and Italy were not obliged to aid her until the United States counterattacked. Nevertheless, expecting the US to declare war on Germany in any event, Hitler ordered the Reichstag to formally declare war on the United States. Italy also declared war on the U.S..
Historian Ian Kershaw suggests that this declaration of war against the United States was a serious blunder made by Germany and Italy, as it allowed the United States to join the war in Europe and North Africa without any limitation. On the other hand, American destroyers escorting convoys had been effectively intervening in the Battle of the Atlantic with German and Italian ships and submarines, and the immediate war declaration made the Second Happy Time possible for U-boats. The US had effectively abandoned its strictly neutral stance in March 1941 with the beginning of Lend - Lease. The US destroyer Reuben James was torpedoed and sunk by the submarine U-552 on 31 October 1941. Franklin D. Roosevelt had said in his Fireside Chat on 9 December 1941 that Germany and Italy considered themselves to be in a state of war with the United States. Plans for Rainbow Five had been published by the press early in December 1941, and Hitler could no longer ignore the amount of economic and military aid the US was giving Britain and the USSR. Americans played key roles in financing and supplying the Allies, in the strategic bombardment of Germany, and in the final invasion of the European continent.
Hitler declaring war on the United States on 11 December 1941
Italian pilots of a Savoia - Marchetti SM. 75 long - range cargo aircraft meeting with Japanese officials upon arriving in East Asia in 1942.
German and Japanese direct spheres of influence at their greatest extents in Autumn 1942. Arrows show planned movements to an agreed demarcation line at 70 ° E, which was, however, never approximated.
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sacred heart of jesus catholic school sta mesa website | Sacred Heart of Jesus Catholic school - wikipedia
Sacred Heart of Jesus Catholic School (SHJCS) is a private Catholic school located in Santa Mesa, Manila, beside this is the Sacred Heart of Jesus Parish. The school 's name is named after their parish patron, Sacred Heart of Jesus. The school was formerly known as Sta. Mesa Parochial School. The director of the school is the Rev. Fr. Marion C. Munda and the principal is Dr. Henry A. Davalos.
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this jesuit church became the model for other italian baroque churches | Baroque architecture - wikipedia
Baroque architecture is the building style of the Baroque era, begun in late 16th - century Italy, that took the Roman vocabulary of Renaissance architecture and used it in a new rhetorical and theatrical fashion, often to express the triumph of the Catholic Church. It was characterized by new explorations of form, light and shadow, and dramatic intensity. Common features of Baroque architecture included gigantism of proportions; a large open central space where everyone could see the altar; twisting columns, theatrical effects, including light coming from a cupola above; dramatic interior effects created with bronze and gilding; clusters of sculpted angels and other figures high overhead; and an extensive use of trompe - l'oeil, also called "quadratura, '' with painted architectural details and figures on the walls and ceiling, to increase the dramatic and theatrical effect.
Whereas the Renaissance drew on the wealth and power of the Italian courts and was a blend of secular and religious forces, the Baroque was, initially at least, directly linked to the Counter-Reformation, a movement within the Catholic Church to reform itself in response to the Protestant Reformation. Baroque architecture and its embellishments were on the one hand more accessible to the emotions and on the other hand, a visible statement of the wealth and power of the Catholic Church. The new style manifested itself in particular in the context of the new religious orders, like the Theatines and the Jesuits who aimed to improve popular piety.
Lutheran Baroque art, such as the example of Dresden Frauenkirche (1726 - 1743), developed as a confessional marker of identity, in response to the Great Iconoclasm of Calvinists.
The architecture of the High Roman Baroque can be assigned to the papal reigns of Urban VIII, Innocent X and Alexander VII, spanning from 1623 to 1667. The three principal architects of this period were the sculptor Gianlorenzo Bernini, Francesco Borromini and the painter Pietro da Cortona and each evolved his own distinctively individual architectural expression.
Dissemination of Baroque architecture to the south of Italy resulted in regional variations such as Sicilian Baroque architecture or that of Naples and Lecce. To the north, the Theatine architect Camillo - Guarino Guarini, Bernardo Vittone and Sicilian born Filippo Juvarra contributed Baroque buildings to the city of Turin and the Piedmont region.
A synthesis of Bernini, Borromini and Cortona 's architecture can be seen in the late Baroque architecture of northern Europe which paved the way for the more decorative Rococo style.
By the middle of the 17th century, the Baroque style had found its secular expression in the form of grand palaces, first in France -- with the Château de Maisons (1642) near Paris by François Mansart -- and then throughout Europe.
During the 17th century, Baroque architecture spread through Europe and Latin America, where it was particularly promoted by the Jesuits.
Michelangelo 's late Roman buildings, particularly St. Peter 's Basilica, may be considered precursors to Baroque architecture. His pupil Giacomo della Porta continued this work in Rome, particularly in the façade of the Jesuit church Il Gesù, which leads directly to the most important church façade of the early Baroque, Santa Susanna (1603), by Carlo Maderno.
Distinctive features of Baroque architecture can include:
Though the tendency has been to see Baroque architecture as a European phenomenon, it coincided with, and is integrally enmeshed with, the rise of European colonialism. Colonialism required the development of centralized and powerful governments with Spain and France, the first to move in this direction. Colonialism brought in huge amounts of wealth, not only in the silver that was extracted from the mines in Bolivia, Mexico and elsewhere, but also in the resultant trade in commodities, such as sugar and tobacco. The need to control trade routes, monopolies, and slavery, which lay primarily in the hands of the French during the 17th century, created an almost endless cycle of wars between the colonial powers: the French religious wars, the Thirty Years ' War (1618 and 1648), Franco -- Spanish War (1653), the Franco - Dutch War (1672 -- 1678), and so on. The initial mismanagement of colonial wealth by the Spaniards bankrupted them in the 16th century (1557 and 1560), recovering only slowly in the following century. This explains why the Baroque style, though enthusiastically developed throughout the Spanish Empire, was to a large extent, in Spain, an architecture of surfaces and façades, unlike in France and Austria where we see the construction of numerous huge palaces and monasteries. In contrast to Spain, the French, under Jean - Baptiste Colbert (1619 -- 1683), the minister of finance, had begun to industrialize their economy, and thus, were able to become, initially at least, the benefactors of the flow of wealth. While this was good for the building industries and the arts, the new wealth created an inflation, the likes of which had never been experienced before. Rome was known just as much for its new sumptuous churches as for its vagabonds.
A number of ecclesiastical buildings of the Baroque period in Rome had plans based on the Italian paradigm of the basilica with a crossed dome and nave, but the treatment of the architecture was very different from what had been carried out previously. One of the first Roman structures to break with the Mannerist conventions exemplified in the Gesù, was the church of Santa Susanna, designed by Carlo Maderno. The dynamic rhythm of columns and pilasters, central massing, and the protrusion and condensed central decoration add complexity to the structure. There is an incipient playfulness with the rules of classic design, but it still maintains rigor.
The same concerns with plasticity, massing, dramatic effects and shadow and light is evident in the architectural work of Pietro da Cortona, illustrated by his design of Santi Luca e Martina (construction began in 1635) with what was probably the first curved Baroque church façade in Rome. These concerns are even more evident in his reworking of Santa Maria della Pace (1656 -- 68). The façade with its chiaroscuro half - domed portico and concave side wings, closely resembles a theatrical stage set and the church façade projects forward so that it substantially fills the tiny trapezoidal piazza. Other Roman ensembles of the Baroque and Late Baroque period are likewise suffused with theatricality and, as urban theatres, provide points of focus within their locality in the surrounding cityscape.
Probably the most well known example of such an approach is Saint Peter 's Square, which has been praised as a masterstroke of Baroque theatre. The piazza, designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, is formed principally by two colonnades of free standing columns centred on an Egyptian obelisk. Bernini 's own favourite design was his oval church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale decorated with polychome marbles and an ornate gold dome. His secular architecture included the Palazzo Barberini based on plans by Maderno and the Palazzo Chigi - Odescalchi (1664), both in Rome.
Bernini 's rival, the architect Francesco Borromini, produced designs that deviated dramatically from the regular compositions of the ancient world and Renaissance. His building plans were based on complex geometric figures, his architectural forms were unusual and inventive and he employed multi-layered symbolism in his architectural designs. Borromini 's architectural spaces seem to expand and contract when needed, showing some affinity with the late style of Michelangelo. His iconic masterpiece is the diminutive church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, distinguished by a complicated plan arrangement that is partly oval and partly a cross and so has complex convex - concave wall rhythms. A later work, the church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza, displays the same playful inventiveness and antipathy to the flat surface, epitomized by an unusual "corkscrew '' lantern above the dome.
Following the death of Bernini in 1680, Carlo Fontana emerged as the most influential architect working in Rome. His early style is exemplified by the slightly concave façade of San Marcello al Corso. Fontana 's academic approach, though lacking the dazzling inventiveness of his Roman predecessors, exerted substantial influence on Baroque architecture both through his prolific writings and through a number of architects he trained, who would disseminate the Baroque idioms throughout 18th - century Europe.
The 18th century saw the capital of Europe 's architectural world transferred from Rome to Paris. The Italian Rococo, which flourished in Rome from the 1720s onward, was profoundly influenced by the ideas of Borromini. The most talented architects active in Rome -- Francesco de Sanctis (Spanish Steps, 1723) and Filippo Raguzzini (Piazza Sant'Ignazio, 1727) -- had little influence outside their native country, as did numerous practitioners of the Sicilian Baroque, including Giovanni Battista Vaccarini, Andrea Palma, and Giuseppe Venanzio Marvuglia.
The last phase of Baroque architecture in Italy is exemplified by Luigi Vanvitelli 's Caserta Palace, reputedly the largest building erected in Europe in the 18th century. Indebted to contemporary French and Spanish models, the palace is skillfully related to the landscape. At Naples and Caserta, Vanvitelli practiced a sober and classicizing academic style, with equal attention to aesthetics and engineering, a style that would make an easy transition to Neoclassicism.
In the north of Italy, the monarchs from the House of Savoy were particularly receptive to the new style. They employed a brilliant triad of architects -- Guarino Guarini, Filippo Juvarra, and Bernardo Vittone -- to illustrate the grandiose political ambitions and the newly acquired royal status of their dynasty.
Guarini was a peripatetic monk who combined many traditions (including that of Gothic architecture) to create irregular structures remarkable for their oval columns and unconventional façades. Building upon the findings of contemporary geometry and stereometry, Guarini elaborated the concept of architectura obliqua, which approximated Borromini 's style in both theoretical and structural audacity. Guarini 's Palazzo Carignano (1679) may have been the most flamboyant application of the Baroque style to the design of a private house in the 17th century.
Fluid forms, weightless details, and the airy prospects of Juvarra 's architecture anticipated the art of Rococo. Although his practice ranged well beyond Turin, Juvarra 's most arresting designs were created for Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia. The visual impact of his Basilica di Superga (1717) derives from its soaring roof - line and masterful placement on a hill above Turin. The rustic ambiance encouraged a freer articulation of architectural form at the royal hunting lodge of the Palazzina di Stupinigi (1729). Juvarra finished his short but eventful career in Madrid, where he worked on the royal palaces at La Granja and Aranjuez.
Among the many who were profoundly influenced by the brilliance and diversity of Juvarra and Guarini, none was more important than Bernardo Vittone. This Piedmontese architect is remembered for an outcrop of flamboyant Rococo churches, quatrefoil in plan and delicate in detailing. His sophisticated designs often feature multiple vaults, structures within structures and domes within domes.
The Baroque style was introduced in Malta in the early 17th century, possibly by the Bolognese architect and engineer Bontadino de Bontadini, who was responsible for the construction of the Wignacourt Aqueduct between 1612 and 1615. The earliest Baroque structures in Malta were the decorative elements within the aqueduct, such as the Wignacourt Arch and several fountains.
Baroque architecture became popular after Francesco Bounamici designed the Church of the Jesuits in Valletta in 1635. In the subsequent decades, many churches, public buildings, city gates, palaces and other structures were constructed or rebuilt in this style. New churches were built in the Baroque style, while older ones were rebuilt or redecorated. Examples include the interior of Saint John 's Co-Cathedral, which was completely redesigned by Mattia Preti in the 1660s, and the Church of Our Lady of Victories, which had its façade rebuilt in 1752.
The architect Lorenzo Gafà designed many Baroque churches between the 1660s and the 1700s, including the Church of St. Lawrence in Birgu (1681 -- 97), St. Paul 's Cathedral in Mdina (1696 -- 1705) and the Cathedral of the Assumption in Victoria, Gozo (1697 -- 1711).
The most monumental Baroque building in Malta is Auberge de Castille, which was rebuilt in 1741 -- 45 by Andrea Belli. Other examples of secular Baroque architecture in Malta include Hostel de Verdelin (c. 1650s), parts of Fort Manoel (1723 -- 33), the Mdina Gate (1724) and the Castellania (1757 -- 60).
The Baroque style remained popular in Malta until the late 18th and early 19th century, when the neoclassical style was introduced. However, traditional Maltese architecture continued to have significant Baroque influences.
As Italian Baroque influences penetrated across the Pyrenees, they gradually superseded in popularity the restrained classicizing approach of Juan de Herrera, which had been in vogue since the late 16th century. As early as 1667, the façades of Granada Cathedral (by Alonso Cano) and Jaén Cathedral (by Eufrasio López de Rojas) suggest the artists ' fluency in interpreting traditional motifs of Spanish cathedral architecture in the Baroque aesthetic idiom.
In contrast to the art of Northern Europe, the Spanish art of the period appealed to the emotions rather than seeking to please the intellect. The Churriguera family, which specialized in designing altars and retables, revolted against the sobriety of the Herreresque classicism and promoted an intricate, exaggerated, almost capricious style of surface decoration known as the Churrigueresque. Within half a century, they transformed Salamanca into an exemplary Churrigueresque city. Among the highlights of the style, the interiors of the Granada Charterhouse offer some of the most impressive combinations of space and light in 18th - century Europe. Integrating sculpture and architecture even more radically, Narciso Tomé achieved striking chiaroscuro effects in his Transparente for the Toledo Cathedral.
The development of the style passed through three phases. Between 1680 and 1720, the Churriguera popularized Guarini 's blend of Solomonic columns and composite order, known as the "supreme order ''. Between 1720 and 1760, the Churrigueresque column, or estipite, in the shape of an inverted cone or obelisk, was established as a central element of ornamental decoration. The years from 1760 to 1780 saw a gradual shift of interest away from twisted movement and excessive ornamentation toward a neoclassical balance and sobriety.
Two of the most eye - catching creations of Spanish Baroque are the energetic façades of the University of Valladolid (Diego Tomé, 1716 - 1718) and Hospicio de San Fernando in Madrid (Pedro de Ribera, 1722), whose curvilinear extravagance seems to herald Antonio Gaudí and Art Nouveau. In this case as in many others, the design involves a play of tectonic and decorative elements with little relation to structure and function. The focus of the florid ornamentation is an elaborately sculptured surround to a main doorway. If we remove the intricate maze of broken pediments, undulating cornices, stucco shells, inverted tapers, and garlands from the rather plain wall it is set against, the building 's form would not be affected in the slightest.
The combination of the Native American and Moorish decorative influences with an extremely expressive interpretation of the Churrigueresque idiom may account for the full - bodied and varied character of the Baroque in the American colonies of Spain. Even more than its Spanish counterpart, American Baroque developed as a style of stucco decoration. Twin - towered façades of many American cathedrals of the 17th century had medieval roots and the full - fledged Baroque did not appear until 1664, when a Jesuit shrine on Plaza des Armas in Cusco was built. Even then, the new style hardly affected the structure of churches.
To the north, the richest province of 18th - century New Spain -- Mexico -- produced some fantastically extravagant and visually frenetic architecture known as Mexican Churrigueresque. This ultra-Baroque approach culminates in the works of Lorenzo Rodriguez, whose masterpiece is the Sagrario Metropolitano in Mexico City. Other fine examples of the style may be found in remote silver - mining towns. For instance, the Sanctuary at Ocotlán (begun in 1745) is a top - notch Baroque cathedral surfaced in bright red tiles, which contrast delightfully with a plethora of compressed ornament lavishly applied to the main entrance and the slender flanking towers.
The true capital of Mexican Baroque is Puebla, where a ready supply of hand - painted ceramics (talavera) and vernacular gray stone led to its evolving further into a personalised and highly localised art form with a pronounced Indian flavour. There are about sixty churches whose façades and domes display glazed tiles of many colours, often arranged in Arabic designs. The interiors are densely saturated with elaborate gold leaf ornamentation. In the 18th century, local artisans developed a distinctive brand of white stucco decoration, named "alfenique '' after a Pueblan candy made from egg whites and sugar.
The Peruvian Baroque was particularly lavish, as evidenced by the monastery of San Francisco at Lima (1673). While the rural Baroque of the Jesuit Block and Estancias of Córdoba in Córdoba, Argentina, followed the model of Il Gesu, provincial "mestizo '' (crossbred) styles emerged in Arequipa, Potosí, and La Paz. In the 18th century, architects of the region turned for inspiration to the Mudéjar art of medieval Spain. The late Baroque type of Peruvian façade first appears in the Church of Our Lady of La Merced in Lima. Similarly, the Church of La Compañia in Quito suggests a carved altarpiece with its richly sculpted façade and a surfeit of spiral salomónica.
Earthquake Baroque is a style of Baroque architecture found in the Philippines, which suffered destructive earthquakes during the 17th century and 18th century, where large public buildings, such as churches, were rebuilt in a Baroque style. Similar events led to the Pombaline architecture in Lisbon following the 1755 Lisbon earthquake and Sicilian Baroque in Sicily following the 1693 earthquake.
Nothwithstanding a prodigality of sensually rich surface decoration associated with Baroque architecture of the Iberian Peninsula, the royal courts of Madrid and Lisbon generally favoured a more sober architectural vocabulary distilled from 17th - century Italy. The royal palaces of Madrid, La Granja, Aranjuez and Mafra were designed by architects under strong influence of Bernini and Juvarra. In the realm of church architecture, Guarini 's design for Santa Maria della Divina Providenza in Lisbon was a pace - setter for structural audacity in the region (even though it was never built).
In Portugal, the first fully Baroque church was the Church of Santa Engrácia, in Lisbon, designed by royal architect João Antunes, which has a Greek cross floorplan and curved facades. Antunes also designed churches in which the inner space is rectangular but with curved corners (like the Menino de Deus Church in Lisbon), a scheme that is found in several 18th - century churches in Portugal and Brazil. The court of John V, on the other hand, favoured Roman baroque models, as attested by the work of royal architect Ludovice, a German who designed the Royal Palace of Mafra, built after 1715.
By the mid-18th century, northern Portuguese architects had absorbed the concepts of Italian Baroque to revel in the plasticity of local granite in such projects as the surging 75 - metre - high Torre dos Clérigos in Porto. The foremost centre of the national Baroque tradition was Braga, whose buildings encompass virtually every important feature of Portuguese architecture and design. The Baroque shrines and palaces of Braga are noted for polychrome ornamental patterns, undulating roof - lines, and irregularly shaped window surrounds.
Brazilian architects also explored plasticity in form and decoration, though they rarely surpassed their continental peers in ostentation. The churches of Mariana and the Rosario at Ouro Preto are based on Borromini 's vision of interlocking elliptical spaces. At São Pedro dos Clérigos, Recife), a conventional stucco - and - stone façade is enlivened by "a high scrolled gable squeezed tightly between the towers ''.
Even after the Baroque conventions passed out of fashion in Europe, the style was long practised in Brazil by Aleijadinho, a brilliant and prolific architect in whose designs hints of Rococo could be discerned. His church of Bom Jesus de Matozinhos at Congonhas is distinguished by a picturesque silhouette and dark ornamental detail on a light stuccoed façade. Although Aleijadinho was originally commissioned to design São Francisco de Assis at São João del Rei, his designs were rejected, and were displaced to the church of São Francisco in Ouro Preto instead.
In the Kingdom of Hungary, the first great Baroque building was the Jesuit Church of Trnava (today in Slovakia) built by Pietro Spozzo in 1629 -- 37, modelling the Church of the Gesu in Rome. Jesuits were the main propagators of the new style with their churches in Győr (1634 -- 1641), Košice (1671 -- 1684), Eger (1731 -- 1733) and Székesfehérvár (1745 -- 1751). The reconstruction of the territories devastated by the Ottoman Empire was carried out in Baroque style in the 18th century. Intact Baroque townscapes can be found in Győr, Székesfehérvár, Eger, Veszprém, Esztergom and the Castle District of Buda. The most important Baroque palaces in Hungary were the Royal Palace in Buda, Grassalkovich Palace in Gödöllő, and Esterházy Palace in Fertőd. Smaller Baroque edifices of the Hungarian aristocracy are scattered all over the country. Hungarian Baroque shows the double influence of Austrian and Italian artistic tendencies as many German and Italian architects worked in the country. The main characteristics of the local version of the style were modesty, lack of excessive decoration, and some "rural '' flavour, especially in the works of the local masters. Important architects of the Hungarian Baroque were Andreas Mayerhoffer, Ignác Oraschek and Márton Wittwer. Franz Anton Pilgram also worked in the Kingdom of Hungary, for example on the great Premonstratensian monastery of Jasov (today in Slovakia). In the last decades of the 18th century Neo-Classical tendencies became dominant. The two most important architects of that period were Melchior Hefele and Jakab Fellner.
By the time Hungarian varieties of Baroque architecture appeared with several types of forms, shapes and decorations. Those that have become famous and nice, have been copied. That 's why the Hungarian baroque edifices make groups based on similarities. The major kinds of buildings are the following: Eszterháza - type, Széchenyi - type, Gödöllő - type, religious (ecclesiastical) baroque, houses, and others (castles, peasant houses).
Grassalkovich Palace in Gödöllő (the Gödöllő - type)
Esterházy Palace in Fertőd (the Eszterháza - type)
Interior of Minorite church in Eger (ecclesiastical - type)
Parish Church of St. Anne in Budapest
The Primate 's Palace and the Cathedral in Szombathely
Some representative Baroque structures in Romania are the Bánffy Palace in Cluj, the Brukenthal Palace in Sibiu and the Bishopric Palace in Oradea. Besides, almost every Transylvanian town has at least a Baroque church, the most representatives of which being St. George 's Cathedral of Timişoara, Saint John the Baptist Church of Târgu Mureş, the Holy Trinity Cathedral of Blaj and the Piarist Church of Cluj.
The centre of Baroque secular architecture was France, where the open three - wing layout of the palace was established as the canonical solution as early as the 16th century. But it was the Palais du Luxembourg by Salomon de Brosse that determined the sober and classicizing direction that French Baroque architecture was to take. For the first time, the corps de logis was emphasized as the representative main part of the building, while the side wings were treated as hierarchically inferior and appropriately scaled down. The medieval tower has been completely replaced by the central projection in the shape of a monumental three - storey gateway.
De Brosse 's melding of traditional French elements (e.g. lofty mansard roofs and a complex roof - line) with extensive Italianate quotations (e.g. ubiquitous rustication, derived from Palazzo Pitti in Florence) came to characterize the Louis XIII style. Probably the most accomplished formulator of the new manner was François Mansart, a tireless perfectionist credited with introducing the full Baroque to France. In his design for Château de Maisons (1642), Mansart succeeded in reconciling academic and Baroque approaches, while demonstrating respect for the gothic - inherited idiosyncrasies of the French tradition.
The Château of Maisons demonstrates the ongoing transition from the post-medieval chateaux of the 16th century to the villa - like country houses of the 18th. The structure is strictly symmetrical, with an order applied to each storey, mostly in pilaster form. The frontispiece, crowned with a separate aggrandized roof, is infused with remarkable plasticity and the ensemble reads like a three - dimensional whole. Mansart 's structures are stripped of overblown decorative effects, so typical of contemporary Rome. Italian Baroque influence is muted and relegated to the field of decorative ornamentation.
The next step in the development of European residential architecture involved the integration of the gardens in the composition of the palace, as is exemplified by Vaux - le - Vicomte), where the architect Louis Le Vau, the designer Charles Le Brun and the gardener André Le Nôtre complemented one another. From the main cornice to a low plinth, the miniature palace is clothed in the so - called "colossal order '', which makes the structure look more impressive. The creative collaboration of Le Vau and Le Nôtre marked the arrival of the "Magnificent Manner '' which allowed to extend Baroque architecture outside the palace walls and transform the surrounding landscape into an immaculate mosaic of expansive vistas.
The same three artists scaled this concept to monumental proportions in the royal hunting lodge and later main residence at Versailles. On a far grander scale, the palace is an exaggerated and somewhat repetitive version of Vaux - le - Vicomte. It was both the most grandiose and the most imitated residential building of the 17th century. Mannheim, Nordkirchen and Drottningholm were among many foreign residences for which Versailles provided a model.
The final expansion of Versailles was superintended by Jules Hardouin - Mansart, whose key design is the Dome des Invalides, generally regarded as the most important French church of the century. Hardouin - Mansart profited from his uncle 's instruction and plans to instill the edifice with an imperial grandeur unprecedented in the countries north of Italy. The majestic hemispherical dome balances the vigorous vertical thrust of the orders, which do not accurately convey the structure of the interior. The younger architect not only revived the harmony and balance associated with the work of the elder Mansart but also set the tone for Late Baroque French architecture, with its grand ponderousness and increasing concessions to academicism.
The reign of Louis XV saw a reaction against the official Louis XIV Style in the shape of a more delicate and intimate manner, known as Rococo. The style was pioneered by Nicolas Pineau, who collaborated with Hardouin - Mansart on the interiors of the royal Château de Marly. Further elaborated by Pierre Le Pautre and Juste - Aurèle Meissonier, the "genre pittoresque '' culminated in the interiors of the Petit Château at Chantilly (c. 1722) and Hôtel de Soubise in Paris (c. 1732), where a fashionable emphasis on the curvilinear went beyond all reasonable measure, while sculpture, paintings, furniture, and porcelain tended to overshadow architectural divisions of the interior.
Baroque architecture in the south, Flanders and Belgium developed rather differently from in the Protestant. After the Twelve Years ' Truce, the Southern Netherlands remained in Catholic hands, ruled by the Spanish Habsburg Kings. Important architectural projects were set up in the spirit of the Counter-Reformation. In them, florid decorative detailing was more tightly knit to the structure, thus precluding concerns of superfluity. A remarkable convergence of Spanish, French, and Dutch Baroque aesthetics may be seen in the Abbey of Averbode (1667). Another characteristic example is the Church of St. Michel at Louvain, with its exuberant two - storey façade, clusters of half - columns, and the complex aggregation of French - inspired sculptural detailing.
Six decades later, a Flemish architect, Jaime Borty Milia, was the first to introduce Rococo to Spain (Cathedral of Murcia, west façade, 1733). The greatest practitioner of the Spanish Rococo style was a native master, Ventura Rodríguez, responsible for the dazzling interior of the Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar in Zaragoza (1750).
Some Flemish architects such as Wenceslas Cobergher were trained in Italy and their works were inspired by architects such as Jacopo Barozzi da Vignola and Giacomo della Porta. Cobergher 's most major project was the Basilica of Our Lady of Scherpenheuvel which he designed as the center of a new town in the form of a heptagon.
The influence of the painter Peter Paul Rubens on architecture was very important. With his book "I Palazzi di Genova '' he introduced novel Italian models for the conception of profane buildings and decoration in the Southern Netherlands. The courtyard and portico of his own house in Antwerp (Rubenshuis) are good examples of his architectural activity. He also took part in the decoration of the Antwerp Jesuit Church (now Carolus Borromeuskerk) where he introduced a lavish Baroque decoration, integrating sculpture and painting in the architectural program.
There is little Baroque about Dutch architecture of the 17th century. The architecture of the first republic in Northern Europe was meant to reflect democratic values by quoting extensively from classical antiquity. Like contemporary developments in England, Dutch Palladianism is marked by sobriety and restraint. Two leading architects, Jacob van Campen and Pieter Post, used such eclectic elements as giant - order pilasters, gable roofs, central pediments, and vigorous steeples in a coherent combination that anticipated Wren 's Classicism.
The most ambitious constructions of the period included the seats of self - government in Amsterdam (1646) and Maastricht (1658), designed by Campen and Post, respectively. On the other hand, the residences of the House of Orange are closer to a typical burgher mansion than to a royal palace. Two of these, Huis ten Bosch and Mauritshuis, are symmetrical blocks with large windows, stripped of ostentatious Baroque flourishes and mannerisms. The same austerely geometrical effect is achieved without great cost or pretentious effects at the Stadholder 's summer residence of Het Loo.
The Dutch Republic was one of the great powers of 17th - century Europe and its influence on European architecture was by no means negligible. Dutch architects were employed on important projects in Northern Germany, Scandinavia and Russia, disseminating their ideas in those countries. The Dutch colonial architecture, once flourishing in the Hudson River Valley and associated primarily with red - brick gabled houses, may still be seen in Willemstad, Curaçao.
Baroque aesthetics, whose influence was so potent in mid-17th - century France, made little impact in England during the Protectorate and the first Restoration years. For a decade between the death of Inigo Jones in 1652 and Christopher Wren 's visit to Paris in 1665 there was no English architect of the accepted premier class. Unsurprisingly, general interest in European architectural developments was slight.
It was Wren who presided over the genesis of the English Baroque manner, which differed from the continental models by a clarity of design and a subtle taste for classicism. Following the Great Fire of London, Wren rebuilt fifty - three churches, where Baroque aesthetics are apparent primarily in dynamic structure and multiple changing views. His most ambitious work was St Paul 's Cathedral, which bears comparison with the most effulgent domed churches of Italy and France. In this majestically proportioned edifice, the Palladian tradition of Inigo Jones is fused with contemporary continental sensibilities in masterly equilibrium. Less influential were straightforward attempts to engraft the Berniniesque vision onto British church architecture (e.g. by Thomas Archer in St. John 's, Smith Square, 1728).
Although Wren was also active in secular architecture, the first truly Baroque country house in England was built to a design by William Talman at Chatsworth, starting in 1687. The culmination of Baroque architectural forms comes with Sir John Vanbrugh and Nicholas Hawksmoor. Each was capable of a fully developed architectural statement, yet they preferred to work in tandem, most notably at Castle Howard (1699) and Blenheim Palace (1705).
Although these two palaces may appear somewhat ponderous or turgid to Italian eyes, their heavy embellishment and overpowering mass captivated the British public, albeit for a short while. Castle Howard is a flamboyant assembly of restless masses dominated by a cylindrical domed tower which would not be out of place in Dresden or Munich. Blenheim is a more solid construction, where the massed stone of the arched gates and the huge solid portico becomes the main ornament. Vanbrugh 's final work was Seaton Delaval Hall (1718), a comparatively modest mansion yet unique in the structural audacity of its style. It was at Seaton Delaval that Vanbrugh, a skillful playwright, achieved the peak of Restoration drama, once again highlighting a parallel between Baroque architecture and contemporary theatre. Despite his efforts, Baroque was never truly to the English taste and well before his death in 1724, the style had lost currency in Britain.
In the Holy Roman Empire, the Baroque period began somewhat later. Although the Augsburg architect Elias Holl (1573 -- 1646) and some theoretists, including Joseph Furttenbach the Elder already practiced the Baroque style, they remained without successors due to the ravages of the Thirty Years ' War. From about 1650 on, construction work resumed, and secular and ecclesiastical architecture were of equal importance. During an initial phase, master - masons from southern Switzerland and northern Italy, the so - called magistri Grigioni and the Lombard master - masons, particularly the Carlone family from Val d'Intelvi, dominated the field. However, Austria came soon to develop its own characteristic Baroque style during the last third of the 17th century. Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach was impressed by Bernini. He forged a new Imperial style by compiling architectural motifs from the entire history, most prominently seen in his Karlskirche in Vienna. Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt also had an Italian training. He developed a highly decorative style, particularly in façade architecture, which exerted strong influences on southern Germany.
Frequently, the Southern German Baroque is distinguished from the Northern German Baroque, which is more properly the distinction between the Catholic and the Protestant Baroque. In the Catholic South, the Jesuit church of St. Michael in Munich was the first to bring Italian style across the Alps. However, its influence on the further development of church architecture was rather limited. A much more practical and more adaptable model of church architecture was provided by the Jesuit church in Dillingen): the wall - pillar church, a barrel - vaulted nave accompanied by large open chapels separated by wall - pillars. As opposed to St. Michael 's in Munich, the chapels almost reach the height of the nave in the wall - pillar church, and their vault (usually transverse barrel - vaults) springs from the same level as the main vault of the nave. The chapels provide ample lighting; seen from the entrance of the church, the wall - pillars form a theatrical setting for the side altars. The wall - pillar church was further developed by the Vorarlberg school, as well as the master - masons of Bavaria. This new church also integrated well with the hall church model of the German late Gothic age. The wall - pillar church continued to be used throughout the 18th century (e.g. even in the early neo-classical church of Rot an der Rot Abbey), and early wall - pillar churches could easily be refurbished by re-decoration without any structural changes, such as the church at Dillingen.
However, the Catholic South also received influences from other sources, such as the so - called radical Baroque of Bohemia. The radical Baroque of Christoph Dientzenhofer and his son Kilian Ignaz Dientzenhofer, both residing at Prague, was inspired by examples from northern Italy, particularly by the works of Guarino Guarini. It is characterized by the curvature of walls and intersection of oval spaces. While some Bohemian influence is visible in Bavaria 's most prominent architect of the period, Johann Michael Fischer (the curved balconies of some of his earlier wall - pillar churches), the works of Balthasar Neumann, in particular the Basilica of the Vierzehnheiligen, are generally considered to be the final synthesis of Bohemian and German traditions.
Protestant sacred architecture was of lesser importance during the Baroque, and produced only a few works of prime importance, particularly the Frauenkirche in Dresden. Architectural theory was more lively in the north than in the south of Germany, with Leonhard Christoph Sturm 's edition of Nikolaus Goldmann, but Sturm 's theoretical considerations (e.g. on Protestant church architecture) never really made it to practical application. In the south, theory essentially reduced to the use of buildings and elements from illustrated books and engravings as a prototype.
Palace architecture was equally important both in the Catholic South and the Protestant North. After an initial phase when Italian architects and influences dominated (Vienna, Rastatt), French influence prevailed from the second decade of the 18th century onwards. The French model is characterized by the horseshoe - like layout enclosing a cour d'honneur (courtyard) on the town side (chateau entre cour et jardin), whereas the Italian (and also Austrian) scheme presents a block - like villa. The principal achievements of German Palace architecture, often worked out in close collaboration of several architects, provide a synthesis of Austro - Italian and French models. The most outstanding palace which blends Austro - Italian and French influences into a completely new type of building is the Würzburg Residence. While its general layout is the horseshoe - like French plan, it encloses interior courtyards. Its façades combine Lucas von Hildebrandt 's love of decoration with French - style classical orders in two superimposed stories; its interior features the famous Austrian "imperial staircase '', but also a French - type enfilade of rooms on the garden side, inspired by the "apartement semi-double '' layout of French castles.
The first Baroque structure in the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth was the Corpus Christi Church build between 1586 and 1593 in Nieśwież (present day Niasvizh, Belarus). The church also holds a distinction of being the first domed basilica with a Baroque façade in the Commonwealth and Eastern Europe.
In the subsequent years of the early 17th century, Baroque architecture spread over the Commonwealth. Important Baroque churches build during this early phase of the style included the Church of Saints Peter and Paul in Kraków, the Vasa Chapel in the Wawel Cathedral (which was the Baroque equivalent to a neighboring Sigismund 's Chapel build years earlier in the Renaissance style), and the Visitationist Church in Kraków. Most of these early Baroque churches followed a design pattern set by Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola 's Church of the Gesù in Rome. Other important Baroque churches and chapels erected in the mid-17th century were St. Casimir 's Chapel in the Vilnius Cathedral, St. Peter and Paul Church and St. Casimir 's Church in Vilnius, Pažaislis monastery in Kaunas, the Dominican Church and St. George 's Church in Lwów (present day Lviv, Ukraine). Examples from the late 17th - century include the Jesuit Church in Poznań, St. Francis Xavier Cathedral in Grodno, Royal Chapel in Gdańsk (which incorporates an eclectic architectural style based on a mix of Polish and Dutch building traditions), and Sanctuary of St. Mary in Masuria (build in the Tyrolean Baroque style). Notable examples of residential Baroque architecture from this time period include the Ujazdów Castle, Kazanowski Palace (destroyed), Wilanów Palace and Krasiński Palace in Warsaw.
The monumental castle Krzyżtopór (ruins), built in the style palazzo in fortezza between 1627 and 1644, had several courtyards surrounded by fortifications. Also, Late baroque fascination with the culture and art of China is reflected in Queen Masysieńka 's Chinese Palace in Zolochiv. 18th - century magnate palaces represents the characteristic type of baroque suburban residence built entre cour et jardin (between the entrance court and the garden). Its architecture, a merger of European art with old Commonwealth building traditions, is visible in Potocki Palace in Radzyń Podlaski, Raczyński Palace in Rogalin and Wiśniowiecki Palace in Vyshnivets.
During the late 17th century, the most famous architect in the Commonwealth was the Dutch - born Tylman van Gameren, who, at the age of 28, settled in Poland (the Crown of the Commonwealth) and worked for Queen Marie Casimire and King John III Sobieski. Tylman left behind a lifelong legacy of buildings that are regarded as gems of Polish Baroque architecture, they include among others, the Ostrogski Palace, Otwock Palace, Branicki Palace, St. Kazimierz Church and the Church of St. Anne.
By the end of the century, Polish Baroque influences crossed the Dnieper river into the Cossack Hetmanate, where it gave birth to a particular style of architecture, known as the Cossack Baroque. Also, a notable style of baroque architecture emerged in the 18th century with the work of Johann Christoph Glaubitz who was assigned to rebuild the Grand Duchy of Lithuania 's capital of Vilnius. The style was therefore named Vilnian Baroque and Old Vilnius was named the "City of Baroque ''. The most notable buildings by Glaubitz in Vilnius are the Church of St. Catherine started in 1743, the Church of the Ascension started in 1750, the Church of St. John, the monastery gate and the towers of the Church of the Holy Trinity. The magnificent and dynamic Baroque facade of the formerly Gothic Church of St. Johns is mentioned among his best works. Many church interiors including the one of the Great Synagogue of Vilna were reconstructed by Glaubitz as well as the Town Hall build in 1769. Notable buildings of Vilnian Baroque in other places are Saint Sophia Cathedral in Polotsk, Belarus (rebuilt between 1738 and 1765), Carmelite church in Hlybokaye, Belarus and the Church of St. Peter and St. Paul in Berezovichi, Belarus (built in 1776, and 1960s - 1970s).
Ukrainian Baroque is an architectural style that emerged in Ukraine during the Hetmanate era, in the 17th and 18th centuries. Ukrainian Baroque is distinct from the Western European Baroque in having more moderate ornamentation and simpler forms, and as such was considered more constructivist. One of the unique features of the Ukrainian baroque, were bud and pear - shaped domes, that were later borrowed by the similar Naryshkin baroque. Many Ukrainian Baroque buildings have been preserved, including several buildings in Kiev Pechersk Lavra and the Vydubychi Monastery. The best examples of Baroque painting are the church paintings in the Holy Trinity Church of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra. Rapid development in engraving techniques occurred during the Ukrainian Baroque period. Advances utilized a complex system of symbolism, allegories, heraldic signs, and sumptuous ornamentation.
In Russia, Baroque architecture passed through three stages -- the early Moscow Baroque, with elegant white decorations on red - brick walls of rather traditional churches, the mature Petrine Baroque, mostly imported from the Low Countries, and the late Rastrelliesque Baroque, which was, in the words of William Brumfield, "extravagant in design and execution, yet ordered by the rhythmic insistence of massed columns and Baroque statuary. ''
The first baroque churches were built in the estates of the Naryshkin family of Moscow boyars. It was the family of Natalia Naryshkina, Peter the Great 's mother. Most notable in this category of small suburban churches were the Intercession in Fili (1693 -- 96), the Holy Tritity church in Troitse - Lykovo (1690 -- 1695) and the Saviour in Ubory (1694 -- 97). They were built in red brick with profuse detailed decoration in white stone. The belfry was not any more placed beside the church as was common in the 17th century, but on the facade itself, usually surmounting the octagonal central church and producing daring vertical compositions. As the style gradually spread around Russia, many monasteries were remodeled after the latest fashion. The most delightful of these were the Novodevichy Convent and the Donskoy Monastery in Moscow, as well as Krutitsy metochion and Solotcha Cloister near Riazan. Civic architecture also sought to conform to the baroque aesthetics, e.g., the Sukharev Tower in Moscow and there is also a neo-form of this style like the Principal Medicine Store on Red Square. The most important architects associated with the Naryshkin Baroque were Yakov Bukhvostov and Peter Potapov.
Petrine Baroque is a name applied by art historians to a style of Baroque architecture and decoration favoured by Peter the Great and employed to design buildings in the newly founded Russian capital, Saint Petersburg, under this monarch and his immediate successors. Unlike contemporaneous Naryshkin Baroque, favoured in Moscow, the Petrine Baroque represented a drastic rupture with Byzantine traditions that had dominated Russian architecture for almost a millennium. Its chief practitioners -- Domenico Trezzini, Andreas Schlüter, and Mikhail Zemtsov -- drew inspiration from a rather modest Dutch, Danish, and Swedish architecture of the time. Extant examples of the style in St Petersburg are the Peter and Paul Cathedral, the Twelve Colleges, the Kunstkamera, Kikin Hall and Menshikov Palace. The Petrine Baroque structures outside St Petersburg are scarce; they include the Menshikov Tower in Moscow and the Kadriorg Palace in Tallinn.
During the golden age of the Swedish Empire, the architecture of Nordic countries was dominated by the Swedish court architect Nicodemus Tessin the Elder and his son Nicodemus Tessin the Younger. Their aesthetic was readily adopted across the Baltic, in Copenhagen and Saint Petersburg.
Born in Germany, Tessin the Elder endowed Sweden with a truly national style, a well - balanced mixture of contemporary French and medieval Hanseatic elements. His designs for the royal manor of Drottningholm seasoned French prototypes with Italian elements, while retaining some peculiarly Nordic features, such as the hipped roof (säteritak).
Tessin the Younger shared his father 's enthusiasm for discrete palace façades. His design for the Stockholm Palace draws so heavily on Bernini 's unexecuted plans for the Louvre that one could well imagine it standing in Naples, Vienna, or Saint Petersburg. Another example of the so - called International Baroque, based on Roman models with little concern for national specifics, is the Royal Palace of Madrid. The same approach is manifested is Tessin 's polychrome domeless Kalmar Cathedral, a skillful pastiche of early Italian Baroque, clothed in a giant order of paired Ionic pilasters.
It was not until the mid-18th century that Danish and Russian architecture were emancipated from Swedish influence. A milestone of this late period is Nicolai Eigtved 's design for a new district of Copenhagen centred on the Amalienborg Palace. The palace is composed of four rectangular mansions, originally owned by four of Denmark 's greatest noble families, arranged across the angles of an octagonal square. The restrained façades of the mansions hark back to French antecedents, while their interiors contain some of the finest Rococo decoration in Northern Europe. Amalienborg Palace has served as the residence of the Danish royal family since the late 18th century.
Istanbul, once the capital of the Ottoman Empire, hosts many different varieties of Baroque architecture. As reforms and innovations to modernize the country came out in 18th and 19th century, various architecture styles were used in Turkey, one of them was the Baroque Style. As Turkish architecture (which is also a combination of Islamic and Byzantine architecture) combined with Baroque, a new style called Ottoman Baroque appeared. Baroque architecture is mostly seen in mosques and palaces built in this centuries. The Ortaköy Mosque, is one of the best examples of the Ottoman Baroque architecture.
The Tanzimat Era caused more architectural development. The architectural change continued with Sultan Mahmud II, one of the most reformist sultans in Turkish History. One of his sons, Sultan Abdülmecid and his family left the Topkapı Palace and moved to the Dolmabahçe Palace which is the first European - style palace in the country.
Baroque architecture in Istanbul was mostly used in palaces near the Bosphorus and Golden Horn. Beyoğlu was one of the places that Baroque and other European style architecture buildings were largely used. The famous streets called Istiklal Avenue, Nişantaşı, Bankalar Caddesi consist of these architecture style apartments. The Ottoman flavour gives it its unique atmosphere, which also distinguishes it from the later "colonial '' Baroque styles, largely used in the Middle East, especially Lebanon. Later and more mature Baroque forms in Istanbul can be found in the gates of the Dolmabahçe Palace which also has a very "eastern '' flavour, combining Baroque, Romantic, and Oriental architecture.
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why did they change the name of cape kennedy | Cape Canaveral - wikipedia
Cape Canaveral, from the Spanish Cabo Cañaveral, is a cape in Brevard County, Florida, United States, near the center of the state 's Atlantic coast. Known as Cape Kennedy from 1963 to 1973, it lies east of Merritt Island, separated from it by the Banana River. It was discovered by the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León in 1513.
It is part of a region known as the Space Coast, and is the site of the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. Since many U.S. spacecraft have been launched from both the station and the Kennedy Space Center on adjacent Merritt Island, the two are sometimes conflated with each other. In homage to its spacefaring heritage, the Florida Public Service Commission allocated area code 321 (as in a launch countdown) to the Cape Canaveral area.
Other features of the cape include the Cape Canaveral lighthouse and Port Canaveral, one of the busiest cruise ports in the world. The city of Cape Canaveral lies just south of the Port Canaveral District. Mosquito Lagoon, the Indian River, Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge and Canaveral National Seashore are also features of this area.
Humans have occupied the area for at least 12,000 years.
During the middle Archaic period, from 5000 BC to 2000 BC, the Mount Taylor period culture region covered northeast Florida, including the area around Cape Canaveral. Late in the Archaic period, from 2000 BC to 500 BC, the Mount Taylor culture was succeeded by the Orange culture, which was among the earliest cultures in North America to produce pottery. The Orange culture was followed by the St. Johns culture, from 500 BC until after European contact. The area around the Indian River was in the Indian River variant of the St. Johns culture, with influences from the Belle Glade culture to the south.
During the first Spanish colonial period the area around the Indian River, to the south of Cape Canaveral, was occupied by the Ais people, while the area around the Mosquito Lagoon, to the north of the Cape, was occupied by the Surruque people. The Surruque were allied with the Ais, but it is not clear whether the Surruque spoke a Timucua language, or a language related to the Ais language.
In the early 16th century, Cape Canaveral was noted on maps, although without being named. It was named by Spanish explorers in the first half of the 16th century as Cabo Cañareal. The name "Canaveral '' (Cañaveral in Spanish, meaning "reed bed '' or "sugarcane plantation '') is the third oldest surviving European place name in the US. The first application of the name, according to the Smithsonian Institution, was from the 1521 -- 1525 explorations of Spanish explorer Francisco Gordillo. A point of land jutting out into an area of the Atlantic Ocean with swift currents, it became a landing spot for many shipwrecked sailors. An early alternative name was "Cape of Currents ''. By at least 1564, the name appeared on maps.
English privateer John Hawkins and his journalist John Sparke gave an account of their landing at Cape Canaveral in the 16th century. A Presbyterian missionary was wrecked here and lived among the Indians. Other histories tell of French survivors from Jean Ribault 's colony at Fort Caroline, whose ship the Trinité wrecked on the shores of Cape Canaveral in 1565, and built a fort from its timbers.
In December 1571, Pedro Menéndez was wrecked off the Coast of Cape Canaveral and encountered the Ais Indians. From 1605 to 1606, the Spanish Governor of Florida Pedro de Ibarra sent Alvaro Mexia on a diplomatic mission to the Ais Indian nation. The mission was a success; diplomatic ties were made and an agreement for the Ais to receive ransoms for all the shipwrecked sailors they returned.
The last naval battle of the Revolutionary War was fought off the shores of Cape Canaveral in 1783, between the USS Alliance and the HMS Sybill, the American frigate being captained by Captain John Barry.
The first Cape Canaveral Lighthouse was completed in January 1848 to warn ships of the coral shoals off the coast.
The hurricane of August 1885, pushed a "wall of water '' over the barrier island (elevation, 10 feet (3.0 m)) devastating Cape Canaveral and adjacent areas. The ocean waves flooded the homesteaders and discouraged further settlement in the area. The beach near the lighthouse was severely eroded prompting its relocation one mile (1.6 km) west inland.
The 1890 graduating class of Harvard University started a gun club called the "Canaveral Club '' at the Cape. This was founded by C.B. Horton of Boston and George H. Reed. A number of distinguished visitors including presidents Grover Cleveland and Benjamin Harrison were reported to have stayed here. In the 1920s, the grand building fell in disrepair and later burned to the ground.
In the 20th century, several communities sprang up in Cape Canaveral with names like Canaveral, Canaveral Harbor, Artesia and De Soto Beach. While the area was predominantly a farming and fishing community, some visionaries saw its potential as a resort for vacationers. However, the stock market crash of 1929 hampered its development.
In the 1930s, a group of wealthy journalists started a community called "Journalista Beach '', now called Avon by the Sea. The Brossier brothers built houses in this area and started a publication entitled the Evening Star Reporter that was the forerunner of the Orlando Sentinel.
Construction of Port Canaveral for military and commercial purposes was started in July 1950 and dedicated on November 4, 1953. Congress approved the construction of a deep - water port in 1929, half a century after it was first petitioned by the U.S. Navy in 1878. It is now the major deep - water port of Central Florida.
Cape Canaveral became the test site for missiles when the legislation for the Joint Long Range Proving Ground was passed by the 81st Congress and signed by President Harry Truman on May 11, 1949. Work began on May 9, 1950, under a contract with the Duval Engineering Company of Jacksonville, Florida, to build the Cape 's first paved access road and its first permanent launch site.
The first rocket launched at the Cape was a V - 2 rocket named Bumper 8 from Launch Complex 3 on July 24, 1950. On February 6, 1959, the first successful test firing of a Titan intercontinental ballistic missile was accomplished. NASA 's Project Mercury and Gemini space flights were launched from Cape Canaveral, as were Apollo flights using the Saturn I and Saturn IB rockets.
Cape Canaveral was chosen for rocket launches to take advantage of the Earth 's rotation. The linear velocity of the Earth 's surface is greatest towards the equator; the relatively southerly location of the cape allows rockets to take advantage of this by launching eastward, in the same direction as the Earth 's rotation. It is also highly desirable to have the downrange area sparsely populated, in case of accidents; an ocean is ideal for this. The east coast of Florida has logistical advantages over potential competing sites. The Spaceport Florida Launch Complex 46 of the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station is the easternmost near the tip of the cape.
A post office in the area was built and listed in the U.S. Post Office application as "Artesia '' and retained this name from 1893 to 1954. It was "Port Canaveral '' from 1954 to 1962, and lastly the City of Cape Canaveral from 1962 to 1963, when a larger post office was built.
From 1963 to 1973, the area had a different name when President Lyndon Johnson by executive order renamed the area "Cape Kennedy '' after President John F. Kennedy, who had set the goal of landing on the moon. After Kennedy 's assassination in November 1963, his widow, Jacqueline Kennedy, suggested to President Johnson that renaming the Cape Canaveral facility would be an appropriate memorial. Johnson recommended the renaming of the entire cape, announced in a televised address six days after the assassination, on Thanksgiving evening. Accordingly, Cape Canaveral was officially renamed Cape Kennedy. Kennedy 's last visit to the space facility was on November 16, six days before his death; the final Mercury mission had concluded six months earlier.
Although the name change was approved by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names of the Department of the Interior in December 1963, it was not popular in Florida from the outset, especially in the bordering city of Cape Canaveral. In 1973, the Florida Legislature passed a law in May restoring the former 400 - year - old name, and the Board went along. The name restoration to Cape Canaveral became official on October 9, 1973. Senator Ted Kennedy had stated in 1970 that it was a matter to be decided by the citizens of Florida. The Kennedy family issued a letter stating they "understood the decision, '' and NASA 's Kennedy Space Center retains the "Kennedy '' name.
The Gemini, Apollo, and first Skylab missions were all launched from "Cape Kennedy. '' The first manned launch under the restored name of "Cape Canaveral '' was the final Skylab mission, on November 16, 1973.
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who is currently the longest serving member of the senate | List of members of the United States Congress by longevity of service - wikipedia
This is a list of United States congresspersons by longevity of service. It includes Representatives and Senators who have served at least 36 years. It is divided up into several categories.
In cases where there is a tie in time the following criteria will sort people higher:
The 90th Congress was notable because for a period of 10 days (December 24, 1968 -- January 3, 1969), it contained within its Senate all 10 of the longest - serving senators in history until January 7, 2013, when Patrick Leahy surpassed Russell B. Long as the 10th longest - serving senator in history. This period stretched from the installation of Ted Stevens of Alaska after his appointment to fill a vacancy to the retirement of Carl Hayden of Arizona early the next year.
The 96th Congress and 97th Congress were the periods in which most people from this list were serving together (all but Hayden, Russell Jr., Warren, Eastland, and Grassley in the former and all but Hayden, Russell Jr., Warren, Eastland, and Magnuson in the latter).
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where are the receptive fields for vision located | Receptive field - wikipedia
The receptive field of an individual sensory neuron is the particular region of the sensory space (e.g., the body surface, or the visual field) in which a stimulus will modify the firing of that neuron. This region can be a hair in the cochlea or a piece of skin, retina, tongue or other part of an animal 's body. Additionally, it can be the space surrounding an animal, such as an area of auditory space that is fixed in a reference system based on the ears but that moves with the animal as it moves (the space inside the ears), or in a fixed location in space that is largely independent of the animal 's location (place cells). Receptive fields have been identified for neurons of the auditory system, the somatosensory system, and the visual system.
The term receptive field was first used by Sherrington (1906) to describe the area of skin from which a scratch reflex could be elicited in a dog. According to Alonso and Chen (2008) it was Hartline (1938) who applied the term to single neurons, in this case from the retina of a frog.
The concept of receptive fields can be extended further up the nervous system; if many sensory receptors all form synapses with a single cell further up, they collectively form the receptive field of that cell. For example, the receptive field of a ganglion cell in the retina of the eye is composed of input from all of the photoreceptors which synapse with it, and a group of ganglion cells in turn forms the receptive field for a cell in the brain. This process is called convergence.
The auditory system processes the temporal and spectral (i.e. frequency) characteristics of sound waves, so the receptive fields of neurons in the auditory system are modeled as spectro - temporal patterns that cause the firing rate of the neuron to modulate with the auditory stimulus. Auditory receptive fields are often modeled as spectro - temporal receptive fields (STRFs), which are the specific pattern in the auditory domain that causes modulation of the firing rate of a neuron. Linear STRFs are created by first calculating a spectrogram of the acoustic stimulus, which determines the how the spectral density of the acoustic stimulus changes over time, often using the Short - time Fourier transform (STFT). Firing rate is modeled over time for the neuron, possibly using a peristimulus time histogram if combining over multiple repetitions of the acoustic stimulus. Then, linear regression is used to predict the firing rate of that neuron as a weighted sum of the spectrogram. The weights learned by the linear model are the STRF, and represent the specific acoustic pattern that causes modulation in the firing rate of the neuron. STRFs can also be understood as the transfer function that maps an acoustic stimulus input to a firing rate response output.
In the somatosensory system, receptive fields are regions of the skin or of internal organs. Some types of mechanoreceptors have large receptive fields, while others have smaller ones.
Large receptive fields allow the cell to detect changes over a wider area, but lead to a less precise perception. Thus, the fingers, which require the ability to detect fine detail, have many, densely packed (up to 500 per cubic cm) mechanoreceptors with small receptive fields (around 10 square mm), while the back and legs, for example, have fewer receptors with large receptive fields. Receptors with large receptive fields usually have a "hot spot '', an area within the receptive field (usually in the center, directly over the receptor) where stimulation produces the most intense response.
Tactile - sense - related cortical neurons have receptive fields on the skin that can be modified by experience or by injury to sensory nerves resulting in changes in the field 's size and position. In general these neurons have relatively large receptive fields (much larger than those of dorsal root ganglion cells). However, the neurons are able to discriminate fine detail due to patterns of excitation and inhibition relative to the field which leads to spatial resolution.
r e c e p t i v e f i e l d = c e n t e r + s u r r o u n d (\ displaystyle receptive \ field = center + surround)
In the visual system, receptive fields are volumes in visual space. They are smallest in the fovea where they can be a few minutes of arc like a dot on this page, to the whole page. For example, the receptive field of a single photoreceptor is a cone - shaped volume comprising all the visual directions in which light will alter the firing of that cell. Its apex is located in the center of the lens and its base essentially at infinity in visual space. Traditionally, visual receptive fields were portrayed in two dimensions (e.g., as circles, squares, or rectangles), but these are simply slices, cut along the screen on which the researcher presented the stimulus, of the volume of space to which a particular cell will respond. In the case of binocular neurons in the visual cortex, receptive fields do not extend to optical infinity. Instead, they are restricted to a certain interval of distance from the animal, or from where the eyes are fixating (see Panum 's area).
The receptive field is often identified as the region of the retina where the action of light alters the firing of the neuron. In retinal ganglion cells (see below), this area of the retina would encompass all the photoreceptors, all the rods and cones from one eye that are connected to this particular ganglion cell via bipolar cells, horizontal cells, and amacrine cells. In binocular neurons in the visual cortex, it is necessary to specify the corresponding area in both retinas (one in each eye). Although these can be mapped separately in each retina by shutting one or the other eye, the full influence on the neuron 's firing is revealed only when both eyes are open.
Hubel and Wiesel advanced the theory that receptive fields of cells at one level of the visual system are formed from input by cells at a lower level of the visual system. In this way, small, simple receptive fields could be combined to form large, complex receptive fields. Later theorists elaborated this simple, hierarchical arrangement by allowing cells at one level of the visual system to be influenced by feedback from higher levels.
Receptive fields have been mapped for all levels of the visual system from photoreceptors, to retinal ganglion cells, to lateral geniculate nucleus cells, to visual cortex cells, to extrastriate cortical cells. Studies based on perception do not give the full picture of the understanding of visual phenomena, so the electrophysiological tools must be used, as the retina, after all, is an outgrowth of the brain.
Each ganglion cell or optic nerve fiber bears a receptive field, increasing with intensifying light. In the largest field, the light has to be more intense at the periphery of the field than at the center, showing that some synaptic pathways are more preferred than others.
The organization of ganglion cells ' receptive fields, composed of inputs from many rods and cones, provides a way of detecting contrast, and is used for detecting objects ' edges. Each receptive field is arranged into a central disk, the "center '', and a concentric ring, the "surround '', each region responding oppositely to light. For example, light in the centre might increase the firing of a particular ganglion cell, whereas light in the surround would decrease the firing of that cell.
There are two types of retinal ganglion cells: "on - center '' and "off - center ''. An on - center cell is stimulated when the center of its receptive field is exposed to light, and is inhibited when the surround is exposed to light. Off - center cells have just the opposite reaction. On the edge between the two, in mammals, an on - off effect (i.e., discharging at switching on or off but not at a duration of either state) is present. Stimulation of the center of an on - center cell 's receptive field produces depolarization and an increase in the firing of the ganglion cell, stimulation of the surround produces a hyperpolarization and a decrease in the firing of the cell, and stimulation of both the center and surround produces only a mild response (due to mutual inhibition of center and surround). An off - center cell is stimulated by activation of the surround and inhibited by stimulation of the center (see figure).
Photoreceptors that are part of the receptive fields of more than one ganglion cell are able to excite or inhibit postsynaptic neurons because they release the neurotransmitter glutamate at their synapses, which can act to depolarize or to hyperpolarize a cell, depending on whether there is a metabotropic or ionotropic receptor on that cell.
The center - surround receptive field organization allows ganglion cells to transmit information not merely about whether photoreceptor cells are exposed to light, but also about the differences in firing rates of cells in the center and surround. This allows them to transmit information about contrast. The size of the receptive field governs the spatial frequency of the information: small receptive fields are stimulated by high spatial frequencies, fine detail; large receptive fields are stimulated by low spatial frequencies, coarse detail. Retinal ganglion cell receptive fields convey information about discontinuities in the distribution of light falling on the retina; these often specify the edges of objects. In dark adaptation, the peripheral opposite activity zone becomes inactive, but, since it is a diminishing of inhibition between center and periphery, the active field can actually increase, allowing more area for summation.
The receptive field tends to favor movement (such as a light or dark spot moving over the field, as in center - to - periphery (or vice versa)), as well as contours (due to their nonuniformity in the receptive fields). The center of the visual field has as much diameter as its dendrite spread, so the periphery is founded by amacrine cells connecting a wide area of bipolars to the ganglion. These amacrine cells can also inhibit signals of the periphery from being transmitted to the ganglion, thus rendering it on - center, off - periphery. In the rabbit, one direction, the "preferred, '' of a moving patch of light will excite a ganglion cell, whereas the opposite ("null '') direction will not, also inhibiting spontaneous activity. Thus, there may be a linear nature of photoreceptors, one inhibiting its following neighbor when moving in the null direction, but arriving too late at the adjacent cell when traveling in the preferred direction.
Further along in the visual system, groups of ganglion cells form the receptive fields of cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus. Receptive fields are similar to those of ganglion cells, with an antagonistic center - surround system and cells that are either on - or off center.
Receptive fields of cells in the visual cortex are larger and have more - complex stimulus requirements than retinal ganglion cells or lateral geniculate nucleus cells. Hubel and Wiesel (e.g., Hubel, 1963; Hubel - Wiesel 1959) classified receptive fields of cells in the visual cortex into simple cells, complex cells, and hypercomplex cells. Simple cell receptive fields are elongated, for example with an excitatory central oval, and an inhibitory surrounding region, or approximately rectangular, with one long side being excitatory and the other being inhibitory. Images for these receptive fields need to have a particular orientation in order to excite the cell. For complex - cell receptive fields, a correctly oriented bar of light might need to move in a particular direction in order to excite the cell. For hypercomplex receptive fields, the bar might also need to be of a particular length.
In extrastriate visual areas, cells can have very large receptive fields requiring very complex images to excite the cell. For example, in the inferotemporal cortex, receptive fields cross the midline of visual space and require images such as radial gratings or hands. It is also believed that in the fusiform face area, images of faces excite the cortex more than other images. This property was one of the earliest major results obtained through fMRI (Kanwisher, McDermott and Chun, 1997); the finding was confirmed later at the neuronal level (Tsao, Freiwald, Tootell and Livingstone, 2006). In a similar vein, people have looked for other category - specific areas and found evidence for regions representing views of places (parahippocampal place area) and the body (Extrastriate body area). However, more recent research has suggested that the fusiform face area is specialised not just for faces, but also for any discrete, within - category discrimination.
Idealized models of visual receptive fields similar to those found in the retina, lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) and the primary visual cortex of higher mammals can be derived in an axiomatic way from structural requirements on the first stages of visual processing that reflect symmetry properties of the surrounding world. Specifically, functional models for linear receptive fields can be derived in a principled manner to constitute a combination of Gaussian derivatives over the spatial domain and either non-causal Gaussian derivatives or truly time - causal temporal scale - space kernels over the temporal domain. Such receptive fields can be shown to enable computation of invariant visual representations under natural image transformations. By these results, the different shapes of receptive field profiles found in biological vision, which are tuned to different sizes and orientations in the image domain as well as to different image velocities in space - time, can be seen as well adapted to structure of the physical world and be explained from the requirement that the visual system should be invariant to the natural types of image transformations that occur in its environment.
A computational theory for auditory receptive fields can be expressed in a structurally similar way, permitting the derivation of auditory receptive fields in two stages:
The shapes of the receptive field functions in these models can be determined by necessity from structural properties of the environment combined with requirements about the internal structure of the auditory system to enable theoretically well - founded processing of sound signals at different temporal and log - spectral scales.
The term receptive field is also used in the context of artificial neural networks, most often in relation to convolutional neural networks (CNNs). When used in this sense, the term adopts a meaning reminiscent of receptive fields in actual biological nervous systems. CNNs have a distinct architecture, designed to mimic the way in which real animal brains are understood to function; instead of having every neuron in each layer connect to all neurons in the next layer (Multilayer perceptron), the neurons are arranged in a 3 - dimensional structure in such a way as to take into account the spatial relationships between different neurons with respect to the original data. Since CNNs are used primarily in the field of computer vision, the data that the neurons represent is typically an image; each input neuron represents one pixel from the original image. The first layer of neurons is composed of all the input neurons; neurons in the next layer will receive connections from some of the input neurons (pixels), but not all, as would be the case in a MLP and in other traditional neural networks. Hence, instead of having each neuron receive connections from all neurons in the previous layer, CNNs use a receptive field - like layout in which each neuron receives connections only from a subset of neurons in the previous (lower) layer. The receptive field of a neuron in one of the lower layers encompasses only a small area of the image, while the receptive field of a neuron in subsequent (higher) layers involves a combination of receptive fields from several (but not all) neurons in the layer before (i.e. a neuron in a higher layer "looks '' at a larger portion of the image than does a neuron in a lower layer). In this way, each successive layer is capable of learning increasingly abstract features of the original image. The use of receptive fields in this fashion is thought to give CNNs an advantage in recognizing visual patterns when compared to other types of neural networks.
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who sang the song how can you mend a broken heart | How Can You Mend a Broken Heart - wikipedia
"How Can You Mend a Broken Heart '' is a song released by the Bee Gees in 1971. It was written mainly by Barry and Robin Gibb and was the lead and first single on the group 's 1971 album Trafalgar. It was their first US No. 1 single and also reached No. 1 in Cashbox magazine for two weeks.
In the US Atco Records issued both mono and stereo versions of the song on each side as a promo single. The B - side was a Maurice Gibb composition "Country Woman ''.
The song appears in the 2013 film American Hustle and on its soundtrack.
Barry and Robin Gibb wrote the song in August 1970 with "Lonely Days '' when the Gibb brothers had reconvened following a period of break - up and alienation. "Robin came to my place '' says Barry, "and that afternoon we wrote ' How Can You Mend a Broken Heart ' and that obviously was a link to us coming back together. We called Maurice, finished the song, went to the studio and once again, with only ' Broken Heart ' as a basic structure, we went in to the studio with that and an idea for ' Lonely Days ', and those two songs were recorded that night ''. They originally offered the song to Andy Williams, but ended up recording it themselves. Barry also explains, "We might imitate a certain group, later on, the group will pick up on the song and say that suits us. '' Maurice Gibb possibly had a hand in the writing of "How Can You Mend A Broken Heart '' although the song is officially credited to Barry and Robin Gibb. The 2009 release Ultimate Bee Gees officially credited Maurice for the first time as co-writer of the song, for both the "Ultimate '' CD and DVD, and it was credited to the moniker Barry, Robin and Maurice Gibb.
The song was recorded on 28 January 1971 in London same day as "We Lost the Road '', "When Do I '', "If I Were the Sky '', "Bring Out the Thoughts in Me '' and "Ellan Vannin ''. The group 's later song "My World '' followed along the same musical ideas on this song. Robin Gibb 's remarked on the song, "The whole thing took about an hour to complete. The song reached the number one spot, to our great satisfaction. ''
Although failing to chart on the UK Singles Chart, the song became the Bee Gees ' first US number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and also reached number four on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart. Billboard ranked this as the No. 5 song for 1971. In Spain, this single was released under the title "Cómo Puedes Arreglar Un Corazón Destrozada ''. The song was performed for the first time in 1971. That performance is notable for drummer Geoff Bridgford 's first appearance with the band.
Following the release of "How Can You Mend a Broken Heart '', the song had a Grammy nomination for Best Vocal Performance by a Duo, Group or Chorus among George Harrison 's "My Sweet Lord '' and others. The song was performed as part of a medley in The Midnight Special in 1975. They performed the song in Japan on the Japanese TV special Love Sounds as well as the Mr. Natural tour in 1974. A live version recorded live in 17 -- 18 Nov 1989 at the National Tennis Centre, Melbourne, Australia was used for the benefit album Nobody 's Child: Romanian Angel Appeal. In 1997 - 1999, it was performed on the One Night Only tour in its entirety as part of a medley. The song was last performed by the Bee Gees in 2001.
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when does s1 occur in the cardiac cycle | Heart sounds - wikipedia
Heart sounds are the noises generated by the beating heart and the resultant flow of blood through it. Specifically, the sounds reflect the turbulence created when the heart valves snap shut. In cardiac auscultation, an examiner may use a stethoscope to listen for these unique and distinct sounds that provide important auditory data regarding the condition of the heart.
In healthy adults, there are two normal heart sounds, often described as a lub and a dub (or dup), that occur in sequence with each heartbeat. These are the first heart sound (S) and second heart sound (S), produced by the closing of the atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves, respectively. In addition to these normal sounds, a variety of other sounds may be present including heart murmurs, adventitious sounds, and gallop rhythms S and S.
Heart murmurs are generated by turbulent flow of blood, which may occur inside or outside the heart. Murmurs may be physiological (benign) or pathological (abnormal). Abnormal murmurs can be caused by stenosis restricting the opening of a heart valve, resulting in turbulence as blood flows through it. Abnormal murmurs may also occur with valvular insufficiency (regurgitation), which allows backflow of blood when the incompetent valve closes with only partial effectiveness. Different murmurs are audible in different parts of the cardiac cycle, depending on the cause of the murmur.
Normal heart sounds are associated with heart valves closing:
The first heart sound, or S, forms the "lub '' of "lub - dub '' and is composed of components M (mitral valve closure) and T (tricuspid valve closure). Normally M precedes T slightly. It is caused by the closure of the atrioventricular valves, i.e. tricuspid and mitral (bicuspid), at the beginning of ventricular contraction, or systole. When the ventricles begin to contract, so do the papillary muscles in each ventricle. The papillary muscles are attached to the cusps or leaflets of the tricuspid and mitral valves via chordae tendineae (heart strings). When the papillary muscles contract, the chordae tendineae become tense and thereby prevent the backflow of blood into the lower pressure environment of the atria. The chordae tendineae act a bit like the strings on a parachute, and allow the leaflets of the valve to balloon up into the atria slightly, but not so much as to evert the cusp edges and allow back flow of blood. It is the pressure created from ventricular contraction that closes the valve, not the papillary muscles themselves. The contraction of the ventricle begins just prior to AV valves closing and prior to the semilunar valves opening. The sudden tensing of the chordae tendineae and the squeezing of the ventricles against closed semilunar valves, sends blood rushing back toward the atria, and the parachute - like valves catch the rush of blood in their leaflets causing the valve to snap shut. The S1 sound results from reverberation within the blood associated with the sudden block of flow reversal by the valves. The delay of T1 even more than normally causes the split S1 which is heard in a right bundle branch blockage.
The second heart sound, or S, forms the "dub '' of "lub - dub '' and is composed of components A (aortic valve closure) and P (pulmonary valve closure). Normally A precedes P especially during inspiration where a split of S can be heard. It is caused by the closure of the semilunar valves (the aortic valve and pulmonary valve) at the end of ventricular systole and the beginning of ventricular diastole. As the left ventricle empties, its pressure falls below the pressure in the aorta. Aortic blood flow quickly reverses back toward the left ventricle, catching the pocket - like cusps of the aortic valve, and is stopped by aortic valve closure. Similarly, as the pressure in the right ventricle falls below the pressure in the pulmonary artery, the pulmonary valve closes. The S sound results from reverberation within the blood associated with the sudden block of flow reversal.
Splitting of S2, also known as physiological split, normally occurs during inhalation because the decrease in intrathoracic pressure increases the time needed for pulmonary pressure to exceed that of the right ventricular pressure. A widely split S2 can be associated with several different cardiovascular conditions, including left bundle branch block, pulmonary stenosis, and atrial septal defect.
The rarer extra heart sounds form gallop rhythms and are heard in both normal and abnormal situations.
Rarely, there may be a third heart sound also called a protodiastolic gallop, ventricular gallop, or informally the "Kentucky '' gallop as an onomatopoeic reference to the rhythm and stress of S1 followed by S2 and S3 together (S1 = Ken; S2 = tuck; S3 = y).
"lub - dub - ta '' or "slosh - ing - in '' If new, indicates heart failure or volume overload.
It occurs at the beginning of diastole after S2 and is lower in pitch than S1 or S2 as it is not of valvular origin. The third heart sound is benign in youth, some trained athletes, and sometimes in pregnancy but if it re-emerges later in life it may signal cardiac problems, such as a failing left ventricle as in dilated congestive heart failure (CHF). S3 is thought to be caused by the oscillation of blood back and forth between the walls of the ventricles initiated by blood rushing in from the atria. The reason the third heart sound does not occur until the middle third of diastole is probably that during the early part of diastole, the ventricles are not filled sufficiently to create enough tension for reverberation.
It may also be a result of tensing of the chordae tendineae during rapid filling and expansion of the ventricle. In other words, an S3 heart sound indicates increased volume of blood within the ventricle. An S3 heart sound is best heard with the bell - side of the stethoscope (used for lower frequency sounds). A left - sided S3 is best heard in the left lateral decubitus position and at the apex of the heart, which is normally located in the 5th left intercostal space at the midclavicular line. A right - sided S3 is best heard at the lower - left sternal border. The way to distinguish between a left and right - sided S3 is to observe whether it increases in intensity with inhalation or exhalation. A right - sided S3 will increase on inhalation, while a left - sided S3 will increase on exhalation.
S3 can be a normal finding in young patients but is generally pathologic over the age of 40. The most common cause of pathologic S3 is congestive heart failure.
S4 when audible in an adult is called a presystolic gallop or atrial gallop. This gallop is produced by the sound of blood being forced into a stiff or hypertrophic ventricle.
"ta - lub - dub '' or "a-stiff - wall ''
It is a sign of a pathologic state, usually a failing or hypertrophic left ventricle, as in systemic hypertension, severe valvular aortic stenosis, and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. The sound occurs just after atrial contraction at the end of diastole and immediately before S1, producing a rhythm sometimes referred to as the "Tennessee '' gallop where S4 represents the "Ten - '' syllable. It is best heard at the cardiac apex with the patient in the left lateral decubitus position and holding his breath. The combined presence of S3 and S4 is a quadruple gallop, also known as the "Hello - Goodbye '' gallop. At rapid heart rates, S3 and S4 may merge to produce a summation gallop, sometimes referred to as S7.
Atrial contraction must be present for production of an S4. It is absent in atrial fibrillation and in other rhythms in which atrial contraction does not precede ventricular contraction.
Heart murmurs are produced as a result of turbulent flow of blood strong enough to produce audible noise. They are usually heard as a whooshing sound. The term murmur only refers to a sound believed to originate within blood flow through or near the heart; rapid blood velocity is necessary to produce a murmur. Most heart problems do not produce any murmur and most valve problems also do not produce an audible murmur.
Murmurs can be heard in many situations in adults without major congenital heart abnormalities:
Though several different cardiac conditions can cause heart murmurs, the murmurs can change markedly with the severity of the cardiac disease. An astute physician can sometimes diagnose cardiac conditions with some accuracy based largely on the murmur, related physical examination, and experience with the relative frequency of different heart conditions. However, with the advent of better quality and wider availability of echocardiography and other techniques, heart status can be recognized and quantified much more accurately than formerly possible with only a stethoscope, examination, and experience. Another advantage to the use of the echocardiogram is that the devices can be hand held.
Inhalation decreases intrathoracic pressure which allows more venous blood to return to the right heart (pulling blood into the right side of the heart via a vacuum - like effect). Therefore, right - sided heart murmurs generally increase in intensity with inhalation. The decreased (more negative) intrathoracic pressure has an opposite effect on the left side of the heart, making it harder for the blood to exit into circulation. Therefore, left - sided murmurs generally decrease in intensity during inhalation. Increasing venous blood return to the right side of the heart by raising a patient 's legs to a 45 - degree while lying supine produces similar effect which occurs during inhalation. Inhalation can also produce a non-pathological split S2 which will be heard upon auscultation.
With exhalation, the opposite haemodynamic changes occur: left - sided murmurs generally increase in intensity with exhalation.
There are a number of interventions that can be performed that alter the intensity and characteristics of abnormal heart sounds. These interventions can differentiate the different heart sounds to more effectively obtain a diagnosis of the cardiac anomaly that causes the heart sound.
Clicks -- Heart clicks are short, high - pitched sounds that can be appreciated with modern non-invasive imaging techniques.
Rubs -- The pericardial friction rub can be heard in pericarditis, an inflammation of the pericardium, the sac surrounding the heart. This is a characteristic scratching, creaking, high - pitched sound emanating from the rubbing of both layers of inflamed pericardium. It is the loudest in systole, but can often be heard at the beginning and at the end of diastole. It is very dependent on body position and breathing, and changes from hour to hour.
The aortic area, pulmonic area, tricuspid area and mitral area are areas on the surface of the chest where the heart is auscultated. Heart sounds result from reverberation within the blood associated with the sudden block of flow reversal by the valves closing. Because of this, auscultation to determine function of a valve is usually not performed at the position of the valve, but at the position to where the sound waves reverberate.
Using electronic stethoscopes, it is possible to record heart sounds via direct output to an external recording device, such as a laptop or MP3 recorder. The same connection can be used to listen to the previously recorded auscultation through the stethoscope headphones, allowing for more detailed study of murmurs and other heart sounds, for general research as well as evaluation of a particular patient 's condition.
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who did the phillies trade to get von hayes | Von Hayes - wikipedia
Von Francis Hayes (born August 31, 1958 in Stockton, California), was a Major League Baseball player from 1981 to 1992 for the Cleveland Indians, Philadelphia Phillies, and California Angels. Hayes was originally acquired by the Phillies in a "five - for - one '' trade with the Indians in exchange for Manny Trillo, George Vukovich, Jay Baller, Jerry Willard, and Julio Franco.
Hayes enjoyed his most successful campaigns as a Philadelphia Phillie in the late 80 's. Hayes finished 8th in MVP voting in 1986, when he led the National League in runs, doubles and extra base hits. He achieved an on - base average over. 400 in 1987. In 1989, Hayes made his only appearance on the All Star team, and had a career high total in OPS+ (140).
There were many rumors during the 1989 season that the New York Mets were interested in acquiring Hayes in a trade for Lenny Dykstra, but the Mets instead traded Dykstra for Juan Samuel, a move that disappointed Mets fans as Samuel failed to continue his hitting form.
On June 11, 1985, Von Hayes became the first player in MLB history to hit two home runs in the first inning of a baseball game. After leading off the game with a home run off Tom Gorman, Von Hayes hit a grand slam later that inning off Calvin Schiraldi. The Phillies won the game 26 - 7 over the Mets, the most single game runs scored by a Major League team in over 40 years.
Hayes also hit two two - run home runs in a June 8, 1989 game against the Pittsburgh Pirates at Veterans Stadium. It was in this game that, after the Pirates scored 10 runs in the top of the first inning, Pirate broadcaster Jim Rooker said on the air, "If we lose this game, I 'll walk home. '' Hayes ' two home runs triggered a comeback, the Phillies winning the game 15 - 11. (After the season, Rooker conducted a charity walk from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh.)
Playing against the Cincinnati Reds on June 14, 1991, Hayes was hit by a pitch by Tom Browning which broke his arm. Hayes returned to action on September 6, 1991 against Houston. Hayes was traded to the California Angels in the off - season but Hayes would later cite Browning 's pitch as ending his career, "I broke my arm when I was hit by a pitch from Tom Browning... and I was finished. I tried to make a comeback (with California) in 1992, but it was no good. ''
An indie rock band named themselves after Hayes. Hayes was the inspiration for one of ESPN announcer Chris Berman 's most famous "Bermanisms '': Von "Purple '' Hayes, a nod to the Jimi Hendrix song "Purple Haze ''. Von is mentioned in an episode of the hit TV series "It 's Always Sunny In Philadelphia. ''
In November 2007, Hayes was named manager of the Lancaster Barnstormers of the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball. Hayes debuted with the South Central Pennsylvania - based franchise in the 2008 season. Hayes has also managed Minor League teams in South Bend, Modesto, and Midland, and was California League Manager of the Year in 2004 and Texas League Manager of the Year in 2005.
On Oct. 26, 2009, the Camden Riversharks of the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball announced they hired Hayes as their new manager.
He became the manager of the Alexandria Aces in United League Baseball in 2013. In 2015, he was named the manager of the Pericos de Puebla in the Mexican League, but after a slow start he was replaced early in the season by Matías Carrillo. In 2016, he became the manager of the Algodoneros de San Luis Rio Colorado in the Northern Mexican League, an affiliate of the Mexican League. In 2017, Hayes returned to the Pericos de Puebla as the manager.. However, after a 26 - 28 start to the season, he was fired on June 3, 2017.
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do u need a visa to go to taiwan | Visa policy of Taiwan - wikipedia
Visitors to Taiwan must obtain a visa or authorization in advance, unless they come from one of the visa exempt countries or countries whose nationals are eligible for visa on arrival. All visitors must hold a passport valid for 6 months (except the citizens of Japan and the United States who are only required to hold a passport valid for the entire duration of stay).
Taiwan has special entry requirements to current or former nationals of China who reside or previously resided in Mainland China.
Although the Republic of China (Taiwan) has only one type of nationality, not all ROC nationals have the right of abode in Taiwan. Under the Immigration Act, only those with household registration in Taiwan (nationals with household registration, or NWHRs) have the right of abode in Taiwan and can enter Taiwan without prior authorization. Holding one of the documents listed below is sufficient to demonstrate such status:
ROC nationals without household registration in Taiwan (NWOHRs) are ineligible to receive a National Identification Card. To enter Taiwan, one must, in addition to a Taiwan passport, hold one of the following documents:
NWOHRs holding documentations listed below can obtain an entry permit on arrival:
Alternatively, they may enter Taiwan with their non-ROC passports without prior authorization if also having nationalities of a visa exempt country.
NWOHRs are subject to immigration control while in Taiwan, and can only remain in Taiwan for a limited time authorized by the entry permit or the immigration officer. Those without any of the above - listed documents will be denied entry to Taiwan.
Holders of passports of the following 63 jurisdictions do not require a visa to visit Taiwan for less than 90 days unless otherwise noted (duration of stay starts from the next day of arrival). Extensions are not possible except for citizens of Canada and the United Kingdom, who may apply to extend the stay from 90 days to 180 days in accordance with the principle of reciprocity.
Taiwan grants visa - free access to holders of passports of all 18 states which recognize the Republic of China as the sole legitimate government of China, with the exception of Swaziland, as well as four countries in Oceania which are scheduled to receive this privilege in the near future: Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Palau and Solomon Islands.
The visa exemption does not apply for holders of emergency or temporary passports, except for citizens of Japan and the United States. Other visa exempt nationals holding such passports, however, would still be able to apply for a visa on arrival.
Citizens of India, Indonesia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos holding current or past immigration documents or visa issued by Australia, Canada, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, any of the Schengen countries, the United Kingdom, or the United States may obtain ROC Travel Authorization Certificates granting visa exemption.
Stateless permanent residents of Brunei holding the Bruneian International Certificate of Identity (ICI) with a validity of at least 6 months are also exempt from visa requirement until 31 July 2018. The duration of stay is 30 days.
In addition, holders of diplomatic or official / service passports of Belize, Burkina Faso, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nauru, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Swaziland do not require a visa for up to 90 days.
unknown: Turkey; Hong Kong, Macau
Nationals of the following countries can obtain a visa on arrival for a fee:
In addition, holders of emergency or temporary passports with validity of more than 6 months issued by visa - exempt countries are eligible for visa on arrival for a fee. The duration of stay is 30 days regardless of nationality and can not be extended. This measure does not apply to holders of emergency or temporary passports issued by Japan or the United States as they are visa exempt.
Visa on arrival is only available at Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport. For passengers arriving at Taipei Songshan Airport, Kaohsiung International Airport or Taichung Airport, they would be issued a temporary entry permit and will have to apply for a visa at the Bureau of Consular Affairs office or one of the offices of Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Taiwan at their earliest convenience. Failure to comply may result in a derogatory record. Passengers arriving at ports of entry other than those listed above will be denied entry.
Permanent residents of Hong Kong and / or Macau, who are either Chinese nationals or British Nationals (Overseas), may be eligible for an Exit & Entry Permit upon arrival for NT $ 300 or may apply for an Entry Permit online at no cost to visit Taiwan for less than 30 days.
The requirements are:
First time applicants not born in Hong Kong or Macau are also able to apply for Exit and Entry Permit online from 8 February 2017. Unlike those qualified for the no - fee Entry Permit or Entry and Exit Permit on arrival, the applicants are required to pay a processing fee of NT $600. The processing time is 5 business days. These visitors are required to hold their Hong Kong Permanent Identity Cards or Macau Permanent Resident Identity Cards, as well as their proof of previous visits to Taiwan, when applying for Exit and Entry Permits on arrival or the no - fee Entry Permits for subsequent visits.
Since 1 January 2017, Hong Kong and Macau residents are able to apply for double - entry Entry Permits online, providing that they are entering Taiwan by cruise for at least one portion of their trip.
Since 12 January 2016, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of ROC started to implement the eVisa Program. Citizens of the following countries can apply for a single - entry eVisa to visit Taiwan for less than 30 days. The fee for each application is NT $1,632. On 7 October 2016, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of ROC further expanded the list of countries eligible to apply for eVisa.
Nationals of the following countries may apply for a single - entry eVisa for a maximum stay of 30 days if they are travelling with an approved tour group:
Also, all foreign nationals except Chinese nationals who are invited by the Taiwanese government to attend international conferences, sports events, trade fairs or other activities organized, co-organized or sponsored by Taiwanese government agencies or certain NGOs are also eligible for an eVisa. Such applicants must obtain an e-code from their host organizations in Taiwan prior to applying for an eVisa.
Nationals of the following countries are eligible for business eVisas if they have obtained recommendations from the local Taiwan External Trade Development Council since 1 June 2017.
Holders of passports issued by the following countries who possess an APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) containing the code "TWN '' on the back of the card can enter Taiwan visa - free for business trips for up to 90 days. ABTCs are issued to nationals of:
ABTCs are also issued to nationals of China and permanent residents of Hong Kong; however, Chinese nationals residing in Mainland China are subject to entry restrictions and can not use the card to enter Taiwan. Chinese nationals permanently residing in Hong Kong are also ineligible and are required to obtain an Exit and Entry Permit.
Nationals of the following countries can apply for a no - fee Travel Authorization Certificate online for multiple visits to Taiwan, for a duration of no more than 30 days each visit during the certificate 's 90 - day validity period, if they have never been employed as a guest worker to Taiwan and have met the additional requirements listed below:
They are required to hold a residential or visitor visa (including Visa Waiver Registration Certificates issued by Japan to Indonesian nationals, and e-Visas), or a residential certificate (including permanent residency) issued by the following countries. The visa can be either valid or expired, but it must not have expired for more than 10 years prior to the date of arrival in Taiwan. Holders of work permits as well as visas marked "void '', "cancelled '' or "cancelled without prejudice '' are not eligible. In addition, travelers utilizing the scheme must also hold a return or onward plane or ship ticket and will be required to present it to the immigration officer.
Frequent visitors to Taiwan from these countries can also receive multiple entry visas with validity of two to five years.
From 1 June 2017, nationals of these countries who have received a Taiwanese visa (other than a work visa) in the last 10 years are eligible for online registration.
As all Filipino nationals will be exempt from visa requirements on 1 November 2017, they will no longer be able to register for the certificate from that day onwards. All certificates will no longer be valid for entry after 31 October 2017. Passengers entering Taiwan prior to 1 November 2017 are still allowed to stay for up to 30 days, while those entering Taiwan on or after that day can only stay for up to 14 days.
Nationals of the People 's Republic of China with residency (hukou) in Mainland China (including those who are non-permanent residents of Hong Kong or Macau and have relinquished their hukou in Mainland China) require prior approvals from Taiwanese government and are required to hold an Exit and Entry Permit prior to travelling to Taiwan. As of August 2016, Mainland residents can only visit Taiwan as a part of a pre-approved tour group unless they qualify for one of the exemptions:
As of May 2016, Mainland resident visitors applying from Mainland China are subject to a daily quota imposed by Taiwan of 14,600 persons per day, with half of the quota available to individual tour applicants. Those who applied from Hong Kong, Macau or a third country are not subject to a quota. It was reported that the Chinese authorities also has an unofficial "soft cap '' on the numbers of individual and group tourists, ranging from 40 % to 50 % of the Taiwanese quota.
All PRC nationals who are residents of Mainland China can not travel to Taiwan on their passports when departing from Mainland China and must hold a Travel Permit to and from Taiwan (往來 台灣 通行證), colloquially known as Mainland Resident Travel Permit (大通 證), issued by the Chinese authorities. The current card - type version of the permit is similar to the design of the Two - way permit while older version is a pink, passport - like travel document. Permits must have the appropriate valid exit endorsements (similar to exit visas) on them for the holder to depart from Mainland China. Although travelling with the Mainland Resident Travel Permit is not mandatory when departing from Hong Kong, Macau or a third country, the Exit and Entry Permit itself is not a travel document but a de facto entry visa, and is usually tied to the document number of Mainland Resident Travel Permit or the Chinese passport, hence the travelers are still required to carry the travel document they used to apply for the Exit and Entry Permit when travelling to Taiwan.
Since January 2016, Mainland residents are no longer required to hold a Mainland Resident Travel Permit if they depart from airports in Chongqing, Kunming or Nanchang and are only in transit through Taiwan to a third country. Otherwise, the Mainland Resident Travel Permit with exit endorsement is also required for transit through Taiwan if departing from Mainland China, but the Exit and Entry Permit is not required if the passengers do not pass immigration control in Taiwan and only remain airside.
From 28 March 2017, Mainland Chinese residents are able to apply for the Exit and Entry Permit online if they are residing in a third country.
Although the aforementioned restrictions do not apply to former nationals of People 's Republic of China with Mainland residency, they also face entry restrictions and are required to apply for an Exit and Entry Permit unless they meet the following requirements:
If the requirements are met, they may enter Taiwan according to the visa requirements of the nationality they have acquired. However, documentations supporting the change in nationality, such as a naturalization certificate, is required.
Nationals of the following countries are eligible to apply for the Taiwanese working holiday visa (named as "Youth Mobility Scheme '' for British and Canadian citizens) through Taiwanese diplomatic missions of their countries of nationality, if they are ordinary residents in their country of nationality and are within the age limits:
Most visitors arriving to Taiwan on short term basis were from the following countries of residence:
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
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when was the song rudolph the red-nosed reindeer written | Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer (song) - wikipedia
"Rudolph, the Red - Nosed Reindeer '' is a song by songwriter Johnny Marks based on the 1939 story Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer published by the Montgomery Ward Company. Gene Autry 's recording hit No. 1 on the U.S. charts the week of Christmas 1949.
In 1939 Marks 's brother - in - law, Robert L. May, created the character Rudolph as an assignment for Montgomery Ward and Marks decided to adapt the story of Rudolph into a song.
The song had an added introduction, paraphrasing the poem "A Visit from Saint Nicholas '' (public domain by the time the song was written), stating the names of the eight reindeer which went:
"You know Dasher and Dancer and Prancer and Vixen, Comet and Cupid and Donner and Blitzen, But do you recall The most famous reindeer of all? ''
The song was first sung by crooner Harry Brannon on New York City radio in early November 1949, before Gene Autry 's recording hit No. 1 in the U.S. charts during Christmas 1949. The song was suggested as a "B '' side for a record Autry was making it. Autry rejected the song. His wife convinced him to use it. The success of this Christmas song by Autry gave support to Autry 's subsequent popular Easter song, "Here Comes Peter Cottontail. '' Autry 's version of the song also holds the distinction of being the only chart - topping hit to fall completely off the chart after reaching No. 1. The official date of its No. 1 status was for the week ending January 7, 1950, making it the first No. 1 song of the 1950s.
The song was also performed on the December 6, 1949, Fibber McGee and Molly radio broadcast by Teeny (Marion Jordan 's little girl character) and The Kingsmen vocal group. The lyrics varied greatly from the Autry version. Autry 's recording sold 1.75 million copies its first Christmas season, eventually selling a total of 12.5 million. Cover versions included, sales exceed 150 million copies, second only to Bing Crosby 's "White Christmas ''.
The current copyright owner is Kobalt Music Group
The lyric "All of the other reindeer '' can be misheard in dialects with the cot -- caught merger as the mondegreen "Olive, the other reindeer '', and has given rise to another character featured in her own Christmas television special, Olive, the Other Reindeer.
The song in its Finnish translation, "Petteri Punakuono '', has led to Rudolph 's general acceptance in the mythology as the lead reindeer of Joulupukki, the Finnish Santa.
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7 layers of the open system interconnection (osi) model | OSI model - wikipedia
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication or computing system without regard to its underlying internal structure and technology. Its goal is the interoperability of diverse communication systems with standard protocols. The model partitions a communication system into abstraction layers. The original version of the model defined seven layers.
A layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it. For example, a layer that provides error - free communications across a network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that comprise the contents of that path. Two instances at the same layer are visualized as connected by a horizontal connection in that layer.
The model is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection project at the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), maintained by the identification ISO / IEC 7498 - 1.
In the late 1970s, one project was administered by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), while another was undertaken by the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT, from French: Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique). These two international standards bodies each developed a document that defined similar networking models.
In 1983, these two documents were merged to form a standard called The Basic Reference Model for Open Systems Interconnection. The standard is usually referred to as the Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model, the OSI Reference Model, or simply the OSI model. It was published in 1984 by both the ISO, as standard ISO 7498, and the renamed CCITT (now called the Telecommunications Standardization Sector of the International Telecommunication Union or ITU - T) as standard X. 200.
OSI had two major components, an abstract model of networking, called the Basic Reference Model or seven - layer model, and a set of specific protocols.
The concept of a seven - layer model was provided by the work of Charles Bachman at Honeywell Information Services. Various aspects of OSI design evolved from experiences with the ARPANET, NPLNET, EIN, CYCLADES network and the work in IFIP WG6. 1. The new design was documented in ISO 7498 and its various addenda. In this model, a networking system was divided into layers. Within each layer, one or more entities implement its functionality. Each entity interacted directly only with the layer immediately beneath it, and provided facilities for use by the layer above it.
Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the same layer in another host. Service definitions abstractly described the functionality provided to an (N) - layer by an (N - 1) layer, where N was one of the seven layers of protocols operating in the local host.
The OSI standards documents are available from the ITU - T as the X. 200 - series of recommendations. Some of the protocol specifications were also available as part of the ITU - T X series. The equivalent ISO and ISO / IEC standards for the OSI model were available from ISO. Not all are free of charge.
The recommendation X. 200 describes seven layers, labeled 1 to 7. Layer 1 is the lowest layer in this model.
At each level N, two entities at the communicating devices (layer N peers) exchange protocol data units (PDUs) by means of a layer N protocol. Each PDU contains a payload, called the service data unit (SDU), along with protocol - related headers or footers.
Data processing by two communicating OSI - compatible devices is done as such:
Some orthogonal aspects, such as management and security, involve all of the layers (See ITU - T X. 800 Recommendation). These services are aimed at improving the CIA triad - confidentiality, integrity, and availability - of the transmitted data. In practice, the availability of a communication service is determined by the interaction between network design and network management protocols. Appropriate choices for both of these are needed to protect against denial of service.
The physical layer defines the electrical and physical specifications of the data connection. It defines the relationship between a device and a physical transmission medium (for example, an electrical cable, an optical fiber cable, or a radio frequency link). This includes the layout of pins, voltages, line impedance, cable specifications, signal timing and similar characteristics for connected devices and frequency (5 GHz or 2.4 GHz etc.) for wireless devices. It is responsible for transmission and reception of unstructured raw data in a physical medium. Bit rate control is done at the physical layer. It may define transmission mode as simplex, half duplex, and full duplex. It defines the network topology as bus, mesh, or ring being some of the most common.
The physical layer is the layer of low - level networking equipment, such as some hubs, cabling, and repeaters. The physical layer is never concerned with protocols or other such higher - layer items. Examples of hardware in this layer are network adapters, repeaters, network hubs, modems, and fiber media converters.
The data link layer provides node - to - node data transfer -- a link between two directly connected nodes. It detects and possibly corrects errors that may occur in the physical layer. It defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two physically connected devices. It also defines the protocol for flow control between them.
IEEE 802 divides the data link layer into two sublayers:
The MAC and LLC layers of IEEE 802 networks such as 802.3 Ethernet, 802.11 Wi - Fi, and 802.15. 4 ZigBee operate at the data link layer.
The Point - to - Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer protocol that can operate over several different physical layers, such as synchronous and asynchronous serial lines.
The ITU - T G.hn standard, which provides high - speed local area networking over existing wires (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), includes a complete data link layer that provides both error correction and flow control by means of a selective - repeat sliding - window protocol.
The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences (called datagrams) from one node to another connected in "different networks ''. A network is a medium to which many nodes can be connected, on which every node has an address and which permits nodes connected to it to transfer messages to other nodes connected to it by merely providing the content of a message and the address of the destination node and letting the network find the way to deliver the message to the destination node, possibly routing it through intermediate nodes. If the message is too large to be transmitted from one node to another on the data link layer between those nodes, the network may implement message delivery by splitting the message into several fragments at one node, sending the fragments independently, and reassembling the fragments at another node. It may, but does not need to, report delivery errors.
Message delivery at the network layer is not necessarily guaranteed to be reliable; a network layer protocol may provide reliable message delivery, but it need not do so.
A number of layer - management protocols, a function defined in the management annex, ISO 7498 / 4, belong to the network layer. These include routing protocols, multicast group management, network - layer information and error, and network - layer address assignment. It is the function of the payload that makes these belong to the network layer, not the protocol that carries them.
The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable - length data sequences from a source to a destination host, while maintaining the quality of service functions.
The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation / desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state - and connection - oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and re-transmit those that fail delivery. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred. The transport layer creates packets out of the message received from the application layer. Packetizing is the process of dividing a long message into smaller messages.
OSI defines five classes of connection - mode transport protocols ranging from class 0 (which is also known as TP0 and provides the fewest features) to class 4 (TP4, designed for less reliable networks, similar to the Internet). Class 0 contains no error recovery, and was designed for use on network layers that provide error - free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the session layer. Also, all OSI TP connection - mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries. Detailed characteristics of TP0 - 4 classes are shown in the following table:
An easy way to visualize the transport layer is to compare it with a post office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. A post office inspects only the outer envelope of mail to determine its delivery. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. Roughly speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the transport layer, such as carrying non-IP protocols such as IBM 's SNA or Novell 's IPX over an IP network, or end - to - end encryption with IPsec. While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to be a network - layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at endpoint, GRE becomes closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete frames or packets to deliver to an endpoint. L2TP carries PPP frames inside transport packet.
Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to the OSI definition of the transport layer, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) of the Internet Protocol Suite are commonly categorized as layer - 4 protocols within OSI.
The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for full - duplex, half - duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions, which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote procedure calls.
The presentation layer establishes context between application - layer entities, in which the application - layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation service provides a mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation service data units are encapsulated into session protocol data units and passed down the protocol stack.
This layer provides independence from data representation by translating between application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the application accepts. This layer formats data to be sent across a network. It is sometimes called the syntax layer. The presentation layer can include compression functions. The Presentation Layer negotiates the Transfer Syntax.
The original presentation structure used the Basic Encoding Rules of Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN. 1), with capabilities such as converting an EBCDIC - coded text file to an ASCII - coded file, or serialization of objects and other data structures from and to XML. ASN. 1 effectively makes an application protocol invariant with respect to syntax.
The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application - layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication. When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit. The most important distinction in the application layer is the distinction between the application - entity and the application. For example, a reservation website might have two application - entities: one using HTTP to communicate with its users, and one for a remote database protocol to record reservations. Neither of these protocols have anything to do with reservations. That logic is in the application itself. The application layer per se has no means to determine the availability of resources in the network.
Cross-layer functions are services that are not tied to a given layer, but may affect more than one layer. Examples include the following:
Neither the OSI Reference Model nor OSI protocols specify any programming interfaces, other than deliberately abstract service specifications. Protocol specifications precisely define the interfaces between different computers, but the software interfaces inside computers, known as network sockets are implementation - specific.
For example, Microsoft Windows ' Winsock, and Unix 's Berkeley sockets and System V Transport Layer Interface, are interfaces between applications (layer 5 and above) and the transport (layer 4). NDIS and ODI are interfaces between the media (layer 2) and the network protocol (layer 3).
Interface standards, except for the physical layer to media, are approximate implementations of OSI service specifications.
The design of protocols in the TCP / IP model of the Internet does not concern itself with strict hierarchical encapsulation and layering. RFC 3439 contains a section entitled "Layering considered harmful ''. TCP / IP does recognize four broad layers of functionality which are derived from the operating scope of their contained protocols: the scope of the software application; the end - to - end transport connection; the internetworking range; and the scope of the direct links to other nodes on the local network.
Despite using a different concept for layering than the OSI model, these layers are often compared with the OSI layering scheme in the following way:
These comparisons are based on the original seven - layer protocol model as defined in ISO 7498, rather than refinements in such things as the internal organization of the network layer document.
The presumably strict layering of the OSI model as it is usually described does not present contradictions in TCP / IP, as it is permissible that protocol usage does not follow the hierarchy implied in a layered model. Such examples exist in some routing protocols (for example OSPF), or in the description of tunneling protocols, which provide a link layer for an application, although the tunnel host protocol might well be a transport or even an application - layer protocol in its own right.
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im a celebrity get me out kf here | I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! - Wikipedia
I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! is a reality TV series in which up to 12 celebrities live together in a jungle environment for a number of weeks. They have no luxuries, and compete to be crowned king or queen of the jungle.
The show was originally created in the United Kingdom by the factual programmes department of ITV 's then London franchise, London Weekend Television and developed by a team including James Allen, Natalka Znak, Brent Baker and Stewart Morris. The first episode aired on 25 August 2002. It is now produced by ITV Studios and has been licensed globally to countries including the United States, Germany, France, Hungary, Sweden, the Netherlands, Denmark, Romania, Australia and India. As of 2017, the UK, German, Hungarian and Australian versions are still in production.
The UK, the German and the 2003 US versions of the series take place in Australia, at a permanently built up camp at the edge of a sub-tropical rain forest that extends from Numinbah Nature Reserve and Springbrook National Park. However the first series of the show was filmed on a smaller site at King Ranch, near Tully, Queensland. The Australian series is filmed in Kruger National Park, South Africa.
Other versions of the show have been filmed in Argentina, Brazil, Costa Rica, Suriname, Indonesia and Malaysia.
This series has been criticised by the UK former Secretary of State for Culture, Tessa Jowell. In an interview with the Financial Times during the second UK series, she said, "If they were n't mostly -- save their blushes -- has - been celebrities, there might be more interest (...) I think that if we saw many more programming hours taken over by reality TV, "I hope you 'd begin to see a viewers ' revolt. ''
In 2002, CBS, broadcaster of the popular American reality show Survivor, unsuccessfully sued ABC and Granada TV over a planned American version of I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!, alleging similarities.
The show 's use of live insects and other living creatures in the bushtucker trials has led to some public criticism of the show and its producers and those involved in the programming. This issue was highlighted during the 2009 UK series, where celebrity chef Gino D'Acampo killed, cooked and ate a rat. The RSPCA Australia investigated the incident and sought to prosecute D'Acampo and actor Stuart Manning for animal cruelty after this episode of the show was aired. ITV was fined £ 1,600 and the two celebrities involved were not prosecuted for animal cruelty despite being charged with the offence by the New South Wales Police. This incident did, however, highlight among certain groups such as Buglife, a British charity for the conservation of insects, and the RSPCA, the controversy surrounding the killing of living creatures for human entertainment.
There has been criticism that the producers pretend that the celebrities have to live in "dangerous '' jungle even though they are in a controlled environment, with some of the scenery being artificial, e.g. a pond and a small waterfall.
In November 2014, TV presenter Chris Packham wrote an open letter to Ant & Dec asking them and ITV to end the "abuse of animals '' in I 'm A Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!. He described the trials as "out of date '' and "silly ''.
Colour: In production or returning No longer airing
Season 1, 2015: Freddie Flintoff Season 2, 2016: Brendan Fevola Season 3, 2017: Casey Donovan Season 4, 2018: Fiona O'Loughlin
Season 1, Early 2004: Costa Cordalis Season 2, Late 2004: Désirée Nick Season 3, 2008: Ross Antony Season 4, 2009: Ingrid van Bergen Season 5, 2011: Peer Kusmagk Season 6, 2012: Brigitte Nielsen Season 7, 2013: Joey Heindle Season 8, 2014: Melanie Müller Season 9, 2015: Maren Gilzer Season 10, 2016: Menderes Bağcı Season 11, 2017: Marc Terenzi Season 12, 2018: Jenny Frankhauser
Season 1, October 2008: Mariann Falusi Season 2, Oct -- Nov 2008: Andrea Keleti Season 3, October 2014: Zsolt Erdei Season 4, Oct -- Nov 2014: Andrea Molnár Season 5, Nov -- Dec 2017: Péter Kabát
Series 1, 2002: Tony Blackburn Series 2, 2003: Phil Tufnell Series 3, Early 2004: Kerry Katona Series 4, Late 2004: Joe Pasquale Series 5, 2005: Carol Thatcher Series 6, 2006: Matt Willis Series 7, 2007: Christopher Biggins Series 8, 2008: Joe Swash Series 9, 2009: Gino D'Acampo Series 10, 2010: Stacey Solomon Series 11, 2011: Dougie Poynter Series 12, 2012: Charlie Brooks Series 13, 2013: Kian Egan Series 14, 2014: Carl "Foggy '' Fogarty Series 15, 2015: Vicky Pattison Series 16, 2016: Scarlett Moffatt Series 17, 2017: Georgia "Toff '' Toffolo
Murwillumbah, Australia (2003) Costa Rica (2009)
Season 1, 2003: Cris Judd Season 2, 2009: Lou Diamond Phillips
John Lehr (2003) Damien Fahey (2009) Myleene Klass (2009)
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when was san fernando rey de espana built | Mission San Fernando Rey de España - wikipedia
Mission San Fernando Rey de España is a Spanish mission in the Mission Hills district of Los Angeles, California. The mission was founded on September 8, 1797, and was the seventeenth of the twenty - one Spanish missions established in Alta California. Named for Saint Ferdinand, the mission is the namesake of the nearby city of San Fernando and the San Fernando Valley.
The mission was secularized in 1834 and returned to the Catholic Church in 1861; it became a working church in 1920. Today the mission grounds function as a museum; the church is a chapel of ease of the Archdiocese of Los Angeles.
In 1769, the Spanish Portolá expedition -- the first Europeans to see inland areas of California -- traveled north through the San Fernando Valley. On August 7 they camped at a watering place near where the mission would later be established. Fray Juan Crespi, a Franciscan missionary travelling with the expedition, noted in his diary that the camp was "at the foot of the mountains ''.
The Rancho of Francisco Reyes (then the Alcalde of the Pueblo de Los Ángeles) was approved by the ion. After brief negotiations with the Alcalde, the land was acquired (Mission records list Reyes as godfather to the first infant baptized at San Fernando).
The mission was founded on September 8, 1797 by Father Fermín Lasuén who, with the assistance of Fray Francisco Dumetz and in the presence of troops and natives, performed the ceremonies and dedicated the mission to San Fernando Rey de España, making it the fourth mission site he had established; ten children were baptized on the first day. Fray Francisco Dumetz and his associate Fray Francisco Javier Uría labored in the mission until after 1800.
Early in October, 1797, 13 adults were baptized and the first marriage took place on October 8. At the end of the year, there were 55 neophytes. By 1800, there were 310 neophytes, 352 baptisms, and 70 deaths.
An adobe church with a tile roof was blessed in December 1806. Fray Dumetz left the mission in April 1802, then returned in 1804 and finally left the following year at the same time as Fray Francisco Javier Uría, who left the country. In 1805, Fray Nicolás Lázaro and Fray José María Zalvidea arrived at the mission, the latter was transferred to San Gabriel in 1806 and the former died at San Diego in August 1807. Padres José Antonio Uría and Pedro Muños arrived in 1807, the former retired in November 1808 and was succeeded by Fray Martín de Landaeta while Fray José Antonio Urresti arrived in 1809 and became the associate of Fray Muñoz, Fray Landaeta died in 1816.
During the first decade of the century, the neophyte population increased from 310 to 955, there had been 797 deaths, and 1468 baptisms. The largest number of baptisms in any one year was 361 in 1803.
In 1804 there was a land controversy where the padres successfully protested against the granting of the Rancho Camulos to Francisco Avila.
Fray Urresti died in 1812 and was succeeded by Fray Joaquin Pascual Nuez in 1812 to 1814, Fray Vincente Pascual Oliva was stationed in the mission from 1814 to 1815. Fray Pedro Muñoz left California in 1817, his place was taken by Fray Marcos Antonio de Vitoria from 1818 to 1820. Fray Ramon Ulibarri arrived in January and Fray Francisco Gonzalez de Ibarra in October 1820. On December 21, 1812, an earthquake hit the area which did enough damage to necessitate the introduction of 20 new beams to support the church wall. Before 1818 a new chapel was completed. During the period of 1810 to 1820 the population gained slightly, reaching its highest figure, 1080, in 1819, after which its decline began.
After Fray Ulibarri died in 1821, Fray Francisco Gonzalez de Ibarra was stationed alone in the mission. mission San Fernando was the 17th mission to be found after all 21
After the Mexican Empire gained independence from Spain on September 27, 1821, the Province of Alta California became the Mexican Territory of Alta California. The missions continued under the rule of Mexico.
Fray Ibarra began to complain that the soldiers of his guard were causing problems by selling liquor and lending horses to the natives and in 1825, he declared that "the presidio was a curse rather than a help to the mission, that the soldiers should go to work and raise grain, and not live on the toil of the Indians, whom they robbed and deceived with talk of liberty while in reality they treated them as slaves. '' This led to a sharp reply from Captain Guerra, who advised the Padre to modify his tone. The amount of supplies furnished by the mission to the presidio from 1822 to April 1827 amounted to $21,203.
Fray Ibarra continued his labors alone until the middle of 1835 when he retired to Mexico. His successor was Fray Pedro Cabot from San Antonio who was stationed here until his death in October 1836. After Fray Cabot 's death, there is no mention of a missionary at San Fernando until August 1838 when Fray Blas Ordaz remained there during the rest of the decade. Down to 1834, the neophyte population decreased by less than 100 and the mission remained productive.
In October 1834, Comisionado Antonio del Valle took charge of the mission estates by inventory from Fray Ibarra. From then, the mission was to be a parish of the second class with a $1000 salary.
In 1842, six years before the California Gold Rush, a brother of the mission mayordomo (foreman) made the first Alta California gold discovery in the foothills near the mission. In memory of that discovery, the place was given the name Placerita Canyon, but only small quantities of gold were found.
In 1845, Governor Pío Pico declared the Mission buildings for sale and, in 1846, made Mission San Fernando Rey de España de velicata his headquarters as Rancho Ex-Mission San Fernando. The Mission was utilized in a number of ways during the late 19th century: north of the mission was the site of Lopez Station for the Butterfield Stage Lines; it served as a warehouse for the Porter Land and Water Company; and in 1896, the quadrangle was used as a hog farm. In 1861 the Mission buildings and 75 acres of land were returned to the church, after Charles Fletcher Lummis acted for preservation. The buildings were disintegrating, as beams, tiles and nails were taken from the church by settlers. San Fernando 's church became a working church again in 1923 when the Oblate priests arrived. Many attempts were made to restore the old Mission from the early 20th century, but it was not until the Hearst Foundation gave a large gift of money in the 1940s, that the Mission was finally restored. The museum became the repository for heirlooms of the Mexican church evacuated during the Cristero revolt, and also holds part of the Doheny library. The church was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971, but was extensively damaged by the 1971 San Fernando earthquake, and was completely rebuilt. Repairs were completed in 1974. It continues to be very well cared for and is still used as a chapel - of - ease. The Convento Building was separately listed on the Register in 1988. In 2003 comedian Bob Hope was interred in the Bob Hope Memorial Gardens; followed by his widow Dolores Hope in 2011.
The goals of the missions were, first, to spread the message of Christianity and, second, to establish a Spanish colony. Because of the difficulty of delivering supplies by sea, the missions had to become self - sufficient in relatively short order. Toward that end, neophytes were taught European - style farming, animal husbandry, mechanical arts and domestic crafts. mission San Fernando was the 17th mission to be found out of the 21
Bells were vitally important to daily life at any mission. The bells were rung at mealtimes, to call the Mission residents to work and to religious services, during births and funerals, to signal the approach of a ship or returning missionary, and at other times; novices were instructed in the intricate rituals associated with the ringing the mission bell. The Mission Bells were another sign of domination. The residents as referred to above were called neophytes (Indigenous person) after baptism.
A hundred - pound bell was unearthed in an orange grove near the Mission in 1920. It carried the following inscription (translated from Russian): "In the Year 1796, in the month of January, this bell was cast on the Island of Kodiak by the blessing of Archimandrite Joaseph, during the sojourn of Alexsandr Baranov. '' It is not known how this Russian Orthodox artifact from Kodiak, Alaska made its way to a Catholic mission in Southern California.
A view looking down an exterior corridor at Mission San Fernando Rey de España, a common architectural feature of the Spanish Missions.
A view of the same location as at left, circa 1900.
The fountain opposite San Fernando Mission Road.
The present - day Mission façade.
San Fernando Mission Church Interior.
A statue of Father Junípero Serra and a native child at Mission San Fernando.
Mission San Fernando Postcard, circa 1900
Lopez Station in the 1860s.
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which country won the most gold medals in the first modern olympic games | 1896 Summer Olympics medal table - wikipedia
The 1896 Summer Olympics medal count is a list of National Olympic Committees ranked by the number of medals won during the 1896 Summer Olympics -- the first Olympic Games of the Modern era -- held in Athens, Greece, from 6 to 15 April 1896. A total of 241 athletes from 14 nations participated in 43 events in nine sports at these games.
Ten of the fourteen participating nations earned medals, in addition to three medals won by mixed teams, i.e. teams made up of athletes from multiple nations. The United States won the most gold medals (11) with 14 athletes participating, while host nation, Greece with 169 athletes participating, won the most medals overall (46) as well as the most silver (17) and bronze (19) medals, finishing with one less gold medal than the United States.
In the early Olympic Games, several team events were contested by athletes from multiple nations. Retroactively, the IOC created the designation "Mixed team '' (with the country code ZZX) to refer to these group of athletes. Some athletes won medals both individually and as part of a mixed team, so these medals are tabulated under different nations in the official counts. Dionysios Kasdaglis, an athlete of Greek origins living in Alexandria, Egypt, is listed by the IOC as Greek during his competition in the singles tennis competition but Kasdaglis and his doubles tennis teammate, Greek athlete Demetrios Petrokokkinos, are listed a mixed team.
During these inaugural Olympics, winners were given a silver medal and an olive branch, while runners - up received a copper medal and a laurel branch. The IOC has retroactively assigned gold, silver and bronze medals to the three best placed athletes in each event to comport with more recent traditions. Three ties resulted in medals being shared between athletes, increasing the medal count of various nations. These include ties between Francis Lane of the United States and Alajos Szokolyi of Hungary, for the third place in the 100 metres; between Evangelos Damaskos and Ioannis Theodoropoulos of Greece in the pole vault; and between Konstantinos Paspatis of Greece and Momcsilló Tapavicza of Hungary, in singles tennis. In addition, bronze medals were not awarded in a number of events where there was no third - place finisher.
This is the full table of the medal count of the 1896 Summer Olympics, based on the medal count of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). These rankings sort by the number of gold medals earned by a country. The number of silver medals is taken into consideration next and then the number of bronze medals. If, after the above, countries are still tied, equal ranking is given and they are listed alphabetically. This information is provided by the IOC, however the IOC does not recognise or endorse any ranking system.
Host nation (Greece)
There are sources, besides the International Olympic Committee (IOC), that display variations in the medal totals, but as the governing body of the Olympic Games, the IOC is considered the most authoritative source for the purposes of this article.
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what is the cost of mona lisa painting | List of most expensive paintings - wikipedia
This is a list of the highest known prices paid for paintings. The earliest sale on the list (Vase with Fifteen Sunflowers by Vincent van Gogh) is from 1987, and more than tripled the previous record price, set only two years before, introducing a new era in top picture prices. The sale was also significant in that for the first time a "modern '' painting (in this case from 1888) became the record holder, as opposed to the old master paintings which had always previously held it. The current record price is approximately $ 300 million paid for Willem de Kooning 's Interchange in November 2015.
The world 's most famous paintings, especially old master works done before 1803, are generally owned or held at museums, for viewing by patrons. The museums very rarely sell them, and as such, they are quite literally priceless. Guinness World Records lists the Mona Lisa as having the highest insurance value for a painting in history. On permanent display at The Louvre museum in Paris, the Mona Lisa was assessed at US $100 million on December 14, 1962. Taking inflation into account, the 1962 value would be around US $790 million in 2016.
The earliest sale on the list below (Vase with Fifteen Sunflowers by Vincent van Gogh) is from March 1987; with a price of £ 24.75 million (£ 62.8 million in current value) it tripled the previous record and introduced a new era in top art sales. Before this, the highest absolute price paid for a painting was £ 8.1 million (£ 18.0 million in current value) paid by the J. Paul Getty Museum for Mantegna 's Adoration of the Magi at Christie 's in London on April 18, 1985. In constant dollars, the highest price paid before 1987 was by the National Gallery of Art when in February 1967 they acquired Leonardo da Vinci 's Ginevra de ' Benci for around $5 million ($36 million in current dollars) from the Princely Family of Liechtenstein. The sale of Van Gogh 's Sunflowers was also significant in that for the first time a "modern '' (in this case 1888) painting became the record holder, as opposed to the old master paintings which previously had dominated the market. In contrast, there are currently only nine pre-1875 paintings among the listed top 79, and no works painted between 1635 and 1874.
An exceptional case is graffiti artist David Choe, who accepted payment in shares for painting graffiti art in the headquarters of a fledgling Facebook. While his shares were of limited value when he was awarded them, by the time of Facebook 's IPO they were valued at around $200 m.
Vincent van Gogh, Pablo Picasso, and Andy Warhol are by far the best represented artists in the list. Whereas Picasso and Warhol became wealthy men, Van Gogh (supposedly) sold only one painting in his lifetime, The Red Vineyard, for 400 francs (about $1800 in 2011) to the impressionist painter and heiress Anna Boch. His seven paintings in the list below alone were sold for over 730 million current dollars.
This list is ordered by consumer price index inflation - adjusted value (in bold) in millions of United States dollars in the current year. Where necessary, the price is first converted to dollars using the exchange rate at the time the painting was sold. The inflation adjustment may change as recent inflation rates are often revised. A list in another currency may be in a slightly different order due to exchange rate fluctuations. Paintings are only listed once, i.e. for the highest price sold.
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where do you get a certificate of occupancy | Certificate of occupancy - wikipedia
A certificate of occupancy is a document issued by a local government agency or building department certifying a building 's compliance with applicable building codes and other laws, and indicating it to be in a condition suitable for occupancy.
The procedure and requirements for the certificate vary widely from jurisdiction to jurisdiction and on the type of structure. In the United States, obtaining a certificate is generally required whenever:
The purpose of obtaining a certificate of occupancy is to prove that, according to the law, the house or building is in liveable condition. Generally, such a certificate is necessary to be able to occupy the structure for everyday use, as well as to be able to sign a contract to sell the space and close on a mortgage for the space.
A certificate of occupancy is evidence that the building complies substantially with the plans and specifications that have been submitted to, and approved by, the local authority. It complements a building permit -- a document that must be filed by the applicant with the local authority before construction to indicate that the proposed construction will adhere to ordinances, codes, and laws.
A temporary certificate of occupancy grants residents and building owners all of the same rights as a certificate of occupancy, however it is only for a temporary period of time. In New York City, TCOs are usually active for 90 days from the date of issue, after which they expire. It is perfectly legal, and not uncommon in the given situation, for a building owner to re-apply for a TCO, following all the steps and inspections required originally, in order to hypothetically extend their TCO for another period of time.
Temporary certificates of occupancy are generally sought after and acquired when a building is still under minor construction, but there is a certain section or number of floors that are deemed to be habitable, and, upon issuance of TCO, can legally be occupied or sold.
In New York City, for a building to obtain a certificate of occupancy, the structure must pass a series of inspections, as well as a walk - through from the Department of Buildings. In most cases, the inspections include, but are not limited to, plumbing inspections, fire sprinkler system inspections, fire alarm system inspections, electrical inspections, fire pump pressure tests, architectural inspections (where inspector checks if building was built in accordance with an architect 's stamped and approved drawings), elevator inspections, completion of lobby, and an inspection to see if the building complies with the proper number of entrances required for its size. After all inspections are passed, the last step is generally to have a walk - through by a member of the Department of Buildings, who sees that there is no major construction remaining on the job site, that there are no obstructions to the entrances, that there are no safety hazards in the building, and that everything in the building was built according to plan. If the inspector approves his walk - through, a certificate of occupancy is usually granted.
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who owns eleanor from gone in 60 seconds | Eleanor (automobile) - wikipedia
"Eleanor '' is a customized 1971 Ford Mustang Sportsroof (redressed as 1973) that features in independent filmmaker H.B. "Toby '' Halicki 's 1974 film Gone in 60 Seconds. "Eleanor '' is the only Ford Mustang in history to receive star title credit in a movie.
The Eleanor name is reused for a Shelby Mustang GT500 in the 2000 Gone in 60 Seconds remake.
Though four Mustangs are portrayed in the film as "Eleanor '' targets, only two cars were used for filming the movie, with license plates and tires alternated as necessary. Of these two, one car was modified for the stunt driving necessitated by the final chase and wrecked in said process, while the other was kept intact for all external "beauty shots. '' The latter car was also used for all but two interior shots.
Both 1971 Mustang Sportsroofs used in the film (neither car has been proven to be a Mach 1, as often assumed) were bought in 1971, but - as it was three years before Halicki could raise sufficient funds to start filming - each car was facelifted with 1973 grilles for the film. Both cars retain their 1971 front bumper and valance panels, as retrofitting the 1973 parts to the car would have required swapping the fenders as well.
As with the liberties taken with the body modifications, Halicki 's paint scheme on both cars were similar - but not identical - to Ford factory offerings. Both cars received blackout treatment to the lower bodyside - resembling Mach 1 's and base models equipped with the Exterior Decor Group - and a unique blackout treatment to the standard hood; not seen on any factory 1971 - 1973 Mustang. Additionally, neither car wears any identifiable badging spelling the "Mustang '' name in type, though the pony badge and "Ford Motor Company '' hubcaps are visible in the film.
Despite rumors that both cars were painted in Ford 's Medium Yellow Gold, Halicki - in a 1974 interview - stated that the cars were painted "generic school bus yellow '' to save money.
The modified car required 250 hours of labor before it was ready for the film. All body panels were removed in order to install a roll cage throughout the Mustang 's stock unibody. The transmission was also chained in for safety. An adjustable camera rig was mounted in the back seat to capture footage from the internal "driver 's point of view. ''
The wrecked Eleanor was equipped with a base interior and no instrumentation package, but utilized seats from the Mustang 's deluxe interior package; sourced from the beauty car. Conversely, the beauty car had deluxe interior, with the standard seats from the stunt car swapped into it.
Other safety modifications included:
The interior of the stunt car is seen only once in the film, when Halicki - as Maindrian Pace - places his hands against the windshield when cornered by the Long Beach police. The rollcage is clearly visible against the A-pillar. All other interior shots were executed with the "beauty '' car, generally on alternate filming dates.
The stunt car survives to this day, despite two serious incidents during filming:
The first occurred during a stunt wherein "Eleanor '' cuts across multiple lanes of freeway traffic. The stunt driver leading the "traffic '' overshot his mark during the take, clipping the Mustang and causing it to careen into a nearby light pole. Halicki was rendered unconscious from the impact, but filming resumed the following week - utilizing this accident as part of the final film. Halicki 's first words - upon regaining consciousness - were "Did we get coverage? ''
Following the incident with the light pole, Halicki compressed multiple vertibrae after performing the impressive 128 - foot jump in the closing minutes of the film. The modified Mustang survived, despite the rough nose landing.
2007 - 2009 Classic Recreations manufactured Eleanor mustangs under license by Halicki Films / Eleanor Licensing. After two years Classic Recreations terminated the licensing agreement. Classic Recreations produced two models of the Eleanor Mustang (535 model, 750 model).
The second car was left absolutely stock - as noted by cinematographer Jack Vacek in the film 's DVD commentary - and was not modified extensively other than the obligatory matching paint job, grille change, and seat swap with the stunt car.
Though this car was not damaged during filming, Halicki stated (in 1974, at the film 's premiere) that the car was crushed.
In 1995, Denice Halicki licensed the rights of the 1974 film to Disney for a remake of the same name. The new 2000 Gone in 60 Seconds film, produced by Jerry Bruckheimer, features Nicolas Cage as master auto thief Randall "Memphis '' Raines. Both films share plot similarities about a crew of thieves who steal a large order of cars (48 in the original, 50 in the 2000 film) and deliver them to the Long Beach docks. Once again, the "Eleanor '' name is given to the film 's featured car; now a Dupont Pepper Grey 1967 Ford Mustang fastback, depicted as a Shelby GT500, with a customized body kit designed by Steve Stanford.
Depending on the source, either eleven or twelve cars were built by Cinema Vehicle Services for the film (not including CVS 's creation of one additional Eleanor clone - with a Ford 428 - for producer Bruckheimer). Nine were shells, and three were built as fully functional vehicles. Seven were reported to have "survived the filming (and) made it back to Cinema Vehicle Services '' according to research by Mustangandfords.com.
Of the surviving vehicles, three cars have been offered to the public with claims of originality and screen - use in the film, as follows:
All three claim to be functional builds for the film. Whether the two wrecked cars were rebuilt - or whether surviving shells were built up into functional cars - remains unknown and unpublicized.
A fourth car, VIN # 7F02C229830, last offered for sale in Dubai, also claims originality to the film. This car has not been authenticated.
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who won the winter olympics figure skating 2018 | Figure Skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics - wikipedia
Figure skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics was held at the Gangneung Ice Arena in Gangneung, South Korea. The five events took place between 9 and 23 February 2018.
A total of 148 quota spots were available to athletes to compete at the games. Each NOC could enter a maximum of 18 athletes, with a maximum of nine men or nine women. An additional six quota spots were made available for the team event. A further ten team trophy quotas (two in each discipline) were distributed to countries who qualified for the team event but not the discipline itself. This meant up to a maximum of 158 athletes could participate.
The following was the competition schedule for all five events. Sessions that included the event finals are shown in bold.
All times are (UTC + 9).
Skaters who only competed in the short program / dance. Skaters who only competed in the free program / dance.
Countries began announcing their entries in 2017. The International Skating Union published the complete list on 30 January 2018.
The following new ISU best scores were set during this competition.
The following National Olympic Committees earned spots to compete. 153 athletes from 32 nations were expected to participate, with number of athletes in parentheses. Malaysia made their Olympic debuts in the sport.
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who played in the movie the sixth sense | The Sixth Sense - wikipedia
The Sixth Sense is a 1999 American supernatural horror film written and directed by M. Night Shyamalan. The film tells the story of Cole Sear (Haley Joel Osment), a troubled, isolated boy who is able to see and talk to the dead, and an equally troubled child psychologist named Malcolm Crowe (Bruce Willis) who tries to help him. The film established Shyamalan as a writer and director, and introduced the cinema public to his traits, most notably his affinity for surprise endings.
Released by Hollywood Pictures on August 6, 1999, the film was received well; critics highlighted the performances (especially by Osment, Collette and Willis), its atmosphere, and twist conclusion. The film was the second - highest - grossing film of 1999 (behind Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace), grossing about $293 million domestically and $672 million worldwide, making it, at the time, the highest - grossing horror film of all time in unadjusted dollars. The film was nominated for six Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Director for Shyamalan, Best Original Screenplay, Best Supporting Actor for Osment, and Best Supporting Actress for Toni Collette.
Malcolm Crowe, a child psychologist in Philadelphia, returns home one night with his wife, Anna, after having been honored for his work. Anna tells Crowe that everything is second to his work, and that she believes he is truly gifted. A young man then appears in their bathroom, and accuses Crowe of failing him. Crowe recognizes him as Vincent Grey, a former patient whom he treated as a child for hallucinations. Vincent shoots his former doctor before killing himself.
The next fall, Crowe begins working with another patient, nine - year - old Cole Sear, whose case is similar to Vincent 's. Crowe becomes dedicated to the boy, though he is haunted by doubts over his ability to help him after his failure with Vincent. Meanwhile, he and his wife seldom, if ever, speak or do anything together. Crowe feels he must help Cole in order to rectify his failure to help Vincent and reconcile with his wife. Cole 's mother, Lynn worries about his social stamina, especially after seeing signs of physical abuse. Cole eventually confides his secret to Crowe in the seminal line: "I see dead people. '' He sees ghosts, who walk around like the living unaware they are dead.
At first, Crowe thinks Cole is delusional and considers dropping his case. Remembering Vincent, the psychologist listens to an audiotape from a session with Vincent when he was a child. On the tape, when Crowe leaves the room, Vincent begins crying. Turning up the volume, Crowe hears a weeping man begging for help in Spanish, and now believes that Cole is telling the truth and that Vincent may have had the same ability. He suggests to Cole that he should try to find a purpose for his gift by communicating with the ghosts and perhaps aid them with their unfinished business. At first, Cole is unwilling since the ghosts terrify and sometimes even threaten him, but he finally decides to attempt helping.
Cole talks to one of the ghosts, a young girl named Kyra who recently died after a chronic illness. He goes with Crowe to her funeral reception at her home, where Kyra directs him to a box holding a videotape, which he then gives to her father. The tape shows Kyra 's mother poisoning her stepdaughter 's food. By proving she was a victim of Munchausen syndrome by proxy, Cole has saved Kyra 's younger sister, the mother 's next victim.
Learning to live with the ghosts he sees, Cole begins to fit in at school and is cast as the lead in the school play, which Crowe attends. The doctor and patient depart on positive terms and Cole suggests to Crowe that he should try speaking to Anna while she is asleep. Later, while stuck in traffic, Cole confesses his secret to his mother, saying that someone died in an accident ahead of their traffic and he knows because the person is next to him. Although his mother at first does not believe him, Cole proves his ability to her by talking about how his grandmother visits him. He describes how his grandmother saw his mother in a dance performance, even though Lynn thought her mother was not there. He further relays the answer to a question his mother privately asked at her mother 's grave. When Cole says that his grandmother feels proud of Lynn, his mother tearfully accepts the truth and they hug each other.
Crowe returns home, where he finds his wife asleep with their wedding video playing. While still asleep, Anna asks her husband why he left her, and drops Crowe 's wedding ring, which he suddenly discovers he has not been wearing. He remembers what Cole said about ghosts and realizes that he was actually killed by Vincent and was unknowingly dead the entire time he was working with Cole. Because of Cole 's efforts, Crowe 's unfinished business -- rectifying his failure to understand and help Vincent -- is finally complete. Crowe fulfills the second reason he returned; to tell his wife she was never second, and that he loves her. His goal complete, he is free to leave the world of the living.
David Vogel, then - president of production of The Walt Disney Studios, read Shyamalan 's spec script and instantly loved it. Without obtaining corporate approval, Vogel bought the rights to the script, despite the high price of $3 million and the stipulation that Shyamalan could direct the film. Disney later dismissed Vogel from his position at the studio, with Vogel leaving the company shortly thereafter. Disney -- apparently in a show of little confidence in the film -- sold the production rights to Spyglass Entertainment, while retaining the distribution rights and 12.5 % of the film 's box office receipt.
The color red is intentionally absent from most of the film, but it is used prominently in a few isolated shots for "anything in the real world that has been tainted by the other world '' and "to connote really explosively emotional moments and situations ''. Examples include the door of the church where Cole seeks sanctuary; the balloon, carpet, and Cole 's sweater at the birthday party; the tent in which he first encounters Kyra; the volume numbers on Crowe 's tape recorder; the doorknob on the locked basement door where Malcolm 's office is located; the shirt that Anna wears at the restaurant; Kyra 's mother 's dress at the wake; and the shawl wrapped around the sleeping Anna.
All of the clothes Malcolm wears during the film are items he wore or touched the evening before his death, which included his overcoat, his blue rowing sweatshirt and the different layers of his suit. Though the filmmakers were careful about clues of Malcolm 's true state, the camera zooms slowly towards his face when Cole says, "I see dead people. '' In a special feature, the filmmakers mention they initially feared this would be too much of a giveaway, but decided to leave it in.
Marisa Tomei was considered for the role of Lynn Sear.
The film had a production budget of approximately $40 million (plus $25 million for prints and advertising). It grossed $26.6 million in its opening weekend and spent five weeks as the No. 1 film at the U.S. box office. It earned $293,506,292 in the United States and a worldwide gross of $672,806,292, ranking it 35th on the list of box - office money earners in the U.S. as of April 2010. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 57.5 million tickets in the US. In the United Kingdom, it was given at first a limited release at 9 screens, and entered at No. 8 before climbing up to No. 1 the next week with 430 theatres playing the film.
The Sixth Sense received positive reviews; Osment in particular was singled out for his acting. Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 85 % of 148 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating was 7.6 / 10. The site 's consensus reads: "M. Night Shayamalan 's The Sixth Sense is a twisty ghost story with all the style of a classical Hollywood picture, but all the chills of a modern horror flick. '' Metacritic rated it 64 out of 100 based on 35 reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A - '' on an A+ to F scale.
By vote of the members of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America, The Sixth Sense was awarded the Nebula Award for Best Script during 1999. The film was No. 71 on Bravo 's 100 Scariest Movie Moments, for the scene where Cole encounters a female ghost in his tent. It was named the 89th best American film of all time in a 2007 poll by the American Film Institute.
The line "I see dead people '' from the film became a popular catchphrase after its release, scoring No. 44 on AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes. There have been various parodies of this quote.
The Sixth Sense also scored 60th place on AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Thrills, honoring America 's most "heart pounding movies ''.
The Sixth Sense has received numerous awards and nominations, with Academy Award nomination categories ranging from those honoring the film itself (Best Picture), to its writing, editing, and direction (Best Director, Best Editing, and Best Original Screenplay), to its cast 's performance (Best Supporting Actor and Best Supporting Actress). Especially lauded was the supporting role of actor Haley Joel Osment, whose nominations include an Academy Award, a Broadcast Film Critics Association Award, and a Golden Globe Award. Overall, The Sixth Sense was nominated for six Academy Awards and four British Academy Film Awards, but won none. The film received three nominations from the People 's Choice Awards and won all of them, with lead actor Bruce Willis being honored for his role. The Satellite Awards nominated the film in four categories, with awards being received for writing (M. Night Shyamalan) and editing (Andrew Mondshein). Supporting actress Toni Collette was nominated for both an Academy Award and a Satellite award for her role in the film. James Newton Howard was honored by the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers for his composition of the music for the film.
In 2013, the Writers Guild of America ranked the screenplay # 50 on its list of 101 Greatest Screenplays ever written.
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who sings it like that and that the way it is | It 's Like That (Run -- D.M.C. Song) - wikipedia
"It 's Like That '' is the debut single by American hip hop group Run -- D.M.C.
It was first released in 1983 on a cassette backed with the track "Sucker M.C. 's ''. The release marked the start of Run - D.M.C. 's career and is widely regarded as ushering in a new school of hip hop artists with a street image and an abrasive, minimalist sound that marked them out from their predecessors. Both tracks were collected on the trio 's eponymous debut album in 1984. "It 's Like That '' is about life in the area where the group lives (unemployment, prices, death, etc.). Despite protesting those social and political problems, the song takes on a hopeful message encouraging listeners to abandon prejudice and to believe in themselves. In 2001, parts of the song was sampled in Jagged Edge 's "Let 's Get Married (Remix) '' featuring Run - D.M.C.. The single was an international success.
The song was remixed by house DJ Jason Nevins in 1997. His version was originally released in 1997 on 10 '' vinyl in the U.S., and became a sleeper hit in 1998. It sold around five million copies worldwide, placing it amongst the biggest selling singles of all time.
In 2008, it was ranked number 40 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Hip - Hop Songs.
In the re-release of the album in 2003, a booklet was included, and a reviewer, Angus Batey, wrote the background information about the album. When he wrote about "It 's like That '', he quoted:
(Larry) Smith had created one particularly stark backing track that would provide a perfect setting for rap. He was aware of Run 's prowess as a writer, having previously paid the teenager $100 for a set of lyrics with the intention of (Kurtis) Blow recording them. One evening, in Smith 's home studio in Queens, Run and D persuaded Larry and Russell (Simmons) to let them have a chance to make a demo. Russell agreed; taking Run 's $100 rap and extensive additional lines penned by the prolific DMC, Russell doled it out line by line between the two vocalists, who sprayed their lyrics over the stark beat onto tape. ' It 's Like That ' became the band 's debut single, stridently announcing that a new era began.
The song was mixed by Kurtis Blow and Elai Tubo.
All tracks written by Darryl McDaniels, Joe Simmons and Larry Smith.
In 1997, a new version by American producer Jason Nevins was released. The Nevins version topped the pop charts all the way to Number 1 in many countries, including the United Kingdom, where it stayed at the top for six weeks and became Britain 's third biggest - selling single of 1998. Elsewhere, it also topped the chart in Australia, where it remains their only top five hit there.
In the United Kingdom, Nevins remix gained notoriety for breaking the Spice Girls ' run of consecutive number one hits on the UK Singles Chart, keeping their song "Stop '' from claiming the top spot.
The music video for the remix featured male vs. female breakdance crews battling each other. The video was shot in downtown LA in 1998 after the song went to # 1 on the pop chart in Italy. Jason is the in the beginning of the video wearing his ' well known yellow tinted glasses ' and holding a boom box.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
The song was featured in the video games Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories and Scarface: The World Is Yours. The Jason Nevins version is featured as a playable track in SingStar Dance for the PlayStation Move. The remix was also featured in a Fanta commercial where people and objects bounce around by drinking the soda given by a DJ while the song plays.
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who are the new characters in coronation street | List of Coronation Street characters - wikipedia
The following is a list of current characters in the ITV soap opera Coronation Street listed in order of appearance. If more than one actor has portrayed a character then the current actor portraying is listed.
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three uses of the knife on the nature and purpose of drama | Three Uses of the Knife - Wikipedia
Three Uses of the Knife: On the Nature and Purpose of Drama is a book by David Mamet that discusses playwriting. In it, Mamet discusses the conscious and unconscious processes that go on in developing a work of art.
The essay, dedicated to Michael Feingold (a critic of The Village Voice), is divided in three chapters: "The Wind - Chill Factor '', "Second Act Problems '', and "Three Uses of the Knife ''.
The book 's title stems from a quote from musician Lead Belly, appearing on page 66:
Another more significant quote from the book: "The subject of drama is The Lie. At the end of the drama THE TRUTH -- which has been overlooked, disregarded, scorned, and denied -- prevails. And that is how we know the Drama is done. '' (1)
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when was the world’s first university established | University of Al Quaraouiyine - wikipedia
The University of al - Qarawiyyin, also written Al Quaraouiyine or Al - Karaouine (Arabic: جامعة القرويين ; Berber: ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵍⵇⴰⵕⴰⵡⵉⵢⵢⵉⵏ; French: Université Al Quaraouiyine), is a university located in Fez, Morocco. It is the oldest existing, continually operating and the first degree - awarding educational institution in the world according to UNESCO and Guinness World Records and is sometimes referred to as the oldest university. It was founded by Fatima al - Fihri in 859 with an associated madrasa, which subsequently became one of the leading spiritual and educational centers of the historic Muslim world. It was incorporated into Morocco 's modern state university system in 1963.
Education at Al Quaraouiyine University concentrates on the Islamic religious and legal sciences with a heavy emphasis on, and particular strengths in Classical Arabic grammar / linguistics and Maliki law, although a few lessons on other non-Islamic subjects such as French, English are also offered to students. Teaching is delivered in the traditional method, in which students are seated in a semi-circle (halqa) around a sheikh, who prompts them to read sections of a particular text, asks them questions on particular points of grammar, law, or interpretation, and explains difficult points. Students from all over Morocco and Islamic West Africa attend the Qarawiyyin, although a few might come from as far afield as Muslim Central Asia. Even Spanish Muslim converts frequently attend the institution, largely attracted by the fact that the sheikhs of the Qarawiyyin, and Islamic scholarship in Morocco in general, are heirs to the rich religious and scholarly heritage of Muslim al - Andalus.
Most students at the Qarawiyyin range from between the ages of 13 and 30, and study towards high school - level diplomas and university - level bachelor 's degrees, although Muslims with a sufficiently high level of Arabic are also able to attend lecture circles on an informal basis, given the traditional category of visitors "in search of (religious and legal) knowledge '' ("zuwwaar li'l - talab fii ' ilm ''). In addition to being Muslim, prospective students of the Qarawiyyin are required to have memorized the Qur'an in full as well as several other shorter medieval Islamic texts on grammar and Maliki law, and in general to have a very good command of Classical Arabic. It is a common misconception that the university is open only to men, however. It is open to both men and women.
Successive dynasties expanded the Al Quaraouiyine mosque until it became the largest in Africa, with a capacity of 22,000 worshipers. Compared with the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul or the Jameh Mosque in Isfahan, the design is austere. The columns and arches are plain white; the floors are covered in reed mats, not lush carpets. Yet the seemingly endless forest of arches creates a sense of infinite majesty and intimate privacy, while the simplicity of the design complements the finely decorated niches, pulpit and outer courtyard, with its superb tiles, plasterwork, woodcarvings and paintings.
The present form of the mosque is the result of a long historical evolution over the course of more than 1,000 years. Originally the mosque was about 30 meters long with a courtyard and four transverse aisles. The first expansion was undertaken in 956, by Umayyad Caliph of Córdoba, Abd - ar - Rahman III. The prayer hall was extended and the minaret was relocated, taking on a square form that served as a model for countless North African minarets. At this time it became a tradition that other mosques of Fes would make the call to prayer only after they heard Al Quaraouiyine. In the minaret of Al Quaraouiyine mosque there is a special room, the Dar al - Muwaqqit, where the times of prayer are established.
The most extensive reconstruction was carried out in 1135 under the patronage of the Almoravid ruler sultan Ali Ibn Yusuf who ordered the extension of the mosque from 18 to 21 aisles, expanding the structure to more than 3,000 square meters. The mosque acquired its present appearance at this time, featuring horseshoe arches and ijmiz frames decorated with beautiful geometrical and floral Andalusian art, bordered with Kufic calligraphy.
In the 16th century, the Saadis restored the mosque, adding two pavilions to the northern and southern ends of the courtyard.
Al Quaraouiyine was founded with an associated madrasa, in 859 by Fatima al - Fihri, the daughter of a wealthy merchant named Mohammed Al - Fihri. The Al - Fihri family had migrated from Kairouan (hence the name of the mosque), Tunisia to Fes in the early 9th century, joining a community of other migrants from Kairouan who had settled in a western district of the city. Fatima and her sister Mariam, both of whom were well educated, inherited a large amount of money from their father. Fatima vowed to spend her entire inheritance on the construction of a mosque suitable for her community. At that time, the city of Fes was the capital of the Idrisid Dynasty.
In some sources, the medieval madrasa is described as a "university '' in one Rough Guide book even as vying with Al - Azhar in Cairo "for the title of world 's oldest university ''.
Some scholars, noting certain parallels between such madrasas and European medieval universities, have proposed that the latter may have been influenced by the madrasas of Islamic Spain and the Emirate of Sicily. Other scholars have questioned this, citing the lack of evidence for an actual transmission from the Islamic world to Christian Europe and highlighting the differences in the structure, methodologies, procedures, curricula and legal status of the "Islamic college '' (madrasa) versus the European university.
Al Quaraouiyine gained the patronage of politically powerful sultans. It compiled a large selection of manuscripts that were kept at a library founded by the Marinid Sultan Abu Inan Faris in 1349. Among the most precious manuscripts currently housed in the library are volumes from the famous Al - Muwatta of Malik written on gazelle parchment, the Sirat Ibn Ishaq, a copy of the Qur'an given by Sultan Ahmad al - Mansur in 1602, and the original copy of Ibn Khaldun 's book Al - ' Ibar. Among the subjects taught, alongside the Qur'an and Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), are grammar, rhetoric, logic, medicine, mathematics, astronomy.
The twelfth century cartographer Mohammed al - Idrisi, whose maps aided European exploration in the Renaissance is said to have lived in Fes for some time, suggesting that he may have worked or studied at Al Quaraouiyine. The madrasa has produced numerous scholars who have strongly influenced the intellectual and academic history of the Muslim world. Among these are Ibn Rushayd al - Sabti (d. 1321), Mohammed Ibn al - Hajj al - Abdari al - Fasi (d. 1336), Abu Imran al - Fasi (d. 1015), a leading theorist of the Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence, Leo Africanus, a renowned traveler and writer. Pioneer scholars such as Al - Idrissi (d. 1166 AD), Ibn al - Arabi (1165 - 1240 AD), Ibn Khaldun (1332 - 1395 AD), Ibn al - Khatib, Al - Bitruji (Alpetragius), Ibn Hirzihim, and Al - Wazzan were all connected with the madrasa either as students or lecturers. Among Christian scholars visiting Al Quaraouiyine were the Belgian Nicolas Cleynaerts and the Dutchman Golius and Pope Sylvester II.
At the time Morocco became a French protectorate in 1912, Al Quaraouiyine had witnessed a decline as a religious center of learning from its medieval prime. However, it had retained some significance as an educational venue for the sultan 's administration. The student body was rigidly divided along social strata; ethnicity (Arab or Berber), social status, personal wealth and the geographic background (rural or urban) determined the group membership of the students who were segregated on the teaching facility as well as in their personal quarters. The French administration implemented a number of structural reforms between 1914 and 1947, but did not modernize the contents of teaching likewise which were still dominated by the traditional worldviews of the ulama. At the same time, the student numbers at Al Quaraouiyine dwindled to a total of 300 in 1922 as the Moroccan elite began to send its children instead to the new - found Western - style colleges and institutes elsewhere in the country.
In 1947, Al Quaraouiyine was integrated into the state educational system, but it was only by royal decree after independence, in 1963, that the madrasa was finally transformed into a university under the supervision of the ministry of education. The old madrasa was shut down and the new campus established at former French Army barracks. While the dean took its seat at Fez, four faculties were founded in and outside the city: a faculty of Islamic law in Fez, a faculty of Arab studies in Marrakech and a faculty of theology in Tétouan, plus one near Agadir in 1979. Modern curricula and textbooks were introduced and the professional training of the teachers improved. Following the reforms, Al Quaraouiyine was officially renamed "University of Al Quaraouiyine '' in 1965.
In 1975, the General Studies were transferred to the newly founded Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University; Al Quaraouiyine kept the Islamic and theological courses of studies.
In 1988, after a hiatus of almost three decades, the teaching of traditional Islamic education at the madrasa of Al Quaraouiyine was resumed by king Hassan II in what has been interpreted as a move to bolster conservative support for the monarchy.
According to UNESCO, and a number of other scholars, Al Quaraouiyine is considered to have been a university since its founding and therefore that it is the oldest university in the world. According to Yahya Pallavicini, the university model did not spread in Europe until the 12th century, and was found throughout the Muslim world from the founding of Al Quaraouiyine in the 9th century until at least European colonialism. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, universities had existed in parts of Asia and Africa prior to the founding of the first medieval European universities.
A number of other scholars, however, consider the medieval university (from Latin universitas) to be an institution unique to Christian Europe, arguing that the first universities were located in Western Europe with Paris and Bologna often cited as the earliest examples. Several scholars consider that Al Quaraouiyine was founded and run as a madrasa (Arabic: مدرسة ) until after World War II. They consider institutions like Al Quaraouiyine to be higher education colleges of Islamic law where other subjects were only of secondary importance. They also consider that the University was only adopted outside the West, including into the Islamic world, in the course of modernization programmes since the beginning of the 19th century. They date the transformation of the madrasa of Al Quaraouiyine into a university to its modern reorganization in 1963. In the wake of these reforms, Al Quaraouiyine was officially renamed "University of Al Quaraouiyine '' two years later.
At Al - Karaouine, students have studied theology, jurisprudence, philosophy, mathematics, astrology, astronomy and languages. The university had among its students since the Middle Age famous people from all around the Mediterranean sea such as the philosopher Averroes, the geographer Muhammad al - Idrisi and the Jewish philosopher Maimonides.
List of alumni:
The Adjustments of Original Institutions of the Higher Learning: the Madrasah. Significantly, the institutional adjustments of the madrasahs affected both the structure and the content of these institutions. In terms of structure, the adjustments were twofold: the reorganization of the available original madaris, and the creation of new institutions. This resulted in two different types of Islamic teaching institutions in al - Maghrib. The first type was derived from the fusion of old madaris with new universities. For example, Morocco transformed Al - Qarawiyin (859 A.D.) into a university under the supervision of the ministry of education in 1963.
The Quaraouiyine Mosque, founded in 859, is the most famous mosque of Morocco and attracted continuous investment by Muslim rulers.
As for the nature of its curriculum, it was typical of other major madrasahs such as al - Azhar and Al Quaraouiyine, though many of the texts used at the institution came from Muslim Spain... Al Quaraouiyine began its life as a small mosque constructed in 859 C.E. by means of an endowment bequeathed by a wealthy woman of much piety, Fatima bint Muhammed al - Fahri.
Thus the university, as a form of social organization, was peculiar to medieval Europe. Later, it was exported to all parts of the world, including the Muslim East; and it has remained with us down to the present day. But back in the middle ages, outside of Europe, there was nothing anything quite like it anywhere.
Higher education has always been an integral part of Morocco, going back to the ninth century when the Karaouine Mosque was established. The madrasa, known today as Al Qayrawaniyan University, became part of the state university system in 1947.
al - qarawiyin is the oldest university in Morocco. It was founded as a mosque in Fès in the middle of the ninth century. It has been a destination for students and scholars of Islamic sciences and Arabic studies throughout the history of Morocco. There were also other religious schools like the madras of ibn yusuf and other schools in the sus. This system of basic education called al - ta'lim al - aSil was funded by the sultans of Morocco and many famous traditional families. After independence, al - qarawiyin maintained its reputation, but it seemed important to transform it into a university that would prepare graduates for a modern country while maintaining an emphasis on Islamic studies. Hence, al - qarawiyin university was founded in February 1963 and, while the dean 's residence was kept in Fès, the new university initially had four colleges located in major regions of the country known for their religious influences and madrasas. These colleges were kuliyat al - shari 's in Fès, kuliyat uSul al - din in Tétouan, kuliyat al - lugha al - ' arabiya in Marrakech (all founded in 1963), and kuliyat al - shari'a in Ait Melloul near Agadir, which was founded in 1979.
Madrasa, in modern usage, the name of an institution of learning where the Islamic sciences are taught, i.e. a college for higher studies, as opposed to an elementary school of traditional type (kuttab); in mediaeval usage, essentially a college of law in which the other Islamic sciences, including literary and philosophical ones, were ancillary subjects only.
A madrasa is a college of Islamic law. The madrasa was an educational institution in which Islamic law (fiqh) was taught according to one or more Sunni rites: Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanafi, or Hanbali. It was supported by an endowment or charitable trust (waqf) that provided for at least one chair for one professor of law, income for other faculty or staff, scholarships for students, and funds for the maintenance of the building. Madrasas contained lodgings for the professor and some of his students. Subjects other than law were frequently taught in madrasas, and even Sufi seances were held in them, but there could be no madrasa without law as technically the major subject.
In studying an institution which is foreign and remote in point of time, as is the case of the medieval madrasa, one runs the double risk of attributing to it characteristics borrowed from one 's own institutions and one 's own times. Thus gratuitous transfers may be made from one culture to the other, and the time factor may be ignored or dismissed as being without significance. One can not therefore be too careful in attempting a comparative study of these two institutions: the madrasa and the university. But in spite of the pitfalls inherent in such a study, albeit sketchy, the results which may be obtained are well worth the risks involved. In any case, one can not avoid making comparisons when certain unwarranted statements have already been made and seem to be currently accepted without question. The most unwarranted of these statements is the one which makes of the "madrasa '' a "university ''.
Thus the university, as a form of social organization, was peculiar to medieval Europe. Later, it was exported to all parts of the world, including the Muslim East; and it has remained with us down to the present day. But back in the Middle Ages, outside of Europe, there was nothing anything quite like it anywhere.
The university is a European institution; indeed, it is the European institution par excellence. There are various reasons for this assertion. As a community of teachers and taught, accorded certain rights, such as administrative autonomy and the determination and realization of curricula (courses of study) and of the objectives of research as well as the award of publicly recognized degrees, it is a creation of medieval Europe, which was the Europe of papal Christianity...
No other European institution has spread over the entire world in the way in which the traditional form of the European university has done. The degrees awarded by European universities -- the bachelor 's degree, the licentiate, the master 's degree, and the doctorate -- have been adopted in the most diverse societies throughout the world. The four medieval faculties of artes -- variously called philosophy, letters, arts, arts and sciences, and humanities --, law, medicine, and theology have survived and have been supplemented by numerous disciplines, particularly the social sciences and technological studies, but they remain none the less at the heart of universities throughout the world.
Even the name of the universitas, which in the Middle Ages was applied to corporate bodies of the most diverse sorts and was accordingly applied to the corporate organization of teachers and students, has in the course of centuries been given a more particular focus: the university, as a universitas litterarum, has since the eighteenth century been the intellectual institution which cultivates and transmits the entire corpus of methodically studied intellectual disciplines.
No one today would dispute the fact that universities, in the sense in which the term is now generally understood, were a creation of the Middle Ages, appearing for the first time between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It is no doubt true that other civilizations, prior to, or wholly alien to, the medieval West, such as the Roman Empire, Byzantium, Islam, or China, were familiar with forms of higher education which a number of historians, for the sake of convenience, have sometimes described as universities. Yet a closer look makes it plain that the institutional reality was altogether different and, no matter what has been said on the subject, there is no real link such as would justify us in associating them with medieval universities in the West. Until there is definite proof to the contrary, these latter must be regarded as the sole source of the model which gradually spread through the whole of Europe and then to the whole world. We are therefore concerned with what is indisputably an original institution, which can only be defined in terms of a historical analysis of its emergence and its mode of operation in concrete circumstances.
In many respects, if there is any institution that Europe can most justifiably claim as one of its inventions, it is the university. As proof thereof and without wishing here to recount the whole history of the birth of universities, it will suffice to describe briefly how the invention of universities took the form of a polycentric process of specifically European origin.
Thus the university, as a form of social organization, was peculiar to medieval Europe. Later, it was exported to all parts of the world, including the Muslim East; and it has remained with us down to the present day. But back in the Middle Ages, outside of Europe, there was nothing anything quite like it anywhere.
Coordinates: 34 ° 3 ′ 52 '' N 4 ° 58 ′ 24 '' W / 34.06444 ° N 4.97333 ° W / 34.06444; - 4.97333
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when in rome soundtrack to make you feel my love | Make You Feel My Love - wikipedia
"Make You Feel My Love '' is a song written by Bob Dylan from his album Time Out of Mind (1997). It was first released commercially by Billy Joel, under the title "To Make You Feel My Love '', before Dylan 's version appeared later that same year. It has since been covered by numerous performers and has proved to be a commercial success for recording artists such as Adele, Garth Brooks, Bryan Ferry, Kelly Clarkson and Ane Brun. Two covers of the song (one by Garth Brooks and one by Trisha Yearwood) were featured on the soundtrack of the 1998 film Hope Floats. Dylan eventually released the song as a single.
Additional musicians
Billy Joel covered the song as "To Make You Feel My Love '' for his compilation album Greatest Hits Volume III (1997). It was released as the album 's first single and reached number 50 on the US Billboard Hot 100. Joel 's single pre-dated Dylan 's release of the song by one month.
Garth Brooks covered the song as "To Make You Feel My Love '' in 1998. It appeared on the soundtrack of the 1998 film Hope Floats, along with a cover version by Trisha Yearwood as the first and last tracks. It was included first as the bonus track on Fresh Horses for Garth 's first Limited Series box set and then included on all later pressings of that album. Brooks ' version resulted in a nomination at 41st Grammy Award for Best Male Country Vocal Performance and a nomination for Bob Dylan for Best Country Song.
In 2008, British singer Adele recorded "Make You Feel My Love '' for her debut studio album 19 (2008). It was released as the album 's fourth and final single on October 27, 2008, both on CD and vinyl, originally peaking at number 26. The largest sales of her recording, however, came during 2010 -- 11 when it peaked at number 4.
After the song was performed on the seventh series of The X Factor, it re-entered the UK Singles Chart at number 24. The song then surged to number four after a second performance. Following a third X Factor performance and heavy use in the Comic Relief 2010 television, it spent three more non-consecutive weeks in the top 10. In early 2011 the song returned to the top 40 again, at number 34, after it appeared in the 2011 series of Britain 's Got Talent.
Adele 's version features in the soundtrack of the 2010 romantic comedy film When in Rome. Her cover version was also featured in the compilation album for the benefit of those affected by Supertyphoon Haiyan in the Philippines entitled Songs for the Philippines. In October 2013 the song was used in the third week of Strictly Come Dancing as part of the "Love Week '' theme. In January 2013, Heart Radio listed Adele 's recording as the UK 's number one song of all time in its Hall of Fame Top 500.
At a concert at London 's O2 Arena on March 22, 2016, the day of the Brussels bombings, Adele dedicated a performance of the song to the victims of the attacks.
According to Alex Fletcher of Digital Spy, the version expresses Adele 's affection for the song, "with just piano as backing, her dreamy, passionate vocals are allowed to shine ''. According to The Guardian 's Dave Simpson, with her "hushed delivery '', Adele makes the song "her own ''.
The song 's music video features Adele singing the song in her apartment.
In other television appearances in the UK and US, the song was used in:
Brothers and sisters
In addition, Adele 's video of the song, directed by Mat Kirby, was released on music channels in late September 2008 and continues to be featured on her website.
The Adele version was used in the 2010 movie When in Rome.
Digital download (version 1)
Digital download (version 2)
CD single
19 version
19 Deluxe version
Chimes of Freedom live version
Live at the Royal Albert Hall live version
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
"Make You Feel My Love '' has also been recorded by:
Josh Kelley 's version appeared on A Cinderella Story: Original Soundtrack
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who sang frosty the snowman in the movie | Frosty the Snowman (film) - wikipedia
Frosty the Snowman is a 1969 animated Christmas television special based on the song "Frosty the Snowman ''. The program, which first aired on December 7, 1969 on CBS (where it continues to air annually), was produced for television by Rankin / Bass Productions and featured the voices of comedians Jimmy Durante as the film 's narrator (Durante 's final performance in a film) and Jackie Vernon as the title character.
Arthur Rankin, Jr. and Jules Bass wanted to give the show and its characters the look of a Christmas card, so Paul Coker, Jr., a greeting card and Mad magazine artist, was hired to do the character and background drawings. The animation was produced by Mushi Production in Japan, with then - Mushi staffer Osamu Dezaki among the animation staff.
Rankin / Bass veteran writer Romeo Muller adapted and expanded the story for television as he had done with Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer.
TV Guide ranked the special number 4 on its 10 Best Family Holiday Specials list.
On Christmas Eve, a class of disinterested children eagerly await to be released from school to play in the first snowfall of the year, a "Christmas snow. '' The teacher has hired Professor Hinkle, a purported magician, in an attempt to keep the children 's attention; his attempt at a magic trick, putting eggs into his old silk hat and pulling out his pet rabbit Hocus Pocus, only results in the eggs falling on the floor and breaking; in frustration, Hinkle throws the hat in the garbage.
Class is dismissed, and the children go to play in the snow, deciding to build a snowman. After debating and rejecting several names such as "Christopher Columbus '' and "Oatmeal, '' a girl named Karen chooses the name Frosty. Hocus Pocus comes out of the school with the hat, which lands on Frosty 's head. To everyone 's surprise, the snowman comes to life, exclaiming "Happy birthday! '' When Hinkle sees this, he demands to take the hat back as its rightful owner, disingenuously assuring the children that no snowman can come to life. Karen counters that Hinkle had thrown out the hat and it was now theirs under the principle of finders keepers. Hocus, sympathizing with the children, brings the hat back, reanimating Frosty.
After some assessment of his (limited) intelligence and celebration of his newfound life, Frosty soon senses the temperature is rising and worries about melting away. The children suggest putting him on the next train to the North Pole, where he will never melt, and they all parade into the city on the way to the train station, where Frosty has his confrontation with the traffic cop mentioned in the song 's lyrics. When Karen explains that Frosty is a newly living snowman, the traffic cop lets Frosty go, swallowing his whistle in shock.
At the train station, Frosty stows away aboard a refrigerated train car, since neither he nor the children can afford the fare for a train ticket to the North Pole. As the train is about to leave the station, Karen and Hocus decide to join Frosty for the ride to keep him company, with Karen believing that the round trip will only take a few hours and she will be home before dinner. Unbeknownst to them, Hinkle is clinging to the undercarriage of the caboose of the same train, intending to get his hat back.
As the train continues up north, Karen is becoming increasingly cold, so they jump off the train in search of something to keep her warm; Hinkle, noticing their disembarkment, himself jumps off in pursuit. At Frosty 's request, Hocus convinces some forest animals who are preparing for Christmas to build a campfire for Karen. Fearing that Karen still can not survive for long in the cold weather, Frosty asks Hocus who might be able to help them. Hocus suggests (by pantomiming) the President of the United States and the United States Marines, before suggesting Santa Claus. Frosty agrees, and promptly takes credit for the idea himself (much to Hocus ' annoyance). Hocus hops off to get Santa, but Hinkle then confronts Frosty and Karen once more and blows out Karen 's campfire. Frosty and Karen are again forced to flee, this time with Karen riding on Frosty 's back as he slides head - first down a hill (himself made of snow, Frosty is a natural born "belly whopper ''). At the bottom of the slope, Karen and Frosty discover a greenhouse filled with Christmas poinsettias. Despite Karen 's objections, Frosty steps inside the warm greenhouse with her, suggesting that he could afford to lose a little weight while she warms up. Unfortunately, an angry and vengeful Hinkle catches up to them immediately after and locks them in the greenhouse.
By the time Hocus returns with Santa Claus and opens the greenhouse door, Frosty has melted, with a devastated Karen crying over his remains, which lie in a puddle. With a gust of cold wind through the open greenhouse door, the puddle that was Frosty blows out the door and magically changes back into his snowman form. Before Santa can put the hat back on Frosty and bring him back to life, Hinkle arrives on the scene and again demands the return of his hat. He relents only when threatened with being removed from Santa 's Christmas list for the rest of his life if he put so much as one finger on the hat. Santa states that if Hinkle is truly repentant for his mean attitude and harming Frosty, and if he goes home and writes "I am really sorry for what I did to Frosty '' a hundred zillion times, he may find a gift in his stocking on Christmas morning, which makes Hinkle bid Frosty and Karen farewell and run home to repeatedly write his apologies, assuming he may get a new hat. Finally, Santa then places the magic hat back on top of Frosty 's head, and the snowman returns to life. After celebrating, Santa takes Karen home and Frosty to the North Pole, but promises that Frosty will be back next winter.
The end credits show all the characters the next Christmas marching through the town square with Frosty in the lead, singing the "Frosty the Snowman '' song. Among them is a redeemed Professor Hinkle, who is proudly wearing his new top hat. At the end of the parade, Frosty gets back into Santa 's waiting sleigh and they return to the North Pole, with Frosty proclaiming, "I 'll be back on Christmas Day! ''
© 1969 Videocraft International Limited
Released by Rhino on October 1, 2002, the entire audio portion of Frosty the Snowman is available on CD along with the entire audio portion of Santa Claus is Comin ' to Town, the Rankin / Bass special produced in 1970. This edition contains the full dialogue and song audio of both specials.
The track listing is as follows:
In the United States, CBS continues to hold the telecast rights to the original program (under license from the current copyright holder, Universal Television, and still airs it yearly with the CBS - produced sequel Frosty Returns (see below). The CBC holds broadcast rights in Canada. The special also airs on Freeform in some territories. However, CBS does not own the telecast rights to the 1976 sequel Frosty 's Winter Wonderland (that special currently airs on Freeform 's 25 Days of Christmas each year), which prompted CBS to produce its own "sequel '' of sorts, Frosty Returns (see below).
Family Home Entertainment released Frosty the Snowman on VHS as part of the Christmas Classics Series in 1989 and 1993, with multiple re-prints throughout the 1990s. It was paired with The Little Drummer Boy on LaserDisc in 1992. Upon its 1989 and 1993 releases, the special was also bundled in box sets with the other Rankin / Bass Christmas specials including Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer and Santa Claus is Comin ' to Town, the 1973 Chuck Jones holiday special, A Very Merry Cricket and the sequel Frosty Returns which aired on CBS in 1992. In 1998, Sony Wonder and Golden Books Family Entertainment released the special on VHS, and also paired it with these other Rankin / Bass Christmas specials including Cricket on the Hearth in the separate Holiday Classics Collection box sets.
The special was also released on DVD by Sony Wonder and Classic Media in 2002 and 2004, and by Genius Entertainment in 2007. Gaiam Vivendi Entertainment released it on DVD and Blu - ray on October 12, 2010, and on the DVD / Blu - ray combo pack on November 6, 2012. Most DVD releases also include Frosty Returns. On September 8, 2015, Classic Media released both the special and Santa Claus is Comin ' to Town in their 45th Anniversary Collector 's Edition on Blu - ray and DVD in addition to the 50th Anniversary release of Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer in 2014.
Frosty returned in several sequels:
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who sends the text in pretty little liars | A (Pretty Little Liars) - wikipedia
"A '' is a fictional character created in 2006 by author Sara Shepard. It is a character of both Pretty Little Liars ' books and television series, and primarily appears as a stalker and the main antagonist of the stories. "A '' is one of the main characters of the stories, appearing anonymously in the majority of the episodes and books.
The villain has already had many portrayals. Its basic occupation is to pursue and threaten the four protagonists of the stories. Thus, many identities have been revealed to be "A ''. "A '' has a specific and unhealthy way of dealing with the protagonists; it often calls them as "bitches '', "dolls '' and "liars ''. Its handling and acts of terrorism caused great psychological and emotional damage to the protagonists, even leading them to be hospitalized.
After the revelation of Mona Vanderwaal as the first and original "A '', she began receiving visits from someone, known as Red Coat, who offered her a partnership and together they built up the "A-Team ''. The team had many members but disbanded after the season three finale and Big A began working with a single ally. The identity of the second "A '' and leader of the "A-Team '' was revealed to be CeCe Drake. Five years later, a new mysterious entity arises and begins using Emojis to communicate but later baptizes themselves as "A.D. '', while the Liars refer to the anonymous figure as Uber A. Then, in the Series Finale, "A.D. '' reveals themselves to be Alex Drake, the twin sister of Spencer.
"A '' makes appearances as a figure with black leather gloves, a black hood, dark pants, and dark shoes. Throughout the seasons, the story focuses on the mystery of "A ''. However, "Big A '' also sported different disguises, including that of Red Coat, while their ally disguised themselves as The Black Widow.
Uber A also dressed up as several disguises, including those of a gardener, a maid and a surgeon. They later costume themselves with the traditional look.
Three years after the disappearance of Alison DiLaurentis, her four friends, Aria Montgomery, Spencer Hastings, Emily Fields, and Hanna Marin, each receive messages from someone calling themselves "A. '' The girls had drifted apart over the years, so they had no idea that other people were getting texts as well. Additionally, the texts were about secrets only Ali knew about. At first, the messages were simply teasing and all of the girls wonder if their missing friend was the one who sent them. Though they knew she was most likely dead, she was still the only one who knew their darkest secrets. Once Ali 's body is discovered in her old backyard, the girls are even more baffled when they continue to receive threats. At Ali 's funeral, the girls are reunited and they find out that they 've all been receiving weird messages. As the girls stand outside after the funeral ends, they all get a text saying, "I 'm still here, bitches. And I know everything. -- A ''.
From that point on, the messages take on a distinctly more threatening tone. Aria is given an ultimatum to tell her mother about her father 's affair by midnight after the Foxy event, or A will do it for her. A continues to play life - altering games with the girls, from encouraging suspicion of Spencer 's involvement in Ali 's death to outing Emily 's sexuality to her conservative mother. However, A makes a serious mistake in texting Hanna on the night of Mona 's birthday party. Instead of using the plain Blackberry she bought just for tormenting the girls, A accidentally uses his / her own phone. Hanna, who has a new phone without all of her contacts recognizes the number, compelling A to act before Hanna can reveal A 's true identity to the others. A hits Hanna with an SUV, successfully destroying Hanna 's phone and putting her into a coma that eventually leads to a temporary loss of memory. Soon after that, "A '' puts a drug in Emily 's pain cream which causes an Ulcer in the spot where she has been putting the cream. She ends up in the hospital and might not be able to swim again.
A knew that there was a very good chance Hanna would regain her memory. Hanna 's best friend, Mona Vanderwaal, informs the girls that she has also received texts from A, drawing the five closer together in trying to figure out who their tormentor is. Mona subtly encourages Spencer 's fears that her sister, Melissa, might be A as well as Ali 's killer. During Hanna 's recovery masquerade celebration, she suddenly regains her memory, revealing that Mona is A. However, she, Emily, and Aria ca n't do much about it, because Spencer and Mona are on their way to the police station. After Spencer is warned about Mona by text, she tries to escape Mona 's car, but Mona catches on rather quickly and diverts to a path in a more remote area of Rosewood. She tells Spencer everything, from seeing Ali launch a firework into Toby Cavanaugh 's treehouse and blind her friend Jenna, to finding Ali 's diary of secrets among a pile of old DiLaurentis junk the St. Germains left at the curb, discovering the girls ' secrets that only Ali knew. Her motivation was to get revenge for her friend 's blindness, even though Jenna and Ali had planned together to launch the firework. Mona did n't know this and got a scar on her stomach from the ordeal. Mona also drops the bombshell that Ian Thomas killed Ali, due to Ali 's last diary entry about giving him an ultimatum to break up with Melissa. She then offers Spencer to become A with her and tell Hanna that she must not be remembering correctly, but she refuses. The two fight at Floating Man 's Quarry and Spencer accidentally pushes Mona, who falls and has her neck caught between rocks.
As the girls move into the big red house they are shocked to receive messages from a new person claiming to be "A ''. At first, they believe it 's just a prank, especially since the first "A '' got major news time. Then the girls believe it 's Ian Thomas, who is the prime suspect of the investigation. Spencer is especially certain of this until finding Ian 's body in the woods bordering her estate and the old DiLaurentis home. The girls all get a message from "A, '' saying "He had to go. - A ''.
However, this "A '' is even more twisted than the first; Ian 's body disappears and the town is largely convinced that it was a hoax. "A '' even teases Spencer, stating, "Just because I said Ian had to go, it did n't mean he had to die. '' "A '' pretends to be Ian, using an IM screenname of USCMidfielderRoxx, a testament to his alma mater and his love for field hockey. Through this new fake identity, "A '' feeds Spencer some interesting information about her family, specifically her father 's affair with Mrs. DiLaurentis and the possibility that Ali is her half sister. "A '' proceeds to torment the girls even more: they force Spencer to focus more on her father 's secret by enabling Spencer 's surrogate mother to scam her and clear out her two million dollar trust fund. "A '' taunts Aria with pictures of her and her mother 's new love interest in compromising situations. They threaten to send these to her mother, even though Aria has tried to ward off her mother 's new boyfriend. "A '' lands Hanna in the Preserve at Addison - Stevens, a lush clinic for troubled patients. "A '' sends Emily on a trip to the Amish community in Lancaster to dig up more dirt on Officer Wilden.
Throughout the second half of the series, the second "A '' keeps up this forced information search with the girls, pushing them to find more information on Wilden and Jason DiLaurentis. "A '' even plants the idea that they killed Ali. However, when Jenna is found dead in Heartless, "A '' plants all of their texts, pictures, etc. on a random lecherous construction worker. This is one of the same workers who was involved in building the DiLaurentises ' gazebo when "Ali '' was still alive. The girls believe it is all over now, though the fact that the suspect is such a random person bothers them.
Everyone in Rosewood is shocked when the DiLaurentises introduce the existence of a third child, Courtney DiLaurentis. She is the twin of Alison and was kept in various clinics because she was "ill ''. However, "Courtney '' is actually Alison DiLaurentis herself. She reveals her true identity to each of the girls, hoping to gain their friendship and telling them she never died the night of the sleepover. She claims that Courtney must have gotten out of the house and ran into the construction worker, who killed her. Though the girls believe her and are glad to have their friend back, Aria is the most suspicious of her. It was recently discovered that Courtney liked to pretend to be Ali and she was n't completely buying her story. Additionally, Wilden and Melissa are also suspicious of "Courtney ''. Melissa knew about the twins since high school, as their brother Jason confided in her. He told her they hated each other, but Spencer tells her about "Courtney 's '' statements that she and Ali shared everything together. ''
Ali 's time is running out, for besides the few people suspicious of her, the police start to say that the construction worker has an alibi and might not be guilty. Her secret is further endangered when Aria finds and sends in a photo of a reflection of someone spying on the girls during the sleepover. The reflection is too blurry, but it is clearly a female. Ali takes Mona 's idea and convinces Spencer that Melissa is the culprit. Meanwhile, she kidnaps Melissa - who has just figured out the truth - and keeps her in her family 's Poconos home. She stuffs Melissa in a closet with Ian 's corpse.
On the night of the school 's Valentine dance, Ali convinces the girls to hang out with her at the Poconos home. They ditch the party and get wasted at her home. She asks them if she could reenact the night of the sleepover and hypnotize them. Everyone reluctantly agrees, and minutes later they wake up to find Ali gone and the door of the room locked. A letter is slid underneath, informing the girls of the horrible truth: The Alison that they had been friends with had been Courtney all along and the real Ali killed her.
Courtney was mentally unsound and wanted to be Ali so badly that she tried to drown her when they were children. One day, when she was home from the mental institute, Courtney stole Ali 's ring and imitated her when she saw Spencer and the others sneaking into their backyard. Ali was sent to the new mental institute, the Preserve, in Courtney 's place, and was forced to take her sister 's messed up life. On the night of the sleepover, she spied on the girls, followed Courtney after her fight with Spencer, and killed her in revenge for taking her perfect life. She hates the girls for ruining her life and tries to kill them too by boarding up the entire home and setting it on fire. The girls, including Melissa, manage to escape, but no one knows whether Ali is alive. It 's hinted that she might be, as Emily hears a faint giggle in the distance as she visits Courtney 's grave in the evening.
By the end of Crushed, the Liars know that the Second "A '', Alison, has had an accomplice the whole time, and that this accomplice is the Third "A ''. They believe that Alison did indeed survive the fire in the Poconos house, and thus that the Second and Third "A '' are currently operating together to bring them down (and eventually kill them). The helper later is revealed to be Nick Maxwell, Alison 's boyfriend when she was hospitalized. Nick was caught by the police when he and Alison planned to kill the Liars via poisoning. However, months later, the Liars visit Nick in the prison in order to discover some clues about Alison 's whereabouts, and he gives them some information.
Original A was the first "A '' and revealed to be Mona Vanderwaal. Mona began torturing Alison by sending her gifts, threats and soon attacking her while wearing a zombie costume. "A '' continued to mess with Ali and her mother Jessica DiLaurentis, whom she believed it to be Spencer Hastings. After Alison 's disappearance, "A '' went away for a year but after the corpse of Bethany Young (believed to be Alison at the time) was found, she reemerged. "A '' began sending the Liars messages about things only Alison knew about them and soon even began messing with their parents. Doctor Anne Sullivan had previously dealt with the person behind the hoodie and when "A '' trashed her office she immediately recognized the person. She almost exposes her identity to the Liars but "A '' kidnaps her and went as far as to threaten her son 's life. But the Liars are still close to figuring it out and during the second half of season two they manage to get a hold of "A 's '' phone. They hatch a plan to catch her with this and it works. They find out that "A '' had a lair at the Lost woods resort and Spencer and Mona ("A 's '' newest victim) head over there and find a room full of pictures of Alison and the girls along with a sketch of "A 's '' costume to the ball, The Black Swan. However, Spencer begins to notice other clues and soon realizes "A '' is right there with her. She turns around to see Mona in a black hoodie, who reveals herself as "A ''. She kidnaps Spencer and gives her an opportunity to join the "A '' team but Spencer declines and the two get into a fight, where Mona is pushed off of a cliff. Though Mona survives, she is sent to Radley Sanitarium for medical assistance. While in the psychiatric hospital, Mona takes up a partnership suggested by the then unknown CeCe Drake that starts off the second game. After this, Mona became another henchmen in the "A '' hierarchy, obeying the orders of CeCe, whom she knew as Red Coat. Mona was kicked off of the A-Team in the season three finale. However, Mona joins the new "A.D. '' team in Season 7, after "A.D. '' sends Wren to kill her and she offers to help instead. She helps them kidnap Spencer and wears a Melissa mask, but ultimately turns on them and brings the Liars to them, as well as a cop. However, this turns out to be a ruse and the "cop '' is actually Mona 's French boyfriend, who helps her take Mary and Alex (the two remaining members) to France to live in her own personal Dollhouse. Mona is the final "A '' of the series, being the "winner '' of the game.
Big A was the person who took over the "A '' game from Mona Vanderwaal after she was admitted to Radley Sanitarium and revealed to be CeCe Drake. She had visited Mona in Radley and used her to get information about the Liars before taking over the game herself and had used Mona, Toby and Spencer to do her dirty work and sometimes went under the Red Coat disguise. Big A often hid out at a lair situated in Room A at an apartment building at Mayflower Hill and a mobile RV which was stolen but Toby gave it back to "A '' in exchange for information about his mother 's death. However, the Team was disbanded in the third - season finale and CeCe acted on her own with a few minions and an ally, who is Sara Harvey. It is revealed that Charlotte had been hiding out in the basement of the DiLaurentis house and drilled holes through the floor to spy on the family in her Red Coat disguise and shared the identity with Alison. Her disguise as Red Coat was exposed in the fourth season mid finale when Emily was trapped on a saw at Ravenswood and later got into a fight with Aria who discovered her identity and Charlotte later fell off a platform and escaped. In "A is for Answers '' the Liars are under attack by "A '' who shoots Ezra Fitz on the rooftop. However, in the fifth - season premiere, the shooter is revealed to be Shana Fring who attempted to kill Alison but was later shoved off a stage by Aria and died from the impact. After all of this, Charlotte fled to France under the Vivian Darkbloom identity to escape custody for Wilden 's death but returned. In the series 's 100 episode, Charlotte placed a bomb in the Cavanaugh house which detonated, signalling her return to Rosewood. In season five, CeCe breaks into the Vanderwaal home and kidnaps Mona just as she is about to tell the Liars that Alison is "A '' and covers up her kidnapping as a homicide. She then brings Mona to the Dollhouse and tortures her and forces her to dress up and act like Alison. Just as the Liars are being brought to jail, CeCe kidnaps them and tortures them inside the Dollhouse. Inside, the Liars discover that Big "A '' is named Charles DiLaurentis. CeCe / Charlotte reveals herself as "A '' and tells her story; saying that she is transgender, was formerly known as Charles DiLaurentis, and became ' A ' because the Liars were happy that Alison was gone. She worked with Sara Harvey, who was the Black Widow and a decoy Red Coat, and was also responsible for the "death '' of Alison and the death of Wilden, and after telling her story, she attempts suicide by jumping off Radley but is stopped. She is admitted to Welby State and her reign as "A '' finally ends and stays in the psychiatric hospital for five years. When she is released, Charlotte is murdered by Mona Vanderwaal and her death causes the birth of "A.D. '', the new Uber A. After her death, it is revealed that Noel Kahn was also working for Charlotte. It is also revealed that her birth mother is Jessica 's twin, Mary Drake, and her birth father is Ted Wilson, while Spencer is her sister.
Uber A also known as A.D. is the third major "A '' to have tormented the Liars. In the show 's series finale, Uber A 's identity is revealed to be Alex Drake, Spencer 's twin sister who was put up for adoption at birth. She desperately craves vengeance over the tragic passing of Charlotte DiLaurentis, who was her half - sister, and is trying to seek out the person responsible. Unlike Mona or Charlotte, Alex does not use any nicknames at first but instead signs their messages with emojis, which differentiates her from the A-Team. This causes Caleb to nickname her Amoji. However, in the sixth - season finale, she begins using the alias "A.D. '' and kidnaps Hanna, whom she believes is accountable for her sister 's homicide. Hanna manages to escape Uber A 's clutches and Alex goes after Alison, who the Liars suggested as guilty for her own cousin 's murder. Uber A eventually finds out that Alison is innocent after searching her jacket. While Uber A does work on their own, she also works through a new "A-Team '' of helpers, known to consist of Jenna Marshall, Sydney Driscoll, and Aria Montgomery, who are assisting them in completing the endgame. The series finale explains that Alex Drake was put up for adoption in exchange for a sum of money (for Mary), but then left at an orphanage by her adopted parents who were concerned for their image. She ran away from the orphanage at ten years old and eventually started working in a bar in London, where Wren Kingston mistook her for Spencer, revealing the existence of Alex 's twin and Charlotte. Wren introduces Charlotte and Alex in an airport (just after Charlotte met Archer Dunhill) and they immediately connect, becoming very close in a short amount of time. After Charlotte is released from Welby, she tells Alex that she wishes to return to Rosewood and resume the game, but Alex says she should n't go unless she gets to come too, since she wants to meet Spencer. Charlotte says no and describes the Hastings as "toxic people '' before leaving for Rosewood, where she was murdered by Mona. Alex is enraged and forces Wren to shoot her so that she looks exactly like Spencer and can successfully impersonate her. She then goes to Rosewood and picks up the game as "Uber A ''. Alex has made several appearances where she impersonates Spencer, including, but not limited to: The run in with Ezra at the airport where she introduced Wren, the kiss between "Spencer '' and Toby just before the latter planned to leave Rosewood with Yvonne, and Hanna 's "dream '' where she "hallucinated '' Spencer while A.D held her hostage. The latter was done so that Alex could find out whether Hanna was telling the truth about killing Charlotte.
The A-Team is a group of anonymous characters that worked together as "A ''. The team would work under the orders of the "A '' in charge, who has been Mona Vanderwaal, the original leader and founder and CeCe Drake, the second leader. Five years later, Alex Drake, also known as Uber A, assembles a team of their own. This team continues using the same name, though is also referred to as the "A.D. - Team ''.
Sara was the right - hand woman to Charlotte and also revealed as an A-Team member halfway throughout the sixth season. Sara is revealed as a Red Coat and the Black Widow, hired to pose as a decoy whenever Charlotte could n't sport the Red Coat disguise. She then became Charlotte 's friend and ally in the "A '' game and assisted her in most of her schemes. Sara was allegedly diagnosed with Stockholm Syndrome following Charlotte 's arrest, but later discloses to Alison that she lied under oath, also admitting that she and Charlotte were in fact close friends and she felt as though they were sisters. Later, Sara was possibly enlisted by "A.D. '' to work with them. However, Sara was killed by Noel Kahn after she tried to reveal more than she should to Emily.
Sydney is Uber A 's helper for a brief while. She is first seen communicating with them through text messages, when she makes a donation under their name at the Vogel Vision Institute. When Aria and Emily confront her, Driscoll claims that she is simply representing a client who prefers to remain anonymous. However, she returns in the following episode and reveals herself to be "A.D. ''. She offers Aria the chance to join their team, but Aria realizes that Sydney is communicating with someone through an ear piece, revealing that she 's just a minion. Aria asks her why she would join their tormentor and Driscoll replies that she wants to be part of the "winning team ''. However, Uber A, who reveals herself as Spencer 's twin sister Alex Drake, reveals in the series finale that Sydney was n't involved in the Blind School shooting and joined the A-Team because Alex found out she had been stealing from a bank and she fit the hoodie.
Toby was recruited by Mona to join the A-Team when he got a job in Bucks County. His participation in the team was revealed in the mid-season finale of the third season. He worked hand in hand with Mona and did most of the dirty work for the team, like running down Lucas and attacking Hanna. However, like Mona, he did n't know the identity of Red Coat. Spencer finds out about his betrayal and goes off the deep end, especially after discovering his corpse. However, it is revealed that he is alive and well, with the corpse being a trick by Mona and Red Coat that he says he did n't know about until after. He is also revealed to be a double agent and gets kicked off the team.
Spencer joined the A-Team briefly near the ending of the third season after having been invited by Mona at the Radley while hospitalized. Initially, Spencer was extremely determined to be part of the team. However, she later unfolds the truth behind the disappearance of Toby and became a double agent as well. Likewise Toby, she got kicked off from the team. She is the "A '' who kidnapped Malcolm, causing a break up between Ezra and Aria.
Lucas was the personal assistant to Mona. He was blackmailed by Mona and the A-Team into sending texts and doing their dirty work. Lucas claims his blackmail began after Mona discovered he was selling test answers, however Mona later discloses that Lucas was the "A '' who gave Emily a massage back in the second season while Mona was off riding with Hanna. During the seventh - season episode "Hold Your Piece '', Pastor Ted Wilson reveals to Hanna that he used to run a summer camp for troubled boys, and Charlotte was a camper there prior to her sex change. Wilson is disheartened when describing that he interacted with his offspring without awareness they were related. Ted then showcases Hanna a picture of himself back when he worked at the camp, chaperoning Charles and Lucas, whom he described as his son 's "only friend ''.
Melissa was blackmailed by Mona into wearing the Black Swan disguise to the Masquerade Ball in order to distract Jenna. Mona threatened to reveal her fake pregnancy if she did n't obey her orders. Later, Melissa got onto the Halloween Train dressed as the Queen of Hearts and drugged Aria. Wilden then attempted to push her off of the train in a box with Garrett 's dead body. It is implied that she was once again blackmailed. It is implied in "A Dark Ali '' that Melissa is once again working for "A '', as she is seen handing a recording (presumed stolen by "A '') to a man resembling Cyrus Petrillo and later implies to Spencer that "A '' has something in store for Ali and the Liars.
Wilden was also part of the team as he was the Queens of Hearts responsible for trying to kill Spencer. He also murdered Garrett Reynolds fearing he 'd expose him as a crooked cop and placed his corpse in a box beside a fainted Aria. Wilden 's reasoning for helping the team is unknown but implied to be blackmail.
Jenna is working anonymously for "A.D. '' and also with Archer Dunhill in someway. She remains around Rosewood in "Along Comes Mary '' and befriends Sara Harvey. Meanwhile, Aria Montgomery and Emily Fields discover that Jenna was on Archer 's payroll for unknown reasons. On the episode 's closing scene, Marshall and Sara are having drinks at The Radley when an unknown figure approaches the two and reveals themselves to be Noel Kahn, who proceeds to join the duo. When confronted by Emily in regards to her involvement with Archer during "Wanted: Dead or Alive '', Jenna admits she befriended Charlotte DiLaurentis after reading about her stay at Welby and reached out. In a flashback, Charlotte enlists Jenna 's help to track down the whereabouts of her birth mother and come up with an alias for Archer. The pseudonym "Elliott Rollins '' was later created so Archer could deliberately meet Alison and take advantage of her good intentions to benefit Charlotte 's eventual release from the psychiatric hospital. In "The DArkest Knight '' all of the Liars get a text message, ordering them to head over to 1465, Elm Street. After being lured to an abandoned school for blind students, they 're held hostage by Noel and Jenna, with Marshall tracking them down at gunpoint. During the cat - and - mouse chase, Jenna takes aim at the Liars only to backfire, until a second gunshot is heard and it injures Spencer. As Marshall prepares to finish her off, Mary Drake suddenly emerges from behind and knocks her out. While Drake attempts to help Spencer, an unknown figure drags Jenna away from the building. On the closing scene of the episode, the anonymous entity places her in the back of a van, while she questions them if they were responsible for the gunshot that hit Spencer. As the mysterious figure proceeds to rip off an old man 's mask and toss it over to Jenna 's side, Marshall feels it up and realizes that A.D. was the one who rescued her. At the end of "Playtime '', Jenna is seated in A.D. 's lair, sipping tea. She thanks the unidentified individual for the drink and reminds them of their promise to update her on the "game ''. Dressed in a nurse 's uniform, A.D. drops a binder on Marshall 's lap with pages of information written in braille. After Jenna reads a paragraph, she mutters the word "endgame '' and grins in delight. During "These Boots Were Made for Stalking '', Jenna walks into the police station in order to come clean about her actions and interrupts a conversation between Spencer and detective Marco Furey. Marshall reports that she kept a low profile after the events that took place at the abandoned school for blind students to avoid being harmed by Noel. According to Jenna, Noel was accountable for Sara Harvey 's homicide and she feared to be his ensuing victim. Kahn recruited Jenna with the assertion that Charlotte left enough money in her will to afford Marshall another eye surgery. Nevertheless, Jenna suspected Noel of stealthily plotting to steal the cash all to himself since his parents had financially cut him off. In an attempt to spare her life, Marshall brought a gun to the deserted sight school as an act of self - defense and pretended to hold a grudge against the Liars. After Jenna describes her side of the story, Furey orders one of his associates to escort Marshall to a conference room so she can make an official statement. As Jenna exits the room, Spencer claims that she 's an unreliable narrator. However, Furey informs Spencer that the authorities do n't have enough evidence against Marshall because the bullet that injured Spencer did n't match the gun found at the location. Later in the episode, Caleb confronts Jenna stating that the authorities were already detecting holes in her allegations. However, Marshall assures Caleb they wo n't be able to prosecute her since Noel was the only person who could contradict her statement. In the series finale, Spencer 's twin, Alex Drake, is revealed to be "A.D. ''. She reveals that Jenna was looking for her and recruited Noel to help. However, Jenna was desperate for another chance to see and offered to help her in the game.
Noel Kahn returned to Rosewood to team up with Jenna Marshall and Sara Harvey. Kahn served as one of Charlotte 's former minions and worked for her at the Dollhouse, having been responsible for placing blood all over Spencer Hastings to convince she had hurt someone. Noel became the prime suspect for Uber A, particularly after Alison reveals that he pushed a girl down a flight of stairs when he was drunk during a UPenn frat party. Hanna abducts him at the end of "The Wrath of Kahn '' in an attempt to obtain a video confession that proves he 's their tormentor. In the following episode "The DArkest Knight '', she instead ends up slashing his leg with a knife in order to test his DNA and see if it matches Mary Drake 's. The results later come back negative and Kahn ends up escaping. Noel and Jenna later lure the Liars to an abandoned school for blind students so they could be held hostage and eventually murdered. During a cat - and - mouse chase, Kahn ends up stumbling upon an axe that decapitates his head after failing to fight Emily and Hanna. In the following episode, "Playtime '', Detective Marco Furey informs Spencer that Jenna and Noel frequently visited Archer Dunhill at Welby. During "These Boots Were Made for Stalking '', Jenna walks into the police station in order to come clean about her actions and interrupts a conversation between Spencer and detective Marco Furey. Marshall reports that she kept a low profile after the events that took place at the abandoned school for blind students to avoid being harmed by Noel. According to Jenna, Noel was accountable for Sara Harvey 's homicide and she feared to be his ensuing victim. Kahn recruited Jenna with the assertion that Charlotte left enough money in her will to afford Marshall another eye surgery. Nevertheless, Jenna suspected Noel of stealthily plotting to steal the cash all to himself since his parents had financially cut him off. In an attempt to spare her life, Marshall brought a gun to the deserted sight school as an act of self - defense and pretended to hold a grudge against the Liars. However, when Caleb later confronts Jenna about the authorities detecting holes in her allegations, she informs him that the only person who could contradict her side of the story was Noel.
Aria is "A.D. 's '' helper. Aria is given the offer to join the team in "Power Play ''. She accepts in the following episode and begins supplying information to Uber A. After the Liars discover Lucas ' graphic novel, Aria is sent by Uber A to retrieve it. Once she delivers it, she is given an "A '' hoodie in return. She breaks into Alison 's house sporting the disguise and trashes the nursery for her baby. In the next episode, Aria is sent by "A.D. '' to deliver a "gift '' to the Hastings family. She connects to their Bluetooth and leaves a burner phone there to play a video recording of Peter and Mary discussing Jessica 's murder. She later gets back into her "A '' disguise and breaks into Alison 's house to put the puzzle piece onto the and retrieve her file. "A.D. '' contacts Aria again and gives her a phone to communicate on. "A.D. '' asks Aria to meet them and to wear the uniform to do so. Mona overhears the call and tells the Liars of Aria 's involvement with the A-Team. Aria gets into her "A '' hoodie and goes to meet "A.D. '', only to be confronted by the Liars. She then officially defects from the team and rejoins the Liars.
Mary joins the A.D. - Team after the time jump, when Alex helps break her out of prison and then helps her with kidnapping Spencer and keeping her locked away in their bunker. When Alex tries to kill Spencer, Mary tries to convince her to just keep her locked up, but Alex refuses and punches her to keep her from interfering. Mary and Alex are then kidnapped by Mona and kept as her dolls in her own personal dollhouse.
Wren is one of the helpers to Alex. He shoots her so that she will have the same scar as Spencer and then later comes to Welby to kill her as "A.D. '' for Alex, only stopping once Mona says she can help get Mary out. Alex kills Wren so that she does n't have to break up with him in order to get her endgame wishes. Despite Wren being the only person to know almost everything about Alex 's game, he does n't participate much during the actual game, only doing a few things for Alex.
Caleb used the identity of "A '' to text Hanna in Season 3, in order to trick her into meeting him. He sent her the text "The Apple Rose Grille at closing time. Go alone or Caleb pays. - A '' to find out information from her about the new "A '' torturing them.
Shana pretended to be "A '' to attack the Liars in New York. She donned a black hoodie and attacked them at the coffee shop, only to end up shooting Ezra instead, who had found out her identity. In the following episode, she continued to hunt down the Liars, and sent a group of black hoodies to trick them. The black hoodies used the alias "A '' during their taunting of the Liars. Shana revealed herself to the girls and revealed that she wanted justice for Jenna. The Liars falsely believed that Shana was Big A.
During the TV series, the antagonists used various disguises at parties and events, in order to watch over the girls. They are:
Red Coat is a disguise used by two members of the A-Team. CeCe Drake took on the disguise to lead the A-Team and go out in public, while she hired Sara Harvey to act as a decoy whenever she could n't sport the disguise in her assignments.
The Black Widow is a previously anonymous character who attended detective Darren Wilden 's funeral in "' A ' Is for A-l-i-v-e ''. The disguise is all black clothing, with her face concealed by a black veil. The Black Widow is shown to be a part of the A-Team, when she is seen inside the "A '' R.V. placing a Mona doll with the rest of the "A '' doll collection. She then lifts up her veil to reveal a burned Ali mask underneath, revealing that she was the Red Coat at the Lodge. In the fifth season, the disguise is seen inside one of "A '' 's lairs. In "Game Over, Charles '', it is revealed that Sara Harvey was the Black Widow. Charlotte sent her to Wilden 's funeral to make sure he was deceased. In "Of Late I Think of Rosewood '', Sara shows up to Charlotte 's funeral in a variation of the disguise, though this time revealing her face.
In a nightmare that Alison had during "How the ' A ' Stole Christmas '', her mom, Jessica DiLaurentis shows up as the Black Widow.
The Queen of Hearts is a previously anonymous character that made an appearance during the third season 's Halloween special, "This Is a Dark Ride ''. In the fourth season 's premiere, it is revealed that there were actually two of them in the Halloween train, Melissa Hastings and Darren Wilden. Wilden attacked Spencer and fought Paige, while Melissa drugged Aria and took her body. Wilden also murdered Garrett Reynolds fearing he 'd expose his corrupt activities and Melissa later admits to Spencer that she was blackmailed into doing his bidding. However, in Mona 's footage, evidence shows that Wilden tried to abandon the train and Melissa is heard ordering him to stay. Wilden would later place a fainted Aria in a box beside Garrett 's corpse and then gathered with Melissa in an attempt to push them off the train. They fled the scene once Aria regained her consciousness and stabbed Wilden.
The Black Swan is a previously anonymous character that made an appearance during the Masquerade Ball. Melissa was revealed to be the person behind the disguise in "Birds of a Feather ''. She claimed that "A '' (Mona) threatened her, stating that her false pregnancy would 've been exposed if she did not distract Jenna during the event. The disguise is inspired by Odile from Swan Lake.
Of course, the black hoodie has been the most significant disguise over the years and probably the most well known. Almost every single "A '' has worn the signature black hoodie and it will be one of the biggest things for as long as Pretty Little Liars will be remembered. The disguise has been used by Mona, Charlotte, Toby, Spencer, Lucas, Sydney, Aria, Wren, and Alex.
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who is called an apostate what is an apostate | Apostasy - wikipedia
Apostasy (/ əˈpɒstəsi /; Greek: ἀποστασία apostasia, "a defection or revolt '') is the formal disaffiliation from, or abandonment or renunciation of a religion by a person. It can also be defined within the broader context of embracing an opinion contrary to one 's previous beliefs. One who undertakes apostasy is known as an apostate. Undertaking apostasy is called apostatizing (or apostasizing -- also spelled apostacizing). The term apostasy is used by sociologists to mean renunciation and criticism of, or opposition to, a person 's former religion, in a technical sense and without pejorative connotation.
The term is occasionally also used metaphorically to refer to renunciation of a non-religious belief or cause, such as a political party, brain trust, or a sports team.
Apostasy is generally not a self - definition: few former believers call themselves apostates because of the negative connotation of the term.
Many religious groups and some states punish apostates; this may be the official policy of the religious group or may simply be the voluntary action of its members. Such punishment may include shunning, excommunication, verbal abuse, physical violence, or even execution. Examples of punishment by death for apostates can be seen under the Sharia law found in certain Islamic countries. As of 2014, about a quarter of the world 's countries and territories (26 %) had anti-blasphemy laws or policies, of which 13 nations, all Muslim majority, have death penalty for apostasy.
The American sociologist Lewis A. Coser (following the German philosopher and sociologist Max Scheler) defines an apostate as not just a person who experienced a dramatic change in conviction but "a man who, even in his new state of belief, is spiritually living not primarily in the content of that faith, in the pursuit of goals appropriate to it, but only in the struggle against the old faith and for the sake of its negation. ''
The American sociologist David G. Bromley defined the apostate role as follows and distinguished it from the defector and whistleblower roles.
Stuart A. Wright, an American sociologist and author, asserts that apostasy is a unique phenomenon and a distinct type of religious defection in which the apostate is a defector "who is aligned with an oppositional coalition in an effort to broaden the dispute, and embraces public claims - making activities to attack his or her former group. ''
The United Nations Commission on Human Rights, considers the recanting of a person 's religion a human right legally protected by the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights:
The Committee observes that the freedom to ' have or to adopt ' a religion or belief necessarily entails the freedom to choose a religion or belief, including the right to replace one 's current religion or belief with another or to adopt atheistic views... Article 18.2 bars coercion that would impair the right to have or adopt a religion or belief, including the use of threat of physical force or penal sanctions to compel believers or non-believers to adhere to their religious beliefs and congregations, to recant their religion or belief or to convert.
As early as the 3rd century AD, apostasy against the Zoroastrian faith in the Sasanian Empire was criminalized. The high priest, Kidir, instigated pogroms against Jews, Christians, Buddhists, and others in effort to solidify the hold of the state religion.
As the Roman Empire adopted Christianity as its state religion, apostasy became formally criminalized in the Theodosian Code, followed by the Corpus Juris Civilis (the Justinian Code). The Justinian Code went on to form the basis of law in most of Western Europe during the Middle Ages and so apostasy was similarly persecuted to varying degrees in Europe throughout this period and into the early modern period. Eastern Europe similarly inherited many of its legal traditions regarding apostasy from the Romans, but not from the Justinian Code.
With the rise of Islam came a relative religious tolerance in the Middle Eastern regions. Nevertheless, as the Middle Ages progressed, the successive Islamic caliphates began to enforce their own laws against apostasy, often modeled on those of the Romans and the Europeans.
Historically, apostasy was considered a criminal offense in many societies, commonly likened with the crimes of treason, desertion, or mutiny. For instance, European converts from Christianity to Islam who sought refuge in the Barbary States or in the Ottoman Empire were termed "renegades '' in the history of that region.
As of 2016, sixteen Muslim countries criminalize public apostasy, and their apostasy laws only concern apostasy from Islam, citing Islamic law as justification. No country in the Americas or Europe had any law forbidding the renunciation of a religious belief or restricting the freedom to choose one 's religion.
The following countries have criminal statutes that forbid apostasy or blasphemy:
(Note that apostasy from other religions to Islam is legal in all countries indicated below)
From 1985 to 2006, the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom listed a total of four cases of execution for apostasy in the Muslim world: one in Sudan in 1985; two in Iran, in 1989 and 1998; and one in Saudi Arabia in 1992.
Both marginal and apostate Baha'is have existed in the Baha'i community who are known as nāqeżīn.
Muslims often regard adherents of the Bahá'í faith as apostates from Islam, and there have been cases in some Muslim countries where Baha'is have been harassed and persecuted.
The Christian understanding of apostasy is "a willful falling away from, or rebellion against, Christian truth. Apostasy is the rejection of Christ by one who has been a Christian... '', though certain Protestants believe that biblically this is impossible (' once saved, forever saved '). "Apostasy is the antonym of conversion; it is deconversion. '' B.J. Oropeza states that apostasy is a "phenomenon that occurs when a religious follower or group of followers turn away from or otherwise repudiate the central beliefs and practices they once embraced in a respective religious community. '' The Ancient Greek noun ἀποστασία apostasia ("rebellion, abandonment, state of apostasy, defection '') is found only twice in the New Testament (Acts 21: 21; 2 Thessalonians 2: 3). However, "the concept of apostasy is found throughout Scripture. '' The Dictionary of Biblical Imagery states that "There are at least four distinct images in Scripture of the concept of apostasy. All connote an intentional defection from the faith. '' These images are: Rebellion; Turning Away; Falling Away; Adultery.
Speaking with specific regard to apostasy in Christianity, Michael Fink writes:
Apostasy is certainly a biblical concept, but the implications of the teaching have been hotly debated. The debate has centered on the issue of apostasy and salvation. Based on the concept of God 's sovereign grace, some hold that, though true believers may stray, they never totally fall away. Others affirm that any who fall away were never really saved. Though they may have "believed '' for a while, they never experienced regeneration. Still others argue that the biblical warnings against apostasy are real and that believers maintain the freedom, at least potentially, to reject God 's salvation.
In the recent past, in the Roman Catholic Church the word was also applied to the renunciation of monastic vows (apostasis a monachatu), and to the abandonment of the clerical profession for the life of the world (apostasis a clericatu) without necessarily amounting to a rejection of Christianity.
Jehovah 's Witness publications define apostasy as the abandonment of the worship and service of God, constituting rebellion against God. They apply the term to a range of conduct, including open dissent with the religion 's doctrines, celebration of "false religious holidays '' (including Christmas and Easter), and participation in activities and worship of other religions. Members of the religion who are accused of apostasy are typically required to appear before a congregational judicial committee, by which they may be "disfellowshipped '' -- the most severe of the religion 's disciplinary procedures that involves expulsion from the religion and shunning by all congregants, including immediate family members not living in the same home. Baptized individuals who leave the organization because they disagree with the religion 's teachings are also regarded as apostates and are shunned.
Watch Tower Society literature describes apostates as "mentally diseased '' individuals who can "infect others with their disloyal teachings ''. Former members who are defined as apostates are said to have become part of the antichrist and are regarded as more reprehensible than non-Witnesses.
Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (commonly called the Mormons) are considered by church leadership to engage in apostasy when they publicly teach or espouse opinions and doctrines contrary to the teachings of the church. Apostasy is also assumed in cases of a member engaging in activities forbidden by the church 's teachings, such as adultery or homosexual relations. In such circumstances the church will frequently subject the non-conforming member to a disciplinary council which may result in disfellowshipment (a temporary loss of church participation privileges) or excommunication (a semi-permanent loss of church membership). The nature of the disciplinary council varies with the member 's standing within the church as men 's cases are often heard by a much larger group than women 's.
Hinduism grants absolute freedom for an individual to leave or choose his or her faith on the Path to God. Hindus believe all sincere faiths ultimately lead to the same God. However, according to Mahabharata Santi Parva Sections XXXIV -- XXXV, abandonment of Hinduism and adopting another creed is frowned upon.
However, if a Hindu embraces a Dharma (duty) or a Varna other than the one he / she was already believed in, it is a sin according to Hinduism. An example for apostasy in Hinduism is the King Ravana. Ravana was born as a Brahmin but in his later life chose to be a Kshatriya. Because he did not follow his Dharma, he had committed a sin according to Hinduism. This is so because according to Lord Shiva, devotees should not leave their Varna for material pleasures. King Ravana later lost all of his wealth, his powers, became blind and was considered evil. Criticizing, forgetting and opposing a Veda is also a sin in Hinduism according to Manusmriti verse 11.56.
There is no concept of heresy or apostasy in Buddhism, and people are free to leave Buddhism and renounce their beliefs in Buddhism without any consequence.
In Islamic literature, apostasy is called irtidād or ridda; an apostate is called murtadd, which literally means ' one who turns back ' from Islam. Someone born to a Muslim parent, or who has previously converted to Islam, becomes a murtadd if he or she verbally denies any principle of belief prescribed by Quran or a Hadith, deviates from approved Islamic belief (ilhad), or if he or she commits an action such as treating a copy of the Qurʾan with disrespect. A person born to a Muslim parent who later rejects Islam is called a murtad fitri, and a person who converted to Islam and later rejects the religion is called a murtad milli.
There are multiple verses in Quran that condemn apostasy, but none which prescribe any punishments for apostasy and multiple Hadiths include statements that support the death penalty for apostasy. The majority of modern Ulama have come to the conclusion that despite the Quran suggesting that an apostate can not be punished for apostasy, that the select Hadith which do support the death for apostasy override the Quranic verses which suggest otherwise.
The concept and punishment of Apostasy has been extensively covered in Islamic literature since the 7th century. A person is considered apostate if he or she converts from Islam to another religion. A person is an apostate even if he or she believes in most of Islam, but verbally or in writing denies of one or more principles or precepts of Islam. Similarly, a Muslim who doubts the existence of Allah, makes offerings to and worships an idol or stupa or any image of God, confesses a belief in rebirth or incarnation of God, disrespects Quran or Islam 's Prophets are all individually sufficient evidence of apostasy.
Many Muslims consider the Islamic law on apostasy and the punishment one of the immutable laws under Islam. It is a hudud crime, which means it is a crime against God, and the punishment has been fixed by God. The punishment for apostasy includes state enforced annulment of his or her marriage, seizure of the person 's children and property with automatic assignment to guardians and heirs, and death for the apostate.
According to some scholars, if a Muslim consciously and without coercion declares their rejection of Islam and does not change their mind after the time allocated by a judge for research, then the penalty for male apostates is death, and for females life imprisonment.
According to the Ahmadiyya Muslim sect, there is no punishment for apostasy, neither in the Quran nor as taught by Muhammad. This position of the Ahmadiyya Muslim sect is not widely accepted by clerics in other sects of Islam, and the Ahmadiyya sect of Islam acknowledges that major sects have a different interpretation and definition of apostasy in Islam. Ulama of major sects of Islam consider the Ahmadi Muslim sect as kafirs (infidels) and apostates.
Today, apostasy is a crime in 16 out 49 Muslim majority countries; in other Muslim nations such as Morocco, apostasy is not legal but proselytizing towards Muslims is illegal. It is subject in some countries, such as Iran and Saudi Arabia, to the death penalty, although executions for apostasy are rare. Apostasy is legal in secular Muslim countries such as Turkey. In numerous Islamic majority countries, many individuals have been arrested and punished for the crime of apostasy without any associated capital crimes. In a 2013 report based on an international survey of religious attitudes, more than 50 % of the Muslim population in 6 Islamic countries supported the death penalty for any Muslim who leaves Islam (apostasy). A similar survey of the Muslim population in the United Kingdom, in 2007, found nearly a third of 16 to 24 - year - old faithfuls believed that Muslims who convert to another religion should be executed, while less than a fifth of those over 55 believed the same.
Muslim historians recognize 632 AD as the year when the first regional apostasy from Islam emerged, immediately after the death of Muhammed. The civil wars that followed are now called Riddah wars (Wars of Islamic Apostasy), with the massacre at Battle of Karbala holding a special place for Shia Muslims.
The term apostasy is derived from Ancient Greek ἀποστασία from ἀποστάτης, meaning "political rebel, '' as applied to rebellion against God, its law and the faith of Israel (in Hebrew מרד) in the Hebrew Bible. Other expressions for apostate as used by rabbinical scholars are mumar (מומר, literally "the one that is changed '') and poshea yisrael (פושע ישראל, literally, "transgressor of Israel ''), or simply kofer (כופר, literally "denier '' and heretic).
The Torah states:
If your brother, the son of your mother, your son or your daughter, the wife of your bosom, or your friend who is as your own soul, secretly entices you, saying, ' Let us go and serve other gods, ' which you have not known, neither you nor your fathers, of the gods of the people which are all around you, near to you or far off from you, from one end of the earth to the other end of the earth, you shall not consent to him or listen to him, nor shall your eye pity him, nor shall you spare him or conceal him; but you shall surely kill him; your hand shall be first against him to put him to death, and afterward the hand of all the people. And you shall stone him with stones until he dies, because he sought to entice you away from the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, from the house of bondage.
In 1 Kings King Solomon is warned in a dream which "darkly portray (s) the ruin that would be caused by departure from God '':
If you or your sons at all turn from following Me, and do not keep My commandments and My statutes which I have set before you, but go and serve other gods and worship them, then I will cut off Israel from the land which I have given them; and this house which I have consecrated for My name I will cast out of My sight. Israel will be a proverb and a byword among all peoples.
The prophetic writings of Isaiah and Jeremiah provide many examples of defections of faith found among the Israelites (e.g., Isaiah 1: 2 -- 4 or Jeremiah 2: 19), as do the writings of the prophet Ezekiel (e.g., Ezekiel 16 or 18). Israelite kings were often guilty of apostasy, examples including Ahab (I Kings 16: 30 -- 33), Ahaziah (I Kings 22: 51 -- 53), Jehoram (2 Chronicles 21: 6, 10), Ahaz (2 Chronicles 28: 1 -- 4), or Amon (2 Chronicles 33: 21 -- 23) among others. Amon 's father Manasseh was also apostate for many years of his long reign, although towards the end of his life he renounced his apostasy (cf. 2 Chronicles 33: 1 -- 19).
In the Talmud, Elisha ben Abuyah is singled out as an apostate and Epikoros (Epicurean) by the Pharisees.
During the Spanish Inquisition, a systematic conversion of Jews to Christianity took place to avoid expulsion from the kingdoms of Castille and Aragon as had been the case previously elsewhere in medieval Europe. Although the vast majority of conversos simply assimilated into the Catholic dominant culture, a minority continued to practice Judaism in secret, gradually migrated throughout Europe, North Africa, and the Ottoman Empire, mainly to areas where Sephardic communities were already present as a result of the Alhambra Decree. Tens of thousands of Jews were baptised in the three months before the deadline for expulsion, some 40,000 if one accepts the totals given by Kamen, most of these undoubtedly to avoid expulsion, rather than as a sincere change of faith. These conversos were the principal concern of the Inquisition; being suspected of continuing to practice Judaism put them at risk of denunciation and trial.
Several notorious Inquisitors, such as Tomás de Torquemada, and Don Francisco the archbishop of Coria, were descendants of apostate Jews. Other apostates who made their mark in history by attempting the conversion of other Jews in the 14th century include Juan de Valladolid and Astruc Remoch.
Abraham Isaac Kook, first Chief Rabbi of the Jewish community in then Palestine, held that atheists were not actually denying God: rather, they were denying one of man 's many images of God. Since any man - made image of God can be considered an idol, Kook held that, in practice, one could consider atheists as helping true religion burn away false images of god, thus in the end serving the purpose of true monotheism.
In practice, Judaism does not follow the Torah 's prescription on this point: there is no punishment today for leaving Judaism, other than being excluded from participating in the rituals of the Jewish community, including leading worship, being called to the Torah and being buried in a Jewish cemetery.
According to the Sri Guru Granth Sahib 1st (832 / 5 / 2708),
He is a swine, a dog, a donkey, a cat, a beast, a filthy one, a mean man and a pariah (low caste), who tuns his face away from the Guru.
In Sri Guru Granth Sahib Page 1381 - 13,
The head which does not bow to the Lord - chop off and remove that head.
In Sri Guru Granth Sahib Page 89 - 2,
Chop off that head which does not bow to the Lord.
Controversies over new religious movements (NRMs) have often involved apostates, some of whom join organizations or web sites opposed to their former religions. A number of scholars have debated the reliability of apostates and their stories, often called "apostate narratives ''.
The role of former members, or "apostates '', has been widely studied by social scientists. At times, these individuals become outspoken public critics of the groups they leave. Their motivations, the roles they play in the anti-cult movement, the validity of their testimony, and the kinds of narratives they construct, are controversial. Some scholars like David G. Bromley, Anson Shupe, and Brian R. Wilson have challenged the validity of the testimonies presented by critical former members. Wilson discusses the use of the atrocity story that is rehearsed by the apostate to explain how, by manipulation, coercion, or deceit, he was recruited to a group that he now condemns.
Sociologist Stuart A. Wright explores the distinction between the apostate narrative and the role of the apostate, asserting that the former follows a predictable pattern, in which the apostate uses a "captivity narrative '' that emphasizes manipulation, entrapment and being victims of "sinister cult practices ''. These narratives provide a rationale for a "hostage - rescue '' motif, in which cults are likened to POW camps and deprogramming as heroic hostage rescue efforts. He also makes a distinction between "leavetakers '' and "apostates '', asserting that despite the popular literature and lurid media accounts of stories of "rescued or recovering ' ex-cultists ' '', empirical studies of defectors from NRMs "generally indicate favorable, sympathetic or at the very least mixed responses toward their former group ''.
One camp that broadly speaking questions apostate narratives includes David G. Bromley, Daniel Carson Johnson, Dr. Lonnie D. Kliever (1932 -- 2004), Gordon Melton, and Bryan R. Wilson. An opposing camp less critical of apostate narratives as a group includes Benjamin Beit - Hallahmi, Dr. Phillip Charles Lucas, Jean Duhaime, Mark Dunlop, Michael Langone, and Benjamin Zablocki.
Some scholars have attempted to classify apostates of NRMs. James T. Richardson proposes a theory related to a logical relationship between apostates and whistleblowers, using Bromley 's definitions, in which the former predates the latter. A person becomes an apostate and then seeks the role of whistleblower, which is then rewarded for playing that role by groups that are in conflict with the original group of membership such as anti-cult organizations. These organizations further cultivate the apostate, seeking to turn him or her into a whistleblower. He also describes how in this context, apostates ' accusations of "brainwashing '' are designed to attract perceptions of threats against the well being of young adults on the part of their families to further establish their newfound role as whistleblowers. Armand L. Mauss, defines true apostates as those exiters that have access to oppositional organizations that sponsor their careers as such, and validate the retrospective accounts of their past and their outrageous experiences in new religions -- making a distinction between these and whistleblowers or defectors in this context. Donald Richter, a current member of the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (FLDS) writes that this can explain the writings of Carolyn Jessop and Flora Jessop, former members of the FLDS church who consistently sided with authorities when children of the YFZ ranch were removed over charges of child abuse.
Massimo Introvigne in his Defectors, Ordinary Leavetakers and Apostates defines three types of narratives constructed by apostates of new religious movements:
Introvigne argues that apostates professing Type II narratives prevail among exiting members of controversial groups or organizations, while apostates that profess Type III narratives are a vociferous minority.
Ronald Burks, a psychology assistant at the Wellspring Retreat and Resource Center, in a study comparing Group Psychological Abuse Scale (GPA) and Neurological Impairment Scale (NIS) scores in 132 former members of cults and cultic relationships, found a positive correlation between intensity of reform environment as measured by the GPA and cognitive impairment as measured by the NIS. Additional findings were a reduced earning potential in view of the education level that corroborates earlier studies of cult critics (Martin 1993; Singer & Ofshe, 1990; West & Martin, 1994) and significant levels of depression and dissociation agreeing with Conway & Siegelman, (1982), Lewis & Bromley, (1987) and Martin, et al. (1992).
Sociologists Bromley and Hadden note a lack of empirical support for claimed consequences of having been a member of a "cult '' or "sect '', and substantial empirical evidence against it. These include the fact that the overwhelming proportion of people who get involved in NRMs leave, most short of two years; the overwhelming proportion of people who leave do so of their own volition; and that two - thirds (67 %) felt "wiser for the experience ''.
According to F. Derks and psychologist of religion Jan van der Lans, there is no uniform post-cult trauma. While psychological and social problems upon resignation are not uncommon, their character and intensity are greatly dependent on the personal history and on the traits of the ex-member, and on the reasons for and way of resignation.
The report of the "Swedish Government 's Commission on New Religious Movements '' (1998) states that the great majority of members of new religious movements derive positive experiences from their subscription to ideas or doctrines that correspond to their personal needs -- and that withdrawal from these movements is usually quite undramatic, as these people leave feeling enriched by a predominantly positive experience. Although the report describes that there are a small number of withdrawals that require support (100 out of 50,000 + people), the report did not recommend that any special resources be established for their rehabilitation, as these cases are very rare.
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who designed the typeface that became the standard for british newspapers | Times New Roman - wikipedia
Times New Roman is a serif typeface designed for legibility in body text. It was commissioned by the British newspaper The Times in 1931 and conceived by Stanley Morison, the artistic advisor to the British branch of the printing equipment company Monotype, in collaboration with Victor Lardent, a lettering artist in the Times ' advertising department. Although no longer used by The Times, Times New Roman is still very common in book and general printing. It has become one of the most popular and influential typefaces in history and a standard typeface on most desktop computers.
Times New Roman 's creation took place through the influence of Stanley Morison of Monotype. Morison was an artistic director at Monotype, historian of printing and informal adviser to The Times. Asked to advise on a redesign, he recommended that they change their text typeface from a spindly and somewhat dated nineteenth - century face to a more robust, solid design, returning to traditions of printing from the eighteenth century and before. This matched a common trend in printing tastes of the period.
The new face was drawn by Victor Lardent, an artist from the advertising department of The Times, with Morison consulting, before refinement by the Monotype drawing office. Morison proposed an older Monotype typeface named Plantin as a basis for the design, and Times New Roman mostly matches Plantin 's dimensions. The main change was that the contrast between strokes was enhanced to give a crisper image. As a typeface designed for newspaper printing, Times New Roman has a high x-height, short descenders to allow tight linespacing and a relatively condensed appearance. The new design made its debut in The Times on 3 October 1932. After one year, the design was released for commercial sale. Although Morison may not have literally drawn the design, his influence on its concept was sufficient that he felt that he could take credit for it as "my one effort at designing a font ''. In Times New Roman 's name, Roman is a reference to the regular style of a conventional serif font, or what is called its roman, the first part of the Times New Roman family to be designed. (The style is called Antiqua in some countries.) Roman type has some roots in Italian (and other European) printing of the late 15th and early 16th centuries, but Times New Roman 's design has no connection to Rome or to the Romans.
The Times stayed with Times New Roman for 40 years, but new production techniques and the format change from broadsheet to tabloid in 2004 have caused it to switch typeface five times from 1972 to 2007. However, all the new fonts have been variants of the original New Roman typeface. Once released for commercial sale, Times New Roman became extremely successful, becoming Monotype 's best - selling typeface of all time in metal type.
Times New Roman has a robust colour on the page and influences of European early modern and Baroque printing. The design is slightly condensed, with short ascenders and descenders and a high x-height (tall lower - case letters), all effects that save space and increase clarity.
The ultimate origin of the ' Roman ' (regular) style of Plantin and Times New Roman was a metal type created in the late sixteenth century by the French artisan Robert Granjon and preserved in the collection of the Plantin - Moretus Museum of Antwerp. This style is sometimes categorised as part of the old - style of serif fonts. Morison admired this style for its solid structure and clarity.
However, due to features such as its ' a ' and ' e ', with larger counters and apertures than in Granjon 's design, its ball terminal detailing and an increased level of contrast between thick and thin strokes, it has also been compared to fonts from the late eighteenth century, the so - called ' transitional ' genre, in particular the Baskerville typeface of the 1750s. Historian and sometime Monotype executive Allan Haley commented that compared to Plantin "serifs had been sharpened... contrast was increased and character curves were refined, '' while Lawson described Times 's higher - contrast crispness as having "a sparkle (Plantin) never achieved. '' (The ' a ' of Plantin was already not directly sourced from Granjon 's work: the sheet from the Plantin - Moretus Museum used as a specimen for Monotype to use in designing Plantin had an ' a ' from the wrong font.) Other changes from Plantin include a straight - sided ' M ' and ' W ' with three upper terminals not Plantin 's four, both choices that move away from the old - style model.
Morison described the companion italic as also being influenced by the typefaces created by the Didot family in the late 18th and early 19th centuries: a "rationalistic italic that owed nothing to the tradition of the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries. It has, indeed, more in common with the eighteenth century. '' Morison had several years earlier attracted attention for promoting the radical idea that italics in book printing were too disruptive to the flow of text, and should be phased out. He rapidly came to concede that the idea was misguided, and later wryly commented to historian Harry Carter that Times ' italic "owes more to Didot than dogma. '' Morison wrote in a personal letter of Times New Roman 's mixed heritage that it "has the merit of not looking as if it had been designed by somebody in particular. ''
Rather than creating a companion boldface with letterforms similar to the roman style, Times New Roman 's bold has a different character, with a more condensed and more upright effect caused by making the horizontal parts of curves consistently the thinnest lines of each letter, and making the top serifs of letters like ' d ' purely horizontal. This effect is not found in sixteenth - century typefaces (which did not have bold versions); it is most associated with Didone type of the early nineteenth century and with the more recent ' Ionic ' styles of type influenced by it that were offered by Linotype (discussed below), which were very dominant in contemporary newspaper printing. Some commentators have found Times ' bold unsatisfactory and too condensed, such as Walter Tracy and Stephen Coles.
The development of Times New Roman was relatively involved due to the lack of a specific pre-existing model -- or perhaps a surfeit of possible choices. Morison wrote in a memo that he hoped for a design that would have relatively sharp serifs, matching the general design of the Times ' previous font, but on a darker and more traditional basic structure. Bulked - up versions of Monotype 's pre-existing but rather dainty Baskerville and Perpetua typefaces were considered for a basis, and the Ionic designs from Linotype, such as Excelsior, that were popular in newspaper printing at the time, were also examined. (Perpetua, which Monotype had recently commissioned from sculptor Eric Gill at Morison 's urging, is considered a ' transitional ' design in aesthetic, although it does not revive any specific model.) Walter Tracy, who knew Lardent, suggested in the 1980s that "Morison did not begin with a clear vision of the ultimate type, but felt his way along. ''
Morison 's biographer Nicolas Barker has written that Morison 's memos of the time wavered over a variety of options before it was ultimately concluded that Plantin formed the best basis for a condensed font that could nonetheless be made to fill out the full size of the letter space as far as possible. (Morison ultimately conceded that Perpetua, which had been his pet project, was ' too basically circular ' to be practical to condense in an attractive way.)
Walter Tracy and James Moran, who discussed the design 's creation with Lardent in the 1960s, found that Lardent himself had little memory of exactly what material Morison gave him as a specimen to use to design the typeface, but he told Moran that he remembered working on the design from archive photographs of vintage type, which Tracy suggests might have been the same specimen of type from the Plantin - Moretus Museum that Plantin had been based on, or a specimen of Plantin itself. The sharpened serifs somewhat recall Perpetua, although Morison 's stated reason for them was to provide continuity with the previous Didone design and the crispness associated with the Times ' printing; he also later cited reproduction after stereotyping as a reason for the choice. Morison 's several accounts of his reasoning in designing the concept of Times New Roman were somewhat contradictory and many historians of printing have suggested that they were mostly composed to rationalise his aesthetic preferences; Monotype 's newspaper printing consultant Allen Hutt, went so far as to describe his unsigned 1936 article on the topic after his death as "rather odd... it can only be regarded as a piece of Morisonian mystification ''.
During the project, Monotype and The Times examined research on legibility of type and carried out legibility tests on proof sheets. The design was refined extensively during the process of development by the Monotype drawing office team, and further changes were made after manufacturing began (the latter a difficult practice, since new punches and matrices had to be machined after each design change), and so obvious differences exist between Lardent 's original drawings and the final release. Rhatigan has said that Lardent 's originals show "the spirit of the final type, but not the details. ''
Morison continued to develop a close connection with the Times that would last throughout his life. Morison edited the History of the Times from 1935 to 1952, and in the post-war period, at a time when Monotype effectively stopped developing new typefaces due to pressures of austerity, took a post as editor of the Times Literary Supplement which he held from 1945 to 1948.
A large number of variants of Times were cut. Walter Tracy in Letters of Credit, Allen Hutt and others have discussed these extensively in their works on the family.
Monotype also created some caps - only ' titling ' designs to match Times New Roman itself, which was intended for body text. While these are not sold by Monotype in digital format, Linotype 's Times Eighteen in the same style (see below) remains available and could be used as a substitute.
An elegant titling caps design, quite different to Times New Roman with a Caslon - style A (with a serif at top left of the letter, suggesting a stroke written with a quill) and old - style C and W; Tracy suggests Monotype 's previous Poliphilus design as an influence. Named after Hever Castle, the home of the Times ' owner Lord Astor. Designed early on, it was used by the Times for section headings. It has not been digitised.
A variant intended for book printing, avoiding the slight condensation of the original Times New Roman. Although it was popular in the metal type period for book printing, it was apparently never digitised.
Monotype also produced Series 727, in which the heavier strokes of upper - case letters were made slightly thinner. This was done to produce a lighter effect in which capital letters do not stand out so much, and was particularly intended for German use, since in the German language capitals are far more common since they appear at the start of each noun. Series 827 modified some letters (notably the R) to correspond to their appearance in other typefaces popular in French printing. This production of what are now called stylistic alternates to suit national tastes was common at the time, and many alternates were also offered for Gill Sans for use in Europe.
A modified 43⁄4 point size of Times Roman was produced by Monotype for use in printing matter requiring a very small size of type. Listed as Times Newspaper Smalls, available as either Series 333 or 335, it was also referred to by the name Claritas.
This is a variant designed for printing mathematical formulae, using the 4 ‐ line system for mathematics developed by Monotype in 1957. This modified version of Times Roman was designed for use as part of Monotype 's 4 - line Mathematics system. The major changes to the Times Roman typeface itself were a reduction in the slope of italic characters to 12 degrees from 16 degrees, so as to reduce the need for kerning, and a change in the form of italic v and w so that italic v could be more easily distinguished from a Greek nu.
The 4 - line system involved casting characters for 10 - point Times Roman on 6 - point bodies. The top of the character would overhang the slug, forming a kern which was less fragile than the normal kerns of foundry type, as it was on a slab of cast metal. This technique had been in previous use on Monotype machines, usually involving double - height matrices, to allow the automatic setting of "advertising figures '' (numbers that occupy two or more lines, usually to clearly indicate a price in an advertisement set in small type). This meant that the same matrix could be used for both superscript and subscript numbers. More importantly, it allowed a variable or other item to have both a superscript and a subscript at the same time, one above the other, without inordinate difficulty.
Previously, while the Monotype system, due to its flexibility, was widely used for setting mathematical formulas, the typeface Modern Series 7 was usually used for this purpose. Because of the popularity of Times Roman at the time, Monotype chose to design a variant of Times Roman suited to mathematical composition, and recut many additional characters needed for mathematics, including special symbols as well as Greek and Fraktur alphabets, to accompany the system instead of designing it around the typeface that was being used, for which characters were already available. Matrices for some 700 characters were available as part of Times Roman Series 569 when it was released in 1958, with new characters constantly being added for over a decade afterwards (thus, in 1971, 8,000 characters were included, and new ones were being added at a rate of about 5 per week).
Times New Roman 's popularity rapidly expanded beyond its original niche, becoming popular in book printing and general publishing. Monotype took advantage of this popularity by commissioning a widened version, Series 427, for book publishing, although many books ultimately used the original version.
An early use of Times New Roman outside its origin was by Daniel Berkeley Updike, an influential historian of printing with whom Morison carried an extensive correspondence. Impressed by the design, he used it to set his book Some Aspects of Printing, Old and New. It then was chosen by the Crowell - Collier magazines Woman 's Home Companion and then its sister publications such as Collier 's. A brochure was published to mark the change along with a letter from Morison hoping that the redesign would be a success.
Walter Tracy, who worked on a redesign, however noted that the design 's compression and fine detail extending to the edge of the matrices was actually problematic in the aggressive conditions of most newspaper printing, in which the Times was unusual for its particularly high standard of printing suiting its luxury market. Users found that in the hot metal period it was common for the molten metal to rapidly eat through the matrices, and so it did not become popular among other newspapers: "Times Roman achieved its popularity chiefly in general printing, not in newspaper work. '' He described it as particularly used in "book work, especially non-fiction '' such as the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Despite Monotype 's key role in creating Times New Roman, its rival Linotype rapidly began to offer the design; The Times used Linotype equipment for much of its production. Linotype referred to the design as Times or Times Roman. Monotype and Linotype have since merged, but slight differences have split the lineage of Times into two subtly different designs.
Although Times New Roman and Times are very similar, various differences developed between the versions marketed by Linotype and Monotype when the master fonts were transferred from metal to photo and digital media. For example, Linotype has slanted serifs on the capital S, while Monotype 's are vertical, and Linotype has an extra serif on the number 5. Most of these differences are invisible in body text at normal reading distances, or 10pts at 300 dpi. Subtle competition grew between the two foundries, as the proportions and details as well as the width metrics for their version of Times grew apart. Vivid differences between the two versions do occur in the lowercase z in the italic weight (Times Linotype has a curl also followed in the STIX revival, Times New Roman is straight) and in the percent sign in all weights. (Linotype and STIX have a stroke connecting up the left - hand zero with a slash, Times New Roman does not.)
Linotype licensed its version to Xerox and then Adobe and Apple, guaranteeing its importance in digital printing by making it one of the core fonts of the PostScript page description language. Microsoft 's version of Times New Roman is licensed from Monotype, hence the original name. For compatibility, Monotype had to subtly redraw their design to match the widths from the Adobe / Linotype version. It has been reported to have lighter capitals that were originally developed for printing German (where all nouns begin with a capital letter). Versions of Times New Roman from Monotype exist which vary from the Linotype metrics (i.e. not the same as the version for Microsoft).
Linotype applied for registration of the trademark name Times Roman and received registration status in 1945. In the 1980s, there was an attempt by a group of entrepreneurs to seek from Rupert Murdoch, who owned The Times, the right to use the Times Roman name; separately, a legal action was also initiated to clarify the right of Monotype to use the name in the US despite Linotype 's registration. As a result of legal action, Linotype and its licensees continued to use the name Times Roman, while Monotype and its licensees used the name Times New Roman.
Monotype sells a wider range of styles and optical sizes for Times New Roman than are offered with Windows, in order to meet the needs of newspapers and books which print at a range of text sizes. Its current release includes Regular, Medium, Semi Bold and Bold weights with matching italics, Extra Bold, Condensed (in regular, italic and bold), Seven (for smaller text, in regular, italic, bold and bold italic) and Small Text (for very small text, in regular, italic and bold).
As of 2017, the version of Times New Roman included with Windows 10, version 6.96, includes small capitals, text figures, and italic swash capitals. The Microsoft / Monotype digitisation of Times New Roman omits automatic ligature insertion (although as of v. 6.96 it is selectable), which the version of Times installed with macOS has. (This can result in unsightly character collisions if the characters ' fi ' are needed.)
This is a version based on fonts released with Windows Vista. It includes fonts in WGL character sets, Hebrew and Arabic characters. Similar to Helvetica World, Arabic in italic fonts are in roman positions.
Like Monotype, Linotype released additional versions of Times for different text sizes. These include:
From 1908 to 1932, The Times used a Didone serif font cut by Monotype, the same as or similar to Monotype Modern. The Times newspaper has commissioned various successors to Times New Roman:
During the Times New Roman period The Times also sometimes used Perpetua Titling, also from Monotype, and one of Morison 's favourite type designs from his work at Monotype.
Times New Roman has been used for a wide range of newspapers around the world. In addition:
In 1994 the printing historian Mike Parker published claims that the design of Times New Roman 's roman or regular style was based on a 1904 design of William Starling Burgess. This theory remains controversial. Parker and his friend Gerald Giampa, a Canadian printer, claimed that in 1904 Burgess created a type design for company documents at his shipyard in Marblehead, Massachusetts, and hired Lanston Monotype to issue it. However, Burgess abandoned the idea and Monotype shelved the sketches, ultimately reusing them as a basis for Times New Roman. Giampa claimed that he stumbled upon original material in 1987, after he had purchased Lanston Monotype. Giampa claimed that some of the papers that had been his evidence had been lost in a flood at his house, while Parker claimed that an additional source was material in a section of the Smithsonian now closed due to asbestos contamination. Giampa asked Parker to complete the type from the limited number of surviving letters, which was issued in June 2009 by Font Bureau under the name of ' Starling '.
Reception to the claims was sceptical with dismissal from Morison 's biographer Nicolas Barker and Luc Devroye among others; Barker suggested that the material had been fabricated in order to aid Giampa in embarrassing Monotype 's British branch, while Devroye suggested that the claim had begun as a prank. Monotype executive Dan Rhatigan described the theory as implausible in 2011: "I 'll admit that I tend to side with the more fully documented (both in general, and in agreement with what little I can find within Monotype to support it) notion that Times New Roman was based on Plantin... I wo n't rule out the possibility that Starling Burgess drew up the concept first, but Occam 's razor makes me doubt it. ''
The Times Online web site credits the design to "Stanley Morrison, Victor Lardent and perhaps Starling Burgess ''.
Because of its popularity, the typeface has been influential in the subsequent development of a number of serif typefaces both before and after the start of the digital - font era.
Times Roman and Times New Roman are proprietary fonts. There are some free software metric - compatible fonts used as free Times Roman and Times New Roman alternatives or used for font substitution:
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which of the following concept defines a social position that a person holds | Personal identity - wikipedia
In philosophy, the matter of personal identity deals with such questions as, "What makes it true that a person at one time is the same thing as a person at another time? '' or "What kinds of things are we persons? '' The term "identity '' in "personal identity '' refers to "numerical identity, '' where saying that X and Y are numerically identical just means that X and Y are the same thing. Personal identity is not the same as personality, though some theories of personal identity maintain that continuity of personality may be required for one to persist through time.
Generally, personal identity is the unique numerical identity of a person in the course of time. That is, the necessary and sufficient conditions under which a person at one time and a person at another time can be said to be the same person, persisting through time;
In contemporary metaphysics, the matter of personal identity is referred to as the diachronic problem of personal identity. The synchronic problem concerns the question of: What features and traits characterize a person at a given time. In Continental philosophy and in Analytic philosophy, enquiry to the nature of Identity is common. Continental philosophy deals with conceptually maintaining identity when confronted by different philosophic propositions, postulates, and presuppositions about the world and its nature.
One concept of personal persistence over time is simply to have continuous bodily existence. However, as the Ship of Theseus problem illustrates, even for inanimate objects there are difficulties in determining whether one physical body at one time is the same thing as a physical body at another time. With humans, over time our bodies age and grow, losing and gaining matter, and over sufficient years will not consist of most of the matter they once consisted of. It is thus problematic to ground persistence of personal identity over time in the continuous existence of our bodies. Nevertheless, this approach has its supporters which define humans as a biological organism and asserts the proposition that a psychological relation is not necessary for personal continuity. This personal identity ontology assumes the relational theory of life - sustaining processes instead of bodily continuity.
Derek Parfit presents a thought experiment designed to bring out intuitions about the corporeal continuity. This thought experiment discusses cases in which a person is teletransported from Earth to Mars. Ultimately, the inability to specify where on a spectrum does the transmitted person stop being identical to the initial person on Earth appears to show that having a numerically identical physical body is not the criterion for personal identity
In another concept of mind, the set of cognitive faculties are considered to consist of an immaterial substance, separate from and independent of the body. If a person is then identified with their mind, rather than their body -- if a person is considered to be their mind -- and their mind is such a non-physical substance, then personal identity over time may be grounded in the persistence of this non-physical substance, despite the continuous change in the substance of the body it is associated with. The mind - body problem concerns the explanation of the relationship, if any, that exists between minds, or mental processes, and bodily states or processes. One of the aims of philosophers who work in this area is to explain how a non-material mind can influence a material body and vice versa.
However, this is not uncontroversial or unproblematic, and adopting it as a solution raises questions. Perceptual experiences depend on stimuli which arrive at various sensory organs from the external world and these stimuli cause changes in mental states; ultimately causing sensation. A desire for food, for example, will tend to cause a person to move their body in a manner and in a direction to obtain food. The question, then, is how it can be possible for conscious experiences to arise out of an organ (the human brain) possessing electrochemical properties. A related problem is to explain how propositional attitudes (e.g. beliefs and desires) can cause neurons of the brain to fire and muscles to contract in the correct manner. These comprise some of the puzzles that have confronted epistemologists and philosophers of mind from at least the time of René Descartes.
John Locke considered personal identity (or the self) to be founded on consciousness (viz. memory), and not on the substance of either the soul or the body. Book II Chapter XXVII entitled "On Identity and Diversity '' in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689) has been said to be one of the first modern conceptualizations of consciousness as the repeated self - identification of oneself. Through this identification, moral responsibility could be attributed to the subject and punishment and guilt could be justified, as critics such as Nietzsche would point out.
According to Locke, personal identity (the self) "depends on consciousness, not on substance '' nor on the soul. We are the same person to the extent that we are conscious of the past and future thoughts and actions in the same way as we are conscious of present thoughts and actions. If consciousness is this "thought '' which "goes along with the substance... which makes the same person '', then personal identity is only founded on the repeated act of consciousness: "This may show us wherein personal identity consists: not in the identity of substance, but... in the identity of consciousness ''. For example, one may claim to be a reincarnation of Plato, therefore having the same soul substance. However, one would be the same person as Plato only if one had the same consciousness of Plato 's thoughts and actions that he himself did. Therefore, self - identity is not based on the soul. One soul may have various personalities.
Neither is self - identity founded on the body substance, argues Locke, as the body may change while the person remains the same. Even the identity of animals is not founded on their body: "animal identity is preserved in identity of life, and not of substance '', as the body of the animal grows and changes during its life. On the other hand, identity of humans is based on their consciousness.
But this interesting border - case leads to this problematic thought that since personal identity is based on consciousness, and that only oneself can be aware of his consciousness, exterior human judges may never know if they really are judging -- and punishing -- the same person, or simply the same body. In other words, Locke argues that may be judged only for the acts of the body, as this is what is apparent to all but God; however, are in truth only responsible for the acts for which are conscious. This forms the basis of the insanity defense: one can not be held accountable for acts from which one was unconscious -- and therefore leads to interesting philosophical questions:
personal identity consists (not in the identity of substance) but in the identity of consciousness, wherein if Socrates and the present mayor of Queenborough agree, they are the same person: if the same Socrates waking and sleeping do not partake of the same consciousness, Socrates waking and sleeping is not the same person. And to punish Socrates waking for what sleeping Socrates thought, and waking Socrates was never conscious of, would be no more right, than to punish one twin for what his brother - twin did, whereof he knew nothing, because their outsides were so like, that they could not be distinguished; for such twins have been seen.
Or again:
PERSON, as I take it, is the name for this self. Wherever a man finds what he calls himself, there, I think, another may say is the same person. It is a forensic term, appropriating actions and their merit; and so belong only to intelligent agents, capable of a law, and happiness, and misery. This personality extends itself beyond present existence to what is past, only by consciousness, -- whereby it becomes concerned and accountable; owns and imputes to itself past actions, just upon the same ground and for the same reason as it does the present. All which is founded in a concern for happiness, the unavoidable concomitant of consciousness; that which is conscious of pleasure and pain, desiring that that self that is conscious should be happy. And therefore whatever past actions it can not reconcile or APPROPRIATE to that present self by consciousness, it can be no more concerned in it than if they had never been done: and to receive pleasure or pain, i.e. reward or punishment, on the account of any such action, is all one as to be made happy or miserable in its first being, without any demerit at all. For, supposing a MAN punished now for what he had done in another life, whereof he could be made to have no consciousness at all, what difference is there between that punishment and being CREATED miserable? And therefore, conformable to this, the apostle tells us, that, at the great day, when every one shall ' receive according to his doings, the secrets of all hearts shall be laid open. ' The sentence shall be justified by the consciousness all person shall have, that THEY THEMSELVES, in what bodies soever they appear, or what substances soever that consciousness adheres to, are the SAME that committed those actions, and deserve that punishment for them.
Henceforth, Locke 's conception of personal identity founds it not on the substance or the body, but in the "same continued consciousness '', which is also distinct from the soul since the soul may have no consciousness of itself (as in reincarnation). He creates a third term between the soul and the body - and Locke 's thought may certainly be meditated by those who, following a scientist ideology, would identify too quickly the brain to consciousness. For the brain, as the body and as any substance, may change, while consciousness remains the same. Therefore, personal identity is not in the brain, but in consciousness.
However, Locke 's theory of self reveals debt to theology and to apocalyptic "great day '', which by advance excuse any failings of human justice and therefore humanity 's miserable state. The problem of personal identity is at the center of discussions about life after death and, to a lesser extent, immortality. In order to exist after death, there has to be a person after death who is the same person as the person who died.
Bernard Williams presents a thought experiment appealing to the intuitions about what it is to be the same person in the future. The thought experiment consists of two approaches to the same experiment.
For the first approach Williams suggests that suppose that there is some process by which subjecting two persons to it can result in the two persons have "exchanged '' bodies. The process has put into the body of person B the memories, behavioral dispositions, and psychological characteristics of the person who prior to undergoing the process belonged to person A; and conversely with person B. To show this one is to suppose that before undergoing the process person A and B are asked to which resulting person, A-Body - Person or B - Body - Person, they wish to receive a punishment and which a reward. Upon undergoing the process and receiving either the punishment or reward, it appears to that A-Body - Person expresses the memories of choosing who gets which treatment as if that person was person B; conversely with B - Body - Person.
This sort of approach to the thought experiment appears to show that since the person who expresses the psychological characteristics of person A to be person A, then intuition is that psychological continuity is the criterion for personal identity.
The second approach is to suppose that someone is told that one will have memories erased and then one will be tortured. Does one need to be afraid of being tortured? The intuition is that people will be afraid of being tortured, since it will still be one despite not having one 's memories. Next, Williams asked one to consider several similar scenarios. Intuition is that in all the scenarios one is to be afraid of being tortured, that it is still one 's self despite having one 's memories erased and receiving new memories. However, the last scenario is an identical scenario to the one in the first scenario.
In the first approach, intuition is to show that one 's psychological continuity is the criterion for personal identity, but in second approach, intuition is that it is one 's bodily continuity that is the criterion for personal identity. To resolve this conflict Williams feels one 's intuition in the second approach is stronger and if he was given the choice of distributing a punishment and a reward he would want his body - person to receive the reward and the other body - person to receive the punishment, even if that other body - person has his memories.
In psychology, personal continuity, also called personal persistence, is the uninterrupted connection concerning a particular person of his or her private life and personality. Personal continuity is the union affecting the facets arising from personality in order to avoid discontinuities from one moment of time to another time. Personal continuity is an important part of identity; this is the process of ensuring that the qualities of the mind, such as self - awareness, sentience, sapience, and the ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and one 's environment, are consistent from one moment to the next. Personal continuity is the property of a continuous and connected period of time and is intimately related to do with a person 's body or physical being in a single four - dimensional continuum. Associationism, a theory of how ideas combine in the mind, allows events or views to be associated with each other in the mind, thus leading to a form of learning. Associations can result from contiguity, similarity, or contrast. Through contiguity, one associates ideas or events that usually happen to occur at the same time. Some of these events form an autobiographical memory in which each is a personal representation of the general or specific events and personal facts.
Ego integrity is the psychological concept of the ego 's accumulated assurance of its capacity for order and meaning. Ego identity is the accrued confidence that the inner sameness and continuity prepared in the past are matched by the sameness and continuity of one 's meaning for others, as evidenced in the promise of a career. Body and ego control organ expressions. and of the other attributes of the dynamics of a physical system to face the emotions of ego death in circumstances which can summon, sometimes anti-theonymistic, self - abandonment.
It has been argued that from the nature of sensations and ideas there is no such thing as a permanent identity. Daniel Shapiro asserts that one of four major views on identity does not recognize a "permanent identity '' and instead thinks of "thoughts without a thinker '' − "a consciousness shell with drifting emotions and thoughts but no essence ''. According to him this view is based on the Buddhist concept of Anatta − "a continuously evolving flow of awareness ''. Malcolm David Eckel states that "the self changes at every moment and has no permanent identity '' − it is a "constant process of changing or becoming '', a "fluid ever - changing self ''.
David Hume undertook looking at the mind -- body problem. Hume also investigated a person 's character, the relationship between human and animal nature, and the nature of agency. Hume pointed out that we tend to think that we are the same person we were five years ago. Though we 've changed in many respects, the same person appears present as was present then. We might start thinking about which features can be changed without changing the underlying self. Hume, however, denies that there is a distinction between the various features of a person and the mysterious self that supposedly bears those features. When we start introspecting, "we are never intimately conscious of anything but a particular perception; man is a bundle or collection of different perceptions which succeed one another with an inconceivable rapidity and are in perpetual flux and movement ''.
It is plain that in the course of our thinking, and in the constant revolution of our ideas, our imagination runs easily from one idea to any other that resembles it, and that this quality alone is to the fancy a sufficient bond and association. It is likewise evident that as the senses, in changing their objects, are necessitated to change them regularly, and take them as they lie contiguous to each other, the imagination must by long custom acquire the same method of thinking, and run along the parts of space and time in conceiving its objects.
Note in particular that, in Hume 's view, these perceptions do not belong to anything. Hume, similar to the Buddha, compares the soul to a commonwealth, which retains its identity not by virtue of some enduring core substance, but by being composed of many different, related, and yet constantly changing elements. The question of personal identity then becomes a matter of characterizing the loose cohesion of one 's personal experience.
In short, what matters for Hume is not that ' identity ' exists but that the relations of causation, contiguity, and resemblances obtain among the perceptions. Critics of Hume state in order for the various states and processes of the mind to seem unified, there must be something which perceives their unity, the existence of which would be no less mysterious than a personal identity. Hume solves this by considering substance as engendered by the togetherness of its properties.
The "no - self theory '' holds that the self can not be reduced to a bundle because the concept of a self is incompatible with the idea of a bundle. Propositionally, the idea of a bundle implies the notion of bodily or psychological relations that do not in fact exist. James Giles, a principal exponent of this view, argues that the no - self or eliminativist theory and the bundle or reductionist theory agree about the non-existence of a substantive self. The reductionist theory, according to Giles, mistakenly resurrects the idea of the self in terms of various accounts about psychological relations. The no - self theory, on the other hand, "lets the self lie where it has fallen ''. This is because the no - self theory rejects all theories of the self, even the bundle theory. On Giles ' reading, Hume is actually a no - self theorist and it is a mistake to attribute to him a reductionist view like the bundle theory. Hume 's assertion that personal identity is a fiction supports this reading, according to Giles.
The Buddhist view of personal identity is also a no - self theory rather than a reductionist theory, because the Buddha rejects attempts to reconstructions in terms of consciousness, feelings, or the body in notions of an eternal / permanent, unchanging Self since our thoughts, personalities and bodies are never the same from moment to moment.
According to this line of criticism, the sense of self is an evolutionary artifact, which saves time in the circumstances it evolved for. But sense of self breaks down when considering some events such as memory loss, split personality disorder, brain damage, brainwashing, and various thought experiments. When presented with imperfections in the intuitive sense of self and the consequences to this concept which rely on the strict concept of self, a tendency to mend the concept occurs, possibly because of cognitive dissonance.
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where will the olympics be held in 2030 | 2028 Summer Olympics - Wikipedia
The 2028 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXXIV Olympiad, and commonly known as LA 2028, is a forthcoming international multi-sport event that is scheduled to take place from July 21 to August 6, 2028, in Los Angeles (LA), California, United States.
The process of bidding for the host city was originally due to begin in 2019, with the winning bid due to be announced in 2021. However, following the withdrawal of a number of cities from the bidding process for both the 2022 Winter Olympics and the 2024 Summer Olympics, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) resolved in July 2017 to jointly award both the 2024 and 2028 Games. Thus on July 31, 2017, an agreement was reached wherein LA would bid for the 2028 Games with $ 1.8 billion of additional funding from the IOC, which then cleared the way for Paris to be confirmed as host of the 2024 Games. Both cities were formally announced as winners of their respective Games at the 131st IOC Session in Lima, Peru, on September 13, 2017.
These Games will be the fifth Summer Olympics to be hosted in the United States, following St. Louis 1904, Los Angeles 1932, Los Angeles 1984, and Atlanta 1996. They will be the ninth overall Olympic Games to be held in the United States (including summer and winter Games).
This will be the third time that LA will have hosted the Summer Olympics, making it the third city after London (1908, 1948, and 2012) and Paris (1900, 1924, and 2024) to host the Olympic Games three times.
On September 16, 2015, the International Olympic Committee announced five candidate cities for the 2024 Games: Budapest, Hamburg, Los Angeles, Paris, and Rome. The candidature process was announced at the same time. Budapest, Hamburg, and Rome eventually withdrew their bids, leaving only Los Angeles and Paris. A similar situation had already occurred during the bidding for the 2022 Winter Olympics when Krakow, Lviv, Oslo and Stockholm withdrew, resulting in a two - way race between Beijing, China and Almaty, Kazakhstan, where Beijing was ultimately declared the winner. On April 3, 2017 at the IOC convention in Denmark, Olympic officials met with bid committees from both Los Angeles and Paris to discuss the possibility of naming two winners in the competition to host the 2024 Summer Games.
After these withdrawals, the IOC Executive Board met in Lausanne, Switzerland to discuss the 2024 and 2028 bid processes on June 9, 2017. The International Olympic Committee formally proposed electing the 2024 and 2028 Olympic host cities at the same time in 2017, a proposal that was approved by an Extraordinary IOC Session on July 11, 2017 in Lausanne. The IOC set up a process where the Los Angeles and Paris 2024 bid committees, and the IOC held meetings in July 2017 to decide which city would host in 2024 and who would host in 2028.
Following the decision to award the 2024 and 2028 Games simultaneously, Paris was understood to be the preferred host for the 2024 Games. On July 31, 2017, the IOC announced Los Angeles as the sole candidate for the 2028 Games, allowing Paris to be confirmed as the host city for the 2024 Games. On August 11, 2017, the Los Angeles City Council voted unanimously to approve the bid. On September 11, 2017, Los Angeles received formal approval to host the 2028 Games from the International Olympic Committee 's evaluation commission. On September 13, 2017, Los Angeles was formally awarded the 2028 Games following a unanimous vote by the IOC. On October 16, 2017 Los Angeles 2028 received official support from the state of California.
Los Angeles was elected as the host city at the 131st IOC Session in Lima, Peru on September 13, 2017. The three American IOC members, Anita DeFrantz, Angela Ruggiero and Larry Probst were not eligible to vote in this host city election under the rules of the Olympic Charter. This will be the third time Los Angeles will have been selected as an Olympics host city without facing a competitive bidding process, following similar outcomes in 1932 and 1984 (Los Angeles is the only city to hold this distinction). Los Angeles previously submitted bids for the 1924, 1928, 1948, 1952, 1956, 1976 and 1980 Summer Olympics, but lost to Paris, Amsterdam, London, Helsinki, Melbourne, Montreal and Moscow respectively. Los Angeles also bid to be the US candidate for the 2016 Summer Olympics, but the USOC chose Chicago as the US candidate for those games.
While most Olympic host cities have seven years to prepare for the games, Los Angeles will see an additional four years, giving the city eleven years for preparations. The Los Angeles bid was dependent on a majority of existing venues. Other venues that are already under construction were planned regardless of the games. The Banc of California Stadium, home of the MLS 's Los Angeles FC upon its completion in 2018, will host soccer and several events in athletics. Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park, home of the NFL 's Los Angeles Rams and Los Angeles Chargers upon its completion in 2020, will host the main opening ceremony, soccer and archery.
The Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum is currently undergoing major renovation. New press box and suites. Future renovations includes the installation of an athletics track.
In 2019, the Crenshaw / LAX Line will open and will be fully completed by 2021. It will link the Crenshaw District, Inglewood and Westchester once completed. The Crenshaw / LAX line will also connect to a people mover being constructed to link Los Angeles International Airport with the Aviation / 96th Street station. The construction of the people mover will be expedited in anticipation of the 2028 Olympics, with a completion date of 2023 being set. The LAX people mover started construction in early 2018 and the Crenshaw Line is currently 75 % completed as of March 2018.
While various infrastructure improvements were planned regardless of the outcome of the Los Angeles Olympic bid, the extension of the Metro Purple Line will be expedited to serve the 2028 Olympics, with a targeted completion date of 2024. The first phase will extend the Purple Line from the Wilshire / Western station to the new Wilshire / La Cienega Blvd. station. This phase will be completed by 2023. The second phase will extend the Purple Line to Century City by 2025, while the third and final phase will extend the line to the West Los Angeles VA Medical Center in Westwood with a completion date set for 2026. The third phase will also include a station adjoining the UCLA campus, connecting the Olympic village and Pauley Pavilion with venues in downtown Los Angeles. Currently phase one and two are under construction and phase three is pending federal tax dollars appropriation.
The Regional Connector in downtown Los Angeles will be complete in 2021. The project will connect the Metro Expo Line, which already links venues in Downtown Santa Monica to venues at Exposition Park and in downtown Los Angeles, to the Metro Gold Line. This will allow for direct rail service between Santa Monica and East Los Angeles. The Regional Connector will also link the Metro Blue Line with the Metro Gold Line, connecting the Long Beach area and San Gabriel Valley via downtown.
These and other infrastructure improvements are being funded by Measure R, which was approved by voters in November 2008 and Measure M which was approved by voters in November 2016. Measure R was a half - cent tax increase and Measure M was a continuation of measure R 's half - cent sales tax and an increase of another half - cent. Measure R was temporary tax and Measure M 's half - cent is a permanent tax.
According to the initial bid book for Los Angeles ' 2024 Olympic bid, Soccer venues are to be situated within Los Angeles and in other parts of California, to be determined. According to the official website of the local organizing committee, eight venues are under consideration, all within the state.
In January 2017, it was reported that the Los Angeles 's organizing committee had proposed that both the new Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park in Inglewood, California, and the historic Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, be used during the Games ' opening and closing ceremonies. In particular, the committee proposed that a segment of the opening ceremony be held at the Coliseum, culminating with the launching of the torch relay 's final stage. The torch would then travel to Inglewood, where the main opening ceremony (including the parade of nations and other traditional protocol) would be held. Other entertainment, such as a simulcast of the proceedings in Inglewood, would be provided to spectators at the Coliseum, and the original Olympic cauldron would be symbolically re-ignited upon the lighting of the new cauldron at the main ceremony. Under the plan, the closing ceremony would be held in reverse, with an opening segment in Inglewood, and the remainder (including protocol and the formal extinguishing of the cauldron) occurring at the Coliseum.
In the United States, the 2028 Games will be broadcast by NBCUniversal properties, as part of long - term agreements with the IOC through 2032. The NBC Universal Studio Lot is planned to be the site of the International Broadcast Centre for the Games.
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how much did they make per episode on the office | The Office (U.S. TV series) - wikipedia
The Office is an American television comedy series that aired on NBC from March 24, 2005, to May 16, 2013. It is an adaptation of the original BBC series of the same name. The Office was adapted for American audiences by Greg Daniels, a veteran writer for Saturday Night Live, King of the Hill, and The Simpsons. It was co-produced by Daniels ' Deedle - Dee Productions, and Reveille Productions (later Shine America), in association with Universal Television. The original executive producers were Greg Daniels, Howard Klein, Ben Silverman, Ricky Gervais, and Stephen Merchant, with numerous others being promoted in later seasons.
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton, Pennsylvania, branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company. To simulate the look of an actual documentary, it is filmed in a single - camera setup, without a studio audience or a laugh track. The show debuted on NBC as a mid-season replacement and ran for nine seasons and 201 episodes. The Office initially featured Steve Carell, Rainn Wilson, John Krasinski, Jenna Fischer and B.J. Novak as the main cast; the show experienced numerous changes to its ensemble cast during its run.
Season one of The Office was met with mixed reviews, but the following four seasons received widespread acclaim from television critics. These seasons were included on several critics ' year - end top TV series lists, winning several awards such as four Primetime Emmy Awards, which include an Outstanding Comedy Series in 2006. While later seasons were criticized for a decline in quality, earlier writers oversaw the final season and ended the show 's run with a positive reception.
In December 2017, it was reported that NBC was considering a revival of the series. It would debut during the 2018 -- 19 television season and would feature a mix of original (excluding Steve Carell) and new cast members.
List of showrunners throughout the series ' run:
Greg Daniels served as the senior series showrunner for the first four seasons of the series and developed the British series for American television. He then left the position when he co-created the comedy series Parks and Recreation with fellow Office writer Michael Schur and divided his time between the two series. Paul Lieberstein and Jennifer Celotta were named the series showrunners for the fifth season. Celotta left the series after the sixth season and Lieberstein stayed on as showrunner for the following two seasons. He left the showrunner spot after the eighth season for the potential Dwight Schrute spin - off, The Farm, which was eventually passed up by NBC. Daniels returned to the showrunner position for the ninth and final season. Other executive producers include cast members B.J. Novak and Mindy Kaling. Kaling, Novak, Daniels, Lieberstein and Schur made up the original team of writers. Kaling, Novak and Lieberstein also serve multiple roles on the series, as they play regular characters on the show, as well as write, direct and produce episodes. Credited with twenty - four episodes, Kaling is the most prolific writer on the staff. Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant, who created the original British series, are credited as executive producers, and wrote the pilot and the third - season episode, "The Convict ''. Merchant later directed the episode "Customer Survey '' while Gervais appeared in the episodes "The Seminar '' and "Search Committee ''.
Randall Einhorn is the most frequent director of the series, with 15 credited episodes. The series also had several guest directors, including Lost co-creator J.J. Abrams, Buffy the Vampire Slayer creator Joss Whedon, both of whom are fans of the series, and filmmakers Jon Favreau, Harold Ramis, Jason Reitman, and Marc Webb. Episodes have been directed by several of the actors on the show including Steve Carell, John Krasinski, Rainn Wilson, Ed Helms, and Brian Baumgartner.
Prior to the second episode airing, the writers spent time researching in offices. This process was used for Daniels ' other series King of the Hill and Parks and Recreation. The pilot is a direct adaptation of the first episode of the original British series. Daniels chose to go this route because, "completely starting from scratch would be a very risky thing to do '' due to the show being an adaptation. He had briefly considered using the idea for "The Dundies '' as the pilot episode. After the writers knew who the cast was, they were allowed to write for the actors, which allowed the show to be more original for the following episode, "Diversity Day ''. Following the mixed reaction towards the first season, the writers attempted to make the series more "optimistic '' and to make Michael Scott more likable. They also established the supporting characters of the series more, giving them actual personalities. They also made the lights in the office brighter, which allowed the series to differentiate itself from the British series.
A common problem with the scripts, according to Novak, is that they tend to run too long for the regular 22 - minute time slot, leading to several cuts. For example, the script for the episode "Search Committee '' was initially 75 pages -- 10 pages too long. A complete script is written for each episode; however, actors are given opportunities to improvise during the shooting process. Fischer said, "Our shows are 100 percent scripted. They put everything down on paper. But we get to play around a little bit, too. Steve and Rainn are brilliant improvisers. '' This leads to a large number of deleted scenes with almost every episode of The Office, all of which are considered part of the show 's canon and storyline by Daniels. Deleted scenes have sometimes been restored in repeats to make episodes longer or draw back people who have seen the episode before to see the bonus footage. In an experiment, a deleted scene from "The Return '' was made available over NBC.com and iTunes, explaining the absence of a character over the next several episodes. Daniels hoped that word of mouth among fans would spread the information, but eventually considered the experiment a failure.
According to Jenna Fischer, the series used an unusual casting process which did not involve a script. The producers would ask the actors several questions and they would respond as the characters they were auditioning for. NBC programmer Kevin Reilly originally suggested Paul Giamatti to producer Ben Silverman for the role of Michael Scott, but the actor declined. Martin Short, Hank Azaria, and Bob Odenkirk were reported to be interested in the part. In January 2004, Variety reported that Steve Carell, of the Comedy Central program The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, was in talks to play the role. At the time, he was already committed to another NBC mid-season replacement comedy, Come to Papa, but the series was quickly canceled, allowing his full commitment to The Office. Carell later stated that he had only seen about half of the original pilot episode of the British series before he auditioned. He did not continue watching for fear that he would start copying Gervais ' characterizations. Other people who were considered or auditioned for the role included Ben Falcone, Alan Tudyk, Jim Zulevic, and Paul F. Tompkins. Rainn Wilson was cast as power - hungry sycophant Dwight Schrute, and he watched every episode of the British series before he auditioned. Wilson had originally auditioned for Michael, a performance that he described as a "terrible Ricky Gervais impersonation ''; however, the casting directors liked his audition as Dwight much more and hired him. Seth Rogen, Matt Besser, Patton Oswalt, and Judah Friedlander also auditioned for the role.
John Krasinski and Jenna Fischer were virtually unknown before being cast in their respective roles as Jim and Pam, the central love interests. Krasinski had attended school with B.J. Novak, and the two were friends. Fischer prepared for her audition by looking as boring as possible, creating the original Pam hairstyle. In an interview on NPR 's Fresh Air, Fischer recalled the last stages of the audition process for Pam and Jim, with the producers partnering the different potential Pams and Jims (four of each) together to gauge their chemistry. When Fischer finished her scene with Krasinski, he told her that she was his favorite Pam, to which she reciprocated that he was her favorite Jim. Adam Scott and John Cho both auditioned for the role of Jim, and Kathryn Hahn also auditioned for the role of Pam.
The supporting cast includes actors known for their improv work: Angela Kinsey, Kate Flannery, Oscar Nunez, Leslie David Baker, Brian Baumgartner, Melora Hardin, and David Denman. Kinsey had originally auditioned for Pam. The producers thought she was "too feisty '' for the character, but they called her back for the part of Angela Martin, which she won. Flannery first auditioned for the part of Jan Levinson - Gould, before landing the role of Meredith Palmer. Baumgartner originally auditioned for Stanley, but was eventually cast as Kevin. Ken Kwapis, the director of the pilot episode, liked the way Phyllis Smith, a casting associate, read with other actors auditioning so much that he cast her as Phyllis. At the beginning of the third season, Ed Helms and Rashida Jones joined the cast as members of Dunder Mifflin Stamford. While Jones would later leave the cast for a role on Parks and Recreation, in February 2007, NBC announced that Helms was being promoted to a series regular.
Four of the show 's writers have also performed in front of the camera. B.J. Novak was cast as reluctant temp Ryan Howard after Daniels saw his stand - up act. Paul Lieberstein was cast as human resources director Toby Flenderson on Novak 's suggestion after his cold readings of scripts. Greg Daniels was originally unsure where to use Mindy Kaling on - screen in the series until the opportunity came in the script for the second episode, "Diversity Day '', where Michael needed to be slapped by a minority. "Since (that slap), I 've been on the show '' (as Kelly Kapoor), says Kaling. Michael Schur has also made occasional appearances as Dwight 's cousin Mose, and consulting producer Larry Wilmore has played diversity trainer Mr. Brown. Plans were made for Mackenzie Crook, Martin Freeman, and Lucy Davis, from the British series, to appear in the third season, but those plans were scrapped due to scheduling conflicts.
The Office was filmed with a single - camera setup in a cinéma vérité allowing the look of an actual documentary, with no studio audience or laugh track, allowing its "deadpan '' and "absurd '' humor to fully come across. The primary vehicle for the show is that a camera crew has decided to film Dunder Mifflin and its employees, seemingly around the clock. The presence of the camera is acknowledged by the characters, especially Michael Scott, who enthusiastically participates in the filming. The characters, especially Jim and Pam, also look towards the camera when Michael creates an awkward situation. The main action of the show is supplemented with talking - head interviews or "confessionals '' in which characters speak one on one with the camera crew about the day 's events. Actor John Krasinski shot the footage of Scranton for the opening credits after he found out he was cast as Jim. He visited Scranton for research and interviewed employees at actual paper companies.
In order to get the feel of an actual documentary, the producers hired cinematographer Randall Einhorn, who is known for directing episodes of Survivor, which allowed the show to have the feel of "rough and jumpy '' like an actual documentary. According to producer Michael Schur, the producers to the series would follow the documentary format strictly. The producers would have long discussions over whether a scene could work under the documentary format. For example, in the fourth - season episode "Did I Stutter?, '' a scene featured Michael going through a long process to go to the bathroom and not pass by Stanley. The producers debated whether that was possible and Einhorn walked through the whole scene in order to see if a camera man could get to all the places in time to shoot the whole scene. Despite the strict nature in the early years of the series, later seasons seem to have loosened the rules on the format, with the camera crew often going into places that actual documentary crews would not, which also changed the writing and comedy - style of the series. This inconsistency has received criticism from critics and fans.
The theme song for The Office was written by Jay Ferguson and performed by The Scrantones. It is played over the title sequence, which features scenes of Scranton, various tasks around the office and the main cast members. Some episodes of the series use a shortened version of the theme song. Starting with the fourth season, the theme song is played over the closing credits, which previously rolled in silence. The exteriors of buildings in the title sequence are actual buildings in Scranton, Pennsylvania, and were shot by cast member John Krasinski. The mockumentary format of the show contains no laugh track, and most of the music is diegetic, with songs either sung or played by the characters or heard on radios, computers, or other devices. However, songs have been played during montages or the closing credits, such as "Tiny Dancer '' by Elton John ("The Dundies '') and "Islands in the Stream '' by Kenny Rogers and Dolly Parton ("E-mail Surveillance ''). Featured music tends to be well known, and often songs reflect the character, such as Michael 's attempt to seem hip by using "Mambo No. 5 '' and later "My Humps '' as his cell phone ringtone. Daniels has said that it does not count as film score as long as it already appeared in the episode.
The Office employs an ensemble cast. Many characters portrayed by The Office cast are based on the original British series. While these characters normally have the same attitude and perceptions as their British counterparts, the roles have been redesigned to better fit the American show. The show is known for its generally large cast size, with many of its actors and actresses known particularly for their improvisational work. Steve Carell stars as Michael Scott, Regional Manager of the Dunder Mifflin Scranton Branch. Loosely based on David Brent, Gervais ' character in the British series, Scott is a well - intentioned man whose attempts at humor, while seemingly innocent to himself, often offend and annoy his peers and employees, and in some situations lead to reprimanding from his superiors. Rainn Wilson portrays Dwight Schrute, who, based upon Gareth Keenan, is a salesman and the Assistant to the Regional Manager, a fictional title created by Michael. John Krasinski portrays Jim Halpert, a salesman and, in later seasons, co-manager who is often known for his wittiness and his hijinks on Schrute (often accompanied by Pam Beesly). Halpert is based upon Tim Canterbury, and is known to have feelings for Pam, the receptionist. Pam, played by Jenna Fischer, is based on Dawn Tinsley. She is shy, but in many cases a cohort with Jim in his pranks on Dwight. B.J. Novak portrays Ryan Howard, who for the first two seasons is a temporary worker, but is promoted to sales representative in the third season. He later ascends to the position of Vice President, North East Region and Director of New Media until his treachery was exposed for corporate fraud and he was fired. After this, he gets a job in a bowling alley and then briefly works for the Michael Scott Paper Company. After all this, and a stint in rehab, he eventually ends up again as the temporary worker at the Scranton branch.
The accounting department features Angela Martin, an admitted uptight and hypocritical woman who wishes to keep things orderly and make sure situations remain as serious as possible; Kevin Malone, a lovable, but dim - witted man who revels in juvenile humor and frequently indulges himself with gambling and M&Ms; and Oscar Martinez, who is intelligent but often patronizing and whose homosexuality and Hispanic heritage made him a favorite target for Michael 's unintentional off - color comments. Rounding out the office are the stern salesman Stanley Hudson, who barely stood for Michael 's constant references to his Black - American heritage (he also does n't like to take part in time wasting meetings and sometimes sleeps in them or works on crossword puzzles); eccentric quality assurance representative Creed Bratton; the kind and caring saleswoman Phyllis Lapin - Vance, who marries Bob Vance from Vance Refrigeration across the hall from the office; Andy Bernard, a salesman introduced in season three after the closing of the Stamford, Connecticut branch of Dunder Mifflin and the merging of the two; the bubbly and talkative customer service representative Kelly Kapoor; the promiscuous alcoholic supply relations representative Meredith Palmer; human resources representative Toby Flenderson, who is admittedly hated by, and often the target of abuse by Michael Scott; warehouse foreman Darryl Philbin; Warehouse dock worker and Pam 's ex-fiancé Roy Anderson, who was fired in the third season; and Michael 's former love interest and former Vice President for Regional Sales for Dunder Mifflin Jan Levinson (Jan Levinson - Gould until her divorce in season 2).
Toward the end of season five, the bubbly and naive Erin Hannon is introduced as Pam 's replacement at reception following Pam 's short stint at the Michael Scott Paper Company and her subsequent move to sales. A story arc at the end of season four has Holly Flax transferred to the office as Toby 's replacement. She acts as a love interest for Michael, as they share very similar personalities. Jo Bennett is the CEO of Sabre and Gabe Lewis, introduced in the middle of season six, is a Sabre employee who is assigned to the Dunder Mifflin Scranton branch as the Regional Director of Sales. In season nine Clark Green and Pete Miller joined as two new customer service representatives to attempt to catch up on the ignored customer services complaints that Kelly had dismissed while she worked at Dunder Mifflin. Clark is later moved to sales.
Initially the actors who portray the other office workers were credited as guest stars before they were named series regulars during the second season. The show 's large ensemble has been mainly praised by critics and led to the series winning two Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series. Carell was reportedly paid $175,000 per episode starting with the third season. Krasinski and Fischer were paid around $20,000 for the beginning of the series. Starting with the fourth season, the two started getting paid around $100,000 per episode.
A typical episode for a half - hour time slot runs 20 - and - a-half minutes. The final episode of season two introduces the first of what would be several super-sized episodes that are approximately 28 - minute running time for a 40 - minute time slot. Season three introduces the first of occasional hour - long episodes (approximately 42 - minute running time; suitable for being shown as two separate normal episodes).
The first season consists of six episodes.
The series starts by introducing the office 's workers via a tour given by the branch manager Michael Scott for both the camera crew and a first - day temp Ryan Howard. The audience learns salesman Jim Halpert has a crush on receptionist Pam Beesly, who helps him play pranks on co-worker Dwight Schrute, even though she is engaged to Roy, who works in the building 's lower - level warehouse. News spreads throughout the office that Dunder Mifflin 's corporate headquarters is planning to downsize an entire branch, leading to general anxiety, but Michael chooses to deny or downplay the realities of the situation in order to maintain employee morale.
The second season is the series ' first 22 - episode season, and has its first 40 - minute "super-sized '' episode.
Many workers seen in the background of the first season are developed into secondary characters, and romantic relationships begin to develop between some of the characters. Michael spends the night with his boss Jan, in the wake of the latter 's divorce, but does not sleep with her. Dwight and Angela become romantically involved, but keep the relationship a secret from everyone else. Kelly develops a crush on Ryan, and they start dating. When Roy sets a date for his wedding to Pam, Jim grows depressed and considers transferring to the Stamford, Connecticut branch, but tells Pam in the season finale that he loves her, even though Pam still insists she will marry Roy. The two kiss, but Jim transfers to the Stamford branch soon after. The general threat of downsizing continues throughout the season as well.
The third season consists of 17 half - hour episodes, four 40 - minute "super-sized '' episodes, and two one - hour episodes.
The season starts with a brief flashback to the last episode of season 2, "Casino Night '', when Jim kissed Pam and confessed his feelings for her. Jim briefly transfers to Stamford branch after Pam confirms her commitment to Roy. Corporate is later forced to merge the Stamford branch and staff into the Scranton branch. Michael takes this merger very seriously. Included in the transfer to Scranton are Karen Filippelli, with whom Jim has developed a relationship, and the anger - prone Andy Bernard. The rest of the Stamford branch are irrelevant considering they all quit within the first few episodes of them being there. Pam is newly single after calling off her marriage and relationship to Roy prior to the merger, and Jim 's unresolved feelings for her and new relationship with Karen lead to shifting tensions amongst the three. Meanwhile, Michael and Jan 's relationship escalates which causes them both to behave erratically on the job. On the other hand, Dwight and Angela continue their steamy secret relationship. In the season 's finale, Jim, Karen, and Michael interview for a corporate position that turns out to be Jan 's, who is fired that day for poor performance. Jim wins and rejects the offer off - screen, opting instead to return to Scranton without Karen and ask Pam out on a date, which she joyfully accepts. In the final scene, we learn Ryan has been awarded Jan 's job due to his business school credentials.
NBC ordered a full fourth season of 30 half - hour episodes, but ended with only 19 due to a halt in production caused by the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike. The season consists of 9 half - hour episodes, and 5 hour - long episodes to comprise the 19 total episodes of material created.
Karen has left the Scranton branch after her breakup with Jim, and becomes regional manager at the Utica branch. A self - employed Jan moves herself and her candle business in with Michael, until the dissolution of their relationship midway through the season. After Dwight 's crude (though well - intentioned) method of euthanasia of Angela 's ailing cat without her permission, she leaves him for Andy, leading Dwight into depression. Ryan, in his new corporate life in New York City, attempts to modernize Dunder Mifflin with a new website for online sales; he also learns that his boss, David Wallace, favors Jim, and thus Ryan attempts to sabotage Jim 's career. Ryan is soon arrested and fired for committing fraud related to the website 's sales numbers. Toby, embarrassed after accidentally revealing affection for Pam and resting his hand on her leg, announces he is moving to Costa Rica, and is replaced by Holly Flax, who quickly shows fondness towards Michael. In Holly 's first full episode, she is led to believe, by Dwight, that Kevin is suffering from some sort of intellectual disability. Pam decides to follow her artistic interests and attends a three - month graphic design course at the Pratt Institute in New York City. In the season finale Andy proposes to Angela, who reluctantly agrees. Phyllis then catches Dwight and Angela having steamy sex in the office.
The fifth season consists of 28 half - hours of material, divided into 24 half - hour episodes and two hour - long episodes, one of which aired after Super Bowl XLIII.
Jim proposes to Pam at a gas station halfway between them because he could not wait. Pam ultimately returns from New York to Scranton, where Jim has bought his parents ' house for the two of them. Having avoided jail and only been sentenced to community service, Ryan dyes his hair and starts working for a bowling alley. Michael initiates a romance with Holly until she is transferred to the Nashua, New Hampshire branch and the relationship ends. When Andy is made aware of Dwight and Angela 's continued affair, both men leave her. Newly hired Vice President Charles Miner implements a rigid managerial style over the branch that causes Michael to resign in protest. Michael opens the Michael Scott Paper Company, enticing Pam and Ryan to join as salespeople, and though his business model is ultimately unsustainable, Dunder Mifflin 's profits are immediately threatened. The members of the Michael Scott Paper Company enjoy throwing cheese balls into each other 's mouths and they have a morning cheer to boost morale. In a buyout of the Michael Scott Paper Company, the three are rehired with Pam promoted to sales and Ryan returning as a temp. During the chaos, new receptionist Erin is hired to fill the vacancy originally left by Pam. The season ends with a scene that obviously announces Pam 's pregnancy.
The sixth season consists of 26 half - hours of material, divided into 22 half - hour episodes and two hour - long episodes.
Jim and Pam marry and have a baby named Cecelia Marie Halpert. Meanwhile, Andy and Erin develop mutual interest in one another, but find their inherent awkwardness inhibits his attempts to ask her out on a date. Rumors of bankruptcy begin to surround Dunder Mifflin, and by Christmas, Wallace announces to the branch that Dunder Mifflin has accepted a buyout from Sabre Corporation, a printer company. While Wallace and other executives are let go, the Scranton office survives due to its relative success within the company. In the season finale, Dwight buys the office park. Michael agrees to make an announcement to the press regarding a case of faulty printers. When Jo Bennet, Sabre CEO, asks how she can repay him, Michael responds that she could bring Holly back to the Scranton branch.
The seventh season consists of 26 half - hours of material, divided into 21 half - hour episodes, one "super-sized '' episode, and two hour - long episodes.
This is the final season for Steve Carell, who plays the lead character Michael Scott, as Carell wanted to move on after his contract expired during this season. Beginning with this season, Zach Woods, who portrays Gabe Lewis, was promoted to a series regular. Erin and Gabe have begun a relationship, much to Andy 's chagrin, and Andy attempts to win Erin 's affection back. Michael 's former girlfriend, Holly returns to Scranton to fill in for Toby who is doing jury duty for the "Scranton Strangler '' trial. Michael and Holly eventually restart their relationship. After the two get engaged, Michael then reveals he will be leaving Scranton to go to Colorado with Holly in order to support her elderly parents. Angela starts dating the Senator, while Pam and Jim are still adjusting to parenthood. After Michael 's replacement (Will Ferrell) is seriously injured, Jo creates a search committee to interview candidates and choose a new manager for the office.
The eighth season consists of 24 episodes.
James Spader reprises his role as Robert California, the new CEO of Dunder Mifflin / Sabre. Andy is then promoted to Regional Manager and works hard to make a good impression on Robert, and asks Dwight to be his number two. Pam and Jim are expecting their second child, Phillip, at the start of the season, to coincide with Fischer 's real life pregnancy. Angela is pregnant with her first son, also named Philip, with State Senator Robert Lipton (although it is implied that Dwight Schrute is actually the child 's biological father). Darryl starts falling for new warehouse foreman Val. Dwight is tasked with traveling to Tallahassee, Florida in order to assist Sabre Special Projects Manager Nellie Bertram (Catherine Tate) in launching a chain of retail stores, along with Jim, Ryan, Stanley, Erin, and new office temp Cathy Simms. Cathy is also revealed to have ulterior motives for the trip, as she intends to seduce Jim, but fails. Robert later kills the retail store project, and Erin decides to stay in Florida as an elderly woman 's live - in helper. Andy goes to Florida and wins back Erin, but this allows Nellie to claim the manager position as her own. Robert tells Andy that he has been demoted back to a salesman, but he refuses to accept the news, which causes him to be fired. Andy becomes motivated to begin a Dunder Mifflin comeback and joins with former CFO, David Wallace, to buy Dunder Mifflin back from Sabre, putting Sabre completely out of business and giving Andy the manager position once again.
The final season consists of 25 episodes.
Andy, recently returning from Outward Bound manager 's training, reverts to his arrogant earlier season personality, abandoning both Erin and the office to travel around the Caribbean with his brother. In his absence, Erin strikes up a romance with new customer service rep Pete, who along with Clark, another new character, replaces Kelly, who left for Ohio with her new husband (Ryan also moves to Ohio for "unrelated reasons ''). Meanwhile, Jim receives an exciting opportunity from an old college friend, who offers him a job at Athlead, a sports marketing company based in Philadelphia. Darryl also jumps on board, but the distance and dedication to Athlead hurts Jim 's relationship with Pam. Angela also must deal with her husband 's infidelity with Oscar. She also deals with her lingering attraction to Dwight, who inherits his family 's beet farm. Dwight receives more good news when David Wallace handpicks him to be the new manager after Andy quits to pursue an acting career, which quickly ends when he embarrasses himself at an a cappella singing competition that turns into a viral web sensation. Dwight later makes Jim his Assistant to the Regional Manager and the two officially end their grudge. After Jim reconciles with Pam, choosing to stay in Scranton over Philadelphia, Dwight professes his love for Angela, and finally marries her. In the series finale, taking place one year after the release of the documentary, the employees reunite for Dwight and Angela 's wedding, for which Michael returns (with help from Jim who was the person Dwight first asked to be his best man) to serve as the best man. Kelly and Ryan run away together, Nellie now lives in Poland and "adopts '' Ryan 's abandoned baby, Erin meets her birth parents, Andy gets a job at Cornell, Stanley retires to Florida, Kevin and Toby are both fired with the former buying a bar and the latter moving to New York City to become an author, Oscar runs for State Senate, Jim and Pam, at her persuasion, move to Austin to open a new branch of Athleap (previously Athlead) with Darryl (Dwight "fires '' them to give them both severance packages), and Creed is arrested for his many crimes.
The Office has had product placement deals with Staples and the Olympic balers, as well as mentioning in dialogue or displaying clear logos for products such as Sandals Resorts, HP, Apple, and Gateway computers, and Activision 's Call of Duty video game series. In "The Merger '', Kevin Malone uses a Staples - branded shredding machine to shred a Staples - branded CD - R and many other non-paper items, including a salad. As with HP, Cisco Systems, a supplier of networking and telephone equipment, pays for product placement, which can be seen on close - up shots of the Cisco IP Telephones. Some products have additional branding labels attached; this can be clearly seen with the HP photo printer on Toby 's desk in season 6, and less noticeably with the Cisco phones. In "The Secret '' Michael takes Jim to Hooters to discuss Jim 's feelings for Pam.
Many products featured are not part of product placement agreements, but rather inserted by writers as products the characters would use to create realism under the guise of a documentary. Chili 's restaurants were used for filming in "The Dundies '' and "The Client '', as the writers believed they were realistic choices for a company party and business lunch. Though not an explicit product placement, the producers of the show had to allow Chili 's to have final approval of the script before filming, causing a scene of "The Dundies '' to be hastily rewritten when the chain objected to the original version. Apple Inc. received over four minutes of publicity for the iPod when it was used as a much - desired gift in "Christmas Party '', though the company did not pay for the placement. The travel website TripAdvisor.com was featured during Season 4 when after a visit to Dwight 's "agritourism '' bed and breakfast, Schrute Farms, Jim and Pam post an online review about their stay. The show reportedly approached the travel review website about using their name on the show and TripAdvisor set up a review page for the fictional B&B which itself received hundreds of reviews. The appearance of Second Life in the episode "Local Ad '' was rated eighth in the top ten most effective product placements of 2007.
Before the show aired, Ricky Gervais acknowledged that there were feelings of hesitation from certain viewers. The first season of The Office was met with a mixed response from critics with some of them comparing it to the short - lived NBC series Coupling which was also based on a British version. The New York Daily News called it "so diluted there 's little left but muddy water, '' and USA Today called it a "passable imitation of a miles - better BBC original. '' A Guardian Unlimited review panned its lack of originality, stating, "(Steve Carell) just seems to be trying too hard... Maybe in later episodes when it deviates from Gervais and Merchant 's script, he 'll come into his own. But right now he 's a pale imitation. '' Tom Shales of the Washington Post said it was "not the mishmash that (Americanized version of Coupling) turned out to be, but again the quality of the original show causes the remake to look dim, like when the copying machine is just about to give out. ''
-- Travis Fickett of IGN in June 2007
The second season was better received. James Poniewozik of Time remarked, "Producer Greg Daniels created not a copy but an interpretation that sends up distinctly American work conventions... with a tone that 's more satiric and less mordant... The new boss is different from the old boss, and that 's fine by me. '' He named it the second best TV show of 2006 after Battlestar Galactica. Entertainment Weekly writer Mark Harris echoed these sentiments a week later, stating, "Thanks to the fearless Steve Carell, an ever - stronger supporting cast, and scripts that spew American corporate absurdist vernacular with perfect pitch, this undervalued remake does the near impossible -- it honors Ricky Gervais ' original and works on its own terms. '' The A.V. Club reviewer Nathan Rabin expressed its views on the show 's progression: "After a rocky start, The Office improved immeasurably, instantly becoming one of TV 's funniest, sharpest shows. The casting of Steve Carell in the Gervais role proved to be a masterstroke. The American Office is that rarest of anomalies: a remake of a classic show that both does right by its source and carves out its own strong identity. ''
The series has been included on several top TV series lists. The show placed # 61 on Entertainment Weekly 's "New TV Classics '' list. Time 's James Poniewozik named it the second best TV series of 2006, and the sixth best returning series of 2007, out of ten TV series. He also included it on his "The 100 Best TV Shows of All - TIME '' list. The show was also named the best show of 2006 by BuddyTV. while Paste named it the sixth best sitcom of 2010. In 2013, the Writers Guild of America placed it at # 66 on their list of 101 Best Written TV Series.
The show has some superficial similarities to the comic strip Dilbert, which also features employees coping with an inept superior. John Spector, CEO of The Conference Board, says that both show the impact a leader can have, for good or bad. Dilbert creator Scott Adams also touts the similarities: "The lesson from The Office and from Dilbert is that people are often dysfunctional, and no amount of training can fix it. '' A labor - affiliated group praised the episode "Boys and Girls '' for what it considered an unusually frank depiction of union busting on American television. Metacritic, a review aggregation website, only graded the first, third, sixth, and final seasons. However, it denoted that all four of them received "generally favorable reviews '' from critics, awarding a 61, 85, 78, and 64 score -- out of 100 -- to each of them, respectively. It later named it the thirteenth most mentioned series on "Best of Decade '' top - ten lists.
-- Alan Sepinwall of HitFix in September 2011, during the show 's eighth season.
The last few seasons were criticized for a dip in quality. The sixth season received criticisms for a lack of stakes for the characters. Other critics and fans have also criticized the dragging out of the Jim and Pam romance. The Office co-creator Ricky Gervais wrote in his blog, referring to "Search Committee, '' particularly Warren Buffett 's guest appearance, "If you 're going to jump a shark, jump a big one '', and compared the episode to the Chris Martin episode of Gervais 's other series, Extras (although he later said on his website, "I fucking did n't (diss The Office), that 's for sure ''). Some critics said the series should have ended after the departure of Steve Carell. In an IAmA interview on Reddit, Rainn Wilson felt that the eighth season possessed some mistakes "creatively '', such as the chemistry between Spader and Helms, which he called "a bit dark '' and argued that the show should have gone for a "brighter and more energized '' relationship. Despite this, there are later - series episodes that have received critical acclaim, including "Stress Relief '', "Niagara '', "Garage Sale '', "Goodbye, Michael '', "Dwight Christmas '', "A.A.R.M. '', and "Finale ''.
The series received 42 Primetime Emmy Awards nominations, with five wins. It won for Outstanding Comedy Series in season two, Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series (Greg Daniels for "Gay Witch Hunt ''), Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series (Jeffrey Blitz for "Stress Relief '') and Outstanding Single - Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series (David Rogers and Claire Scanlon for "Finale ''). Many cast and crew members have expressed anger that Carell did not receive an Emmy award for his performance in the series. Despite this, Carell won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Television Comedy or Musical in 2006. The series was also named the best TV series by the American Film Institute in 2006 and 2008, won two Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series in 2006 and 2007 and won a Peabody Award in 2006.
Premiering on Thursday, March 24, 2005, after an episode of The Apprentice on NBC, The Office brought in 11.2 million viewers in the U.S., winning its time slot. When NBC moved the series to its intended Tuesday night slot, it lost nearly half its audience with only 5.9 million viewers. The program averaged 5.4 million viewers, ranking it # 102 for the 2004 -- 05 U.S. television season. "Hot Girl '', the first season 's finale, rated a 2.2 with a 10 audience measurement share. Episodes were also rerun on CNBC.
As the second season started, the success of Carell 's hit summer movie The 40 - Year - Old Virgin and online sales of episodes at iTunes helped the show. The increase in viewership led NBC to move the series to the "Must See TV '' Thursday night in January 2006, where ratings continued to grow. By the 2005 -- 06 season, it placed # 67 (tied with 20 / 20). It averaged 8 million viewers with a 4.0 / 10 rating / share among viewers ages 18 -- 49, and was up 80 % in viewers from the year before and up 60 % in viewers ages 18 -- 49. The series ranked as NBC 's highest rated scripted series during its run. The highest rated episode of the series was "Stress Relief '', which was watched by 22.9 million viewers. This episode was aired right after Super Bowl XLIII. While later seasons dropped in the ratings, the show was still one of NBC 's highest rated shows, and in October 2011 it was reported that it cost $178,840 per - 30 second commercial, the most for any NBC scripted series.
The city of Scranton, long known mainly for its industrial past as a coal mining and rail center, has embraced, and ultimately has been redefined by the show. "We 're really hip now, '' says the mayor 's assistant. The Dunder Mifflin logo is on a lamppost banner in front of Scranton City Hall, as well as the pedestrian bridge to The Mall at Steamtown. The Pennsylvania Paper & Supply Company, whose tower is shown in the opening credits, plans to add it to the tower as well. Newspapers in other Northeastern cities have published travel guides to Scranton locations for tourists interested in visiting places mentioned in the show. Scranton has become identified with the show outside the United States as well. In a 2008 St. Patrick 's Day speech in its suburb of Dickson City, former Taoiseach (Irish prime minister) Bertie Ahern identified the city as the home of Dunder Mifflin.
The inaugural The Office convention was held downtown in October 2007. Notable landmarks, some of which have been settings for the show, that served as venues include the University of Scranton, the Radisson Lackawanna Station Hotel and the Mall at Steamtown. Cast appearances were made by B.J. Novak, Ed Helms, Oscar Nunez, Angela Kinsey, Brian Baumgartner, Leslie David Baker, Mindy Kaling, Craig Robinson, Melora Hardin, Phyllis Smith, Creed Bratton, Kate Flannery, Bobby Ray Shafer, and Andy Buckley. Writer appearances, besides Novak and Kaling, were made by Greg Daniels, Michael Schur, Jennifer Celotta, Lee Eisenberg, Gene Stupnitsky, Justin Spitzer, Anthony Ferrell, Ryan Koh, Lester Lewis, and Jason Kessler. Not present were writer - actor Paul Lieberstein (who was originally going to make an appearance), Steve Carell, John Krasinski, Rainn Wilson, and Jenna Fischer.
On an episode of The Daily Show, Republican presidential candidate John McCain, reportedly a devoted fan of the show, jokingly told Jon Stewart he might take Dwight Schrute as his running mate. Rainn Wilson later accepted on Dwight Schrute 's behalf while on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. After the airing of "Garage Sale '', Colorado governor John Hickenlooper issued a press release appointing Michael Scott to the position of Director of Paper Distribution in the Department of Natural Resources.
The show is often paid tribute by the band Relient K. Band member Matt Thiessen is a fan of The Office, and, during concerts, will often perform a self - described "love song '' about the series, titled "The Ballad of Dunder Mifflin '', followed by him and the band playing the show 's opening theme.
Aside from NBC, The Office has gone into off - network syndication in the United States. It previously ran on local stations and TBS. After a few years absent from conventional television, it was announced in December 2017 that Comedy Central had picked up the entire series, for its second syndication cycle. Comedy Central will start airing The Office on January 15, 2018. In the United Kingdom, the show was named in listings magazines (but not onscreen) as The Office: An American Workplace when it was originally aired on ITV2.
Episodes from The Office were among the first shows available for download from the iTunes Store beginning in December 2005. In 2006, ten internet - exclusive webisodes featuring some of the characters on The Office aired on NBC.com. "Producer 's Cuts '' (containing approximately ten additional minutes of material) of the episodes "Branch Closing '' and "The Return '' were also made available on NBC.com. The Office also became available for download from Amazon. com 's Unbox video downloads in 2006. Sales of new The Office episodes on iTunes ceased in 2007 due to a dispute between NBC and Apple ostensibly over pricing. As of September 9, 2008 The Office was put back on the iTunes Store, and can be bought in HD and Regular format. Netflix also offers the show for online viewing by subscribers, in addition to traditional DVD rental. The Office is also available on Microsofts Zune Marketplace. On December 13, 2017, Comedy Central announced that they had acquired all nine seasons of the show from NBCUniversal in a non-exclusive deal, and some episodes will be made available to stream on Comedy Central 's official website and mobile app after January 15, 2018.
Of the 12.4 million total viewings of "Fun Run '', the fourth season 's premiere, 2.7 million, or 22 %, were on a computer via online streaming. "The Office '', said The New York Times, "is on the leading edge of a sharp shift in entertainment viewing that was thought to be years away: watching television episodes on a computer screen is now a common activity for millions of consumers. '' It was particularly popular with online viewers, an NBC researcher said, because as an episode - driven sitcom without special effects it was easy to watch on smaller monitors such as those found on laptops and iPods. Between the online viewings and those who use digital video recorders, 25 -- 50 % of the show 's viewers watch it after its scheduled airtime.
The show 's Internet success became an issue in the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike. Daniels and many of the cast members who double as writers posted a video to YouTube shortly after the strike began, pointing out how little, if any, they received in residuals from online and DVD viewing. "You 're watching this on the Internet, a thing that pays us zero dollars, '' Schur said. "We 're supposed to get 11 cents for every two trillion downloads. '' The writers were particularly upset that they were n't compensated for the Daytime Emmy Award - winning summer webisodes "The Accountants '', which NBC considered promotional material despite the embedded commercials.
The show 's success has resulted in expansion outside of television. Characters have appeared in promotional materials for NBC, and a licensed video game -- The Office -- was released in 2007. In 2008 two games were introduced via Pressman Toy Corp: The Office Trivia Board Game and The Office DVD Board Game. In 2009, The Office Clue was released, and The Office Monopoly was released in 2010. Other merchandise, from T - shirts and a bobblehead doll of Dwight Schrute to more office - specific items such as Dunder Mifflin copy paper and parodies of the Successories motivational poster series featuring the cast are available. Dunder Mifflin has two websites, and the cast members maintain blogs both as themselves and in character.
Several members of the cast maintained blogs. These include Jenna Fischer, Angela Kinsey, and Brian Baumgartner, who posted regularly during the season. Rainn Wilson wrote in character on "Schrute Space '' on NBC.com, which is updated periodically. However, he stopped writing the blog himself. It is unknown whether Creed Bratton authors "Creed Thoughts '', the blog attributed to his character.
A spin - off to the series was proposed in 2008, with a pilot episode expected to debut as the Super Bowl lead - out program in 2009. However, The Office 's creative team instead decided to develop Parks and Recreation as a separate series.
Another spin - off starring Rainn Wilson as Dwight Schrute running a bed - and - breakfast and beet farm, titled The Farm, was proposed in early 2012. In October 2012, however, NBC decided not to go forward with the series. The backdoor pilot episode instead aired as part of the ninth and final season of The Office on March 14, 2013.
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diary of wimpy kid the long haul cast | Diary of a Wimpy Kid: the Long Haul (film) - wikipedia
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul (sometimes known as Diary of a Wimpy Kid 4: The Long Haul) is a 2017 American family road comedy film directed by David Bowers. It is the fourth installment in the Diary of a Wimpy Kid film series, and is based on the ninth and tenth books in the series, The Long Haul and Old School, and one element based on the eighth book Hard Luck. Despite not being a reboot, the cast members from the first three films do not reprise their roles, as they are replaced by a new cast. It was theatrically released on May 19, 2017, by 20th Century Fox. The film grossed $40 million on a $22 million budget.
One year after the previous film, while at the Corny 's family restaurant, the Heffley family plans to attend Meemaw 's 90th birthday. However, after Greg rescues his younger brother Manny, who got stuck inside a tube in the play area, Greg ends up in a ball pit with a diaper stuck on his hand. He subsequently becomes infamous after the people around him record him and post the footage on the internet, leading Greg to be dubbed as "Diaper Hands ''.
Later, at the Heffley residence, Greg learns that Player Expo is taking place not very far from Meemaw 's house in Indianapolis. Greg 's gaming star, Mac Digby, will be attending, and Greg hopes to meet him and get in one of his videos so he will gain popularity. He acknowledges that he will have to somehow sneak off from the road trip and attend the Expo without his parents ' knowledge, however. The Heffley family hits the road, where Greg, Rodrick, Frank, and Manny 's devices are immediately confiscated by Susan, who wants the road trip to be "absolutely technology - free. ''
After arriving at a motel, Greg discreetly gets into the Sienna and takes his phone out of the bag Susan had put it in and plans to use it. Later, when Greg and Rodrick are relaxing in the hot tub, Rodrick hears a notification from Greg 's phone and discovers his plans to go to Player Expo. Greg discourages Rodrick from telling Susan, saying that they had a rock band video game tournament there that Rodrick could participate in. Liking the idea, Rodrick opts to go with Greg to the Expo. Greg later encounters a family, whom he nicknames "the Beardos '' due to the father 's long beard, after being annoyed by a loud noise created by the Beardo siblings, who are playing with a cart, and storms out of the room in his underwear. He confronts them but Brandi, the eldest sibling, rolls the trolley into their Sienna, leaving a huge scratch. Just as Mr. Beardo comes out of his motel room, Brandi blames Greg for the damage and Mr. Beardo goes after him but he escapes. Mr Beardo just in the purple van the purple van is actually the Toyota Sienna 2006 XLE 4WD with Texas license plates their Sienna XLE 1999 has California license plates the 2006 Sienna has only Lone Star State license plates while Dad 's Sienna is 2WWS124. The next day, the Heffleys attend a county fair where Manny wins a pig. Mr. Beardo and his family notices Greg and begins chasing after him but manages to outrun yet again. Back on the road, the Heffleys, unable to take care of the pig, drop it off at the petting zoo, much to Manny 's dismay, But before Greg reroutes the AHA app GPS to the Player Expo convention. Checking at the hotel room, Greg and Rodrick sneak out to go to Player Expo. However, after Frank and Susan see their sons on live TV, they go to get the boys themselves.
Upon Greg sees Mac Digby participating in a video game competition, Greg instructs Rodrick to record him going up on stage with Mac so his popularity will boost, but the attempt fails when Susan storms into the stage and inadvertently reveals that he is Diaper Hands to the public. Susan opens up to Greg and says that all she wanted was a nice road trip that would bring the family closer together, and she accuses Greg of not caring. Infuriated, Greg snaps back at Susan, saying that she does n't care about what he loves, which is why he had to sneak out to the Expo in the first place. Hurt by her son 's words, Susan hands her phone to Greg because she does n't care anymore.
After encountering the Beardos and other obstacles on the road, the Heffleys celebrate happily at Meemaw 's. Returning home, Manny manages to get the pig back. At the end, Greg explains that although the road trip was n't perfect, he still would n't change a thing. He says that Manny was allowed to keep his pig as a pet, Rodrick was able to get a Toyota Sienna 2018 Limited AWD and Dad was able to explain having time off from work to bond with family. Greg expresses excitement for where they 'll be going next year, but Susan steps in to say they will be flying.
In a mid-credits scene, two girls take selfies with Greg, who they recognize as Diaper Hands.
In 2012, the series ' third entry, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days was described as the last live action film in the franchise. In August 2012, while doing press for the film, author Jeff Kinney and actors Zachary Gordon and Robert Capron each indicated that there were no plans for a fourth movie, but did not dismiss the possibility entirely.
Kinney replied to inquiries regarding the possibility of another sequel, stating, "At present, we do n't have a fourth film in development, but you never know! '' When describing the likelihood of starring in another film in the series, Gordon explained, "Dog Days most likely will be the last movie. The main problem is (the cast) is getting older. You ca n't stop it. There 's no way to temporarily stop us from changing and growing up. You know, that 's the problem because the characters are supposed to be timeless. ''
In March 2013, Gordon stated in a Spreecast live stream that there would not be a fourth live action film. Previously, Kinney had indicated that instead of making a live action film of the third novel, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Last Straw, instead he would like to see Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Cabin Fever adapted into an animated film, stating in an interview, "I hope that it gets made into an animated movie. but I 'd really like to see it turn into an animated television special. ''
The film was released on May 17, 2017, in the Philippines, May 19, 2017, in the United States, and May 20, 2017, in the United Kingdom.
On February 23, 2017, a theatrical poster and teaser trailer were released, and the following month, the official trailer was released. Both trailers received negative feedback from fans for its recasting of the main characters, most notably Charlie Wright as Rodrick. Many took to social media to further express their outrage and and began using the hashtag "# NotMyRodrick '' (a parody of the "# NotMyPresident '' trend that followed the election of U.S. president Donald Trump), which eventually became a widespread meme. Other hashtags included "# NotMyHeffleys '' and "# NotMyRowley ''.
The film opened in about 3,174 theaters, the second - biggest opening for a Diary of a Wimpy Kid film, after Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul grossed $20.7 million in the United States and Canada and $19.3 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $40.1 million, against a production budget of $22 million. It was the lowest grossing film of the Diary of a Wimpy Kid series.
In North America, the film was released alongside Everything, Everything and Alien: Covenant, and was initially projected to gross around $12 million from 3,129 theaters during its opening weekend. However, after grossing $2 million on its first day, projections were lowered to $7 million. It ended up finishing with $7.1 million, placing 6th at the box office and marking the lowest opening of the franchise.
When the film was released in the United Kingdom, it opened on # 2, behind Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales with £ 1,444,092.
The film has grossed over $2.6 million in the USA through home video sales.
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul received negative reviews from critics, with much of the criticism aimed at the recasting. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 20 % based on 66 reviews and an average rating of 4.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "With an all - new cast but the same juvenile humor, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul finds the franchise still stuck in arrested -- and largely unfunny -- development. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 39 out of 100 based on 16 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale, down from the first three films ' "A - ''.
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul was released on Digital HD from Amazon Video and iTunes on August 1, 2017, and on Blu - ray and DVD on August 8, 2017 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment.
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where does do the right thing take place | Do the Right Thing - wikipedia
Do the Right Thing is a 1989 American comedy - drama film produced, written, and directed by Spike Lee, who also played the part of Mookie in the film. Other members of the cast include Danny Aiello, Ossie Davis, Ruby Dee, Richard Edson, Giancarlo Esposito, Bill Nunn, John Turturro, and Samuel L. Jackson. It is also notably the feature film debut of both Martin Lawrence and Rosie Perez. The movie tells the story of a Brooklyn neighborhood 's simmering racial tension, which comes to a head and culminates in tragedy on the hottest day of summer.
The film was a critical and commercial success and received numerous accolades and awards, including an Academy Award nomination for Lee for Best Original Screenplay and one for Best Supporting Actor for Aiello 's portrayal of Sal the pizzeria owner. It is often listed among the greatest films of all time. In 1999, the film was deemed "culturally, historically, and aesthetically significant '' by the Library of Congress and was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry.
Mookie (Spike Lee) is a 25 - year - old delivery man living in Bedford - Stuyvesant, Brooklyn with his sister, Jade (Joie Lee). He and his girlfriend, Tina (Rosie Perez), have a son. He works at the local pizzeria, but lacks ambition. Sal (Danny Aiello), the pizzeria 's Italian - American owner, has been in the neighborhood for 25 years. His older son Pino (John Turturro) intensely dislikes blacks, and does not get along with Mookie. Because of this, Pino is at odds with both his father, who is likewise bigoted but refuses to leave the increasingly African - American neighborhood, and his younger brother Vito (Richard Edson), who is friendly with Mookie.
The neighborhood is full of distinct personalities, including Da Mayor (Ossie Davis), a friendly local drunk; Mother Sister (Ruby Dee), who watches the neighborhood from her brownstone; Radio Raheem (Bill Nunn), who blasts Public Enemy on his boombox wherever he goes; and Smiley (Roger Guenveur Smith), a mentally disabled man, who meanders around the neighborhood trying to sell hand - colored pictures of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, Jr.
While at Sal 's, Mookie 's trouble - making b - boyish friend, Buggin ' Out (Giancarlo Esposito), questions Sal about his "Wall of Fame '', a wall decorated with photos of famous Italian - Americans. Buggin ' Out demands that Sal put up pictures of black celebrities since Sal 's pizzeria is in a black neighborhood. Sal replies that it is his business, and that he can have whomever he wants on "The Wall of Fame ''. Buggin ' Out attempts to start a protest over the Wall of Fame. Only Radio Raheem and Smiley support him.
During the day, the heat and tensions begin to rise. The local teenagers open a fire hydrant and douse the street, before police officers intervene. Mookie and Pino begin arguing over race, which leads to a series of scenes in which the characters spew racial insults into the camera. Pino and Sal talk about the neighborhood, with Pino expressing his hatred, and Sal insisting that he is not leaving. Sal almost fires Mookie, but Jade intervenes, before Mookie confronts her for being too close to Sal.
That night, Buggin ' Out, Radio Raheem, and Smiley march into Sal 's and demand that Sal change the Wall of Fame. Raheem 's boombox is blaring and Sal demands that they turn the radio off, but they refuse. Buggin ' Out calls Sal and sons guineas while saying that they 're closing down the pizzeria for good until they change the Wall of Fame. Sal, in a fit of frustration, tells him he will "tear his nigger ass '', then destroys the boombox with a baseball bat. Raheem attacks Sal, leading to a huge violent fight that spills out into the street, attracting a crowd. While Radio Raheem is choking Sal, the police arrive. They break up the fight and apprehend Radio Raheem and Buggin ' Out. Despite the pleas of his fellow officers and the onlookers, one officer refuses to release his chokehold on Raheem, killing him. Realizing that Raheem has been killed in front of onlookers, the officers place his body in the back of a squad car, and drive off, leaving Sal, Pino, and Vito unprotected.
The onlookers, enraged about Radio Raheem 's death, blame Sal and his sons. Mookie grabs a trash can and throws it through the window of Sal 's pizzeria, sparking the crowd to rush into the restaurant and destroy it, with Smiley finally setting it on fire. Da Mayor pulls Sal, Pino, and Vito out of the mob 's way. Firemen and riot patrols arrive to put out the fire and disperse the crowd. After police issue a warning, the firefighters turn their hoses on the rioters, leading to more fighting and arrests. Mookie and Jade sit on the curb, watching in disbelief. Smiley wanders back into the smoldering building and hangs one of his pictures on what is left of Sal 's Wall of Fame.
The next day, after having an argument with Tina, Mookie returns to Sal, who feels that Mookie betrayed him. Mookie demands his weekly pay, leading to an argument. They cautiously reconcile, and Sal finally pays him. Mister Señor Love Daddy (Samuel L. Jackson), a local DJ, dedicates a song to Raheem.
The film ends with two quotations expressing different views about violence, one from Martin Luther King and one from Malcolm X, before fading to a photograph of them shaking hands. Prior to the credits, Lee dedicates the film to the families of six victims of police brutality: Eleanor Bumpurs, Michael Griffith, Arthur Miller, Jr., Edmund Perry, Yvonne Smallwood, and Michael Stewart.
Spike Lee wrote the screenplay in two weeks. The original script of Do the Right Thing ends with a stronger reconciliation between Mookie and Sal. Sal 's comments to Mookie mirror Da Mayor 's earlier comments in the film and hint at some common ground and perhaps Sal 's understanding of why Mookie was motivated to destroy his restaurant. It is unclear why Lee changed the ending.
The film was shot entirely on Stuyvesant Avenue between Quincy Street and Lexington Avenue in the Bedford - Stuyvesant neighborhood of Brooklyn. The street 's color scheme was heavily altered by the production designer, who used a great deal of red and orange paint in order to help convey the sense of a heatwave.
Spike Lee campaigned for Robert De Niro as Sal the pizzeria owner, but De Niro had to decline due to prior commitments. The character of Smiley was not in the original script; he was created by Roger Guenveur Smith, who was pestering Spike Lee for a role in the film. Four of the cast members were stand - up comedians: Martin Lawrence, Steve Park, Steve White, and Robin Harris.
The film was released to protests from many reviewers, and it was openly stated in several newspapers that the film could incite black audiences to riot. Lee criticized white reviewers for implying that black audiences were incapable of restraining themselves while watching a fictional motion picture. In a 2014 interview Lee stated "That still bugs the shit out of me, '' calling the remarks "outrageous, egregious and, I think, racist, '' and further elaborating, "I do n't remember people saying people were going to come out of theatres killing people after they watched Arnold Schwarzenegger films. ''
One of many questions at the end of the film is whether Mookie "does the right thing '' when he throws the garbage can through the window, thus inciting the riot that destroys Sal 's pizzeria. Critics have seen Mookie 's action both as an action that saves Sal 's life, by redirecting the crowd 's anger away from Sal to his property, and as an "irresponsible encouragement to enact violence ''. The question is directly raised by the contradictory quotations that end the film, one advocating nonviolence, the other advocating violent self - defense in response to oppression.
Spike Lee has remarked that he has only ever been asked by white viewers whether Mookie did the right thing; black viewers do not ask the question. Lee believes the key point is that Mookie was angry at the death of Radio Raheem, and that viewers who question the riot 's justification are implicitly failing to see the difference between property and the life of a black man.
In June 2006, Entertainment Weekly magazine placed Do the Right Thing at No. 22 on its list of The 25 Most Controversial Movies Ever.
Do the Right Thing was met with acclaim from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 93 %, based on 68 reviews, with an average rating of 8.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Smart, vibrant and urgent without being didactic, Do the Right Thing is one of Spike Lee 's most fully realized efforts -- and one of the most important films of the 1980s. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 91 out of 100, based on 15 critics, indicating "universal acclaim '', and placing it as the 68th highest film of all - time on the site.
Both Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert ranked the film as the best of 1989 and later ranked it as one of the top 10 films of the decade (# 6 for Siskel and # 4 for Ebert). Ebert later added the film to his list of The Great Movies. According to online film resource They Shoot Pictures, Do n't They?, Do the Right Thing is the most acclaimed film of 1989.
American Film Institute lists
The film 's score (composed and partially performed by jazz musician Bill Lee, father of Spike Lee) and soundtrack were both released in July 1989 on Columbia Records and Motown Records, respectively. The soundtrack was successful, reaching the number eleven spot on the Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums chart, and peaking at sixty - eight on the Billboard 200. On the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Singles & Tracks chart, the Perri track "Feel So Good '' reached the fifty - first spot, while Public Enemy 's "Fight the Power '' reached number twenty, and Guy 's "My Fantasy '' went all the way to the top spot. "My Fantasy '' also reached number six on the Hot Dance Music / Maxi - Singles Sales chart, and sixty - two on Billboard 's Hot 100. "Fight the Power '' also charted high on the Hot Dance Music chart, peaking at number three, and topped the Hot Rap Singles chart.
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who plays rue in the hunger games film | Amandla Stenberg - wikipedia
Amandla Stenberg (born October 23, 1998) is an American actress and singer. She is best known for her portrayal of Rue in The Hunger Games and Madeline Whittier in Everything, Everything. She is also known for releasing her debut single which is a cover of Mac DeMarco 's song entitled "Let My Baby Stay ''.
Stenberg was born in Los Angeles, California, the child of Karen Brailsford, a spiritual counselor and writer, and Tom Stenberg. Her mother is African American, her father is Danish, and her paternal grandmother had Greenlandic Inuit ancestry. She has two older half - sisters on her father 's side. Her first name means "power '' or "strength '' in two South African languages, IsiXhosa and Zulu.
At the age of four, Stenberg started doing catalog modeling shoots for Disney. She has appeared in commercials for clients such as Boeing. In 2011, she appeared in her first feature film, Colombiana, as a younger version of Zoe Saldana 's character. Her career breakthrough came when she was cast as Rue in the 2012 film The Hunger Games. She voiced Bia in the 2014 animated film Rio 2. Stenberg had a recurring role on season one of Sleepy Hollow. In the summer of 2015, she played series regular Halle Foster on Mr. Robinson.
In 2013, Stenberg began performing on the violin and singing harmonies at Los Angeles venues with singer / songwriter Zander Hawley as Honeywater. The folk - rock duo known as released their first EP in August 2015. The British Dazed magazine named Stenberg "one of the most incendiary voices of her generation '' when it featured her on its Autumn 2015 cover. She was also included in Time 's list of Most Influential Teens in both 2015 and 2016. Stenberg has spoken publicly on social media about cultural appropriation, including her video "Do n't Cash Crop My Cornrows '' and admonishing Kylie Jenner for her hairstyle.
Stenberg is the co-author, with Stranger Comics ' Sebastian Jones, of the comic book Niobe: She is Life, the first issue of which was published in November 2015. In May 2017 the pair released Niobe: She is Death, the second part of the trilogy.
In 2017, she starred in the romantic drama Everything, Everything, directed by Stella Meghie, and co-starring Nick Robinson. She will also play the lead in Amma Asante 's World War II drama Where Hands Touch.
Stenberg considers herself an intersectional feminist. She is outspoken about her political views in interviews and on social media, and was named "Feminist of the Year '' in 2015 by the Ms. Foundation for Women.
Stenberg identifies as non-binary, and previously came out as bisexual; however in an interview for Elle 's September 2016 issue she was quoted as saying in part, "Bisexual is a word I am not too attached to (...) it implies a dichotomy that does n't take into account trans people. So maybe pansexual is more accurate for me. ''
In 2016, Stenberg announced via Instagram that she 'd be attending film school at New York University.
Won - BET Awards for YoungStar Award
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what are the functions of all the body systems | List of systems of the human body - wikipedia
The main systems of the human body are:
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when does the new season if chicago fire start | Chicago Fire Soccer club - Wikipedia
Chicago Fire Soccer Club is an American professional soccer club based in the Chicago suburb of Bridgeview, Illinois. The team competes in Major League Soccer (MLS) as a member of the league 's Eastern Conference, having moved to the conference in 2002.
The franchise is named after the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, and was founded on October 8, 1997, the event 's 126th anniversary. The team began play in 1998 as one of the league 's first expansion teams. The Fire won the MLS Cup as well as the U.S. Open Cup (the "double '') on their first season. They also won U.S. Open Cups in 2000, 2003, and 2006, in addition to the 2003 MLS Supporters ' Shield.
The Fire maintains an extensive development system, consisting of the Chicago Fire U-23 (Premier Development League and Super-20 League teams), the Chicago Fire Development Academy, and the Chicago Fire Juniors youth organization. They also operate the Chicago Fire Foundation, the team 's community - based charitable division. Toyota Park is the Fire 's home stadium.
Founded on October 8, 1997, the Fire were originally based at Soldier Field. Since 2006, the club plays at their own stadium, Toyota Park at 71st and Harlem Avenue in Bridgeview. The owners of the Fire are Andell Holdings, who purchased the club in 2007. Andell Holdings chairman Andrew Hauptman acts as club chairman, while the general manager is Nelson Rodriguez and the chief operating officer is Atul Khosla. The Fire are historically most successful in the U.S. Open Cup; winning championships in 1998, 2000, 2003, and 2006. The Fire keep a close connection with the Chicago Sting, its predecessor team in the NASL, by holding frequent commemorative events and reunions, and wearing Sting - inspired shirts.
Many notable players have worn the Fire shirt, including U.S. internationals Chris Armas, Carlos Bocanegra, Frank Klopas, DaMarcus Beasley, Brian McBride, Tony Sanneh, Cory Gibbs, Ante Razov, Josh Wolff and Eric Wynalda. Some of the club 's other notable American professional players include C.J. Brown, Jesse Marsch, Chris Rolfe, and Zach Thornton. The Fire also have a reputation for importing international talent, from established veterans like Bastian Schweinsteiger, Pável Pardo, Piotr Nowak, Cuauhtémoc Blanco, Tomasz Frankowski, Lubos Kubik and Hristo Stoichkov; in addition to younger players such as Patrick Nyarko, Marco Pappa, Damani Ralph, Bakary Soumaré and Nery Castillo.
The Chicago Fire are named after the Great Chicago Fire that happened in 1871.
Founded in 1997 at Navy Pier, on the anniversary of the Great Fire, the Fire immediately tapped into the diverse ethnic makeup of the city. The team brought in Polish players Piotr Nowak, Jerzy Podbrozny, and Roman Kosecki; the Mexican Jorge Campos; and the Czech Lubos Kubik. While all showed their talent while playing for Chicago that first year, American players (Zach Thornton, Chris Armas, C.J. Brown) proved most integral to the Fire 's continued success. Under the club 's first head coach, Bob Bradley -- and against all expectation -- the team completed the double in its first competitive year, beating D.C. United in the 1998 MLS Cup Final, and defeating the Columbus Crew in Chicago to win the 1998 U.S. Open Cup a week later.
The team 's momentum continued, reaching the 2000 MLS Cup final (losing to Kansas City) and winning the 2000 U.S. Open Cup. Internationally experienced players such as Hristo Stoitchkov joined the Fire, while young American talents such as DaMarcus Beasley developed. The Fire quickly became cemented as one of the league 's preeminent teams.
With Soldier Field undergoing massive renovations, the Fire moved to the western Chicago suburb of Naperville, Illinois in 2002. That same year, Bob Bradley abruptly departed the team to lead the MetroStars, from his home state of New Jersey. The Fire then selected the U.S. men 's national team 's top assistant, Dave Sarachan, to assume the vacant post.
Chicago qualified for the league final while also capturing the Supporters ' Shield and 2003 U.S. Open Cup along the way. The team returned to Chicago and the renovated Soldier Field midway through the 2003 season.
After that season, longtime captain Piotr Nowak retired to take a position in the front office. He departed a year later to become manager of D.C. United. In this period new talent emerged, including Jamaican striker Damani Ralph. Still, stagnating performances and the building strength of the Eastern Conference made Chicago 's league position ever more tenuous. In 2004, the team missed the league playoffs for the first time in their history.
The 2005 season began with the unexpected dismissal of popular club president Peter Wilt by then - owners AEG, a move decried by fans, many players, and club staff. This came as a shock, given his brokering of a $100 m deal to build the Fire a stadium in the collar suburb of Bridgeview. He was immediately replaced by MetroStars executive John Guppy.
Competitively, the season was most notable for the blockbuster visit of Milan from Italy 's Serie A, and the surprising 4 -- 0 away defeat of D.C. United in the Eastern Conference Semi-finals.
2006 arrived, and the Fire moved from Soldier Field into its new stadium in Bridgeview, a southwest suburb of Chicago: Toyota Park, located at the corner of 71st Street and Harlem Avenue. In its first season, it played host to an unspectacular league campaign; but victory in the 2006 U.S. Open Cup marked a continuation of the club 's successes and promise for the future.
The anxiety to win another league title continued to grow, however. Sarachan entered 2007 (his fifth season in charge) under intense pressure from fans and the administration to produce a league championship. Tension mounted further on April 3, 2007, when the Fire signed Mexico and América star Cuauhtémoc Blanco to a Designated Player contract. After a perfect three matches to open the year, they won only one of their next eight, and Sarachan was dismissed. Following a brief search, Millonarios manager Juan Carlos Osorio was named the club 's third head coach.
More change came soon afterward. On September 6, 2007, Andell Holdings, a Los Angeles - based private investment firm controlled by chairman Andrew Hauptman, acquired AEG 's interest in the Chicago Fire Soccer Club. Reports estimated the purchase price to be upwards of $35 million. The team has not won a major trophy since Hauptman bought the team.
On the field, behind Blanco and Wilman Conde, Osorio 's central defender at Millionarios, the Fire went on an extended unbeaten run to close the season, easily qualifying for the playoffs but were defeated at New England in the Eastern Conference Final. On December 10, 2007, the Fire announced Osorio 's resignation. He was named manager of the New York Red Bulls eight days later. Hauptman filed tampering charges with the league in protest, and the Fire were compensated by the Red Bulls with cash and draft picks.
Changes came quickly in Osorio 's wake. On January 17, 2008, former Fire star Frank Klopas was named Technical Director in charge of player personnel, and longtime Fire assistant Denis Hamlett was appointed manager. While the Fire struggled at home in 2008 the team found unusual success on the road, gathering 22 out of a possible 45 away points. Momentum grew with the long - anticipated signing of Chicago native Brian McBride on a free transfer in July 2008. After disposing of the Red Bulls 5 -- 2 in the season 's final game, they decisively conquered New England in the first round of the playoffs with a 3 -- 0 victory at home. This was Chicago 's first playoff advancement over the Revolution in four consecutive seasons. But triumph only lasted for a week, as they again missed the league final with their 2 -- 1 Eastern Conference Final loss to eventual champion Columbus.
The 2009 season saw few alterations to the previous year 's roster. The story of the season was much the same, as continued poor home form offset excellent performances away from Toyota Park. This led to a second place Eastern Conference finish behind Columbus. Despite this, Real Salt Lake managed to upset the Crew in the quarterfinals, meaning Chicago would host the semi-final for the first time in six years. Chicago 's nearly flawless home playoff history meant little in the end, as they lost to Salt Lake, 5 -- 3, on penalties after 120 scoreless minutes. Shortly thereafter, manager Denis Hamlett was dismissed.
Leading up to 2010, Chicago hired Carlos de los Cobos as head coach, previously manager of El Salvador. Cuauhtémoc Blanco, Chris Rolfe and Gonzalo Segares all departed. More changes came in the summer transfer window with the trade of Justin Mapp to Philadelphia, the acquisition of Mexican international striker Nery Castillo, and the trade for former Swedish international midfielder Fredrik Ljungberg. Defender Gonzalo Segares returned to the Fire, leaving Apollon Limassol after only six months away. Despite these reinforcements, the Fire failed to qualify for the playoffs for only the second time in club history. Former U.S. international Brian McBride and club original C.J. Brown retired at season 's end, followed closely by the departures of Wilman Conde, Ljungberg, and Castillo.
2011 began much in the way of 2010, with foundering performances both home and away. After nine winless matches, Carlos de los Cobos was let go on May 30, 2011. Technical Director Frank Klopas was named interim head coach. Behind summer reinforcements Pável Pardo and Sebastián Grazzini, as well as forward Dominic Oduro 's 12 goals after being acquired in a trade from Houston and Dan Gargan 's defensive addition, the Fire qualified for the U.S. Open Cup Final (lost at Seattle) and narrowly missed making the playoffs after gaining 24 points in their last 12 league matches. After the season 's conclusion, Klopas was given the permanent manager job on November 3, 2011.
Although expectations were modest for 2012, Klopas ' first full season as coach, the year saw a change in fortune for the Fire. The spring and summer months saw several new acquisitions for the club, starting with the reacquiring of Chris Rolfe from Aalborg BK. Rolfe, who scored eight goals and 12 assists in the 21 games he played in 2012, would later be named the Fire 's MVP. Other signings included Brazilian midfielders Alex Monteiro de Lima from the Swiss side FC Wohlen, Alvaro Fernandez from Seattle Sounders FC, forward Sherjill MacDonald from Beerschot AC of Belgium and veteran defender Arne Friedrich from VfL Wolfsburg. Although they would fall out of the U.S. Open tournament early that season, the Fire eventually compiled a 17 -- 11 -- 6 record, their best since 2000, and ranked as high as second in the Eastern Conference before ending the year in fourth place. On October 31, 2012, in their first playoff appearance since 2009, the Fire lost their first - round MLS Cup playoff match - up at home against the Houston Dynamo, 2 -- 1.
In the 2012 -- 2013 offseason, the franchise made some moves to improve on 2012 's success. The team acquired Joel Lindpere and Jeff Larentowicz and also traded Dominic Oduro for Dilly Duka and the rights to Robbie Rogers. The beginning of the season saw the team struggling to score goals, resulting in a record of 2 -- 5 -- 1 through April. After two successive losses to the Union in May, and with veteran Arne Friedrich still on injured reserve, the Fire acquired their former centerback Bakary Soumaré from Philadelphia. Also in May, Robbie Rogers expressed an interest to play in Southern California, at which point a deal was brokered for Rogers ' rights in exchange for Chicago native Mike Magee from the Los Angeles Galaxy. On June 23, 2013, Friedrich, who had not played a 2012 -- 13 game due to recurring injuries, announced his retirement. After starting the season 2 -- 7 -- 3, the additions of Soumare and Magee led to seven wins in the squad 's last 10 games. The Fire were busy in the transfer window as well, adding veteran defensive midfielder Arévalo Ríos and forward Juan Luis Anangonó. The Chicago Fire also advanced to host the semifinal of the 2013 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup, but fell 2 -- 0 to eventual champions D.C. United. Alleged fan actions in the stadium that night led to a famous editorial piece, "What it means to be a part of the Fire family '', being penned by the club 's Director of Communications, which was seen as an odd attack on the fan base and widely panned by local and national media. After a 12 -- 6 -- 6 finish to the season, the Fire narrowly missed the playoffs for the third time in the last four years -- losing out to the Montreal Impact on goal difference. On October 30, 2013, the club announced that the president of soccer operations Javier Leon and head coach Frank Klopas had stepped down, but the Fire front office had a replacement one day later. On October 31, 2013 Chicago Fire named Frank Yallop as its new head coach and director of soccer. On December 5, 2013, Fire MVP Mike Magee became the first Fire player to win the MLS MVP Award -- beating out Los Angeles Galaxy 's Robbie Keane and Montreal Impact 's Marco Di Vaio for the honor.
Meanwhile, Yallop was busy recruiting a new coaching staff which included "Ring of Fire '' member and Chicago Fire veteran C.J. Brown and former U.S. International striker Clint Mathis as the team 's assistant coaches, adding Columbus Crew 's Brian Bliss as Technical Director. Former Fire forward Brian McBride was added as an assistant coach in May 2014 for a short - term assignment. The shake - up extended to the roster, as Yallop moved team veterans and starters and brought in youth prospects -- reforming the team while freeing up cap space. Major exits in early 2014 included Chris Rolfe, Austin Berry, Jalil Anibaba, Daniel Paladini, and Paolo Tornaghi. Filling that void was a handful of youth prospects including Harrison Shipp (homegrown player), Benji Joya (via MLS "weighted lottery ''), and Grant Ward on loan from Tottenham Hotspur. Despite rarely looking like a team that could advance to the MLS Cup Playoffs, the team once again advanced to the semifinals of the 2014 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup, but were routed 6 -- 0 by eventual champions Seattle Sounders FC on August 13. The result was the worst competitive defeat in club history and saw Frank Yallop issue an apology to Chicago Fire supporters on the club 's official website. As the Cup run had, the season ended in disappointment, with the Fire ending the season with a 6 -- 18 -- 10 record, with 18 draws, also setting a record for most draws in an MLS season in the process.
The club began 2015 with renewed hope, bringing three new Designated Player signings in David Accam, Shaun Maloney and Kennedy Igboananike to bolster an anemic attack. The club also signed products Michael Stephens and Eric Gehrig as well as Trinindad & Tobago international Joevin Jones. With so many new pieces needing to adjust, 2015 marked the first time in club history the side began the season with an 0 -- 3 -- 0 record, but they showed signs of recovery by winning their next three matches. Unfortunately, April was the last time the club would be anywhere near equal on wins and losses, but the side did still advance to another Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup semifinal. Playing in front of a sparse crowd at the Philadelphia Union 's PPL Park, the Fire fell 1 -- 0 at the same hurdle for the third straight season. Less than two weeks later, Maloney, who was the club 's center piece offseason signing, was transferred back to England with Hull City sighting personal reasons.
Despite no hope for a Cup final, widespread fan protests and dim likelihood of a playoff berth, the club did n't part ways with Frank Yallop until September 20, 2015, one day after another listless 1 -- 0 home defeat to Orlando City SC. Along with Yallop 's departure, the club announced it had named long - time MLS executive Nelson Rodriguez as the club 's new General Manager, with his first job being to commence a search for a new head coach. Technical director Brian Bliss was given the interim head coaching job, with former player and current club vice president Logan Pause assisting for the remaining five matches. The club has finished the 2015 season with an overall record of 8 wins, 20 losses and 6 ties. For the first time in the club 's history Fire finished the season with zero road wins (0 - 12 - 5). Twenty losses in a season became the highest in the club 's history.
On November 18, 2015, Rodriguez made his first moves as GM, firing most of Yallop 's remaining technical staff, including goalkeeping coach Aron Hyde, fitness coach Adrian Lamb and Director of Scouting Trevor James. Rodriguez also parted ways with the club 's long - time Director of First Team Operations Ron Stern, Equipment Manager Charles Raycroft and Assistant Equipment Manager Allan Araujo. On November 24, 2015, the club announced that Veljko Paunovic, former coach of the Serbian U-20 side that won the 2015 FIFA U-20 World Cup, had been named the new head coach of the Chicago Fire. On January 5, 2016, technical director Brian Bliss also departed the Fire to join Sporting Kansas City as Director of Player Personnel, completing the total overhaul of the technical staff.
On March 21, 2017 Manchester United allowed Bastian Schweinsteiger to join Chicago Fire, subject to a medical and a visa being secured. The move from Manchester United was completed on March 29, 2017.
The official club colors are red and white. Over its history, the Fire have also employed navy blue, sky blue, and black as alternate colors.
The Chicago Fire logo is derived from the standard shape of a fire department 's crest (also shown by the Chicago Fire Department), also known as a Florian 's cross. This style was chosen by the original general manager, Peter Wilt, to establish a timeless image evocative of both classic American sports (as in the logos of the NHL Original Six) and the traditions of European soccer.
The logo features a stylized ' C ' at its heart (representing Chicago), similar to the logos of the Bears and Cubs. The six points in a ring around the center allude to the stars in the Municipal Flag of Chicago, specifically the one commemorating the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.
Nike, the Fire 's original equipment supplier, intended for the team to be named the Chicago Rhythm. The Rhythm identity featured a turquoise, black and green color scheme, and a logo adorned with a cobra. Team officials ignored Nike 's work, and privately developed the Fire identity with the help of Adrenalin, Inc., a well - known sports - specific branding agency.
The original Fire shirts were chosen because of their resemblance to a Chicago fireman 's coat, featuring broad horizontal stripes across the torso and sleeves. In the first year, the home jersey was red and white with a silver "FIRE '' on the stripe; while the away shirts were white and black in the same style. The jersey has remained remarkably constant ever since, continually maintaining the same format of an all - red shirt with a white horizontal chest stripe, even through changes in equipment sponsor (from Nike, to Puma, and currently adidas), until 2012 when the white stripe was exchanged for a blue stripe. Conversely, the Fire 's secondary shirts have changed much over the years from white with black, to white with navy, to white with red, to all - white style and the all - blue currently used. Third shirts have often been yellow (originally to honor the Chicago Sting, later for the expired partnership with Morelia). A popular light blue third shirt was worn in 2005, based on the Municipal Flag of Chicago but was discontinued during the sponsorship change to Adidas the next year.
The club and their fans make frequent use of the symbols of Chicago, as a show of civic pride. Most prominent are the six - pointed Chicago stars, but the light blue color associated with the city, the municipal device, and the city skyline appear regularly on materials produced by the club and its fans. The municipal flag of Chicago is also favored by fans and often seen at the stadium, in a manner akin to the use of the flag of Catalonia by FC Barcelona fans but without a nationalist subtext.
Chicago plays its home games at Toyota Park, a soccer - specific stadium located at 71st Street and Harlem Avenue in the Chicago suburb of Bridgeview, Illinois, about 12 miles southwest from downtown Chicago. The stadium opened on June 11, 2006 and was developed at a cost of around $100 million. The Village of Bridgeview owns and operates Toyota Park.
For its first years in the league the Fire played at Soldier Field, the 61,500 - capacity home of the Chicago Bears of the NFL and one of the main venues of the 1994 FIFA World Cup. While that stadium was undergoing a $632 million renovation, the Fire played at Cardinal Stadium in Naperville, Illinois, on the outskirts of the Chicago metropolitan area. They returned to Soldier Field toward the end of 2003, remaining there through the end of 2005.
There is a noteworthy fan culture for the Fire, existing from the date the club was founded, and building on an enthusiasm throughout Chicago sports. At matches, supporters and ultras groups occupy a standing area directly behind the north goal, in the Harlem End of Toyota Park. This area is referred to as Section 8, originating from the numbering of the corresponding section at Soldier Field and the American military designation of mentally unfit soldiers. Section 8 Chicago, the Independent Supporters ' Association (ISA) for the Fire, oversees the activities of these numerous groups. While incorporating a worldwide variety of styles with a Chicago bent, groups as part of Section 8 generally fall under the ultras designation. Additionally, an associated spinoff group called "Sector Latino '' congregates in the corner - kick Section 101 at the stadium 's southwest end. The Section 8 Chicago ISA is a registered 501 (c) 7 non-profit organization run by volunteers through an elected board of directors.
Match atmosphere is known for organized displays of stadium - wide support, particularly for matches of prime competitive importance. Call - and - response cheering amongst the crowd is commonplace. Fans at Toyota Park for Fire matches periodically choreograph tifo presentations both to show their pride and inspire the players on the field. Toyota Park remains one of the few American environments to conduct such fan - driven presentations on a large scale.
Their official mascot is Sparky, an anthropomorphic Dalmatian dog. Sparky is usually shown wearing the club 's jersey but also arrives wearing firefighter attire.
While the Fire have heated rivalries with a number of different MLS teams, Fire supporters of different ages will likely give different responses as to who the club 's main rival is. The earliest Fire supporters would list Brimstone Cup rival FC Dallas as the Fire 's nemesis, or Los Angeles Galaxy following heated playoff and cup matches with Dallas and L.A. in the league 's early years.
After the Fire moved to the Eastern Conference, meetings with Dallas and LA became less frequent. Rivalries with D.C. United and New England Revolution were stoked following several thrilling playoff meetings. The Fire and Revolution are MLS ' most frequent playoff matchup, meeting in the MLS Cup Playoffs 8 different times in 10 seasons from 2000 to 2009, splitting those encounters 4 -- 4, with the Fire winning in 2000, 2003, 2008, and 2009. New England ended the Fire 's playoff runs in 2002, 2005, 2006, and 2007. Newer rivals include Columbus Crew, who are the closest MLS team geographically to the Fire, and New York Red Bulls following the departure of former Fire head coach Juan Carlos Osorio to New York in 2007.
Fire matches are televised locally on NBC Sports Chicago. Dan Kelly and former Fire coach Frank Klopas provide play - by - play and color commentary, respectively. Matches were previously televised by NBC Chicago Nonstop and WPWR - TV. Select matches featuring the Chicago Fire are nationally broadcast on ESPN, ESPN2, UniMás, Fox Sports 1, or Univision via the league 's television agreements.
In 2015, the Chicago Fire and then Comcast SportsNet Chicago agreed to a three - year deal, which includes 21 regular season and postseason matches for 2015.
In 2016, the Chicago Fire and Tribune Broadcasting agreed to a three - year deal, which will see all regular season and postseason matches broadcast on WGN Radio and their internet - only sister station WGN Plus starting in the 2017 MLS season.
The "Ring of Fire '' was established in 2003 by Chicago Fire Soccer Club and the Chicago Fire Alumni Association as permanent tribute to honor those who have made the club proud and successful over its history. Aside from the initial member Piotr Nowak, only "Ring of Fire '' members can select new inductees, and no more than one can be selected any year. Names and numbers (if applicable) are prominently displayed inside Toyota Park.
There were no inductees in 2008, 2010, or 2011. In 2008, the members voted to honor two recently deceased fans (supporter leaders Dan Parry and Brandon Kitchens) but were overruled by the club chairman Andrew Hauptman. Parry and Kitchens were later made members of the Wall of Honor, a special recognition for Fire fans. In addition to Parry and Kitchens, the late Fire fans Euan McLean and Al Hack have been inducted into the Wall of Honor as of 2011. C.J. Brown was expected to be honored in 2011, but a new rule was established that inductees must have been away from the club for at least a calendar year. Brown, at the time an assistant head coach at Real Salt Lake, was officially inducted at the halftime ceremony during the home game vs. Real Salt Lake in Toyota Park on May 9, 2012.
On October 3, 2015, Ante Razov, the club 's all - time leading scorer, became the eight individual to be inducted into the club 's Ring of Fire Hall of Fame. The ceremony took place on that day during the halftime of the regular season home match against New England Revolution.
† Chicago Fire was a member of the Western Conference from 1998 -- 1999 and the Central Division from 2000 -- 2001.
* Golden Boot is the team leader in goals (regular season games only).
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where did the cavalier king charles spaniel come from | Cavalier King Charles Spaniel - wikipedia
The Cavalier King Charles Spaniel is a small spaniel classed as a toy dog by The Kennel Club and the American Kennel Club. It originated in the United Kingdom and is one of the more popular breeds in many countries. Since 2000, it has grown in popularity in the United States and ranks as the 18th most popular pure - breed in the United States (2013 Registration Statistics). It has a silky, smooth coat and commonly a smooth undocked tail. The breed standard recognizes four colours: Blenheim (chestnut and white), Tricolor (black / white / tan), Black and Tan, and Ruby. The breed is generally friendly, affectionate and good with both children and other animals; however, they require a lot of human interaction. Since they are a family dog, it is recommended to not leave them alone for long periods at a time. The expected average lifespan of a Cavalier King Charles Spaniel is under ten years.
The Cavalier King Charles changed inordinately in the late 17th century, when it was interbred with flat - nosed breeds. Until the 1920s, the Cavalier shared the same history as the smaller King Charles Spaniel. Breeders attempted to recreate what they considered to be the original configuration of the breed, a dog resembling Charles II 's King Charles Spaniel of the Restoration. Various health issues affect this particular breed.
During the early part of the 18th century, John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, kept red and white King Charles type spaniels for hunting. The duke recorded that they were able to keep up with a trotting horse. His estate was named Blenheim in honour of his victory at the Battle of Blenheim. Because of this influence, the red and white variety of the King Charles Spaniel and thus the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel became known as the Blenheim.
Attempts were made to recreate the original Cavalier King Charles Spaniel as early as the turn of the 20th century, using the now extinct Toy Trawler Spaniels. These attempts were documented by Judith Blunt - Lytton, 16th Baroness Wentworth, in the book "Toy Dogs and Their Ancestors Including the History And Management of Toy Spaniels, Pekingese, Japanese and Pomeranians '' published under the name of the "Hon. Mrs Neville Lytton '' in 1911.
In 1926, the American Roswell Eldridge offered a dog show class prize of twenty - five pounds each as a prize for the best male and females of "Blenheim Spaniels of the old type, as shown in pictures of Charles II of England 's time, long face, no stop, flat skull, not inclined to be domed, with spot in centre of skull. '' The breeders of the era were appalled, although several entered what they considered to be sub-par Cavalier King Charles Spaniels in the competition. Eldridge died before seeing his plan come to fruition, but several breeders believed in what he said and in 1928 the first Cavalier club was formed. The first standard was created, based on a dog named "Ann 's Son '' owned by Mostyn Walker, and the Kennel Club recognised the variety as "King Charles Spaniels, Cavalier type ''.
The Second World War caused a drastic setback to the emerging breed, with the vast majority of breeding stock destroyed because of wartime hardship and food shortages. For instance, in the Ttiweh Cavalier Kennel, the population of sixty dogs dropped to three during the 1940s. Following the war, just six dogs would survive as the new beginning from which all present - day Cavaliers descend. These dogs were Ann 's Son, his litter brother Wizbang Timothy, Carlo of Ttiweh, Duce of Braemore, Kobba of Kuranda and Aristide of Ttiweh. The numbers increased gradually, and in 1945 the Kennel Club first recognised the breed in its own right as the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel.
The history of the breed in America is relatively recent. The first recorded Cavalier living in the United States was brought from the United Kingdom in 1956 by W. Lyon Brown, together with Elizabeth Spalding and other enthusiasts, she founded the Cavalier King Charles Club USA which continues to the present day. In 1994, the American Cavalier King Charles Spaniel Club was created by a group of breeders to apply for recognition by the American Kennel Club. The Cavalier would go on to be recognised by the American Kennel Club in 1995, and the ACKCSC became the parent club for Cavaliers.
Historically the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel was a lap dog and is small for a spaniel, with fully grown adults comparable in size to adolescents of other larger spaniel breeds. Breed standards state that height of a Cavalier should be between 12 to 13 inches (30 to 33 cm) with a proportionate weight between 10 to 18 pounds (4.5 to 8.2 kg). The tail is usually not docked, and the Cavalier should have a silky coat of moderate length. Standards state that it should be free from curl, although a slight wave is allowed. Feathering can grow on their ears, feet, legs and tail in adulthood. Standards require this be kept long, with the feathering on the feet a particularly important aspect of the breed 's features.
The Cavalier King Charles Spaniel and the English Toy Spaniel can be often confused with each other. In the United Kingdom, the English Toy Spaniel is called the King Charles Spaniel while in the United States, one of the colours of the Toy Spaniel is known as King Charles. The two breeds share similar history and only diverged from each other about 100 years ago. There are several major differences between the two breeds, with the primary difference being the size. While the Cavalier weighs on average between 10 to 18 pounds (4.5 to 8.2 kg), the King Charles is smaller at 9 to 15 pounds (4.1 to 6.8 kg). In addition their facial features while similar, are different; the Cavalier 's ears are set higher and its skull is flat while the King Charles 's is domed. Finally the muzzle length of the Cavalier tends to be longer than that of its King Charles cousin.
The breed has four recognized colours. Cavaliers which have rich chestnut markings on a pearly white background are known as Blenheim in honour of Blenheim Palace, where John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, raised the predecessors to the Cavalier breed in this particular colour. In some dogs there is a chestnut spot in the middle of the forehead: this is called the "Blenheim '' spot. The Blenheim spot is also known as the mark of the "Duchess Thumb Print '', based on the legend that Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough while awaiting news of her husband 's safe return from the Battle of Blenheim, pressed the head of an expecting dam with her thumb, resulting in five puppies bearing the lucky mark after news that the battle had been won. Black and Tan are dogs with black bodies with tan highlights, particularly eyebrows, cheeks, legs and beneath the tail. Black and Tan is referred to as "King Charles '' in the King Charles Spaniel. Ruby Cavaliers should be entirely chestnut all over, although some can have some white in their coats which is considered a fault under American Kennel Club conformation show rules. The fourth colour is known as Tricolour, which is black and white with tan markings on cheeks, inside ears, on eyebrows, inside legs, and on underside of tail. This colour is referred to as "Prince Charles '' in the King Charles Spaniel.
Rich chestnut markings on a white pearly coat
Black - and - tan Cavalier King Charles Spaniel
Front and top view of Blenheim Spot
Cavalier King Charles Spaniel in the window
Portrait of a young female
Two Cavalier King Charles Spaniels
According to statistics released by The Kennel Club, Cavaliers were the sixth most popular dog in the United Kingdom in 2007 with 11,422 registrations in a single year. Labrador Retrievers were the most popular with 45,079 registrations in that year. Their popularity is on the rise in America; in 1998 they were the 56th most popular breed but in both 2007 and 2008 they were the 25th most popular. They ranked higher in some individual US cities in the 2008 statistics, being eighth in both Nashville and Minneapolis - St. Paul, seventh in Boston, Atlanta and Washington D.C., and sixth in both New York City and San Francisco. The breed 's popularity has continued to grow, ranking in 18th place in 2013. In 2009, the Cavalier was the fourth most popular breed in Australia with 3,196 registrations behind only Labrador Retrievers, German Shepherd Dogs and Staffordshire Bull Terriers. In addition, there are also national breed clubs in Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, Spain and Sweden.
The breed is highly affectionate, playful, extremely patient and eager to please. As such, dogs of the breed are good with children and other dogs. Cavaliers are not shy about socialising with much larger dogs. They will adapt quickly to almost any environment, family, and location and suit city and country life. Their ability to bond with larger and smaller dogs makes them ideal in houses with more than one breed of dog as long as the other dog is trained. Cavaliers rank 44th in Stanley Coren 's The Intelligence of Dogs, being of average intelligence in working or obedience. Cavaliers are naturally curious and playful, but also enjoy simply cuddling up on a cushion or lap, making them excellent companion or lap dogs for medical patients and the elderly.
Cavaliers are active and sporting. Cavaliers are successful in conformation shows, obedience and agility and they also make wonderful therapy dogs due to their sweet, gentle natures. The breed is adaptable in their need for exercise, happy with either sleeping on the couch or taking long walks.
They have an instinct to chase most things that move including vehicles on busy streets, and so most Cavaliers will never become "street-wise ''. As they tend to regard all strangers as friends, members of the breed will usually not make good guard dogs. Spaniels have a strong hunting instinct and may endanger birds and small animals. However, owners have reported that through training their Cavaliers live happily with a variety of small animals including hamsters and gerbils.
The Cavalier 's coat requires weekly brushing, but no trimming. However, some owners prefer to trim their Cavalier 's long feathers and slippers which can become very dirty when walking or playing outside.
Cavaliers can notably suffer from mitral valve disease, which leads to heart failure. This appears in many Cavaliers at some point in their lives and is the most common cause of death. Some serious genetic health problems, including early - onset mitral valve disease (MVD), the potentially severely painful syringomyelia (SM), hip dysplasia, luxating patellas, and certain vision and hearing disorders are health problems for this breed. As today 's Cavaliers all descend from only six dogs, any inheritable disease present in at least one of the original founding dogs can be passed on to a significant proportion of future generations. This is known as the founder effect and is the likely cause of the prevalence of MVD in the breed. The health problems shared with this breed include mitral valve disease, luxating patella, and hereditary eye issues such as cataracts and retinal dysplasia. Cavaliers are also affected by ear problems, a common health problem among spaniels of various types, and they can suffer from such other general maladies as hip dysplasia, which are common across many types of dog breeds.
Nearly all Cavaliers eventually suffer from disease of the mitral valve, with heart murmurs which may progressively worsen, leading to heart failure. This condition is polygenic (affected by multiple genes), and therefore all lines of Cavaliers worldwide are susceptible. It is the leading cause of death in the breed. A survey by The Kennel Club of the United Kingdom showed that 42.8 % of Cavalier deaths are cardiac related. The next most common causes are cancer (12.3 %) and old age (12.2 %). The condition can begin to emerge at an early age and statistically may be expected to be present in more than half of all Cavalier King Charles Spaniels by age 5. It is rare for a 10 - year - old Cavalier not to have a heart murmur. While heart disease is common in dogs generally -- one in 10 of all dogs will eventually have heart problems -- mitral valve disease is generally (as in humans) a disease of old age. The "hinge '' on the heart 's mitral valve loosens and can gradually deteriorate, along with the valve 's flaps, causing a heart murmur (as blood seeps through the valve between heartbeats) then congestive heart failure. The Cavalier is particularly susceptible to early - onset heart disease, which may be evident in dogs as young as one or two years of age.
Veterinary geneticists and cardiologists have developed breeding guidelines to eliminate early - onset mitral valve disease in the breed, but it is unclear if a statistically significant number of breeders follow these guidelines. The chairperson of the UK CKCS Club said in 2009: "There are many members who are still not prepared to health check their breeding stock, and of those who do, it would appear that many would not hesitate to breed from affected animals. '' The MVD breeding protocol recommends that parents should be at least 2.5 years old and heart clear, and their parents (i.e., the puppy 's grandparents) should be heart clear until age 5.
Syringomyelia (SM) is a condition affecting the brain and spine, causing symptoms ranging from mild discomfort to severe pain and partial paralysis. It is caused by a malformation, commonly known as Chiari Malformation, in the lower back of the skull which reduces the space available to the brain, compressing it and often forcing it out (herniating it) through the opening into the spinal cord. This blocks the flow of cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) around the brain and spine and increases the fluid 's pressure, creating turbulence which in turn is believed to create fluid pockets, or syrinxes (hence the term syringomyelia), in the spinal cord. Syringomyelia is rare in most breeds but has become widespread in the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, with international research samples in the past few years consistently showing over 90 % of Cavaliers have the malformation, and that between 30 -- 70 % have syrinxes. However, most dogs with syrinxes are not symptomatic. Although symptoms of syringomyelia can present at any age, they typically appear between six months and four years of age in 85 % of symptomatic dogs, according to Clare Rusbridge, a research scientist. Symptoms include sensitivity around the head, neck, or shoulders, often indicated by a dog whimpering or frequently scratching at the area of his neck or shoulder. Scratching is often unilateral -- restricted to one side of the body. Scratching motions are frequently performed without actually making physical contact with the body ("air scratching ''). The scratching behavior appears involuntary and the dog frequently scratches while walking -- without stopping -- in a way that is very atypical of normal scratching ("bunny hopping ''). Scratching typical of SM is usually worse when the dog is wearing a collar, is being walked on leash, or is excited, and first thing in the morning or at night.
Not all dogs with SM show scratching behavior. Not all dogs who show scratching behavior appear to suffer pain, though several leading researchers, including Dr Clare Rusbridge in the UK and Drs Curtis Dewey and Dominic Marino in the US, believe scratching in SM cavaliers is a sign of pain and discomfort and of existing neurological damage to the dorsal horn region of the spine. If onset is at an early age, a first sign may be scratching and / or rapidly appearing scoliosis. If the problem is severe, there is likely to be poor proprioception (awareness of body position), especially with regard to the forelimbs. Clumsiness and falling results from this problem. Progression is variable though the majority of dogs showing symptoms by age four tend to see progression of the condition.
A veterinarian will rule out basic causes of scratching or discomfort such as ear mites, fleas, and allergies, and then, primary secretory otitis media (PSOM -- glue ear), as well as spinal or limb injuries, before assuming that a Cavalier has SM. PSOM can present similar symptoms but is much easier and cheaper to treat. Episodic Falling Syndrome can also present similar symptoms. An MRI scan is normally done to confirm diagnosis of SM (and also will reveal PSOM). If a veterinarian suspects SM he or she will recommend an MRI scan. Neurologists give scanned dogs a signed certificate noting its grade.
Episodic Falling causes "exercise - induced paroxysmal hypertonicity '' meaning that there is increased muscle tone in the dog and the muscles can not relax. Previously thought to be a muscular disorder, it is now known to be neurological. EF is caused by a single recessive gene, and a genetic test is available. Except for severe cases, episodes will be in response to exercise, excitement or similar exertions. Although EF is often misdiagnosed as epilepsy, which typically results in loss of consciousness, the dog remains conscious throughout the episode. Severity of symptoms can range from mild, occasional falling to freezing to seizure - like episodes lasting hours. Episodes can become more or less severe as the dog gets older and there is no standard pattern to the attacks. The onset of symptoms usually occurs when a dog is between 4 months and 4 years of age. It is similar to Scotty Cramp, a genetic disorder in Scottish Terriers. About 1 % of Cavaliers are affected by the condition, with 19 % being carriers. Dogs with whole coloured coats were more likely to be affected than dogs with parti - coloured coats.
As many as half of all Cavalier King Charles Spaniels may have a congenital blood disorder called idiopathic asymptomatic thrombocytopenia, an abnormally low number of platelets in the blood, according to recent studies in Denmark and the United States. Platelets, or thrombocytes, are disk - shaped blood elements which aid in blood clotting. Excessively low numbers are the most common cause of bleeding disorders in dogs. The platelets in the blood of many Cavalier King Charles Spaniels are a combination of those of normal size for dogs and others that are abnormally oversized, or macrothrombocytes. Macrothrombocytosis also is a congenital abnormality found in at least a third of CKCSs. These large platelets function normally, and the typical Cavalier does not appear to experience any health problems due to either the size or fewer numbers of its platelets.
Hip dysplasia (HD) is a common genetic disease that affects Cavalier King Charles Spaniels. It is not present at birth but develops with age. Hip dysplasia is diagnosed by X-rays, but it is not usually evident in X-rays of Cavaliers until they mature. Even in adult spaniels with severe HD, X-rays may not always indicate the disease. In a series of evaluations by the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals, the Cavalier was ranked 78th worst out of 157 breeds. The worst affected breeds were the Bulldog, Pug and Dogue de Bordeaux.
Cavaliers can be subject to a genetic defect of the femur and knee called luxating patella. This condition is most often observed when a puppy is 4 to 6 months old. In the most serious cases, surgery may be indicated. The grading system for the patella runs from 1 (a tight knee), to 4 (a knee so loose that its cap is easily displaced). If a cavalier has a grade 1 -- 2, physical rehabilitation therapy and exercise may reduce the grading and potentially avoid surgery. The grades 3 -- 4 are most severe where surgery will most likely be needed to correct the problem to avoid the development of arthritis and lameness in the limb.
A disorder commonly found in Cavaliers is keratoconjunctivitis sicca, colloquially known as "dry eye ''. The usual cause of this condition is an autoimmune reaction against the dog 's lacrimal gland (tear gland), reducing the production of tears. According to the Canine Inherited Disorders Database, the condition requires continual treatment and if untreated may result in partial or total blindness. This disorder can decrease or heal over time.
A 1999 study of Cavaliers conducted by the Canine Eye Registration Foundation showed that an average of 30 % of all Cavalier King Charles Spaniels evaluated had eye problems. They include hereditary cataracts, corneal dystrophy, distichiasis, entropion, microphthalmia, progressive retinal atrophy, and retinal dysplasia.
Primary Secretory Otitis Media (PSOM), also known as glue ear, consists of a highly viscous mucus plug which fills the dog 's middle ear and may cause the tympanic membrane to bulge. PSOM has been reported almost exclusively in Cavaliers, and it may affect over half of them. Because the pain and other sensations in the head and neck areas, resulting from PSOM, are similar to some symptoms caused by syringomyelia (SM), some examining veterinarians have mis - diagnosed SM in Cavaliers which actually have PSOM and not SM.
Cavalier King Charles Spaniels may be predisposed to a form of congenital deafness, which is present at birth, due to a lack of formation or early degeneration of receptors in the inner ear, although this is relatively rare. In addition, more recent studies have found Cavaliers that develop a progressive hearing loss, which usually begins during puppyhood and progresses until the dog is completely deaf, usually between the ages of three and five years. The progressive nature of this form of deafness in Cavaliers is believed to be caused by degeneration of the hearing nerve rather than the lack of formation or early degeneration of the inner ear receptors.
An urban legend claims that Charles II issued a special decree granting King Charles Spaniels permission to enter any establishment in the UK, overriding "no dog except guide dogs '' rules. A variant of this myth relates specifically to the Houses of Parliament. This myth is sometimes instead applied to the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel.
The UK Parliament website states: "Contrary to popular rumour, there is no Act of Parliament referring to King Charles spaniels being allowed anywhere in the Palace of Westminster. We are often asked this question and have thoroughly researched it. '' Similarly, there is no proof of any such law covering the wider UK. A spokesman for the Kennel Club said: "This law has been quoted from time to time. It is alleged in books that King Charles made this decree but our research has n't tracked it down. ''
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where is calcium ions stored in muscle cells | Sarcoplasmic reticulum - wikipedia
The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) is a membrane - bound structure found within muscle cells that is similar to the endoplasmic reticulum in other cells. The main function of the SR is to store calcium ions (Ca). Calcium ion levels are kept relatively constant, with the concentration of calcium ions within a cell being 100,000 times smaller than the concentration of calcium ions outside the cell. This means that small increases in calcium ions within the cell are easily detected and can bring about important cellular changes (the calcium is said to be a second messenger; see calcium in biology for more details). Calcium is used to make calcium carbonate (found in chalk) and calcium phosphate, two compounds that the body uses to make teeth and bones. This means that too much calcium within the cells can lead to hardening (calcification) of certain intracellular structures, including the mitochondria, leading to cell death. Therefore, it is vital that calcium ion levels are controlled tightly, and can be released into the cell when necessary and then remove from the cell.
The sarcoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubules that extend throughout muscle cells, wrapping around (but not in direct contact with) the myofibrils (contractile units of the cell). Cardiac and skeletal muscle cells contain structures called transverse tubules (T - tubules), which are extensions of the cell membrane that travel into the centre of the cell. T - tubules are closely associated with a specific region of the SR, known as the terminal cisternae in skeletal muscle, with a distance of roughly 12 nanometers, separating them. This is the primary site of calcium release. The longitudinal SR are thinner projects, that run between the terminal cisternae / junctional SR, and are the location where ion channels necessary for calcium ion absorption are most abundant. These processes are explained in more detail below and are fundamental for the process of excitation - contraction coupling in skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle.
The SR contains ion channel pumps, within its membrane that are responsible for pumping Ca into the SR. As the calcium ion concentration within the SR is higher than in the rest of the cell, the calcium ions wo n't freely flow into the SR, and therefore pumps are required, that use energy, which they gain from a molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). These calcium pumps are called Sarco (endo) plasmic reticulum ATPases (SERCA). There are a variety of different forms of SERCA, with SERCA 2a being found primarily in cardiac and skeletal muscle.
SERCA consists of 13 subunits (labelled M1 - M10, N, P and A). Calcium ions bind to the M1 - M10 subunits (which are located within the membrane), whereas ATP binds to the N, P and A subunits (which are located outside the SR). When 2 calcium ions, along with a molecule of ATP, bind to the cytosolic side of the pump (i.e the region of the pump outside the SR), the pump opens. This occurs because ATP (which contains three phosphate groups) releases a single phosphate group (becoming adenosine diphosphate). The released phosphate group then binds to the pump, causing the pump to change shape. This shape change causes the cytosolic side of the pump to open, allowing the two Ca to enter. The cytosolic side of the pump then closes and the sarcoplasmic reticulum side opens, releasing the Ca into the SR.
A protein found in cardiac muscle, called phospholamban (PLB) has been shown to prevent SERCA from working. It does this by binding to the SERCA and decreasing its attraction (affinity) to calcium, therefore preventing calcium uptake into the SR. Failure to remove Ca from the cytosol, prevents muscle relaxation and therefore means that there is a decrease in muscle contraction too. However, molecules such as adrenaline and noradrenaline, can prevent PLB from inhibiting SERCA. When these hormones bind to a receptor, called a beta 1 adrenoceptor, located on the cell membrane, they produce a series of reactions (known as a cyclic AMP pathway) that produces an enzyme called protein kinase A (PKA). PKA can add a phosphate to PLB (this is known as phosphorylation), preventing it from inhibiting SERCA and allowing for muscle relaxation.
Located within the SR is a protein called calsequestrin. This protein can bind to around 50 Ca, which decreases the amount of free Ca within the SR (as more is bound to calsequestrin). Therefore, more calcium can be stored (the calsequestrin is said to be a buffer). It is primarily located within the junctional SR / terminal cisternae, in close association with the calcium release channel (described below).
Calcium ion release from the SR, occurs in the junctional SR / terminal cisternae through a ryanodine receptor (RyR) and is known as a calcium spark. There are three types of ryanodine receptor, RyR1 (in skeletal muscle), RyR2 (in cardiac muscle) and RyR3 (in the brain). Calcium release through ryanodine receptors in the SR is triggered differently in different muscles. In cardiac and smooth muscle an electrical impulse (action potential) triggers calcium ions to enter the cell through an L - type calcium channel located in the cell membrane (smooth muscle) or T - tubule membrane (cardiac muscle). These calcium ions bind to and activate the RyR, producing a larger increase in intracellular calcium. In skeletal muscle, however, the L - type calcium channel is bound to the RyR. Therefore activation of the L - type calcium channel, via an action potential, activates the RyR directly, causing calcium release (see calcium sparks for more details). Also, caffeine (found in coffee) can bind to and stimulate RyR. Caffeine works by making the RyR more sensitive to either the action potential (skeletal muscle) or calcium (cardiac or smooth muscle) therefore producing calcium sparks more often (this can result in increased heart rate, which is why we feel more awake after coffee).
Triadin and Junctin are proteins found within the SR membrane, that are bound to the RyR. The main role of these proteins is to anchor calsequestrin (see above) to the ryanodine receptor. At ' normal ' (physiological) SR calcium levels, calsequestrin binds to the RyR, Triadin and Junctin, which prevents the RyR from opening. If calcium concentration within the SR falls too low, there will be less calcium bound to the calsequestrin. This means that there is more room on the calsequestrin, to bind to the junctin, triadin and ryanodine receptor, therefore it binds tighter. However, if calcium within the SR rises too high, more calcium binds to the calsequestrin and therefore it binds to the junctin - triadin - RyR complex less tightly. The RyR can therefore open and release calcium into the cell.
In addition to the effects that PKA had on phospholamban (see above) that resulted in increased relaxation of the cardiac muscle, PKA (as well as another enzyme called calmodulin kinase II) can also phosphorylate ryanodine receptors. When phosphorylated, RyRs are more sensitive to calcium, therefore they open more often and for longer periods of time. This increases calcium release from the SR, increasing the rate of contraction. Therefore, in cardiac muscle, activation of PKA, through the cyclic AMP pathway, results in increased muscle contraction (via RyR2 phosphorylation) and increased relaxation (via phospholamban phosphorylation), which increases heart rate.
The mechanism behind the termination of calcium release through the RyR is still not fully understood. Some researchers believe it is due to the random closing of ryanodine receptors (known as stochastic attrition), or the ryanodine receptors becoming inactive after a calcium spark, while others believe that a decrease in SR calcium, triggers the receptors to close (see calcium sparks for more details).
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royal blood out of the black song meaning | Out of the Black (song) - wikipedia
"Out of the Black '' is a song written by Mike Kerr and Ben Thatcher of British rock duo Royal Blood. The song was originally recorded by the duo for release as a single, appearing on the band 's debut single of the same name, released by Black Mammoth Records on 11 November 2013. The track later appeared as the opening track on the band 's debut extended play Out of the Black, and as the opening track on the band 's eponymous debut studio album, Royal Blood. The track was also part of the soundtrack to the film Who Am I -- No System Is Safe, as well as the video games Forza Horizon 2 and EA Sports UFC. It was also used in a featurette for the Netflix series Daredevil at the 2015 New York Comic Con. The song was also the official theme song for the 2016 professional wrestling event WWE Roadblock. This song has also been covered by Billie Marten.
Scott Kerr of AllMusic called the opener "a riff - fueled onslaught that belies their two - piece status; with just a heavily processed bass guitar and a drum set between them, they make some four - piece rock bands look inconsequential. '' DIY editor Stephen Ackroyd repeated what Kerr said about "Out of the Black '', saying that it "remains an incendiary calling card - a roaring, snarling Godzilla levelling sky scrapers at will. ''
All tracks written by Mike Kerr and Ben Thatcher. All tracks produced by Tom Dalgety with Kerr and Thatcher.
Partly adapted from Out of the Black liner notes.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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anna kendrick when i'm gone pitch perfect | Cups (song) - wikipedia
"Cups '' is a version of the 1931 Carter Family song "When I 'm Gone '', usually performed a cappella with a cup used to provide percussion, as in the cup game. It was first performed this way in a YouTube video by Luisa Gerstein and Heloise Tunstall - Behrens as Lulu and The Lampshades in 2009 (under the title "You 're Gonna Miss Me ''). Composition of the song is credited to A.P. Carter and Luisa Gerstein of Lulu and the Lampshades.
The song became popular after it was performed by Anna Kendrick in the 2012 film Pitch Perfect. That version also became the official theme song of the 2013 CONCACAF Gold Cup tournament.
The original song "When I 'm Gone '' was written by A.P. Carter, then recorded in 1931 by the Carter Family (not to be confused with their 1928 song "Will You Miss Me When I 'm Gone? ''). The song was reworked in 1937 by J.E. Mainer. Over the years it has been recorded by many people including Mainer 's Mountaineers and Charlie Monroe. In 1940 it was released by Elizabeth Cotten. A vocalist and guitar player. It can also be heard in the film Dan in Real Life.
Lulu and the Lampshades were the first to perform the song using the cup game for percussion. Anna Burden made her own version of the Lulu on Youtube and the Lamspshades video that was discovered by Reddit, and where Anna Kendrick learned the routine, prompting dozens of other Youtube users to submit cover versions of the song using the Cup Clap technique. It was soon dubbed The Cup Song.
The song is also used for the theme song for the BBC Two sitcom ' Mum ' starring Lesley Manville.
Though the song had been popular online for years, mainstream success came when it was incorporated into the film Pitch Perfect in 2012. In the film it is performed by the main character, Beca Mitchell (Anna Kendrick) during an audition for a college a cappella group. Unlike the soundtrack version, the single version of the song was re-produced with additional instrumentation (notably the banjo) by American Music Award - winning music producer Ali Dee Theodore, Jordan Yaeger and Harvey Mason, Jr... The single version was extended by an additional minute. Prior to the single 's release, covers of the song as well as tutorials on how to do the song (using cups) went viral. Kendrick has stated that she learned the song and its cup percussion from watching and doing it many times on Reddit prior to being cast in Pitch Perfect, and it was therefore written into the film.
Prior to the song 's release as a single in March 2013, the song debuted at number 93 on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week ending January 12, 2013. Afterward, the single was released and the song began a slow but steady ascent up the chart. In its 32nd week on the chart, the song reached number 6, its peak position to date. By October 2013, all versions of the song had sold 2.5 million downloads in the US.
On May 4, 2013, "Cups '' returned to the top 50 of the ARIA Charts at a new peak of number 44, achieved in part due to the DVD of Pitch Perfect being released in Australia on April 13, 2013. It originally made it to number 48 in January 2013.
The song 's music video was shot in the fourth week of March 2013, and it was directed by Pitch Perfect 's director Jason Moore. It was released on April 12, 2013 on Anna Kendrick 's Vevo channel; as of February 2018, it has over 400 million views.
It opens with Anna Kendrick in a restaurant 's kitchen cutting dough into biscuits with a styrene - acrylonitrile pebbled tumbler, while looking up longingly at some postcards of far - away places, such as Scotland and Paris, stuck to the refrigerator. She puts the biscuits in the oven, sets a timer, and dusts her hands off with an oscillating fan, before pausing a moment, and then starting the song using the cup on the table. In a long continuous shot, she washes her hands, takes a plate of food from the chef, and makes her way out into the dining area, where all the customers are drumming the cups in various ways. The camera then follows her singing while collecting dirty dishes and cleaning tables, before it pans around and back out wide, showing the entire diner synchronously doing the routine during the bridge section. It then cuts back to her walking back to the kitchen, passing the chef now drumming with a cup instead of wooden utensils, and follows back to her at the table. The timer rings as the song ends, and she looks back up, out towards the dining area where everyone is now normal, realizing it was all her imagination. Taking one last look at the chef, she smiles and exits through the back door.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Since May 2013 RIAA certifications for digital singles include on - demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads.
The Maccabeats, a Jewish a capella group from Yeshiva University, covered Kendrick 's version and parodied her music video with group members sitting around a Shabbat table singing the Shabbat morning table song "D'ror Yikra '' while performing the cups routine.
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where does the mohawk river meet the hudson river | Mohawk River - wikipedia
The Mohawk River is a 149 - mile - long (240 km) river in the U.S. state of New York. It is the largest tributary of the Hudson River. The Mohawk flows into the Hudson in Cohoes, New York, a few miles north of the city of Albany. The river is named for the Mohawk Nation of the Iroquois Confederacy. It is a major waterway in north - central New York.
From its source in Lewis County, the Mohawk River flows generally east through the Mohawk Valley, passing by the cities of Rome, Utica, Little Falls, Canajoharie, Amsterdam, and Schenectady before entering the Hudson River at Cohoes, just north of Albany.
The river and its supporting canal, the Erie Canal, connect the Hudson River and port of New York with the Great Lakes at Buffalo, New York. The lower part of the Mohawk River has five permanent dams, nine movable dams (seasonal), and five active hydropower plants.
Schoharie Creek and West Canada Creek are the principal tributaries of the Mohawk River. Both of these tributaries have several significant dams including the Hinckley Dam on the West Canada and the Gilboa Dam on the upper reaches of Schoharie Creek. The Gilboa Dam, which was completed in 1926 as part of the New York City water supply system, is the subject of an active and aggressive rehabilitation project.
The river has long been important to transportation and migration to the west as a passage through the Appalachian Mountains, between the Catskill Mountains and Allegheny Plateau to the south and the Adirondack Mountains to the north. The Mohawk Valley allowed easier passage than going over the mountains to the north or south of the valley. As a result, it was strategically important during the French and Indian War and the American Revolutionary War, and a number of important battles were fought here. The fertile Mohawk Valley also attracted early settlers.
In the early nineteenth century water transport was a vital means of transporting both people and goods. A corporation was formed to build the Erie Canal off the Mohawk River to Lake Erie. The canal cut shipping costs to Lake Erie by 95 %. It also simplified and reduced the difficulties of westward settler migration.
The Mohawk Valley still plays an important role in transportation. Railroads followed the Water Level Route, as did major east - west roads such as Route 5 and Interstate 90.
The Mohawk River Heritage Corridor Commission was created to preserve and promote the natural and historic assets of the Mohawk River. This commission was created by the NY State Legislature in 1997 to improve historic preservation along the river.
The Mohawk watershed drains a large section of the Catskill Mountains, the Mohawk Valley proper, and a section of the southern Adirondack Mountains. All three regions have distinct bedrock geology, and the underlying rocks become progressively younger to the south. Overall, this part of New York is represented by lower Paleozoic sedimentary rocks that unconformably overlie the Grenville - aged (Proterozoic, here about 1.1 billion years old) metamorphic rocks of the Adirondacks. In the watershed, these rocks are only significant in the headwaters of the West Canada Creek. Much of the main trunk of the Mohawk River sits in Cambro - Ordovician carbonates (limestone) and Middle Ordovician sandstones and shales. The southern tributaries (Catskill Mountains) are underlain by a thin sequence of Devonian limestones that are overlain by a thick sequence of sandstones and shale of the Catskill Delta, which is also Devonian in age.
During the Pleistocene (c. 1.8 to 0.01 mya), the watershed was extensively modified by continental glaciation. As a result of glacial scour and deposition, the surficial deposits in much of the watershed are poorly sorted boulder - and clay - rich glacial till. During deglaciation, several glacial lakes left varved clay deposits. In the final stages of deglaciation, approximately 13,350 years ago, the catastrophic draining of Glacial Lake Iroquois, a pro-glacial lake, was through what would become the modern Mohawk Valley. In this final phase, the enormous discharge of water caused local deep scour features (e.g. the Potholes at Little Falls), and extensive sand and gravel deposition, which is one of the key sources of municipal groundwater including the Scotia Delta, which is also known as the Great Flats Aquifer.
The river was the highway of the native Mohawk people. the Mohawk name for the river was Tenonanatche, "A river flowing through a mountain '' (or Yenonanatche, "going round a mountain ''). The first recorded European exploration of the Mohawk was a trip by the Dutchman Harman Meyndertsz van den Bogaert in 1634. He followed the river upstream from Albany for a distance of 100 miles, including all the territory of the Mohawks.
In 1661 Dutch colonists founded the city of Schenectady on the Mohawk River approximately 19 miles (31 km) from Albany. "For fifty years Schenectady was the outpost of civilization and Dutch - English rule in the Mohawk valley. ''
In 1712 the British, now in control of New York, built Fort Hunter at the confluence of the Mohawk and the Schoharie Creek, about 22 miles (35 km) upriver from Schenectady. Around 600 Palatine Germans were settled along the Mohawk and Schoharie Creek.
Historically, the Mohawk watershed has lacked a watershed management plan typical in many adjacent basins. In 2010, the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation released the Mohawk River Basin Action Agenda, which is the first framework for a watershed management plan in this basin. This plan identifies five priority goals for the Mohawk River Basin that are designed to enhance ecosystem health and the vitality of the region. The Action Agenda, developed by the NYS DEC in collaboration with a number of stakeholders in the basin with public input, advocates an ecosystem - based approach to watershed management. In October 2014, Riverkeeper, an environmental advocacy and clean water watchdog organization, announced that they will be expanding the reach of their efforts from the Hudson River to the Mohawk as well.
The Mohawk River has a relatively long record of flooding that has been documented back to settlement in the 17th century. The average volume of water that flows through the Mohawk is about 184 billion cubic feet (5.21 km) every year. Much of the water flows through the watershed in the spring as snow melts rapidly and enters the tributaries and the main trunk of the river. The maximum average daily flow on the river occurs between late March and early April. For the period between 1917 and 2000, the highest mean daily flow is c. 18,000 cu ft (510 m) as measured at Cohoes, near the confluence with the Hudson. The lowest mean daily flow of 1,400 cu ft (40 m) occurs in late August. There is a long record of significant and damaging floods along the entire length of the river.
Because the river and its tributaries typically freeze in the winter, the spring melt is commonly accompanied by ice floes that get stuck and jammed along the main trunk of the river. This annual spring breakup typically occurs in the last few weeks of March, although there are plenty of floods that have occurred before or after this time, such as in 2018 when the ice jam breakup happened in late February after record warmth in the region. These ice jams can cause considerable damage to structures along the riverbanks and on the floodplain. The most severe flood of record on the main trunk of the Mohawk River was the spring breakup flood that occurred from 27 -- 28 March 1914. This flood caused a tremendous amount of damage to the infrastructure because it was a spring breakup flood with enormous amounts of ice. Ice jams of some significance occur about every other year.
One major flood on the Mohawk was on 26 -- 29 June 2006, during the Mid-Atlantic United States flood of 2006. Flooding was caused by a stalled frontal system that resulted in 50 to 330 millimeters (2.0 to 13.0 in) of rain across central New York and widespread flooding occurred in the Mohawk, Delaware, and Susquehanna watersheds. Across the state, this event caused over US $ 227m in damage and resulted in the loss of four lives. This flooding was acute in the upper parts of the Mohawk watershed.
The Mohawk River also saw significant flooding during the weeks between August 21, 2011 and September 5, 2011 due to torrential rains experienced from Hurricane Irene and Tropical Storm Lee. Many of the Mohawk Barge Canal locks sustained major damage, especially near Waterford and Rotterdam Junction.
Another major flood was on June 28, 2013. It was caused because of heavy rain that had fallen in the region for weeks, and then on the night of June 27, 2013, it was reported in the Jordanville area that 4 inches of rain fell in one hour that night. The next day, the Mohawk River completely flooded the valley, residents were stranded, and without power for approximately one week. There was extreme damage everywhere, especially Mohawk and Fort Plain.
Media related to Mohawk River (New York) at Wikimedia Commons
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the organizational structure of the early christian church was based on the | Early Christianity - wikipedia
Early Christianity, defined as the period of Christianity preceding the First Council of Nicaea in 325, typically divides historically into the Apostolic Age and the Ante - Nicene Period (from the Apostolic Age until Nicea).
The first Christians, as described in the first chapters of the Acts of the Apostles, were all Jews either by birth or conversion ("proselytes '' in Biblical terminology), and historians refer to them as Jewish Christians. The early Gospel message spread orally, probably originally in Aramaic, but almost immediately also in Greek. The New Testament 's Acts of the Apostles and Epistle to the Galatians record that the first Christian community centered on Jerusalem and that its leaders included Peter, James, the brother of Jesus, and John the Apostle.
After his conversion, Paul the Apostle claimed the title of "Apostle to the Gentiles ''. Paul 's influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than that of any other New Testament author. By the end of the 1st century, Christianity began to be recognized internally and externally as a separate religion from Judaism which itself was refined and developed further in the centuries after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 AD.
Numerous quotations in the New Testament and other Christian writings of the first centuries, indicate that early Christians generally used and revered the Hebrew Bible (the Tanakh) as religious text, mostly in the Greek (Septuagint) or Aramaic (Targum) translations.
Early Christians wrote many religious works, including the canon of the New Testament, which includes the canonical gospels, Acts, letters of the Apostles, and Revelation, and which were written before 120 AD.
As the New Testament canon developed, the Pauline epistles, the canonical gospels and various other works were also recognized as scripture to be read in church. Paul 's letters, especially Romans, established a theology based on Christ rather than on the Mosaic Law, but most Christian denominations today still consider the "moral prescriptions '' of the Mosaic Law, such as the Ten Commandments, Great Commandment, and Golden Rule, to be relevant. Early Christians demonstrated a wide range of beliefs and practices, many of which were later denounced as heretical.
The earliest followers of Jesus composed an apocalyptic, Second Temple Jewish sect, which historians refer to as Jewish Christianity. The first part of the period, during the lifetimes of the Twelve Apostles, is called the Apostolic Age. In line with the Great Commission attributed to the resurrected Jesus, the Apostles are said to have dispersed from Jerusalem, and the Christian missionary activity spread Christianity to cities throughout the Hellenistic world and even beyond the Roman Empire. The relationship of Paul the Apostle and Judaism is still disputed although Paul 's influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than any other New Testament author.
Early Christians suffered under sporadic anti-Christian policies in the Roman Empire as the result of local pagan populations putting pressure on the imperial authorities to take action against the Christians in their midst, who were thought to bring misfortune by their refusal to honour the gods.
Persecution was on the rise in Anatolia towards the end of the first century. In 111, emperor Trajan issued regulations about the conduct of trials of Christians under the Roman governor of the area. The first action taken against Christians by the order of an emperor occurred half a century earlier under Nero after the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD. Towards the end of the 2nd century Tertullian wrote: "They think the Christians the cause of every public disaster, of every affliction with which the people are visited. If the Tiber rises as high as the city walls, if the Nile does not send its waters up over the fields, if the heavens give no rain, if there is an earthquake, if there is famine or pestilence, straightway the cry is, ' Away with the Christians to the lion! ' ''
Early Christian writers used their knowledge Hellenic language and literature to oppose Hellenocentrism. Though early Christian apologetics certainly tackled the issue of Greek religion, the criticisms of early Christian early writers also extended to what The Oxford Handbook to the Second Sophistic describes as the "cultural privilege that was deemed to accrue from the mastery of the Greek language ''. Tatian, a pupil of Justin Martyr, believed that Hellenic civilization was evil. He wrote about the privileged place of Attic Greek amongst the Greek dialects and mocked Greeks, comparing their minds to "the (leaky) jar of the Danaids ''. In a more muted polemic text called the Legatio, Athenagoras contrasts what he believes is the goodness of illiterate Christians with those who "reduce syllogisms, and clear up ambiguities, and explain etymologies ''.
During the Ante - Nicene Period following the Apostolic Age, a great diversity of views emerged simultaneously with strong unifying characteristics lacking in the apostolic period. Part of the unifying trend was an increasingly harsh anti-Judaism and rejection of Judaizers. Early Christianity gradually grew apart from Judaism during the first two centuries and established itself as a predominantly gentile religion in the Roman Empire.
According to Will Durant, the Christian Church prevailed over paganism because it offered a much more attractive doctrine and because the church leaders addressed human needs better than their rivals.
From the writings of early Christians, historians have tried to piece together an understanding of various early Christian practices including worship services, customs and observances. Early Christian writers such as Justin Martyr (100 -- 165) described these practices.
Early Christian beliefs regarding baptism probably predate the New Testament writings. It seems certain that numerous Jewish sects and certainly Jesus 's disciples practised baptism, which became integral to nearly every manifestation of the religion of the Jews. John the Baptist had baptized many people, before baptisms took place in the name of Jesus Christ. Many of the interpretations that would later become Orthodox Christian beliefs concerning baptism can be traced to apostles such as Paul, who likened baptism to being buried with Christ in his death (Romans 6: 3 -- 4; Colossians 2: 12). On the basis of this description, it was supposed by some modern theologians that the early Christians practised baptism by submersion (Matthew 3: 13 -- 17). This interpretation is debated between those Christian denominations who advocate immersion baptism exclusively and those who practice baptism by affusion or aspersion as well as by immersion. Yet the Didache, one of the earliest Christian writings on liturgical practices, mentions that baptism may occur by pouring water on the head three times using the trinitarian formula (i.e., in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit). The Orthodox Church continues this practice, submerging the baptized and then pouring water on the head in that formula.
Infant baptism was widely practised at least by the 3rd century, but it is disputed whether it was in the first centuries of Christianity. Some believe that the Church in the apostolic period practised infant baptism, arguing that the mention of the baptism of households in the Acts of the Apostles would have included children within the household. Others believe that infants were excluded from the baptism of households, citing verses of the Bible that describe the baptized households as believing, which infants are incapable of doing. In the 2nd century, Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, may have referred to it. Additionally, Justin Martyr wrote about baptism in First Apology (written in the mid-2nd century), describing it as a choice and contrasting it with the lack of choice one has in one 's physical birth. However, Justin Martyr also seems to imply elsewhere that believers were "disciples from childhood '', indicating, perhaps, their baptism. The Bishop Polycarp, himself a disciple of the Apostle John, stated at his martyrdom (168 AD) that he had been in the "service of Christ '' for eighty - six years. Other recorded dates from Polycarp 's life make it likely that eighty - six years was his age from birth as well. Joachim Jeremias concludes the following from these facts: "This shows at any rate that his parents were already Christians, or at least were converted quite soon after his birth. If his parents were pagans at his birth, he would have been baptized with the ' house ' at their conversion. But even if his parents were Christians, the words ' service of Christ for eighty - six years ' support a baptism soon after his birth rather than one as a child of ' mature years '... for which there is no evidence at all. '' The so - called Apostolic Tradition says to "Baptize first the children, and if they can speak for themselves let them do so. Otherwise, let their parents or other relatives speak for them. '' If it was written by Hippolytus of Rome, Apostolic Tradition could be dated about 215 AD, but recent scholars believe it to be material from separate sources ranging from the middle second to the fourth century, being gathered and compiled on about 375 -- 400 AD. The 3rd century evidence is clearer, with both Origen (calling infant baptism "according to the usage of the Church '') and Cyprian advocating the practice. Tertullian acknowledges the practice (and that sponsors would speak on behalf of the children), but, holding an unusual view of marriage, argues against it, on the grounds that baptism should be postponed until after marriage.
Interpretation of the baptismal practices of the early church is important to groups such as Baptists, Anabaptists, and the Churches of Christ who believe that infant baptism was a development that occurred during the late 2nd to early 3rd centuries. The early Christian writings mentioned above, which date from the 2nd and 3rd century indicate that Christians as early as the 2nd century did maintain such a practice.
Christian groups and congregations first organized themselves loosely. In Paul 's time, although certain decisions by Elders and Apostles were binding, as in the Council of Jerusalem, there were no precisely delineated functions yet for bishops, elders, and deacons. A Church hierarchy, however, seems to have developed by the late 1st century and early 2nd century (see Pastoral Epistles, c. 90 -- 140). These structures were certainly formalized well before the end of the Early Christian period, which concluded with the legalization of Christianity by Constantine 's Edict of Milan in 313 and the holding of the First Council of Nicea in 325, when the title of Metropolitan bishop first appears.
In the post-Apostolic church, bishops emerged as overseers of urban Christian populations, and a hierarchy of clergy gradually took on the form of episkopoi (overseers), presbyteroi (elders), and diakonoi (ministerial servants). This hierarchy emerged slowly and at different times for different locations. Clement, a 1st - century bishop of Rome, refers to the leaders of the Corinthian church in his epistle to Corinthians as bishops and presbyters interchangeably. The New Testament writers also use the terms "overseer '' and "elder '' interchangeably and as synonyms. The Didache (dated by most scholars to the early 2nd century), speaks of "appointing for yourself bishops and deacons ''.
Disputes regarding the proper titles and roles of church leaders would later become one of the major causes of schism within the Christian Church. Such disputes include the roles of bishops and presbyters. Churches such as the Catholic and Orthodox use the word "priest '' of all the baptized, but apply it in a more specific sense ("ministerial priesthood '') to bishops and presbyters and sometimes, somewhat loosely, treat "presbyter '' and "priest '' as synonyms, applying both terms to clergy subordinate to bishops. In congregational churches, the title "priest '' is rejected, keeping only "presbyter '' or "elder ''. Some congregational churches do not include a role of bishop in their organizational polity.
Post-apostolic bishops of importance include Polycarp of Smyrna, Ignatius of Antioch and Clement of Rome. These men reportedly knew and studied under the apostles personally and are therefore called Apostolic Fathers. Each Christian community also had presbyters, as was the case with Jewish communities, who were also ordained and assisted the bishop; as Christianity spread, especially in rural areas, the presbyters exercised more responsibilities and took distinctive shape as priests. Lastly, deacons also performed certain duties, such as tending to the poor and sick. In the 2nd century, an episcopal structure becomes more visible, and in that century this structure was supported by teaching on apostolic succession, where a bishop becomes the spiritual successor of the previous bishop in a line tracing back to the apostles themselves.
By the end of the early Christian period, the church within the Roman Empire had hundreds of bishops, some of them (Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, "other provinces '') holding some form of jurisdiction over others.
Jerusalem was the first church and an important church center up to 135. The First Council of Nicaea recognized and confirmed the tradition by which Jerusalem continued to be given "special honour '', but did not assign to it even metropolitan authority within its own province, still less the extraprovincial jurisdiction exercised by Rome and the other sees mentioned above.
Constantinople came into prominence only after the early Christian period, being founded officially in 330, five years after the First Council of Nicaea, though the much smaller original city of Byzantium was an early center of Christianity largely due to its proximity to Anatolia.
According to Bauckham, the post-apostolic church contained diverse practices as regards the Sabbath.
It is classically understood that Jews have tradition to observe Saturday as the Sabbath, due to Yahweh resting on the seventh day after creation. It is contested that worship on Sundays, as is now mostly common in the Christian movement, only shifted from Saturday because of Emperor Constantine. However, it seems clear that most of the Early Church did not consider observation of the Sabbath to be required or of imminent importance to Christians and in fact worshiped on Sunday. Ignatius of Antioch, who lived from around 30 -- 108 AD, mentions this in Chapter 9 of his "Epistle to the Magnesians '' which is dated to around 101 AD. Justin Martyr, a disciple who lived between 110 -- 165 AD, wrote about this extensively in his "Dialogue With Trypho the Jew. '' Another mention of this by Justin Martyr is in his "Apologies '' work Section 1: 67 dated to around 140 -- 150 AD. Below is a portion of the text:
"And on the day which is called Sunday there is an assembly in the same place of all who live in cities or in country districts; and the records of the apostles, or the writings of the prophets, are read as long as we have time... Sunday is the day on which we all hold our common assembly, because it is the day on which God, when he changed the darkness and matter, made the world; and Jesus Christ our Savior on the same day rose from the dead. '' (Justin Martyr, written 140 AD, from "Apologies '' 1: 67)
The attitude of the Church Fathers towards women paralleled rules in Jewish law regarding a woman 's role in worship, although the early church allowed women to participate in worship -- something that was not allowed in the Synagogue (where women were restricted to the outer court). The Deutero - Pauline First Epistle to Timothy teaches that women should remain quiet during public worship and were not to instruct men or assume authority over them. The Epistle to the Ephesians, which is also Deutero - Pauline, calls upon women to submit to the authority of their husbands.
Elizabeth A. Clark says that the Church Fathers regarded women both as "God 's good gift to men '' and as "the curse of the world '', both as "weak in both mind and character '' and as people who "displayed dauntless courage, undertook prodigious feats of scholarship ''.
The New Testament provides several examples of female leaders, including Phoebe, described as a servant (and in some Bible versions as a deaconess a Christian designated to serve with under the bishops and presbyters of the church in a variety of ways, in Corinth), Priscilla (an early missionary and wife of Aquila) and Lydia (who hosted a house church in the Asian city of Thyatira). While it 's quite clear these women were not ordained clerics, these women were very influential, and they are still venerated today.
Early Christian beliefs were based on the apostolic preaching (kerygma), considered to be preserved in tradition and in New Testament scripture, for parts of which scholars have posited dates as late as the third century, although it was then attributed to the Apostles themselves and their contemporaries, such as Mark and Luke.
Most Christians identified Jesus as divine from a very early period, although holding a variety of competing views as to what exactly this implied. Early Christian views tended to see Jesus as a unique agent of God; by the Council of Nicaea in 325 he was identified as God in the fullest sense, being ' of the same substance, essence or being '.
Some of the texts that would later be canonized as the New Testament several times imply or indirectly refer to the divine character to Jesus, though there is scholarly debate as to whether or not they call him God Within 15 -- 20 years of the death of Jesus, Paul, who authored the largest early expositions of Christian theology, refers to Jesus as the resurrected "Son of God '', the savior who would return from heaven and save his faithful, dead and living, from the imminent destruction of the world. The Synoptic Gospels describe him as the "Son of God '', though the phrase "Son of Man '' (always placed in the mouth of Jesus himself) is more frequently used in the Gospel of Mark; born of the Virgin Mary by the agency of the Holy Spirit, and who will return to judge the nations. The Gospel of John identifies Jesus as the human incarnation of the divine Word or "Logos '' (see Jesus the Logos) and True Vine. It is believed that the Book of Revelation depicts Jesus as "the Alpha and the Omega, the first and the last, the beginning and the end '' (22: 13), and applies similar terms to "the Lord God '': "' I am the Alpha and the Omega, ' says the Lord God, ' who is and who was and who is to come, the Almighty ' '' (1: 8).
The term "Logos '' was used in Greek philosophy (see Heraclitus) and in Hellenistic Jewish religious writing (see Philo Judaeus of Alexandria) to mean the ultimate ordering principle of the universe. Those who rejected the identification of Jesus with the Logos, rejecting also the Gospel of John, were called Alogi (see also Monarchianism).
Adoptionists, such as the Ebionites, considered him as at first an ordinary man, born to Joseph and Mary, who later became the Son of God at his baptism, his transfiguration, or his resurrection.
Rodney Stark estimates that the number of Christians grew by approximately 40 % a decade during the first and second centuries. This phenomenal growth rate forced Christian communities to evolve in order to adapt to their changes in the nature of their communities as well as their relationship with their political and socioeconomic environment. As the number of Christians grew, the Christian communities became larger, more numerous and farther apart geographically. The passage of time also moved some Christians farther from the original teachings of the apostles giving rise to teachings that were considered heterodox and sowing controversy and divisiveness within churches and between churches.
Roger Haight posits the development of ecclesiology in the form of "Early Catholicism '' as one response to the problem of church unity. Thus, the solution to division arising from heterodox teaching was the development of "tighter and more standardized structures of ministry. One of these structures is the tri-partite form of church leadership consisting of bishops, elders and deacons that Ignatius of Antioch urged churches to adopt, writing that "You can not have a church without these. '' Over the course of the second century, this organizational structure became universal and continues to be used in the Catholic, Orthodox and Anglican churches as well as in some Protestant denominations.
Despite its mention of bishops, there is no clear evidence in the New Testament that supports the concepts of dioceses and monepiscopacy (i.e. the rule that all the churches in a geographic area should be ruled by a single bishop). Ronald Y.K. Fung claimed that scholars point to evidence that Christian communities such as Rome had many bishops and that the concept of monepiscopacy was still emerging when Ignatius was urging his tri-partite structure on other churches.
Robert Williams posits that the "origin and earliest development of episcopacy and monepiscopacy and the ecclesiastical concept of (apostolic) succession were associated with crisis situations in the early church. ''
The proto - orthodox church had a dichotomy for teachings; they were either orthodox or heterodox. Orthodox teachings were those that claimed to have the authentic lineage of Holy Tradition. All other teachings were viewed as deviant streams of thought and were possibly heretical. An important discussion in the past century among scholars of early Christianity is to what extent it is still appropriate to speak of "orthodoxy '' and "heresy ''. Higher criticism drastically altered the previous perception that heresy was a very rare exception to the orthodoxy. Some orthodox scholars argue against the increasing focus on heterodoxy. A movement away from presuming the correctness or dominance of the orthodoxy is seen as understandable, in light of modern approaches. However, these orthodox scholars feel that instead of an even and neutral approach to historical analysis that the heterodox sects are given an assumption of superiority over the orthodox movement.
Early Christians wrote many religious works, including the canon of the New Testament, which includes the Canonical Gospels, Acts, letters of the Apostles, and Revelation were written before 120 AD.
Debates about scripture were underway in the mid-2nd century, concurrent with a drastic increase of new scriptures, both Jewish and Christian. Debates regarding practice and belief gradually became reliant on the use of scripture other than what Melito referred to as the Old Testament, as the New Testament canon developed. Similarly, in the 3rd century a shift away from direct revelation as a source of authority occurred, most notably against the Montanists. "Scripture '' still had a broad meaning and usually referred to the Septuagint among Greek speakers or the Targums among Aramaic speakers or the Vetus Latina translations in Carthage. Beyond the Torah (the Law) and some of the earliest prophetic works (the Prophets), there was not agreement on the canon, but this was not debated much at first. By the mid-2nd century, tensions arose with the split of early Christianity and Judaism, which some theorize led eventually to the determination of a Jewish canon by the emerging rabbinic movement, though, even as of today, there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Jewish canon was set. For example, some scholars argue that the Jewish canon was fixed earlier, by the Hasmonean dynasty (140 -- 137 BC).
A problem for scholars is that there is a lack of direct evidence on when Christians began accepting their own scriptures alongside the Septuagint. Well into the 2nd century Christians held onto a strong preference for oral tradition as clearly demonstrated by writers of the time, such as Papias.
Koine Greek spread all over the Empire, even up the Rhone valley of Gaul; Roman satirists complained that even Rome had become a Greek city. Thus the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures (the Septuagint) was the dominant translation (even the Peshitta appears to be influenced). Later Jerome would express his preference for adhering strictly to the Hebrew text and canon, but his view held little currency even in his own day. It was not until the Protestant Reformation that substantial numbers of Christians began to reject those books of the Septuagint which are not found in the Jewish Masoretic Text, referring to them as biblical apocrypha. In addition, some New Testament books were also disputed, known as the Antilegomena.
Since the end of the 4th century, the title "Fathers of the Church '' has been used to refer to a more or less clearly defined group of ecclesiastical writers who are appealed to as authorities on doctrinal matters. Orthodoxy of doctrine, holiness of life, approval by the Church and antiquity are traditionally considered conditions for classification as a Father of the Church, but modern writers sometimes include Tertullian, Origen and a few others.
The earliest Christian writings (other than those collected in the New Testament) are a group of letters credited to the Apostolic Fathers. These include the Epistle of Barnabas, the Shepherd of Hermas and the Epistles of Clement, as well as the Didache. Taken as a whole, the collection is notable for its literary simplicity, religious zeal and lack of Hellenistic philosophy or rhetoric. Fathers such as Ignatius of Antioch (died 98 to 117) advocated the authority of the apostolic episcopacy (bishops).
Early Christianity spread from city to city throughout the Hellenized Roman Empire and beyond into East Africa and South Asia. The Christian Apostles, said to have dispersed from Jerusalem, traveled extensively and established communities in major cities and regions throughout the Empire. Apostles (see Apostolic see) and other Christian soldiers, merchants, and preachers founded early church communities in northern Africa, Asia Minor, Armenia, Caucasian Albania, Arabia, Greece, and other places. Over forty existed by the year 100, many in Asia Minor, such as the seven churches of Asia. By the end of the 1st century, Christianity had spread to Greece and Italy, even India.
By 201 AD or earlier, under King Abgar the Great, Osroene became the first Christian state.
In 301 AD, the Kingdom of Armenia became the second state to declare Christianity as its official religion, following the conversion of the Royal House of the Arsacids in Armenia. The Armenian Apostolic Church is the world 's oldest national church.
Despite sometimes intense persecutions, the Christian religion continued its spread throughout the Mediterranean Basin.
Various theories attempt to explain how Christianity managed to spread so successfully prior to the Edict of Milan (313). Some Christians saw the success as simply the natural consequence of the truth of the religion and of the direct intervention of God. However, similar explanations are claimed for the spread of, for instance, Islam and Buddhism. In The Rise of Christianity, Rodney Stark argues that Christianity triumphed over paganism chiefly because it improved the lives of its adherents in various ways. Another factor, more recently pointed out, was the way in which Christianity combined its promise of a general resurrection of the dead with the traditional Greek belief that true immortality depended on the survival of the body, with Christianity adding practical explanations of how this was going to actually happen at the end of the world. Mosheim (1693 -- 1755) saw the rapid progression of Christianity as due to two factors: translations of the New Testament and the Apologies composed in defence of Christianity. Edward Gibbon (1737 -- 1794), in his classic The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776 -- 1789), discusses the topic in considerable detail in his famous Chapter Fifteen, summarizing the historical causes of the early success of Christianity as follows: "(1) The inflexible, and, if we may use the expression, the intolerant zeal of the Christians, derived, it is true, from the Jewish religion, but purified from the narrow and unsocial spirit which, instead of inviting, had deterred the Gentiles from embracing the law of Moses. (2) The doctrine of a future life, improved by every additional circumstance which could give weight and efficacy to that important truth. (3) The miraculous powers ascribed to the primitive church. (4) The pure and austere morals of the Christians. (5) The union and discipline of the Christian republic, which gradually formed an independent and increasing state in the heart of the Roman empire. ''
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which episode does clay die in sons of anarchy | Clay Morrow - wikipedia
Clarence "Clay '' Morrow was a fictional character in the FX television series Sons of Anarchy. He is played by Ron Perlman. He is the former International President of the Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club, but is also something of a vigilante as he does everything in his power to ensure that drug dealers and rapists stay out of his town. However, during the fourth season, Clay involves the club with a number of drug dealings with the cartel for his own protection and greed, wavering in his allegiance, and gradually reveals himself to be one of the story 's antagonists. He is 6 ' 2 '' and has a number of tattoos, most notably a Grim Reaper on his upper right arm and a Paratrooper tattoo on his upper left, along with the words "Death From Above '' indicating that he served as a paratrooper in a military unit. He also wears a golden pin of the same symbol on his kutte. This symbol is often confused with the US Army Parachutist badge. The Paratrooper symbol that Clay wears is an unofficial symbol, and would serve to indicate service, particularly combat service, as a paratrooper, and consists of a skull, with wings coming from the bottom of the skull, and curving up to meet the top of the skull. Given that his and Gemma Teller 's machinations are the driving source of conflict throughout the story, it can be argued that both he and Gemma are the series ' main antagonists.
Morrow, of Irish descent, was born in 1949 but is not a native of Charming, California. He is one of the original "First 9 '' members of the Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club, formed in 1967, but was not a founding member. Of the first nine, he was the youngest and one of only three who were not war veterans. He did later go on to serve in the military, however, joining the US Army as an Airborne qualified Infantryman in 1969 and was deployed to Vietnam until 1972 (commemorated by a tattoo on his left arm and the paratrooper pin on his vest). When he returned from service, he remained a member of the club and opened the Teller - Morrow Automotive Repair shop with John Teller, the club President and his best friend. Whilst serving as the Vice President during the early 1990s, he was responsible for a number of murders during the SAMCRO - Mayan War, including that of Lowell Harland, Sr., a mechanic at the auto shop who became an ATF informant.
In 1993, he became the President of the club 's Mother Charter, based in Charming (which also means that he was International President), after the death of John Teller. He went on to marry John Teller 's widow Gemma Teller Morrow in the mid-1990s and made their son, Jax Teller, Vice-President. It is implied that under Morrow, SAMCRO has become more of a criminal enterprise than before, much to Jax 's disillusionment.
On his colors he wears patches reading "First 9 '' and "President ''. He suffers from osteoarthritis (degenerative arthritis) in his hands, which is slowly worsening as the series progresses. He makes several attempts to hide it from his brothers to protect his position as President, as a rule among members of the Sons of Anarchy prevents members from leading if they ca n't hold the grip of their motorcycle and ride effectively.
Season One begins with the Sons of Anarchy finding their weapon storage warehouse being burned down. The SOA rush to the scene, where local police officers are already investigating. Clay talks to Sheriff Vic Trammel about the blaze, who claims that propane tanks inside the building blew up, and that he suspects arson due to the bootprints inside. Trammel then shows Clay the burned corpses of the people hidden beneath the building, who were illegal immigrants. It is later revealed that they were Mexican prostitutes "owned '' by the club 's Sergeant - at - Arms, Tig Trager. Clay then goes to meet Laroy, the leader of the One - Niners, in the East Bay. He is due to sell guns to the gang, but as they were destroyed, he must explain what happened at the warehouse. Laroy needs the guns to protect their heroin trade from another motorcycle club, the Mayans, and eventually lets Clay have some more time to get more guns together for him. The Sons of Anarchy then work out that it was the Mayans who stole the guns and destroyed the storage warehouse, and decide to get some payback. Juice Ortiz, the club 's intelligence officer, finds out where the Mayans stored the guns and Clay, Tig, Jax and Chibs Telford all head out to San Leandro to retrieve them. When they arrive at the industrial storage warehouse and find the guns, three Mayans turn up in a car outside. Clay and Tig then shoot and kill the Mayans. Jax is shot by another man, who has a number of Nazi and White supremacist tattoos. He was a member of the Nordics, a local skinhead gang who are allied with the Mayans, and it later emerges that his name is Whistler. Jax turns around and shoots Whistler twice, killing him. They escape with the weapons and destroy the building using explosives.
Wayne Unser, the Chief of the Charming Police Department, has always gotten on well with the Sons of Anarchy during his time in charge, and has even employed them as muscle, at times. However, he is dying from cancer and will retire at the end of the month, handing power over to his Deputy, David Hale, who is overtly suspicious of the SOA and will almost definitely begin an investigation into the club. To warn Unser to keep Hale off their case, Clay, Bobby Munson (the club 's Treasurer) and Opie Winston hijack a shipment that they are supposed to protect, and threaten to hijack more. As a goodwill gesture, they give the contents of the truck to the local Italian American Mafia, as their gun delivery is late. Meanwhile, Tig comes forth and tells Clay that he has been having sex with both of the women found at the warehouse and that his DNA is in the police database. Clay orders Tig and Bobby to get rid of the bodies. The pair then retrieve the corpses from the police site and burn them in a furnace. Hale is enraged when he discovers that the bodies are missing, and he threatens Clay that he will close the SOA down for good.
Local businessman Elliot Oswald goes to Clay after his 13 - year - old daughter is raped at a carnival and asks the Sons of Anarchy to hunt down the rapist and kill him, in exchange for money. Clay refuses the money but insists that if they catch him, he must carry out the punishment himself. Juice and Gemma discover that the rapist is one of the carnies and the gang capture him and bring him to Oswald, who tries to castrate him but can not bring himself to do it. Clay then carries the punishment out, but wears gloves whilst doing it. He then frames Oswald for the crime, as only Oswald 's fingerprints are on the knife, because Oswald was about to sell off much of the land around Charming to big business and housing, which would challenge the SOA 's reign over the town. Jax is unhappy that Clay did not tell him of the plan, however, and tells him to always inform him on his future motives.
When a Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives agent arrives in Charming and begins investigating the club, Clay decides that they should move their weapons to Indian Hills, Nevada, where their brother club, the Devil 's Tribe, are based. He also sends Bobby and Jax to inform the Devil 's Tribe that the Sons of Anarchy will be patching over them, and Tig and Juice to steal a truck to transport the guns in. Clay also travels to Indian Hills to perform the patch - over ceremony and brings a number of SOA Washington members as protection in case the Mayans retaliate for an earlier conflict involving Jax, Bobby and five Mayans. At the patch - over party, he has sex with Cherry, a woman whom Half - Sack likes, as revenge for his calling Gemma a MILF earlier. The Mayans eventually retaliate, as predicted, by attacking the Devil 's Tribe clubhouse, and a large shootout ensues.
Otto Delaney and a number of other imprisoned SAMCRO members have been protecting Chuck in Stockton prison. He is wanted by the Triads because he stole money from them, then informed on a number of their members when he was arrested. When Clay and Jax visit Otto in prison, he tells them that if they protect Chuck when he is released, he will inform them where the money that he has skimmed from the Asian Triads gang is located. They agree and pick him up from prison and bring him to the clubhouse. SAMCRO intends to wait until the restaurant, where the money is stored, closes before raiding it, but Chuck 's frequent unconscious masturbating is unbearable for them and they decide to raid the restaurant straight away. However, just after they steal the money and some counterfeiting plates, the Triads turn up. Instead of starting a war, Clay decides to make a deal; SAMCRO hands over Chuck and the plates for $60,000 from the Triads as the skim money is all counterfeit. Meanwhile, Kyle Hobart, a disgraced former SAMCRO member, goes to Jax and asks him if the Sons want in on his deal selling stolen car parts. Jax accepts and invites him to the clubhouse that night. This was a setup, however, to punish him for not having his SOA tattoo removed after being disowned by the club. At the clubhouse, they tie him up and Tig uses a blowtorch to burn off the tattoo.
Jax and Piney sell five AK - 47s to Nate Meineke and his right - wing state militia. They then use these guns to ambush a prison convoy and free one of their members, Frank Cison. Three police officers are killed during the assault. Meineke drops his cell phone at the scene, and his last calls have been to Clay Morrow. When the ATF finds the phone, they arrest Clay and raid the clubhouse. Clay is later released because no evidence is found, meaning he can no longer be kept in custody. Meanwhile, Jax, Piney and Opie Winston decide to kill Meineke and his gang to keep them from snitching if they are apprehended by the authorities. They pretend to sell them more weapons. The "boxes of guns '' are actually filled with explosives, however, and the militia load their trucks with them. All of the militia are killed when the bombs are detonated.
Workmen working for the Water and Power Board near the highway dig up three skeletons, two of which were Mayans killed in the war of 1992. The other was Lowell Harland, Sr., a mechanic at Teller - Morrow. He was killed for being a "junkie rat ''. To stop the bodies from being identified, Clay, Jax and Tig break into the local morgue, prepared to steal the bones. However, the corpses have already been identified. When Clay tells Lowell, Jr. about his father 's death, Lowell runs away. Clay tracks him down and eventually brings him back to town.
Clay is almost killed when the Mayans attempt to shoot him while at a deal with Cameron Hayes of the True IRA at a bar. The two Mayan soldiers are gunned down by Tig and the shotgun - toting barman, however. Clay then calls in the Sons of Anarchy State Presidents and Vice-Presidents from Washington, Utah and Nevada, in a bid to wipe out the Mayans. After the shooting, he questions Jax 's commitment to the club and Jax 's willingness to kill.
Clay is taken to the local police station for questioning about the recent shootings, by Wayne Unser. Ernest Darby is also being held there, and Clay tells Unser to bring Álvarez in, in order for the three gang leaders to hold a meeting and, hopefully, prevent further bloodshed. He meets with Darby first, and tells him not to retaliate because it would start a war on the streets of Charming. He then meets with Álvarez and the pair make a deal; the Sons of Anarchy will begin selling guns to the Mayans, and all Mayan - SOA disputes (over turf, businesses, etc.) end in the SOA 's favor. Álvarez also gives the Sons permission to kill Esai, as revenge for the attempted hit on Clay.
After the clubhouse is raided and Bobby is arrested for the murder of Brenan Hefner, Clay and Tig suspect Opie of being the witness who identified him. It was another person, however. When Opie turns up at the clubhouse, Tig checks his car for bugs and finds a microphone. He also finds a recording device in Opie 's mobile phone. Both were planted by the ATF without Opie 's knowledge. Clay and Tig then decide to kill him.
Clay and Tig again meet with One - Niners ' leader Laroy, and they discuss taking out the Mayans. They agree that the Sons would meet the Mayans for an arms deal and when they left, the Niners would eliminate the Mayans and take the guns as payment. However, when Clay, Tig, Opie and Jax meet Álvarez and his crew at a warehouse in Oakland, the Niners try to take out the Mayans and SOA. The group escapes, but a number of Mayans and Niners are killed in the shootout. Tig attempts to kill Opie during the havoc, but finds himself unable to do so. Later on at Jax 's son Abel 's homecoming party, Tig follows Opie 's car home and shoot the driver dead. However, the driver is Opie 's wife, Donna, who has switched vehicles with Opie. Just after Tig leave to kill Opie, Clay is approached by Wayne Unser and told that Opie is, in fact, not an informant and that the ATF has set him up. Clay tries to phone Tig to tell him, but Tig is not carrying his phone.
Rosen, the club 's lawyer, meets with Clay and tells him that the ATF has put a warrant out for Opie 's arrest and that he will most likely get convicted of Hefner 's murder because of the witness. Clay, Tig and Juice then meet with Vic Trammel and offer him money to reveal the location of the witness. Trammell does not know, however, so they go to Elliot Oswald. They again blackmail him with the knife that he used to kill the rapist earlier in the season, this time to get his friends in the US Attorney 's office to tell him the witness ' case number and location. He then sends Chibs, Happy and Tig to kill the witness, who is at a safe house in San Joaquin. Jax goes to the safe house and stops the trio from killing the witness, but threatens her into leaving the state. At Church, Jax confronts Clay and asks if he killed Donna. Clay denies this. Season One ends at Donna 's funeral, which is attended by Sons of Anarchy from all over the country. There, Jax and Clay stare at each other and it is plain to see that the club is coming apart from inside.
In the first episode of Season Two we see that Clay is still struggling with remorse for what he did to Donna, and that he is going head to head with Jax over her death. We see him giving Opie a fake story of how a Mayan MC member killed Donna and he throws a welcome back party for Bobby. When Ethan Zobelle and the L.O.A.N. start threatening members of SAMCRO, Clay is all for immediate retaliation, but he is at odds with Jax, who feels the club may be walking into a trap.
He has recently learned of his wife Gemma 's rape at the hands of L.O.A.N. and settled his differences with Jax, so the two can work together to get revenge. Clay is now shown to be more in tune with Jax 's method of operation, opting to do more recon work before entering potentially lethal situations.
In the season two finale, Clay neglects to inform Marcus Alvarez that Ethan Zobelle is an F.B.I. informant, knowing the Mayan leader would kill Zobelle himself, forfeiting Clay 's opportunity to do the deed. Later in the episode, the Sons ambush the Mayan convoy containing Zobelle and Clay spares Alvarez 's life. Clay and the others corner Zobelle in a deli, but decide to abandon the scene after learning of his grandson 's kidnapping. He is last seen consoling his distraught stepson Jax, whose son Abel (Clay 's grandson) has been kidnapped by IRA gun dealer Cameron Hayes.
In the first episodes we see that Clay is still saddened by the loss of Abel, and is willing to help Jax at all costs. Also, his arthritis continues to worsen. As shown in the episode "Home '', it got so bad that Jax had to tie Clay 's hands to the handlebars. In the episode "Turas '', when SAMCRO are nearly killed by a bomb hidden in a gun shipment put there by the SAMBEL Sergeant - at - Arms, Jax has a shell shocked vision of his biological father speaking to him but it turns out to actually be Clay. In the episode "Firinne '', Clay kills McGee, member of the First 9 and President of the Belfast Chapter, for his treachery against the club by pushing him off a roof after taking his cut. He later burns the cut after expressing remorse for the killing. In the Season 3 finale, when Clay learns of Jax 's betrayal, he appears enraged and says "Jax will die ''. In the end, it is revealed that he knew of Jax 's deal with Stahl and that it was part of a plan to execute Jimmy O. and Stahl. When the plan is done, Clay and the others share a laugh, much to the confusion of the ATF agents. Also in the end of the episode, as Tara is reading the letters John Teller wrote to Maureen Ashby, Teller says he fears that Clay and Gemma will kill him because of his betraying Gemma by having an affair and attempting to alter the clubs focus on criminal activity, leading to much speculation that Clay and Gemma might have killed John Teller.
Clay is seen as one of the many SAMCRO members released from prison. He later escapes their sheriff tail and accompanies Jax and Opie 's meeting with the Russians, where he settles their differences and forms a partnership with them. He attends Opie 's wedding and goes to test a new gun given to them by Putlova. As he 's firing the gun he turns and shoots Putlova 's bodyguards and Jax stabs Putlova to death as revenge for trying to kill him in prison. He also tells Gemma that his arthritis has gotten worse and that he has only 1 or 2 years left before he has to step down as President of SAMCRO. Also, while in prison, he set up a deal to run cocaine for the Gallindo Cartel, but this does not sit well with the other members of the club, as SOA avoids drugs. When the club goes to Arizona and meets the Tucson charter, SAMTAZ, he demands that the charter stop dealing meth. This request is denied, as selling generates too much money for the club to give up. Otto wants Luann 's murderer dead, and the issue is raised in the chapel. Clay is then confronted by Piney, who threatens Clay that if Clay does not kill the cocaine deal with the Gallindo Cartel, Piney will distribute letters to the club about John Teller 's murder to the other members. Clay discusses the threat with Gemma, revealing that Clay did kill Teller. Clay later meets Unser and obtains the letters from him, unaware that Gemma has the same plan. After Unser gets a copy of the letters, he confronts Clay. Clay replies he does not regret doing what he did because it protected the Club and Charming. When he visits a tied Georgie Caruso, he claims that he has connections with millionaire Japanese families. Clay immediately sees an opportunity to make Jacob Hale believe he has investors in time. His idea is that he will have the investors pull out at the last minute, which will put an end to Charming Heights. After retrieving the last brick of cocaine that Juice had stolen, framing Miles for it, Clay asks Romeo for help killing Tara, to keep the secret of the letters hidden.
Clay comes to Piney 's cabin in the night. After discussing trust issues and differences in the cabin, Clay leaves, only to break down the door, knocking Piney off his feet. Piney begs Clay not to get Tara involved in the letters from JT. Clay shoots Piney in the chest with a shotgun, killing him. This makes Piney the 3rd member of the First 9, and the 2nd and final co-founding member of the Sons of Anarchy to be killed at the hands of Clay. Clay leaves the markings of the cartel to implicate them for the murder. Given the club 's difficult circumstances, Clay calls the Irish Kings for a meeting to set a new deal that lets them survive the war against Lobo Sonora. He later learns that the One Niners have been dealing with the Sonora and the Sons plan an attack using the Niners to lure them. This fails, however, as Sonora 's men were equipped with grenade launchers. Luis, Romero 's right - hand man, gives Clay a cell phone with his contact to kill Tara. Jax confronts Clay when he hears from Bobby that Clay wanted Bobby, instead of Opie, as president as was the deal. Clay says it is Tara 's fault that Jax changed, but Jax warns him to never insult her again. Gemma tells Clay that Tara will not reveal the letters to Jax for fear that Jax will get deeper into the club out of guilt. Clay promises to Gemma he wo n't hurt Tara, however he uses the cell phone Luis gave him, and the next morning pays the contact 25,000 dollars for the murder. After finding out that Jax and the babies are with her, Clay desperately tries to stop the hit, but is unsuccessful and Tara has her hand broken by a car door while struggling to escape. Clay meets Romeo and gets a refund, with Romeo taking the matter into his hands personally, and Clay reluctantly agrees that Tara is best dead. Gemma confronts Clay about the hit and a violent fight ensues between the two, including Gemma shooting at Clay (deliberately missing) and getting in a powerful punch and a kick against Clay with Clay getting injured but Clay gets the upper hand and severely beats Gemma 's face. That night he decides to sleep in the clubhouse. Opie later finds out that Clay was behind the death of Piney and seeks revenge, ending up shooting Clay in the torso twice. Clay survived the shooting but was shown to be in intensive care. Later in the episode Gemma gave Jax his father 's letters to Maureen Ashby. After reading the letters, and realizing Clay is responsible for the death of John Teller, Jax vowed to kill Clay. Jax puts a knife up to Clays throat and makes him step down as President and orders him to never go near his family again. Although Clay tries to explain his reasons Jax refuses to listen and takes his Presidents patch, thus ending Clays reign as President of SAMCRO.
Clay is shown to have been discharged from the hospital, but requires an oxygen tank due to his lung injury. He is shown trying to make amends with Gemma, but she coldly brushes him off. He later reveals to the club he murdered Piney, but states that Piney was drunk and tried to kill him first and Opie found out and is the one who shot him. The club 's rules (due to him having killed a member) means they must vote on kicking him out. When Jax questions his motives for telling the club, he denies any. His arthritis is shown to have reached the point to where he ca n't ride his bike at all. He later goes to his and Gemma 's burglarized house and expresses concern over his safe being stolen. He then goes and visits Opie and convinces him not to walk away from the club because of him, seeing as though he 's "half dead already ''. He later finds out where Gemma has been going from Juice. He goes to the brothel and confronts Nero, the owner and Gemma 's new suitor. He then "seeks comfort '' with a young prostitute to anger Gemma. Gemma then attacks the girl causing her to leave. When Nero 's operation is later shut down, and he and Gemma are arrested, it 's likely Clay was behind it.
The next episode "Small World '' shows Clay having recovered to the point of no longer needing his oxygen tank, though he continues to wear it (either for sympathy or to keep people off - guard). He later helps Gemma take care of a dead body (Nero 's half - sister) and the two seem to be on better terms. At the end of the episode, he confronts the three Nomads responsible for the Charming burglaries and the death of Sheriff Roosevelt 's wife. He punches one in the face exclaiming "You were n't supposed to kill her! '' This shows Clay to have been pulling the strings behind the home invasions. The next episode "Toad 's Wild Ride '' reveals the Nomads, (Go - Go, Greg and Frankie) made a deal with Clay to help him get back at the head of the table in exchange for a cut of Clay 's share of the guns and cocaine money. The break - ins were Clay 's way of turning Charming against Jax. When Unser (who has been investigating the break - ins) comes close to discovering the truth, Go - Go and Greg meet with Clay to discuss killing him, while Frankie goes underground. Clay meets with Unser in his trailer talking about the trust and friendship between them. When Go - Go and Greg break in the door, Unser shoots Go - Go with a double - barreled shotgun and Clay betrays them, shooting Greg in the head with his pistol. When Juice (who saw Go - Go and Greg going to Unser 's trailer) asks Clay what is happening, Clay denies involvement. Jax and the rest of the club find out about their attack on Unser and Jax privately accuses Clay of using the Nomads to undermine his leadership. Clay states that Pope is the one who hired the Nomads, Jax claims they 'll find Frankie and learn the truth. In "Ablation '' Clay visits Gemma, Abel, and Thomas in the hospital after a marijuana - induced car crash. He tells Jax that a truck ran her off the road to protect her. When Jax learns about the lie, he tells Clay he understands why he lied and that Gemma is dead to his family, and he wants him to take care of her. "Andare Pascare '' shows the club discovering that Frankie is hiding with a Mafia family, paying them with money stolen from Nero. They take a unanimous vote to kill him after extracting the information they need. When Clay learns from Jimmy Cacuzza the location of a Mafia safehouse where Frankie is hiding, Clay and Juice go there to kill him to keep him from outing Clay (Juice acting under the pretense of scouting it out). When Frankie barricades himself in the house and shoots at the two, Clay drives the van into the gas tank outside, blowing up the house. Just as Clay is about to kill Frankie, Jax and the others show up, having seen the explosion. However Frankie is quickly gunned down by the enraged Mafia Don for killing one of his men before he can tell them anything. Bobby later asks Clay if there 's anything he wants to tell him (implying he also knows about his dealings with the Nomads). When Clay claims his conscience is clear, Bobby states "I hope you 're as smart as you think you are, cause I 'm sicking of burning friends ''. The episode ends with Gemma coming to Clay to help him with his cortisone shots.
The next episode "Crucifixed '' shows Clay negotiating with Romeo and Luis for protection as once the RICO case is gone, he will no longer need Clay and will most likely kill him. Romeo suggests getting rid of Jax and putting Clay back at the head of the table. Clay disagrees to taking the deal, Romeo states "Yes you will. '' Later, Gemma and Clay draw closer at Clay 's place, where Gemma insists they return home. They are last seen sitting on their bed talking, where Clay confesses he ca n't bear losing her again. Gemma kisses him passionately and they sink onto the bed. The next episode "To Thine Own Self '' shows Clay learning of Otto 's murder of a nurse, ending the RICO case. He is shown, for unknown reasons, trying to save Jax from Romeo and warns him to work with the cartel long enough to make the Club legitimate and leave. He refuses stating "I 'm done bowing down to greedy men who have nothing to believe in ''. When Jax reveals a new deal to the Club, which would allow the Mayans and Triads to take over muling the cocaine and selling big guns, respectively, Clay votes yes along with everyone else. He is later shown moving legal documents given to him by the Nomads to another location, to protect himself from the Club finding this important evidence of his betrayal. The end of the episode shows Bobby going to Clay and Gemma 's house to talk to him about "trying to keep you alive. '' It 's revealed in "Darthy '' that Bobby convinced Clay to confess his role in the Nomad attacks in exchange for vetoing his death: club - sanctioned assassinations (known as "A Visit from Mr. Mayhem '') require a unanimous vote. Clay also meets with Gaylen, tells him he plans on starting his own crew to run any guns SAMCRO does n't pick up, and asks for a plane to Belfast to wait out any immediate danger. He also gives Juice a gun that he values for all he has done for him. At the end of the episode, Clay has been voted out of the club after revealing everything. After Jax beats Clay in frustration for not being allowed to kill him, Happy removes the former Club President 's SAMCRO tattoos on his back and arm by smudging them over with a needle and black tattoo ink as the rest of the club looks on.
He is shown to be ready to leave in the season finale when Roosevelt and several policemen state they found his gun (the same one he gave Juice) at a crime scene as the murder weapon that killed Damon Pope and three of his men. When he asks Gemma to vouch for him, she states he was gone with the gun and she did n't know he was going to kill anyone. He is arrested and is last seen in a prison transport van with two black men. Meanwhile, Jax has convinced Pope 's lieutenants that Clay was Pope 's killer; per Pope 's standing order in the event of his death, they offer a $5 million reward for Clay 's murder.
At the beginning of the season, Clay is being held in protective custody after his arrest for Damon Pope 's murder. Clay is visited by retired US Marshall Lee Toric, the brother of the nurse Otto murdered. Toric, who had sworn revenge against the motorcycle club, tells Clay he can only remain in protective custody if he cooperates in building a case against SAMCRO. Clay initially refuses, but after being transferred to general population and realizing he is certain to be murdered in retaliation for two deaths he had nothing to do with and did n't even approve, he agrees to help Toric and is returned to protective custody. He later demands a sit - down with Gemma and Jax before he signs the deal. He meets with Gemma and seems apologetic, though Gemma suspects he has ulterior motives. He meets Jax and states that he will give Toric nothing and that he is sorry. In response to this he is shipped to Stockton, where he is attacked by three black men, but they spare him and offer him a shank. He later uses it to kill a member of a Neo-Nazi group and gets protection from the black gang. He is visited once more by Toric, who shows him the brutalized Otto. Clay slips Otto a shank and leaves. Despite threats that he will meet the same fate, Clay refuses to sign. Toric is later killed by Otto with the shank Clay gave him and Otto is killed by the guards in response.
Following the fallout between Jax and the IRA, Clay is contacted by Galen O'Shea with the opportunity to continue as the main weapon distributor for the IRA in Northern California. The IRA will arrange to have Clay escape from the prison transport on the way to his hearing and he will retreat to Belfast and build his own new crew. Clay requests a conjugal visit with Gemma so that he can have her relate this information to Jax. He pays off two guards to allow him to chat with Gemma, but when the visit is over, the guards demand to watch Clay and Gemma have sex while they masturbate. They threaten to have Clay killed and Gemma grudgingly agrees to do it. Afterwards Clay vows to kill the two guards, but Gemma tells him that SAMCRO needs him alive. When Clay 's transport date is moved up, Galen enlists SAMCRO to assist in attacking his transport truck to free him; Bobby is shot during the attack and Juice kills a guard. After meeting up with the Irish, Jax kills Galen and his men. He explains the situation, stating the Club took a unanimous vote how to handle the situation. Clay, accepting of his fate, stands ready. Jax then executes Clay by shooting him in the neck and then five times in the chest while he is on the floor. Jax then arranges the bodies to make it look like Clay had a falling out with the Irish and they all died in a shootout, allowing him to finally get revenge against Clay as well as Galen.
Fictional arms dealers
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in 2016 which of these nations announce its decision to withdraw from the commonwealth of nations | Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations - wikipedia
The Commonwealth of Nations is a voluntary association of 52 sovereign states. Nearly all of them are former British colonies or dependencies of those colonies.
No one government in the Commonwealth exercises power over the others, as is the case in a political union. Rather, the Commonwealth is an international organisation in which countries with diverse social, political, and economic backgrounds are regarded as equal in status, and cooperate within a framework of common values and goals, as outlined in the Singapore Declaration issued in 1971. Such common values and goals include the promotion of democracy, human rights, good governance, the rule of law, individual liberty, egalitarianism, free trade, multilateralism, and world peace, which are promoted through multilateral projects and meetings, such as the Commonwealth Games, held once every four years.
The symbol of this free association is Queen Elizabeth II, who serves as the Head of the Commonwealth. This position, however, does not imbue her with any political or executive power over any Commonwealth member states; the position is purely symbolic, and it is the Commonwealth Secretary - General who is the chief executive of the Commonwealth.
The Commonwealth was first officially formed in 1931 when the Statute of Westminster gave legal recognition to the sovereignty of dominions. Known as the "British Commonwealth '', the original members were the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Ireland, and Newfoundland, although Australia and New Zealand did not adopt the statute until 1942 and 1947 respectively. In 1949, the London Declaration was signed and marked the birth of the modern Commonwealth and the adoption of its present name. The newest member is Rwanda, which joined on 29 November 2009. The most recent departure was the Maldives, which severed its connection with the Commonwealth on 13 October 2016.
As at April 2017, of the states that are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, three are in Europe, twelve in North America and the Caribbean, one in South America, eighteen in Africa, seven in Asia, and eleven in Oceania. There are eight former members, four of which no longer exist as independent entities (but form part of current member states). The members have a combined population of 2.4 billion, almost a third of the world population, of whom 1.21 billion live in India, and 95 % live in Asia and Africa combined.
Currently sixteen of the member states are Commonwealth realms, with the Head of the Commonwealth as their head of state. Five others are monarchies with their own individual monarchs (Brunei, Lesotho, Malaysia, Swaziland, Tonga) and the rest are republics. Republic of Ireland (from 1949), Zimbabwe (2003), The Gambia (2013) and Maldives (2016) are former member of the Commonwealth. South Africa and Pakistan left and later rejoined the Commonwealth.
All table information based on figures provided by the Commonwealth of Nations Secretariat members list, most population figures are based on 2007 estimates, unless otherwise noted.
^ A. Unless otherwise noted, independence was gained from the United Kingdom on the date (shown in column 2) of joining the Commonwealth. ^ B. Not a member of the Commonwealth Foundation. ^ C. The population figure is based on 2004 estimates. ^ D. The population figure is based on 2005 estimates. ^ E. Though Pakistan celebrates 14 August 1947 as its independence day, independence was officially granted at midnight, 15 August 1947. Therefore, its date of joining the Commonwealth would be 15 August 1947. ^ F. Commonwealth realms, recognising Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state since the day of their independence, distinctly from her being the sovereign of United Kingdom. ^ G. Geopolitically part of Europe, but geographically part of Asia.
Other states which have expressed an interest in joining the Commonwealth over the years include Algeria, Cambodia, Madagascar, Palestine, and Yemen.
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premature ventricular contractions life in the fast lane | Bigeminy - wikipedia
Bigeminy is a heart rhythm problem in which there is a continuous alternation of long and short heart beats. Most often this is due to ectopic beats occurring so frequently that there is one after each sinus beat. The two beats are figuratively two twins (hence bi - + gemini). The ectopic beat is typically a premature ventricular contraction (PVC). For example, in ventricular bigeminy, a sinus beat is shortly followed by a PVC, a pause, another normal beat, and then another PVC. In atrial bigeminy, the other "twin '' is a premature atrial contraction (PAC).
After any PVC there is a pause that can lead to the development of bigeminy. A PVC wavefront often encounters a refractory AV node that does not conduct the wavefront retrograde. Thus the atrium is not depolarized and the sinus node is not reset. Since the sinus p wave to PVC interval is less than the normal P-P interval, the interval between the PVC and the next p wave is prolonged to equal the normal time elapsed during two P-P intervals. This is called a "compensatory '' pause. The pause after the PVC leads to a longer recovery time which is associated with a higher likelihood of myocardium being in different stages of re-polarization. This then allows for re-entrant circuits and sets up the ventricle for another PVC after the next sinus beat. The constant interval between the sinus beat and PVC suggests a reentrant etiology rather than spontaneous automaticity of the ventricle.
Atrial premature complexes (APCs) do not have a compensatory pause since they reset the sinus node but atrial or supraventricular bigeminy can occur. If the APCs are very premature, the wave front can encounter a refractory AV node and not be conducted. This can be mistaken for sinus bradycardia if the APC is buried in the T wave since the APC will reset the SA node and lead to a long P-P interval.
When the atrial rhythm is irregular (as in atrial fibrillation or sinus arrythmia) the presence of bigeminy depends on the length of the P-P interval and happens more frequently with a longer interval. As with post PVC pauses, a longer P-P interval leads to a higher chance of re-entrant circuits and thus PVCs. The term "rule of bigeminy '' is used to refer to the dependence of bigeminy on the ventricular cycle length in irregular rhythms.
There can be similar patterns depending on the frequency of abnormal beats. If every other beat is abnormal, it is described as bigeminal. If every third beat is aberrant, it is trigeminal; every fourth would be quadrigeminal. Typically, if every fifth or more beat is abnormal, the aberrant beat would be termed occasional.
Bigeminy is contrasted with couplets, which are paired abnormal beats. Groups of three abnormal beats are called triplets and are considered as a brief run of non-sustained ventricular tachycardia (NSVT) and if the grouping last for more than 30 seconds, it is ventricular tachycardia (VT).
In people without underlying heart disease and who do not have any symptoms, bigeminy in itself does not require any treatment. If it does become symptomatic, beta - blockers can be used to try and suppress ventricular ectopy. Class I and III agents are generally avoided as they can provoke more serious arrhythmias.
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who was mantis in guardians of the galaxy 2 | Mantis (Marvel Comics) - wikipedia
Mantis is a fictional character, a superheroine appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is a former member of the Avengers.
She made her cinematic debut in Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, portrayed by Pom Klementieff.
Mantis first appeared in The Avengers # 112 (June 1973), drawn by Don Heck and created by writer Steve Englehart. The character later appeared (in slightly different name and form) in books published by other comic book companies, moving from Marvel to DC to Eclipse to Image and finally back to Marvel again.
Mantis is the half - Vietnamese, half - German daughter of Gustav Brandt -- Libra -- and was born in Huế, Vietnam. In her childhood, her father leaves her in Vietnam at the Temple of the alien Priests of Pama, a sect of the Kree. The Kree believe she might become the Celestial Madonna and mate with the eldest Cotati on Earth to become the mother of the Celestial Messiah, "the most important being in the universe ''.
She excels in her martial arts studies, but when she reaches adulthood, she is mind - wiped and sent into the world to gain life experience. She becomes a prostitute and barmaid in a Vietnamese bar, where she meets the Swordsman. She helps him regain his self - respect and follows him when the former villain attempts to rejoin the Avengers. She becomes an Avengers ally when the Swordsman rejoins the Avengers, and she battled the Lion God alongside them.
With the Avengers, Mantis has many adventures. She battles the original Zodiac, and learns that Libra is her father and that she was raised by the Priests of Pama. She encounters the Star - Stalker, battles Thanos, Klaw and Solarr, Nuklo, and then alongside the Avengers, Fantastic Four, and Inhumans, she faces Ultron at the wedding of Quicksilver and Crystal.
Mantis becomes taken with the Vision, and -- although rejected by the android -- neglects the Swordsman. Alongside the Scarlet Witch and Agatha Harkness, she was abducted by Kang. She was revealed as the Celestial Madonna and witnessed the death of the Swordsman at the hands of Kang, only realizing the depth of her love for the Swordsman just as he dies. She then buried the Swordsman, and battled the Titanic Three. She would learn the origins of the Kree - Skrull War, the Cotati, and the Priests of Pama. Mantis then formally joined the Avengers and is revealed to be, indeed, the Celestial Madonna and marries a Cotati in the reanimated body of the Swordsman, leaving the Avengers and the Earth to mate with him.
After leaving Marvel Comics, writer Steve Englehart carried Mantis ' tale through three other companies before returning to Marvel.
In DC Comics ' Justice League of America # 142, she appears as Willow. Asked where she came from, Willow replies, "This one has come from a place she must not name, to reach a place no man must know. '' (Mantis refers to herself as "this one ''). After two issues, she leaves to go give birth.
In the Eclipse Comics series Scorpio Rose # 2 (according to Englehart 's website (1)), the character calls herself Lorelei. By this time, she has given birth to a son. What would have been issue # 3, a "lost '' Lorelei / Scorpio Rose story, was later published in Coyote Collection # 1 from Image Comics, the character 's fourth company. Lorelei is later name - dropped in Englehart 's 2010 novel The Long Man (page 355, mass market paperback edition).
After she bears her child, Sequoia, she takes the name "Mandy Celestine '' and lives with him for a year in Willimantic, Connecticut before handing him to his father 's people and going into space with the Silver Surfer and battling the Elders of the Universe alongside the Surfer. The Silver Surfer finds himself falling in love with Mantis. However, Mantis (whose body was now green and had begun to manifest new powers of invulnerability that allowed her to survive in space due to side - effects of her pregnancy) grows bitter with her life and the way she was forced to abandon her child. This comes to a head when Mantis is caught in an explosion and presumed dead by Silver Surfer. She survives, but the strain of the previous years causes her to literally split into multiple versions of herself, each representing conflicting aspects of her psyche that could no longer co-exist inside her mind.
The fragments arrive on Earth and one version of Mantis rejoins the West Coast Avengers team, with portions of her memories missing. (Steve Englehart intended the storyline involving Mantis and her amnesia to be his next major plotline, but editorial problems caused him to quit the series, with the plotline resolved hastily.) Mantis discovers, through the temporarily resurrected corpse of the Swordsman, that her psyche had shattered and that she needs to find her counterparts in order to restore her memories. She made her way to New York City where she encountered the Fantastic Four as they dealt with the effects of the Inferno storyline. Kang pursued Mantis, not realizing she had lost her power and hoping to use her to attack the Dreaming Celestial, and in the process the Surfer was summoned to Earth. With the aid of the Cotati, Kang was defeated but Mantis realized she must leave her body and join with the Cotati to raise her son.
Aside from mentions by Silver Surfer, Mantis does not reappear until 1995 's controversial Avengers crossover story "The Crossing ''. In "The Crossing '', Mantis returns as the villainous bride of Kang the Conqueror with the intention of bringing death to the Avengers; her father Libra (who by now was going by the name "Moonraker '' as part of Force Works); and the Cotati alien who had possessed the Swordsman 's body and married / impregnated her. Her anger at her father (whom she had vivisected) and the Cotati center around their "defilement '' of her and that she hates the Avengers for believing their manipulative lies.
The storyline was controversial, so much so that Kurt Busiek, in Avengers Forever limited series, retconned the Mantis who appeared in the story as being a Space Phantom brainwashed into thinking he was Mantis.
Eventually, Mantis reappears in the Steve Englehart written Avengers: Celestial Quest limited series. She returns to Earth and merges with her remaining fragmented portions of her personality (which we learn represent "freak, mother, prostitute, mystic, and Avenger '') after the first four are killed by Thanos (later retroactively declared to be a clone of the real Thanos). The final Mantis merges with them to become a "complete '' Mantis for the first time since her dispersion. Thus reformed, she and a group of the Avengers go into space to stop "Thanos '' from killing her son, Quoi, who by this time is a rebellious teenager desperate to leave the isolation of the Cotati home - world and travel the stars. During the adventure, Mantis flirts with Vision (with the implication that she has sex with him), but ultimately ends the flirting when she realizes that he has feelings for his estranged wife Scarlet Witch, who is jealous of Mantis and Vision 's friendship. Mantis also appears in the "Avengers Disassembled '' storyline, although many occurrences in that storyline are illusions.
Mantis appears in the 2007 miniseries Annihilation Conquest: Star - Lord, where she is shown as a Kree prisoner who volunteers for a mission led by Peter Quill, a.k.a. Star - Lord.
After the defeat of Ultron and the Phalanx, Mantis takes up residence on the Knowhere station with the rest of the Guardians of the Galaxy. She has assumed the role of counselor for the group, using her knowledge of the mind to maintain a balance with all the very eclectic personalities of the group.
During the Secret Invasion storyline, it was discovered that Star - Lord had Mantis use her mental powers to manipulate the members of the Guardians of the Galaxy to join the team against their will. Overhearing Mantis and Star - Lord converse about their deception, Drax shared this knowledge with the rest of the team. This caused most of the members to leave. Mantis was promoted to field status by Rocket Raccoon.
Mantis was apparently killed by the Magus, who, upon anticipating that Mantis would use her mental powers to incapacitate him, struck her and her fellow psionic Cosmo dead with a powerful blast of energy. However, it was revealed that she, along with fellow Guardians Phyla - Vell, Cosmo, Gamora and Major Victory are still alive, but being held prisoner in suspended animation by the Magus. She reunites with the other team of Guardians, telling Moondragon that Phyla - Vell was the first one killed by Thanos ' rampage.
Mantis later rescues Peter Quill from a group of pursuing Spartax soldiers. Though she refuses to join his new incarnation of the Guardians, she helps him track down the source of mysterious "time quakes '' that have been plaguing him in the wake of the Age of Ultron storyline.
The character was ranked 99th in Comics Buyer 's Guide 's "100 Sexiest Women in Comics '' list.
Mantis was trained by the Priests of Pama to become a grandmistress of the martial arts, demonstrated as capable of defeating opponents as skilled as Captain America (although he was distracted while fighting a dragon). She could also instinctively sense weak points in an opponent and with her skills in pressure points, knock out beings as powerful as the thunder god, Thor. She has only lost in hand to hand martial arts match to Moondragon, and her father Libra.
She has attained a mastery of meditational disciplines, giving her an unusual amount of control over her body, including autonomic functions like heartbeat, bleeding, and breathing, as well as awareness of pain, allowing her to more quickly heal injuries through sheer force of will, and affording almost superhuman reflexes and reactions. She also had psychic empathy, a telepathic power that allowed her to sense the emotions of others.
Mantis gained additional abilities as a result of communion with the Prime Cotati. Her empathic ability enabled her to communicate with the plant - like Cotati and with plant life. To travel in space, Mantis had the ability to separate her physical and astral forms, projecting her consciousness from her body, allowing her to travel interplanetary distances. She also had the ability to transfer her astral form to any place where plant life exists. She could form and inhabit a plant like simulacrum of her human body for herself out of the destination planet 's local vegetation. Her fighting skills remained intact, and her empathic abilities were heightened to a superhuman degree and extended to the planet 's flora and biosphere. She could control the vegetation within her vicinity.
During her confrontations with a powerful Thanos clone, she displayed superhuman strength, a talent to simultaneously inhabit multiple simulacra, and the ability to project strong blasts of energy, but has not been seen using these powers since.
As of her appearance in Annihilation Conquest: Star - Lord, Mantis also appears to have gained telepathic and precognitive abilities, and apparently now labors under a constant awareness of future events. The source of these new powers is as yet unclear. Other powers displayed or referred to during the series were pyrokinesis, mid-range mentat training, and invisibility to the Phalanx.
In the Heroes Reborn reality, the alternate version of Mantis is the woman Kang the Conqueror loves, and Kang 's motive to attack the 20th Century and the Avengers is to show that he is worthy of her love. Mantis recognizes her love for Kang after he is killed by Loki, who kills her shortly after.
In this reality, Mantis is a member of Shang - Chi 's Dragons criminal organization, alongside, Swordsman, Zaran, and Machete. Mantis is arrested after the Dragons are ambushed by the Kingpin 's assassins. She and Shang - Chi are two of the three survivors of the group.
In October 2015, Pom Klementieff was cast as Mantis for Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. This was confirmed by director James Gunn in February 2016. Mantis is introduced as a ward of Peter Quill 's father, Ego, using her empathic abilities to help him sleep when travelling in his human form, although she is also able to sense other emotions when she makes contact with the subject. She is depicted as somewhat innocent and naïve, showing no offense when Drax refers to her as Ego 's pet or refers to her as being hideous, but swiftly decides to aid the Guardians against Ego when she realizes that Quill 's ability to channel Celestial energy will help Ego achieve his goal of ' awakening ' other planets from the seeds he has planted in his travels. As the Guardians try to destroy Ego, Mantis is able to buy them time by travelling down to Ego 's core and forcing him to sleep while Groot plants a bomb in his brain. At the film 's conclusion, Mantis joins the Guardians.
Klementieff will reprise her role in Avengers: Infinity War, and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3.
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who played julia roberts roommate in pretty woman | Pretty Woman - wikipedia
Pretty Woman is a 1990 American romantic comedy film directed by Garry Marshall from a screenplay by J.F. Lawton. The film stars Richard Gere and Julia Roberts, and features Hector Elizondo, Ralph Bellamy (in his final performance), Laura San Giacomo and Jason Alexander in supporting roles. Its story centers on down - on - her - luck Hollywood hooker Vivian Ward, who is hired by Edward Lewis, a wealthy businessman, to be his escort for several business and social functions, and their developing relationship over the course of her week - long stay with him.
Originally intended to be a dark cautionary tale about class and sex work in Los Angeles, the film was reconceived as a romantic comedy with a large budget. It was widely successful at the box office and became one of the highest - grossing films of 1990. The film saw the highest number of ticket sales in the U.S. ever for a romantic comedy, with Box Office Mojo listing it as the # 1 romantic comedy by the highest estimated domestic tickets sold at 42,176,400, slightly ahead of My Big Fat Greek Wedding (2002) at 41,419,500 tickets. The film received positive reviews, with Roberts 's performance being praised, for which she received a Golden Globe Award and a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress. In addition, screenwriter J.F. Lawton was nominated for a Writers Guild Award and a BAFTA Award.
At the beginning of the film, Edward Lewis accidentally ends up on Hollywood Boulevard in the city 's red - light district, after breaking up with his girlfriend during an unpleasant phone call in which he appears highly controlling; he asks her to escort him during his trip, but she is offended that he treats her as his ' beck and call girl '. Leaving a party, he takes his lawyer 's Lotus Esprit luxury car, and encounters a prostitute, Vivian Ward. He stops for her, having difficulties driving the car, and asks for directions to Beverly Hills. He asks her to get in and guide him to the Beverly Hills Regent Hotel, where he is staying. It becomes clear that Vivian knows more about the Lotus than he does, and he lets her drive. Vivian charges Lewis $20 for the ride, and they separate. She goes to a bus stop, where he finds her and offers to hire her for the night; later, he asks Vivian to play the role his girlfriend has refused, offering her $3000 to stay with him for the next six days as well as paying for a new, more acceptable wardrobe for her. That evening, visibly moved by her transformation, Edward begins seeing Vivian in a different light. He begins to open up to her, revealing his personal and business lives.
Edward takes Vivian to a polo match in hopes of networking for his business deal. His attorney, Phillip, suspects Vivian is a corporate spy, and Edward tells him how they truly met. Phillip later approaches Vivian, suggesting they do business once her work with Edward is finished. Insulted, and furious that Edward has revealed their secret, Vivian wants to end the arrangement. Edward apologizes, and admits to feeling jealous of a business associate to whom Vivian paid attention at the match. Vivian 's straightforward personality is rubbing off on Edward, and he finds himself acting in unaccustomed ways. Clearly growing involved, Edward takes Vivian in his private jet to see La Traviata in San Francisco. Vivian is moved to tears by the story of the prostitute who falls in love with a rich man. Vivian breaks her "no kissing on the mouth '' rule (which her friend Kit taught her) and they have sex; in the aftermath, Vivian tells Edward she loves him, but he does not respond. Edward offers to put her up in an apartment so she can be off the streets. Hurt, she refuses, says this is not the "fairy tale '' she dreamed of as a child, in which a knight on a white horse rescues her.
Meeting with the tycoon whose shipbuilding company he is in the process of "raiding, '' Edward changes his mind. His time with Vivian has shown him a different way of looking at life, and he suggests working together to save the company rather than tearing it apart and selling off the pieces. Phillip, furious at losing so much money, goes to the hotel to confront Edward, but finds only Vivian. Blaming her for the change in Edward, he attempts to rape her. Edward arrives and throws Phil out of the room.
With his business in L.A. complete, Edward asks Vivian to stay one more night with him -- because she wants to, not because he 's paying her. She refuses. At the end of the film, Edward re-thinks his life and has the hotel chauffeur detour to Vivian 's apartment building, where he leaps from out the white limo 's sun roof and "rescues her '', an urban visual metaphor for the knight on a white horse of her dreams. The film ends with the famous last line from Vivian:
Edward Lewis: So what happens after he climbed up the tower and rescues her? Vivian: She rescues him right back.
The film was initially conceived as a dark drama about sex work in Los Angeles in the 1980s. The relationship between Vivian and Edward also originally involved controversial themes, including Vivian being addicted to drugs; part of the deal was that she had to stay off cocaine for a week. Edward eventually throws her out of his car and drives off. The original script ended with Vivian and her sex - worker friend on the bus to Disneyland. Producer Laura Ziskin considered these elements detrimental to a sympathetic portrayal of Vivian, and they were removed or assigned to Kit. The deleted scenes have been found, and some were included on the DVD released for the film 's 15th anniversary. In one, Vivian tells Edward, "I could just pop ya good and be on my way '', indicating her disinterest in "pillow talk ''. In another, she is confronted by drug dealers, then rescued by Edward.
The film bears striking resemblances to Pygmalion myths: particularly George Bernard Shaw 's play of the same name, which also formed the basis for the Broadway musical My Fair Lady. It was Walt Disney Studios then - president Jeffrey Katzenberg who insisted the film be re-written as a modern - day fairy tale and love story, as opposed to the original dark drama. It was pitched to Touchstone Pictures and re-written as a romantic comedy. The original script was titled $3,000, in reference to the amount Edward pays for a week 's company from Vivian. However, this title was changed because Disney executives thought it sounded like a title for a science fiction film. The script also has unconfirmed references to That Touch of Mink, starring Doris Day and Cary Grant.
The film is one of two movies that triggered a resurgence of romantic comedy in Hollywood, the other being When Harry Met Sally. After the 1960s Doris Day / Rock Hudson romantic comedies, the genre had fallen out of favor. Following this film 's success, Roberts became the romantic comedy queen of the 1990s.
Casting of the film was a rather lengthy process. Marshall had initially considered Christopher Reeve, Daniel Day - Lewis, and Denzel Washington for the role of Edward, and Al Pacino and Burt Reynolds turned it down. Pacino went as far as doing a casting reading with Roberts before rejecting the part. Gere initially refused but when he met with Roberts, she persuaded him and he eventually agreed to play Lewis. He reportedly started off much more active in his role; but Garry Marshall took him aside and said "No, no, no, Richard. In this movie, one of you moves and one of you does not. Guess which one you are? '' Julia Roberts was not the first choice for the role of Vivian, and was not wanted by Disney. Many other actresses were considered. Marshall originally envisioned Karen Allen for the role; when she declined, auditions went to many better - known actresses of the time including Molly Ringwald, who turned it down because she felt uncomfortable playing a sex worker. Winona Ryder auditioned, but was turned down because Marshall felt she was "too young ''. Jennifer Connelly was also dismissed for the same reason.
Meg Ryan, who was a top choice of Marshall 's, turned it down as well. According to a note written by Marshall, Mary Steenburgen was also among the first choices. Diane Lane came very close to being cast (the script was much darker at the time); they had gone as far as costume fittings, but due to scheduling conflicts she could not accept. Michelle Pfeiffer turned the role down, saying she did not like the script 's "tone. '' Daryl Hannah was also considered, but believed the role was "degrading to women ''. Valeria Golino declined, doubting it would work with her thick Italian accent. And Jennifer Jason Leigh had auditioned. When all the other actresses turned down the role, 21 - year - old Julia Roberts, a relative unknown, with only the sleeper hit Mystic Pizza (1988) and the yet - to - be-released Steel Magnolias (1989) to her credit, won the role of Vivian. Her performance made her a star.
The film 's budget was substantial, at $14 million, so producers could shoot in many locations. Most filming took place in Los Angeles, California, specifically in Beverly Hills, and inside soundstages at Walt Disney Studios in Burbank. The escargot restaurant the "Voltaire '' was shot at the restaurant "Rex, '' now called "Cicada ''. Scenes set in the Beverly Wilshire Hotel lobby were shot at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles. Filming commenced on July 24, 1989, but was immediately plagued by problems. These included Ferrari and Porsche declining the product placement opportunity for the car Edward drove, neither firm wishing to be associated with sex workers. Lotus Cars saw the placement value, and supplied a Silver 1989.5 Esprit SE (which was later sold).
Shooting was a generally pleasant, easy - going experience, as the budget was broad and the shooting schedule was not tight. While shooting the scene where Vivian is lying down on the floor of Edward 's penthouse, watching reruns of I Love Lucy, Garry Marshall had to tickle Roberts ' feet (out of camera range) to get her to laugh. The scene in which Gere playfully snaps the lid of a jewelry case on her fingers was improvised, and her surprised laugh was genuine. The red dress Vivian wears to the opera has been listed among the most unforgettable dresses of all time.
During the scene in which Roberts sang to a Prince song in the bathtub, slid down and submerged her head under the bubbles; she emerged to find the crew had left except for the cameraman, who captured the moment on film. In the love scene, she was so stressed that a vein become noticeable on her forehead and had to be massaged by Marshall and Gere. She also developed a case of hives, and calamine lotion was used to soothe her skin until filming resumed. The filming was completed on October 18.
In its opening weekend, the film was at number one at the box office, grossing $11,280,591 and averaging $8,513 per theater. Despite dropping to number two in its second weekend, it grossed more with $12,471,670. It was number one at the box office for four non-consecutive weeks, and in the Top 10 for 16 weeks. It has grossed $178,406,268 in the United States and $285,000,000 in other countries for a total worldwide gross of $463,406,268. It was also the fourth highest - grossing film of the year in the United States and the third highest - grossing worldwide. The film remains Disney 's highest - grossing R - rated release ever.
The film received mixed to positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 61 % of 55 film critics have given it a positive review, with a rating average of 5.7 out of 10. Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, gives it a score of 51 based on 17 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews. ''
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a D, saying it "starts out as a neo-Pygmalion comedy '' and with "its tough - hooker heroine, it can work as a feminist version of an upscale princess fantasy. '' Gleiberman also said it "pretends to be about how love transcends money, '' but "is really obsessed with status symbols. '' On its twentieth anniversary, Gleiberman wrote another article, saying that while he felt he was right, he would have given it a B today. Carina Chocano of The New York Times said the movie "was n't a love story, it was a money story. Its logic depended on a disconnect between character and narrative, between image and meaning, between money and value, and that made it not cluelessly traditional but thoroughly postmodern. ''
The film is noted for its musical selections. The hugely successful soundtrack features the song "Oh, Pretty Woman '' by Roy Orbison, which inspired its title. Roxette 's "It Must Have Been Love '' reached No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 in June 1990. The soundtrack also features "King of Wishful Thinking '' by Go West, "Show Me Your Soul '' by Red Hot Chili Peppers, "No Explanation '' by Peter Cetera, "Wild Women Do '' by Natalie Cole and "Fallen '' by Lauren Wood. The soundtrack went on to be certified triple platinum by the RIAA.
The opera featured in the film is La Traviata, which also served as inspiration for its plot. The highly dramatic aria fragment that is repeated is the end of "Dammi tu forza! '' ("Give me strength! ''), from the opera. The piano piece Gere 's character plays in the hotel lobby was actually composed by and performed by him. Roberts sings the song "Kiss '' by Prince while she is in the tub and Gere 's character is on the phone. Background music is composed by James Newton Howard. Entitled "He Sleeps / Love Theme '', this piano composition is inspired by Bruce Springsteen 's "Racing in the Street ''.
The soundtrack was released on March 13, 1990 by EMI.
A stage musical adaptation of the film is scheduled to open on Broadway in the fall of 2018. This follows an out - of - town tryout at the Oriental Theatre in Chicago, which will run from March 13 to April 15, 2018. The musical has music and lyrics by Bryan Adams and Jim Vallance; the late Garry Marshall and J.F. Lawton will co-write the book and Jerry Mitchell is the director and choreographer. The Chicago and Broadway casts will feature Samantha Barks, in her Broadway debut as Vivian and Steve Kazee as Edward. Orfeh will portray Kit, and Jason Danieley will play Philip Stuckey. Eric Anderson will portray the role of Mr. Thompson. Kingsley Leggs will play the role of James Morse.
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real husbands of hollywood season 5 episode 9 cast | Real Husbands of Hollywood - wikipedia
Real Husbands of Hollywood (abbreviated RHOH) is an American reality television parody on BET which debuted on January 15, 2013.
The series was co-created by comedian Kevin Hart, and follows the daily lives of him and other married celebrities, each playing a fictionalized version of themselves, as they venture through their surreal life in Hollywood. Members of the initial cast include: Boris Kodjoe, Nelly, Duane Martin, J.B. Smoove, Nick Cannon, Oliver (Hart 's assistant, played by James Davis), and Robin Thicke, who did not return for the second season due to his music career, though Hart has stated that the door is open for Thicke to return.
The series is intentionally filmed in a style similar to Bravo 's The Real Housewives. Episodes often hinge on the "real '' Kevin Hart 's desperately unsuccessful attempts to climb Hollywood 's celebrity social ladder (which always backfire in humiliating ways), and the character 's barely - hidden jealousy of his more successful celebrity friends. A sneak peek was shown as a segment during the 2012 BET Awards and the official promo was released in October 2012.
Special guests during the first season include: Laila Ali, Ed O'Neill, Jennifer Freeman, Russell Simmons, Melanie Fiona, Estelle, Cedric the Entertainer, Shane Mosley, Elise Neal, Keri Hilson, La La Anthony, Rocsi Diaz, Alec Mapa, Terry Crews, Tisha Campbell - Martin, Takhorra Taylor, Young Jeezy, Nicole Ari Parker, Jay Leno, Ed O'Neill, Shaquille O'Neal, Faizon Love, James Davis, Common and Trey Songz.
Season 2 guest stars include Chris Rock, Conan O'Brien, Wanda Sykes, Katie Couric, Keenen Ivory Wayans, Nadine Velazquez, Kelly Rowland, Bobby Brown, Ralph Tresvant, Tichina Arnold, James Davis, Wayne Brady, Eric Benet, Selita Ebanks, Eva Marcille, Erykah Badu, and more.
Season 3: Tamar Braxton, Mariah Carey, Regina Hall, Sanaa Lathan, George Lopez, Snoop Dogg, Jennifer Freeman, Vanessa L. Williams, Lance Bass, Chrisette Michele, Jessica White, Fred Williamson, and more.
Season 4: Bobby Shmurda, Chris Brown, Brandy, Nia Long, Arsenio Hall, Wayne Brady, Mary J. Blige, Craig Robinson, EJ Johnson, Faith Evans, NeNe Leakes, Terry Crews, and more.
Season 5: Letoya Luckett, Nia Long, Johnny Depp, Keke Palmer, Meghan Trainor, Nicki Minaj, Vivica A. Fox, Gabrielle Union, and more.
After it was announced in March 2013, a twelve episode second season premiered on October 15, 2013. The following day, on October 16, 2013, the show began airing on The Comedy Channel in Australia. In April 2014, Real Husbands of Hollywood was renewed for a third season, which premiered on October 14, 2014.
The fourth season premiered on August 18, 2015. On January 21, 2016, the show was renewed for a fifth season, which premiered on October 11, 2016.
The show has received positive reviews from critics. Entertainment Weekly chose the show as No. 1 for their "The Must List: The Top 10 Things We Love This Week, '' writing, "Step aside, Housewives! Our new favorite divas are the men who take the spotlight in star / exec producer Kevin Hart 's uproariously funny reality TV spoof. ''
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which star wars movie is after the force awakens | Star Wars sequel trilogy - wikipedia
The Star Wars sequel trilogy is the third set of three films in the Star Wars franchise, an American space opera created by George Lucas. It is being produced by Lucasfilm Ltd. and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. The trilogy is to consist of episodes VII through IX, and chronologically follows Return of the Jedi (1983) in the saga. Lucas had planned a sequel trilogy in the 1970s, but abandoned these plans by the late 1990s, producing only the planned prequel trilogy. The Walt Disney Company acquired Lucasfilm in late 2012 and then announced plans to produce this series.
The first installment, Star Wars: The Force Awakens, was released in December 2015 in the U.S. It is directed by J.J. Abrams who co-wrote the screenplay with Lawrence Kasdan and Michael Arndt. Harrison Ford, Mark Hamill, Carrie Fisher, and other cast members from the original trilogy returned to reprise their roles and co-star alongside Daisy Ridley, John Boyega, Adam Driver, and Oscar Isaac.
Unlike the previous two trilogies, whose films were released approximately three years apart and released on Memorial Day weekend, the sequel films are planned to be released two years apart in December. Star Wars: The Last Jedi was released in December 2017, with Rian Johnson as screenwriter and director, and most of the cast returning.
The first two films have grossed a combined $3.4 billion worldwide and were both well - received by critics. The third and final installment, Episode IX, was to be directed by Colin Trevorrow, but he was replaced in September 2017 by Abrams, who is to co-write it with Chris Terrio. The film is scheduled to be released on December 20, 2019.
According to Mark Hamill, who plays Luke Skywalker, in 1976, Star Wars creator George Lucas told him that he planned three Star Wars trilogies. Lucas suggested Hamill could have a cameo role in Episode IX, which he imagined filming by 2011. A Time magazine story in March 1978, quoting Lucas, stated there would be ten Star Wars films after The Empire Strikes Back. Gary Kurtz was also aware of proposed story elements for Episode VII to Episode IX before 1980. In 1980, at the time of the release of The Empire Strikes Back, Lucas said there were seven further Star Wars films he wanted to make. He said he had "twelve - page outlines '' for those films. In an interview with Jim Steranko in Prevue magazine published in late 1980, Lucas described how the expansive scope of Star Wars had started with an overlong screenplay:
So, I took the screenplay and divided it into three stories, and rewrote the first one. As I was writing, I came up with some ideas for a film about robots, with no humans in it. When I got to working on the Wookiee, I thought of a film just about Wookiees, nothing else. So, for a time, I had a couple of odd movies with just those characters. Then, I had the other two films, which were essentially split into three parts each, two trilogies. When the smoke cleared, I said, ' This is really great. I 'll do another trilogy that takes place after this. ' I had three trilogies of nine films, and then another couple of odd films. Essentially, there were twelve films.
He added that he had:
... eliminated the odd movies, because they really do n't have anything to do with the Star Wars saga... I 'm just going to keep it pure. It 's a nine - part saga that has a beginning, a middle and an end. It progresses over a period of about fifty or sixty years with about twenty years between trilogies, each trilogy taking about six or seven years.
In this interview, Lucas also stated that he had "titles and ten - page story outlines for each of '' the nine episodes. In an interview with Gary Kurtz in the same magazine, Kurtz said:
(w) hether or not all nine or twelve films actually get made depends on how George feels as time goes along. The series may happen the way he originally planned or may completely change. As the films are made, each of the stories develops. As each is finished, I think the direction of the saga may change a bit.
In an interview with Starlog magazine published in September 1981, Lucas confirmed that he had the nine - film series plotted, cautioning:
... but it 's a long way from the plot to the script. I 've just gone through that with Return of the Jedi, and what seems like a great idea when it 's described in three sentences does n't hold together when you try to make five or six scenes out of it. So plots change a lot when they start getting into script form.
Shortly after 1980 's release of Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back, Lucas had already written story treatments for episodes: VI, and the sequel trilogy consisting of episodes VII, VIII and IX. Dale Pollock, George Lucas 's biographer, revealed in a 2012 interview, that as part of his biographical research during the 1980s, Lucas had allowed him to read the plot outlines for the at the time comprising 12 planned Star Wars film episodes, albeit on the condition of signing a confidentiality agreement.
Those plans Pollock saw, however were drastically changed after Empire Strikes Back released because Lucas decided not to make the sequel trilogy, and instead finish the story as a trilogy, by ending the storyline with Episode VI: Return of the Jedi. This led Lucas to rework and fully incorporate many of the plots from his discarded sequel trilogy directly into Return of the Jedi. Gary Kurtz the producer of A New Hope and The Empire Strikes Back, opened about those incorporated elements, albeit reamined coy about the discarded ideas that could be still used on future sequels. About the elements from such discarded sequel trilogy, that were directly incorporated into Return of the Jedi, Kutz said those were:
About the 1980s sequel trilogy drafts, and their surviving elements that could still have been used after Return of the Jedi, in 2012, Pollock said:
Other than Pollock 's vague description, no official information about the 1980s script treatments for the sequel trilogy has been released. Comenting in the announcement of Lucas selling Lucasfilm to Disney in 2012, and the official announcement of a sequel trilogy. Pollock said that Disney would probably use Lucas 's outlines from 1980 as the basis for the sequel trilogy, saying "That 's in part what Disney bought. ''
This period lasted from 1983 to the 2010 's, when Lucas started to develop his ideas for a sequel trilogy.
After release of Return of the Jedi in 1983, Lucas gave many hints about many of the plot elements from his discarded 1980s script treatments for the sequel trilogy, or what would happen if he were to make a sequel trilogy. Those discarded plots continued to fascinate fans for decades, as many of them were completely unaffected by the conclusion of the original trilogy; thus leaving the sequel trilogy a possibility of using them.
While many ideas seem to have been retained, these two particular ideas were apparently discarded for Lucasfilm 's sequel trilogy, under Disney 's ownership:
Lucas ' ideas that have been somewhat partially or completely retained by the trilogy that ultimately was made, include:
However it should be noted, that while Lucas mighth have made some notes, or written his ideas from time to time. He was not actively working on drafts for such films.
During the early 1990s, Lucas allowed writer Timothy Zahn to write a Star Wars expanded universe novel series set after the events in the original trilogy, which was called the Thrawn Trilogy. This decision meant that Lucas decided to further cancel the sequel trilogy, with many hundreds of subsequent other works set after the original trilogy. From 1997 onwards, Lucas took it a step further, when he ceased to talk about his sequel trilogy ideas. When asked, he would frequently repeat that he had no plans to make the sequel trilogy and that he would not allow other directors to make it. He gave various explanations for the apparent abandonment of plans to film the sequel trilogy.
At a 1997 "Special Edition '' press conference, Lucas said: "Everyone said, ' Well, are you going to do sequels to the first three? ' But that was an afterthought; I do n't have scripts on those stories. The only notion on that was, would n't it be fun to get all the actors to come back when they 're 60 or 70 years old and make three more about them as old people. '' In a 1997 issue of Star Wars Insider, he said: "The whole story has six episodes... If I ever went beyond that, it would be something that was made up. I really do n't have any notion other than, ' Gee, it would be interesting to do Luke Skywalker later on. ' It would n't be part of the main story, but a sequel to this thing. ''
However Lucas was not made with the Star Wars franchise, his attention however was not on the sequel trilogy, as it had shifted towards the story before the original trilogy. Between 1999 and 2005, Lucas would return to the universe he had created, by writing and directing, what would become the prequel trilogy of Episodes I, II, and III. and decided to end the saga as six films. This prevented him from developing a sequel trilogy during that time - frame.
In an interview published in the February 1999 issue of Vanity Fair, Lucas said: "When you see it in six parts, you 'll understand. It really ends at part six. I never had a story for the sequels, for the later ones. '' In early May 2002, just before the worldwide release of Episode II: Attack of the Clones and while Lucas was working on the script for Episode III, rumors of Star Wars episodes VII, VIII, and IX were posted on the Internet. In reply, Lucas noted that there would be no Star Wars Episodes VII, VIII, and IX, since the time feels right to move on:
I am going to do my own movies. I have got some ideas but they are the kind of movies that are n't going to be popular, they 're not going to be successful in terms of financing. I have managed to get a fund by doing these (blockbuster) movies that allows me the creative freedom to do things that may never see the light of day -- or if they do get distributed they will be on a very limited basis because they are not mass entertainment movies. There are a lot of things I still want to do. I want to do a TV show, some TV movies, mostly they will be historical in nature.
In 1999, when asked about the possibility of someone else making Star Wars films, Lucas said, "Probably not, it 's my thing. '' In August 1999, at a press conference in New York City to discuss The Phantom Menace, Lucas described the "nine year commitment '' required to make a Star Wars trilogy. In 2002, he said: "Basically what I said as a joke was, ' Maybe when Harrison and Carrie are in their 70s, we 'll come back and do another version. ' The thing I did n't realize then, and that I do realize now very clearly, is that not only would they be in their 70s, but I would be in my 70s too. ''
Lucas also noted "Ultimately, the saga will be six films, a 12 - hour story. Then people can watch all six films together as they were intended to be seen. ''
In 2007, Lucas described making the films at that age as "an idea that seemed amusing at the time, but does n't seem realistic now '', and suggested that "off - the - cuff '' comments he had made in earlier years had been misconstrued as absolute statements. In 2008, after all six films had been released, Lucas said: "The movies were the story of Anakin Skywalker and Luke Skywalker, and when Luke saves the galaxy and redeems his father, that 's where that story ends. '' In another 2008 interview in Total Film, Lucas ruled out anybody else making Star Wars films, and additionally added that the Expanded Universe novels and comics did not lined up with his six films Star Wars saga. Asked if he was happy for new Star Wars films to be made after his death, he said: "I 've left pretty explicit instructions for there not to be any more features. There will definitely be no Episodes VII -- IX. That 's because there is n't any story. I mean, I never thought of anything. And now there have been novels about the events after Episode VI, which is n't at all what I would have done with it. The Star Wars story is really the tragedy of Darth Vader. That is the story. Once Vader dies, he does n't come back to life, the Emperor does n't get cloned and Luke does n't get married... ''
The trilogy remained in cancelation, until Lucas had a change of heart in the 2010s, when Lucas secretly started writing more ideas for the sequel trilogy and strongly considered directing Episode VII for a May 2015 release. Then Lucas decided not to film the sequel trilogy again. Details from Lucas discarded sequel trilogy were revealed in June 2018, during a interview contained within a companion book to a television series AMC 's James Cameron 's Story Of Science Fiction. Therein Lucas stated the films "were going to get into a microbiotic world. But there 's this world of creatures that operate differently than we do. I call them the Whills. And the Whills are the ones who actually control the universe. They feed off the Force. '' Neither of those ideas has been used in the sequel trilogy so far. Lucas additionally stated "If I 'd held onto the company I could have done it, and then it would have been done. Of course a lot of fans would have hated it, just like they did (with prequel trilogy film) Phantom Menace and everything but at least the whole story from beginning to end would be told. ''
However, then, Lucas changed his mind again, and decided to fully retire, and allow other filmmakers do the films, instead of himself. Deciding to sell his production company Lucasfilm, along with the rights to Star Wars, to Disney. Speaking after Disney 's 2012 acquisition of Lucasfilm, Lucas (sitting alongside new Lucasfilm president Kathleen Kennedy), said: "I always said I was n't going to do any more, and that 's true, because I 'm not going to do any more. But that does n't mean I 'm unwilling to turn it over to Kathy to do more. '' Lucas said at some point, he had planned to finish Episode VII, release it in May 2015 and then sell the company afterward. But Disney expressed interest, with Lucas saying "It 's better for me to get out at the beginning of a new thing and I can just remove myself. The time is more important to me than the money. '' Both plot - outlines, the one written in the 1980s and the one written in the 2010s, were turned over to Disney chairman Bob Iger around the time that Disney acquired Lucasfilm in 2012.
Previously mentioned veteran writer of Star Wars novels, Zahn was interviewed about the at - the - time just - announced sequel trilogy in 2012, he confirmed the sequel trilogy was never meant to be based on his Thrawn novels nor the expanded universe but said he had been briefed years before on Lucas 's plans for the sequels. (Zahn had discussions with Lucas before the first Thrawn novel was published in 1991.)
The original idea as I understood it -- and Lucas changes his mind off and on, so it may not be what he 's thinking right now -- but it was going to be three generations. You 'd have the original trilogy, then go back to Luke 's father and find out what happened to him, and if there was another seventh, eighth, or ninth film, it would be Luke 's children.
As announced by Lucasfilm, the sequel trilogy also meant the end of most of the existing Star Wars expanded universe, so as to give "maximum creative freedom to the filmmakers and also preserve an element of surprise and discovery for the audience ''. Much of the old expanded universe content would continue to be available under the Star Wars: Legends brand, which was created to brand the non-canonical works of the franchise. Only Episodes I - VI would remain canon to the franchise, along The Clone Wars animated film and animated series. Everything produced after the anouncement, would also be considered remain canon.
The first film in the sequel trilogy was titled Episode VII: The Force Awakens and written by Lucas co-writer on two sequels in the original trilogy Lawrence Kasdan, along J.J. Abrams, who also directed it. As noted by Lucas in 2013, the film had seemingly discarded his ideas for Episode VII. During an interview with Cinemablend in January 2014, while promoting the upcoming release of the Lucasfilm animated movie Strange Magic, Lucas revealed that ultimately, Disney chose not to use the story treatments which he had written and turned over with the acquisition, and that the company chose to create brand new stories for the upcoming movies instead: "The ones that I sold to Disney, they came up to the decision that they did n't really want to do those. So they made up their own. So it 's not the ones that I originally wrote (on screen in Star Wars: The Force Awakens) ''.
However, Rian Johnson 's Episode VIII: The Last Jedi, brought some of them back. Few details have been revealed about the contents of Lucas 's 2010s story treatments for the sequel trilogy, the revelations came from the book, called Art of Star Wars: The Last Jedi. The book disclosed that in January 2013 at Skywalker Ranch, George Lucas himself, held the first brief about the as - yet untitled Episode VII and its story. Showing numerous concept arts including:
Lucas seemingly had planned for the conclusion of Luke 's story to happen in Episode VII instead of Episode VIII, with Luke dying at the end of the film; this element was also incorporated into Johnson 's film. Conversely, some months later, Mark Hamill contradicted this statement, saying that George Lucas ' original vision for the ending of Episode IX was to have Luke dying there instead of a simple cameo, leaving his sister Leia as a Jedi. No plot points such as the Whills or microbiotic worlds have appeared so far.
The Force Awakens, the first film in the sequel trilogy, takes place approximately 30 years after the events of Return of the Jedi. It includes new characters, as well as characters from the original trilogy, in search of Luke Skywalker with the help of Han Solo, and Princess Leia along with Chewbacca, C - 3PO, and R2 - D2. The Force Awakens, like the subsequent two films, is based on an original screenplay and not a storyline from the expanded universe.
The original trilogy 's cast joins newcomers Daisy Ridley, John Boyega, Adam Driver, and Oscar Isaac. It is directed by J.J. Abrams, who co-wrote a revised version of the screenplay along with Lawrence Kasdan, co-writer of the screenplays for The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi. Original drafts of The Force Awakens script were written by Michael Arndt, but ultimately early character and plot elements in Arndt 's vision came into conflict with the conceptual ideas of director J.J. Abrams and Lucasfilm president Kathleen Kennedy, as well as filming schedules and ultimately Arndt was removed from the project due to creative differences and time constraints, being replaced by Kasdan as the primary co-creative visionary to Abrams ' plot concepts.
George Lucas was set to provide Abrams with advice as a creative consultant; however, Lucas had no involvement with the film, with his representative stating Lucas "ideally would love not to see any footage until he walks into the theater next December. He has never been able to be surprised by a Star Wars film before and he said he was looking forward to it. '' The film began pre-production on October 30, 2012. Production began in April 2014; it was released on December 18, 2015. In the US, the film is rated PG - 13 "for sci - fi action violence '' and an M Rating In Australia, the second Star Wars film to receive that rating after Revenge of the Sith (the five other films received a PG rating).
The film broke opening weekend box office records in North America with $248 million ($39 million more than previous record holder Jurassic World) and totals of $529 million worldwide, the largest opening ever. The film set another new record by becoming the first movie to break the $1 billion mark in box office sales in just 12 days. It is currently the highest - grossing film of all time in North America and the third highest - grossing film worldwide, unadjusted for inflation.
The Last Jedi, the second film in the sequel trilogy, takes place following the events of The Force Awakens. On June 20, 2014, Rian Johnson was announced as writer and director of Episode VIII and story treatment writer of Episode IX. Kathleen Kennedy and Ram Bergman were the producers and J.J. Abrams is the executive producer. Steve Yedlin is the cinematographer. Johnson confirmed in August 2014 that he would direct Episode VIII.
In March 2015, Oscar Isaac confirmed he would reprise his The Force Awakens role of Poe Dameron in Episode VIII. In July 2015, it was reported that Benicio del Toro was being considered for a villain; del Toro later confirmed that he had been cast. In September 2015, it was reported that Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Tatiana Maslany, Gina Rodriguez, Olivia Cooke, and Bel Powley were on the shortlist for two separate parts. Jimmy Vee was cast as R2 - D2, succeeding Kenny Baker, who died in August 2016.
Much of the filming for Episode VIII took place at Pinewood Studios near London. In September 2015, some pre-production filming took place on the island of Skellig Michael, Ireland to take advantage of better weather conditions. In a November 2015 interview with Wired, Abrams stated that the film 's script was completed. In December 2015, Hamill, Isaac, Christie, and Boyega were confirmed to reprise their roles as Luke Skywalker, Poe Dameron, Captain Phasma, and Finn, respectively. Kennedy announced on December 17, 2015, at the London premiere for The Force Awakens that most of the cast would return for Episode VIII. On January 20, 2016, Lucasfilm and Disney announced that the release of the film would be delayed to December 15, 2017. Principal photography began in February 2016. Additional filming took place in Dubrovnik from March 9 to March 16, 2016, as well as in Ireland. Principal photography wrapped in July 2016. On December 27, 2016, Carrie Fisher died after going into cardiac arrest a few days earlier. Fisher had completed filming her role as General Leia Organa before her death. On January 23, 2017, the film was given a confirmed release date of December 15, 2017 with the title Star Wars: The Last Jedi.
In June 2014, Johnson was announced as writing a story treatment for Episode IX, but later stated he had not been involved with writing the film. In August 2015, Colin Trevorrow was announced as the director of Episode IX, and he, with Derek Connolly, began writing a script. In February 2016, Disney CEO Bob Iger confirmed that pre-production of Episode IX had begun.
In late December 2016, following the death of Carrie Fisher, media outlets speculated on whether her role would be recast for Episode IX or whether the absence of her character would affect the film 's plot. A few weeks later, Lucasfilm stated that they would not digitally recreate Fisher 's performance for the film, and in April 2017, Kathleen Kennedy confirmed that Fisher will not be in Episode IX; although it was later announced on July 27, 2018 that Fisher will in fact appear in Episode IX using unreleased footage from The Force Awakens. In August, it was reported that Jack Thorne would rewrite the script.
In September 2017, Lucasfilm announced that Trevorrow had stepped down as director of the film, and a week later, it was announced that J.J. Abrams would return to direct Episode IX. Abrams would co-write the script with Chris Terrio, in addition to producing the film through his company Bad Robot Productions, with Kennedy and Michelle Rejwan.
Originally, Disney had intended for the film to be released in December, as with the other sequel films The Force Awakens and The Last Jedi, but then chose a release date of May 24, 2019, a time frame more common to Star Wars releases prior to the Disney purchase. However, after Abrams took over the film from Trevorrow, the film 's release date was moved back to the winter holiday season. The film is now scheduled to be released on December 20, 2019. Principal photography began on August 1, 2018.
On January 10, 2018, it was reported that John Williams will return to compose and conduct the music for Episode IX. The next month, Williams announced that Episode IX will be the last Star Wars film music he will be composing.
On July 6, 2018, it was reported that Keri Russell is in early talks for a role in Episode IX. On July 9, 2018, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Billy Dee Williams was confirmed to reprise the role of Lando Calrissian. On July 27, 2018, it was announced that Daisy Ridley, Adam Driver, John Boyega, Oscar Isaac, Lupita Nyong'o, Domhnall Gleeson, Kelly Marie Tran, Joonas Suotamo, Billie Lourd, Mark Hamill, and Anthony Daniels would reprise their roles, with Naomi Ackie and Richard E. Grant joining the cast, and that Carrie Fisher would posthumously reprise her role as General Leia Organa, using unreleased footage from both The Force Awakens and The Last Jedi; the same announcement confirmed Williams ' return. It was announced later the same day that Russell had joined the cast.
Lucas found himself agreeing with the critics who perceived The Force Awakens as too derivative of the original Star Wars trilogy. During an interview with talk show host and journalist Charlie Rose that aired on December 24, 2015, Lucas likened his decision to sell Lucasfilm to Disney to a "divorce '' and outlined the creative differences between him and the producers of The Force Awakens. Lucas described the previous six Star Wars films as his "children '' and defended his vision for them, while criticizing The Force Awakens for having a "retro feel '', saying: "I worked very hard to make them completely different, with different planets, with different spaceships -- you know, to make it new ''. Lucas also likened Disney to "white slavers '', which drew some criticism. He subsequently apologized for his remark.
In 2017, Lucas described the sequel The Last Jedi, as "beautifully made '', shortly after its release. The comment was interpreted as Lucas liking the film more than The Force Awakens, even if Lucas never was quoted as explicitly saying it. The previous year the Disney - produced Star Wars Anthology film Rogue One: A Star Wars Story had been released, and it was reported that Lucas also liked it more than The Force Awakens itself. Rogue One told the story of the rebels who stole the plans for the original Death Star, was directed by Gareth Edwards, who said "I can die happy '', in regards to hearing Lucas telling him he liked his film.
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total number of thermal power plant in india | List of power stations in India - wikipedia
The total installed power station capacity in India as on June 29, 2016 is 303,083 MW with sector wise & type wise break up as given below.
The break up of other renewable energy sources (RES) is: wind power (28,700.44 MW), Solar power (9,012.69 MW), Biomass power & gasification (7,856.94 MW), small hydro (4,333.86 MW), Waste - to - energy (114.08 MW).
For the state wise allocation of the installed utility power capacity, refer to States of India by allocated power capacity.
The following lists name many of the power stations in India.
Nuclear power is the fifth - largest source of electricity in India after thermal, hydroelectric and renewable sources of electricity. As of 2016, India has 22 nuclear reactors in operation at seven sites, having an installed capacity of 6780 MW. and producing a total of 30,292.91 GWh of electricity 11 more reactors are under construction to generate an additional 8,100 MW.
All the twenty two nuclear power reactors with an installed capacity of 6,780 MW equal to 2.2 % of total installed utility capacity, are operated by the Nuclear Power Corporation of India. India ranked seventh in number of operated reactors (22) and fourteenth in total installed capacity.
Thermal power is the "largest '' source of power in India. There are different types of thermal power plants based on the fuel used to generate the steam such as coal, gas, and Diesel. About 71 % of electricity consumed in India are generated by thermal power plants.
More than 62 % of India 's electricity demand is met through the country 's vast coal reserves. Public sector undertaking National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) and several other state level power generating companies are engaged in operating coal - based thermal power plants. Apart from NTPC and other state level operators, some private companies are also operating the power plants. Here is some list of operating coal - based thermal power plants in India.
The total installed capacity of Natural gas based power plants in India, is nearly 24,508.63 MW. Here is a list of plants operating and waiting for natural gas to start operations.
The total installed capacity of major grid connected diesel - based power plants in India, is 993.53 MW. The installed capacity of captive power DG sets is estimated to be nearly 90,000 MW. Here is the part list of grid connected plants.
India was the first country in the world to set up a ministry of non-conventional energy resources, in early 1980s. India 's cumulative grid interactive or grid tied renewable energy capacity (excluding large hydro) has reached about 42.75 GW,
This is a list of major hydroelectric power plants in India.
Hydro power units with pumped storage features.
India has many large wind power production farms (10MW and greater)
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in the bible what does the fig tree represent | Figs in the Bible - wikipedia
Figs in the Bible refers to references to figs and fig trees in the Tanakh and the New Testament, which are sometimes symbolic.
The fig tree is the third tree to be mentioned by name in the Hebrew Bible. The first is the Tree of life and the second is the Tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Adam and Eve used the leaves of the fig tree to sew garments for themselves after the Fall, when they realized that they were naked (Genesis 3: 7).
In Deuteronomy, the Promised Land is described as "a land of wheat and barley, of vines and fig trees and pomegranates, a land of olive oil and honey; a land where you will eat food without scarcity, in which you will not lack anything; '' (Deuteronomy 8: 8 - 10). During Solomon 's reign Judah and Israel, from Dan to Beersheba, lived in safety, each man "under his own vine and fig tree '' (1 Kings 4: 25), an indicator of national wealth and prosperity. 2 Kings 18 states that Hezekiah rebelled against the King of Assyria, of whom he had become a vassal. In response, the Assyrian commander attempted to sway the army of Jerusalem by offering deserters each his own vine and fig tree.
Proverbs 27: 18 likens tending a fig tree to looking after one 's master. There was a fig tree in the garden of the Song of Solomon, and in the year of love the tree formed its fruit early (Song 2: 13).
The fig tree and figs are featured in the Book of Jeremiah and mentioned briefly in the Book of Micah.
Another species of ficus, the Egyptian sycamore fig is occasionally mentioned as well, for example 1 Kings 10: 27.
The parable of the budding fig tree is found in Matt 24: 32 -- 36, Mark 13: 28 -- 32, Luke 21: 29 -- 33 as part of the Olivet discourse. The term fig tree could be understood to refer to Israel Joel 2: 21 -- 25,
The parable of the barren fig tree is a parable of Jesus recorded in the Gospel of Luke 13: 6 -- 9. A vinekeeper holds out hope that a barren fig tree will bear fruit next year.
Mark 11: 12 -- 20 includes an account of Jesus cursing the fig tree:
The next day as they were leaving Bethany, Jesus was hungry. Seeing in the distance a fig tree in leaf, he went to find out if it had any fruit. When he reached it, he found nothing but leaves, because it was not the season for figs.
Then he said to the tree, "May no one ever eat fruit from you again. '' And his disciples heard him say it. On reaching Jerusalem, Jesus entered the temple area and began driving out those who were buying and selling there. He overturned the tables of the money changers and the benches of those selling doves, and would not allow anyone to carry merchandise through the temple courts. And as he taught them, he said, "Is it not written: '' ' My house will be called a house of prayer for all nations '? But you have made it ' a den of robbers. ' '' The chief priests and the teachers of the law heard this and began looking for a way to kill him, for they feared him, because the whole crowd was amazed at his teaching. When evening came, they went out of the city.
A parallel is found in Matthew 21: 18 -- 22, but the fig tree withers immediately and is noticed at that time by the disciples.
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when was the last time.england were in the semi finals | England at the FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The England national football team has competed at the FIFA World Cup since 1950. The FIFA World Cup is the premier competitive international football tournament, first played in 1930, whose finals stage has been held every four years since, except 1942 and 1946, due to the Second World War.
The tournament consists of two parts, the qualification phase and the final phase (officially called the World Cup Finals). The qualification phase, which currently take place over the three years preceding the finals, is used to determine which teams qualify for the finals. The current format of the finals involves thirty - two teams competing for the title, at venues within the host nation (or nations) over a period of about a month. The World Cup Finals is the most widely viewed sporting event in the world, with an estimated 715.1 million people watching the 2006 Final.
England did not enter the competition until 1950, but have entered all eighteen subsequent tournaments. They have failed to qualify for the finals on three occasions, 1974 (West Germany), 1978 (Argentina) and 1994 (United States), and have failed to advance from the group stages on three occasions; at the 1950 FIFA World Cup, the 1958 FIFA World Cup and the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Their best ever performance is winning the Cup in the 1966 tournament held in England, whilst they also finished in fourth place in 1990, in Italy, and in 2018 in Russia. Other than that, the team have reached the quarter - finals on nine occasions, the latest of which were at the 2002 (South Korea / Japan) and the 2006 (Germany).
England are the only team not representing a sovereign state to win the World Cup, which they did in 1966 when they hosted the finals. They defeated West Germany 4 -- 2 after extra time to win the World Cup title. Since then, they have generally reached the knockout stages of almost every competition they have qualified for, including a fourth - place finish in the 1990 and 2018 World Cups. At the world cup, England have had more goalless draws than any other team.
England 's first qualifying campaign for the FIFA World Cup doubled as the 1950 British Home Championship. The series kicked off for England on 15 October 1949 at Ninian Park, Cardiff, against Wales. Stan Mortensen gave England the lead after twenty two minutes, and just seven minutes later, Jackie Milburn doubled the lead. This was the first goal of Milburn 's hat trick, which left England 4 -- 0 up with 20 minutes to play. Mal Griffiths scored a consolation goal for Wales ten minutes from time, but England held on for a comfortable victory.
A month later, England welcomed Ireland to Maine Road, and it began well for the home side as Jack Rowley scored inside six minutes. England were already 6 -- 0 up, thanks to Jack Froggatt, two for Stan Pearson, Stan Mortensen and a second from Rowley, by the time Ireland struck back through Samuel Smyth after 55 minutes. Rowley added a third and a fourth to his tally in the three minutes following Smyth 's goal, however, leaving the score at 8 -- 1 at the hour mark. The frantic scoring rate calmed down after that, with only one apeice before the final whistle, with Stan Pearson completing his brace for England 's ninth, and Bobby Brennan scoring for Ireland.
It was not until May 1950 that England travelled to Hampden Park to face Scotland, who were also undefeated after their games against Ireland and Wales. With the top two from the group qualifying, both teams were guaranteed progression to the finals, and the game was solely for the honour of winning the British Home Championship, and the seeding advantage to be enjoyed upon reaching Brazil. A solitary goal from Roy Bentley gave England the victory, the title and the top spot in the group.
England were seeded in pot one for the finals, which meant they were the favourites to progress from Group 2, which also contained Spain, Chile and the United States. England 's campaign kicked off against Chile in Rio de Janeiro, and, as was expected, England cruised to a 2 -- 0 victory, courtesy of goals from Stan Mortensen and Wilf Mannion.
Their troubles began four days later when they faced the Americans in Belo Horizonte in what has become one of the most famous matches of all time. Joe Gaetjens scored the only goal of the match to give the United States an unlikely victory, which has gone down as one of the World Cup 's greatest upsets. A myth arose that the English newspapers were so confident of an English victory that when the result was telegrammed back, they assumed a misprint and printed the score as 10 -- 1 in England 's favour. However, this has proven to be untrue.
This left England in a sticky situation prior to their final match, against Spain in Rio. They needed to win, and for Chile to beat the United States to stand any chance of going through, and even then they would need the goal averages to fall in their favour. As it turned out, no such calculations were necessary, despite Chile 's victory, as Spain 's Zarra scored the only goal of the game, eliminating England from the competition.
As with their first World Cup, England 's qualifying for the 1954 edition also constituted the 1953 -- 54 British Home Championship. They played Wales at Ninian Park as their first match once again, and the 4 -- 1 result was the same. However, unlike four years earlier, it was the home side that went into the lead, after twenty two minutes through Ivor Allchurch. Despite being 1 -- 0 down at half time, England scored four within eight minutes of the restart; two each for Dennis Wilshaw and Nat Lofthouse.
Goodison Park was the venue for England 's home clash against Ireland, who were newly renamed Northern Ireland. Harold Hassall got England off to a good start with a goal after just ten minutes. Eddie McMorran put the Irish back on terms just before the hour mark, but Hassall completed his brace six minutes later. Lofthouse completed a comfortable 3 -- 1 win for England.
With the top two in the group qualifying for the finals, the final game between England and Scotland, at Hampden Park, settled nothing except the placings within the group, despite Scotland having dropped a point with a 3 -- 3 draw at home to Wales. Allan Brown put the home side ahead after just seven minutes, but it was all square again thanks to Ivor Broadis just four minutes later. Johnny Nicholls gave England the lead for the first time just after half time, and they began to extend a lead after Ronnie Allen 's 68th - minute goal. Jimmy Mullen made the game all but certain seven minutes from time, and although Willie Ormond scored a consolation for Scotland with just 1 minute to play, England topped the competition for the second time in a row.
England were drawn in Group 4 for the finals, with hosts Switzerland, Italy and Belgium. In an odd twist, unique to the 1954 tournament, England and Italy, as the two seeded teams in the group, did not have to play each other.
Equally, Switzerland and Belgium did not have to play each other. England 's first game in Switzerland was against Belgium in Basel, and they suffered a shock as Léopold Anoul put the Belgians into the lead after just five minutes. Ivor Broadis put the favourites back on terms just over twenty minutes later, and although Nat Lofthouse gave England the lead 10 minutes later, it was proving to be tougher than they had expected against the Belgians.
Broadis scored his second just after the hour, but Henri Coppens hit back four minutes later to keep Belgium in the game at only 3 -- 2 down. Anoul completed his brace another four minutes after that to level the scores again. In another oddity peculiar to this World Cup, drawn matches in the group stage would go to extra time, and as such the teams played on with the score at 3 -- 3.
Just one minute into the added period, Lofthouse added a fourth for England and they seemed to have won it, but Jimmy Dickinson scored an own goal three minutes later to put the score back at 4 -- 4. It stayed this way until the extra period was up, and as penalty shoot - outs were yet to be invented and replays were not used in the group, the match was recorded as a draw.
England 's second and final group game was against the hosts in Bern. This proved to be an easier game for the Three Lions, and they scored one goal in each half (from Jimmy Mullen and Dennis Wilshaw respectively) to give them a comfortable win of 2 -- 0. As Switzerland (against England), Italy (against Switzerland) and Belgium (against Italy) had all lost one game, England progressed as group winners, along with Switzerland, who won a play - off against Italy.
England faced the winners of group three and defending champions Uruguay in the quarter - finals. Carlos Borges gave the South Americans the lead inside 5 minutes, but Lofthouse put England back on terms ten minutes later. England were clearly struggling, but held on until just before half time, when Obdulio Varela gave the lead back Uruguay.
Juan Alberto Schiaffino doubled the lead just after the break, but Tom Finney kept England 's foot in the door with his sixty seventh - minute goal. However, it was all over after Javier Ambrois restored the two - goal lead with twelve minutes to play. The score remained at 4 -- 2, and England were eliminated from the cup.
For the first time, England had to play against countries other than the Home Nations to reach the Finals in Sweden. They were drawn against the Republic of Ireland and Denmark. In the qualifying round, England won three out of the four games and drew the other. Four months before the World Cup, Roger Byrne, Duncan Edwards, David Pegg and Tommy Taylor all lost their lives in the Munich air disaster while playing for Manchester United. At the finals, which is the only tournament to have seen all Home Nations take part, the Home Nations were all drawn in different groups.
England were drawn against the Soviet Union (2 -- 2), Brazil (0 -- 0) and Austria (2 -- 2), who finished third in the 1954 World Cup. At the end of the group stage, Soviet Union and England each had three points, and had scored four goals and conceded four goals. This meant there was a play - off to decide the second - placed team in the group, the winner to qualify. England lost the play - off 1 -- 0 and were thus knocked out. The only consolation for England was that they were the only team to play the eventual winners Brazil and not lose.
The third World Cup which took place in South America, saw England qualify by successfully qualifying from the group, which contained Portugal and Luxembourg, defeating Luxembourg on both occasions, and defeating Portugal at home, and drawing in Lisbon.
At the finals, England were drawn in a group with Hungary, Argentina and Bulgaria. England defeated Argentina 3 - 1, thanks to goals from Ron Flowers, Bobby Charlton and Jimmy Greaves, before playing out a goalless draw with Bulgaria, and a 2 -- 1 defeat to Hungary.
England finished in second place behind Hungary and played the winners of group 3, defending champions Brazil, in the quarter - finals. Brazil scored first through Garrincha, before an equaliser for Gerry Hitchens before half time. However, second - half goals from Garrincha and Vavá meant Brazil won the game 3 -- 1, and eliminated England from the competition. This defeat was manager Walter Winterbottom 's last game in charge. Winterbottom had led England to four World Cup Finals. From May 1963, Alf Ramsey became the manager of England.
In the 1966 World Cup Finals, England used their home advantage and, under Ramsey, won their first, and only, World Cup title. England played all their games at Wembley Stadium in London, which became the last time that the hosts were granted this privilege. After drawing 0 -- 0 in the opening game against former champions Uruguay, which started a run of four games all ending goalless. England then beat both France and Mexico 2 -- 0 and qualified for the quarter - finals.
The quarter - finals saw England play Argentina, which ended in a 1 -- 0 win to England. This match saw the start of the rivalry between England and Argentina, when Argentinian Antonio Rattín was dismissed by German referee Rudolf Kreitlein in a very fierce game. A 2 -- 1 win against Portugal in the semi-final then followed. Portugal were the first team to score against England in the tournament. The final saw England play West Germany, with the result finishing in a 4 -- 2 win for England, after extra time.
1970 saw the first World Cup finals take place in North America and England qualified automatically for the tournament by winning the 1966 FIFA World Cup. England were drawn in a group with Romania, former world champions Brazil and Czechoslovakia. Each of the matches only saw one goal, with England defeating Romania and Czechoslovakia, and losing to Brazil. The quarter - final saw a repeat of the 1966 final, with England playing West Germany. England were hampered by the fact that first - choice goalkeeper Gordon Banks was ill, and Peter Bonetti played instead. England led 2 -- 0 with goals by Alan Mullery and Martin Peters, but in the 70th minute, Franz Beckenbauer pulled one goal back for West Germany.
After Beckenbauer 's goal, Ramsey substituted Bobby Charlton, who overtook Billy Wright as England 's most capped player ever, with caps totalling 106. Uwe Seeler equalised for the Germans in the eighty first minute, thereby taking the game into extra time. During extra time, Gerd Müller scored the winning goal for West Germany which saw the German side win 3 -- 2. This turned out to be Charlton 's last game for England.
For the first time, England did not qualify for a World Cup. In a group with Olympic champions Poland and Wales, England could not overtake Poland. After only drawing at home to Wales 1 -- 1 and losing the first leg 2 -- 0 to Poland, meant that England had to beat Poland at home, whilst Poland only needed to draw. Poland managed to withstand England 's attacks in the first half, who had Martin Peters playing for them. Poland took the lead in the 57th minute with a goal from Jan Domarski.
England equalised six minutes later, with a penalty converted by Allan Clarke. England were unable to score any more goals with goalkeeper Jan Tomaszewski keeping England at bay. Brian Clough had previously called Tomaszewski a "clown ''. The commentator of the game then said "it 's all over ''. Poland took this good form to the finals and ended in third place. After failing to qualify, Alf Ramsey resigned from his post and after a time, where Ramsey and his predecessor had lasted a total of 29 years, no manager was able to last in the job for longer than eight years. This ended when Bobby Robson became England manager.
England also did not qualify for the fourth World Cup which took place in South America. This time, England were denied by Italy, who had scored three more goals than England after both teams finished on the same points. Goals scored dictated who qualified after the head - to - head record between the two sides finished the same, following a 2 -- 0 home win for each team. The lower - ranked teams in the group were Finland and Luxembourg, but the size of the wins against them proved to be decisive. Nevertheless, Ron Greenwood was given a second chance in charge of England, after taking the role in 1977.
1982 saw the first time where the European Qualifying Rounds were divided into groups of five teams, where the top two teams qualify for the World Cup. Greenwood used his second chance and took England to Spain by finishing second behind Hungary and above Romania, Switzerland and Norway.
At the finals, England won all three group games, defeating France 3 - 1, with a brace from Bryan Robson, before beating Czechoslovakia 2 -- 0, with a Jozef Barmos own goal, and World Cup newcomers Kuwait 1 -- 0, thanks to a Trevor Francis goal.
The next round saw a second group stage consisting of three teams, a first time event at the World Cup. England drew with West Germany 0 -- 0 and after the Germans beat Spain 2 -- 1, England then had to beat Spain with a two - goal difference to progress to the next round. England, however, only managed a 0 -- 0 draw against the Spanish. England remained unbeaten at the end of the tournament. After the World Cup, Ron Greenwood 's time as England manager ended, and he was replaced by Bobby Robson.
1986 saw the second World Cup to take place in Mexico. England qualified for Mexico 1986 by winning four games and drawing four times against Northern Ireland, who qualified in second place, Romania, Finland and Turkey. In Mexico, England lost their opening game to Portugal 1 -- 0 and could only manage a goalless draw against Morocco. The final group game, however, saw England beat Poland 3 -- 0, which is one of the three highest scores for England at the World Cup, with Gary Lineker scoring a hat - trick.
This result took England to second place and finished behind Morocco. England then also beat Paraguay 3 -- 0 in the Round of 16. In the quarter - finals, England renewed their rivalry with Argentina in a game that has become notorious for the Argentina goals, both scored by Diego Maradona. Maradona 's first goal, known as the Hand of God, was illegal and should not have counted, as he used his hand to punch the ball into the net. However, the referee missed this infringement, and ruled that the goal should stand. Maradona then made the score 2 - 0, famously dribbling from inside Argentina 's half and around several English players before scoring. Gary Lineker pulled back the score to 2 - 1, but England ran out of time to equalise, and were eliminated. Nevertheless, Lineker finished with the Golden Boot by scoring six goals and thereby becoming England 's first Golden Boot winner.
By winning three and drawing three, England qualified for Italia ' 90, the second World Cup to be held in Italy, scoring ten goals and conceding none. England were unbeaten through qualification, winning three games, and drawing the remaining three, but still finished second to Sweden, whom they drew with twice. England profited from Romania 's 3 -- 1 win over Denmark, who, had they won, would have qualified as the third - best second - placed team. West Germany and England were able to qualify for Italia ' 90 as the best second - placed teams in the groups with four teams.
Because a few years previously saw English hooligans at European competition matches, England were forced to play their group games on Sardinia and Sicily. In group F, was the European champions Netherlands, the Republic of Ireland and Egypt and England. After opening the tournament with a 1 -- 1 draw against Ireland and a 0 -- 0 draw against the Dutch, England then beat Egypt 1 -- 0. This was Egypt 's first appearance since the 1934 World Cup. England won the group with four points.
In the next round, England had to play Belgium. The game went to extra time, and in the hundredth and nineteenth minute, David Platt scored the winning goal. England also had to play extra time against Cameroon in the quarter - finals. Cameroon were the first African team to have reached the quarter - finals. England opened the scoring through David Platt, but Cameroon quickly turned around the game to lead 2 - 1. Lineker subsequently won and scored a penalty in the 83rd minute to ensure the game went to extra time. He then scored a second penalty, to see England reach the semi-finals.
In the semi-finals, England met West Germany. There was no separating the two teams after 90 minutes, which made England the first team to have played extra time in three successive World Cup games. There was also no separating the two teams after extra time, thereby taking the game to penalties.
Although English goalkeeper Peter Shilton dived the right way for every penalty, he was unable to save any. German goalkeeper Bodo Illgner, having failed to save any of England 's first three penalties, saved England 's fourth penalty, taken by Stuart Pearce. Olaf Thon then scored for Germany, meaning that England 's Chris Waddle would have to score his fifth penalty and hope that Shilton saved the Germans ' fifth penalty. However, Waddle 's penalty missed completely, going high over the crossbar, thereby resulting in England 's being knocked out of the competition. The third - place playoff between England and Italy saw England lose their only game of the tournament in normal time. Even though this was England 's best finish since the 1966 World Cup, Bobby Robson 's time as England manager had come to an end.
For the 1994 World Cup in the United States, under the leadership of new manager Graham Taylor, England surprisingly did not qualify for the tournament. In a group with six teams, England lost to Norway and the Netherlands, finishing third above Poland, Turkey and San Marino.
England went into their final game with San Marino knowing they would need a seven - goal victory and for Poland to beat the Netherlands in the other match in order to qualify. In the game against San Marino, Davide Gualtieri scored against England after nine seconds, taking the lead for the outsiders. England went on to win 7 -- 1, which was too small a goal margin. Additionally, despite the half - time score between the Poles and the Dutch being 1 - 1, the Dutch went on to win 3 - 1, meaning that however many goals England scored, they could still not qualify. Taylor 's tenure in charge ended and he was replaced by Terry Venables, who was dismissed after England lost the semi-final of Euro 1996, hosted in England.
After missing out on the World Cup in 1994, England, managed by Glenn Hoddle, qualified for the World Cup in France. England were drawn in Group 2 of UEFA qualifying with Italy, Poland, Georgia and Moldova. England beat Poland, Georgia and Moldova both home and away, but a home defeat to Italy in their fourth match meant they went into the final qualifier at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome just a point ahead of the Azzurri and only needing a draw to qualify automatically; defeat would see them have to navigate a play - off to secure qualification. The match finished as a goalless draw and England finished top of the group.
At the finals in France, England played in Group G. England defeated Tunisia 2 -- 0 in the first game, with goals from Alan Shearer and Paul Scholes. Their second match saw England lose 2 -- 1 to Romania; despite an 81st - minute equaliser from Michael Owen, Dan Petrescu scored a winner shortly before injury time. In their final group game, England defeated Colombia 2 -- 0 in the decisive match, thanks to goals from midfielders Darren Anderton and David Beckham. England finished second in Group G, which saw them qualify for the last 16 phase, and play the winner of 1998 FIFA World Cup Group H, Argentina.
In a fiery game containing six yellow cards and two penalties, David Beckham was controversially sent off in the 47th minute for what many felt was at most a yellow card offence, knocking over Diego Simeone. Gabriel Batistuta opened the scoring from the penalty spot in the fifth minute of the game, before an equaliser also from the spot by Alan Shearer four minutes later. England took the lead through Owen, in the 16th minute. Argentina drew level through Javier Zanetti in injury time of the first half.
The game finished 2 - 2, and, as neither team were able to find a winner in extra time, penalties were needed to decide the team that qualified to the next round. While David Seaman did save one penalty, Argentine goalkeeper Carlos Roa managed to save two, including the vital one from David Batty, thereby knocking England out of the World Cup. Beckham subsequently received death threats and was sent bullets in the post.
In 2002 the World Cup took place in Asia for the first time. England, under its first ever foreign manager in Swedish Sven - Göran Eriksson, were able to qualify for the tournament. England were drawn in Group 9, alongside Germany, Finland, Greece and Albania. In the last ever game in the original Wembley Stadium, (which closed after the match) England played Germany, losing 1 -- 0, the only goal scored by Dietmar Hamann. The match was the last under the management of Kevin Keegan, who resigned at the end of the match, and was replaced by Eriksson. By beating Germany 5 -- 1 in Munich, England 's qualifying campaign was revitalised, and they qualified automatically, by drawing 2 -- 2 with Greece. Germany, who could only draw 0 -- 0 with Finland, had to play a play - off game against Ukraine, with England qualifying ahead winning the group.
In Japan, England had to play against Eriksson 's homeland, Sweden, and both settled out for a 1 -- 1 draw. England and Beckham gained a measure of revenge for their previous 1998 defeat in defeating Argentina 1 - 0, thanks to a Beckham penalty. However, England could only manage a disappointing 0 - 0 draw against Nigeria, meaning that although they were able to qualify for the second round, where they played Denmark, they qualified as runners up, which meant that they would meet favourites Brazil in the quarter - finals if they qualified.
England played Denmark in the round of 16 defeating Denmark 3 -- 0, thanks to goals from Micheal Owen, Rio Ferdinand, and Emile Heskey. England played four - time World Cup winners and 1998 runners - up Brazil in the quarter - finals. Despite leading through a Michael Owen goal, a mistake by David Seaman saw England lose 2 -- 1, and Brazil won their fourth World Cup match against England, and went on to win the tournament.
England were drawn into Group 6 of European qualifying for the 2006 World Cup. The group featured other home nations in Wales, and Northern Ireland, as well as Poland (who had eliminated England the last time the World Cup took place in Germany), Azerbaijan and Austria. England won eight of the 10 games, and qualified as group winners, in front of Portugal, despite drawing to Austria in Vienna, and losing to Northern Ireland in Belfast.
In Germany, however, England were less convincing. England played in Group B, alongside Paraguay, Trinidad and Tobago, and Sweden. England started with a 1 -- 0 win against Paraguay; which was won due to a 3rd minute own goal. The second game against first time qualifiers Trinidad and Tobago saw England have to wait until the 83rd minute for England to take the lead, with Peter Crouch opened the scoring with a goal many felt was illegal, and the second goal of the game coming in added time from Steven Gerrard. The last group game saw England play against Sweden, where an eventual 2 - 2 draw saw them qualify for the next round as group winners, thereby avoiding playing hosts Germany.
In the last 16 stage, a free kick from David Beckham saw England win 1 -- 0 against Ecuador and reach the quarter - finals, where they faced Portugal. The game finished goalless, and England once again were knocked out on penalties and Portuguese goalkeeper Ricardo became the first goalkeeper to save three penalties in a penalty shoot - out. Ricardo saved from Frank Lampard, Steven Gerrard, and Jamie Carragher; the only England player who successfully converted his penalty was Owen Hargreaves. Portugal won the shoot - out 3 - 1, despite misses from Petit and Hugo Viana. This game was also Erickson 's final match as England manager.
Qualification for the first African World Cup went successfully for new England manager Fabio Capello, after previous manager Steve McClaren was unable to secure qualification to the Euro 2008. By winning nine times and only losing to Ukraine, England qualified ahead of Croatia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Andorra. England 's group was seen as a favourable one, containing comparatively much weaker teams. However, England opened up their campaign with a 1 -- 1 draw against the United States, thanks to a major error by goalkeeper Robert Green. They then drew 0 -- 0 against Algeria and were booed off the field by their own fans, drawing the ire of striker Wayne Rooney. England eventually qualified for the next round by beating Slovenia 1 -- 0, but only qualified as runners up to the United States, thereby meaning they would draw favourites Germany.
In the second round match, Germany took the lead after 20 minutes after goalkeeper Manuel Neuer played the ball down the pitch to Miroslav Klose, who opened the scoring. The score became 2 -- 0 to Germany after 32 minutes. Shortly after, England defender Matthew Upson scored a header. Later, Frank Lampard had a shot at goal which was disallowed despite crossing the line; which was confirmed on replays. German goalkeeper Manuel Neuer admitted subsequently he knew the ball had crossed the line, but decided to deceive the referee. The German media reported it was "revenge for Wembley '', while the English media criticised FIFA 's refusal to implement goal - line technology. Ironically, despite his earlier opposition to goal - line technology, Sepp Blatter said that it should be introduced after a Ukrainian goal against England at Euro 2012 was ruled out. As England tried to equalise, Germany used this to their advantage and scored two more goals. This became Germany 's biggest win against England in a World Cup, winning 4 - 1.
Under Roy Hodgson, who replaced Fabio Capello after Euro 2012 after a disagreement between Capello and The FA, England qualified for the second World Cup to be held in Brazil. Ukraine were again one of the opponents in the qualifying rounds. The other opponents included Montenegro, Poland, Moldova and San Marino. After winning six games and drawing four, England qualified unbeaten.
The draw for the finals saw England have to play against Italy and Uruguay, both former world champions, which meant that it was the first ever time three World Champions were drawn in the same group, along with Costa Rica. England lost to Italy and Uruguay, and were thus knocked out after two games. The final match against Costa Rica finished as a goalless draw. This performance was statistically their worst ever performance at a World Cup, ending up with just one point after two losses to Uruguay and Italy and a goalless draw with Costa Rica in the dead rubber match, their lowest points total in the group stage of a world cup.
England played in UEFA Group F in qualification for the 2018 World Cup, in a group of six with Slovakia, Slovenia, Scotland, Lithuania and Malta, with only the winner of the group guaranteed qualification. England went into the qualification process under manager Sam Allardyce, only for Allardyce to leave the post after just one game due to controversy regarding discussing breaking FIFA rules.
Under Allardyce 's replacement, Gareth Southgate, England went undefeated throughout qualification, winning eight matches out of 10, drawing with Slovenia 0 -- 0 in Ljubljana, and drawing 2 -- 2 with Scotland in Glasgow thanks to a 90th - minute equaliser from Harry Kane. This was the third successive major tournament that England were undefeated, having been undefeated in 2014 World Cup, and Euro 2016 qualifying.
Under Gareth Southgate, the England team began their tournament in group G against Tunisia. The game started well for England with a goal from Harry Kane in the 11th minute. Tunisia equalised through Sassi from the penalty spot in the 35th minute following a foul by Kyle Walker. Some controversy followed as various potential offences against Harry Kane, inside the penalty area were ignored by the referee and no VAR checks were carried out. England persevered and scored a second goal in the 91st minute, again by Harry Kane, resulting in a 2 -- 1 victory.
In the second group stage match, England surpassed their record for goals scored in a World Cup match by beating Panama 6 - 1. Jesse Lingard scored the third goal, John Stones scored the first and fourth goals and Harry Kane scored a hat - trick with the second, fifth and sixth goals.
In the final group stage match, England narrowly lost 1 - 0 to Belgium. Adnan Januzaj scored the sole goal of the game; but with both teams having fielded reserve teams, with England specificially making 9 changes. Before the game media outlets stating that a loss could potentially become beneficial, as the winner would be in the half of the draw with four of the top seven sides in the world. The result that meant Belgium topped the group and England finished second, setting up a last 16 clash with Group H winners Colombia.
England played their last 16 match in the Otkritie Arena, Moscow, with the same team as against Tunisia. Harry Kane scored his sixth goal of the tournament, and the third penalty, after once again being fouled in the box from a corner, similarly as against Panama. The score remained at 1 - 0, until stoppage time, where a header from Yerry Mina beat Jordan Pickford in goal to bring the game to extra time. Neither team managed to score in extra time, and the match went to penalties, which England won 4 - 3. As well as being the first knockout match England had won at a major tournament since 2006 (last defeating Ecuador in the last 16); it was the first time England won a World Cup penalty shoot - out. The match was notable for the heated atmosphere the game was played in, with a total of eight yellow cards being shown in the match.
England played against Sweden in their quarter - final at Cosmos Arena, Samara on 7 July 2018. They won the match 2 -- 0, with defender Harry Maguire scoring his first England goal, a header scored from a corner, and Dele Alli a second header from close range. This would send them through to their third World Cup semi-final and their first since 1990, and third overall. The team played Croatia in the semi-final, resulting in a 2 -- 1 loss after extra time. England would later finish fourth in the competition, the best result since 1990. England would lose again to Belgium in the 3rd place playoff, thanks to goals from Thomas Meunier and Eden Hazard, despite a Eric Dier shot being cleared off the line by Toby Alderweireld.
The tournament would see England score nine goals from set - pieces -- the most by a team in a single World Cup tournament since 1966.
Last update: 14 July 2018
Current as of 3 July 2018 after the match against Colombia
Historically, very few English World Cup squad members were playing for a club in a foreign league at the time of their selection to the national squad.
Team Awards
Individual Awards
Team Records
Individual Records
Four FIFA World Cup finals were officiated by English referees, more than by any other football association. The first Englishman to officiate a final, George Reader, is also the oldest World Cup referee to date, as he was 53 years and 236 days old at the 1950 decisive match between Uruguay and Brazil. The other final referees are William Ling (1954), Jack Taylor (1974) and Howard Webb (2010).
Arthur Ellis, who was a linesman at the 1950 final, is part of an elite group of referees who has been called up for three consecutive World Cups (1950 -- 1958).
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what is the value of the sistine chapel | Sistine Chapel ceiling - wikipedia
The Sistine Chapel ceiling, painted by Michelangelo between 1508 and 1512, is a cornerstone work of High Renaissance art.
The ceiling is that of the Sistine Chapel, the large papal chapel built within the Vatican between 1477 and 1480 by Pope Sixtus IV, for whom the chapel is named. It was painted at the commission of Pope Julius II. The chapel is the location for papal conclaves and many other important services.
The ceiling 's various painted elements form part of a larger scheme of decoration within the Chapel, which includes the large fresco The Last Judgment on the sanctuary wall, also by Michelangelo, wall paintings by several leading painters of the late 15th century including Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Pietro Perugino, and a set of large tapestries by Raphael, the whole illustrating much of the doctrine of the Catholic Church.
Central to the ceiling decoration are nine scenes from the Book of Genesis of which The Creation of Adam is the best known, having an iconic standing equaled only by Leonardo da Vinci 's Mona Lisa, the hands of God and Adam being reproduced in countless imitations. The complex design includes several sets of individual figures, both clothed and nude, which allowed Michelangelo to fully demonstrate his skill in creating a huge variety of poses for the human figure and which have provided an enormously influential pattern book of models for other artists ever since.
Pope Julius II was a "warrior pope '' who in his papacy undertook an aggressive campaign for political control, to unite and empower Italy under the leadership of the Church. He invested in symbolism to display his temporal power, such as his procession, in the Classical manner, through a triumphal arch in a chariot after one of his many military victories. It was Julius who began the rebuilding of St. Peter 's Basilica in 1506, as the most potent symbol of the source of papal power.
In the same year 1506, Pope Julius conceived a program to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. The walls of the chapel had been decorated twenty years earlier. The lowest of three levels is painted to resemble draped hangings and was (and sometimes still is) hung on special occasions with the set of tapestries designed by Raphael. The middle level contains a complex scheme of frescoes illustrating the Life of Christ on the right side and the Life of Moses on the left side. It was carried out by some of the most renowned Renaissance painters: Botticelli, Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Pinturicchio, Signorelli and Cosimo Rosselli. The upper level of the walls contains the windows, between which are painted pairs of illusionistic niches with representations of the first thirty - two popes. A draft by Matteo d'Amelia indicates that the ceiling was painted blue like that of the Arena Chapel and decorated with gold stars, possibly representing the zodiacal constellations. It is probable that, because the chapel was the site of regular meetings and Masses of an elite body of officials known as the Papal Chapel who would observe the decorations and interpret their theological and temporal significance, it was Pope Julius ' intention and expectation that the iconography of the ceiling was to be read with many layers of meaning.
Michelangelo, who was not primarily a painter but a sculptor, was reluctant to take on the work. Also, he was occupied with a very large sculptural commission for the pope 's own tomb. The pope was adamant, leaving Michelangelo no choice but to accept. But a war with the French broke out, diverting the attention of the pope, and Michelangelo fled from Rome to continue sculpting. The tomb sculptures, however, were never to be finished because in 1508 the pope returned to Rome victorious and summoned Michelangelo to begin work on the ceiling. The contract was signed on 10 May 1508.
The scheme proposed by the pope was for twelve large figures of the Apostles to occupy the pendentives. However, Michelangelo negotiated for a grander, much more complex scheme and was finally permitted, in his own words, "to do as I liked ''. His scheme for the ceiling eventually comprised some three hundred figures and took four years to execute, being completed and shown to the public on All Saints Day in 1512 after a preliminary showing and papal Mass on August 14, 1511. It is unknown and is the subject of much speculation among art historians whether Michelangelo was really able to "do as he liked ''. It has been suggested that the Augustinian friar and cardinal, Giles of Viterbo, was a consultant for the theological aspect of the work. Many writers consider that Michelangelo had the intellect, the Biblical knowledge, and the powers of invention to have devised the scheme himself. This is supported by Ascanio Condivi 's statement that Michelangelo read and reread the Old Testament while he was painting the ceiling, drawing his inspiration from the words of the scripture, rather than from the established traditions of sacral art. A total of 343 figures were painted on the ceiling.
To reach the chapel 's ceiling, Michelangelo designed his own scaffold, a flat wooden platform on brackets built out from holes in the wall near the top of the windows, rather than being built up from the floor. Mancinelli speculates that this was in order to cut the cost of timber. According to Michelangelo 's pupil and biographer Ascanio Condivi, the brackets and frame that supported the steps and flooring were all put in place at the beginning of the work and a lightweight screen, possibly cloth, was suspended beneath them to catch plaster drips, dust, and splashes of paint. Only half the building was scaffolded at a time and the platform was moved as the painting was done in stages. The areas of the wall covered by the scaffolding still appear as unpainted areas across the bottom of the lunettes. The holes were re-used to hold scaffolding in the latest restoration.
Contrary to popular belief, he painted in a standing position, not lying on his back. According to Vasari, "The work was carried out in extremely uncomfortable conditions, from his having to work with his head tilted upwards ''. Michelangelo described his physical discomfort in a humorous sonnet accompanied by a little sketch.
The painting technique employed was fresco, in which the paint is applied to damp plaster. Michelangelo had been an apprentice in the workshop of Domenico Ghirlandaio, one of the most competent and prolific of Florentine fresco painters, at the time that the latter was employed on a fresco cycle at Santa Maria Novella and whose work was represented on the walls of the Sistine Chapel. At the outset, the plaster, intonaco, began to grow mold because it was too wet. Michelangelo had to remove it and start again. He then tried a new formula created by one of his assistants, Jacopo l'Indaco, which resisted mold and entered the Italian building tradition.
Because he was painting fresco, the plaster was laid in a new section every day, called a giornata. At the beginning of each session, the edges would be scraped away and a new area laid down. The edges between giornate remain slightly visible; thus, they give a good idea of how the work progressed. It was customary for fresco painters to use a full - sized detailed drawing, a cartoon, to transfer a design onto a plaster surface -- many frescoes show little holes made with a stiletto, outlining the figures. Here Michelangelo broke with convention; once confident the intonaco had been well applied, he drew directly onto the ceiling. His energetic sweeping outlines can be seen scraped into some of the surfaces, while on others a grid is evident, indicating that he enlarged directly onto the ceiling from a small drawing.
Michelangelo painted onto the damp plaster using a wash technique to apply broad areas of colour, then as the surface became drier, he revisited these areas with a more linear approach, adding shade and detail with a variety of brushes. For some textured surfaces, such as facial hair and woodgrain, he used a broad brush with bristles as sparse as a comb. He employed all the finest workshop methods and best innovations, combining them with a diversity of brushwork and breadth of skill far exceeding that of the meticulous Ghirlandaio.
The work commenced at the end of the building furthest from the altar, with the latest of the narrative scenes, and progressed towards the altar with the scenes of the Creation. The first three scenes, from the story of Noah, contain a much larger number of small figures than the later panels. This is partly because of the subject matter, which deals with the fate of Humanity, but also because all the figures at that end of the ceiling, including the prophets and Ignudi, are smaller than in the central section. As the scale got larger, Michelangelo 's style became broader, the final narrative scene of God in the act of Creation was painted in a single day.
The bright colours and broad, cleanly defined outlines make each subject easily visible from the floor. Despite the height of the ceiling, the proportions of the Creation of Adam are such that when standing beneath it, "it appears as if the viewer could simply raise a finger and meet those of God and Adam ''. Vasari tells us that the ceiling is "unfinished '', that its unveiling occurred before it could be reworked with gold leaf and vivid blue lapis lazuli as was customary with frescoes and in order to better link the ceiling with the walls below it which were highlighted with a great deal of gold. But this never took place, in part because Michelangelo was reluctant to set up the scaffolding again, and probably also because the gold and particularly the intense blue would have distracted from his painterly conception.
Some areas were, in fact, decorated with gold: the shields between the Ignudi and the columns between the Prophets and Sibyls. It seems very likely that the gilding of the shields was part of Michelangelo 's original scheme, since they are painted to resemble a certain type of parade shield, a number of which still exist and are decorated in a similar style with gold.
Section reference.
Michelangelo wrote a poem describing the arduous conditions under which he worked
The overt subject matter of the ceiling is the doctrine of humanity 's need for Salvation as offered by God through Jesus. It is a visual metaphor of Humankind 's need for a covenant with God. The Old Covenant of the Children of Israel through Moses and the New Covenant through Christ had already been represented around the walls of the chapel. Some experts, including Benjamin Blech and Vatican art historian Enrico Bruschini, have also noted less overt subject matter, which they describe as being "concealed '' and "forbidden. ''
The main components of the design are nine scenes from the Book of Genesis, of which five smaller ones are each framed and supported by four naked youths or Ignudi. At either end, and beneath the scenes are the figures of twelve men and women who prophesied the birth of Jesus. On the crescent - shaped areas, or lunettes, above each of the chapel 's windows are tablets listing the Ancestors of Christ and accompanying figures. Above them, in the triangular spandrels, a further eight groups of figures are shown, but these have not been identified with specific Biblical characters. The scheme is completed by four large corner pendentives, each illustrating a dramatic Biblical story.
The narrative elements of the ceiling illustrate that God made the World as a perfect creation and put humanity into it, that humanity fell into disgrace and was punished by death and by separation from God. Humanity then sank further into sin and disgrace, and was punished by the Great Flood. Through a lineage of Ancestors -- from Abraham to Joseph -- God sent the saviour of humanity, Christ Jesus. The coming of the Saviour was prophesied by Prophets of Israel and Sibyls of the Classical world. The various components of the ceiling are linked to this Christian doctrine. Traditionally, the Old Testament was perceived as a prefiguring of the New Testament. Many incidents and characters of the Old Testament were commonly understood as having a direct symbolic link to some particular aspect of the life of Jesus or to an important element of Christian doctrine or to a sacrament such as Baptism or the Eucharist. Jonah, for example, was readily recognisable by his attribute of the large fish and was commonly seen to symbolise Jesus ' death and resurrection.
While much of the symbolism of the ceiling dates from the early church, the ceiling also has elements that express the specifically Renaissance thinking that sought to reconcile Christian theology with the philosophy of Renaissance Humanism. During the 15th century in Italy, and in Florence in particular, there was a strong interest in Classical literature and the philosophies of Plato, Socrates and other Classical writers. Michelangelo, as a young man, had spent time at the Humanist academy established by the Medici family in Florence. He was familiar with early Humanist - inspired sculptural works such as Donatello 's bronze David and had himself responded by carving the enormous nude marble David, which was placed in the piazza near the Palazzo Vecchio, the home of Florence 's council. The Humanist vision of humanity was one in which people responded to other people, to social responsibility, and to God in a direct way, not through intermediaries, such as the Church. This conflicted with the Church 's emphasis. While the Church emphasized humanity as essentially sinful and flawed, Humanism emphasized humanity as potentially noble and beautiful. These two views were not necessarily irreconcilable to the Church, but only through a recognition that the unique way to achieve this "elevation of spirit, mind and body '' was through the Church as the agent of God. To be outside the Church was to be beyond Salvation. In the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, Michelangelo presented both Catholic and Humanist elements in a way that does not appear visually conflicting. The inclusion of "non-biblical '' figures such as the Sibyls or Ignudi is consistent with the rationalising of Humanist and Christian thought of the Renaissance. This rationalisation was to become a target of the Counter Reformation.
The iconography of the ceiling has had various interpretations in the past, some elements of which have been contradicted by modern scholarship. Others, such as the identity of the figures in the lunettes and spandrels, continue to defy interpretation. Modern scholars have sought, as yet unsuccessfully, to determine a written source of the theological program of the ceiling and have questioned whether or not it was entirely devised by the artist himself, who was both an avid reader of the Bible and a genius. Also of interest to some modern scholars is the question of how Michelangelo 's own spiritual and psychological state is reflected in the iconography and the expression of the ceiling. One such speculation is that Michelangelo was tormented by conflict between homosexual desires and passionate Christian beliefs.
The Sistine Chapel is 40.9 metres long and 14 metres wide. The ceiling rises to 13.4 metres above the main floor of the chapel. The vault is of quite a complex design and it is unlikely that it was originally intended to have such elaborate decoration. Pier Matteo d'Amelia provided a plan for its decoration with the architectural elements picked out and the ceiling painted blue and dotted with gold stars, similar to that of the Arena Chapel decorated by Giotto at Padua.
The chapel walls have three horizontal tiers with six windows in the upper tier down each side. There were also two windows at each end, but these have been closed up above the altar when Michelangelo 's Last Judgement was painted, obliterating two lunettes. Between the windows are large pendentives which support the vault. Between the pendentives are triangularly shaped arches or spandrels cut into the vault above each window. Above the height of the pendentives, the ceiling slopes gently without much deviation from the horizontal. This is the real architecture. Michelangelo has elaborated it with illusionary or fictive architecture.
The first element in the scheme of painted architecture is a definition of the real architectural elements by accentuating the lines where spandrels and pendentives intersect with the curving vault. Michelangelo painted these as decorative courses that look like sculpted stone moldings. These have two repeating motifs, a formula common in Classical architecture. Here, one motif is the acorn, the symbol of the family of both Pope Sixtus IV, who built the chapel, and Pope Julius II, who commissioned Michelangelo 's work. The other motif is the scallop shell, one of the symbols of the Madonna, to whose assumption the chapel was dedicated in 1483. The crown of the wall then rises above the spandrels, to a strongly projecting painted cornice that runs right around the ceiling, separating the pictorial areas of the biblical scenes from the figures of Prophets, Sibyls, and Ancestors, who literally and figuratively support the narratives. Ten broad painted crossribs of travertine cross the ceiling and divide it into alternately wide and narrow pictorial spaces, a grid that gives all the figures their defined place.
A great number of small figures are integrated with the painted architecture, their purpose apparently purely decorative. These include two faux marble putti below the cornice on each rib, each one a male and female pair; stone rams - heads are placed at the apex of each spandrel; copper - skinned nude figures in varying poses, hiding in the shadows, propped between the spandrels and the ribs like animated bookends; and more putti, both clothed and unclothed strike a variety of poses as they support the nameplates of the Prophets and Sibyls. Above the cornice and to either side of the smaller scenes are an array of round shields, or medaillons. They are framed by a total of twenty more figures, the so - called Ignudi, which are not part of the architecture but sit on inlaid plinths, their feet planted convincingly on the fictive cornice. Pictorially, the Ignudi appear to occupy a space between the narrative spaces and the space of the chapel itself. (see below)
Along the central section of the ceiling, Michelangelo depicted nine scenes from the Book of Genesis, the first book of the Bible. The pictures are organized into three groups of three alternating large and small panels.
The first group shows God creating the Heavens and the Earth. The second group shows God creating the first man and woman, Adam and Eve, and their disobedience of God and consequent expulsion from the Garden of Eden where they have lived and where they walked with God. The third group of three pictures shows the plight of Humanity and in particular the family of Noah.
The pictures are not in strictly chronological order. If they are perceived as three groups, then the pictures in each of the three units inform upon each other, in the same way as was usual in Medieval paintings and stained glass. The three sections of Creation, Downfall, and Fate of Humanity appear in reverse order, when read from the entrance of the chapel. However, each individual scene is painted to be viewed when looking toward the altar. This is not easily apparent when viewing a reproduced image of the ceiling but becomes clear when the viewer looks upward at the vault. Paoletti and Radke suggest that this reversed progression symbolises a return to a state of grace. However, the three sections are generally described in the order of Biblical chronology.
The scenes, from the altar toward the main door, are ordered as follows:
The three Creation pictures show scenes from the first chapter of Genesis, which relates that God created the Earth and all that is in it in six days, resting on the seventh day. In the first scene, the First Day of Creation, God creates light and separates light from darkness. Chronologically, the next scene takes place in the third panel, in which, on the Second Day, God divides the waters from the heavens. In the central panel, the largest of the three, there are two representations of God. On the Third Day, God creates the Earth and makes it sprout plants. On the Fourth Day, God puts the Sun and the Moon in place to govern the night and the day, the time and the seasons of the year. According to Genesis, on the Fifth Day, God created the birds of the air and fish and creatures of the deep, but we are not shown this. Neither do we see God 's creation of the creatures of the earth on the Sixth Day.
These three scenes, completed in the third stage of painting, are the most broadly conceived, the most broadly painted and the most dynamic of all the pictures. Of the first scene Vasari says "... Michelangelo depicted God dividing Light from Darkness, showing him in all his majesty as he rests self - sustained with arms outstretched, in a revelation of love and creative power. ''
For the central section of the ceiling, Michelangelo has taken four episodes from the story of Adam and Eve as told in the first, second and third chapters of Genesis. In this sequence of three, two of the panels are large and one small.
In the first of the pictures, and one of the most widely recognised images in the history of painting, Michelangelo shows God reaching out to touch Adam, who, in the words of Vasari, is "a figure whose beauty, pose and contours are such that it seems to have been fashioned that very moment by the first and supreme creator rather than by the drawing and brush of a mortal man. '' From beneath the sheltering arm of God, Eve looks out, a little apprehensively. The "glory '' of God, represented by a dark shaded area around him, has the same anatomical geometry as a human brain.
The central scene, of God creating Eve from the side of the sleeping Adam has been taken in its composition directly from another Creation sequence, the relief panels that surround the door of the Basilica of San Petronio, Bologna by Jacopo della Quercia whose work Michelangelo had studied in his youth.
In the final panel of this sequence Michelangelo combines two contrasting scenes into one panel, that of Adam and Eve taking fruit from the forbidden tree, Eve trustingly taking it from the hand of the Serpent and Adam eagerly picking it for himself; and their banishment from the Garden of Eden, where they have lived in the company of God, to the world outside where they have to fend for themselves and experience death.
As with the first sequence of pictures, the three panels concerning Noah, taken from the sixth to ninth chapters of Genesis are thematic rather than chronological. In the first scene is shown the sacrifice of a sheep. Vasari, in writing about this scene mistakes it for the sacrifices by Cain and Abel, in which Abel 's sacrifice was acceptable to God and Cain 's was not. What this image almost certainly depicts is the sacrifice made by the family of Noah, after their safe deliverance from the Great Flood which destroyed the rest of Humankind.
The central, larger, scene shows the Great Flood. The Ark in which Noah 's family escaped floats at the rear of the picture while the rest of humanity tries frantically to scramble to some point of safety. This picture, which has a large number of figures, conforms the most closely to the format of the paintings that had been done around the walls.
The final scene is the story of Noah 's drunkenness. After the Flood, Noah tills the soil and grows vines. He is shown doing so, in the background of the picture. He becomes drunk and inadvertently exposes himself. His youngest son, Ham, brings his two brothers Shem and Japheth to see the sight but they discreetly cover their father with a cloak. Ham is later cursed by Noah and told that the descendants of Ham 's son Canaan will serve Shem and Japheth 's descendants forever. Taken together, these three pictures serve to show that Humankind had moved a long way from God 's perfect creation. However, it is through Shem and his descendants, the Israelites, that Salvation will come to the world.
Since Michelangelo executed the nine Biblical scenes in reverse chronological order, some analyses of the frescoes of the vault commence with the Drunkenness of Noah. Tolnay 's Neoplatonic interpretation sees the story of Noah at the beginning and the act of Creation by God as the conclusion of the process of deificatio and the return from physical to spiritual being.
Adjacent to the smaller Biblical scenes and supported by the Ignudi are ten circular parade shields, sometimes described as being painted to resemble bronze. Known examples are actually of lacquered and gilt wood. Each is decorated with a picture drawn from the Old Testament or the Book of Maccabees from the Apocrypha.
The subjects are the more gruesome or shameful of Biblical episodes, the only exception seeming to be that of Elijah being swept up to Heaven in a Chariot of Fire, leaving his mantel to fall on Elisha. However, Elijah 's role as a prophet was one marked by accusation and warnings to repent, and the purpose of his translation into Heaven was traditionally seen as so that he might stand before God to condemn Israel for its sins. In four of the five most highly finished "medallions '' the space is crowded with figures in violent action, similar to Michelangelo 's cartoon for the Battle of Cascina.
The application of gold on the shields, in contrast to its absence on the rest of the ceiling, serves to link the ceiling to some extent with the frescoes around the walls. In the latter, gold leaf has been applied lavishly to many details and in some of the frescoes, notably those by Perugino, has been most expertly used not just to detail the robes but to highlight the folds by subtle graduation in the density of golden flecks. It is this technique that Michelangelo has picked up on and carried a step further, inspired also perhaps by the medallions that appear on a Roman triumphal arch in Botticelli 's episode from the Life of Moses, showing the Punishment of the Rebels.
The medallions represent:
Section references
On the five pendentives along each side and the two at either end, Michelangelo painted the largest figures on the ceiling: twelve people who prophesied or represented some aspect of the Coming of Christ. Of those twelve, seven were Prophets of Israel and were male. The remaining five were prophets of the Classical World, called Sibyls and were female. The prophet Jonah is placed above the altar and Zechariah at the further end. The other male and female figures alternate down each side, each being identified by an inscription on a painted marble panel supported by a putto.
The seven prophets of Israel chosen for depiction on the ceiling include the four so - called Major Prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel. Of the remaining twelve possibilities among the Minor Prophets, the three represented are Joel, Zechariah and Jonah. Although the prophets Joel and Zechariah are considered "minor '' because of the comparatively small number of pages that their prophecy occupies in the Bible, each one produced prophesies of profound significance.
They are often quoted, Joel for his "Your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, your elderly shall dream dreams and your youth shall see visions ''. These words are significant for Michelangelo 's decorative scheme, where women take their place among men and the youthful Daniel sits across from the brooding Jeremiah with his long white beard.
Zechariah prophesied, "Behold! Your King comes to you, humble and riding on a donkey ''. His place in the chapel is directly above the door through which the Pope is carried in procession on Palm Sunday, the day on which Jesus fulfilled the prophecy by riding into Jerusalem on a donkey and being proclaimed King.
Jonah is of symbolic and prophetic significance, which was commonly perceived and had been represented in countless works of art including manuscripts and stained glass windows. Through his reluctance to obey God, he was swallowed by a "mighty fish ''. He spent three days in its belly and was eventually spewed up on dry land where he went about God 's business. Jonah was thus seen as presaging Jesus, who having died by crucifixion, spent part of three days in a tomb and was raised on the third day. So, on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, Jonah, with the "great fish '' beside him and his eyes turned towards God the Creator, represents a "portent '' of the Passion and Resurrection of Christ. The Jonah figure placed right over the altar activated the Passion motif. "When Perugino 's altar painting was removed and... Last Judgement fresco came to cover the altar wall '', after at least twenty five years Michelangelo depicted Christ just below Jonah: not only for his role as precursor of Christ, Christianity and Christocentrism, but also because his powerful torsion of the body, bent backwards from the bust to the eyes and with his forefingers that now point the glorious Jesus to the characters of the ceiling, assumes a function of link between the Old and New Testament.
In Vasari 's description of the Prophets and Sibyls he is particularly high in his praise of the portrayal of Isaiah: "Anyone who studies this figure, copied so faithfully from nature, the true mother of the art of painting, will find a beautifully composed work capable of teaching in full measure all the precepts to be followed by a good painter. ''
The Sibyls were prophetic women who were resident at shrines or temples throughout the Classical World. The five depicted here are each said to have prophesied the birth of Christ. The Cumaean Sibyl, for example, is quoted by Virgil in his Fourth Eclogue as declaring that "a new progeny of Heaven '' would bring about a return of the "Golden Age ''. This was interpreted as referring to Jesus.
In Christian doctrine, Christ came not just to the Jews but also to the Gentiles. It was understood that, prior to the Birth of Christ, God prepared the world for his coming. To this purpose, God used Jews and Gentiles alike. Jesus would not have been born in Bethlehem (where it had been prophesied that his birth would take place), except for the fact that the pagan Roman Emperor Augustus decreed that there should be a census. Likewise, when Jesus was born, the announcement of his birth was made to rich and to poor, to mighty and to humble, to Jew and to Gentile. The Three Wise Men (the "Magi '' of the Bible) who sought out the infant King with precious gifts were pagan foreigners.
In the Roman Catholic Church, where there was an increasing interest in the remains of the city 's pagan past, where scholars turned from reading Medieval Church Latin to Classical Latin and the philosophies of the Classical world were studied along with the writings of St Augustine, the presence, in the Sistine Chapel of five pagan prophets is not surprising.
It is not known why Michelangelo selected the five particular Sibyls that were depicted, given that, as with the Minor Prophets, there were ten or twelve possibilities. It is suggested by John O'Malley that the choice was made for a wide geographic coverage, with the Sibyls coming from Africa, Asia, Greece and Ionia.
Vasari says of the Erythraean Sibyl "Many aspects of this figure are of exceptional loveliness: the expression of her face, her headdress and the arrangement of her draperies: and her arms, which are bared, are as beautiful as the rest. ''
In each corner of the chapel is a triangular pendentive filling the space between the walls and the arch of the vault and forming the spandrel above the windows nearest the corners. On these curving shapes Michelangelo has painted four scenes from Biblical stories that are associated with the salvation of Israel by four great male and female heroes of the Jews: Moses, Esther, David and Judith.
The first two stories were both seen in Medieval - and Renaissance theology as prefiguring the Crucifixion of Jesus. In the story of the Brazen Serpent, the people of Israel become dissatisfied and grumble at God. As punishment they receive a plague of venonous snakes. God offers the people relief by instructing Moses to make a snake of brass and set it up on a pole, the sight of which gives miraculous healing. Michelangelo chooses a crowded composition, depicting a dramatic mass of suffering men, women, and writhing snakes, separated from redeemed worshipers by the snake before an epiphanic light.
In the Book of Esther it is related that Haman, a public servant, plots to get Esther 's husband, the King of Persia, to slay all the Jewish people in his land. The King, who is going over his books during a sleepless night, realises something is amiss. Esther, discovering the plot, denounces Haman, and her husband orders his execution on a scaffold he has built. The King 's eunuchs promptly carry this out. Michelangelo shows Haman crucified with Esther looking at him from a doorway, the King giving orders in the background.
The other two stories, those of David and Judith, were often linked in Renaissance art, particularly by Florentine artists as they demonstrated the overthrow of tyrants, a popular subject in the Republic. In this image, the shepherd boy, David, has brought down the towering Goliath with his sling, but the giant is alive and is trying to rise as David forces his head down to chop it off.
The depiction of Judith and Holofernes has an equally gruesome detail. As Judith loads the enemy 's head onto a basket carried by her maid and covers it with a cloth, she looks towards the tent, apparently distracted by the limbs of the decapitated corpse flailing about.
There are obvious connections in the design of the Slaying of Holofernes and the Slaying of Haman at the opposite end of the chapel. Although in the Holofernes picture the figures are smaller and the space less filled, both have the triangular space divided into two zones by a vertical wall, allowing us to see what is happening on both sides of it. There are actually three scenes in the Haman picture because as well as seeing Haman punished, we see him at the table with Esther and the King and get a view of the King on his bed. Mordechai sits on the steps, making a link between the scenes.
While the Slaying of Goliath is a relatively simple composition with the two protagonists centrally placed and the only other figures being dimly seen observers, the Brazen Serpent picture is crowded with figures and separate incidents as the various individuals who have been attacked by snakes struggle and die or turn toward the icon that will save them. This is the most Mannerist of Michelangelo 's earlier compositions at the Sistine Chapel, picking up the theme of human distress begun in the Great Flood scene and carrying it forward into the torment of lost souls in the Last Judgement, which was later painted below.
Between the large pendentives that support the vault are windows, six on each side of the chapel. There were two more windows in each end of the chapel, now closed, and those above the High Altar covered by the Last Judgement. Above each window is an arched shape, referred to as a lunette and above eight of the lunettes at the sides of the chapel are triangular spandrels filling the spaces between the side pendentives and the vault, the other eight lunettes each being below one of the corner pendentives.
Michelangelo was commissioned to paint these areas as part of the work on the ceiling. The structures form visual bridges between the walls and the ceiling, and the figures which are painted on them are midway in size (approximately 2 metres high) between the very large prophets and the much smaller figures of Popes which had been painted to either side of each window in the 15th century. Michelangelo chose the Ancestors of Christ as the subject of these images, thus portraying Jesus ' physical lineage, while the papal portraits are his spiritual successors, according to Church doctrine. (see gallery)
Centrally placed above each window is a faux marble tablet with a decorative frame. On each is painted the names of the male line by which Jesus, through his Earthly father, Joseph, is descended from Abraham, according to the Gospel of Matthew. However, the genealogy is now incomplete, since the two lunettes of the windows in the Altar wall were destroyed by Michelangelo when he returned to the Sistine Chapel in 1537 to paint The Last Judgment. Only engravings, based on a drawing that has since been lost, remain of them. The sequence of tablets seems a little erratic as one plaque has four names, most have three or two, and two plaques have only one. Moreover, the progression moves from one side of the building to the other, but not consistently, and the figures the lunettes contain do not coincide closely with the listed names. These figures vaguely suggest various family relationships; most lunettes contain one or more infants, and many depict a man and a woman, often sitting on opposing sides of the painted plaque that separates them. O'Malley describes them as "simply representative figures, almost ciphers ''.
There is also an indeterminate relationship between the figures in the spandrels and the lunettes beneath them. Because of the constraints of the triangular shape, in each spandrel the figures are seated on the ground. In six of the eight spandrels the compositions resemble traditional depictions of the Flight into Egypt. Of the two remaining, one shows a woman with shears trimming the neck of a garment she is making while her toddler looks on. The Biblical woman who is recorded as making a new garment for her child is Hannah, the mother of Samuel, whose child went to live in the temple, and indeed, the male figure in the background is wearing a distinctive hat that might suggest that of a priest. The other figure who differs from the rest is a young woman who sits staring out of the picture with prophetic intensity. Her open eyes have been closed in the restoration.
Section References
Michelangelo 's depiction of the Genealogy of Jesus departs from an artistic tradition for this topic that was common in medieval times, especially in stained - glass windows. This so - called Jesse Tree shows Jesse lying prone and a tree growing from his side with the ancestors on each branch, in a visual treatment of a biblical verse.
The figures in the lunettes appear to be families, but in every case they are families that are divided. The figures in them are physically divided by the name tablet but they are also divided by a range of human emotions that turn them outward or in on themselves and sometimes towards their partner with jealousy, suspicion, rage or simply boredom. In them Michelangelo has portrayed the anger and unhappiness of the human condition, painting "the daily round of merely domestic life as if it were a curse ''. In their constraining niches, the ancestors "sit, squat and wait ''. Of the fourteen lunettes, the two that were probably painted first, the families of Eleazar and Mathan and of Jacob and Joseph are the most detailed. They become progressively broader towards the altar end, one of the last being painted in only two days.
The Eleazar and Mathan picture contains two figures with a wealth of costume detail that is not present in any other lunette. The female to the left has had as much care taken with her clothing as any of the Sibyls. Her skirt is turned back showing her linen petticoat and the garter that holds up her mauve stockings and cuts into the flesh. She has a reticule and her dress is laced up under the arms. On the other side of the tablet sits the only male figure among those on the lunettes who is intrinsically beautiful. This blonde young man, elegantly dressed in white shirt and pale green hose, with no jerkin but a red cloak, postures with an insipid and vain gesture, in contrast to the Ignudi which he closely resembles.
Prior to restoration, of all the paintings in the Sistine Chapel, the lunettes and spandrels were the dirtiest. Added to this, there has always been a problem of poor daytime visibility of the panels nearest the windows because of halination. Consequently, they were the least well known of all Michelangelo 's publicly accessible works. The recent restoration has made these masterly studies of human nature and inventive depiction of the human form known once more.
Section References
(For images, see gallery)
The Ignudi are the 20 athletic, nude males that Michelangelo painted as supporting figures at each corner of the five smaller narrative scenes that run along the centre of the ceiling. The figures hold or are draped with or lean on a variety of items which include pink ribbons, green bolsters and enormous garlands of acorns.
The Ignudi, although all seated, are less physically constrained than the Ancestors of Christ. While the pairs of the monochrome male and female figures above the spandrels are mirrors of each other, these Ignudi are all different. In the earliest paintings, they are paired, their poses being similar but with variation. These variations become greater with each pair until the postures of the final four bear no relation to each other whatsoever.
The meaning of these figures has never been clear. They are certainly in keeping with the Humanist acceptance of the classical Greek view that "the man is the measure of all things ''. But Michelangelo knew the Bible well. He would have been well aware of the fact that although seraphim and cherubim are described as being winged creatures, they are described as looking like men. When Michelangelo later painted the altar wall of the chapel, he included a great number of angels, particularly in the lunettes which are decorated with scenes of angels carrying the symbols of the Passion. Other angels are employed sounding the trumpets which call forth the dead, displaying books in which the names of the saved and the damned are written and casting sinners down to Hell. In all, the Last Judgement contains more than forty angels, all closely resembling the Ignudi. It is reasonable to conclude that the Ignudi represent angels. If the Ignudi are indeed angels, they are the ever - present attendants and messengers of God, impassively watching and waiting on the fate of Humankind.
Their painting demonstrates, more than any other figures on the ceiling, Michelangelo 's mastery of anatomy and foreshortening and his enormous powers of invention. In their reflection of classical antiquity they resonate with Pope Julius ' aspirations to lead Italy towards a new ' age of gold '; at the same time, they staked Michelangelo 's claim to greatness. However, a number of critics were angered by their presence and nudity, including Pope Adrian VI who wanted the ceiling stripped.
Michelangelo was the artistic heir to the great 15th - century sculptors and painters of Florence. He learned his trade first under the direction of a masterly fresco painter, Domenico Ghirlandaio, known for two great fresco cycles in the Sassetti Chapel and Tornabuoni Chapel, and for his contribution to the cycle of paintings on the walls of the Sistine Chapel. As a student Michelangelo studied and drew from the works of the two most renowned Florentine fresco painters of the early Renaissance, Giotto and Masaccio. Masaccio 's figures of Adam and Eve being expelled from the Garden of Eden had a profound effect on the depiction of the nude in general, and in particular on the use of the nude figure to convey human emotion. Helen Gardner says that in the hands of Michelangelo "the body is simply the manifestation of the soul, or of a state of mind and character ''.
Michelangelo was also almost certainly influenced by the paintings of Luca Signorelli whose paintings, particularly the Death and Resurrection Cycle in Orvieto Cathedral contain a great number of nudes and inventive figurative compositions. In Bologna, Michelangelo saw the relief sculptures of Jacopo della Quercia around the doors of the cathedral. In Michelangelo 's depiction of the Creation of Eve the whole composition, the form of the figures and the relatively conservative concept of the relationship between Eve and her Creator adheres closely to Jacopo 's design. Other panels on the ceiling, most particularly the iconic Creation of Adam show "... unprecedented invention ''.
The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel was to have a profound effect upon other artists, even before it was completed. Vasari, in his Life of Raphael, tells us that Bramante, who had the keys to the chapel, let Raphael in to examine the paintings in Michelangelo 's absence. On seeing Michelangelo 's prophets, Raphael went back to the picture of the Prophet Isaiah that he was painting on a column in the Church of Sant'Agostino and, according to Vasari, although it was finished, he scraped it off the wall and repainted it in a much more powerful manner, in imitation of Michelangelo. John O'Malley points out that even earlier than the Isaiah is Raphael 's inclusion of the figure of Heraclitus in the School of Athens, a brooding figure similar to Michelangelo 's Jeremiah, but with the countenace of Michelangelo himself, and leaning on a block of marble.
There was hardly a design element on the ceiling that was not subsequently imitated: the fictive architecture, the muscular anatomy, the foreshortening, the dynamic motion, the luminous colouration, the haunting expressions of the figures in the lunettes, the abundance of putti. Gabriele Bartz and Eberhard König have said of the Ignudi, "There is no image that has had a more lasting effect on following generations than this. Henceforth similar figures disported themselves in innumerable decorative works, be they painted, formed in stucco or even sculpted. ''
Within Michelangelo 's own work, the chapel ceiling led to the later and more Mannerist painting of the Last Judgement in which the crowded compositions gave full rein to his inventiveness in painting contorted and foreshortened figures expressing despair or jubilation. Among the artists in whose work can be seen the direct influence of Michelangelo are Pontormo, Andrea del Sarto, Correggio, Tintoretto, Annibale Carracci, Paolo Veronese and El Greco.
In January 2007, it was claimed that as many as 10,000 visitors passed through the Vatican Museums in a day and that the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel is the biggest attraction. The Vatican, anxious at the possibility that the newly restored frescoes will suffer damage, announced plans to reduce visiting hours and raise the price in an attempt to discourage visitors.
Five hundred years earlier Vasari had said "The whole world came running when the vault was revealed, and the sight of it was enough to reduce them to stunned silence. ''
The frescoes of the Sistine Chapel were restored between June 1980 and December 1999, with preliminary tests taking place in 1979.
The first stage of restoration, the work upon Michelangelo 's lunettes, was achieved in October 1984. The work then proceeded on the ceiling, completed December 1989 and from there to the Last Judgement. The restoration was unveiled by Pope John Paul II on 8 April 1994. The restoration team comprised Gianluigi Colalucci, Maurizio Rossi, Piergiorgio Bonetti, Bruno Baratti and others. The final stage was the restoration of the wall frescoes by Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Perugino and others, This was unveiled on 11 December 1999.
The colours, which now appear so fresh and spring - like with pale pink, apple green, vivid yellow and sky blue against a background of warm pearly grey, were so discoloured by candle smoke as to make the pictures seem almost monochrome. The restoration has removed the filter of grime to reveal the colours again. However, the restoration was met with both praise and criticism. Critics assert that much original work by Michelangelo -- in particular pentimenti, highlights and shadows, and other detailing painted a secco -- was lost in the removal of various accretions.
Vasari
Johann Wolfgang Goethe
Waldemar Januszczak The art critic and television producer Waldemar Januszczak wrote that when the Sistine Chapel ceiling was recently cleaned, he "was able to persuade the man at the Vatican who was in charge of Japanese TV access to let me climb the scaffold while the cleaning was in progress. ''
Gabriele Bartz and Eberhard König
Pope John Paul II
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who brought stability to japan as it changed to a modern country | Economic History of Japan - wikipedia
The economic history of Japan is most studied for the spectacular social and economic growth in the 1800s after the Meiji Restoration, when it became the first non-European great power, and for its expansion after the Second World War, when Japan recovered from devastation to become the world 's second largest economy behind the United States, and from 2013 behind China as well. Scholars have evaluated the nation 's unique economic position during the Cold War, with exports going to both U.S. - and Soviet - aligned powers, and have taken keen interest in the situation of the post-Cold War period of the Japanese "lost decades ''.
Renaissance Europeans were quite admiring of Japan when they reached the country in the 16th century. Japan was considered a country immensely rich in precious metals, a view that owed its conception mainly to Marco Polo 's accounts of gilded temples and palaces, but also due to the relative abundance of surface ores characteristic of a volcanic country, before large - scale deep - mining became possible in Industrial times. Japan was to become a major exporter of copper and silver during the period.
Japan was also perceived as a sophisticated feudal society with a high culture and advanced pre-industrial technology. It was densely populated and urbanized. Prominent European observers of the time seemed to agree that the Japanese "excel not only all the other Oriental peoples, they surpass the Europeans as well '' (Alessandro Valignano, 1584, "Historia del Principo y Progresso de la Compania de Jesus en las Indias Orientales).
Early European visitors were amazed by the quality of Japanese craftsmanship and metalsmithing. This stems from the fact that Japan itself is rather poor in natural resources found commonly in Europe, especially iron. Thus, the Japanese were famously frugal with their consumable resources; what little they had they used with expert skill.
The cargo of the first Portuguese ships (usually about four small ships every year) that arrived in Japan consisted almost entirely of Chinese goods (silk, porcelain). The Japanese were very much looking forward to acquiring such goods, but had been prohibited from any contacts with the Emperor of China, as a punishment for Wakō pirate raids. The Portuguese (who were called Nanban, lit. Southern Barbarians) therefore found the opportunity to act as intermediaries in Asian trade.
From the time of the acquisition of Macau in 1557, and their formal recognition as trade partners by the Chinese, the Portuguese started to regulate trade to Japan, by selling to the highest bidder the annual "Captaincy '' to Japan, in effect conferring exclusive trading rights for a single carrack bound for Japan every year. The carracks were very large ships, usually between 1000 and 1500 tons, about double or triple the size of a large galleon or junk.
That trade continued with few interruptions until 1638, when it was prohibited on the ground that the ships were smuggling priests into Japan.
Portuguese trade was progressively more and more challenged by Chinese smugglers on junks, Japanese Red Seal Ships from around 1592 (about ten ships per year), Spanish ships from Manila from around 1600 (about one ship per year), the Dutch from 1609, and the English from 1613 (about one ship per year).
The Dutch, who, rather than "Nanban '' were called "Kōmō '' (Jp: 紅 毛, lit. "Red Hair '') by the Japanese, first arrived in Japan in 1600, on board the Liefde. Their pilot was William Adams, the first Englishman to reach Japan. In 1605, two of the Liefde 's crew were sent to Pattani by Tokugawa Ieyasu, to invite Dutch trade to Japan. The head of the Pattani Dutch trading post, Victor Sprinckel, refused on the ground that he was too busy dealing with Portuguese opposition in Southeast Asia. In 1609 however, the Dutch Jacques Specx arrived with two ships in Hirado, and through Adams obtained trading privileges from Ieyasu.
The Dutch also engaged in piracy and naval combat to weaken Portuguese and Spanish shipping in the Pacific, and ultimately became the only westerners to be allowed access to Japan from the small enclave of Dejima after 1638 and for the next two centuries.
The beginning of the Edo period coincides with the last decades of the Nanban trade period, during which intense interaction with European powers, on the economic and religious plane, took place. At the beginning of the Edo period, Japan built her first ocean - going Western - style warships, such as the San Juan Bautista, a 500 - ton galleon - type ship that transported a Japanese embassy headed by Hasekura Tsunenaga to the Americas, and then continued to Europe. Also during that period, the bakufu commissioned around 350 Red Seal Ships, three - masted and armed trade ships, for intra-Asian commerce. Japanese adventurers, such as Yamada Nagamasa, were active throughout Asia.
In order to eradicate the influence of Christianization, Japan entered in a period of isolation called sakoku, during which its economy enjoyed stability and mild progress.
Economic development during the Edo period included urbanization, increased shipping of commodities, a significant expansion of domestic and, initially, foreign commerce, and a diffusion of trade and handicraft industries. The construction trades flourished, along with banking facilities and merchant associations. Increasingly, han authorities oversaw the rising agricultural production and the spread of rural handicrafts.
By the mid-18th century, Edo had a population of more than 1 million and Osaka and Kyoto each had more than 400,000 inhabitants. Many other castle towns grew as well. Osaka and Kyoto became busy trading and handicraft production centers, while Edo was the center for the supply of food and essential urban consumer goods.
Rice was the base of the economy, as the daimyo collected the taxes from the peasants in the form of rice. Taxes were high, about 40 % of the harvest. The rice was sold at the fudasashi market in Edo. To raise money, the daimyo used forward contracts to sell rice that was not yet harvested. These contracts were similar to modern futures trading.
During the period, Japan progressively studied Western sciences and techniques (called rangaku, literally "Dutch studies '') through the information and books received through the Dutch traders in Dejima. The main areas that were studied included geography, medicine, natural sciences, astronomy, art, languages, physical sciences such as the study of electrical phenomena, and mechanical sciences as exemplified by the development of Japanese clockwatches, or wadokei, inspired from Western techniques.
After 1854, when the Tokugawa shogunate first opened the country to Western commerce and influence (Bakumatsu), Japan went through two periods of economic development. When the Tokugawa shogunate was overthrown and the Meiji government was founded, Japanese Westernization began completely. The first term is during Pre-war Japan, the second term is Post-war Japan.
The industrial revolution first appeared in textiles, including cotton and especially silk, which was based in home workshops in rural areas. By the 1890s, Japanese textiles dominated the home markets and competed successfully with British products in China and India, as well. Japanese shippers were competing with European traders to carry these goods across Asia and even to Europe. As in the West, the textile mills employed mainly women, half of them under age twenty. They were sent there by their fathers, and they turned over their wages to their fathers. Japan largely skipped water power and moved straight to steam powered mills, which were more productive, and which created a demand for coal.
One of the biggest impacts on the economy that the Meiji period brought was the end of the feudal system. With a relatively loose social structure, the Japanese people were able to advance through the ranks of society more easily than before. They were able to do this by inventing and selling their own wares. More important was the fact that the Japanese people now had the ability to become more educated. With a more educated population, Japan 's industrial sector grew significantly. Implementing the Western ideal of capitalism into the development of technology and applying it to their military helped make Japan into both a militaristic and economic powerhouse by the beginning of the 20th century.
In the Meiji period, leaders inaugurated a new Western - based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to the United States and Europe, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan (O - yatoi gaikokujin). The government also built railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform program to prepare the country for further development.
To promote industrialization, the government decided that, while it should help private business to allocate resources and to plan, the private sector was best equipped to stimulate economic growth. The greatest role of government was to help provide the economic conditions in which business could flourish. In short, government was to be the guide, and business the producer. In the early Meiji period, the government built factories and shipyards that were sold to entrepreneurs at a fraction of their value. Many of these businesses grew rapidly into the larger conglomerates. Government emerged as chief promoter of private enterprise, enacting a series of pro-business policies.
The development of banking and reliance on bank funding have been at the centre of Japanese economic development at least since the Meiji era.
In the mid-1930s, the Japanese nominal wage rates were a tenth of those in the United States (based on mid-1930s exchange rates), while the price level is estimated to have been about 44 % that of the US.
Comparison of GDP per capita (US Dollars) between East - Asian Nations and the US in 1935:
Before World War II, Japan built an extensive empire that included Taiwan, Korea, Manchuria, and parts of northern China. The Japanese regarded this sphere of influence as a political and economic necessity, preventing foreign states from strangling Japan by blocking its access to raw materials and crucial sea - lanes, as Japan possessed very few natural and mining resources of its own, although it imported large amounts of coal from Korea, Manchukuo, and some regions of occupied China. Japan 's large military force was regarded as essential to the empire 's defense.
Rapid growth and structural change characterized Japan 's two periods of economic development since 1868. In the first period, the economy grew only moderately at first and relied heavily on traditional agriculture to finance modern industrial infrastructure. When the Russo - Japanese War began in 1904, 65 % of employment and 38 % of the gross domestic product (GDP) was still based on agriculture but modern industry had begun to expand substantially. During World War I, Japan used the absence of the war - torn European competitors on the world market to advance its economy, generating a trade surplus for the first time since the isolation in the Edo period. By the late 1920s, manufacturing and mining contributed 23 % of GDP, compared with 21 % for all of agriculture. Transportation and communications had developed to sustain heavy industrial development.
In the 1930s, the Japanese economy suffered less from the Great Depression than most industrialized nations, its GDP expanding at the rapid rate of 5 % per year. Manufacturing and mining came to account for more than 30 % of GDP, more than twice the value for the agricultural sector. Most industrial growth, however, was geared toward expanding the nation 's military power.
Beginning in 1937 with significant land seizures in China, and to a greater extent after 1941, when annexations and invasions across Southeast Asia and the Pacific created the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, the Japanese government sought to acquire and develop critical natural resources in order to secure economic independence. Among the natural resources that Japan seized and developed were: coal in China, sugarcane in the Philippines, petroleum from the Dutch East Indies and Burma, and tin and bauxite from the Dutch East Indies and Malaya. Japan also purchased the rice production of Thailand, Burma, and Cochinchina.
During the early stages of Japan 's expansion, the Japanese economy expanded considerably. Steel production rose from 6,442,000 tonnes to 8,838,000 tonnes over the same time period. In 1941 Japanese aircraft industries had the capacity to manufacture 10,000 aircraft per year. Much of this economic expansion benefited the "zaibatsu '', large industrial conglomerates.
Over the course of the Pacific War, the economies of Japan and its occupied territories all suffered severely. Inflation was rampant; Japanese heavy industry, forced to devote nearly all its production to meeting military needs, was unable to meet the commercial requirements of Japan (which had previously relied on trade with Western countries for their manufactured goods). Local industries were unable to produce at high enough levels to avoid severe shortfalls. Furthermore, maritime trade, upon which the Empire depended greatly, was sharply curtailed by damage to the Japanese merchant fleet over the course of the war.
By the end of the war, what remained of the Japanese Empire was wracked by shortages, inflation, and currency devaluation. Transport was nearly impossible, and industrial production in Japan 's shattered cities ground to a halt. The destruction wrought by the war eventually brought the Japanese economy to a virtual standstill.
The war wiped out many of the gains which Japan had made since 1868. About 40 % of the nation 's industrial plants and infrastructure were destroyed, and production reverted to levels of about fifteen years earlier. The people were shocked by the devastation and swung into action. New factories were equipped with the best modern machines, giving Japan an initial competitive advantage over the victor states, who now had older factories. As Japan 's second period of economic development began, millions of former soldiers joined a well - disciplined and highly educated work force to rebuild Japan. Japan 's colonies were lost as a result of World War II, but since then the Japanese had extended their economic influence throughout Asia and beyond.
The United States ' occupation of Japan (1945 -- 52) resulted in the rebuilding of the nation and the creation of a democratic nation. US assistance totaled about US $1.9 billion during the occupation, or about 15 % of the nation 's imports and 4 % of GNP in that period. About 59 % of this aid was in the form of food, 15 % in industrial materials, and 12 % in transportation equipment. US grant assistance, however, tapered off quickly in the mid-1950s. US military procurement from Japan peaked at a level equivalent to 7 % of Japan 's GNP in 1953 and fell below 1 % after 1960. A variety of United States - sponsored measures during the occupation, such as land reform, contributed to the economy 's later performance by increasing competition. In particular, the post-war purge of industrial leaders allowed new talent to rise in the management of the nation 's rebuilt industries. Finally, the economy benefited from foreign trade because it was able to expand exports rapidly enough to pay for imports of equipment and technology without falling into debt, as had a number of developing nations in the 1980s.
A 2018 study, using the synthetic control method whereby Japan is compared to "synthetic Japan '' (a combination of which are similar to Japan but without the US alliance), attributed Japan 's economic miracle in the period 1958 - 1968 to the US alliance.
The early post-war years were devoted to rebuilding lost industrial capacity: major investments were made in electric power, coal, steel, and chemicals. By the mid-1950s, production matched prewar levels. Released from the demands of military - dominated government, the economy not only recovered its lost momentum but also surpassed the growth rates of earlier periods. Between 1953 and 1965, GDP expanded by more than 9 % per year, manufacturing and mining by 13 %, construction by 11 %, and infrastructure by 12 %. In 1965 these sectors employed more than 41 % of the labor force, whereas only 26 % remained in agriculture.
Japan 's highly acclaimed post-war education system contributed strongly to the modernizing process. The world 's highest literacy rate and high education standards were major reasons for Japan 's success in achieving a technologically advanced economy. Japanese schools also encouraged discipline, another benefit in forming an effective work force.
The mid-1960s ushered in a new type of industrial development as the economy opened itself to international competition in some industries and developed heavy and chemical manufactures. Whereas textiles and light manufactures maintained their profitability internationally, other products, such as automobiles, electronics, ships, and machine tools assumed new importance. The value added to manufacturing and mining grew at the rate of 17 % per year between 1965 and 1970. Growth rates moderated to about 8 % and evened out between the industrial and service sectors between 1970 and 1973, as retail trade, finance, real estate, information technology, and other service industries streamlined their operations.
Japan faced a severe economic challenge in the mid-1970s. The 1973 oil crisis shocked an economy that had become dependent on imported petroleum. Japan experienced its first post-war decline in industrial production, together with severe price inflation. The recovery that followed the first oil crisis revived the optimism of most business leaders, but the maintenance of industrial growth in the face of high energy costs required shifts in the industrial structure.
Changing price conditions favored conservation and alternative sources of industrial energy. Although the investment costs were high, many energy - intensive industries successfully reduced their dependence on oil during the late 1970s and 1980s and enhanced their productivity. Advances in microcircuitry and semiconductors in the late 1970s and 1980s led to new growth industries in consumer electronics and computers, and to higher productivity in pre-established industries. The net result of these adjustments was to increase the energy efficiency of manufacturing and to expand knowledge - intensive industries. The service industries expanded in an increasingly postindustrial economy.
Structural economic changes, however, were unable to check the slowing of economic growth as the economy matured in the late 1970s and 1980s, attaining annual growth rates at only 4 -- 6 %. But these rates were remarkable in a world of expensive petroleum and in a nation of few natural resources. Japan 's average growth rate of 5 % in the late 1980s, for example, was far higher than the 3.8 % growth rate of the United States. Despite more petroleum price increases in 1979, the strength of the Japanese economy was apparent. It expanded without the double - digit inflation that afflicted other industrial nations (and that had bothered Japan itself after the first oil crisis in 1973). Japan experienced slower growth in the mid-1980s, but its demand - sustained economic boom of the late 1980s revived many troubled industries.
Complex economic and institutional factors affected Japan 's post-war growth. First, the nation 's prewar experience provided several important legacies. The Tokugawa period (1600 -- 1867) bequeathed a vital commercial sector in burgeoning urban centers, a relatively well - educated elite (although one with limited knowledge of European science), a sophisticated government bureaucracy, productive agriculture, a closely unified nation with highly developed financial and marketing systems, and a national infrastructure of roads. The buildup of industry during the Meiji period to the point where Japan could vie for world power was an important prelude to post-war growth from 1955 to 1973, and provided a pool of experienced labor.
Second, and more important, was the level and quality of investment that persisted through the 1980s. Investment in capital equipment, which averaged more than 11 % of GNP during the prewar period, rose to about 20 % of GNP during the 1950s and to more than 30 % in the late 1960s and 1970s. During the economic boom of the late 1980s, the rate still hovered around 20 %. Japanese businesses imported the latest technologies to develop the industrial base. As a latecomer to modernization, Japan was able to avoid some of the trial and error earlier needed by other nations to develop industrial processes. In the 1970s and 1980s, Japan improved its industrial base through licensing from the US, patent purchases, and imitation and improvement of foreign inventions. In the 1980s, industry stepped up its research and development, and many firms became famous for their innovations and creativity.
Japan 's labor force contributed significantly to economic growth, because of its availability and literacy, and also because of its reasonable wage demands. Before and immediately after World War II, the transfer of numerous agricultural workers to modern industry resulted in rising productivity and only moderate wage increases. As population growth slowed and the nation became increasingly industrialized in the mid-1960s, wages rose significantly. However, labor union cooperation generally kept salary increases within the range of gains in productivity.
High productivity growth played a key role in post-war economic growth. The highly skilled and educated labor force, extraordinary savings rates and accompanying levels of investment, and the low growth of Japan 's labor force were major factors in the high rate of productivity growth.
The nation also benefited from economies of scale. Although medium - sized and small enterprises generated much of the nation 's employment, large facilities were the most productive. Many industrial enterprises consolidated to form larger, more efficient units. Before World War II, large holding companies formed wealth groups, or zaibatsu, which dominated most industry. The zaibatsu were dissolved after the war, but keiretsu -- large, modern industrial enterprise groupings -- emerged. The coordination of activities within these groupings and the integration of smaller subcontractors into the groups enhanced industrial efficiency.
Japanese corporations developed strategies that contributed to their immense growth. Growth - oriented corporations that took chances competed successfully. Product diversification became an essential ingredient of the growth patterns of many keiretsu. Japanese companies added plant and human capacity ahead of demand. Seeking market share rather than quick profit was another powerful strategy.
Finally, circumstances beyond Japan 's direct control contributed to its success. International conflicts tended to stimulate the Japanese economy until the devastation at the end of World War II. The Russo - Japanese War (1904 -- 05), World War I (1914 -- 18), the Korean War (1950 -- 53), and the Second Indochina War (1954 -- 75) brought economic booms to Japan. In addition, benign treatment from the United States after World War II facilitated the nation 's reconstruction and growth.
As late as 1955, some 40 % of the labor force still worked in agriculture, but this figure had declined to 17 % by 1970 and to 7.2 % by 1990 and under 5 % in the 21st century as Japan imported more and more of its food and small family farms disappeared.
Japan 's economic growth in the 1960s and 1970s was based on the rapid expansion of heavy manufacturing in such areas as automobiles, steel, shipbuilding, chemicals, and electronics. The secondary sector (manufacturing, construction, and mining) expanded to 35.6 % of the work force by 1970. By the late 1970s, however, the Japanese economy began to move away from heavy manufacturing toward a more service - oriented (tertiary sector) base. During the 1980s, jobs in wholesaling, retailing, finance, insurance, real estate, transportation, communications, and government grew rapidly, while secondary - sector employment remained stable. The tertiary sector grew from 47 % of the work force in 1970 to 59.2 % in 1990.
Throughout the 1970s, Japan had the world 's third largest gross national product (GNP) -- just behind the United States and Soviet Union -- and ranked first among major industrial nations in 1990 in per capita GNP at US $23,801, up sharply from US $9,068 in 1980. After a mild economic slump in the mid-1980s, Japan 's economy began a period of expansion in 1986 that continued until it again entered a recessionary period in 1992. Economic growth averaging 5 % between 1987 and 1989 revived industries, such as steel and construction, which had been relatively dormant in the mid-1980s, and brought record salaries and employment. In 1992, however, Japan 's real GNP growth slowed to 1.7 %. Even industries such as automobiles and electronics that had experienced phenomenal growth in the 1980s entered a recessionary period in 1992. The domestic market for Japanese automobiles shrank at the same time that Japan 's share of the United States ' market declined. Foreign and domestic demand for Japanese electronics also declined, and Japan seemed on the way to losing its leadership in the world semiconductor market to the United States, Korea and Taiwan.
Unlike the economic booms of the 1960s and 1970s, when increasing exports played the key role in economic expansion, domestic demand propelled the Japanese economy in the late 1980s. This development involved fundamental economic restructuring, moving from dependence on exports to reliance on domestic demand. The boom that started in 1986 was generated by the decisions of companies to increase private plant and equipment spending and of consumers to go on a buying spree. Japan 's imports grew at a faster rate than exports. Japanese post-war technological research was carried out for the sake of economic growth rather than military development. The growth in high - technology industries in the 1980s resulted from heightened domestic demand for high - technology products such as electronics, and for higher living, housing, and environmental standards; better medical care and more welfare; expanded leisure - time facilities; and improved ways to accommodate a rapidly aging society.
During the 1980s, the Japanese economy shifted its emphasis from primary and secondary activities (notably agriculture, manufacturing, and mining) to processing, with telecommunications and computers becoming increasingly vital. Information became an important resource and product, central to wealth and power. The rise of an information - based economy was led by major research in highly sophisticated technology, such as advanced computers. The selling and use of information became very beneficial to the economy. Tokyo became a major financial center, home to some of the world 's major banks, financial firms, insurance companies, and the world 's largest stock exchange, the Tokyo Securities and Stock Exchange. Even here, however, the recession took its toll. In 1992, the Nikkei 225 stock average began the year at 23,000 points, but fell to 14,000 points in mid-August before leveling off at 17,000 by the end of the year.
In the decades following World War II, Japan implemented stringent tariffs and policies to encourage the people to save their income. With more money in banks, loans and credit became easier to obtain, and with Japan running large trade surpluses, the yen appreciated against foreign currencies. This allowed local companies to invest in capital resources more easily than their overseas competitors, which reduced the price of Japanese - made goods and widened the trade surplus further. And, with the yen appreciating, financial assets became lucrative.
With so much money readily available for investment, speculation was inevitable, particularly in the Tokyo Stock Exchange and the real estate market. The Nikkei stock index hit its all - time high on 29 December 1989 when it reached an intra-day high of 38,957.44 before closing at 38,915.87. The rates for housing, stocks, and bonds rose so much that at one point the government issued 100 - year bonds. Additionally, banks granted increasingly risky loans.
At the height of the bubble, real estate values were extremely over-valued. Prices were highest in Tokyo 's Ginza district in 1989, with choice properties fetching over US $1.5 million per square meter ($139,000 per square foot). Prices were only slightly less in other areas of Tokyo. By 2004, prime "A '' property in Tokyo 's financial districts had slumped and Tokyo 's residential homes were a fraction of their peak, but still managed to be listed as the most expensive real estate in the world. Trillions were wiped out with the combined collapse of the Tokyo stock and real estate markets.
With Japan 's economy driven by its high rates of reinvestment, this crash hit particularly hard. Investments were increasingly directed out of the country, and Japanese manufacturing firms lost some degree of their technological edge. As Japanese products became less competitive overseas, some people argue that the low consumption rate began to bear on the economy, causing a deflationary spiral.
The easily obtainable credit that had helped create and engorge the real - estate bubble continued to be a problem for several years to come, and as late as 1997, banks were still making loans that had a low guarantee of being repaid. Loan Officers and Investment staff had a hard time finding anything to invest in that would return a profit. Meanwhile, the extremely low interest rate offered for deposits, such as 0.1 %, meant that ordinary Japanese savers were just as inclined to put their money under their beds as they were to put it in savings accounts. Correcting the credit problem became even more difficult as the government began to subsidize failing banks and businesses, creating many so - called "zombie businesses ''. Eventually a carry trade developed in which money was borrowed from Japan, invested for returns elsewhere and then the Japanese were paid back, with a nice profit for the trader.
The time after the bubble 's collapse (崩壊, hōkai), which occurred gradually rather than catastrophically, is known as the "lost decade or end of the 20th century '' (失 われ た 10 年, ushinawareta jūnen) in Japan. The Nikkei 225 stock index eventually bottomed out at 7603.76 in April 2003, moved upward to a new peak of 18,138 in June 2007, before resuming a downward trend. The downward movement in the Nikkei is likely due to global as well as national economic problems.
Deflation in Japan started in the early 1990s. On 19 March 2001, the Bank of Japan and the Japanese government tried to eliminate deflation in the economy by reducing interest rates (part of their ' quantitative easing ' policy). Despite having interest rates near zero for a long period, this strategy did not succeed. Once the near - zero interest rates failed to stop deflation, some economists, such as Paul Krugman, and some Japanese politicians spoke of deliberately causing (or at least creating the fear of) inflation. In July 2006, the zero - rate policy was ended. In 2008, the Japanese Central Bank still had the lowest interest rates in the developed world and deflation continued.
Systemic reasons for deflation in Japan can be said to include:
The Economist has suggested that improvements to bankruptcy law, land transfer law, and tax law will aid Japan 's economy. In October 2009 the Japanese government announced plans to increase tobacco and green taxes while reducing rates for small and medium - sized companies, according to NHK.
In 2011 Japan under Yoshihiko Noda decided to consider joining the Trans - Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership.
The global economic recession of the late 2000s significantly harmed the economy of Japan. The nation suffered a 0.7 % loss in real GDP in 2008 followed by a severe 5.2 % loss in 2009. In contrast, the data for world real GDP growth was a 3.1 % hike in 2008 followed by a 0.7 % loss in 2009.
Economic policy over the past several quarters in Japan has been influenced by the ' Abenomics ' debate, with the government pursuing aggressive government infrastructure spending hikes and significant yen devaluations.
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sa re ga ma pa 2017 winner name | Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2017 - wikipedia
Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2017 (stylised as Saregamapa Li'l Champs) is a singing competition television series, which premiered on February 25, 2017 on Zee TV. The series airs every Saturday and Sunday nights at 9 pm. In a ' Back to School ' format that lends itself to a spirited atmosphere of camaraderie and fun, the L'il Champs will represent their schools.
For the first time in L'il Champs, they have incorporated the format created for Sa Re Ga Ma Pa 2016. There is a 30 - member Grand Jury which grades the contestants and the average percentage of their scores is displayed. Himesh Reshammiya, Neha Kakkar & Javed Ali are the mentors in the show, whereas Aditya Narayan is the host. The show went off air on 29 october 2017. With GREAT GRAND FINALE JAIPUR
Children aged 5 - 14 years participate in a singing competition. In the auditions round, they have 100 seconds to impress the three judges and the 30 - members of the grand jury. If two of the three judges say YES and they secure at least 50 per cent of the support of the Grand Jury, then the contestant progresses to the next round.
In the Gala round, the judges select the ' Student of the Week ' who is the best performer according to them. The contestant gets to sit on a ' flying sofa ', which indicates that the contestant is safe from next week 's elimination.
The audience vote will come in later in the competition. The contestant with the highest votes in the final round will win the competition.
The show has a panel of 30 jury members who are experts from the music industry. They closely assess the contestants from the audition stage wherein they help the mentors in the selection process and are present in the show during the studio rounds too.
Some of them are:
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what happens when monica steals the squirrel fund | Shameless (season 2) - wikipedia
The second season of Shameless, an American comedy - drama television series based on the British series of the same name by Paul Abbott, premiered on January 8, 2012, at Sunday 9: 00 p.m. EST on the Showtime television network. Executive producers are John Wells, Paul Abbott and Andrew Stearn, with producer Michael Hissrich. The season concluded after 12 episodes on April 1, 2012. The shows season premiere brought in 1.58 million viewers, which was higher than the season 1 premiere. The episode airing March 4, "Parenthood '', received 1.6 million total viewers, its highest rated show of the season. The season finale scored 1.45 million viewers.
It 's summertime in Chicago, and the Gallaghers are back and up to the same tricks. Frank -- after losing a bet with a fellow bar patron -- is now in over his head $10,000, and Karen refuses to let him steal the money from Sheila again; Frank uses Liam to win sympathy panhandling, until the bar patron takes Liam as collateral for the money. Lip wants to continue seeing Karen, who is now attending Sex Addicts Anonymous meetings and in a sex - free relationship with a fellow group member; however, he is also preoccupied with summer courses, running a fighting ring, and selling pot and alcohol out of an ice cream truck with Kev. Fiona and Veronica are waitressing at a local club; Fiona is seeing someone to get her mind off of Steve, though Veronica is adamant her new boyfriend is "a rebound '' and "even looks like Steve. '' Ian is still working for Kash and Linda, whose marriage is deteriorating despite her pregnancy; Ian also expresses interest in attending West Point, and Lip agrees to help him with his application and grades; he is also looking forward to Mickey 's release from jail. Debbie and Carl run a babysitting service in the house to bring in extra funds. Sheila is simultaneously trying to find Eddie (who committed suicide last season) and working on getting over her agoraphobia.
The show 's second season began shooting on July 5, 2011 and it premiered on Sunday, January 8, 2012 at a new time slot at 9: 00pm.
Shanola Hampton, Steve Howey, Joan Cusack, and Laura Slade Wiggins return in the second season as Veronica Fisher, Kevin "Kev '' Ball, Sheila Jackson and Karen Jackson. Also returning are Noel Fisher as Mickey Milkovich, Pej Vahdat as Kash, Tyler Jacob Moore as Tony Markovich and Vanessa Bell Calloway as Carol Fisher. The role of Mandy Milkovich originally played by Jane Levy in season one was recast due to Levy beginning work on her own TV series on ABC titled "Suburgatory ''. It was announced in late 2011 that Emma Greenwell would now appear as Mandy Milkovich for the duration of the show. Zach McGowan appears as Jody Silverman a man Karen meets at Sex Addicts Anonymous and later marries. Stephanie Fantauzzi was cast as Estefania, Jimmys Brazilian wife and drug lord 's daughter whom he marries as a way for her to come to the USA.
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how many marine bases are in the us | List of United States Marine Corps installations - Wikipedia
This is a list of installations used by the United States Marine Corps, organized by type and state. Most US states do not have active Marine Corps bases; however, many do have reserve bases and centers. In addition, the Marine Corps Security Force Regiment maintains Marines permanently at numerous naval installations across the United States and abroad. The Corps also shares its headquarters with the rest of the United States armed forces at the Pentagon in Virginia.
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what are the words to the cry of dolores | Cry of Dolores - wikipedia
The Cry of Dolores (Spanish: Grito de Dolores) is a historical event that happened in Mexico in the early morning of 16 September 1810. Roman Catholic priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla rang the bell of his church and gave the pronunciamiento (call to arms) that triggered the Mexican War of Independence. This happened in the state of Guanajuato within the small town of Dolores (now Dolores Hidalgo).
Every year on the eve of Independence Day, the President of Mexico re-enacts the Grito from the balcony of the National Palace in Mexico City, while ringing the same bell that Hidalgo rang in 1810.
In the 1810s, Mexico was under Spanish control and known as New Spain. The independence movement began to take shape when Jose Bernardo Gutierrez de Lara went to the small town of Dolores (now known as Dolores Hidalgo) and asked the local Roman Catholic priest, Miguel Hidalgo, to help initiate an effort to free New Spain from Spanish control.
Gutierrez de Lara went to Washington, D.C. for military support (being the first Mexican to do so). Hidalgo remained in Dolores, waiting for Gutierrez de Lara to return with military support. However, fearing arrest, Hidalgo told his brother Mauricio to make the sheriff free the pro-independence inmates there. Mauricio and armed men set 80 inmates free in the early morning of 16 September 1810. Around 2: 30 a.m., Hidalgo ordered the church bells to be rung and gathered his congregation. Flanked by Allende and Juan Aldama, he addressed the people in front of his church, urging them to revolt. His speech became known as the "Cry of Dolores ''.
The liberated country adopted Mexico as its official name. Mexico 's independence from Spain took a decade of war. Jose Bernardo Gutierrez de Lara commanded and led Mexico to victory. Independence was achieved by the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire on 28 September 1821. However, Hidalgo is credited as being the "father of his country. ''
There is no scholarly consensus on the exact words Miguel Hidalgo said at the time. The book The Course of Mexican History says "the exact words of this most famous of all Mexican speeches are not known, or, rather, they are reproduced in almost as many variations as there are historians to reproduce them ''.
The same book also argues that:
In contrast, William F. Cloud divides the sentiments above between both Hidalgo and the crowd:
Many believe that Hidalgo 's Grito condemned the notion of monarchy and criticized the current social order in detail. In fact, his opposition was targeted to Spain and its viceroy in Mexico; not against monarchy in general but against "bad government ''. The Grito also emphasized loyalty to the Catholic religion, a sentiment with which both Creoles and Peninsulares (native Spaniards) could sympathize. However, the strong anti-Spanish cry of "Death to Gachupines '' (Gachupines being a slur given to Peninsulares) would have shocked Mexico 's elites.
The day of 16 September was first celebrated in 1812 in Huichapan, Hidalgo. It was given the status of a national holiday in the Constitution of Apatzingán, ratified by the conventions of 1822 and 1824, and first celebrated nationally in 1825.
The Cry of Dolores has assumed an almost mythical status. Since the late 20th century, the event has come to symbolize Mexican independence and to initiate Independence Day ceremonies the following day (16 September). Independence Day in Mexico is a patriotic holiday, marked by parades, concerts, patriotic programs, drum and bugle and marching band competitions, and special programs on the national and local media outlets.
Every 15 September at around 11 p.m., the President of Mexico stands on the balcony of the National Palace in Mexico City and rings the same bell that Hidalgo rang in 1810, which was moved to the National Palace. The President then recites a shout of patriotism (a Grito Mexicano) based upon the "Grito de Dolores '', with the names of the important heroes of the Mexican War of Independence who were there on that historic day. The Grito ends with the threefold shout of ¡ Viva México!
This is the version often recited by the President of Mexico:
Beneath the balcony of the National Palace, there is a large crowd in the Plaza de la Constitución (also called the Zócalo), to hear the recitation. The event draws up to half a million spectators from all over Mexico and tourists worldwide. After the President recites each line beginning with "¡ Viva (n)! '', the crowd responds by repeating, "¡ Viva (n)! ''
After the recitation, the President rings the bell one last time, and waves the Flag of Mexico to the applause of the crowd.
This is followed by the playing of the Mexican national anthem by a military band from the Mexican Armed Forces. The crowd sings along. The ceremonies conclude with a spectacular fireworks display at the Zocalo grounds.
On the morning of 16 September, or Independence Day, the national military parade in honor of the holiday starts in the Zócalo and its outskirts, passes the Hidalgo Memorial and ends on the Paseo de la Reforma, Mexico City 's main boulevard, passing "El Ángel de la Independencia '' memorial column and other places along the way.
The Grito is not always re-enacted at the National Palace; some years it is performed in Dolores Hidalgo, Guanajuato, where it originally happened. This is especially common in the final year of a President 's term.
President Felipe Calderón made an exception by re-enacting the Grito in Dolores Hidalgo as part of the bicentennial celebrations on 16 September 2010, even though he had already done so the night before from the National Palace balcony to launch the celebrations. As a result, in 2012, Calderón 's final year as President, he did not go to Dolores Hidalgo but gave the Grito from the National Palace balcony instead. He became the third President to break the traditional practice.
Many Presidents add their "personal touch '' to the Grito and this can be controversial. President Vicente Fox frequently took liberties with it, adding and removing items, addressing Mexicans in both genders, and in 2001 wishing long life to "our agreements ''.
During the Presidency of Enrique Peña Nieto, the Grito became an occasion for political protest against him and his Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). On 15 September 2016, a month after the president appeared to be humiliated by U.S. Presidential candidate Donald Trump, thousands of citizens marched, yelled, and carried signs. They tried to enter the Zócalo during the Grito, but were blocked by a wall of soldiers. News outlets within Mexico failed to acknowledge the protest. The event was well - attended but opponents charge that the PRI brought acarreados (poor people or hand - picked party members) as a fake show of support.
Similar celebrations to the Presidential one occur in cities and towns throughout Mexico, and in Mexican embassies and consulates worldwide on 15 or 16 September. The chief executive, ambassador, or consul rings a bell and recites the traditional words, including the names of independence heroes and local patriots, and ending with the threefold shout of Viva Mexico! The bell rings a second time, the Mexican flag is waved, and everyone sings the National Anthem, followed by fireworks. There are also celebrations in schools throughout Mexico, and in these cases whenever the bell ringing is reenacted the school or university head utters the traditional words.
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who do the leafs play if they win | Toronto Maple Leafs - Wikipedia
Blue, white
The Toronto Maple Leafs (officially the Toronto Maple Leaf Hockey Club) are a professional ice hockey team based in Toronto, Ontario. They are members of the National Hockey League 's Atlantic Division in the Eastern Conference. The club is owned by Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment, Ltd. and are represented by Chairman Larry Tanenbaum. With an estimated value of US $1.4 billion in 2017 according to Forbes, the Maple Leafs are the second most valuable franchise in the NHL, after the New York Rangers. The Maple Leafs ' broadcasting rights are split between BCE Inc. and Rogers Communications. For their first 14 seasons, the club played their home games at the Mutual Street Arena, before moving to Maple Leaf Gardens in 1931. The Maple Leafs moved to their present home, the Air Canada Centre in February 1999.
The club was founded in 1917, operating simply as Toronto and known then as the Toronto Arenas. Under new ownership, the club was renamed the Toronto St. Patricks in 1919. In 1927 the club was purchased by Conn Smythe and renamed the Maple Leafs. A member of the "Original Six '', the club was one of six NHL teams to have endured through the period of League retrenchment during the Great Depression. The club has won thirteen Stanley Cup championships, second only to the 24 championships of the Montreal Canadiens. The Maple Leafs history includes two recognized dynasties, from 1947 to 1951; and from 1962 to 1967. Winning their last championship in 1967, the Maple Leafs ' 50 - season drought between championships is the longest current drought in the NHL. The Maple Leafs have developed rivalries with three NHL franchises, the Detroit Red Wings, the Montreal Canadiens, and the Ottawa Senators.
The Maple Leafs have retired the use of thirteen numbers in honour of nineteen players. In addition, a number of individuals who hold an association with the club have been inducted in the Hockey Hall of Fame. The Maple Leafs are presently affiliated with two minor league teams, the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League, and the Orlando Solar Bears of the ECHL.
The National Hockey League was formed in 1917 in Montreal by teams formerly belonging to the National Hockey Association (NHA) that had a dispute with Eddie Livingstone, owner of the Toronto Blueshirts. The owners of the other four clubs -- the Montreal Canadiens, Montreal Wanderers, Quebec Bulldogs and the Ottawa Senators -- wanted to replace Livingstone, but discovered that the NHA constitution did not allow them to simply vote him out of the league. Instead, they opted to create a new league, the NHL, and did not invite Livingstone to join them. They also remained voting members of the NHA, and thus had enough votes to suspend the other league 's operations, effectively leaving Livingstone 's league with one team.
The NHL had decided that it would operate a four - team circuit, made up of the Canadiens, Maroons, Ottawa, and one more club in either Quebec or Toronto. Toronto 's inclusion in the NHL 's inaugural season was formally announced on November 26, 1917, with concerns over the Bulldog 's financial stability surfacing. The League granted temporary franchise rights to the Arena Company, owners of the Arena Gardens. The NHL granted the Arena responsibility of the Toronto franchise for only the inaugural season, with specific instructions to resolve the dispute with Livingstone, or transfer ownership of the Toronto franchise back to the League at the end of the season. The franchise did not have an official name, but was informally called "the Blueshirts '' or "the Torontos '' by the fans and press. Although the inaugural roster was made up of players leased from the Blueshirts, including Harry Cameron and Reg Noble, the Blueshirts are viewed as a separate franchise. During the inaugural season the club performed the first trade in NHL history, sending Sammy Hebert to the Senators, in return for cash. Under manager Charlie Querrie, and head coach Dick Carroll, the team won the Stanley Cup in the inaugural 1917 -- 18 season.
For the next season, rather than return the Blueshirts ' players to Livingstone as originally promised, on October 19, 1918, the Arena Company applied to become permanent franchise, the Toronto Arena Hockey Club, which was readily granted by the NHL. The Arena Company also decided that year that only NHL teams were allowed to play at the Arena Gardens -- a move which effectively killed the NHA. Livingstone sued to get his players back. Mounting legal bills from the dispute forced the Arenas to sell some of their stars, resulting in a horrendous five - win season in 1918 -- 19. With the company facing increasing financial difficulties, and the Arenas officially eliminated from the playoffs, the NHL agreed to let the team forfeit their last two games. Operations halted on February 20, 1919, with the NHL ending its season and starting the playoffs. The Arenas '. 278 winning percentage that season remains the worst in franchise history. However, the 1919 Stanley Cup Finals ended without a winner due to the worldwide flu epidemic.
The legal dispute forced the Arena Company into bankruptcy, and it was forced to sell the team. On December 9, 1919, Querrie brokered the team 's purchase by the owners of the St. Patricks Hockey Club, allowing him to maintain an ownership stake in the team. The new owners renamed the team the Toronto St. Patricks (or St. Pats for short), which they used until 1927. Changing the colours of the team from blue to green, the club won their second Stanley Cup championship in 1922. Babe Dye scored four times in the 5 -- 1 Stanley Cup - clinching victory against the Vancouver Millionaires. In 1924 Jack Bickell invested C $25,000 in the St. Pats as a favour to his friend Querrie, who needed to financially reorganize his hockey team.
After a number of financially difficult seasons, the St. Patricks ' ownership group seriously considered selling the team to C.C. Pyle for C $200,000 (equivalent to $2,822,000 in 2016). Pyle sought to move the team to Philadelphia. However, Toronto Varsity Blues coach Conn Smythe put together a group of his own and made a $160,000 (equivalent to $2,258,000 in 2016) offer. With the support of St. Pats shareholder J.P. Bickell, Smythe persuaded Querrie to accept their bid, arguing that civic pride was more important than money.
After taking control on February 14, 1927, Smythe immediately renamed the team the Maple Leafs, after the national symbol of Canada. He attributed his choice of a maple leaf for the logo to his experiences as a Canadian Army officer and prisoner of war during World War I. Viewing the maple leaf as a "badge of courage '', and a reminder of home, Smythe decided to give the same name to his hockey team, in honour of the many Canadian soldiers who wore it. However, the team was not the first to use the name. A Toronto minor - league baseball team had used the name "Maple Leafs '' since 1895.
Initial reports were that the team 's colours were to be red and white, but the Leafs wore white sweaters with a green maple leaf for their first game on February 17, 1927. On September 27, 1927, it was announced that the Leafs had changed their colour scheme to blue and white. Although Smythe later stated he chose blue because it represents the Canadian skies and white to represent snow, these colours were also used on his gravel and sand business ' trucks. The colour blue was also a colour historically associated with the City of Toronto. The use of blue by Toronto - based sports clubs began with the Argonaut Rowing Club in the 19th century, later adopted by their football team, the Toronto Argonauts, in 1873.
By 1930 Smythe saw the need to construct a new arena, viewing the Arena Gardens as a facility lacking modern amenities and seating. Finding an adequate number of financiers, he purchased land from the Eaton family, and construction of the arena was completed in five months. The Maple Leafs debuted at their new arena, Maple Leaf Gardens, with a 2 -- 1 loss to the Chicago Black Hawks on November 12, 1931. The debut also featured Foster Hewitt in his newly constructed press box above the ice surface, where he began his famous Hockey Night in Canada radio broadcasts that eventually came to be a Saturday - night tradition. The press box was often called ' the gondola ', a name that emerged during the Gardens ' inaugural season, when a General Motors advertising executive remarked how it resembled the gondola of an airship.
By the 1931 -- 32 NHL season, the Maple Leafs were led by the "Kid Line '' consisting of Busher Jackson, Joe Primeau and Charlie Conacher and coached by Dick Irvin. The team captured their third Stanley Cup that season, vanquishing the Chicago Black Hawks in the first round, the Montreal Maroons in the semifinals, and the New York Rangers in the finals. Smythe took particular pleasure in defeating the Rangers that year. He had been tapped as the Rangers ' first general manager and coach for their inaugural season (1926 -- 27), but had been fired in a dispute with Madison Square Garden management before the season had begun.
Maple Leafs ' star forward Ace Bailey was nearly killed in 1933 when Boston Bruins defenceman Eddie Shore checked him from behind at full speed into the boards. Leafs defenceman Red Horner knocked Shore out with a punch, but Bailey, writhing on the ice, had his career ended. The Leafs held the Ace Bailey Benefit Game, the NHL 's first All - Star Game, to collect medical funds to help Bailey. His jersey was retired later the same night. The Leafs reached the finals five times in the next seven years, but bowed out to the now - defunct Maroons in 1935, the Detroit Red Wings in 1936, Chicago in 1938, Boston in 1939 and the Rangers in 1940. After the end of the 1939 -- 40 season, Smythe allowed Irvin to leave the team as head coach, replacing him with former Leafs captain Hap Day.
In the 1942 Stanley Cup Finals, the Maple Leafs were down three games to none in the best - of - seven series against Detroit. Fourth - line forward Don Metz then galvanized the team, to score a hat - trick in game four and the game - winner in game five. Goalie Turk Broda shut out the Wings in game six, and Sweeney Schriner scored two goals in the third period to win the seventh game 3 -- 1, completing the reverse - sweep. The Leafs remain the only team to have successfully performed a reverse - sweep in the Stanley Cup finals. Captain Syl Apps won the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy that season, not taking one penalty, and finished his ten - season career with an average of 5 minutes, 36 seconds in penalties a season.
Smythe, who reenlisted in the Canadian Army at the outbreak of World War II, was given leave from military duty to view the final game of the 1942 finals. He arrived at the game in full military regalia. Earlier, at the outbreak of war, Smythe arranged for many of his Maple Leafs players and staff to take army training with the Toronto Scottish Regiment. Most notably, the Leafs announced a large portion of their roster had enlisted, including Apps, and Broda, who did not play on the team for several seasons due to their obligations with the Canadian Forces. During this period, the Leafs turned to lesser - known players such as rookie goaltender Frank McCool and defenceman Babe Pratt.
The Maple Leafs beat the Red Wings in the 1945 Finals. They won the first three games, with goaltender McCool recording consecutive shutouts. However, in a reverse of the 1942 finals, the Red Wings won the next three games. The Leafs were able to win the series, winning the seventh game by the score of 2 -- 1 to prevent a complete reversal of the series played three years ago.
After the end of the war, players who had enlisted were beginning to return to their teams. With Apps and Broda regaining their form, the Maple Leafs beat the first - place Canadiens in the 1947 finals. In an effort to bolster their centre depth, the Leafs acquired Cy Thomas and Max Bentley in the following the off - season. With these key additions, the Leafs were able to win a second consecutive Stanley Cup, sweeping the Red Wings in the 1948 finals. With their victory in 1948, the Leafs moved ahead of Montreal as the team having won the most Stanley Cups in League history. Apps announced his retirement following the 1948 finals, with Ted Kennedy replacing him as the team 's captain. Under a new captaincy, the Leafs managed to make it to the 1949 finals, facing the Red Wings, who had finished the season with the best overall record. However, the Leafs went on to win their third consecutive Cup, sweeping the Red Wings in four games. This brought the total of Detroit 's play off game losses against the Leafs to eleven. The Red Wings were able to end this losing streak in the following post-season, eliminating Toronto in the 1950 NHL playoffs.
The Maple Leafs and Canadiens met again in the 1951 finals, with five consecutive overtime games played in the series. Defenceman Bill Barilko managed to score the series - winning goal in overtime, leaving his defensive position (in spite of coach Joe Primeau 's instructions not to) to pick up an errant pass and score. Barilko helped the club secure its fourth Stanley Cup in five years. His glory was short - lived, as he disappeared in a plane crash near Timmins, Ontario, four months later. The crash site was not found until a helicopter pilot discovered the plane 's wreckage plane about 80 kilometres (50 mi) north of Cochrane, Ontario eleven years later. The Leafs did not win another Cup during the 1950s, with rumours swirling that the team was "cursed '', and would not win a cup until Barilko 's body was found. The "curse '' came to an end after the Leafs ' 1962 Stanley Cup victory, which came six weeks before to the discovery of the wreckage of Barilko 's plane.
Their 1951 victory was followed by lacklustre performances in the following seasons. The team finished third in the 1951 -- 52 season, and were eventually swept by the Red Wings in the semi-finals. With the conclusion of the 1952 -- 53 regular season, the Leafs failed to make it to the post-season for the first time since the 1945 -- 46 playoffs. The Leafs ' poor performance may be attributed partly to a decline in their sponsored junior system (including the Toronto St. Michael 's Majors and the Toronto Marlboros). The junior system was managed by Frank J. Selke until his departure to the Canadiens in 1946. In his absence, the quality of players it produced declined. Many who were called up to the Leafs in the early 1950s were found to be seriously lacking in ability. It was only later in the decade that the Leafs ' feeder clubs produced prospects that helped them become competitive again.
After a two - year drought from the playoffs, the Maple Leafs clinched a berth after the 1958 -- 59 season. Under Punch Imlach, their new general manager and coach, the Leafs made it to the 1959 Finals, losing to the Canadiens in five games. Building on a successful playoff run, the Leafs followed up with a second - place finish in the 1959 -- 60 regular season. Although they advanced to their second straight Cup Finals, the Leafs were again defeated by the Canadiens in four games.
Beginning in the 1960s, the Leafs became a stronger team, with Johnny Bower as goaltender, and Bob Baun, Carl Brewer, Tim Horton and Allan Stanley serving as the Maple Leafs ' defencemen. In an effort to bolster their forward group during the 1960 off - season, Imlach traded Marc Reaume to the Red Wings for Red Kelly. Originally a defenceman, Kelly was asked to make the transition to the role of centre, where he remained for the rest of his career. Kelly helped reinforce a forward group made up of Frank Mahovlich, and team captain George Armstrong. The beginning of the 1960 -- 61 season also saw the debut of rookies Bob Nevin, and Dave Keon. Keon previously played for the St. Michael 's Majors (the Maple Leafs junior affiliate), but had impressed Imlach during the Leafs ' training camp, and joined the team for the season. Despite these new additions, the Leafs ' 1961 playoff run ended in the semifinals against the Red Wings, with Armstrong, Bower, Kelly and others, suffering from injuries.
In November 1961, Smythe sold nearly all of his shares in the club 's parent company, Maple Leaf Gardens Limited (MLGL), to a partnership composed of his son Stafford Smythe, and his partners, newspaper baron John Bassett and Toronto Marlboros President Harold Ballard. The sale price was $2.3 million (equivalent to $18,810,000 in 2016), a handsome return on Smythe 's original investment 34 years earlier. Initially, Conn Smythe claimed that he knew nothing about his son 's partners and was furious with the arrangement. However, he did not stop the deal because of it. Conn Smythe was given a retiring salary of $15,000 per year for life, an office, secretary, a car with a driver, and seats to home games. Smythe sold his remaining shares in the company, and resigned from the board of directors in March 1966, after a Muhammad Ali boxing match was scheduled for the Gardens. Smythe found Ali 's refusal to serve in the United States Army offensive, noting that the Gardens was "no place for those who want to evade conscription in their own country ''. He had also said that because the Gardens ' owners agreed to host the fight they had "put cash ahead of class ''.
Under the new ownership, Toronto won another three straight Stanley Cups. The team won the 1962 Stanley Cup Finals beating the defending champion Chicago Black Hawks on a goal from Dick Duff in Game 6. During the 1962 -- 63 season, the Leafs finished first in the league for the first time since the 1947 -- 48 season. In the following playoffs, the team won their second Stanley Cup of the decade. The 1963 -- 64 season saw certain members of the team traded. With Imlach seeking to reinvigorate the slumping Leafs, he made a mid-season trade that sent Duff, and Nevin to the Rangers for Andy Bathgate and Don McKenney. The Leafs managed to make the post-season as well as the Cup finals. The 1964 Cup finals were perhaps most notable for Baun 's performance. During game six, Baun suffered a fractured ankle and required a stretcher to be taken off the ice. He returned to play with his ankle frozen, and eventually scored the overtime, game - winning goal against the Red Wings. Winning game seven 4 -- 0, with two goals from Bathgate, the Leafs won their third consecutive Stanley Cup.
The two seasons after the Maple Leafs ' Stanley Cup victories, the team saw several player departures, including Bathgate, and Brewer, as well as several new additions, including Marcel Pronovost, and Terry Sawchuk. During the 1966 -- 67, the team had lost 10 games in a row, sending Imlach to the hospital with a stress - related illness. However, from the time King Clancy took over as the head coach, to Imlach 's return, the club was on a 10 - game undefeated streak, building momentum before the playoffs. The Leafs made their last Cup finals in 1967. Playing against Montreal, the heavy favourite for the year, the Leafs managed to win, with Bob Pulford scoring the double - overtime winner in game three; Jim Pappin scored the series winner in Game 6. Keon was named the playoff 's most valuable player, and was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy.
From 1968 to 1970, the Maple Leafs made it to the playoffs only once. They lost several players to the 1967 expansion drafts, and the team was racked with dissension because of Imlach 's authoritative manner, and his attempts to prevent the players from joining the newly formed Players ' Association. Imlach 's management of the team was also brought into question due to some of his decisions. It was apparent that he was too loyal to aging players who had been with him since 1958. In 1967 -- 68 season, Mahovlich was traded to Detroit in a deal that saw the Leafs acquire Paul Henderson, and Norm Ullman. The Leafs managed to return to the playoffs after the 1968 -- 69 season, only to be swept by the Bruins. Immediately after, Stafford Smythe confronted Imlach and fired him. This act was not without controversy, with some older players, including Horton, declaring that, "if this team does n't want Imlach, I guess it does n't want me ''.
The Maple Leafs completed the 1969 -- 70 season out of the playoffs. With their low finish, the Leafs were able to draft Darryl Sittler at the 1970 NHL Amateur Draft. The Leafs returned to the playoffs after the 1970 -- 71 season with the addition of Sittler, as well as Bernie Parent and Jacques Plante, who were both acquired through trades during the season. They were eliminated in the first round against the Rangers.
A series of events in 1971 made Harold Ballard the primary owner of the Maple Leafs. After a series of disputes between Bassett, Ballard and Stafford Smythe, Bassett sold his stake in the company to them. Shortly afterwards, Smythe died in October 1971. Under the terms of Stafford 's will, of which Ballard was an executor, each partner was allowed to buy the other 's shares upon their death. Stafford 's brother and son tried to keep the shares in the family, but in February 1972 Ballard bought all of Stafford 's shares for $7.5 million, valuing the company at $22 million (equivalent to $128,986,000 in 2016). Six months later, Ballard was convicted of charges including fraud, and theft of money and goods, and spent a year at Milhaven Penitentiary.
By the end of 1971, the World Hockey Association (WHA) began operations as a direct competitor to the NHL. Believing the WHA would not be able to compete against the NHL, Ballard 's attitude caused the Maple Leafs to lose key players, including Parent to the upstart league. Undermanned and demoralized, the Leafs finished with the fourth - worst record for the 1972 -- 73 season. They got the fourth overall pick in the 1973 NHL Amateur Draft, and drafted Lanny McDonald. General Manager Jim Gregory also acquired the 10th overall pick from the Philadelphia Flyers, and the 15th overall pick from the Bruins, using them to acquire Bob Neely and Ian Turnbull. In addition to these first round picks, the Leafs also acquired Börje Salming during the 1973 off - season.
Despite acquiring Tiger Williams in the 1974 draft, and Roger Neilson as head coach in the 1977 -- 78 season, the Maple Leafs found themselves eliminated in the playoffs by stronger Flyers or Canadiens teams from 1975 to 1979. Although Neilson was a popular coach with fans and his players, he found himself at odds with Ballard, who fired him late in the 1977 -- 78 season. Nielson was later reinstated after appeals from the players and public. He continued as Leafs ' head coach until after the 1979 playoffs, when he was fired again, alongside Gregory. Gregory was replaced by Imlach as General Manager.
In the first year of his second stint as general manager, Imlach became embroiled in a dispute with Leafs ' captain Darryl Sittler over his attempt to take part in the Showdown series for Hockey Night in Canada. In a move to undermine Sittler 's influence on the team, Imlach traded McDonald, who was Sittler 's friend. By the end of the 1979 -- 80 season, Imlach had traded away nearly half of the roster he had at the beginning of his tenure as general manager. With the situation between Ballard and Sittler worsening, Sittler asked to be traded. Forcing the Leafs ' hand, the club 's new general manager, Gerry McNamara, traded Sittler to the Flyers on January 20, 1982. Rick Vaive was named the team 's captain shortly after Sittler 's departure.
The Maple Leafs ' management continued in disarray throughout most of the decade, with an inexperienced McNamara named as Imlach 's replacement in September 1981. He was followed by Gord Stellick on April 28, 1988, who was replaced by Floyd Smith on August 15, 1989. Coaching was similarly shuffled often after Nielson 's departure. Imlach 's first choice for coach was his former player Smith, although he did not finish the 1979 -- 80 season after being hospitalized by a car accident on March 14, 1980. Joe Crozier was named the new head coach until January 10, 1981, when he was succeeded by Mike Nykoluk. Nykoluk was head coach until April 2, 1984. Dan Maloney returned as head coach from 1984 to 1986, with John Brophy named head coach from 1986 to 1988. Both coaches had little success during their tenures. Doug Carpenter was named the new head coach to begin the 1989 -- 90 season, when the Leafs posted their first season above. 500 in the decade.
The team did not have much success during the decade, missing the playoffs entirely in 1982, 1984 and 1985. However, the low finishes allowed the team to draft Wendel Clark first overall at the 1985 NHL Entry Draft. Clark managed to lead the Leafs to the playoffs from 1986 to 1988, as well as the 1990 playoffs, although they were always eliminated in the first round. Ballard died on April 11, 1990.
Don Crump, Don Giffin, and Steve Stavro were named executors of Ballard 's estate. Stavro succeeded Ballard as chairman of Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd. and governor of the Maple Leafs. Cliff Fletcher was hired by Giffin to be the new general manager, although this was opposed by Stavro, who told Fletcher that he wanted to appoint his own general manager. In 1992, Fletcher set about building a competitive club, hiring Pat Burns as the new coach, and by making a series of trades and free agent acquisitions, such as acquiring Doug Gilmour and Dave Andreychuk, which turned the Leafs into a contender. Assisted by stellar goaltending from minor league call - up Felix Potvin, the team posted a then - franchise - record 99 points.
Toronto dispatched the Detroit Red Wings in seven games in the first round, then defeated the St. Louis Blues in another seven games in the Division Finals. Hoping to meet long - time rival Montreal (who was playing in the Wales Conference finals against the New York Islanders) in the Cup finals, the Leafs faced the Los Angeles Kings in the Campbell Conference finals. They led the series 3 -- 2, but dropped game six in Los Angeles. The game was not without controversy, as Wayne Gretzky clipped Gilmour in the face with his stick, but referee Kerry Fraser did not call a penalty, and Gretzky scored the winning goal moments later. The Leafs eventually lost in game seven 5 -- 4.
The Leafs had another strong season in 1993 -- 94, starting the season on a 10 - game winning streak, and finishing it with 98 points. The team made it to the conference finals again, only to be eliminated by the Vancouver Canucks in five games. At the 1994 NHL Entry Draft, the Leafs packaged Wendel Clark in a multi-player trade with the Quebec Nordiques that landed them Mats Sundin. Missing two consecutive playoffs in 1997 and 1998, the Leafs relieved Fletcher as general manager.
On February 12, 1998, MLGL purchased the Toronto Raptors, a National Basketball Association franchise, and the Air Canada Centre arena the Raptors were building, from Allan Slaight and Scotiabank. With the acquisition, MLGL was renamed to Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment (MLSE), acting as the parent company of the two teams. Larry Tanenbaum was a driving force in the acquisition, having bought a bought a 12.5 percent stake in Maple Leaf Gardens Limited (MLGL) in 1996.
Curtis Joseph was acquired as the team 's starting goalie, while Pat Quinn was hired as the head coach before the 1998 -- 99 season. Realigning the NHL 's conferences in 1998, the Leafs were moved from the Western to the Eastern Conference. On February 13, 1999, the Leafs played their final game at the Gardens before moving to their new home at the Air Canada Centre. In the 1999 playoffs, the team advanced to the Conference Finals, but lost in five games to the Buffalo Sabres.
In the 1999 -- 2000 season, the Leafs hosted the 50th NHL All - Star Game. By the end of the season, they recorded their first 100 - point season and won their first division title in 37 years. In both the 2000 and 2001 playoffs, the Leafs defeated the Ottawa Senators in the first round, and lost to the New Jersey Devils in the second round. In 2002 playoffs, the Leafs dispatched the Islanders and the Senators, in the first two rounds, only to lose to the Cinderella - story Carolina Hurricanes in the Conference Finals. The 2002 season was particularly impressive in that injuries sidelined many of the Leafs ' better players, but the efforts of depth players, including Alyn McCauley, Gary Roberts and Darcy Tucker, led them to the Conference Finals.
As Joseph opted to become a free agent during the 2002 off - season, the Leafs signed Ed Belfour as the new starting goaltender. Belfour played well during the 2002 -- 03 season and was a finalist for the Vezina Trophy. The Leafs lost to Philadelphia in seven games during the first round of the 2003 playoffs. In 2003, an ownership change occurred in MLSE. Stavro sold his controlling interest in MLSE to the Ontario Teachers ' Pension Plan (OTPP) and resigned his position as chairman in favour of Tanenbaum. Quinn remained as head coach, but was replaced as general manager by John Ferguson Jr...
Before the 2003 -- 04 season, the team held their training camp in Sweden and played in the NHL Challenge against teams from Sweden and Finland. The Leafs went on to enjoy a very successful regular season, leading the NHL at the time of the All - Star Game (with Quinn named head coach of the East 's All - Star Team). They finished the season with a then - franchise - record 103 points. They finished with the fourth - best record in the League, and their highest overall finish in 41 years, achieving a. 628 win percentage, their best in 43 years, and third - best in franchise history. In the 2004 playoffs, the Leafs defeated the Senators in the first round of the post-season for the fourth time in five years, with Belfour posting three shutouts in seven games, but lost to the Flyers in six games during the second round.
Following the 2004 -- 05 NHL lockout, the Maple Leafs experienced their longest playoff drought in the club 's history. They struggled in the 2005 -- 06 season; despite a late - season surge (9 -- 1 -- 2 in their final 12 games), led by goaltender Jean - Sebastien Aubin, Toronto was out of playoff contention for the first time since 1998. This marked the first time the team had missed the postseason under Quinn, who was later relieved as head coach. Quinn 's dismissal was controversial since many of the young players who were key contributors to the Leafs ' late - season run had been drafted by him before Ferguson 's arrival, while Ferguson 's signings (Jason Allison, Belfour, Alexander Khavanov, and Eric Lindros) had suffered season - ending injuries.
Paul Maurice, who had previously coached the inaugural season of the Maple Leafs ' Toronto Marlies farm team, was named as Quinn 's replacement. On June 30, 2006, the Leafs bought out fan - favourite Tie Domi 's contract. The team also decided against picking up the option year on goaltender Ed Belfour 's contract; he became a free agent. However, despite the coaching change, as well as a shuffle in the roster, the team did not make the playoffs in 2006 -- 07. During the 2007 -- 08 season, John Ferguson, Jr. was fired in January 2008, and replaced by former Leafs ' general manager Cliff Fletcher on an interim basis. The Leafs did not qualify for the post-season, marking the first time since 1928 the team had failed to make the playoffs for three consecutive seasons. It was also Sundin 's last year with the Leafs, as his contract was due to expire at the end of the season. However, he refused Leafs management 's request to waive his no - trade clause in order for the team to rebuild by acquiring prospects and / or draft picks. On May 7, 2008, after the 2007 -- 08 season, the Leafs fired Maurice, as well as assistant coach Randy Ladouceur, naming Ron Wilson as the new head coach, and Tim Hunter and Rob Zettler as assistant coaches.
On November 29, 2008, the Maple Leafs hired Brian Burke as their 13th non-interim, and the first American, general manager in team history. The acquisition ended the second Cliff Fletcher era and settled persistent rumours that Burke was coming to Toronto. On June 26, 2009, Burke made his first appearance as the Leafs GM at the 2009 NHL Entry Draft, selecting London Knights forward Nazem Kadri with the seventh overall pick. On September 18, 2009, Burke traded Toronto 's first - and second - round 2010, as well as its 2011 first - round picks, to the Boston Bruins in exchange for forward Phil Kessel. On January 31, 2010, the Leafs made another high - profile trade, this time with the Calgary Flames in a seven - player deal that brought defenceman Dion Phaneuf to Toronto. On June 14, during the off - season, the Leafs named Phaneuf captain after two seasons without one following Sundin 's departure. On February 18, 2011, the team traded long - time Maple Leafs defenceman Tomas Kaberle to the Bruins in exchange for prospect Joe Colborne, Boston 's first - round pick in 2011, and a conditional second - round draft choice.
On March 2, 2012, Burke fired Wilson and named Randy Carlyle the new head coach. However, the termination proved to be controversial as Wilson had received a contract extension just two months prior to being let go. Changes at the ownership level also occurred in August 2012, when the OTPP completed the sale of their shares in MLSE to BCE Inc. and Rogers Communications. On January 9, 2013, Burke was fired as general manager, replaced by Dave Nonis. In their first full season under the leadership of Carlyle, Toronto managed to secure a playoff berth in the 2012 -- 13 season (which was shortened again due to another lock - out) for the first time in eight years. However, the Leafs lost in seven games to eventual 2013 Stanley Cup finalist Boston in the first round. Despite the season 's success, it was not repeated during the 2013 -- 14 season, as the Leafs failed to make the playoffs.
Shortly after the end of the 2013 -- 14 regular season, Brendan Shanahan was named as the president and an alternate governor of the Maple Leafs. On January 6, 2015, the Leafs fired Randy Carlyle as head coach, and assistant coach Peter Horachek took over on an interim basis immediately. While the Leafs had a winning record before Carlyle 's firing, the team eventually collapsed. On February 6, 2015, the Leafs set a new franchise record of 11 consecutive games without a win. At the beginning of February, Shanahan gained the approval of MLSE 's Board of Directors to begin a "scorched earth '' rebuild of the club. Both Dave Nonis and Horachek were relieved of their duties on April 12, just one day after the season concluded. In addition, the Leafs also fired a number of assistant coaches, including Steve Spott, Rick St. Croix; as well as individuals from the Leafs ' player scouting department.
On May 20, 2015, Mike Babcock was named as the new head coach, and on June 23, Lou Lamoriello was named the 16th general manager in team history. On July 1, 2015, the Leafs packaged Kessel in a multi-player deal to the Pittsburgh Penguins in return for three skaters, including Kasperi Kapanen, a conditional first round pick, and a third round pick. Toronto also retained $1.2 million of Kessel 's salary for the remaining seven seasons of his contract. During the following season, on February 9, 2016, the Leafs packaged Phaneuf in another multi-player deal, acquiring four players, as well as a 2017 2nd - round pick from the Ottawa Senators. The team finished last in the NHL for the first time since the 1984 -- 85 season and secured a 20 percent chance at winning the first overall pick in the 2016 NHL Entry Draft. They were also guaranteed to pick no lower than fourth. They subsequently won the draft lottery and used the first overall pick to draft Auston Matthews.
In their second season under Babcock, Toronto secured the final Eastern Conference wildcard spot for the 2017 playoffs. On April 23, 2017, the Maple Leafs were eliminated from the playoffs by the top - seeded Washington Capitals four games to two in the best - of - seven series.
Toronto finished the 2017 -- 18 season with 105 points by beating Montreal 4 -- 2 in their final game of the regular season, a franchise - record, beating the previous record of 103 points set in 2004. They faced the Boston Bruins in the First Round and lost in seven games.
Following the playoffs, Lamoriello was not renewed as general manager and was transitioned to senior advisor. Kyle Dubas was subsequently named the 17th general manager in team history.
The price of a Maple Leafs home game ticket is the highest amongst any team in the NHL. The Air Canada Centre holds 18,900 seats for Leafs games, with 15,500 reserved for season ticket holders. Because of the demand for season tickets, their sale is limited to the 10,000 people on the waiting list. As of March 2016, Leafs ' season tickets saw a renewal rate of 99.5 percent, a rate that would require more than 250 years to clear the existing waiting list. In a 2014 survey by ESPN The Magazine, the Leafs were ranked last out of the 122 professional teams in the Big Four leagues. Teams were graded by stadium experience, ownership, player quality, ticket affordability, championships won and "bang for the buck ''; in particular, the Leafs came last in ticket affordability.
Leafs fans have been noted for their loyalty to the team, in spite of their performance. In a study conducted by Fanatics in March 2017, the Leafs and the Minnesota Wild were the only two NHL teams to average arena sellouts, with average win percentages below the league 's average. Conversely, fans of other teams harbour an equally passionate dislike of the team. In November 2002, the Leafs were named by Sports Illustrated hockey writer Michael Farber as the "Most Hated Team in Hockey ''.
Despite their loyalty, there have been several instances where the fanbase voiced their displeasure with the club. During the 2011 -- 12 season, fans attending the games chanted for the dismissal of head coach Ron Wilson, and later general manager Brian Burke. Wilson was let go shortly after the fans ' outburst, even though he had been given a contract extension months earlier. Burke alluded to the chants noting "it would be cruel and unusual punishment to let Ron coach another game in the Air Canada Centre ''. In the 2014 -- 15 season fans threw Leafs jerseys onto the ice to show their disapproval of the team 's poor performances in the past few decades. Similarly, during the later portion of the 2015 -- 16 season which overlaps with the start of Major League Baseball 's season, fans were heard sarcastically chanting "Let 's go Blue Jays! '' as a sign of their shift in priority from an under - performing team to the 2016 Blue Jays season.
Many Leafs fans live outside the Greater Toronto Area (GTA), and throughout Ontario, including the Ottawa Valley, the Niagara Region, and Southwestern Ontario. As a result, Leafs -- Senators games at the Canadian Tire Centre in Ottawa, and Leafs -- Sabres games at the KeyBank Center in Buffalo, host a more neutral attendance, due in part to the Leafs fans in those areas, and to those cities ' proximity to the GTA and the relative ease in getting tickets to those teams ' games.
The Leafs are also a popular team in Atlantic Canada. In November 2016, a survey was conducted that found 20 percent of respondents from Atlantic Canada viewed the Leafs as their favourite team; second only to the Montreal Canadiens at 26 percent. The Leafs were found to be the most favoured team in Prince Edward Island, with 24 percent of respondents favouring the Leafs; and the second favourite team in Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland and Labrador (19 and 24 percent respectively, both trailing respondents who favoured the Canadiens by one percent).
-- Bob Nevin
During the 25 years of the Original Six - era (1942 -- 67), teams played each other 14 times during the regular season, and with only four teams continuing into the playoffs, rivalries were intense. As one of this era 's most successful teams, the Maple Leafs established historic rivalries with the two other most successful teams at the time, the Montreal Canadiens and the Detroit Red Wings. In addition to the Canadiens and Red Wings, the Maple Leafs have also developed a rivalry with the Ottawa Senators.
The Detroit Red Wings and the Maple Leafs are both Original Six teams, playing their first game together in 1927. From 1929 to 1993, the teams met each other in the 16 playoff series, as well as seven Stanley Cup Finals. Meeting one another for a combined 23 times in the postseason, they have played each other in more postseason series than any other two teams in NHL history with the exception of the Bruins and Canadiens who have played a total of 34 postseason series. Overlapping fanbases, particularly in markets such as Windsor, Ontario, have added to the rivalry.
The rivalry between the Detroit Red Wings and the Maple Leafs was at its height during the Original Six - era. The Leafs and Red Wings met in the postseason six times during the 1940s, including four Stanley Cup finals. The Leafs beat the Red Wings in five of their six meetings. In the 1950s, the Leafs and Red Wings met one another in six Stanley Cup semifinals; the Red Wings beat the Leafs in five of their six meetings. From 1961 to 1967, the two teams met one another in three playoff series, including two Stanley Cup finals. Within those 25 years, the Leafs and Red Wings played a total of 15 postseason series including six Cup Finals; the Maple Leafs beat the Red Wings in all six Cup Finals.
The teams have only met three times in the postseason since the Original Six - era, with their last meeting in 1993. After the Leafs moved to the Eastern Conference in 1998, they faced each other less often, and the rivalry began to stagnate. The rivalry became intradivisional once again in 2013, when Detroit was moved to the Atlantic division of the Eastern Conference as part of a realignment.
The rivalry between the Montreal Canadiens and the Maple Leafs is the oldest in the NHL, featuring two clubs that were active since the inaugural NHL season in 1917. In the early 20th century, the rivalry was an embodiment of a larger culture war between English Canada and French Canada. The Canadiens have won 24 Stanley Cups, while the Maple Leafs have won 13, ranking them first and second for most Cup wins.
The height of the rivalry was during the 1960s, when the Canadiens and Leafs combined to win all but one Cup. The two clubs had 15 postseason meetings. However, failing to meet each other in the playoffs since 1979, the rivalry has waned. It also suffered when Montreal and Toronto were placed in opposite conferences in 1981, with the Leafs in the Clarence Campbell / Western Conference and the Canadiens in the Prince of Wales / Eastern Conference. In 1998, the Leafs were moved into the Eastern Conference 's Northeast Division.
The rivalry 's cultural imprint may be seen in literature and art. The rivalry from the perspective of the Canadiens fan is perhaps most famously captured in the popular Canadian short story "The Hockey Sweater '' by Roch Carrier. Originally published in French as "Une abominable feuille d'érable sur la glace '' ("An abominable maple leaf on the ice ''), it referred to the Maple Leafs sweater a mother forced her son to wear. The son is presumably based on Carrier himself when he was young. This rivalry is also evident in Toronto 's College subway station, which displays murals depicting the two teams, one on each platform.
The modern Ottawa Senators entered the NHL in 1992, but the rivalry between the two teams did not begin to emerge until the late 1990s. From 1992 to 1998, Ottawa and Toronto played in different conferences (Eastern and Western respectively), which meant they rarely played each other. However, before the 1998 -- 99 season, the conferences and divisions were realigned, with Toronto moved to the Eastern Conference 's Northeast Division with Ottawa. From 2000 to 2004, the teams played four post-season series; the Leafs won all four playoff series. Due in part to the number Leafs fans living in the Ottawa Valley, and in part to Ottawa 's proximity to Toronto, Leafs -- Senators games at the Canadian Tire Centre in Ottawa hold a more neutral audience.
As a result of both Bell Canada and Rogers Communications having an ownership stake in MLSE, Maple Leafs broadcasts are split between the two media companies; with regional TV broadcasts split between Rogers ' Sportsnet Ontario and Bell 's TSN4. Colour commentary for Bell 's television broadcasts is performed by Jamie McLennan and Ray Ferraro, while play - by - play is provided by Chris Cuthbert and Gord Miller. Colour commentary for Rogers ' television broadcasts is performed by Greg Millen, while play - by - play is provided by Paul Romanuk. MLSE also operates a regional specialty channel, the Leafs Nation Network. The Leafs Nation Network broadcasts programming related to the Maple Leafs, as well as games for the Toronto Marlies, the Maple Leafs ' American Hockey League affiliate.
Like the Maple Leafs television broadcasts, radio broadcasts are split evenly between Rogers ' CJCL (Sportsnet 590, The Fan) and Bell 's CHUM (TSN Radio 1050). Both Bell and Rogers ' radio broadcasts have their colour commentary provided by Jim Ralph, with play - by - play provided by Joe Bowen. Foster Hewitt was the Leafs ' first play - by - play broadcaster, providing radio play - by - play from 1927 to 1978. In addition, he provided play - by - play for television from 1952 to 1958, and colour commentary from 1958 to 1961. Originally aired over CFCA, Hewitt 's broadcast was picked up by the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission (the CRBC) in 1933, moving to CBC Radio (the CRBC 's successor) three years later. As the show was aired on Canadian national radio, Hewitt became famous for the phrase "He shoots, he scores! '' as well as his sign - on at the beginning of each broadcast, "Hello, Canada, and hockey fans in the United States and Newfoundland. ''
The team 's first home was the Arena Gardens, later known as the Mutual Street Arena. From 1912 until 1931, the Arena was ice hockey 's premier site in Toronto. The Arena Gardens was the third arena in Canada to feature a mechanically - frozen, or artificial, ice surface, and for 11 years was the only such facility in Eastern Canada. The Arena was demolished in 1989, with most of the site converted to residential developments. In 2011, parts of the site were made into a city park, known as Arena Gardens.
In 1931, over a six - month period, Conn Smythe built Maple Leaf Gardens on the northwest corner of Carlton Street and Church Street, at a cost of C $1.5 million (C $23.5 million in 2018). The arena soon acquired nicknames including the "Carlton Street Cashbox '', and the "Maple Leaf Mint '', since the team 's games were constantly sold out. The Maple Leafs won 11 Stanley Cups while playing at the Gardens. The first annual NHL All - Star Game was also held at Maple Leaf Gardens in 1947. The Gardens opened on November 12, 1931, with the Maple Leafs losing 2 -- 1 to the Chicago Blackhawks. On February 13, 1999, the Maple Leafs played their last game at the Gardens, suffering a 6 -- 2 loss to the Blackhawks. The building is presently used as a multi-purpose facility, with a Loblaws grocery store occupying retail space on the lower floors, and an athletics arena for Ryerson University, occupying another level.
The Maple Leafs presently use two facilities in the City of Toronto. The club moved from the Gardens on February 20, 1999, to their current home arena, the Air Canada Centre, a multi-purpose indoor entertainment arena on Bay Street in Downtown Toronto. The arena is owned by the Maple Leafs ' parent company MLSE, and is shared with the NBA 's Toronto Raptors (another MLSE subsidiary), as well as the National Lacrosse League 's Toronto Rock. In addition to the main arena, the Maple Leafs also operate a practice facility at the MasterCard Centre for Hockey Excellence. Opened in 2009 by the Lakeshore Lions Club, the arena adopted the name of the Lions ' old arena, the Lakeshore Lions Arena. Facing financial difficulties, in September 2011, the City of Toronto took over ownership of the arena from the Lions ' Club. It is now a City of Toronto controlled Corporation. Renamed the Mastercard Centre, the facility has three NHL rinks and one Olympic - sized rink.
The team is represented through a number of images and symbols, including the maple leaf logo found on the club 's uniform, and their mascot. The Maple Leafs ' jersey has a long history and is one of the best - selling NHL jerseys among fans. The club 's uniforms have been altered several times. The club 's first uniforms were blue and featured the letter T. The first major alteration came in 1919, when the club was renamed the St. Patricks. The uniforms were green with "Toronto St. Pats '' on the logo, lettered in green either on a white "pill '' shape or stripes.
When the club was renamed the Maple Leafs in the 1927 -- 28 season, the logo was changed, and the team reverted to blue uniforms. The logo was a 48 - point maple leaf with the words lettered in white. The home jersey was blue with alternating thin - thick stripes on the arms, legs and shoulders. The road uniform was white with three stripes on the chest and back, waist and legs. For 1933 -- 34, the alternating thin - thick stripes were replaced with stripes of equal thickness. This remained the basic design for the next 40 years. In 1937, veins were added to the leaf and "Toronto '' curved downwards at the ends instead of upwards. In 1942, the 35 - point leaf was introduced. In 1946, the logo added trimming to the leaf with a white or blue border, while "C '' for captain and "A '' for alternate captain first appeared on the sweaters. In 1947, the "Toronto Maple Leafs '' lettering was in red for a short time. In 1958, a six - eyelet lace and tie was added to the neck and a blue shoulder yoke was added. In 1961, player numbers were added on the sleeves.
The fourth major change came in the 1966 -- 67 season, when the logo was changed to an 11 - point leaf, similar to the leaf on the then - new flag of Canada to commemorate the Canadian Centennial. The simpler leaf logo featured the Futura Display typeface, replacing the previous block letters. The stripes on the sleeves and waistline were also changed, adding a wider stripe in between the two thinner stripes (similar to the stripe patterns on the socks and on the early Leafs sweaters). Before the 1970 -- 71 season, the Leafs adopted a new 11 - point leaf logo, with a Kabel bold - font "Toronto '' going straight across, running parallel to the other words. Other changes to the sweater included the replacement of the arm strips with an elongated yoke that extended to the ends of the sleeves, a solid single stripe on the waist replacing the three waistline stripes, two stripes on the stockings, and a smaller, textless Leaf crest on the shoulders. In 1973, the jersey 's neck was a lace tie - down design, before the V - neck returned in 1976. In 1977, the NHL rules were changed to require names on the backs of the uniforms, but Harold Ballard resisted the change. Under Ballard 's direction, the team briefly "complied '' with the rule by placing blue letters on the blue road jersey for a game on February 26, 1978. With the NHL threatening hefty fines for failing to comply with the spirit of the rule (namely, having the names be legible for the fans and broadcasters in attendance), Ballard reached a compromise with the league, allowing the Leafs to finish the 1977 -- 78 season with contrasting white letters on the road sweaters, and coming into full compliance with the new rule in the 1978 -- 79 season by adding names in blue to the white home sweaters.
With the NHL 's 75th anniversary season (1991 -- 92 season), the Leafs wore "Original Six '' style uniforms similar to the designs used in the 1940s. Because of the fan reaction to the previous season 's classic uniforms, the first changes to the Maple Leafs uniform in over twenty years were made. The revised uniforms for 1992 -- 93 featured two stripes on the sleeves and waistline like the classic uniform, but with the 1970 11 - point leaf with Kabel text on the front. A vintage - style veined leaf crest was placed on the shoulders. The uniforms would undergo a few modifications over the years.
In 1997, Nike acquired the rights to manufacture Maple Leafs uniforms. Construction changes to the uniform included a wishbone collar and pothole mesh underarms, while the player name and number font was changed to Kabel to match the logo. CCM returned to manufacturing the Leafs uniforms in 1999 when Nike withdrew from the hockey jersey market, and kept most of the changes, although in 2000 the Kabel numbers were replaced with block numbers outlined in silver, and a silver - outlined interlocked TML monogram replaced the vintage leaf on the shoulders. Also during this time, the Leafs began wearing a white 1960s - style throwback third jersey featuring the outlined 35 - point leaf, blue shoulders, and lace - up collar.
With Reebok taking over the NHL jersey contract following the 2004 - 05 lockout, changes were expected when the Edge uniform system was set to debut in 2007. As part of the Edge overhaul, the TML monograms were removed from the shoulders, the silver outlines on the numbers were replaced with blue or white outlines (e.g. the blue home jersey featured white numbers with blue and white outlines, rather than blue and silver), and the waistline stripes were removed. In 2010, the two waistline stripes were restored, the vintage leaf returned to the shoulders, and the player names and numbers were changed again, reverting to a simpler single - color block font. Finally, lace - up collars were brought back to the primary uniforms. The Leafs also brought back the 1967 - 70 blue uniform, replacing the white 1960s jersey as their third uniform. For the 2014 NHL Winter Classic the Leafs wore a sweater inspired by their earlier uniforms in the 1930s.
On February 2, 2016, the team unveiled a new logo for the 2016 -- 17 season in honour of its centennial, dropping the use of the Kabel - style font lettering used from 1970; it returns the logo to a form inspired by the earlier designs, with 31 points to allude to the 1931 opening of Maple Leaf Gardens, and 17 veins a reference to its establishment in 1917. 13 of the veins are positioned along the top part in honour of its 13 Stanley Cup victories. The logo was subsequently accompanied by a new uniform design that was unveiled during the 2016 NHL Entry Draft on June 24, 2016. In addition to the new logo, the new uniforms feature a custom block typeface for the player names and numbers. Two stripes remain on the sleeves, with a single stripe at the waistline. The updated design carried over to the Adidas Adizero uniform system in 2017.
The Maple Leafs have in recent years occasionally worn a St. Pats throwback uniform for select games in 2003 and 2017, the latter as part of the franchise 's centennial celebration. For the 2018 season, the Leafs also wore a Toronto Arenas - inspired throwback design. In addition, the Leafs participated in two outdoor games as part of the NHL 's own centennial celebration. In the NHL Centennial Classic against the Red Wings, the Leafs wore blue sweaters with bold white stripes across the chest and arms. For the 2018 NHL Stadium Series, the Leafs wore white uniforms with two blue stripes across the chest and arms, and in an unusual move, paired this uniform with white pants.
The Maple Leafs ' mascot is Carlton the Bear, an anthropomorphic polar bear whose name and number (# 60) comes from the location of Maple Leaf Gardens at 60 Carlton Street, where the Leafs played throughout much of their history. Carleton made his first public appearance on July 29, 1995. He later made his regular season appearance on October 10, 1995.
The Maple Leafs are presently affiliated with two minor league teams, the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League, and the Newfoundland Growlers of the ECHL. The Marlies play from Ricoh Coliseum in Toronto. Prior to its move to Ricoh Colosseum in 2005, the team was located in St. John 's Newfoundland and was known as the St. John 's Maple Leafs. The Marlies originated from the New Brunswick Hawks, who later moved to St. Catherines, Newmarket, and St. John 's, before finally moving to Toronto. The Marlies was named after the Toronto Marlboros, a junior hockey team named after the Duke of Marlborough. Founded in 1903, the Marlboros were sponsored by the Leafs from 1927 to 1989. The Marlboros constituted one of two junior hockey teams the Leafs formerly sponsored, the other being the Toronto St. Michael 's Majors.
The Growlers are an ECHL team based in St. John 's Newfoundland. The Growlers became affiliated with the Maple Leafs and the Marlies in June 2018, and are presently their only NHL and AHL affiliates. Unlike the Marlies, the Growlers are not owned by the Leafs ' parent company, but are instead owned by a local ownership group in St. John 's called Deacon Investments Limited.
The Maple Leafs is one of six professional sports teams owned by Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment (MLSE). Initially the ownership of the club was granted to the Arena Gardens of Toronto, Limited; an ownership group fronted by Henry Pellatt, that owned and managed Arena Gardens. After the League 's inaugural season, Arena Gardens petitioned the League for a permanent franchise, with team manager Charles Querrie, and the Arena Gardens treasurer Hubert Vearncombe as its owners. Facing financial issues stemming from litigations from Eddie Livingstone, Querrie brokered the sale of the Arena Garden 's share to the owners of the amateur St. Patricks Hockey Club. Maintaining his shares in the club, Querrie fronted the new ownership group until 1927, when the club was put up for sale. Toronto Varsity Blues coach Conn Smythe put together an ownership group and purchased the franchise for $160,000. In 1929, Smythe decided, in the midst of the Great Depression, that the Maple Leafs needed a new arena. To finance it, Smythe launched Maple Leaf Gardens Limited, a publicly traded management company to own both the Maple Leafs and the new arena, which was named Maple Leaf Gardens. Smythe transferred his ownership of the Leafs to the company in exchange for shares in MLGL, and sold shares in the holding company to the public to help fund construction of the arena.
Although Smythe was the face of MLGL from its founding, he did not gain principal ownership of the company until 1947. Smythe remained the principal owner of the company until 1961, when he sold 90 percent of his shares to an ownership group consisting of Harold Ballard, John Bassett, and Stafford Smythe. Ballard gained principal ownership of the company in February 1972, shortly following the death of Stafford Smythe. Ballard was the principal owner of MLGL until his death in 1990. The company remained a publicly traded company until 1998, when an ownership group fronted by Steve Stavro privatized the company by acquiring more than the 90 percent of stock necessary to force objecting shareholders out.
The present ownership structure emerged in 2012, after the Ontario Teachers ' Pension Plan (the company 's former principal owner) announced the sale of its 75 percent stake in MLSE to a partnership between Bell Canada and Rogers Communications, in a deal valued at $ 1.32 billion. As part of the sale, two numbered companies were created to jointly hold stock. This ownership structure ensures that, at the shareholder level, Rogers and Bell vote their overall 75 percent interest in the company together and thus decisions on the management of the company must be made by consensus between the two. The remaining 25 percent is owned by Larry Tanenbaum, who is also the chairman of MLSE. Bell 's pension fund owns a portion of Bell 's share of MLSE, in order to retain its existing 18 percent interest in the Montreal Canadiens; as NHL rules prevent any shareholder that owns more than 30 percent of a team from holding an ownership position in another.
While initially primarily a hockey company, with ownership stakes in a number of junior hockey clubs including the Toronto Marlboros of the Ontario Hockey Association, the company later branched out to own the Hamilton Tiger - Cats of the CFL from the late 1970s to late 1980s. On February 12, 1998, MLGL purchased the Toronto Raptors of the National Basketball Association, who were constructing the Air Canada Centre. After the Raptors purchase, MLGL changed names to MLSE. The company 's portfolio has since expanded to include the Toronto FC of Major League Soccer, the Toronto Marlies of the AHL, the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League and a 37.5 percent stake in Maple Leaf Square.
This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Maple Leafs. For the full season - by - season history, see List of Toronto Maple Leafs seasons
Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, OTL = Overtime Losses, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against
Updated April 27, 2018.
There have been twenty - one team captains throughout the team 's history. Ken Randall served as the team 's first captain in the inaugural 1917 -- 18 NHL season. The first captain to have served the position for multiple seasons was Reg Noble, serving as captain from 1920 to 1924. John Ross Roach was the first goaltender to be named captain in the NHL, and the only goaltender to serve as the Leafs ' captain. He was one of only six goalies in NHL history to have been officially recognized as the team captain. George Armstrong, captain from 1958 through 1969, was the longest serving captain in the team 's history. In 1997, Mats Sundin became the first non-Canadian to captain the Maple Leafs. His tenure as captain holds the distinction as the longest captaincy for a non-North American born player in NHL history. The last player named to the position was Dion Phaneuf on June 14, 2010. No replacement has been named since he was traded on February 9, 2016.
Three captains of the Maple Leafs have held the position at different points in their career. Syl Apps ' first tenure as the captain began from 1940 to 1943, before he stepped down and left the club to enlist in the Canadian Army. Bob Davidson served as the Maple Leafs captain until Apps ' return from the Army in 1945, when he resumed his captaincy until 1948. Ted Kennedy 's first tenure as captain was from 1948 to 1955. He announced his retirement from the sport at the end of the 1954 -- 55 season, with Sid Smith succeeding him as captain. Although Kennedy missed the entire 1955 -- 56 season, he came out of retirement to play the second half of the 1956 -- 57 season. During that half season, Kennedy served his second tenure as the Maple Leafs ' captain. Darryl Sittler was the third player to have been named the team 's captain twice. As a result of a dispute between Sittler and the Maple Leafs ' general manager Punch Imlach, Sittler relinquished the captaincy on December 29, 1979. The dispute was resolved in the following off - season, after a heart attack hospitalized Imlach. Sittler arranged talks with Ballard to resolve the issue, eventually resuming his captaincy on September 24, 1980. No replacement captain was named during the interim period.
The Maple Leafs have had 39 head coaches (including four interim coaches). The franchise 's first head coach was Dick Carroll, who coached the team for two seasons. A number of coaches have served as the Leafs head coach on multiple occasions. King Clancy was named the head coach on three separate occasions while Charles Querrie and Punch Imlach served the position on two occasions. Mike Babcock is the current head coach. He was named as coach on May 20, 2015, signing an eight - year $50 - million contract, becoming the highest paid NHL coach in history. Earning 105 points during the 2017 -- 18 season, Babcock recorded the most points of any Maple Leafs ' coach in a single season.
Punch Imlach coached the most regular season games of any Leafs ' head coach with 770 games, and has the most all - time points with the Maple Leafs, with 865. He is followed by Pat Quinn, who coached 574 games, with 678 points all - time with the Maple Leafs. Both Mike Rodden and Dick Duff, have the fewest points with the Maple Leafs, with 0. Both were interim coaches who coached only two games each in 1927 and 1980 respectively, losing both games. Five Maple Leafs ' coaches have been inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame as players, while four others were inducted as builders. Pat Burns is the only Leafs ' head coach to win a Jack Adams Award with the team.
In the 1963 NHL Amateur Draft, the NHL 's inaugural draft, the Maple Leafs selected Walt McKechnie, a centre from the London Nationals with their first pick, sixth overall. Two Maple Leafs captains were obtained through the draft, Darryl Sittler in the 1970 draft; as well as Wendel Clark in the 1985 NHL Entry Draft. The Maple Leafs have drafted two players with a first overall draft pick; Clark in the 1985 draft, and Auston Matthews in the 2016 draft. Timothy Liljegren was the most recent player selected by the Maple Leafs in the first round, using the seventeenth overall pick at the 2017 draft.
The Maple Leafs have retired the numbers of 19 players (as some players used the same number, only 13 numbers have been retired). Between October 17, 1992, and October 15, 2016, the Maple Leafs took a unique approach to retired numbers. Whereas players who suffered a career ending injury had their numbers retired, "great '' players had their number "honoured ''. Honoured numbers remained in general circulation for players, however, during Brian Burke 's tenure as the Maple Leafs ' general manager, use of honoured numbers required his approval.
During this period, only two players met the criteria, the first being number 6, worn by Ace Bailey and retired on February 14, 1934; and Bill Barilko 's number 5, retired on October 17, 1992. The retirement of Bailey 's number holds the distinction of being the first of its kind in professional sports. It was briefly taken out of retirement before to the 1968 -- 69 season, after he asked that Ron Ellis be allowed to wear his number. Bailey 's number returned to retirement after Ellis 's final game on January 14, 1981.
The first players to have their numbers honoured were Syl Apps and Ted Kennedy, on October 3, 1993. Mats Sundin was the last player to have his number honoured on February 11, 2012. On October 15, 2016, before the home opening game of the team 's centenary season, the Maple Leafs announced they had changed their philosophy on retiring numbers, and that the numbers of those 16 honoured players would now be retired, in addition to the retirement of Dave Keon 's number.
As well as honouring and retiring the numbers, the club also commissioned statues of former Maple Leafs. The group of statues, known as Legends Row, is a 9.2 metres (30 ft) granite hockey bench with statues of former club players. Unveiled in September 2014, it is located outside Gate 5 of the Air Canada Centre, at Maple Leaf Square. As of October 2017, statues have been made of 14 players with retired numbers.
In addition to the thirteen numbers retired by the Maple Leafs, the number 99 is also retired from use in the organization. At the 2000 NHL All - Star Game hosted in Toronto, the NHL announced the League - wide retirement of Wayne Gretzky 's number 99, retiring it from use throughout all its member teams, including the Maple Leafs.
The Toronto Maple Leafs acknowledges an affiliation with 75 inductees of the Hockey Hall of Fame. The 75 inductees include 62 former players as well as 13 builders of the sport. The Maple Leafs have the greatest number of players inducted in the Hockey Hall of Fame of any NHL team. The 13 individuals recognized as builders of the sport include former Maple Leafs broadcasters, executives, head coaches, and other personnel relating to the club 's operations. Inducted in 2017, Dave Andreychuk was the latest Maple Leafs player to be inducted in the Hockey Hall of Fame.
In addition to players and builders, four broadcasters for the Maple Leafs were also awarded the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award from the Hockey Hall of Fame. In 1984, Foster Hewitt, a radio broadcaster, was awarded the Hall of Fame 's inaugural Foster Hewitt Memorial Award, an award named after Hewitt. Hewitt was already inducted as a builder in the Hall of Fame prior to the award 's inception. Other Maple Leafs broadcasters that received the award include Wes McKnight in 1986, Bob Cole in 2007, and Bill Hewitt in 2007.
These are the top franchise leaders in regular season points, goals, assists, points per game, games played, and goaltending wins as of the end of the 2015 -- 16 season.
Footnotes
Citations
Works cited
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who does the voice of wendy in peter pan | Kathryn Beaumont - wikipedia
Kathryn Beaumont (born 27 June 1938) is an English actress, voice actress, singer and school teacher. She is best known for providing Disney animated films with the voices of both Alice in Alice in Wonderland (1951) and Wendy Darling in Peter Pan (1953), for which she was named a Disney Legend in 1998. Walt Disney personally cast Beaumont after seeing the film On an Island with You (1948), in which she had a small role. Beaumont reprised her voice acting role as Alice in two episodes of the animated series Disney 's House of Mouse (2001 -- 2003) and as both Alice and Wendy in the 2002 video game Kingdom Hearts.
In 2005, Beaumont retired as the voice of Alice and Wendy; the roles were taken over by Hynden Walch.
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where does the name jane doe come from | John Doe - wikipedia
"John Doe '', "John Roe '' or "Richard Roe '' (for men), "Jane Doe '' or "Jane Roe '' (for women), and "Baby Doe '', "Janie Doe '' or "Johnny Doe '' (for children), or just "Doe '' or "Roe '' are multiple - use names that have two distinct usages. Firstly, and especially in the United States, Canada and Ireland, they may refer to an unidentified person, or a party in a legal action whose identity is being withheld officially. In the context of law enforcement in the United States, such names are often used to refer to a corpse whose identity is unknown or unconfirmed. Secondly, such names are also often used to refer to a hypothetical "everyman '' in other contexts, in a manner similar to "John Q. Public '' or "Joe Public ''.
In other English - speaking countries, unique placeholder names, numbers and / or codenames have become more often used in the context of police investigations. This has included the United Kingdom, where usage of "John Doe '' originated during the Middle Ages. However, the legal term John Doe injunction (or John Doe Order), has survived in English law and other legal systems influenced by it. Other names used informally such as "Joe Bloggs '' or "John Smith '' have sometimes been informally used as placeholders for an everyman in the UK, Australia and New Zealand, such names are seldom used in legal or police circles in the same sense as John Doe.
Well - known legal cases named after placeholders include:
Use of "John Doe '' in the sense of an everyman, includes:
Use of "Jane Doe '' in the sense of an unidentified corpse, includes:
Under the legal terminology of Ancient Rome, the names "Numerius Negidius '' and "Aulus Agerius '' were used in relation to hypothetical defendants and plaintiffs.
The name "John Doe '' (or "John Doo ''), "Richard Roe, '' along with "John Roe '', were regularly invoked in English legal instruments to satisfy technical requirements governing standing and jurisdiction, beginning perhaps as early as the reign of England 's King Edward III (1327 -- 1377). Other fictitious names for a person involved in litigation in medieval English law were "John Noakes '' (or "Nokes '') and "John - a-Stiles '' (or "John Stiles '').
The Oxford English Dictionary states that John Doe is "the name given to the fictitious lessee of the plaintiff, in the (now obsolete in the UK) mixed action of ejectment, the fictitious defendant being called Richard Roe ''.
This usage is mocked in the 1834 English song "John Doe and Richard Roe '':
Two giants live in Britain 's land, John Doe and Richard Roe, Who always travel hand in hand, John Doe and Richard Roe. Their fee - faw - fum 's an ancient plan To smell the purse of an Englishman, And, ' ecod, they 'll suck it all they can, John Doe and Richard Roe...
This particular use became obsolete in the UK in 1852:
As is well known, the device of involving real people as notional lessees and ejectors was used to enable freeholders to sue the real ejectors. These were then replaced by the fictional characters John Doe and Richard Roe. Eventually the medieval remedies were (mostly) abolished by the Real Property Limitation Act of 1833; the fictional characters of John Doe and Richard Roe by the Common Law Procedure Act 1852; and the forms of action themselves by the Judicature Acts 1873 -- 75. '' Secretary of State for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs (Respondent) v Meier and another (FC) (Appellant) and others and another (FC) (Appellant) and another (2009).
In the UK, usage of "John Doe '' survives mainly in the form of John Doe Injunction or John Doe Order (see above).
8.02 If an unknown person has possession of the confidential personal information and is threatening to disclose it, a ' John Doe ' injunction may be sought against that person. The first time this form of injunction was used since 1852 in the United Kingdom was in 2005 when lawyers acting for JK Rowling and her publishers obtained an interim order against an unidentified person who had offered to sell chapters of a stolen copy of an unpublished Harry Potter novel to the media.
Unlike the United States, the name "John Doe '' does not actually appear in the formal name of the case, for example: X & Y v Persons Unknown (2007) HRLR 4.
Well - known cases of unidentified corpses include "Cali Doe '' (1979) and "Princess Doe '' (1982). The baby victim in a 2001 murder case in Kansas City, Missouri, was referred to as Precious Doe.
In 2009, the New York Times reported the difficulties and unwanted attention experienced by a man actually named John Doe, who had often been suspected of using a pseudonym. He had been questioned repeatedly by airport security staff and suspected of being an incognito celebrity.
In cases where a large number of unidentified individuals are mentioned, numbers may be appended, such as "Doe # 2 '' or "Doe II ''. Operation Delego (2009), which targeted an international child sexual abuse ring, cited 21 numbered "John Does '', as well as other people known by the surnames "Doe '', "Roe '', and "Poe ''.
"John Stiles '', "Richard Miles '' have been used for the third and fourth participants in an action. "Mary Major '' has been used in some federal cases in the US. "James Doe '' and "Judy Doe '' are among other common variants.
Less often, other surnames ending in - oe have been used when more than two unknown or unidentified persons are named in U.S. court proceedings, e.g., Poe v. Snyder, 834 F. Supp. 2d 721 (W.D. Mich. 2011), whose full style is
In Massachusetts, "Mary Moe '' is used to refer to pregnant women under the age of 18 petitioning the Superior Court for a judicial bypass exception to the parental consent requirement for abortion. "Mary Moe '' is also used to refer to such cases generally, i.e. "Mary Moe cases. '' Sometimes "Mary Doe '' may be used for the individuals.
Parallels in other countries include:
Since 1903 a hypothetical "ordinary and reasonable person '' has often been known, in the legal parlance of the UK and other Commonwealth countries as "the man on the Clapham omnibus ''.
The use and selection of pseudonyms is not standardized in U.S. courts and the practice itself is opposed on legal grounds by some and was rare prior to 1969.
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where did the march on washington take place | March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom - wikipedia
The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, the March on Washington, or The Great March on Washington, was held in Washington, D.C. on Wednesday, August 28, 1963. The purpose of the march was to advocate for civil and economic rights for African Americans. At the march, Martin Luther King Jr., standing in front of the Lincoln Memorial, delivered his historic "I Have a Dream '' speech in which he called for an end to racism.
The march was organized by A. Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin, who built an alliance of civil rights, labor, and religious organizations that came together under the banner of "jobs and freedom. '' Estimates of the number of participants varied from 200,000 to 300,000; the most widely cited estimate is 250,000 people. Observers estimated that 75 -- 80 % of the marchers were black. The march was one of the largest political rallies for human rights in United States history.
The march is credited with helping to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and preceded the Selma Voting Rights Movement which led to the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Although African Americans had been legally freed from slavery, elevated to the status of citizens and the men given full voting rights at the end of the American Civil War, many continued to face social, economic, and political repression over the years and into the 1960s. In the early 1960s, a system of legal discrimination, known as Jim Crow laws, were pervasive in the American South, ensuring that Black Americans remained oppressed. They also experienced discrimination from businesses and governments, and in some places were prevented from voting through intimidation and violence. Twenty - one states prohibited interracial marriage.
The impetus for a march on Washington developed over a long period of time, and earlier efforts to organize such a demonstration included the March on Washington Movement of the 1940s. A. Philip Randolph -- the president of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, president of the Negro American Labor Council, and vice president of the AFL - CIO -- was a key instigator in 1941. With Bayard Rustin, Randolph called for 100,000 black workers to march on Washington, in protest of discriminatory hiring by U.S. military contractors and demanding an Executive Order. Faced with a mass march scheduled for July 1, 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 on June 25. The order established the Committee on Fair Employment Practice and banned discriminatory hiring in the defense industry. Randolph called off the March.
Randolph and Rustin continued to organize around the idea of a mass march on Washington. They envisioned several large marches during the 1940s, but all were called off (despite criticism from Rustin). Their Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom, held at the Lincoln Memorial on May 17, 1957, featured key leaders including Adam Clayton Powell, Martin Luther King Jr., and Roy Wilkins. Mahalia Jackson performed.
The 1963 march was an important part of the rapidly expanding Civil Rights Movement, which involved demonstrations and nonviolent direct action across the United States. 1963 also marked the 100th anniversary of the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation by Abraham Lincoln. Members of The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference put aside their differences and came together for the march. Many whites and blacks also came together in the urgency for change in the nation.
Violent confrontations broke out in the South: in Cambridge, Maryland; Pine Bluff, Arkansas; Goldsboro, North Carolina; Somerville, Tennessee; Saint Augustine, Florida; and across Mississippi. Most of these incidents involved white people retaliating against nonviolent demonstrators. Many people wanted to march on Washington, but disagreed over how the march should be conducted. Some called for a complete shutdown of the city through civil disobedience. Others argued that the movement should remain nationwide in scope, rather than focus its energies on the nation 's capital. There was a widespread perception that the Kennedy administration had not lived up to its promises in the 1960 election, and King described Kennedy 's race policy as "tokenism ''.
On May 24, 1963, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy invited African - American novelist James Baldwin, along with a large group of cultural leaders, to a meeting in New York to discuss race relations. However, the meeting became antagonistic, as black delegates felt that Kennedy did not have a full understanding of the race problem in the nation. The public failure of the meeting, which came to be known as the Baldwin -- Kennedy meeting, underscored the divide between the needs of Black America and the understanding of Washington politicians. However, the meeting also provoked the Kennedy administration to take action on the civil rights for African - Americans. On June 11, 1963, President John F. Kennedy gave his famous civil rights address on national television and radio, announcing that he would begin to push for civil rights legislation -- the law which eventually became the Civil Rights Act of 1964. That night, Mississippi activist Medgar Evers was murdered in his own driveway, further escalating national tension around the issue of racial inequality.
A. Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin began planning the march in December 1961. They envisioned two days of protest, including sit - ins and lobbying followed by a mass rally at the Lincoln Memorial. They wanted to focus on joblessness and to call for a public works program that would employ blacks. In early 1963 they called publicly for "a massive March on Washington for jobs ''. They received help from Amalgamated Clothing Workers unionist Stanley Aronowitz, who gathered support from radical organizers who could be trusted not to report their plans to the Kennedy administration. The unionists offered tentative support for a march that would be focused on jobs.
On May 15, 1963, without securing the cooperation of the NAACP or the Urban League, Randolph announced an "October Emancipation March on Washington for Jobs ''. He reached out to union leaders, winning the support of the UAW 's Walter Reuther, but not of AFL -- CIO president George Meany. Randolph and Rustin intended to focus the March on economic inequality, stating in their original plan that "integration in the fields of education, housing, transportation and public accommodations will be of limited extent and duration so long as fundamental economic inequality along racial lines persists. '' As they negotiated with other leaders, they expanded their stated objectives to "Jobs and Freedom '' to acknowledge the agenda of groups that focused more on civil rights.
In June 1963, leaders from several different organizations formed the Council for United Civil Rights Leadership, an umbrella group which would coordinate funds and messaging. This coalition of leaders, who became known as the "Big Six '', included: Randolph who was chosen as the titular head of the march, James Farmer (president of the Congress of Racial Equality), John Lewis (chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee), Martin Luther King Jr. (president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference), Roy Wilkins (president of the NAACP), and Whitney Young (president of the National Urban League). King in particular had become well known for his role in the Birmingham campaign and for his Letter from Birmingham Jail. Wilkins and Young initially objected to Rustin as a leader for the march, because he was a homosexual, a former Communist, and a draft resistor. They eventually accepted Rustin as deputy organizer, on the condition that Randolph act as lead organizer and manage any political fallout.
On June 22, Big Six met with President Kennedy, who warned against creating "an atmosphere of intimidation '' by bringing a large crowd to Washington. The civil rights activists insisted on holding the march. Wilkins pushed for the organizers to rule out civil disobedience and described this proposal as the "perfect compromise ''. King and Young agreed. Leaders from CORE and SNCC, who wanted to conduct direct actions against the Department of Justice, endorsed the protest before they were informed that civil disobedience would not be allowed. Finalized plans for the March were announced in a press conference on July 2. President Kennedy spoke favorably of the March on July 17, saying that organizers planned a peaceful assembly and had cooperated with the Washington, D.C., police.
Mobilization and logistics were administered by Rustin, a civil rights veteran and organizer of the 1947 Journey of Reconciliation, the first of the Freedom Rides to test the Supreme Court ruling that banned racial discrimination in interstate travel. Rustin was a long - time associate of both Randolph and Dr. King. With Randolph concentrating on building the march 's political coalition, Rustin built and led the team of two hundred activists and organizers who publicized the march and recruited the marchers, coordinated the buses and trains, provided the marshals, and set up and administered all of the logistic details of a mass march in the nation 's capital. During the days leading up to the march, these 200 volunteers used the ballroom of Washington DC radio station WUST as their operations headquarters.
The march was not universally supported among civil rights activists. Some, including Rustin (who assembled 4,000 volunteer marshals from New York), were concerned that it might turn violent, which could undermine pending legislation and damage the international image of the movement. The march was condemned by Malcolm X, spokesperson for the Nation of Islam, who termed it the "farce on Washington ''.
March organizers themselves disagreed over the purpose of the march. The NAACP and Urban League saw it as a gesture of support for a civil rights bill that had been introduced by the Kennedy Administration. Randolph, King, and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) saw it as a way of raising both civil rights and economic issues to national attention beyond the Kennedy bill. Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) saw it as a way of challenging and condemning the Kennedy administration 's inaction and lack of support for civil rights for African Americans.
Despite their disagreements, the group came together on a set of goals:
Although in years past, Randolph had supported "Negro only '' marches, partly to reduce the impression that the civil rights movement was dominated by white communists, organizers in 1963 agreed that whites and blacks marching side by side would create a more powerful image.
The Kennedy Administration cooperated with the organizers in planning the March, and one member of the Justice Department was assigned as a full - time liaison. Chicago and New York City (as well as some corporations) agreed to designate August 28 as "Freedom Day '' and give workers the day off.
To avoid being perceived as radical, organizers rejected support from Communist groups. However, some politicians claimed that the March was Communist - inspired, and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) produced numerous reports suggesting the same. In the days before August 28, the FBI called celebrity backers to inform them of the organizers ' communist connections and advising them to withdraw their support. When William C. Sullivan produced a lengthy report on August 23 suggesting that Communists had failed to appreciably infiltrate the civil rights movement, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover rejected its contents. Strom Thurmond launched a prominent public attack on the March as Communist, and singled out Rustin in particular as a Communist and a gay man.
Organizers worked out of a building at West 130th St. and Lenox in Harlem. They promoted the march by selling buttons, featuring two hands shaking, the words "March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom '', a union bug, and the date August 28, 1963. By August 2, they had distributed 42,000 of the buttons. Their goal was a crowd of at least 100,000 people.
As the march was being planned, activists across the country received bomb threats at their homes and in their offices. The Los Angeles Times received a message saying its headquarters would be bombed unless it printed a message calling the president a "Nigger Lover ''. Five airplanes were grounded on the morning of August 28 due to bomb threats. A man in Kansas City telephoned the FBI to say he would put a hole between King 's eyes; the FBI did not respond. Roy Wilkins was threatened with assassination if he did not leave the country.
Thousands traveled by road, rail, and air to Washington D.C. on Wednesday, August 28. Marchers from Boston traveled overnight and arrived in Washington at 7am after an eight - hour trip, but others took much longer bus rides from places like Milwaukee, Little Rock, and St. Louis. Organizers persuaded New York 's MTA to run extra subway trains after midnight on August 28, and the New York City bus terminal was busy throughout the night with peak crowds. A total of 450 buses left New York City from Harlem. Maryland police reported that "by 8: 00 a.m., 100 buses an hour were streaming through the Baltimore Harbor Tunnel. ''
One reporter, Fred Powledge, accompanied African - Americans who boarded six buses in Birmingham, Alabama, for the 750 - mile trip to Washington. The New York Times carried his report:
The 260 demonstrators, of all ages, carried picnic baskets, water jugs, Bibles and a major weapon - their willingness to march, sing and pray in protest against discrimination. They gathered early this morning (August 27) in Birmingham 's Kelly Ingram Park, where state troopers once (four months previous in May) used fire hoses and dog to put down their demonstrations. It was peaceful in the Birmingham park as the marchers waited for the buses. The police, now part of a moderate city power structure, directed traffic around the square and did not interfere with the gathering... An old man commented on the 20 - hour ride, which was bound to be less than comfortable: "You forget we Negroes have been riding buses all our lives. We do n't have the money to fly in airplanes. ''
John Marshall Kilimanjaro, a demonstrator traveling from Greensboro, North Carolina, said:
Contrary to the mythology, the early moments of the March -- getting there -- was no picnic. People were afraid. We did n't know what we would meet. There was no precedent. Sitting across from me was a black preacher with a white collar. He was an AME preacher. We talked. Every now and then, people on the bus sang ' Oh Freedom ' and ' We Shall Overcome, ' but for the most part there was n't a whole bunch of singing. We were secretly praying that nothing violent happened.
Other bus rides featured racial tension, as black activists criticized liberal white participants as fair - weather friends.
Hazel Mangle Rivers, who had paid $8 for her ticket -- "one - tenth of her husband 's weekly salary '' -- was quoted in the August 29 New York Times. Rivers stated that she was impressed by Washington 's civility: "The people are lots better up here than they are down South. They treat you much nicer. Why, when I was out there at the march a white man stepped on my foot, and he said, "Excuse me, '' and I said "Certainly! '' That 's the first time that has ever happened to me. I believe that was the first time a white person has ever really been nice to me. ''
Some participants who arrived early held an all - night vigil outside the Department of Justice, claiming it had unfairly targeted civil rights activists and that it had been too lenient on white supremacists who attacked them.
The Washington, D.C., police forces were mobilized to full capacity for the march, including reserve officers and deputized firefighters. A total of 5,900 police officers were on duty. The government mustered 2,000 men from the National Guard, and brought in 3,000 outside soldiers to join the 1,000 already stationed in the area. These additional soldiers were flown in on helicopters from bases in Virginia and North Carolina. The Pentagon readied 19,000 troops in the suburbs. All of the forces involved were prepared to implement a coordinated conflict strategy named "Operation Steep Hill ''.
For the first time since Prohibition, liquor sales were banned in Washington D.C. Hospitals stockpiled blood plasma and cancelled elective surgeries. Major League Baseball cancelled two games between the Minnesota Twins and the last place Washington Senators even though the venue, D.C. Stadium, was nearly four miles from the Lincoln Memorial rally site.
Rustin and Walter Fauntroy negotiated some security issues with the government, gaining approval for private marshals with the understanding that these would not be able to act against outside agitators. The FBI and Justice Department refused to provide preventive guards for buses traveling through the South to reach D.C. William Johnson recruited more than 1,000 police officers to serve on this force. Julius Hobson, an FBI informant who served on the March 's security force, told the team to be on the lookout for FBI infiltrators who might act as agents provocateurs.
Jerry Bruno, President Kennedy 's advance man, was positioned to cut the power to the public address system in the event of any incendiary rally speech.
Rustin pushed hard for an expensive ($16,000) sound system, maintaining "We can not maintain order where people can not hear. '' The system was obtained and set up at the Lincoln Memorial, but was sabotaged on the day before the March. Its operators were unable to repair it. Fauntroy contacted Attorney General Robert Kennedy and his civil rights liaison Burke Marshall, demanding that the government fix the system. Fauntroy reportedly told them: "We have a couple hundred thousand people coming. Do you want a fight here tomorrow after all we 've done? '' The system was successfully rebuilt overnight by the U.S. Army Signal Corps.
The march commanded national attention by preempting regularly scheduled television programs. As the first ceremony of such magnitude ever initiated and dominated by African Americans, the march also was the first to have its nature wholly misperceived in advance. Dominant expectations ran from paternal apprehension to dread. On Meet the Press, reporters grilled Roy Wilkins and Martin Luther King about widespread foreboding that "it would be impossible to bring more than 100,000 militant Negroes into Washington without incidents and possibly rioting. '' Life magazine declared that the capital was suffering "its worst case of invasion jitters since the First Battle of Bull Run. '' The Pentagon readied 19,000 troops in the suburbs and the jails shifted inmates to other prisons to make room for those arrested in mass arrests; the city banned all sales of alcoholic beverages; hospitals made room for riot casualties by postponing elective surgery. With nearly 1,700 extra correspondents supplementing the Washington press corps, the march drew a media assembly larger than the Kennedy inauguration two years earlier. Students from the University of California came together as black power organizations and emphasized on the importance of African American freedom struggle. The march included black political parties and William Worthy who was one of many who lead college students during the freedom struggle era.
On August 28, more than 2,000 buses, 21 chartered trains, 10 chartered airliners, and uncounted cars converged on Washington. All regularly scheduled planes, trains, and buses were also filled to capacity.
Although Randolph and Rustin had originally planned to fill the streets of Washington, D.C., the final route of the March covered only half of the National Mall. The march began at the Washington Monument and was scheduled to progress to the Lincoln Memorial with a program of music and speakers. Demonstrators were met at the monument by speakers and musicians. Women leaders were asked to march down Independence Avenue, while the male leaders marched on Pennsylvania Avenue with the media.
The march failed to start on time because its leaders were meeting with members of Congress. To the leaders ' surprise, the assembled group began to march from the Washington Monument to the Lincoln Memorial without them. The leaders met the March at Constitution Avenue, where they linked arms at the head of a crowd in order to be photographed ' leading the march '.
Marchers were not supposed to create their own signs, though this rule was not completely enforced by marshals. Most of the demonstrators did carry pre-made signs, available in piles at the Washington Monument.
About 50 members of the American Nazi Party staged a counter-protest and were quickly dispersed by police.
The rest of Washington was quiet during the March. Most non-participating workers stayed home. Jailers allowed inmates to watch the March on TV.
Representatives from each of the sponsoring organizations addressed the crowd from the podium at the Lincoln Memorial. Speakers (dubbed "The Big Ten '') included The Big Six; three religious leaders (Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish); and labor leader Walter Reuther. None of the official speeches were by women; Josephine Baker gave a speech during the preliminary offerings, but women 's presence in the official program was limited to a "tribute '' led by Bayard Rustin, at which Daisy Bates spoke (see "excluded speakers '' below.)
Floyd McKissick read James Farmer 's speech because Farmer had been arrested during a protest in Louisiana; Farmer had written that the protests would not stop "until the dogs stop biting us in the South and the rats stop biting us in the North. ''
The actual order of the speakers is as follows: 1. A. Philip Randolph -- March Director, 2. Walter Reuther -- AFL - CIO, 3. Roy Wilkins -- NAACP, 4. John Lewis -- SNCC, 5. Daisy Bates -- Little Rock, Arkansas, 6. Dr. Eugene Carson Blake -- United Presbyterian Church and the National Council of Churches, 7. Floyd McKissick -- CORE, 8. Whitney Young -- National Urban League, 9. Several smaller speeches, including Rabbi Joachim Prinz -- American Jewish Congress, Mathew Ahmann -- National Catholic Conference, Josephine Baker -- actress, and 10. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. -- SCLC. Then closing remarks by A. Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin, March Organizers, leading with The Pledge and list of demands.
Marian Anderson was scheduled to lead the National Anthem but was unable to arrive on time; Camilla Williams performed in her place. Following an invocation by Archbishop Patrick O'Boyle, the opening remarks were given by march director A. Philip Randolph, followed by Eugene Carson Blake. A tribute to "Negro Women Fighters for Freedom '' was then led by Bayard Rustin, at which Daisy Bates spoke briefly in place of Myrlie Evers, who had missed her flight. The tribute introduced Daisy Bates, Diane Nash, Prince E. Lee, Rosa Parks, and Gloria Richardson. The following speakers were SNCC chairman John Lewis, labor leader Walter Reuther and CORE chairman Floyd McKissick (substituting for arrested CORE director James Farmer). The Eva Jessye Choir then sang, and Rabbi Uri Miller (president of the Synagogue Council of America) offered a prayer, followed by National Urban League director Whitney Young, NCCIJ director Mathew Ahmann, and NAACP leader Roy Wilkins. After a performance by singer Mahalia Jackson, American Jewish Congress president Joachim Prinz spoke, followed by SCLC president Martin Luther King Jr. Rustin then read the march 's official demands for the crowd 's approval, and Randolph led the crowd in a pledge to continue working for the march 's goals. The program was closed with a benediction by Morehouse College president Benjamin Mays.
Although one of the officially stated purposes of the march was to support the civil rights bill introduced by the Kennedy Administration, several of the speakers criticized the proposed law as insufficient. Two government agents stood by in a position to cut power to the microphone if necessary.
Roy Wilkins announced that W.E.B. Du Bois had died in Ghana the previous night; the crowd observed a moment of silence in his memory. Wilkins had initially refused to announce the news because he despised Du Bois as a Communist -- but then insisted on making the announcement when he realized that Randolph would make it if he did n't. Wilkins said: "Regardless of the fact that in his later years Dr. Du Bois chose another path, it is incontrovertible that at the dawn of the twentieth century his was the voice that was calling you to gather here today in this cause. If you want to read something that applies to 1963 go back and get a volume of The Souls of Black Folk by Du Bois, published in 1903. ''
John Lewis of SNCC was the youngest speaker at the event. His speech -- which a number of SNCC activists had helped write -- took the Administration to task for how little it had done to protect southern blacks and civil rights workers under attack in the Deep South. Cut from his original speech at the insistence of more conservative and pro-Kennedy leaders were phrases such as:
In good conscience, we can not support wholeheartedly the administration 's civil rights bill, for it is too little and too late...
I want to know, which side is the federal government on?...
The revolution is a serious one. Mr. Kennedy is trying to take the revolution out of the streets and put it into the courts. Listen, Mr. Kennedy. Listen, Mr. Congressman. Listen, fellow citizens. The black masses are on the march for jobs and freedom, and we must say to the politicians that there wo n't be a "cooling - off '' period.
... We will march through the South, through the heart of Dixie, the way Sherman did. We shall pursue our own scorched earth policy and burn Jim Crow to the ground -- nonviolently...
Copies of the SNCC speech were distributed on August 27, and met with immediate disapproval from many of the organizers. Archbishop Patrick O'Boyle objected most strenuously to a part of the speech that called for immediate action and disavowed "patience ''. The government (and more moderate civil rights leaders) could not countenance SNCC 's explicit opposition of Kennedy 's civil rights bill. That night, O'Boyle and other members of the Catholic delegation began preparing a statement announcing their withdrawal from the March. Reuther convinced them to wait and called Rustin; Rustin informed Lewis at 2 A.M. on August 28 that his speech was unacceptable to key members of the March. (Rustin also reportedly contacted Tom Kahn, mistakenly believing that Kahn had edited the speech and inserted the line about Sherman 's March to the Sea. Rustin asked, "How could you do this? Do you know what Sherman did?) But Lewis did not want to change the speech. Other members of SNCC, including Stokely Carmichael, were also adamant that the speech not be censored.
The dispute continued until minutes before talks were scheduled to begin. Under threat of public denouncement by the religious leaders, and under pressure from the rest of his coalition, Lewis agreed to omit the ' inflammatory ' passages. Many activists from SNCC, CORE, and even SCLC were angry at what they considered censorship of his speech.
Lewis added a qualified endorsement of the civil rights legislation, saying: "It is true that we support the administration 's Civil Rights Bill. We support it with great reservation, however. '' Even after toning down his speech, Lewis called for activists to "get in and stay in the streets of every city, every village and hamlet of this nation until true freedom comes ''.
The speech given by SCLC president King, who spoke last, became known as the "I Have a Dream '' speech, which was carried live by TV stations and subsequently considered the most impressive moment of the march. In it, King called for an end to racism in the United States. It invoked the Declaration of Independence, the Emancipation Proclamation, and the United States Constitution. At the end of the speech, Mahalia Jackson shouted from the crowd, "Tell them about the dream, Martin! '', and King departed from his prepared text for a partly improvised peroration on the theme of "I have a dream ''. Over time it has been hailed as a masterpiece of rhetoric, added to the National Recording Registry and memorialized by the National Park Service with an inscription on the spot where King stood to deliver the speech.
A. Philip Randolph spoke first, promising: "we shall return again and again to Washington in ever growing numbers until total freedom is ours. ''
Randolph also closed the event along with Bayard Rustin. Rustin followed King 's speech by slowly reading the list of demands. The two concluded by urging attendees to take various actions in support of the struggle.
Author James Baldwin was prevented from speaking at the March on the grounds that his comments would be too inflammatory. Baldwin later commented on the irony of the "terrifying and profound '' requests that he prevent the March from happening:
In my view, by that time, there was, on the one hand, nothing to prevent -- the March had already been co-opted -- and, on the other, no way of stopping the people from descending on Washington. What struck me most horribly was that virtually no one in power (including some blacks or Negroes who were somewhere next door to power) was able, even remotely, to accept the depth, the dimension, of the passion and the faith of the people.
Despite the protests of organizer Anna Arnold Hedgeman, no women gave a speech at the March. Male organizers attributed this omission to the "difficulty of finding a single woman to speak without causing serious problems vis - à - vis other women and women 's groups ''. Hedgeman read a statement at an August 16 meeting, charging:
In light of the role of Negro women in the struggle for freedom and especially in light of the extra burden they have carried because of the castration of our Negro men in this culture, it is incredible that no woman should appear as a speaker at the historic March on Washington Meeting at the Lincoln Memorial...
The assembled group agreed that Myrlie Evers, the new widow of Medgar Evers, could speak during the "Tribute to Women ''. However, Mrs. Evers was unavailable. Daisy Bates spoke briefly (less than 200 words) in place of Myrlie Evers, who had missed her flight. Earlier, Josephine Baker had addressed the crowd before the official program began. Although Gloria Richardson was on the program and had been asked to give a two - minute speech, when she arrived at the stage her chair with her name on it had been removed, and the event marshal took her microphone away after she said "hello ''. Richardson, along with Rosa Parks and Lena Horne, was escorted away from the podium before Martin Luther King Jr. spoke.
Early plans for the March would have included an "Unemployed Worker '' as one of the speakers. This position was eliminated, furthering criticism of the March 's middle - class bias.
Gospel legend Mahalia Jackson sang "How I Got Over '', and Marian Anderson sang "He 's Got the Whole World in His Hands ''. This was not Marian Anderson 's first appearance at the Lincoln Memorial. In 1939, the Daughters of the American Revolution refused permission for Anderson to sing to an integrated audience in Constitution Hall. With the aid of First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt and her husband Franklin D. Roosevelt, Anderson performed a critically acclaimed open - air concert on Easter Sunday, 1939, on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial.
Joan Baez led the crowds in several verses of "We Shall Overcome '' and "Oh Freedom ''. Musician Bob Dylan performed "When the Ship Comes In '', for which he was joined by Baez. Dylan also performed "Only a Pawn in Their Game '', a provocative and not completely popular choice because it asserted that Byron de la Beckwith, as a poor white man, was not personally or primarily to blame for the murder of Medgar Evers.
Peter, Paul and Mary sang "If I Had a Hammer '' and Dylan 's "Blowin ' in the Wind ''. Odetta sang "I 'm On My Way ''.
Some participants, including Dick Gregory criticized the choice of mostly white performers and the lack of group participation in the singing. Dylan himself said he felt uncomfortable as a white man serving as a public image for the Civil Rights Movement. After the March on Washington, he performed at few other immediately politicized events.
After the March, the speakers traveled to the White House for a brief discussion of proposed civil rights legislation with President Kennedy. Kennedy had watched King 's speech on TV and was very impressed. According to biographer Thomas C. Reeves, Kennedy "felt that he would be booed at the March, and also did n't want to meet with organizers before the March because he did n't want a list of demands. He arranged a 5 P.M. meeting at the White House with the 10 leaders on the 28th. '' The March was considered a "triumph of managed protest '' and Kennedy felt it was a victory for him as well -- bolstering the chances for his civil rights bill.
Media attention gave the march national exposure, carrying the organizers ' speeches and offering their own commentary. In his section The March on Washington and Television News, William Thomas notes: "Over five hundred cameramen, technicians, and correspondents from the major networks were set to cover the event. More cameras would be set up than had filmed the last Presidential inauguration. One camera was positioned high in the Washington Monument, to give dramatic vistas of the marchers ''. The major networks broadcast some of the March live, though they interspersed footage of interviews with politicians. Subsequent broadcasts focused heavily on the "I have a dream '' portion of King 's speech.
The Voice of America translated the speeches and rebroadcast them in 36 languages. The United States Information Agency organized a press conference for the benefit of foreign journalists, and also created a documentary film of the event for distribution to embassies abroad. Commented Michael Thelwell of SNCC: "So it happened that Negro students from the South, some of whom still had unhealed bruises from the electric cattle prods which Southern police used to break up demonstrations, were recorded for the screens of the world portraying ' American Democracy at Work. ' ''
Although the mass media generally declared the March successful because of its high turnout, organizers were not confident that it would create change. Randolph and Rustin abandoned their belief in the effectiveness of marching on Washington. King maintained faith that action in Washington could work, but determined that future marchers would need to call greater attention to economic injustice. In 1967 -- 1968, he organized a Poor People 's Campaign to occupy the National Mall with a shantytown.
Black nationalist Malcolm X, in his Message to the Grass Roots speech, criticized the march, describing it as "a picnic '' and "a circus ''. He said the civil rights leaders had diluted the original purpose of the march, which had been to show the strength and anger of black people, by allowing white people and organizations to help plan and participate in the march. One SNCC staffer commented during the march, "He 's denouncing us as clowns, but he 's right there with the clown show. '' But the membership of SNCC, increasingly frustrated with the tactics of the NAACP and other moderate groups, gradually embraced Malcolm X 's position.
Segregationists including William Jennings Bryan Dorn criticized the government for cooperating with the civil rights activists. Senator Olin D. Johnston rejected an invitation to attend, writing: "You are committing the worst possible mistake in promoting this March. You should know that criminal, fanatical, and communistic elements, as well as crackpots, will move in to take every advantage of this mob. You certainly will have no influence on any member of Congress, including myself. ''
Many participants said they felt the March was a historic and life - changing experience. Nan Grogan Orrock, a student at Mary Washington College, said: "You could n't help but get swept up in the feeling of the March. It was an incredible experience of this mass of humanity with one mind moving down the street. It was like being part of a glacier. You could feel the sense of collective will and effort in the air. '' SNCC organizer Bob Zellner reported that the event "provided dramatic proof that the sometimes quiet and always dangerous work we did in the Deep South had had a profound national impact. The spectacle of a quarter of a million supporters and activists gave me an assurance that the work I was in the process of dedicating my life to was worth doing. ''
Richard Brown, then a white graduate student at Harvard University, recalls that the March fostered direct actions for economic progress: "Henry Armstrong and I compared notes. I realized the Congress of Racial Equality might help black employment in Boston by urging businesses to hire contractors like Armstrong. He agreed to help start a list of reliable contractors that CORE could promote. It was a modest effort -- but it moved in the right direction. ''
Other participants, more sympathetic to Malcolm X and the black nationalists, expressed ambivalence. One marcher from New York explained:
It 's like St. Patrick 's Day. I came out of respect for what my people are doing, not because I believe it will do any good. I thought it would do some good in the beginning. But when the march started to get all the official approval from Mastah Kennedy, Mastah Wagner, Mastah Spellman, and they started setting limits on how we had to march peacefully, I knew that the march was going to be a mockery, that they were giving us something again.
Marcher Beverly Alston thought that the day had its greatest impact within the movement: "Culturally, there has been tremendous progress over the past forty years. Black awareness and self - determination has soared. Politically, I just do n't think we 've made enough progress. '' Fifteen - year - old Ericka Jenkins from Washington said:
I saw people laughing and listening and standing very close to one another, almost in an embrace. Children of every size, pregnant women, elderly people who seemed tired but happy to be there, clothing that made me know that they struggled to make it day to day, made me know they worked in farms or offices or even nearby for the government. I did n't see teenagers alone; I saw groups of teenagers with teachers. White people (were) standing in wonder. Their eyes were open, they were listening. Openness and nothing on guard -- I saw that in everybody. I was so happy to see that in the white people that they could listen and take in and respect and believe in the words of a black person. I had never seen anything like that.
Some people discussed racism becoming less explicit after the March. Reverend Abraham Woods of Birmingham commented: "Everything has changed. And when you look at it, nothing has changed. Racism is under the surface, and an incident that could scratch it, can bring it out. ''
The symbolism of the March has been contested since before it even took place. In the years following the March, movement radicals increasingly subscribed to Malcolm X 's narrative of the March as a co-optation by the white establishment. Liberals and conservatives tended to embrace the March, but focused mostly on King 's "I Have a Dream '' speech and the legislative successes of 1964 and 1965.
The mass media identified King 's speech as a highlight of the event and focused on this oration to the exclusion of other aspects. For several decades, King took center stage in narratives about the March. More recently, historians and commentators have acknowledged the role played by Bayard Rustin in organizing the event.
Soon after the speakers ended their meetings with Congress to go join the March, both houses passed legislation to create a dispute arbitration board for striking railroad workers.
The March is credited with propelling the U.S. government into action on civil rights, creating political momentum for the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
The cooperation of a Democratic administration with the issue of civil rights marked a pivotal moment in voter alignment within the U.S. The Democratic Party gave up the Solid South -- its undivided support since Reconstruction among the segregated Southern states -- and went on to capture a high proportion of votes from blacks from the Republicans.
The 1963 March also spurred anniversary marches that occur every five years, with the 20th and 25th being some of the most well known. The 25th Anniversary theme was "We Still have a Dream... Jobs * Peace * Freedom. ''
At the 2013 anniversary march, President Barack Obama conferred a posthumous Presidential Medal of Freedom on Bayard Rustin and 15 others.
For the 50th Anniversary, the United States Postal Service released a forever stamp that commemorates the 1963 March on Washington. The stamp shows marchers near the Washington Monument with signs calling for equal rights and jobs for all.
In 2013, the Economic Policy Institute launched a series of reports around the theme of "The Unfinished March ''. These reports analyze the goals of the original march and assess how much progress has been made. They echo the message of Randolph and Rustin that civil rights can not transform people 's quality of life unless accompanied by economic justice. They contend that many of the March 's primary goals -- including housing, integrated education, and widespread employment at living wages -- have not been accomplished. They further argued that although legal advances were made, black people still live in concentrated areas of poverty ("ghettoes ''), where they receive inferior education and suffer from widespread unemployment.
Dedrick Muhammad of the NAACP writes that racial inequality of income and homeownership have increased since 1963 and worsened during the recent Great Recession.
Sidney Poitier, Harry Belafonte and Charlton Heston
Actor Ossie Davis
Dr. Ralph Bunche
Major League Baseball player, Jackie Robinson
Four young marchers singing
Charlton Heston, James Baldwin and Marlon Brando
Food service crew
Sammy Davis Jr., with Roy Wilkins, Executive Secretary of NAACP
Vocalists Peter, Paul, and Mary
National Basketball Association player, Bill Russell
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
Video
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what is the difference between interval and fartlek training | Fartlek - wikipedia
Fartlek, which means "speed play '' in Swedish, is a training method that blends continuous training with interval training. Fartlek runs are a very simple form of a long distance run. Fartlek training "is simply defined as periods of fast running intermixed with periods of slower running. '' For some people, this could be a mix of jogging and sprinting, but for beginners it could be walking with jogging sections added in when possible. A simple example of what a runner would do during a fartlek run is "sprint all out from one light pole to the next, jog to the corner, give a medium effort for a couple of blocks, jog between four light poles and sprint to a stop sign, and so on, for a set total time or distance. '' The variable intensity and continuous nature of the exercise places stress on both the aerobic and anaerobic systems. It differs from traditional interval training in that it is unstructured; intensity and / or speed varies, as the athlete wishes. Fartlek training is generally associated with running, but can include almost any kind of exercise.
Swedish coach Gösta Holmér developed fartlek in 1937, and, since then, many physiologists have adopted it. It was designed for the downtrodden Swedish cross country running teams that had been beaten throughout the 1920s by Paavo Nurmi and the Finns. Holmér 's plan used a faster - than - race pace and concentrated on both speed and endurance training.
This is the first session that was designed by Gösta Holmér for a cross country (multi-terrain) runner. This is also an example of what a fartlek session might look like, but fartlek sessions should be designed for an athlete 's own event or sport, as well as catering to their individual needs. Sessions should be at an intensity that causes the athlete to work at 60 % to 80 % of his or her maximum heart rate. This should mean that the body will not experience too much discomfort while exercising. An athlete should also include a good warm up at the beginning of the session, and a cool down at the end of the session, to improve performance, minimize post-workout muscle soreness, to decrease the chances of injury and for other reasons.
Runners hypothetically "run hard for two mailboxes, recover for three, run hard for three, recover for two. '' When executing this type, the runner continues like this for the allotted time or distance determined.
Runners speed up when they get close to a dog in order to pass them; after passing the dog, they would then slow down for the recovery period.
Many runners use music while they run. Runners can use their music as a template for their fartlek run by changing their speed according to different parts of a song. For example, they can speed up during the chorus and slow down for the rest of the song.
In order to add more variety, runners can add another speed into the run. Within any run, "there is no reason why three different paces should not be included. '' This would change a normal fartlek by doing a jog, run, and a full out sprint.
Steve Moneghetti (Mona) devised this session with his coach Chris Wardlaw over the phone back in 1983 when he was just 20. He wanted a solid fartlek session, one that would help improve his speed as well as endurance and stimulate an ability to change pace mid-run, something that helped later on his career when tackling the Africans, who had a habit of surging mid-race. A session would consist of: 2 × 90sec, 4 × 60sec, 4 × 30sec, 4 × 15sec with a slower tempo recovery of the same time between each repetition. The session takes 20 minutes in total.
Since this workout is very easily manipulated, "fartlek training allows you to add an endless variety of intervals to your aerobic workouts, which helps to keep you stimulated. '' A great plus to performing this workout is the variety it adds to fitness regimens; it is possible to change the amount of distance, time, fast bursts, recovery periods, and even the time at which you do each component.
For competitive runners, fartleks and all other types of interval runs are the key for race day readiness. The alternating speeds that are the defining point of fartleks allow runners to work "both the aerobic and anaerobic training systems while simulating the ebb and flow nature of competitive running. ''
Fartleks keep runners ' bodies at top shape so that they can keep racing. Putting fartlek runs in a workout routine keeps "muscles, tendons, nerves, etc. used in running going at top capacity. '' In other words, regularly implementing fartleks keeps your body strong enough to maintain the mechanics of racing.
By alternating the "intensity of your workouts, you will burn more calories than you would by keeping a steady pace. '' While running, the runner 's body first burns the stored sugars and then begins to burn fat after the sugar is depleted. During a fartlek workout while the body is trying to replace the sugar storage, "fat stores are burned in a metabolic effect that lasts long after your workout. '' Fartleks are a great option for people that run for their health because the fat burning portion makes it a very efficient exercise.
Fartleks can be specially tailored to fit the needs of different types of athletes. An example includes basketball, where "you must exert maximum effort while running a fast break, while you exert very little effort while standing at the foul line. '' It is possible to alter the type and timing of the fartlek in order to mimic the intensity of an average basketball game. This can be done for other sports such as tennis, soccer, and football as well.
Comparable runs include the traditional interval training, tempo runs, and ladders. These workouts are very similar to fartleks, but there are slight differences that distinguish one from another.
Tempo runs are typically run for 20 to 25 minutes at a 6 or 7 RPE. This exercise is "like an Oreo cookie, with the warmup and cooldown as the cookie, and a run at an effort at or slightly above your anaerobic threshold (the place where your body shifts to using more glycogen for energy) as the filling. '' What runners do here is warm up at a slow and steady pace, then run harder than they would on a normal distance jog for an allotted amount of time, and then do a cool down with a very similar speed to the warm up.
Intervals "are short, intense efforts followed by equal or slightly longer recovery time. '' By the end of a short burst of speed, the runner is barely able to keep up that pace. Unlike fartleks, interval runs are much more structured; usually running the fast and slow spurts at exact times or distances. Interval runs and tempo runs differ in the fact that tempo runs maintain a slightly fast pace for a set amount of time, while interval runs consist of alternating between sprints and slow sections instead of keeping one speed.
This workout is defined as "a speed workout in which the fast parts vary in length. '' Basically, athletes will run a small amount at a hard pace, work their way up, and work their way back down with timed breaks in between. Ladders are similar to interval training in that they require more structure, but they are different because the faster speed sections vary in time or distance. Although ladders are most similar to interval runs, the fact that the portions performed at the faster speed vary in length or time mirrors fartlek runs.
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where is agra located in indian political map | Agra - Wikipedia
Agra (/ ˈɑːɡrə / (listen); Āgrā) is a city on the banks of the river Yamuna in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh, India. It is 378 kilometres (235 mi) west of the state capital, Lucknow, 206 kilometres (128 mi) south of the national capital New Delhi and 125 kilometres (78 mi) north of Gwalior. Agra is one of the most populous cities in Uttar Pradesh, and the 24th most populous in India.
Agra is a major tourist destination because of its many Mughal - era buildings, most notably the Tāj Mahal, Agra Fort and Fatehpūr Sikrī, all three of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Agra is included on the Golden Triangle tourist circuit, along with Delhi and Jaipur; and the Uttar Pradesh Heritage Arc, tourist circuit of UP state, along Lucknow the capital of the state and Varanasi. Agra falls within the Braj cultural region.
The city was first mentioned in the epic Mahābhārata, where it was called Agrevaṇa (derived from Sanskrit (अग्रेवण) meaning "the border of the forest '').
However, the 11th century Persian poet Mas'ūd Sa 'd Salmān writes of a desperate assault on the fortress of Agra, then held by the Shāhī King Jayapala, by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. It was mentioned for the first time in 1080 AD when a Ghaznavide force captured it. Sultan Sikandar Lodī (1488 -- 1517) was the first to move his capital from Delhi to Agra in 1506. He governed the country from here and Agra assumed the importance of the second capital. He died in 1517 and his son, Ibrāhīm Lodī, remained in power there for nine more years and several palaces, wells and a mosque were built by him in the fort during his period. Finally being defeated at the Battle of Panipat in 1526. Between 1540 and 1556, Afghans, beginning with Sher Shah Suri ruled the area. It was the capital of the Mughal Empire from 1556 to 1658
Agra features a semiarid climate that borders on a humid subtropical climate. The city features mild winters, hot and dry summers and a monsoon season. However the monsoons, though substantial in Agra, are not quite as heavy as the monsoon in other parts of India. This is a primary factor in Agra featuring a semiarid climate as opposed to a humid subtropical climate.
As of 2011 India census, Agra city has a population of 1,585,704, while the population of Agra cantonment is 53,053. The urban agglomeration of Agra has a population of 1,760,285. Males constitute 53 % of the population and females 47 %. Agra city has an average literacy rate of 75.11 %, above the national average of 74 %. Literacy rate of males is considerably higher than that of women. The sex ratio in the city was 875 females per thousand males while child sex ratio stood at 857. Agra district literacy rate is 62.56 %.
According to the 2011 census, Agra district has a population of 4,380,793, roughly equal to the nation of Moldova or the US state of Kentucky. This gives it a ranking of 41st in India (out of a total of 640). The district has a population density of 1,084 inhabitants per square kilometre (2,810 / sq mi). 52.5 % of Agra 's population is in the 15 -- 59 years age category. Around 11 % of the population is under 6 years of age.
Hindus are 88.77 % and Muslims 9.30 % of the population in Agra district. Hinduism, Islam and Jainism are the major religions in Agra city with 80.68 %, 15.37 % viz. 1.04 % of the population adhering to them; others are 1.5 %. The Catholic minority is served by its own Metropolitan Archdiocese of Agra.
It is generally accepted that Agra was both an ancient city from the times of the Mahabharata (see above) and yet nevertheless Sultan Sikandar Lodī, the Muslim ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, founded Agra in the year 1504. After the Sultan 's death, the city passed on to his son, Sultan Ibrāhīm Lodī. He ruled his Sultanate from Agra until he fell fighting to Mughal Badshah (emperor) Bābar in the First battle of Panipat fought in 1526.
The golden age of the city began with the Mughals. It was known then as Akbarabād and remained the capital of the Mughal Empire under the Badshahs (emperors) Akbar, Jahāngīr and Shāh Jahān. Akbar made it the eponymous seat of one of his original twelve subahs (imperial top - level provinces), bordering (Old) Delhi, Awadh (Oudh), Allahabad, Malwa and Ajmer subahs. Shāh Jahān later shifted his capital to Shāhjahānabād in the year 1649.
Since Akbarabād was one of the most important cities in India under the Mughals, it witnessed a lot of building activity. Babar, the founder of the Mughal dynasty, laid out the first formal Persian garden on the banks of river Yamuna. The garden is called the Arām Bāgh or the Garden of Relaxation. His grandson Akbar the Great raised the towering ramparts of the Great Red Fort, besides making Agra a centre for learning, arts, commerce and religion. Akbar also built a new city on the outskirts of Akbarabād called Fatehpūr Sikrī. This city was built in the form of a Mughal military camp in stone.
His son Jahāngīr had a love of flora and fauna and laid many gardens inside the Red Fort or Lāl Qil'a. Shāh Jahān, known for his keen interest in architecture, gave Akbarabād its most prized monument, the Tāj Mahal. Built in loving memory of his wife Mumtāz Mahal, the mausoleum was completed in 1653.
Shāh Jahān later shifted the capital to Delhi during his reign, but his son Aurangzeb moved the capital back to Akbarabād, usurping his father and imprisoning him in the Fort there. Akbarabād remained the capital of India during the rule of Aurangzeb until he shifted it to Aurangabad in the Deccan in 1653.
After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the city came under the influence of Marathas and was called Agra, before falling into the hands of the British Raj in 1803.
In 1835 when the Presidency of Agra was established by the British, the city became the seat of government, and just two years later it was witness to the Agra famine of 1837 -- 38. During the Indian rebellion of 1857 British rule across India was threatened, news of the rebellion had reached Agra on 11 May and on 30 May two companies of native infantry, the 44th and 67th regiments, rebelled and marched to Delhi. The next morning native Indian troops in Agra were forced to disarm, on 15 June Gwalior (which lies south of Agra) rebelled. By 3 July, the British were forced to withdraw into the fort. Two days later a small British force at Sucheta were defeated and forced to withdraw, this led to a mob sacking the city. However, the rebels moved onto Delhi which allowed the British to restore order by 8 July. Delhi fell to the British in September, the following month rebels who had fled Delhi along with rebels from Central India marched on Agra but were defeated. After this British rule was again secured over the city until the independence of India in 1947.
Agra is the birthplace of the religion known as Dīn - i Ilāhī, which flourished during the reign of Akbar and also of the Radhaswami Faith, which has around two million followers worldwide. Agra has historic linkages with Shauripur of Jainism and Runukta of Hinduism, of 1000 BC.
The Tāj Mahal, Agra Fort and Fatehpur Sikri are all UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Agra division which consists of four districts, and is headed by the Divisional Commissioner of Agra, who is an IAS officer of high seniority, the Commissioner is the head of local government institutions (including Municipal Corporations) in the division, is in charge of infrastructure development in his division, and is also responsible for and is also responsible for maintaining law and order in the division. The District Magistrate of Agra reports to the Divisional Commissioner. The current Commissioner is K. Ram Mohan Rao.
Agra district administration is headed by the District Magistrate of Agra, who is an IAS officer. The DM is in charge of property records and revenue collection for the central government and oversees the elections held in the city. The DM is also responsible for maintaining law and order in the city, hence the SSP of Agra also reports to the DM of Agra. The DM is assisted by a Chief Development Officer (CDO), six Additional District Magistrates (ADM) (Finance / Revenue, City, Administration, Land Acquisition, Civil Supply, Protocol), one City Magistrate (CM) and three Additional City Magistrates (ACM). The district has six tehsils viz. Sadar, Etmadapur, Kirawali, Fatehabad, Khairagarh and Bah, each headed by a Sub-Divisional Magistrate. The current DM is Gaurav Dayal.
Agra district comes under the Agra Police Zone and Agra Police Range, Agra Zone is headed by an Additional Director General ranked IPS officer, and the Agra Range is headed Inspector General ranked IPS officer. The current ADG, Agra Zone is Ajay Ananad, and IG, Agra Range is Mutha Ashok Jain.
The district police is headed by a Senior Superintendent of Police (SSP), who is an IPS officer, and is assisted by six Superintendents of Police (SP) / Additional Superintendents of Police (Addl. SP) (City, East, West, Crime, Traffic, and Protocol), who are either IPS officers or PPS officers. Each of the several police circles is headed by a Circle Officer (CO) in the rank of Deputy Superintendent of Police. The current SSP is Dinesh Chand Dubey.
The development of infrastructure in the city is overseen by Agra Development Authority (ADA), which comes under the Housing Department of Uttar Pradesh government. The Divisional Commissioner of Agra acts as the ex-officio Chairman of ADA, whereas a Vice Chairman, a government - appointed IAS officer, looks after the daily matters of the authority. The current Vice-Chairman of Agra Development Authority is Ritu Maheshwari.
The Agra Nagar Nigam (ANN), also called Agra Municipal Corporation (AMC), oversees the city 's civic infrastructure under the Agra Metropolitan Region. The head of the corporation is the Mayor, but the executive and administration of the corporation is the responsibility of the Municipal Commissioner, who is a Uttar Pradesh government - appointed Provincial Civil Service (PCS) officer of high seniority. The current Mayor of Agra is Indrajeet Balmiki, whereas the Municipal Commissioner is Arun Prasad.
Agra district has two Loksabha viz. Agra and Fatehpur - Sikri, and nine Vidhansabha constituencies in it.
The current Member of Parliament from Agra is Ram Shankar, and the current Member of Parliament from Fatehpur - Sikri is Babulal Chaudhary.
Air India flies to Agra airport on the following route: Delhi - Varanasi - Agra - Khajuraho - Varanasi - Delhi
Agra is on the central train line between Delhi (Station Code: NDLS) and Bombay (Station Code: CSTM) and between Delhi and Madras (Station Code: MAS) and many trains like Bhopal Shatabdi, Taj Express, Gatiman Express, Bhopal Express, Malwa Express, Gondwana Express, Jabalpur - Jammutawi Express, Shreedham Express, Garib Rath, Tamil Nadu Express, Chennai Rajdhani, Agra Mathura Express etc. connect Agra with all major Indian cities like New Delhi, Hyderabad, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Visakhapatnam, Bengaluru, Pune, Bhopal, Indore, Kochi, Gwalior, Jabalpur, Ujjain, Jaipur, Aligarh, Mathura, Alwar, Lucknow, Thiruvananthapuram etc. every day. Some east - bound trains from Delhi also travel via Agra, so direct connections to points in Eastern India (including Calcutta are also available. There are close to 20 trains to New Delhi and Gwalior Junction every day, and at least three or four to Bhopal, Indore, Nagpur, Bombay and Madras. There are three main railway stations in Agra.
Railway Stations served by the Indian Railways network at Agra are:
In July 2014, a trial run of a "semi-high speed train '' with 10 coaches and 2 generators reached a speed of 160 km / h (99 mph) between New Delhi and Agra. The railways plan to introduce such trains commercially from November 2014. New Delhi Agra Shatabdi Express is same type of train, which takes 2 hours to complete its journey. A new semi-high speed train Gatimaan Express that reduces travel time between Delhi and Agra to 100 minutes has been started from 5 April 2016.
Idgah Bus Stand, Taj Depot, Fort Depot and Inter State Bus Terminal (ISBT) are the major bus stands in Agra, connecting Agra to most of the bigger cities in North India. It is a major junction of highways with 3 national highways and 2 expressway (Yamuna Expressway & Agra Lucknow Expressway) originating from Agra. Another national highway passes through the city bringing the total highway outlet to 7.
Bus services are run by the Agra Municipal Corporation. Other para-transit modes include rickshaws and autorickshaws. Polluting vehicles are not allowed near the Tāj Mahal.
Rail India Technical and Economic Service (RITES) has proposed 30 stations, 11 underground and 19 elevated, for two corridors of the Metro Rail in the city. The two routes are Sikandra to Taj Mahal East gate via Agra Fort and Agra Cantt to Kalindi Vihar. On 24 March 2017, State Chief Minister Aditya Nath Yogi approved the project.
The Taj Mahal is one of the most famous buildings in the world, the mausoleum of Shah Jahan 's favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal. It is one of the New Seven Wonders of the world, and one of the three World Heritage Sites in Agra. Agra is commonly identified as the "City of Taj ''.
Completed in 1653, the Tāj Mahal was built by the Mughal king Shah Jahan as the final resting place for his beloved wife, Mumtāz Mahal. Finished in marble, it is perhaps India 's most beautiful monument and is set amidst landscaped gardens. Built by the Persian architect, Ustād ' Īsā, the Tāj Mahal is on the south bank of the Yamuna River. It can be observed from Agra Fort from where Emperor Shāh Jahān gazed at it for the last eight years of his life, a prisoner of his son Aurangzeb. Verses of the Quran are inscribed on it and at the top of the gate are twenty - two small domes, signifying the number of years the monument took to build. The Tāj Mahal was built on a marble platform that stands above a sandstone one. The most elegant dome of the Tāj Mahal has a diameter of 60 feet (18 m), and rises to a height of 80 feet (24 m); directly under this dome is the tomb of Mumtāz Mahal. Shah Jahān 's tomb was erected next to hers by his son Aurangzeb. The interiors are decorated with fine inlay work, incorporating semi-precious stones.
Agra Fort (sometimes called the Red Fort), was commissioned by the conquering Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great in 1565, and is another of Agra 's World Heritage Sites. A stone tablet at the gate of the Fort states that it had been built before 1000 but was later renovated by Akbar. The red sandstone fort was converted into a palace during Shāh Jahān 's time, and reworked extensively with marble and pietra dura inlay. Notable buildings in the fort include the Pearl Mosque or Motī Masjid, the Dīwān - e - ' Ām and Dīwān - e-Khās (halls of public and private audience), Jahāngīr 's Palace, Khās Mahal, Shīsh Mahal (mirrored palace), and the Musamman Burj.
The forbidding exteriors of this fort conceal an inner paradise. The fort is crescent shaped, flattened on the east with a long, nearly straight wall facing the river. It has a total perimeter of 2.4 kilometres (1.5 mi), and is ringed by double castellated ramparts of red sandstone punctuated at regular intervals by bastions. A moat 9 metres (30 ft) wide and 10 metres (33 ft) deep surrounds the outer wall.
Chhatrapati Shīvajī visited the Agra Fort, as a result of the conditions of the Treaty of Purandar entered into with Mirzā Rājā Jaisingh to meet Aurangzeb in the Dīwān - i - Khās (Special Audience Chamber). In the audience he was deliberately placed behind men of lower rank. An insulted Shīvajī stormed out of the imperial audience and was confined to Jai Sing 's quarters on 12 May 1666. Fearing the dungeons and execution he escaped on 17 August 1666.
The fort is a typical example of Mughal architecture, effectively showing how the North Indian style of fort construction differed from that of the South. In the South, the majority of forts were built on the seabed like the one at Bekal in Kerala.
The Mughal Emperor Akbar built Fatehpūr Sikrī about 35 km (22 mi) from Agra, and moved his capital there. Later abandoned, the site displays a number of buildings of significant historical importance. A World Heritage Site, it is often visited by tourists. The name of the place came about after the Mughal Emperor Bābar defeated Rāṇā Sāngā in a battle at a place called Sikrī (about 40 km (25 mi) from Agra). Then the Mughal Emperor Akbar wanted to make Fatehpūr Sikrī his headquarters, so he built a majestic fort; due to shortage of water, however, he had to ultimately move his headquarters to Agra Fort.
Buland Darwāza or ' the lofty gateway ' was built by the great Mughal emperor, Akbar in 1601 CE. at Fatehpūr Sikrī. Akbar built the Buland Darwāza to commemorate his victory over Gujarat. The Buland Darwāza is approached by 52 steps. The Buland Darwāza is 53.63 metres (175.95 feet) high and 35 metres (115 feet) wide. it is made of red and buff sandstone, decorated by carving and black and white marble inlays. An inscription on the central face of the Buland Darwāza demonstrates Akbar 's religious broadmindedness, it is a message from Jesus advising his followers not to consider this world as their permanent home.
The Empress Nūr Jahān built I'timād - Ud - Daulah 's Tomb, sometimes called the "Baby Tāj '', for her father, Mirzā Ghiyās Beg, the Chief Minister of the Emperor Jahāngīr. Located on the left bank of the Yamuna river, the mausoleum is set in a large cruciform garden, criss - crossed by water courses and walkways. The area of the mausoleum itself is about 23 m (250 sq ft), and is built on a base that is about 50 m (540 sq ft) and about one metre (3.3 feet) high. On each corner are hexagonal towers, about thirteen metres (43 feet) tall. Small in comparison to many other Mughal - era tombs, it is sometimes described as a jewel box. Its garden layout and use of white marble, pietra dura, inlay designs and latticework presage many elements of the Tāj Mahal.
The walls are white marble from Rajasthan encrusted with semi-precious stone decorations -- cornelian, jasper, lapis lazuli, onyx, and topaz in images of cypress trees and wine bottles, or more elaborate decorations like cut fruit or vases containing bouquets. Light penetrates to the interior through delicate jālī screens of intricately carved white marble.
Many of Nūr Jahān 's relatives are interred in the mausoleum. The only asymmetrical element of the entire complex are the tombs of her father and mother, which have been set side - by - side, a formation replicated in the Taj Mahal.
Sikandra, the last resting place of the Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great, is on the Delhi - Agra Highway, only 13 kilometres (8.1 miles) from the Agra Fort. Akbar 's tomb reflects the completeness of his personality. The vast, beautifully carved, red - ochre sandstone tomb with deers, rabbits and langurs is set amidst a lush garden. Akbar himself planned his own tomb and selected a suitable site for it. To construct a tomb in one 's lifetime was a Turkic custom which the Mughals followed religiously. Akbar 's son Jahāngīr completed construction of this pyramidal tomb in 1613. The 99 names of Allah have been inscribed on the tomb.
The Jāma Masjid is a large mosque attributed to Shah Jahan 's daughter, Princess Jahanara Begum, built in 1648, notable for its unusual dome and absence of minarets. The inscription at its entrance shows that it cost Rs 5 Lakhs at that time for its completion.
Notable for its Persian influenced dome of blue glazed tiles, the Chīnī kā Rauza is dedicated to the Prime Minister of Shāh Jahān, ' Allāma Afzal Khāl Mullā Shukrullāh of Shiraz.
The oldest Mughal garden in India, the Rām Bāgh was built by the Emperor Bābar in 1528 on the bank of the Yamuna. It lies about 2.34 km (1 mi) north of the Tāj Mahal. The pavilions in this garden are designed so that the wind from the Yamuna, combined with the greenery, keeps them cool even during the peak of summer. The original name of the gardens was Ārām Bāgh, or ' Garden of Relaxation ', and this was where the Mughal emperor Bābar used to spend his leisure time and where he eventually died. His body was kept here for some time before sending it to Kabul.
On Ram Bagh to Tundla road near Etmadpur, there is a famed Yoga Ashram of Mahaprabhu Ramlal ji Maharaja (First Guru Gaddi), Yogeshwar Mulakhraj Ji Maharaja (Second Guru Gaddi) & Yogeshwar DeviDayal Ji Mahadev (Third GuruGaddi) blessed Swami Chandra Mohan Ji Maharaj named Shri Siddha Gufa Sawai. Thousands of devotees and seekers visit this holy place.
Mariams Tomb, is the tomb of Mariam, the wife of great Mughal Emperor Akbar. The tomb is within the compound of the Christian Missionary Society.
The Mehtāb Bāgh, or ' Moonlight Garden ', is on the opposite bank of the River Yamuna from the Tāj Mahal.
Also known as Sur Sarovar, Keetham Lake is situated about 7 kilometres (4.3 miles) from the Akbar tomb in Agra, within the Surdas Reserved Forest. The lake has an impressive variety of aquatic life and water birds.
The Mughal Heritage Walk is a part of community development programme being implemented with support of Agra Municipal corporation, USAID and an NGO; Center for Urban and Regional Excellence. It seeks to build sustainable livelihoods for youth and women from low resource communities and improve their living environments through infrastructure services and integration within the city.
The Mughal Heritage Walk is a one - kilometre (0.62 - mile) loop which connects the agricultural fields with the Rajasthani culture, river bank connected with the ancient village of Kuchhpura, the Heritage Structure of Mehtab Bagh, the Mughal aqueduct system, the Humanyun Mosque and the Gyarah Sidi.
The Mankameshwar Temple is one of four ancient temples dedicated to Lord Shiva located on the four corners of Agra City. It is located near the Jāma Masjid and is about 2.5 kilometres (1.6 miles) from the Tāj Mahal and less than 1 km (0.6 mi) from Agra Fort. Being located in the old city, the temple is surrounded by markets, many of which date back to the Mughal Era.
It is widespreadly considered to be the birthplace of great poet Mirza Ghalib. It is located near the Mankameshwar Temple and is about 3 kilometres (1.9 miles) from the Tāj Mahal and less than 1 km (0.6 mi) from Agra Fort. Being located in the old city, the College is surrounded by markets. Approximately four or five years back, the birth room of Mirza Ghalib was hidden behind the wall by the Management of the college to keep the identity of the place secret.
Guru ka Tal was originally a reservoir meant to collect and conserve rainwater built in Agra, near Sikandra, during Jahangir 's reign next to the Tomb of I'tibār Khān Khwājasara in 1610. In the 1970s a gurudwara was erected here. Guru ka Tal is a holy place of worship for the Sikhs. Four of the ten Sikh Gurus are said to have paid it a visit. Enjoying both historical and religious importance, this shrine attracts a large number of devotees and tourists. Boasting elaborate stone carvings and eight of the twelve original towers. It is located by national (Delhi - Agra) highway - 2.
The Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception is the seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Agra.
Paliwal Park, during the British Raj was known as Hewitt Park, is now renamed in memory of Shri Krishna Datta Paliwal, who was the first finance minister of Uttar Pradesh, when Shri Govind Ballabh Pant was the Chief Minister of the State.
Paliwal Park is located in the heart of Agra, spread over an area of around 70 acres (280,000 m). It also has a small lake and a vast variety of trees.
Paliwal Park links the residential areas of Vijay Nagar Colony & Gandhi Nagar to the financial Hub of the city i.e. Sanjay Place.
John 's Public Library, also known as the Agra Municipal Library, is also located here and one can find rare books on diverse topics here.
Many people come here for morning walk, as a result this place is full especially during the summer holidays when youngsters play all sort of different games.
Due to the presence of the Taj Mahal and other historic monuments, Agra has a booming tourism industry as well as royal crafts like Pietra Dura, marble inlay and carpets.
Today 40 % of the population depends largely on agriculture, and others on the leather and footwear business and iron foundries. Agra is the second most self - employed in India in 2007, behind Varanasi, followed by Bhopal, Indore and Patna. According to the National Sample Survey Organization, in 1999 -- 2000, 431 of every 1,000 employed males were self - employed in the city, which grew to 603 per 1,000 in 2004 -- 05. Tourism contributes to the economy of Agra. Agra is home to Asia 's largest spa called Kaya Kalp -- The Royal Spa, at the Hotel Mughal in Agra.
Agra has many industries. Uttar Pradesh 's first plant biotech company Harihar Biotech is located near the Taj. There are about 7,000 small scale industrial units. Agra city is also known for its leather goods, the oldest and famous leather firm Taj Leather World is in Sadar bazar. The carpets, handicrafts, zari and zardozi (embroidery work), marble and stone carving and inlay work. Agra is known for its sweets (Petha and Gajak) and snacks (Dalmoth), garment manufacturers and exporters and an automobile industry. Carpet making was introduced to the city by Moghul Emperor Babur and since then this art has flourished.
The city centre place at Agra has jewellery and garments shops. The silver and gold jewellery hub is at Choube Ji Ka Fatak. The Shah Market area is an electronics market while Sanjay Place is the trade centre of Agra.
Property is one of the growing sectors of the Agra 's economy.
There are several malls such as Big Bazzar, TDI Mall, Pacific Mall, Ratan Mall, Omaxe SRK Mall, Ashoka Mall (Sanjay Place).
Agra ranked fifth on both the financial penetration index, which measures things like the presence of ATMs and bank branches, and on the consumption index, indicating the city 's transformation into an urban town. There are many new buildings, shopping complexes, malls, roads, flyovers and apartments coming up. On the India City Competitiveness Index, the city ranked 26th in 2010, 32nd in 2011 and 37th in 2012
It was during the advent of the Mughal era that Agra grew as a centre of Islamic education. British people introduced the western concept of education in Agra. In the year 1823, Agra College, one of the oldest colleges in India was formed out of a Sanskrit school established by the Scindia rulers. In the British era, Agra became a great centre of Hindi literature with people like Babu Gulab Rai at the helm.
Agra University was established on 1 July 1927 and catered to colleges spread across the United Provinces, the Rajputana, the Central Provinces and almost to entire North India, at present 10 institutes comprising various departments and around 700 Colleges are affiliated to this university. The historic Agra University was later rechristened as Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar University by the then Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh, Ms. Mayawati.
Agra is home to the Dainik Jagran newspaper. which is the most read Hindi newspaper in India. Other newspapers that are widely read include Amar Ujala, Aaj, Hindustan, The Sea Express, Deepsheel Bharat, DLA. The English dailies published are The Times of India, Hindustan Times, Economic Times, The Pioneer, etc. The Urdy dailies published are Prabhanjan Sanket, Inksaaf etc. There is also the Hindi and English mixed newspaper tabloid I - NEXT.
Morphers Animation Studios LLP is an animation studio in Agra, which caters 3d visualisation services to clients. State - owned All India Radio has a local station in Agra which transmits various programs of mass interest. There are three private FM radio stations, 92.7 BIG FM (Reliance Broadcast Network Limited), 93.7 Fever FM and Radio City 91.9 FM. There is a community Radio Station 90.4 FM.
Ram Barat (Hindi: राम बारात) is a part of Ramlila celebration in Agra. It is one of the biggest annual events in North India. Ram Barat literally means Baraat Marriage procession of Sri Ram. Every year a new locality is chosen in Agra and is elaborately decorated with lights & flowers. The area is given a major face lift befitting the venue for the divine marriage.
Taj Literature Festival saw stars of the literary world manifest themselves on the earth of Agra. The galaxy included the stalwarts, Muzaffar Ali, Shobha De, Prahlad Kakker and Raghu Rai. The stage shone brilliant and the heritage city breathed life. This festival, an attempt to rejuvenate that aesthetic spirit which is a soul of this historically rich city, Agra. The city that nurtured the likes of Ghalib, Tansen, Surdas, Nazeer and many more.
The Kailash Fair is held in the town of Kailash, about 12 km (7 mi) from Agra, in the month of August / September. It is a major fair celebrated in honour of Lord Shiva who is believed to have appeared here in the form of stone Lingam.
Gokulpura / Moti Katra, Agra
The museum - cum - public library is housed in an old heritage structure, built in 1922 and renovated in the 1940s. Queen Victori 's bronze statue 's are also exposed in this Museum. The other old statues and memories of the Mughal Era are exposed for the attraction of tourists, something new other than usual attraction.
Abdul Karim (the Munshi), Huzur Shiv Dayal Singh Sahab (Param Purush Puran Dhani Soami Ji Maharaj), Founder Of Radhasoami Faith, Hazur Rai Saligram Bahadur (Param Purush Puran Dhani Huzur Maharaj), Second Revered Leader Of Radhasoami Faith, Great Poet Soordas, Acharya Pt. Shri Ram Sharma, Abul Fazal, Amrit Lal Nagar, Rangey Raghav, Dr Ramvilas Sharma, Babu Gulab Roy, Rajendra Yadav, Mirza Galib, Mir Taqi Mir, Nazir Akbarabadi Motilal Nehru, Actress Nimmi, Raj Babbar, Prof (Dr) Deoki Nandan, author of "Kumbh Mela: ek doctor ki yatra Dr Varun Chaudhary
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what nation lies on both africa and asia | List of transcontinental countries - wikipedia
This is a list of countries located on more than one continent, known as transcontinental states or intercontinental states. While there are many countries with non-contiguous overseas territories fitting this definition, only a limited number of countries have territory straddling an overland continental boundary, most commonly the line that separates Europe and Asia.
The boundary between Europe and Asia is purely conventional, and several conventions remained in use well into the 20th century. However, the now - prevalent convention, used for the purposes of this list, follows the Caucasus northern chain, the Ural River and the Ural Mountains. It has been in use by some cartographers since about 1850. This convention results in several countries finding themselves almost entirely in "Asia '', with a few small enclaves or districts technically in "Europe ''. Notwithstanding these anomalies, this list of transcontinental or intercontinental states respects the convention that Europe and Asia are full continents rather than subcontinents or component landmasses of the larger Eurasian continent.
Listed further below, separately, are countries with distant non-contiguous parts (overseas territories) on separate continents.
The modern convention for the land boundary between Asia and Africa runs along the Isthmus of Suez and the Suez Canal in Egypt. The border continues through the Gulf of Suez, Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. In antiquity, Egypt had been considered part of Asia, with the Catabathmus Magnus escarpment taken as the boundary with Africa (Libya).
The conventional Europe - Asia boundary was subject to considerable variation during the 18th and 19th centuries, indicated anywhere between the Don River and the Caucasus to the south or the Ural Mountains to the east. Since the later 19th century, the Caucasus - Urals boundary has become almost universally accepted. According to this now - standard convention, the boundary follows the Aegean Sea, the Turkish Straits, the Black Sea, along the watershed of the Greater Caucasus, the northwestern portion of the Caspian Sea and along the Ural River and Ural Mountains to the Arctic Ocean.
According to this convention, the Russian Federation, the Republic of Turkey, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Georgia have territory both in Europe and in Asia.
North American Caribbean islands belonging to South American countries:
South American Caribbean islands:
A number of nations claim ownership over portions of the continent of Antarctica. Some, including Argentina and Chile, consider the Antarctic land they claim to be integral parts of their national territory. Some nations also have sub-Antarctic island possessions north of 60 ° S latitude and thus recognized by international law under the Antarctic Treaty System, which holds in abeyance land claims south of 60 ° S latitude.
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the inverted tower - sintra portugal (o | Quinta da Regaleira - wikipedia
Quinta da Regaleira is an estate located near the historic center of Sintra, Portugal. It is classified as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO within the "Cultural Landscape of Sintra ''. Along with the other palaces in the area such as the Quinta do Relógio, Pena, Monserrate and Seteais palaces, it is considered one of the principal tourist attractions of Sintra. The property consists of a romantic palace and chapel, and a luxurious park that features lakes, grottoes, wells, benches, fountains, and a vast array of exquisite constructions. The palace is also known as "The Palace of Monteiro the Millionaire '', which is based on the nickname of its best known former owner, António Augusto Carvalho Monteiro.
The land that is now Quinta da Regaleira had many owners over the years. It belonged to the Viscountess of Regaleira, a family of wealthy merchants from Porto, when it was sold in 1892 to Carvalho Monteiro for 25,000 réis. Monteiro was eager to build a bewildering place where he could collect symbols that reflected his interests and ideologies. With the assistance of the Italian architect Luigi Manini, he recreated the 4 - hectare estate. In addition to other new features, he added enigmatic buildings that allegedly held symbols related to alchemy, Masonry, the Knights Templar, and the Rosicrucians. The architecture Manini designed evoked Roman, Gothic, Renaissance, and Manueline styles. The construction of the current estate commenced in 1904 and much of it was completed by 1910.
The estate was later sold in 1942 to Waldemar d'Orey, who used it as private residence for his extensive family. He ordered repairs and restoration work for the property. In 1987, the estate was sold, once again, to the Japanese Aoki Corporation and ceased to serve as a residence. The corporation kept the estate closed to the public for ten years, until it was acquired by the Sintra Town Council in 1997. Extensive restoration efforts were promptly initiated throughout the estate. It finally opened to the public in June 1998 and began hosting cultural events. In August of that same year, the Portuguese Ministry of Culture classified the estate as "public interest property ''.
The Regaleira Palace (Portuguese: Palácio da Regaleira) bears the same name as the entire estate. The structure 's façade is characterized by exuberantly Gothic pinnacles, gargoyles, capitals, and an impressive octagonal tower.
The palace contains five floors (a ground floor, three upper floors, and a basement). The ground floor consists of a series of hallways that all connect the living room, dining room, billiards room, balcony, some smaller rooms, and several stairways. In turn, the first upper floor contains bedrooms and a dressing room. The second upper floor contains Carvalho Monteiro 's office, and the bedrooms of female servants. The third upper floor contains the ironing room and a smaller room with access to a terrace. Finally, the basement contains the male servants ' bedrooms, the kitchen (which featured an elevator for lifting food to the ground floor), and storage rooms.
The main façade of the palace.
The main entrance to the palace.
The balcony.
Turret with Manueline symbols alluding to the Portuguese discoveries.
The fireplace in the dining room.
The living room.
Entrance to the spiral stairwell.
One of the chimneys. The Castle of the Moors and the Pena Palace are visible atop the hills.
The Regaleira Chapel is a Roman Catholic Chapel, and stands in front of the palace 's main façade. Its architecture is akin to the palace 's. The interior of the chapel is richly decorated with frescoes, stained glass windows and lavish stuccoes. The frescoes contain representations of Teresa of Ávila and Saint Anthony, as well as other religious depictions. Meanwhile, the floor itself offers depictions of the armillary sphere of the Portuguese discoveries and the Order of Christ Cross, surrounded by pentagrams. Despite its relatively small size, the chapel has several floors.
The main entrance.
The side entrance.
Stuccoes above the main entrance.
The interior of the chapel.
Fresco above the altar: Jesus Christ crowns the Virgin Mary.
Frescoes depicting Teresa of Ávila and Saint Anthony (during his "Sermon to the Fish '', by Father António Vieira).
The floor: Order of Christ Cross over the armillary sphere.
The Regaleira Chapel.
The roof and tower of the chapel.
Side view of the chapel.
Much of the four hectares of land in the surrounding estate consists of a densely treed park lined with myriad roads and footpaths. The woods are neatly arranged in the lower parts of the estate, but are left wild and disorganized in the upper parts, reflecting Carvalho Monteiro 's belief in primitivism. Decorative, symbolic, and lively structures can be found throughout the park.
Gazebo on the ornate bridge over the lower gate.
Bench between the lake and the Loggia.
Bench between the lake and the Ibis Fountain.
Bench between the chapel and the palace.
The park also contains an extensive and enigmatic system of tunnels, which have multiple entry points that include: grottoes, the chapel, Waterfall Lake, and "Leda 's Cave, '' which lies beneath the Regaleira Tower. The "Initiation Well '' (see next section) connects to other tunnels via a series of underground walkways.
Entrance to the Labyrinthic Grotto.
The Labyrinthic Grotto seen from the lake.
Tunnel starting from the Eastern Grotto.
Leda 's Cave.
The Initiation Wells (AKA initiatic wells or inverted towers) are two wells on the property that better resemble underground towers lined with stairs. These wells never served as water sources. Instead, they were used for ceremonial purposes that included Tarot initiation rites. The tunnels described above connect these wells to one another, in addition to various caves and other monuments located around the park. Of the two wells, the larger one contains a 27 - meter spiral staircase with several small landings. The spacing of these landings, combined with the number of steps in the stairs, are linked to Tarot mysticism. The smaller well contains straight stairs that connect a series of ring - shaped floors to one another. This well is also called the ' Unfinished Well '. A structure similar to these wells can be found in the Pozzo di S. Patrizio in Italy.
Bottom of the Initiation well.
Looking down the Initiation well.
View upwards from the bottom of the Initiation well.
Rain down the Initiation well.
Bodies of water can be found in several places in the park. Two artificial lakes and several fountains were added by Monteiro. One of the most interesting and extravagant among them is the Aquarium, built as if it were naturally embedded in a large boulder. It was once considered the most important naturalist property in Regaleira. However, the Aquarium is no longer used and is poorly maintained.
The Ibis Fountain.
The Fount of Abundance.
The Waterfall Lake and its system of caves.
The Waterfall Lake as seen from the Terrace of the Celestial Worlds.
Fadista Mariza shot her video for "Cavaleiro Monge '' at the palace and its surrounding grounds.
Quinta da Regaleira is referenced in José Rodrigues dos Santos ' book Codex 632.
The larger of the two Initiation Wells appears at the end of a video for the song "The Living End '' by Portuguese band Ava Inferi.
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who played miss parker in the movie friday | Kathleen Bradley - Wikipedia
Kathleen Joann Bradley (born January 10, 1951) is an American former model, actress and host. Bradley is primarily known as a "Barker 's Beauty '' on the CBS daytime game show The Price Is Right from 1990 until 2000. Bradley is noted as the first permanent African - American model on the show.
Born to Winifred Bradley in Girard, Ohio, Bradley was the only girl of four brothers. Bradley won the "Miss Black California '' award in 1971. In 1979, Bradley was part of the short - lived disco group Destination, which had a hit single with a remake of Curtis Mayfield 's "Move On Up. '' Bradley played the role of Mrs. Parker in the 1995 movie Friday.
Bradley, along with longtime model Janice Pennington, was released from her modeling duties on The Price Is Right in October 2000, shortly after having testified during the lawsuit for slander and defamation of character host Bob Barker filed against model Holly Hallstrom. Barker lost his suit against Hallstrom and afterward fired Bradley, Pennington and other show staffers whose testimony contradicted Barker 's. She accepted an undisclosed monetary settlement and did not pursue litigation. In June 2014, Bradley released her memoirs, Backstage at The Price Is Right: Memoirs of a Barker Beauty.
Bradley has been married twice. Her first marriage was to actor Bill Overton from 1980 to 1984. Bradley has been married mechanical engineer Terrence Redd since 1988. Bradley has two children; a daughter, Cheyenne Overton from her marriage with Overton, Terrence Redd II. Bradley 's stepdaughter Dior is from Redd 's marriage to actress Bern Nadette Stanis.
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where do the ny mets play home games | Citi Field - wikipedia
Left field Left center Deep left center Center field Deep right center Right center Right field
335 feet (102 m) 358 feet (109 m) 385 feet (117 m) 408 feet (124 m) 398 feet (121 m) 375 feet (114 m) 330 feet (100 m)
New York Mets (MLB) (2009 -- present)
Georgetown Hoyas (Big East Conference)
(March 29, 2009)
Tampa Bay Rays (MLB) (September 11 - 13, 2017)
Citi Field is a baseball park located in Flushing Meadows -- Corona Park in the New York City borough of Queens. Completed in 2009, it is the home field of the New York Mets of the National League division of Major League Baseball. The stadium was built as a replacement for and adjacent to Shea Stadium, which opened in 1964 next to the site of the 1964 New York World 's Fair.
Citi Field was designed by Populous (then HOK Sport), and is named after Citigroup, a New York financial services company which purchased the naming rights. The $850 million baseball park was funded with $615 million in public subsidies, including the sale of New York City municipal bonds which are to be repaid by the Mets plus interest. The payments will offset property taxes for the lifetime of the park. The Mets are receiving $20 million annually from Citibank in exchange for naming the stadium Citi Field.
The first game at Citi Field was on March 29, 2009, with a college baseball game between St. John 's and Georgetown. The Mets played their first two games at the ballpark on April 3 and April 4, 2009 against the Boston Red Sox as charity exhibition games. The first regular season home game was played on April 13, 2009, against the San Diego Padres. Citi Field hosted the 2013 Major League Baseball All - Star Game, marking the second time the Mets have hosted the event (the first being in 1964, the inaugural season of Shea Stadium).
Since the 1990s, the Mets had been looking to replace Shea Stadium. It had originally been built as a multi-purpose stadium in 1964. While it had been retrofitted as a baseball - only stadium after the NFL 's New York Jets left for Giants Stadium after the 1983 season, it was still not optimized for baseball, with seating located farther away from the playing field compared to other major league ballparks. The team unveiled a preliminary model of the ballpark in 1998; it featured a retractable roof and a movable grass field, which would have allowed it to host events including conventions and college basketball. The Mets also considered moving to Mitchel Field or Belmont Park in Nassau County, Long Island; Sunnyside Yard in Queens, or the West Side Yard in Manhattan.
In December 2001, shortly before leaving office, New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani announced "tentative agreements '' for both the Mets and New York Yankees to build new stadiums. Of the $1.6 billion sought for the stadiums, city and state taxpayers would pick up half the tab for construction, $800 million, along with $390 million on extra transportation. The plan also said that the teams would be allowed to keep all parking revenues, which state officials had already said they wanted to keep to compensate the state for building new garages for the teams. The teams would keep 96 % of ticket revenues and 100 % of all other revenues, not pay sales tax or property tax on the stadium, and would get low - cost electricity from New York state. Business officials criticized the plan as giving too much money to successful teams with little reason to move to a different city.
Michael Bloomberg, who succeeded Giuliani as mayor, exercised the escape clause in the agreements to back out of both deals, saying that the city could not afford to build new stadiums for the Mets and Yankees. Bloomberg said that unbeknownst to him, Giuliani had inserted a clause in this deal which loosened the teams ' leases with the city and would allow the Mets and Yankees to leave the city on 60 days ' notice to find a new home elsewhere if the city backed out of the agreement. At the time, Bloomberg said that publicly funded stadiums were a poor investment. Under Bloomberg, the New York City government would only offer public financing for infrastructure improvements; the teams would have to pay for the stadiums themselves. Bloomberg called the former mayor 's agreements "corporate welfare. '' Giuliani had already been instrumental in the construction of taxpayer - funded minor league baseball facilities MCU Park for the Mets ' minor league Brooklyn Cyclones and Richmond County Bank Ballpark for the Staten Island Yankees.
The final plans for what is now Citi Field were created as part of the unsuccessful New York City 2012 Olympic bid. After plans for a West Side Stadium fell through, New York looked for an alternate stadium to host the opening and closing ceremonies and track and field. The Olympic Stadium project on the West Side was estimated to cost $2.2 billion, with $300 million provided by New York City and an additional $300 million from New York State. If New York had won the bid, Citi Field would have been expanded to Olympic events while the Mets would have played at Yankee Stadium in the Bronx for the 2012 season.
The projected cost of the new ballpark and other infrastructure improvements is $610 million, with the Mets picking up $420 million of that amount. The agreement includes a 40 - year lease that will keep the Mets in New York until 2049. The Mets own the stadium through a wholly owned subsidiary, Queens Ballpark Company.
On March 18, 2006, the New York Mets unveiled the official model for the new ballpark. By July 2006, initial construction of the new park was underway in the parking lot beyond Shea Stadium 's left - field, with a projected finish ahead of Opening Day 2009 in late March.
By April 13, 2008, all of the structure for the Jackie Robinson Rotunda was in place with the arched windows receiving their paneling and glass. By September 2008, most of the Citi Field signage had been installed. By December 1, 2008, all of the seats and the playing field had been installed.
During the 2010 offseason, the bullpen area in right - center field underwent a complete renovation. When the edifice opened in time for the start of the 2009 MLB season, the Mets ' bullpen was in front of the visiting bullpen, leading to an obstructed view of the field from the visiting bullpen, which the San Diego Padres complained about during the Mets ' first regular - season home series. The bullpens were turned 90 °, with pitchers throwing toward the field instead of parallel to it. More Mets team colors, player banners and logos were also added throughout the ballpark, including revamping the "Let 's Go Mets '' slogan on the Citi Vision board so that the word "Mets '' appears in its traditional script instead of the same font as the rest of the slogan. Additionally, the height of the home run boundary line directly in front of the Home Run Apple in center field was reduced from 16 feet (4.9 m) to 8 feet (2.4 m) in an attempt to produce more home runs.
During its first three seasons, the large field dimensions caused Citi Field to play as an extreme "pitcher 's park '', and home - runs at the stadium were among the fewest in the Major Leagues. Mets ' general manager Sandy Alderson changed Citi Field 's dimensions in time for the 2012 MLB season in order to make it more friendly to hitters. Changes included building an 8 feet (2.4 m) wall in front of the high 16 feet (4.9 m) wall in left field that many had dubbed the "Great Wall of Flushing '', removing the nook in the "Mo 's Zone '' in right field, and reducing the distance in right center field from 415 feet (126 m) from home plate to 390 feet (120 m). The new walls are colored blue in order to address fan complaints that the old black walls with orange trims did not reflect the colors of the Mets. The Mets have also created a new seating section located in between the old and new left field walls called the Party City Party Deck, renamed the M&M 's Sweet Seats in 2016 after change of sponsorship, and can accommodate 102 additional fans.
The center and right - center outfield wall were brought in to 380 feet (120 m) for the 2015 season.
Citi Field has a capacity of 41,922. It has over 15,000 fewer seats than Shea Stadium. All the seats in the park are green -- in an homage to the Polo Grounds, longtime home of the baseball Giants and the original home of the Mets -- as opposed to Shea 's orange, blue, red and green assortment. The exterior facade is reminiscent of Ebbets Field (which was long sought by Mets owner Fred Wilpon, a Brooklyn native).
Citi Field 's interior design is primarily influenced by PNC Park, which was the favorite ballpark of Mets COO Jeff Wilpon. Other influences include Great American Ball Park, Coors Field and Citizens Bank Park. Shea Stadium was the only ballpark in the Major Leagues to feature orange foul poles instead of the standard yellow, a unique characteristic that made its way into Citi Field.
Citi Field features an overarching bridge motif in its architecture, as New York City is linked by 2,027 bridges and is reflected in the Mets logo, as the team is the symbolic bridge to the city 's past National League teams, the New York Giants and the Brooklyn Dodgers. In the outfield section of the ballpark, there is a pedestrian bridge named Shea Bridge which resembles the Hell Gate Bridge.
Similar to Shea Stadium, Citi Field 's field dimensions make it a pitcher friendly park. The Coca - Cola Corner, originally known as the Pepsi Porch, hangs over the field in right field, extending far beyond the indentation of the Clubhouse and is inspired by Tiger Stadium 's right field porch. The Pepsi sign that sat atop the area (2009 - 2015) was modeled after the one alongside the East River in Gantry Plaza State Park; it was replaced by Coca - Cola 's logo in 2016 upon assuming the role of a Mets sponsor.
In 2012, the Mets added the Party City Party Deck in left field because they moved the fences in. The Party Deck is very similar to The Royals ' Pepsi Party Porch.
Delta Air Lines signed a multiyear deal on September 15, 2008, to sponsor an exclusive section in Citi Field. The Delta Sky360 Club is a 22,500 - square - foot (2,090 m) restaurant - cafe - bar - lounge complex that also houses 1,600 premium seats behind home plate stretching from dugout to dugout.
The front entrance of Citi Field features a rotunda named after Brooklyn Dodgers legend Jackie Robinson and honors his life and accomplishments. Engraved into the rotunda 's 160 - foot - diameter (49 m) floor and etched into the archways are words and larger - than - life images that defined Robinson 's nine values: Courage, Excellence, Persistence, Justice, Teamwork, Commitment, Citizenship, Determination and Integrity.
Robinson 's famous quote: "A life is not important except in the impact it has on other lives '', is engraved into the upper ring of the rotunda. There is also an 8 - foot (2.4 m) sculpture of Robinson 's number 42. The formal dedication of the Jackie Robinson Rotunda was held as part of Major League Baseball 's official celebration of Jackie Robinson Day on April 15, 2009.
Another tradition from Shea Stadium making an appearance in Citi Field is the Home Run Apple. When a Mets player hits a home run, a giant apple, which has a Mets logo on the front that lights up, rises from its housing in the center field batter 's eye. The new apple that has been constructed for Citi Field is more than four times the size of the previous one and was designed by Minneapolis - based engineering firm Uni-Systems.
During the 2009 season, the original Shea apple was located in Bullpen Plaza, just inside the Bullpen Gate entrance. In 2010, it was relocated to a spot outside the ballpark in Mets Plaza, the area between the Jackie Robinson Rotunda and the entrance to the Mets -- Willets Point subway station.
Behind the center field scoreboard is the FanFest area, an expanded family entertainment area that includes a miniature wiffleball field replica of Citi Field called Mr. Met 's Kiddie Field, a batting cage, a dunk tank, video game kiosks and other attractions.
Citi Field offers a wide choice of eateries. Taste of the City is a food court located in the center field section of the ballpark. It features food from restaurateur Danny Meyer 's Union Square Hospitality Group and includes a variety of stands, including Shake Shack (burgers, fries, shakes), Blue Smoke (barbecue), El Verano Taqueria (Mexican cuisine), Catch of the Day (featuring seafood from chef Dave Pasternack of Esca) and Box Frites (Belgian French fries). The World 's Fare Market is located on the field level in right field and features sushi from Daruma of Tokyo, sandwiches and pastries from Mama 's of Corona, Chinese cuisine from Tai Pan Bakery and Korean food from Café Hanover. Citi Field also offers a choice of fresh fruit at several stands around the stadium. In 2010 Citi Field upgraded the food choices on the Promenade Level behind home plate. Blue Smoke BBQ and Box Frites both open a second location.
Restaurants and clubs are also available in every level of the ballpark. The 350 - seat Acela Club (now Porsche Grill) located in left field on the Excelsior Level, is the dining highlight of the new park and features a full view of the playing field as well as food from Drew Nieporent 's Myriad Restaurant Group, renowned for Nobu and Tribeca Grill. Admission into the high - end luxury Porsche Grill and Delta Sky360 Club, and including the other semi-luxury clubs are exclusive to high - end ticket holders only, and some restaurants enforce that reservations be made. A McFadden 's Restaurant and Saloon opened at Citi Field in 2010. It is located directly under the Good Humor FanFest and is open to the public year - round.
The Mets Hall of Fame & Museum is located adjacent to the Jackie Robinson Rotunda on the first base side and opened on April 5, 2010. The museum includes plaques honoring the inductees of the New York Mets Hall of Fame, the team 's World Series trophies from 1969 and 1986, as well as artifacts on loan from noted collectors, former players and the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum. The museum boasts several displays including autographed memorabilia, original scouting reports on players such as Darryl Strawberry, and handwritten notes from the team 's first manager Casey Stengel. In addition to this the team has installed interactive touchscreens that guide visitors through various aspects of the franchise 's 50 - year history, and there are television screens and timelines that help weave all the disparate elements into a cohesive narrative.
Business Insider praised the stadium for its aesthetics and named it one of the top 100 venues in sports, while BaseballParks.com called it "perfect '' and especially lauded the Jackie Robinson Rotunda. Reviewers have also praised the many culinary offerings at Citi Field 's concession stands.
Despite the modern amenities, Citi Field has not been without criticism. Most notable have been fan complaints of obstructed views, as well as Mets fans ' outrage at overemphasis on the celebration of the Brooklyn Dodgers ' legacy over the history of the Mets. Mets owner Fred Wilpon, a Brooklyn native, had grown up a Brooklyn Dodgers fan and admitted to going overboard; Jeffrey Toobin wrote in The New Yorker,
In response to these criticisms, the team installed photographic imagery of famous players and historic moments in Mets history on the Field and Promenade levels as well as the display of team championship banners on the left - field wall during the 2009 season. They also constructed a Mets Hall of Fame and Museum prior to the 2010 season, located adjacent to the Jackie Robinson Rotunda, and changed the color of the outfield wall from black to Mets blue prior to the 2012 season, which many Mets fans had campaigned for. The team also worked on fixing the obstructed views in the Promenade level.
During its first three seasons in existence, Citi Field was known to play as a "pitcher 's park '', and has been cited as the cause of the decreased offensive production of David Wright and Jason Bay. Wright hit only 10 home runs in 2009 after hitting at least 30 in the previous two seasons, while Bay had the worst offensive production of his career in his first season with the Mets in 2010, only hitting 6 home runs, 47 RBIs, and OBP of just. 347, and a slugging percentage of a career low. 402. Jeff Francoeur, who played with the Mets during their first two years at Citi Field, criticized the ballpark 's dimensions, calling it "a damn joke. '' During the 2011 season, Citi Field allowed 1.33 home runs per game, the third lowest total out of the 16 National League ballparks. The team responded by altering the ballpark dimensions for the 2012 season, creating a more neutral ballpark. Wright 's 2012 offensive numbers have improved due to the alterations. "It 's a huge difference '', Wright said. "It allows you to relax and know you do n't have to try to hit the ball a mile to see results. And at the same time, if you do hit the ball well and you see results, instead of a 400 - foot flyout, you 're 1 - for - 1 and feeling good about yourself. ''
Citi Field is located in the borough of Queens, adjacent to the neighborhoods of Corona, which lies to its west, and Willets Point and Flushing to the east. Flushing Bay is to the north, and the rest of Flushing Meadows -- Corona Park is to the south. Because it lies within the Flushing postal zone, and because of its location in Flushing Meadows -- Corona Park, Citi Field is frequently referred to as being in Flushing proper.
Citi Field is accessible via mass transit systems such as the New York City Subway via the IRT Flushing Line (7 and < 7 > trains) at the Mets -- Willets Point station, and the Long Island Rail Road station on the Port Washington Branch also called Mets -- Willets Point. New York Water Taxi operates a free ferry to the stadium from Pier 11 / Wall Street and the East 34th Street Ferry Landing before every game. For selected games, SeaStreak provides ferry service between Highlands, New Jersey and the stadium. Both ferry services use the slips at the World 's Fair Marina, located approximately 0.25 miles (0.40 km) north of Citi Field. The park is also close to several major thoroughfares, including the Grand Central Parkway, the Whitestone and Van Wyck Expressways, the Long Island Expressway, Roosevelt Avenue, Northern Boulevard and Astoria Boulevard.
Citi Field is near to the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center, where the annual US Open grand - slam tennis tournament is held.
Since the construction of Citi Field began, satellite parking lots in Flushing Meadow Park (access from College Point Boulevard) have been opened.
Bold indicates the winner of each game.
Bold indicates the winner of each game.
2017 Home Opener
Bold indicates the winner of each game.
On November 13, 2006, it was announced that the ballpark would be called Citi Field, named for Citigroup Inc. Citigroup will be paying $20 million a year for the naming rights to the park over the next 20 years. This made Citi Field the second major league sports venue in the New York metropolitan area and the first in the city itself to be named for a corporate sponsor. At the time, the Meadowlands Arena in New Jersey 's Meadowlands Sports Complex had carried the Continental Airlines name; since then Prudential Center in Newark, MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, Red Bull Arena in Harrison, and Barclays Center in Brooklyn have all opened under corporate sponsorship. The deal includes an option on both sides to extend the contract to 40 years, and is the most expensive sports - stadium naming rights agreement ever, subsequently equaled by MetLife Stadium 's $400 million deal.
At the groundbreaking for Citi Field, it was announced that the main entrance, modeled on the one in Brooklyn 's old Ebbets Field, would be called the Jackie Robinson Rotunda, possibly due to campaigns to forgo naming rights revenue and name the ballpark after Robinson. The Mets are spending more than $600 million for the new ballpark, which New York City and New York state are also supporting with a total of $165 million for such costs as infrastructure and site preparation. On February 24, 2008, the Mets and Citigroup unveiled the new Citi Field logo.
Both Citigroup and the Mets maintain that the naming rights deal is secure, despite Citigroup 's economic troubles. This deal has been criticized in light of the late - 2000s financial crisis and the $45 billion of taxpayer funds allocated to Citigroup by the U.S. federal government in two separate rescue packages, prompting New York City Council members Vincent Ignizio and James Oddo to suggest that the new ballpark be called "Citi / Taxpayer Field. '' Radio talk show host Brian Lehrer suggested the name "Debits Field '' which combines baseball history with public outrage over the Citi bailout. Congressman Elijah Cummings of Maryland, who serves on the United States House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, stated in regards to the Citi Field naming rights deal, "This type of spending is indefensible and unacceptable to Citigroup 's new partner and largest investor: the American taxpayer... I strongly urge Citigroup to find a way out of this contract and instead spend that $400 million on retaining its employees and restoring confidence in its operations. '' On January 29, 2009, congressmen Dennis Kucinich of Ohio and Ted Poe of Texas sent a letter to United States Secretary of the Treasury Timothy F. Geithner urging him to scrap Citigroup 's $400 million naming rights deal. "We request that you intervene and demand that Citigroup dissolve the agreement they have with the New York Mets, '' reads the letter. "Absent this outcome, we feel strongly that you should compel Citigroup to return immediately all federal monies received to date, as well as cancel all loan guarantees. '' However, Geithner rejected congressional demands to cancel the naming rights deal.
The Wall Street Journal reported on February 3, 2009, that Citigroup considered breaking the naming rights deal. Citi has stated that no government TARP funds would be used in the sponsorship deal.
The naming rights controversy reemerged when details about owner Fred Wilpon 's involvement in Bernard Madoff 's Ponzi scheme came to light when a lawsuit was filed on behalf of victims of Madoff 's investment scandal in 2011.
Between 2012 and 2016, the Mets had a post-game concert series entitled "Mets Concert Series '' after selected games. Unlike the concerts where the performance was the sole attraction of the evening, "Mets Concert Series '' events were considered promotional dates, and admission to the concert was included in the price of the game ticket. The stage was set up in the grassy part of the field just beyond second base.
2012 6 / 15 / 2012 -- REO Speedwagon (following game v. Cincinnati) 7 / 20 / 2012 -- Daughtry (following game v. Los Angeles) 8 / 10 / 2012 -- MercyMe (following game v. Atlanta)
2013 6 / 14 / 2013 -- Foreigner (following game v. Chicago Cubs) 7 / 19 / 2013 -- Nas (following game v. Philadelphia) 8 / 2 / 2013 -- O.A.R. (following game v. Kansas City) 8 / 23 / 2013 -- Third Eye Blind (following game v. Detroit)
2014 6 / 14 / 2014 -- 50 Cent (following game v. San Diego) 7 / 12 / 2014 -- Huey Lewis and the News (following game v. Miami) 8 / 16 / 2014 -- Boys II Men (following game v. Chicago Cubs) 9 / 27 / 2014 -- Austin Mahone (following game v. Houston)
2015 6 / 28 / 2015 -- Steve Miller Band (following game v. Cincinnati) 7 / 25 / 2015 -- Heart (following game v. Los Angeles) 8 / 15 / 2015 -- Ne - Yo (following game v. Pittsburgh)
2016 6 / 18 / 2016 -- Andy Grammer (following game v. Atlanta) 8 / 13 / 2016 -- Styx (following game v. San Diego)
The inaugural Metropolitan Lacrosse Classic was played at Citi Field on March 17, 2013, only the second time a major - league baseball stadium has staged college lacrosse, according to the Mets. In 1971, Navy played Johns Hopkins at the Houston Astrodome. Holy Cross played Navy at noon, followed by Colgate - Michigan at 3 p.m. Holy Cross defeated Navy 7 -- 5 and Colgate defeated Michigan 10 -- 7, before a crowd of 15,656.
On June 7, 2015, the first "Legends of Wrestling '' event took place at Citi Field. It was a professional wrestling event, featuring veteran wrestlers such as Rob Van Dam, Lita, The Nasty Boys, Scott Steiner, and many more independent professional wrestlers, in up to six matches taking place; the event was headlined by Ric Flair, Bret "The Hitman '' Hart, and Bill Goldberg.
On November 7, 2015, Citi Field hosted the first game of the Cricket All - Stars Series 2015, featuring many retired cricket players from around the world and led by great cricket legends Sachin Tendulkar and Shane Warne. Warne 's Warriors defeated Sachin 's Blasters by 6 wickets.
On January 1, 2018, Citi Field hosted the 2018 NHL Winter Classic between the New York Rangers and the Buffalo Sabres. The Rangers won the game 3 - 2 in overtime. The Sabres were the designated home team for the game, as the Rangers ' home arena of Madison Square Garden would lose its property tax exemption from the City of New York if any Rangers home games are not played there. Following the Winter Classic, Citi Field, with the help of Recycle Track Systems, the waste, recycling, and sustainability partner of the New York Mets, was able to recycle the hockey rink that was used during the game.
Citi Field was featured in the finale of the third season of Ugly Betty. Citi Field was also featured as a location in the film Sharknado 2: The Second One, in which a tornado filled with sharks hits the ballpark. The field was featured in the CSI: NY Episode Hammer Down during the CSI: Trilogy, a three - night crossover event between CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami and CSI: NY.
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when was pirates of the caribbean on stranger tides filmed | Pirates of the Caribbean: on Stranger Tides - Wikipedia
Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides is a 2011 American fantasy swashbuckler film, the fourth installment in the Pirates of the Caribbean film series and the sequel to At World 's End (2007). It is the first film in the series not to be directed by Gore Verbinski, being replaced by Rob Marshall. Jerry Bruckheimer again served as producer. The film is technically a stand - alone sequel to the previous installments. In the film, which draws its plot loosely from the novel On Stranger Tides by Tim Powers, Captain Jack Sparrow (Johnny Depp) is joined by Angelica (Penélope Cruz) in his search for the Fountain of Youth, confronting the infamous pirate Blackbeard (Ian McShane). The film was produced by Walt Disney Pictures and released in the United States on May 20, 2011. It was the first film in the series to be released in the Disney Digital 3 - D and IMAX 3D formats.
Writers Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio first learned of Powers ' novel On Stranger Tides during the back - to - back production of Dead Man 's Chest (2006) and At World 's End, and considered it a good starting point for a new movie in the series. Pre-production started after the end of the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike, with Depp collaborating with the writers on the story design. Principal photography rolled for 106 days between June and November 2010, with locations in Hawaii, the United Kingdom, Puerto Rico and California. Filming employed 3D cameras similar to those used in the production of the 2009 film Avatar, and ten companies were involved with the film 's visual effects. Following inflated production costs it is currently noted as the most expensive film ever made with a net budget of $379 million.
On Stranger Tides broke many box office records upon release, and it stands as the 24th - highest - grossing film of all time worldwide when not adjusting for inflation. Critical reviews were mixed, with the film receiving criticism over its writing, directing, excessiveness and lack of originality; positive mentions were given on the acting, action sequences, music, visuals and the running time for being much shorter than the previous two films. A sequel, titled Dead Men Tell No Tales, was released in 2017.
This film 's story occurs in 1750, set roughly sixteen years after At World 's End (and six after its post-credits scene)
After a failed attempt to rescue his first mate, Joshamee Gibbs, in London, Captain Jack Sparrow is brought before King George II. The king wants Jack to guide an expedition to the Fountain of Youth before King Ferdinand and the Spanish Navy can locate it. Jack 's old nemesis, Captain Hector Barbossa, now a privateer in service to the British Navy after losing his leg and ship, the Black Pearl, which he says was sunk, is heading the expedition.
Jack refuses the offer and escapes. He meets up with his father, Captain Teague, who warns Jack about the Fountain 's rituals. Jack learns someone is impersonating him to recruit a crew to find the Fountain. The impostor is Angelica, Jack 's former lover, and the daughter of the ruthless pirate Blackbeard, who practices voodoo magic and wields the mythical "Sword of Triton '' that controls his ship, the Queen Anne 's Revenge. While Jack is shanghaied aboard Blackbeard 's ship, Gibbs escapes execution by memorizing and destroying Jack 's map showing the Fountain 's location, forcing Barbossa to take him along.
Meanwhile, after a failed mutiny aboard the Queen Anne 's Revenge, Jack is forced to guide the crew to the Fountain. Blackbeard seeks the Fountain 's power to circumvent his predestined fatal encounter with a "one - legged man '', who happened to be Barbossa. Jack must find two silver chalices aboard Juan Ponce de León 's missing flagship, the Santiago. The Fountain 's water must simultaneously be drunk by two people from the chalices. Drinking from one chalice containing a mermaid 's tear will extend life; the second person dies, their remaining years of life transferred to the other drinker. Jack also discovers that the Black Pearl was captured and shrunk before being added to Blackbeard 's collection of other shrunken ships in bottles.
The Queen Anne 's Revenge heads for Whitecap Bay to find and harvest mermaid tears. After managing to lure in a mermaid named Tamara, she summons other mermaids to attack the crew before Jack causes an explosion that scares them away. A mermaid named Syrena is caught, but Philip Swift, a captive missionary, falls in love with her. Reaching Ponce de León 's ship on an uncharted island, Angelica and Blackbeard coerce Jack into retrieving both chalices. Jack locates the grounded, decaying vessel, only to find Barbossa there. Both guess that the Spanish have taken the chalices, after they are nowhere to be found on the vessel.
Jack and Barbossa team up to sneak into the Spanish camp and steal the chalices. Barbossa reveals he only wants revenge against Blackbeard for attacking the Black Pearl, and his leg being amputated. Jack and Barbossa escape with the chalices. Meanwhile, Syrena, reciprocating Philip 's love, is tricked into shedding a tear. Blackbeard collects it, leaving her to die of dehydration while Philip is forced to go with them. Jack returns with the chalices and bargains with Blackbeard for Angelica 's safety, Jack 's confiscated magical compass (which they took from him before sending him to get the chalices), and Gibbs ' release. In return, Jack vows to give Blackbeard the chalices and lead him to the Fountain; Blackbeard agrees, and Gibbs is set free with the compass.
At the Fountain, Blackbeard 's crew is confronted by Barbossa and his men and they battle while Barbossa and Blackbeard fight. The Spanish suddenly arrive, intending to destroy the Fountain, believing its power an abomination against God. They crush the chalices and throw them in the swamp. When Barbossa stabs Blackbeard with a poisoned sword, Angelica pulls it out but is cut and poisoned. Jack notices Angelica is poisoned and begins frantically searching the swamp for the chalices. Barbossa obtains Blackbeard 's magic sword and gains control of the Queen Anne 's Revenge and her crew. Despite resistance from Blackbeard 's crew, the Spanish successfully pull down a pillar, crushing the Fountain of Youth. The Spanish army leaves once the fountain is in ruins. Philip is mortally wounded, but he returns to free Syrena. She helps Jack retrieve the missing chalices and gives them to him, telling him not to waste her tear. Syrena goes back to the dying Philip. She says she can save him if he asks her to. When he asks for her forgiveness, she kisses him and takes him underwater.
With Blackbeard and Angelica both nearing death, Jack retrieves the last remaining drops of water from the destroyed fountain and puts the tear in one of them. Knowing that one of them must be sacrificed, he wants Angelica to drink from the chalice containing the tear. Instead, Blackbeard drinks it, asking his daughter to save him. Angelica agrees and drinks from the second chalice. Jack is upset to lose Angelica, but reveals that he made a mistake about which chalice contained the tear. Neither of the two are happy, and they both believe Jack deliberately tricked them. Angelica 's wounds are healed as the Fountain fatally consumes Blackbeard 's body.
Eventually, Jack and Angelica admit their love for each other, yet he distrusts her intentions (aware that she may try to avenge her father) and strands her on a cay. Now wielding Blackbeard 's magical sword, Barbossa captains the Queen Anne 's Revenge and returns to piracy. Jack finds Gibbs, who had used the compass to locate the Revenge. He reclaims the shrunken Black Pearl and the other conquered ships in bottles, carrying them in a gunny sack. The two leave, hoping to revert the Black Pearl to its original size and continue living the pirates ' life.
In a post-credits scene, a voodoo doll of Jack crafted by Blackbeard washes ashore and is found by Angelica, who then smiles.
Shortly before the premiere of At World 's End, Jerry Bruckheimer stated it was the end of the trilogy, but the idea of a spin - off was still possible. After the film 's successful opening weekend, Dick Cook, then Chairman of the Walt Disney Studios, said he was interested in a fourth installment. Los Angeles Times also reported that rights to a book were bought. Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio had started working on a script in 2007, but they were interrupted by the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike, and only resumed in mid-2008.
In June 2009, Bruckheimer indicated Disney would prefer the fourth installment of Pirates to be released before The Lone Ranger film, which he, Johnny Depp, Ted Elliott, and Terry Rossio had been working on for release on May 20, 2011. He hoped Gore Verbinski would return to direct the fourth film, as his BioShock film adaptation had been put on hold. As Verbinski was unavailable due to his commitment with Rango the same year, Bruckheimer suggested Rob Marshall, who he considered a "premiere filmmaker '', stating that "Every film (Marshall) made I thought was unique and different. '' On July 21, 2009, Marshall accepted the job, because of the "whole new story line and set of characters. It felt new, and that was important to me. '' Marshall said the film provided him a long - awaited opportunity to work with Depp, and that his directing was helped by his experience as a choreographer -- "the action sequences felt like big production numbers. '' On September 11, 2009, at Disney 's D23 convention during a Disney event, Cook and Johnny Depp, in full Captain Jack Sparrow costume, announced that a fourth Pirates film was in development. The title was announced as Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides. Marshall visited the Pirates of the Caribbean ride in Disneyland for inspiration, eventually paying homage with a skeleton holding a magnifying glass in Ponce de León 's ship. An appearance of "Old Bill '', the pirate who tries to share his rum with a cat, was also filmed but cut. Pintel and Ragetti were originally supposed to make an appearance, but director Rob Marshall opted out of the idea as he feared their roles would be cut.
Cook resigned in September 2009 after working for Disney for over 38 years. Depp 's faith in Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides was somewhat shaken after the resignation, with Depp explaining that "There 's a fissure, a crack in my enthusiasm at the moment. It was all born in that office ''. Depp also explained Cook was one of the few who accepted his portrayal of Jack Sparrow: "When things went a little sideways on the first Pirates movie and others at the studio were less than enthusiastic about my interpretation of the character, Dick was there from the first moment. He trusted me ''.
During production of Dead Man 's Chest and At World 's End, writers Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio discovered Tim Powers ' 1987 novel On Stranger Tides, which they considered a good foundation on which to base "a new chapter '' in the Pirates series. Disney bought the rights to the novel in April 2007. Rossio stated that he and Elliot had considered using Blackbeard and the Fountain of Youth in the story before reading the book, "but whenever you say those words, Powers ' novel comes to mind. There was no way we could work in that field without going into territory Tim had explored. '' However, they denied that it would be a straight version of the novel: "Blackbeard came from the book, and in the book there is a daughter character, too. But Jack Sparrow is not in the book, nor is Barbossa. So I would n't call this an adaptation. '' Rossio declared the script was written to be a standalone film, "kind of a James Bond sort of thing '', instead of the "designed to be a trilogy '' structure of the previous installments. They hoped to "design a story that would support new characters, '' as characters such as Will Turner would not return. Bruckheimer added that there was a decision to "streamline the story a little bit, make it a little simpler and not have as many characters to follow '', as the number of characters and subplots in At World 's End caused the film to have an unwieldy length. The duo decided to employ another sea myth alluded in the previous episodes: mermaids, which are briefly referenced in the book. The mermaids ' role expanded in the script, which included a vast attack sequence.
Depp was deeply involved with the story design, frequently meeting the writers to show what he was interested in doing, and in the words of Rossio, being "involved in coming up with story lines, connecting characters, creating moments that we would then fashion, shape and then go back. '' Among Depp 's suggestions were turning Phillip into a missionary and having a Spanish contingent following the protagonists. Afterwards, Rob Marshall and executive producer John DeLuca met Rossio and Elliot, and did alterations of their own, including building the female lead.
Depp signed on to return as Captain Jack Sparrow in September 2008, saying that he would come back if the script was good. Almost a year later, Disney announced that Depp would be paid $55.5 million for his role, realizing that without him the franchise would be "dead and buried. '' Geoffrey Rush expressed interest in returning to his role as Barbossa, and Bruckheimer later confirmed his presence. Rush was positive on Barbossa having lost a leg, as he considered the disability made him "angrier, more forceful and resilient as a character '', and had to work with the stunt team for an accurate portrayal of the limp and usage of crutch, particularly during sword fighting scenes. While the production team considered a prop pegleg to be put over Rush 's leg, the tight schedule caused it to be replaced with a blue sock that was replaced digitally, with a knob on the shoe to give Rush a reference for his walk. Three other actors from the previous films returned, Kevin McNally as Joshamee Gibbs, Greg Ellis as Lt. Theodore Groves, and Damian O'Hare as Lt. Gilette. Keith Richards also had a cameo, reprising his role as Captain Teague from At World 's End; he and Depp tried to persuade Mick Jagger to audition for the part of a pirate elder. Previous cast members Orlando Bloom and Keira Knightley stated that they would not reprise their roles, as they wanted to be involved in different films. They both thought the storyline involving their characters had gone as far as it could. On August 1, 2009, Bill Nighy expressed his desire to return as Davy Jones, who died in the previous film, saying the possibility to resurrect the character, but at the end, his inclusion was scrapped. On February 5, 2010, Mackenzie Crook also announced he would not be reprising his role of Ragetti, stating, "They have n't asked me. But actually I do n't mind that at all. I 'm a fan of the first one especially and I think the trilogy we 've made is great. I 'd almost like them to leave it there. ''
New cast members include Ian McShane, who plays the notorious pirate and primary antagonist of the film, Blackbeard, and Penélope Cruz, who plays Angelica, Jack Sparrow 's love interest. According to Marshall, McShane was chosen because "he can play something evil but there 's always humor behind it as well '' and the actor accepted the job due to both the "very funny and charming '' script and the opportunity to work with Marshall. The beard took one hour and a half to get applied, and McShane likened the character 's costume to "a real biker pirate -- it 's all black leather. '' Marshall said Cruz was the only actress considered for the role, as she fit the description as "an actress who could not only go toe to toe with Johnny and match him, but also needed to be all the things that Jack Sparrow is in a way. She needed to be funny and clever and smart and crafty and beautiful '', and invited her for the role as they wrapped the production of Nine. The actress spent two months working out and learning fencing for the role. During filming, Cruz discovered she was pregnant, leading the costume department to redesign her wardrobe to be more elastic, and the producers to hire her sister Mónica Cruz to double for Penélope in risky scenes. Depp recommended Stephen Graham, who worked with him in Public Enemies, to play Scrum, a Machiavellian pirate and sidekick to Jack Sparrow, and Richard Griffiths for the role of King George II, as Depp was a fan of Griffiths ' work on Withnail and I. Sam Claflin, a recent drama school graduate with television experience, was chosen to play the missionary Philip, and British actor Paul Bazely also joined the cast. Spanish news website El Pais reported that the film had four Spanish actors: Cruz, Bergès - Frisbey, Óscar Jaenada, and Juan Carlos Vellido. Jaenada was picked for both his work in The Losers and a recommendation by Cruz.
Casting for mermaids required the actresses to have natural breasts -- no implants. As Bruckheimer explained to EW, "I do n't think they had breast augmentation in the 1700s, (...) So it 's natural for casting people to say, ' We want real people. ' '' Marshall invited Spanish - French actress Àstrid Bergès - Frisbey to play Syrena after seeing her in a French magazine article on up - and - coming actresses. Bergès - Frisbey had to take lessons of English, swimming and breath control for the role. The rest of the mermaid portrayers, such as Australian supermodel Gemma Ward, were chosen for having "exotic sense, an otherworldly sensibility, but also under those layers a deadly quality '', according to Marshall, and had to take swimming lessons to learn movements such as the dolphin and eggbeater kicks.
Principal photography began on June 14, 2010, in Hawaii. Filming was moved to California in August 2010, primarily at the Long Beach shore and a recreation of Whitecap Bay done in the Universal Studios backlot, as the original Hawaiian location on Halona Cove was plagued with strong tides. After a brief shoot in Puerto Rico, with locations in both Palomino Island and the Fort of San Cristóbal in San Juan, production moved to the United Kingdom in September, where principal photography wrapped on November 18 after 106 days of shooting. Locations included Hampton Court Palace in London, Knole House in Kent, and Old Royal Naval College at Greenwich. Interiors were shot at London 's Pinewood Studios, and a replica of an 18th - century London street was built on the backlot alongside the soundstages. The producers also considered using New Orleans as a location. In October, security was breached at the UK site when a celebrity impersonator gained access to filming at the Old Royal Naval College by dressing up as Captain Jack.
After the joint production of Dead Man 's Chest and At World 's End cost over $300 million, Disney decided to give a lower budget to the fourth installment. Many costs had to be cut, including moving primary production to Hawaii and London, where tax credits are more favorable, and having a shorter shooting schedule and fewer scenes featuring special effects compared to At World 's End. The tighter schedule -- according to Bruckheimer, "We had a 22 - week post, and for a picture like this, with almost 1,200 visual effects shots, it 's usually 40 weeks '' -- meant that Marshall supervised editing of sequences during filming. The British financial statements of the film revealed total expenditures of £ 240.7 million ($410.6 million) by 2013, with Disney receiving a rebate of $32.1 million from the British government, making Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides the most expensive film ever made to date.
Bruckheimer said the decision to film in 3D was made due to its being "immersive filmmaking; I think it makes you part of the actual filming because you 're part of the screen. '' Bruckheimer described it as the first major "exterior movie '' to be shot in 3D, as Avatar was mostly done in sound stages. At first Marshall was not much interested in 3D, but the director eventually considered it a film that could benefit from the format. "You are on an adventure and with the 3D experience you are inside that adventure. '' While the original plan was to add 3D effects during post-production, the decision was made to shoot digitally with 3D cameras. Only one sequence was shot conventionally and needed a 3D conversion. The cameras were improved versions of the ones James Cameron developed for Avatar, which were made more compact for extra mobility. This meant the cameras could be brought into locations such as the Hawaiian jungle.
The Queen Anne 's Revenge was built atop the Sunset, the same ship used to depict the Black Pearl in previous installments. On February 2010, the Sunset was sailed from Long Beach to a shipyard in Hawaii for the reforms, where a big concern was to make it imposing, with three stories, without sacrificing actual seakeeping. Given Blackbeard was meant to be the meanest pirate to appear in the series, the look for the Queen Anne 's Revenge was ominous, with sails dyed blood red, various elements on fire, and a decoration based on skulls and bones (drawing inspiration from the Sedlec Ossuary in Czech Republic). Damage from cannon fire was also added to show that "not only Blackbeard was a dying man, but his ship is also a dying ship ''. The ship 's figurehead also drew inspiration from Blackbeard 's pirate flag. The replica ship HMS Surprise was used for Barbossa 's ship, the HMS Providence, and all the scenes aboard the Providence were shot on the Long Beach shore as the Surprise could not be sailed to Hawaii. Over 50 designs were considered for the Fountain of Youth, with the final one representing a temple built by an ancient civilization around the Fountain, which itself was located in a round rocky structure to represent "the circle of life ''. The locations leading up to the Fountain were shot in the Hawaiian islands of Kauai and Oahu, but the Fountain itself was built at the 007 Stage on Pinewood.
On Stranger Tides employed 1,112 shots of computer - generated imagery, which were done by ten visual effects companies. Cinesite visual effects supervisor Simon Stanley - Clamp claimed that the most difficult part was doing the effects in 3D: "Rotoscoping is tricky. Cleaning up plates is double the work, and tracking has to be spot on. '' The lead companies, with over 300 effects each, were Industrial Light & Magic -- responsible for, among others, the mermaids and most water effects -- and Moving Picture Company, who created digital ships and environment extensions, such as changing weather and designing cliffs and waterfalls. Filming the mermaids involved eight model - actresses, who portrayed them outside the water, as well as 22 synchronized swimming athletes and a group of stuntwomen, both of whom wore motion capture suits to be later replaced by digital mermaids. Mermaid corpses were depicted by plaster models. The design tried to avoid the traditional representations of mermaids in paintings and literature, instead going for a scaly body with a translucent membrane inspired by both jellyfish and the fabric employed in ballet tutus. To make the mermaids more menacing underwater, the faces of the actresses had some digital touch - ups on the underwater scenes, adding sharper teeth and a shimmery fish scale quality on the skin. ILM also handled Blackbeard 's death, where Ian McShane 's actual performance was covered by digital doubles which turned him into a "boiling mass of blood and clothing '', and a hurricane - like formation that represented "the waters of the Fountain taking his life ''. Cinesite handled the recreation of London and Barbossa 's peg leg, CIS Hollywood did 3D corrections and minor shots, and Method Studios created matte paintings.
The film 's score was written by Hans Zimmer, who had worked in all of the previous entries in the franchise; being the main composer for the second and third installments. Zimmer said that he tried to incorporate a rock n ' roll sound, as he felt "pirates were the rock ' n ' rollers of many, many years ago '', and Spanish elements, which led to a collaboration with Mexican guitarists Rodrigo y Gabriela and a tango song written by Penélope Cruz 's brother Eduardo. American composer Eric Whitacre contributed several choir - based cues, as well as regular assistant Geoff Zanelli.
On January 6, 2010, Disney announced that the film would be released in the United States and Canada on May 20, 2011, following Columbia Pictures ' announcement of a delay in the Spider - Man reboot and Paramount Pictures slating Thor for May 6, 2011. The film was released in IMAX 3D, as well as traditional 2D and IMAX format, with Dolby 7.1 surround sound. This film was also the first film to be released in the 4DX motion theaters in Mexico and in the Western Hemisphere, featuring strobe lights, tilting seats, blowing wind and fog and odor effects. It is available exclusively at select Cinépolis cinemas.
The world premiere of On Stranger Tides was on May 7, 2011, at a premium ticket screening at Disneyland in Anaheim, California, home of the original Pirates of the Caribbean ride that inspired the film series. Many of the film 's stars were in attendance. Two other early screenings followed, one in Moscow on May 11, and another during the Cannes International Film Festival on May 14. The international release dates fell within May 18 and 20, with opening dates in the United Kingdom on May 18, in Australia on May 19, and in North America on May 20. The film was released on a then - record 402 IMAX screens, 257 screens in North America, and 139 in other territories. The total number of theaters was 4,155 in North America and 18,210 worldwide.
Disney 's marketing president, MT Carney, said that the film 's advertising campaign was intended "to remind people of why they fell in love with Jack Sparrow in the first place and also introduce new elements in a way that was elegant ''. Sony Pictures ' former marketing president, Valerie Van Galder, was hired as a consultant. The first footage from the film appeared on Entertainment Tonight on December 4, 2010. Three trailers were released, one in December, which had a 3D version included with the release of Tron: Legacy and broadcast by ESPN 3D; a Super Bowl XLV spot on February 2011, which was later released online in an extended version; and a final trailer in March that focused more on the plot than the previous trailer and commercials.
Promotional tie - ins included Lego Pirates of the Caribbean toy sets and a related video game, a cell phone app by Verizon Wireless, a special edition of Pirate 's Booty, lines of nail polish by OPI, clothing from Hot Topic, and jewelry from Swarovski. Goldline International produced replicas of the "Pieces of Eight '' coins from the movies and gold Mexican Escudo coins, which were given in sweepstakes at the El Capitan Theatre. At Disney California Adventure Park, the Pirates of the Caribbean segment of the World of Color show was extended to include visual clips and music from On Stranger Tides.
The film was released on DVD and Blu - Ray on September 12, 2011 in the UK, topping both the Blu - ray and DVD sales charts during its first two weeks. The film had its high - definition home release on October 18, 2011 in the United States and Canada. Three different physical packages were made available: a 2 - disc combo pack (Blu - ray and DVD), a 5 - disc combo pack (2 - disc Blu - ray, 1 - disc Blu - ray 3D, 1 - disc DVD, and 1 - disc Digital Copy), and a 15 - disc collection featuring all four Pirates movies. On Stranger Tides was also released as a movie download in both high definition and 3D. The regular DVD edition came out on December 6.
In its first week of release, it sold 1.71 million Blu - ray units and generated $48.50 million, topping the weekly Blu - ray chart. However these results were quite skewed due to the one - month delay of its DVD - only release. It sold 3.20 million Blu - ray units ($83.46 million) after 11 weeks. It has also sold 1.12 million DVD units ($19.32 million). Upon its television premiere on December 29, 2013 in the UK on BBC One, it was watched by a total of 5.4 million viewers, making it the third-most watched program that night, according to overnight figures.
On Stranger Tides earned $241.1 million in the North America and $804.6 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $1.045 billion. It is the 23rd highest - grossing film worldwide, the third - highest - grossing 2011 film, the second-most successful installment of the Pirates of the Caribbean series, the eleventh - highest - grossing Disney feature and the second - highest - grossing fourth film in a franchise (behind Transformers: Age of Extinction). On its worldwide opening weekend, it grossed $350.6 million, surpassing At World 's End 's $344 million opening as best in the series and ranking as the seventh - highest worldwide opening. It scored an IMAX worldwide opening - weekend record with $16.7 million (first surpassed by Transformers: Dark of the Moon).
It set records for the least time to reach $500, $600, and $700 million worldwide (in 10, 12 and 16 days, respectively). The first of these records was first surpassed by Dark of the Moon and the other two by Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2. After 46 days in theaters (July 2, 2011), it became the eighth film in cinema history and the fourth film released by Walt Disney Studios to cross the $1 - billion - mark. It set a record for the fastest Disney - distributed film to reach the milestone (first surpassed by Marvel 's The Avengers) and it is the fifth - fastest film overall to achieve this.
During its Thursday - midnight showings, On Stranger Tides earned $4.7 million from 2,210 theaters, and $34,860,549 in total on its opening day. It earned $90.2 million on its opening weekend, topping the weekend box office, but earning much less than its two immediate predecessors (At World 's End -- $114.7 million and Dead Man 's Chest -- $135.6 million) and the directly preceding Johnny Depp spectacle (Alice in Wonderland -- $116.1 million). 3D showings accounted for only 46 % of its opening - weekend gross. It closed on September 29, 2011, with a $241.1 million gross, ranking as the fifth - highest - grossing film of 2011 and the least profitable film of the franchise. However, it was the top - grossing movie during May 2011 (with $166.8 million by May 31).
Outside North America, On Stranger Tides is the sixth - highest - grossing film, the third - highest - grossing Disney film, the second - highest - grossing 2011 film and the highest - grossing film of the Pirates of the Caribbean series. It is the highest - grossing Pirates film in at least 58 territories.
During its opening day (Wednesday, May 18, 2011), On Stranger Tides made $18.5 million from 10 territories. It added 37 territories and $25.7 million on Thursday, for a two - day total of $44.2 million, and on Friday, it expanded to almost all countries, earning $46.2 million for a three - day total of $92.1 million. On its five - day opening weekend as a whole, it earned a then - record $260.4 million from 18,210 screens in more than 100 territories, in all which it reached first place at the box office. The record debut was surpassed later in the same summer season by Deathly Hallows Part 2. Earnings originating from 3 - D showings accounted for 66 % of the weekend gross, which was a much greater share than in North America. Its highest - grossing countries during its first weekend were Russia and the CIS ($31.42 million including previews), China ($22.3 million) and Germany ($20.53 million). It dominated for three weekends at the overseas box office despite competition from The Hangover Part II, Kung Fu Panda 2, and X-Men: First Class. It reached the $300, $400 and $500 - million - mark at the box office outside North America in record time (7, 11 and 14 days respectively), records first surpassed by Deathly Hallows -- Part 2.
On Stranger Tides set opening day records in both Russia (including the CIS) and Sweden. Subsequently, it set opening - weekend records in Latin America, the Middle East, Russia, Norway, Ukraine and Turkey, still retaining the record in Russia ($26.8 million) and Ukraine ($2.15 million). Its highest - grossing market after North America is Japan ($108.9 million), followed by China ($71.8 million) and Russia and the CIS ($63.7 million). It is the highest - grossing film of 2011 in Russia and the CIS, Austria, Ukraine, Greece, Portugal and Angola, South Africa, Romania, Bulgaria, Egypt, Estonia, and Latvia.
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 33 % based on 259 reviews, with an average rating of 5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "It 's shorter and leaner than the previous sequel, but this Pirates runs aground on a disjointed plot and a non-stop barrage of noisy action sequences. '' Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average rating to reviews, gives the film an average score of 45 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade moviegoers gave the film was a "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert gave On Stranger Tides two out of four stars, saying that although the removal of Knightley and Bloom as well as the addition of Cruz were positive aspects, the film in general was "too much of a muchness '' for him. Tom Long of The Detroit News gave a D+, saying that Jack Sparrow had "worn out his welcome ''. Despite the more linear plot, "the movie is still ridiculous ''. He found On Stranger Tides to be "precisely what you 'd expect of the fourth installment of a movie based on an amusement park ride: a whole lot of noise, plenty of stunts and complete silliness. '' British film critic Mark Kermode gave the film an overwhelmingly negative review on his 5 Live show, saying "it 's not as staggeringly misjudged as the third part, because it is just nothing, it is just a big empty nothing, whereas part three I think was an active atrocity, it 's just nothing at all ''.
As with the previous films, the plot was criticized as incoherent and confusing. The Arizona Republic critic Bill Goodykoontz rated the film two out of five, stating that "the movie is a series of distractions tossed together in the hopes that they will come together in a coherent story. That never really happens. '' Online reviewer James Berardinelli considered the script "little more than a clothesline from which to dangle all of the obligatory set pieces '', and USA Today 's Claudia Puig found On Stranger Tides "familiar and predictable... often incoherent and crammed with pointless details. ''
Mike Scott from The Times - Picayune mentions that "while this latest chapter is n't quite sharp enough to restore the sense of discovery that made that first outing so darn exciting, it 's enough to make up for most of the missteps that made the third one so darn arrgh - inducing. '' Writing for The A.V. Club, Tasha Robinson described On Stranger Tides as "a smaller film than past installments, by design and necessity '', and felt that "the series has needed this streamlining '' as the film "feels lightweight, but that 's still better than bloated. ''
On Stranger Tides also had positive reviews; some critics found the film to be entertaining and well - made. Richard Roeper gave the film a B+, describing it as "the most fun installment since the first '', calling the story "pure cartoon, but a lot easier to follow than the other sequels '', and summing as "the franchise is getting tired, but Penelope energizes it. '' Along the same lines, Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post gave the film three out of four stars, writing that it "feels as fresh and bracingly exhilarating as the day Jack Sparrow first swashed his buckle, infusing new reckless energy into a franchise that shows no signs of furling its sails ''. She said that Marshall "swiftly and without fuss delivers the action set pieces and eye - popping escapism '' and praised Depp, Cruz, and McShane 's performances. Ray Bennett from The Hollywood Reporter considered that Marshall "shows terrific flair with all the usual chases and sword fights, and he handles the 3D well '', and welcomed Penélope Cruz 's character, saying she "brings her Oscar - winning vivacity '' and had "lively sexual tension '' with Depp. Writing for The Globe and Mail, Rick Groen found the action scenes to range from "merely competent to tritely cluttered '', but he was pleased with the overall result, calling McShane a "fresh villain '' whose "stentorian tones are welcome anywhere ''. Variety 's Andrew Barker considered the film derivative, but accessible. "It has nary an original idea and still does n't make much sense, but it 's lost all pretensions that it should ''. He praised Geoffrey Rush, stating that he "not only gets the funniest lines and reaction shots, but also starts to siphon away much of the roguish charm that used to be Depp 's stock and trade. ''
The film was nominated for four Teen Choice Awards: Sci - Fi / Fantasy Movie, Sci - Fi / Fantasy Actor, Sci - Fi / Fantasy Actress, and Villain. Its trailer and TV spot were nominated for Golden Trailer Awards. The film won Best Movie for Mature Audiences Award at the 2012 Movieguide Awards.
On May 29, 2013, it was announced that Kon - Tiki directors Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg would be directing Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales.
While earlier reports stated Dead Men Tell No Tales would be released between 2015 and 2016, Disney announced in 2014 that the film would enter theaters on July 2017. Production began in late February 2015 in Australia.
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which of the following is a route of fluid therapy but is not an example of a parenteral route | Route of administration - wikipedia
A route of administration in pharmacology and toxicology is the path by which a drug, fluid, poison, or other substance is taken into the body. Routes of administration are generally classified by the location at which the substance is applied. Common examples include oral and intravenous administration. Routes can also be classified based on where the target of action is. Action may be topical (local), enteral (system - wide effect, but delivered through the gastrointestinal tract), or parenteral (systemic action, but delivered by routes other than the GI tract).
Routes of administration are usually classified by application location (or exposition).
The route or course the active substance takes from application location to the location where it has its target effect is usually rather a matter of pharmacokinetics (concerning the processes of uptake, distribution, and elimination of drugs). Exceptions include the transdermal or transmucosal routes, which are still commonly referred to as routes of administration.
The location of the target effect of active substances are usually rather a matter of pharmacodynamics (concerning e.g. the physiological effects of drugs). An exception is topical administration, which generally means that both the application location and the effect thereof is local.
Topical administration is sometimes defined as both a local application location and local pharmacodynamic effect, and sometimes merely as a local application location regardless of location of the effects.
Administration through the gastrointestinal tract is sometimes termed enteral or enteric administration (literally meaning ' through the intestines '). Enteral / enteric administration usually includes oral (through the mouth) and rectal (into the rectum) administration, in the sense that these are taken up by the intestines. However, uptake of drugs administered orally may also occur already in the stomach, and as such gastrointestinal (along the gastrointestinal tract) may be a more fitting term for this route of administration. Furthermore, some application locations often classified as enteral, such as sublingual (under the tongue) and sublabial or buccal (between the cheek and gums / gingiva), are taken up in the proximal part of the gastrointestinal tract without reaching the intestines. Strictly enteral administration (directly into the intestines) can be used for systemic administration, as well as local (sometimes termed topical), such as in a contrast enema, whereby contrast media is infused into the intestines for imaging. However, for the purposes of classification based on location of effects, the term enteral is reserved for substances with systemic effects.
Many drugs as tablets, capsules, or drops are taken orally. Administration methods directly into the stomach include those by gastric feeding tube or gastrostomy. Substances may also be placed into the small intestines, as with a duodenal feeding tube and enteral nutrition. Enteric coated tablets are designed to dissolve in the intestine, not the stomach, because the drug present in the tablet causes irritation in the stomach.
The rectal route is an effective route of administration for many medications, especially those used at the end of life. The walls of the rectum absorb many medications quickly and effectively. Medications delivered to the distal one - third of the rectum at least partially avoid the "first pass effect '' through the liver, which allows for greater bio-availability of many medications than that of the oral route. Rectal mucosa is highly vascularized tissue that allows for rapid and effective absorption of medications. A suppository is a solid dosage form that fits for rectal administration. In hospice care, a specialized rectal catheter, designed to provide comfortable and discreet administration of ongoing medications provides a practical way to deliver and retain liquid formulations in the distal rectum, giving health practitioners a way to leverage the established benefits of rectal administration.
The parenteral route is any route that is not enteral (par - + enteral).
Parenteral administration can be performed by injection, that is, using a needle (usually a hypodermic needle) and a syringe, or by the insertion of an indwelling catheter.
Locations of application of parenteral administration include:
The definition of the topical route of administration sometimes states that both the application location and the pharmacodynamic effect thereof is local.
In other cases, topical is defined as applied to a localized area of the body or to the surface of a body part regardless of the location of the effect. By this definition, topical administration also includes transdermal application, where the substance is administered onto the skin but is absorbed into the body to attain systemic distribution.
If defined strictly as having local effect, the topical route of administration can also include enteral administration of medications that are poorly absorbable by the gastrointestinal tract. One poorly absorbable antibiotic is vancomycin, which is recommended by mouth as a treatment for severe Clostridium difficile colitis.
The reason for choice of routes of drug administration are governing by various factors:
In acute situations, in emergency medicine and intensive care medicine, drugs are most often given intravenously. This is the most reliable route, as in acutely ill patients the absorption of substances from the tissues and from the digestive tract can often be unpredictable due to altered blood flow or bowel motility.
Enteral routes are generally the most convenient for the patient, as no punctures or sterile procedures are necessary. Enteral medications are therefore often preferred in the treatment of chronic disease. However, some drugs can not be used enterally because their absorption in the digestive tract is low or unpredictable. Transdermal administration is a comfortable alternative; there are, however, only a few drug preparations that are suitable for transdermal administration.
Identical drugs can produce different results depending on the route of administration. For example, some drugs are not significantly absorbed into the bloodstream from the gastrointestinal tract and their action after enteral administration is therefore different from that after parenteral administration. This can be illustrated by the action of naloxone (Narcan), an antagonist of opiates such as morphine. Naloxone counteracts opiate action in the central nervous system when given intravenously and is therefore used in the treatment of opiate overdose. The same drug, when swallowed, acts exclusively on the bowels; it is here used to treat constipation under opiate pain therapy and does not affect the pain - reducing effect of the opiate.
The oral route is generally the most convenient and costs the least. However, some drugs can cause gastrointestinal tract irritation. For drugs that come in delayed release or time - release formulations, breaking the tablets or capsules can lead to more rapid delivery of the drug than intended.
By delivering drugs almost directly to the site of action, the risk of systemic side effects is reduced. However, skin irritation may result, and for some forms such as creams or lotions, the dosage is difficult to control.
Inhaled medications can be absorbed quickly and act both locally and systemically. Proper technique with inhaler devices is necessary to achieve the correct dose. Some medications can have an unpleasant taste or irritate the mouth.
Inhalation by smoking a substance is likely the most rapid way to deliver drugs to the brain, as the substance travels directly to the brain without being diluted in the systemic circulation. The severity of dependence on psychoactive drugs tends to increase with more rapid drug delivery.
The term injection encompasses intravenous (IV), intramuscular (IM), subcutaneous (SC) and intradermal (ID) administration.
Parenteral administration generally acts more rapidly than topical or enteral administration, with onset of action often occurring in 15 -- 30 seconds for IV, 10 -- 20 minutes for IM and 15 -- 30 minutes for SC. They also have essentially 100 % bioavailability and can be used for drugs that are poorly absorbed or ineffective when they are given orally. Some medications, such as certain antipsychotics, can be administered as long - acting intramuscular injections. Ongoing IV infusions can be used to deliver continuous medication or fluids.
Disadvantages of injections include potential pain or discomfort for the patient and the requirement of trained staff using aseptic techniques for administration. However, in some cases, patients are taught to self - inject, such as SC injection of insulin in patients with insulin - dependent diabetes mellitus. As the drug is delivered to the site of action extremely rapidly with IV injection, there is a risk of overdose if the dose has been calculated incorrectly, and there is an increased risk of side effects if the drug is administered too rapidly.
Neural drug delivery is the next step beyond the basic addition of growth factors to nerve guidance conduits. Drug delivery systems allow the rate of growth factor release to be regulated over time, which is critical for creating an environment more closely representative of in vivo development environments.
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what is the meaning of warriors by imagine dragons | Warriors (Imagine Dragons song) - Wikipedia
"Warriors '' is a song by American rock band Imagine Dragons for Vegas after the October 1 shooting and the music video League of Legends 2014 World Championship. In addition, "Warriors '' was used as the official theme song for WWE Survivor Series (2015) and is featured in The Divergent Series: Insurgent -- Original Motion Picture Soundtrack and in the official trailer of USA Network 's TV show Colony and final trailer of Wonder Woman. The song was released digitally as a single on September 18, 2014. The music video for the song is currently the most viewed League of Legends video online, with over 100 million views. It was also the Official Song of the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup in Canada.
The song premiered with the debut of its music video on the League of Legends YouTube channel September 17, 2014. The song and its video served to promote the 2014 League of Legends World Championship.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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the walls of the alveoli are mostly made of | Pulmonary alveolus - wikipedia
An alveolus (plural: alveoli, from Latin alveolus, "little cavity '') is a hollow cavity found in the lung parenchyma, and is the basic unit of ventilation. Lung alveoli are the ends of the respiratory tree, branching from either alveolar sacs or alveolar ducts, which like alveoli are both sites of gas exchange with the blood as well. Alveoli are particular to mammalian lungs. Different structures are involved in gas exchange in other vertebrates. The alveolar membrane is the gas exchange surface. Carbon dioxide rich blood is pumped from the rest of the body into the capillaries that surround the alveoli where, through diffusion, carbon dioxide is released and oxygen absorbed.
The alveoli are located in the respiratory zone of the lungs, at the ends of the alveolar ducts and alveolar sac, representing the smallest units in the respiratory tract. They provide total surface area of about 75 m.
A typical pair of human lungs contain about 700 million alveoli, producing 70m of surface area. Each alveolus is wrapped in a fine mesh of capillaries covering about 70 % of its area. An adult alveolus has an average diameter of 200 micrometres, with an increase in diameter during inhalation.
The alveoli consist of an epithelial layer and an extracellular matrix surrounded by small blood vessels called capillaries. In some alveolar walls there are pores between alveoli called Pores of Kohn. The alveoli contain some collagen and elastic fibres. The elastic fibres allow the alveoli to stretch as they are filled with air during inhalation. They then spring back during exhalation in order to expel the carbon dioxide - rich air.
There are three major types of cell in the alveolar wall -- two types of alveolar cell and a phagocyte.
Type I cells are thin, flat cells lining the alveolar walls. Each alveolus is surrounded by numerous capillaries, and is the site of gas exchange, which occurs by diffusion. The relatively low solubility (and hence rate of diffusion) of oxygen necessitates the large internal surface area (about 80 square m (96 square yards)) and very thin walls of the alveoli. Weaving between the capillaries and helping to support them is an extracellular matrix, a meshlike fabric of elastic and collagenous fibres. The collagen fibres, being more rigid, give the wall firmness, while the elastic fibres permit expansion and contraction of the walls during breathing.
Type II cells in the alveolar wall contain secretory granular organelles known as lamellar bodies that fuse with the cell membranes and secrete pulmonary surfactant. This surfactant is a film of fatty substances that contributes to the lowering of alveolar surface tension. Without this coating, the alveoli would collapse and very large forces would be required to re-expand them. Another type of cell, known as an alveolar macrophage, resides on the internal surfaces of the air cavities of the alveoli, the alveolar ducts, and the bronchioles. They are mobile scavengers that serve to engulf foreign particles in the lungs, such as dust, bacteria, carbon particles, and blood cells from injuries.
Reinflation of the alveoli following exhalation is made easier by pulmonary surfactant, which is a phospholipid and protein mixture that reduces surface tension in the thin fluid coating within all alveoli. The fluid coating is produced by the body in order to facilitate the transfer of gases between blood and alveolar air. The surfactant is produced by the type II cells which are the most numerous cells in the alveoli, yet do not cover as much surface area as the squamous alveolar cells (a squamous epithelium).
Type II cells also repair the endothelium of the alveolus when it becomes damaged. Insufficient surfactant in the alveoli can contribute to atelectasis (collapse of part or all of the lung). Without pulmonary surfactant, atelectasis is a certainty; however, there are other causes of lung collapse such as trauma (pneumothorax), COPD, and pleuritis.
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what is another name for temporary assistance for needy families | Temporary assistance for needy families - wikipedia
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF / ˈtænɪf /) is one of the United States of America 's federal assistance programs. It began on July 1, 1997, and succeeded the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program, providing cash assistance to indigent American families through the United States Department of Health and Human Services. This cash benefit is often referred to simply as "welfare. ''
TANF was created by the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act instituted under President Bill Clinton in 1996. The Act provides temporary financial assistance while aiming to get people off of that assistance, primarily through employment. There is a maximum of 60 months of benefits within one 's lifetime, but some states have instituted shorter periods of (GRANTS). The reform granted states wide discretion of how to distribute TANF entitlements. States also have the authority to eliminate payments to recipients altogether. Under the new act, TANF recipients are required to find a job within 24 months of receiving aid. In enforcing the 60 - month time limit, some states place limits on the adult portion of the assistance only, while still aiding the otherwise eligible children in the household.
Prior to TANF, Aid to Families with Dependent Children was a major federal assistance program that was coming under heavy criticism. Some argued that such programs were ineffective, promoted dependency on the government, and encouraged behaviors detrimental to escaping from poverty. Some people also argued that TANF is detrimental to its recipients because using these programs have a stigma attached to them, which makes the people that use them less likely to participate politically to defend this program, and thus the programs have been subsequently weakened. Beginning with President Ronald Reagan 's administration and continuing through the first few years of the Clinton administration, growing dissatisfaction with AFDC, particularly the rise in welfare caseloads, led an increasing number of states to seek waivers from AFDC rules to allow states to more stringently enforce work requirements for welfare recipients. The 27 percent increase in caseloads between 1990 and 1994 accelerated the push by states to implement more radical welfare reform.
States that were granted waivers from AFDC program rules to run mandatory welfare - to - work programs were also required to rigorously evaluate the success of their programs. As a result, many types of mandatory welfare - to - work programs were evaluated in the early 1990s. While reviews of such programs found that almost all programs led to significant increases in employment and reductions in welfare rolls, there was little evidence that income among former welfare recipients had increased. In effect, increases in earnings from jobs were offset by losses in public income, leading many to conclude that these programs had no anti-poverty effects. However, the findings that welfare - to - work programs did have some effect in reducing dependence on government increased support among policymakers for moving welfare recipients into employment.
While liberals and conservatives agreed on the importance of transitioning families from government assistance to jobs, they disagreed on how to accomplish this goal. Liberals thought that welfare reform should expand opportunities for welfare mothers to receive training and work experience that would help them raise their families ' living standards by working more and at higher wages. Conservatives emphasized work requirements and time limits, paying little attention to whether or not families ' incomes increased. More specifically, conservatives wanted to impose a five - year lifetime limit on welfare benefits and provide block grants for states to fund programs for poor families. Conservatives argued that welfare to work reform would be beneficial by creating role models out of mothers, promoting maternal self - esteem and sense of control, and introducing productive daily routines into family life. Furthermore, they argued that reforms would eliminate welfare dependence by sending a powerful message to teens and young women to postpone childbearing. Liberals responded that the reform sought by conservatives would overwhelm severely stressed parents, deepen the poverty of many families, and force young children into unsafe and unstimulating child care situations. In addition, they asserted that welfare reform would reduce parents ' ability to monitor the behaviors of their children, leading to problems in child and adolescent functioning.
In 1992, as a presidential candidate, Bill Clinton pledged to "end welfare as we know it '' by requiring families receiving welfare to work after two years. As president, Clinton was attracted to welfare expert and Harvard University Professor David Ellwood 's proposal on welfare reform and thus Clinton eventually appointed Ellwood to co-chair his welfare task force. Ellwood supported converting welfare into a transitional system. He advocated providing assistance to families for a limited time, after which recipients would be required to earn wages from a regular job or a work opportunity program. Low wages would be supplemented by expanded tax credits, access to subsidized childcare and health insurance, and guaranteed child support.
In 1994, Clinton introduced a welfare reform proposal that would provide job training coupled with time limits and subsidized jobs for those having difficulty finding work, but it was defeated. Later that year, when Republicans attained a Congressional majority in November 1994, the focus shifted toward the Republican proposal to end entitlements to assistance, repeal AFDC and instead provide states with blocks grants. The debates in Congress about welfare reform centered around five themes:
Clinton twice vetoed the welfare reform bill put forward by Newt Gingrich and Bob Dole. Then just before the Democratic Convention he signed a third version after the Senate voted 74 - 24 and the House voted 256 - 170 in favor of welfare reform legislation, formally known as the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA). Clinton signed the bill into law on August 22, 1996. PRWORA replaced AFDC with TANF and dramatically changed the way the federal government and states determine eligibility and provide aid for needy families.
Before 1997, the federal government designed the overall program requirements and guidelines, while states administered the program and determined eligibility for benefits. Since 1997, states have been given block grants and both design and administer their own programs. Access to welfare and amount of assistance varied quite a bit by state and locality under AFDC, both because of the differences in state standards of need and considerable subjectivity in caseworker evaluation of qualifying "suitable homes ''. However, welfare recipients under TANF are actually in completely different programs depending on their state of residence, with different social services available to them and different requirements for maintaining aid.
States have large amounts of latitude in how they implement TANF programs.
PRWORA replaced AFDC with TANF and ended entitlement to cash assistance for low - income families, meaning that some families may be denied aid even if they are eligible. Under TANF, states have broad discretion to determine who is eligible for benefits and services. In general, states must use funds to serve families with children, with the only exceptions related to efforts to reduce non-marital childbearing and promote marriage. States can not use TANF funds to assist most legal immigrants until they have been in the country for at least five years. TANF sets forth the following work requirements in order to qualify for benefits:
While states are given more flexibility in the design and implementation of public assistance, they must do so within various provisions of the law:
Since these four goals are deeply general, "states can use TANF funds much more broadly than the core welfare reform areas of providing a safety net and connecting families to work; some states use a substantial share of funding for these other services and program ''.
Funding for TANF underwent several changes from its predecessor, AFDC. Under AFDC, states provided cash assistance to families with children, and the federal government paid half or more of all program costs. Federal spending was provided to states on an open - ended basis, meaning that funding was tied to the number of caseloads. Federal law mandated that states provide some level of cash assistance to eligible poor families but states had broad discretion in setting the benefit levels. Under TANF, states qualify for block grants. The funding for these block grants are fixed and the amount each state receives is based on the level of federal contributions to the state for the AFDC program in 1994 States are required to maintain their spending for welfare programs at 80 percent of their 1994 spending levels, with a reduction to 75 percent if states meet other work - participation requirements. States have greater flexibility in deciding how they spend funds as long as they meet the provisions of TANF described above.
In July 2012, the Department of Health and Human Services released a memo notifying states that they are able to apply for a waiver for the work requirements of the TANF program. Critics claim the waiver would allow states to provide assistance without having to enforce the work component of the program. The administration has stipulated that any waivers that weaken the work requirement will be rejected. The DHHS granted the waivers after several Governors requested more state control. The DHHS agreed to the waivers on the stipulation that they continue to meet all Federal requirements. States were given the right to submit their own plans and reporting methods only if they continued to meet Federal requirements and if the state programs proved to be more effective.
Discussions about the effectiveness of TANF by policymakers and proponents of welfare reform has centered on the rapid decline in the number of families on welfare since TANF went into effect. Indeed, if measured by the reduction in welfare caseloads, TANF has been a success. Between 1996 and 2000, the number of welfare recipients plunged by 6.5 million, or 53 % nationally. Furthermore, the number of caseloads was lower in 2000 than at any time since 1969, and the percentages of persons receiving public assistance income (less than 3 %) was the lowest on record.
Since the implementation of TANF occurred during a period of strong economic growth, there are questions about how much of the decline in caseloads is attributable to TANF program requirements. First, the number of caseloads began declining after 1994, the year with the highest number of caseloads, well before the enactment of TANF, suggesting that TANF was not solely responsible for the caseload decline. Research suggests that both changes in welfare policy and economic growth played a substantial role in this decline, and that no larger than one - third of the decline in caseloads is attributable to TANF
While declining caseloads dominates discussion about TANF 's effect, declining caseloads are an incomplete and misleading indicator of TANF 's success. Caseload reductions indicate less reliance on government assistance, but they do not account for the well - being of poor families and children. As such, other factors have been taken into account in assessing the impact of TANF: work, earnings, and poverty of former welfare - recipients; marriage and fertility of mothers; well - being of mothers; and child well - being.
One of the major goals of TANF was to increase work among welfare recipients. During the post-welfare reform period, employment did increase among single mothers. Single mothers with children showed little changes in their labor force participation rates throughout the 1980s and into the mid-1990s, but between 1994 - 1999, their labor force participation rose by 10 %. Among welfare recipients, the percentage that reported earnings from employment increased from 6.7 % in 1990 to 28.1 % by 1999. While employment of TANF recipients increased in the early years of reform, it declined in the later period after reform, particularly after 2000. From 2000 - 2005, employment among TANF recipients declined by 6.5 %. Among welfare leavers, it was estimated that close to two - thirds worked at a future point in time About 20 percent of welfare leavers are not working, without a spouse, and without any public assistance. Leavers who left welfare because of sanctions (time limits or failure to meet program requirements) fared comparably worse than those who left welfare voluntarily. Sanctioned welfare recipients have employment rates that are, on average, 20 percent below those who left for reasons other than sanctions.
While the participation of many low - income single parents in the labor market has increased, their earnings and wages remained low, and their employment was concentrated in low - wage occupations and industries. Over three quarters (78 percent) of employed low - income single parents were concentrated in 4 typically low - wage occupations: service; administrative support and clerical; operators, fabricators, and laborers; and sales and related jobs. While the average income among TANF recipients increased over the early years of reform, it has become stagnant in the later period; for welfare leavers, their average income remained steady or declined in the later years. Studies that compared household income (includes welfare benefits) before and after leaving welfare find that between one - third and one - half of welfare leavers had decreased income after leaving welfare.
During the 1990s, poverty among single - mother and their families declined rapidly from 35.4 % in 1992 to 24.7 % in 2000, a new historic low. However, due to the fact that low - income mothers who left welfare are likely to be concentrated in low - wage occupations, the decline in public assistance caseloads has not translated easily into reduction in poverty. The number of poor female - headed families with children dropped from 3.8 million to 3.1 million between 1994 and 1999, a 22 % decline compared to a 48 % decline in caseloads. As a result, the share of working poor in the U.S. population rose, as some women left public assistance for employment but remained poor. Most studies have found that poverty is quite high among welfare leavers. Depending on the source of the data, estimates of poverty among leavers vary from about 48 % to 74 %.
TANF requirements have led to massive drops in the number of people receiving cash benefits since 1996, but there has been little change in the national poverty rate during this time. The table below shows these figures along with the annual unemployment rate.
Note: 1996 was the last year for the AFDC program, and is shown for comparison. All figures are for calendar years. The poverty rate for families differs from the official poverty rate.
A major impetus for welfare reform was concern about increases in out - of - wedlock births and declining marriage rates, especially among low - income women. The major goals of the 1996 legislation included reducing out - of - wedlock births and increasing rates and stability of marriages.
Studies have produced only modest or inconsistent evidence that marital and cohabitation decisions are influenced by welfare program policies. Schoeni and Blank (2003) found that pre-1996 welfare waivers were associated with modest increases in probabilities of marriage. However, a similar analysis of post-TANF effect revealed less consistent results. Nationally, only 0.4 % of closed cases gave marriage as the reason for leaving welfare. Using data on marriage and divorces from 1989 - 2000 to examine the role of welfare reform on marriage and divorce, Bitler (2004) found that both state waivers and TANF program requirements were associated with reductions in transitions into marriage and reductions from marriage to divorce. In other words, individuals who were not married were more likely to stay unmarried, and those who were married were more likely to stay married. Her explanation behind this, which is consistent with other studies, is that after reform single women were required to work more, increasing their income and reducing their incentive to give up independence for marriage, whereas for married women, post-reform there was potentially a significant increase in the amount of hours they would have to work when single, discouraging divorce.
In addition to marriage and divorce, welfare reform was also concerned about unwed childbearing. Specific provisions in TANF were aimed at reducing unwed childbearing. For example, TANF provided cash bonuses to states with the largest reductions in unwed childbearing that are not accompanied by more abortions. States were also required to eliminate cash benefits to unwed teens under age 18 who did not reside with their parents. TANF allowed states to impose family caps on the receipt of additional cash benefits from unwed childbearing. Between 1994 and 1999, unwed childbearing among teenagers declined 20 percent among 15 - to 17 - year - olds and 10 percent among 18 - and 19 - year - olds. In a comprehensive cross-state comparison, Horvath - Rose & Peters (2002) studied nonmarital birth ratios with and without family cap waivers over the 1986 - 1996 period, and they found that family caps reduced nonmarital ratios. Any fears that family caps would lead to more abortions was allayed by declining numbers and rates of abortion during this period.
Proponents of welfare reform argued that encouraging maternal employment will enhance children 's cognitive and emotional development. A working mother, proponents assert, provides a positive role model for her children. Opponents, on the other hand, argued that requiring women to work at low pay puts additional stress on mothers, reduces the quality time spent with children, and diverts income to work - related expenses such as transportation and childcare. Evidence is mixed on the impact of TANF on child welfare. Duncan & Chase - Lansdale (2001) found that the impact of welfare reform varied by age of the children, with generally positive effects on school achievement among elementary - school age children and negative effects on adolescents, especially with regards to risky or problematic behaviors. Another study found large and significant effects of welfare reform on educational achievement and aspirations, and on social behavior (i.e. teacher assessment of compliance and self - control, competence and sensitivity). The positive effects were largely due to the quality of childcare arrangement and afterschool programs that accompanied the move from welfare to work for these recipients. Yet another study found that substitution from maternal care to other informal care had caused a significant drop in performance of young children. In a program with less generous benefits, Kalili et al. (2002) found that maternal work (measured in months and hours per week) had little overall effect on children 's antisocial behavior, anxious / depressed behavior or positive behavior. They find no evidence that children were harmed by such transitions; if anything, their mothers report that their children are better behaved and have better mental health.
Synthesizing findings from an extensive selection of publications, Golden (2005) reached the conclusion that children 's outcomes were largely unchanged when examining children 's developmental risk, including health status, behavior or emotional problems, suspensions from school, and lack of participation in extracurricular activities. She argues that contrary to the fears of many, welfare reform and an increase in parental work did not seem to have reduced children 's well - being overall. More abused and neglected children had not entered the child welfare system. However, at the same time, improvement in parental earnings and reductions in child poverty had not consistently improved outcomes for children.
While the material and economic well - being of welfare mothers after the enactment of TANF has been the subject of countless studies, their mental and physical well - being has received little attention. Research on the latter has found that welfare recipients face mental and physical problems at rates that are higher than the general population. Such problems which include depression, anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and domestic violence mean that welfare recipients face many more barriers to employment and are more at risk of welfare sanctions due to noncompliance with work requirements and other TANF regulations Research on the health status of welfare leavers have indicated positive results. Findings from the Women 's Employment Study, a longitudinal survey of welfare recipients in Michigan, indicated that women on welfare but not working are more likely to have mental health and other problems than are former welfare recipients now working. Similarly, interviews with now employed welfare recipients find that partly as a result of their increased material resources from working, the women felt that work has led to higher self - esteem, new opportunities to expand their social support networks, and increased feelings of self - efficacy. Furthermore, they became less socially isolated and potentially less prone to depression. At the same time, however, many women were experiencing stress and exhaustion from trying to balance work and family responsibilities.
Enacted in July 1997, TANF was set for reauthorization in Congress in 2002. However, Congress was unable to reach an agreement for the next several years, and as a result, several extensions were granted to continue funding the program. TANF was finally reauthorized under the Deficit Reduction ACT (DRA) of 2005. DRA included several changes to the original TANF program. It raised work participation rates, increased the share of welfare recipients subject to work requirements, limited the activities that could be counted as work, prescribed hours that could be spent doing certain work activities, and required states to verify activities for each adult beneficiary.
In February 2009, as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA), Congress created a new TANF Emergency Fund (TANF EF), funded at $5 billion and available to states, territories, and tribes for federal fiscal years 2009 and 2010. The original TANF law provided for a Contingency Fund (CF) funded at $2 billion which allows states meeting economic triggers to draw additional funds based upon high levels of state MOE spending. This fund was expected to (and did) run out in FY 2010. The TANF Emergency Fund provided states 80 percent of the funding for spending increases in three categories of TANF - related expenditures in FYs 2009 or 2010 over FYs 2007 or 2008. The three categories of expenditures that could be claimed were basic assistance, non-recurrent short - term benefits, and subsidized employment. The third category listed, subsidized employment, made national headlines as states created nearly 250,000 adult and youth jobs through the funding. The program however expired on September 30, 2010, on schedule with states drawing down the entire $5 billion allocated by ARRA.
TANF was scheduled for reauthorization again in 2010. However, Congress did not work on legislation to reauthorize the program and instead they extended the TANF block grant through September 30, 2011, as part of the Claims Resolution Act. During this period Congress once again did not reauthorize the program but passed a three - month extension through December 31, 2011.
When transitioning out of the TANF program, individuals find themselves in one of three situations that constitute the reasons for exiting:
It has been observed that certain situations of TANF exit are more prominent depending on the geographic area which recipients live in. Focusing the comparison between metropolitan (urban) areas and non-metropolitan (rural) areas, the number of recipients experiencing non work TANF related exit is highest among rural areas (rural areas in the South experience the highest cases of this type of exiting the program).
Information asymmetry or lack of knowledge among recipients on the various TANF work incentive programs is a contributor to recipients experiencing non work related TANF exits. Not being aware of the offered programs impacts their use and creates misconceptions that influence the responsiveness of those who qualify for such programs, resulting in longer time periods requiring TANF services. Recipients who exit TANF due to work are also affected by information asymmetry due to lack of awareness on the "transitional support '' programs available to facilitate their transitioning into the work field. Programs such as childcare, food stamps, and Medicaid are meant increase work incentive but many TANF recipients transitioning into work do not know they are eligible. It has been shown that TANF - exiting working women who use and maintain the transitional incentive services described above are less likely to return to receiving assistance and are more likely to experience long term employment.
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who killed his father and married his mother | Oedipus - wikipedia
Oedipus (US: / ˈidɪpəs / or / ˈɛdɪpəs / or UK: / ˈiːdɪpəs /; Ancient Greek: Οἰδίπους Oidípous meaning "swollen foot '') was a mythical Greek king of Thebes. A tragic hero in Greek mythology, Oedipus accidentally fulfilled a prophecy that he would end up killing his father and marrying his mother, thereby bringing disaster to his city and family.
The story of Oedipus is the subject of Sophocles ' tragedy Oedipus Rex, which was followed by Oedipus at Colonus and then Antigone. Together, these plays make up Sophocles ' three Theban plays. Oedipus represents two enduring themes of Greek myth and drama: the flawed nature of humanity and an individual 's role in the course of destiny in a harsh universe.
In the most well - known version of the myth, Oedipus was born to King Laius and Queen Jocasta. Laius wished to thwart a prophecy, so he left Oedipus to die on a mountainside. However, the baby was found by shepherds and raised by King Polybus and Queen Merope as their own. Oedipus learned from the oracle at Delphi of the prophecy that he would end up killing his father and marrying his mother but, unaware of his true parentage, believed he was fated to murder Polybus and marry Merope, so left for Thebes. On his way he met an older man and quarrelled, and Oedipus killed the stranger. Continuing on to Thebes, he found that the king of the city (Laius) had been recently killed, and that the city was at the mercy of the Sphinx. Oedipus answered the monster 's riddle correctly, defeating it and winning the throne of the dead king -- and the hand in marriage of the king 's widow, and (unbeknownst to him) his mother Jocasta.
Years later, to end a plague on Thebes, Oedipus searched to find who had killed Laius, and discovered that he himself was responsible. Jocasta, upon realizing that she had married both her own son, and her husband 's murderer, hanged herself. Oedipus then seized two pins from her dress and blinded himself with them.
The legend of Oedipus has been retold in many versions, and was used by Sigmund Freud to name and give mythic precedent to the Oedipus complex.
Variations on the legend of Oedipus are mentioned in fragments by several ancient Greek poets including Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Aeschylus and Euripides. However, the most popular version of the legend comes from the set of Theban plays by Sophocles: Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone.
Oedipus was the son of Laius and Jocasta, king and queen of Thebes. Having been childless for some time, Laius consulted the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi. The Oracle prophesied that any son born to Laius would kill him. In an attempt to prevent this prophecy 's fulfillment, when Jocasta indeed bore a son, Laius had his ankles pierced and tethered together so that he could not crawl; Jocasta then gave the boy to a servant to abandon ("expose '') on the nearby mountain. However, rather than leave the child to die of exposure, as Laius intended, the servant passed the baby on to a shepherd from Corinth and who then gave the child to another shepherd.
The infant Oedipus eventually came to the house of Polybus, king of Corinth and his queen, Merope, who adopted him, as they were without children of their own. Little Oedipus / Oidipous was named after the swelling from the injuries to his feet and ankles ("swollen foot ''). The word "oedema '' (British English) or "edema '' (American English) is from this same Greek word for swelling: οἴδημα, or oedēma.
After many years, Oedipus was told by a drunk that he was a "bastard '', meaning at that time that he was not their biological son. Oedipus confronted his parents with the news, but they denied this. Oedipus went to the same oracle in Delphi that his birth parents had consulted. The oracle informed him he was destined to murder his father and marry his mother. In an attempt to avoid such a fate, he decided to not return home to Corinth, but to travel to Thebes, as it was near Delphi.
On the way, Oedipus came to Davlia, where three roads crossed each other. There he encountered a chariot driven by his birth - father, King Laius. They fought over who had the right to go first and Oedipus killed Laius when the charioteer tried to run him over. The only witness of the king 's death was a slave who fled from a caravan of slaves also traveling on the road at the time.
Continuing his journey to Thebes, Oedipus encountered a Sphinx, who would stop all travelers to Thebes and ask them a riddle. If the travelers were unable to answer her correctly, they would be killed and eaten; if they were successful, they would be free to continue on their journey. The riddle was: "What walks on four feet in the morning, two in the afternoon and three at night? ''. Oedipus answered: "Man: as an infant, he crawls on all fours; as an adult, he walks on two legs and; in old age, he uses a ' walking ' stick ''. Oedipus was the first to answer the riddle correctly and, having heard Oedipus ' answer, the Sphinx allowed him to carry on forward.
Queen Jocasta 's brother, Creon, had announced that any man who could rid the city of the Sphinx would be made king of Thebes, and given the recently widowed Queen Jocasta 's hand in marriage. This marriage of Oedipus to Jocasta fulfilled the rest of the prophecy. Oedipus and Jocasta had four children: two sons, Eteocles and Polynices (see Seven Against Thebes), and two daughters, Antigone and Ismene.
Many years after the marriage of Oedipus and Jocasta, a plague of infertility struck the city of Thebes, affecting crops, livestock and the people. Oedipus asserted that he would end the pestilence. He sent his uncle, Creon, to the Oracle at Delphi, seeking guidance. When Creon returned, Oedipus learned that the murderer of the former King Laius must be brought to justice, and Oedipus himself cursed the killer of his wife 's late husband, saying that he would be exiled. Creon also suggested that they try to find the blind prophet, Tiresias who was widely respected. Oedipus sent for Tiresias, who warned him not to seek Laius ' killer. In a heated exchange, Tiresias was provoked into exposing Oedipus himself as the killer, and the fact that Oedipus was living in shame because he did not know who his true parents were. Oedipus angrily blamed Creon for the false accusations, and the two argued. Jocasta entered and tried to calm Oedipus by telling him the story of her first - born son and his supposed death. Oedipus became nervous as he realized that he may have murdered Laius and so brought about the plague. Suddenly, a messenger arrived from Corinth with the news that King Polybus had died. Oedipus was relieved for the prophecy could no longer be fulfilled if Polybus, whom he considered his birth father, was now dead.
Still, he knew that his mother was still alive and refused to attend the funeral at Corinth. To ease the tension, the messenger then said that Oedipus was, in fact, adopted. Jocasta, finally realizing that he was her son, begged him to stop his search for Laius ' murderer. Oedipus misunderstood her motivation, thinking that she was ashamed of him because he might have been born of low birth. Jocasta in great distress went into the palace where she hanged herself. Oedipus sought verification of the messenger 's story from the very same herdsman who was supposed to have left Oedipus to die as a baby. From the herdsman, Oedipus learned that the infant raised as the adopted son of Polybus and Merope was the son of Laius and Jocasta. Thus, Oedipus finally realized that the man he had killed so many years before, at the place where the three roads met, was his own father, King Laius, and that he had married his mother, Jocasta.
Events after the revelation depend on the source. In Sophocles ' plays, Oedipus went in search of Jocasta and found she had killed herself. Using the pin from a brooch he took off Jocasta 's gown, Oedipus blinded himself and was then exiled. His daughter Antigone acted as his guide as he wandered through the country, finally dying at Colonus where they had been welcomed by King Theseus of Athens. However, in Euripides ' plays on the subject, Jocasta did not kill herself upon learning of Oedipus ' birth, and Oedipus was blinded by a servant of Laius. The blinding of Oedipus does not appear in sources earlier than Aeschylus. Some older sources of the myth, including Homer, state that Oedipus continued to rule Thebes after the revelations and after Jocasta 's death.
Oedipus ' two sons, Eteocles and Polynices, arranged to share the kingdom, each taking an alternating one - year reign. However, Eteocles refused to cede his throne after his year as king. Polynices brought in an army to oust Eteocles from his position and a battle ensued. At the end of the battle the brothers killed each other after which Jocasta 's brother, Creon, took the throne. He decided that Polynices was a "traitor, '' and should not be given burial rites. Defying this edict, Antigone attempted to bury her brother. In Sophocles ' Antigone, Creon had her buried in a rock cavern for defying him, whereupon she hanged herself. However, in Euripides ' lost version of the story, it appears that Antigone survives.
Most writing on Oedipus comes from the 5th century BC, though the stories deal mostly with Oedipus ' downfall. Various details appear on how Oedipus rose to power.
King Laius of Thebes hears of a prophecy that his infant son will one day kill him. He pierces Oedipus ' feet and leaves him out to die, but a herdsman finds him and carries him away. Years later, Oedipus, not knowing he was adopted, leaves home in fear of the same prophecy that he will kill his father and marry his mother. Laius journeys out to seek a solution to the Sphinx 's mysterious riddle. As prophesied, Oedipus and Laius cross paths, but they do not recognize each other. A fight ensues, and Oedipus kills Laius and most of his guards. Oedipus goes on to defeat the Sphinx by solving a riddle to become king. He marries the widow queen Jocasta, unaware that she is his mother. A plague falls on the people of Thebes. Upon discovering the truth, Oedipus blinds himself, and Jocasta hangs herself. After Oedipus is no longer king, Oedipus ' brother - sons kill each other.
Some differences with older stories emerge. The curse of the Oedipus ' sons is expanded backward to include Oedipus and his father, Laius. Oedipus now steps down from the throne instead of dying in battle. Additionally, rather than his children being by a second wife, Oedipus ' children are now by Jocasta.
In the Second Olympians Ode Pindar wrote: Laius ' tragic son, crossing his father 's path, killed him and fulfilled the oracle spoken of old at Pytho. And sharp - eyed Erinys saw and slew his warlike children at each other 's hands. Yet Thersandros survived fallen Polyneikes and won honor in youthful contests and the brunt of war, a scion of aid to the house of Adrastos...
In 467 BC the Athenian playwright, Aeschylus, is known to have presented an entire trilogy based upon the Oedipus myth, winning the first prize at the City Dionysia. The First play was Laius, the second was Oedipus, and the third was Seven against Thebes. Only the third play survives, in which Oedipus ' sons Eteocles and Polynices kill each other warring over the throne. Much like his Oresteia, this trilogy would have detailed the tribulations of a House over three successive generations. The satyr play that followed the trilogy was called The Sphinx.
As Sophocles ' Oedipus Rex begins, the people of Thebes are begging the king for help, begging him to discover the cause of the plague. Oedipus stands before them and swears to find the root of their suffering and to end it. Just then, Creon returns to Thebes from a visit to the oracle. Apollo has made it known that Thebes is harboring a terrible abomination and that the plague will only be lifted when the true murderer of old King Laius is discovered and punished for his crime. Oedipus swears to do this, not realizing of course that he himself is the abomination that he has sworn to exorcise. The stark truth emerges slowly over the course of the play, as Oedipus clashes with the blind seer Tiresias, who senses the truth. Oedipus remains in strict denial, though, becoming convinced that Tiresias is somehow plotting with Creon to usurp the throne.
Realization begins to slowly dawn in Scene II of the play when Jocasta mentions out of hand that Laius was slain at a place where three roads meet. This stirs something in Oedipus ' memory and he suddenly remembers the men that he fought and killed one day long ago at a place where three roads met. He realizes, horrified, that he might be the man he 's seeking. One household servant survived the attack and now lives out his old age in a frontier district of Thebes. Oedipus sends immediately for the man to either confirm or deny his guilt. At the very worst, though, he expects to find himself to be the unsuspecting murderer of a man unknown to him. The truth has not yet been made clear.
The moment of epiphany comes late in the play. At the beginning of Scene III, Oedipus is still waiting for the servant to be brought into the city, when a messenger arrives from Corinth to declare that King Polybus of Corinth is dead. Oedipus, when he hears this news, feels much relieved, because he believed that Polybus was the father whom the oracle had destined him to murder, and he momentarily believes himself to have escaped fate. He tells this all to the present company, including the messenger, but the messenger knows that it is not true. He is the man who found Oedipus as a baby in the pass of Cithaeron and gave him to King Polybus to raise. He reveals, furthermore that the servant who is being brought to the city as they speak is the very same man who took Oedipus up into the mountains as a baby. Jocasta realizes now all that has happened. She begs Oedipus not to pursue the matter further. He refuses, and she withdraws into the palace as the servant is arriving. The old man arrives, and it is clear at once that he knows everything. At the behest of Oedipus, he tells it all.
Overwhelmed with the knowledge of all his crimes, Oedipus rushes into the palace where he finds his mother - wife, dead by her own hand. Ripping a brooch from her dress, Oedipus blinds himself with it. Bleeding from the eyes, he begs his uncle and brother - in - law Creon, who has just arrived on the scene, to exile him forever from Thebes. Creon agrees to this request. Oedipus begs to hold his two daughters Antigone and Ismene with his hands one more time to have their eyes fill of tears and Creon out of pity sends the girls in to see Oedipus one more time.
In Sophocles ' Oedipus at Colonus, Oedipus becomes a wanderer, pursued by Creon and his men. He finally finds refuge at the holy wilderness right outside Athens, where it is said that Theseus took care of Oedipus and his daughter, Antigone. Creon eventually catches up to Oedipus. He asks Oedipus to come back from Colonus to bless his son, Eteocles. Angry that his son did not love him enough to take care of him, he curses both Eteocles and his brother, condemning them both to kill each other in battle. Oedipus dies a peaceful death; his grave is said to be sacred to the gods.
In Sophocles ' Antigone, when Oedipus stepped down as king of Thebes, he gave the kingdom to his two sons, Eteocles and Polynices, both of whom agreed to alternate the throne every year. However, they showed no concern for their father, who cursed them for their negligence. After the first year, Eteocles refused to step down and Polynices attacked Thebes with his supporters (as portrayed in the Seven Against Thebes by Aeschylus and the Phoenician Women by Euripides). The two brothers killed each other in battle. King Creon, who ascended to the throne of Thebes, decreed that Polynices was not to be buried. Antigone, Polynices ' sister, defied the order, but was caught. Creon decreed that she was to be put into a stone box in the ground, this in spite of her betrothal to his son Haemon. Antigone 's sister, Ismene, then declared she had aided Antigone and wanted the same fate, but Creon eventually declined executing her. The gods, through the blind prophet Tiresias, expressed their disapproval of Creon 's decision, which convinced him to rescind his order, and he went to bury Polynices himself. However, Antigone had already hanged herself in her tomb, rather than suffering the slow death of being buried alive. When Creon arrived at the tomb where she had been interred, his son Haemon attacked him upon seeing the body of his deceased fiancée, but failing to kill Creon he killed himself. When Creon 's wife, Eurydice, was informed of the death of Haemon, she too took her own life.
In the beginning of Euripides ' Phoenissae, Jocasta recalls the story of Oedipus. Generally, the play weaves together the plots of the Seven Against Thebes and Antigone. The play differs from the other tales in two major respects. First, it describes in detail why Laius and Oedipus had a feud: Laius ordered Oedipus out of the road so his chariot could pass, but proud Oedipus refused to move. Second, in the play Jocasta has not killed herself at the discovery of her incest -- otherwise she could not play the prologue, for fathomable reasons -- nor has Oedipus fled into exile, but they have stayed in Thebes only to delay their doom until the fatal duel of their sons / brothers / nephews Eteocles and Polynices: Jocasta commits suicide over the two men 's dead bodies, and Antigone follows Oedipus into exile.
In Chrysippus, Euripides develops backstory on the curse: Laius ' sin was to have kidnapped Chrysippus, Pelops ' son, in order to violate him, and this caused the gods ' revenge on all his family. Laius was the tutor of Chrysippus, and raping his student was a severe violation of his position as both guest and tutor in the house of the royal family hosting him at the time. Extant vases show a fury hovering over the lecherous Laius as he abducts the rape victim. Furies avenged violations of good order in households, as can be seen most clearly in such texts as The Libation Bearers by Aeschylus.
Euripides wrote also an Oedipus, of which only a few fragments survive. The first line of the prologue recalled Laius ' hubristic action of conceiving a son against Apollo 's command. At some point in the action of the play, a character engaged in a lengthy and detailed description of the Sphinx and her riddle -- preserved in five fragments from Oxyrhynchus, P. Oxy. 2459 (published by Eric Gardner Turner in 1962). The tragedy featured also many moral maxims on the theme of marriage, preserved in the Anthologion of Stobaeus. The most striking lines, however, state that in this play Oedipus was blinded by Laius ' attendants, and that this happened before his identity as Laius ' son had been discovered, therefore marking important differences with the Sophoclean treatment of the myth, which is now regarded as the ' standard ' version. Many attempts have been made to reconstruct the plot of the play, but none of them is more than hypothetical, because of the scanty remains that survive from its text and of the total absence of ancient descriptions or résumés -- though it has been suggested that a part of Hyginus ' narration of the Oedipus myth might in fact derive from Euripides ' play. Some echoes of the Euripidean Oedipus have been traced also in a scene of Seneca 's Oedipus (see below), in which Oedipus himself describes to Jocasta his adventure with the Sphinx.
At least three other 5th century BC authors who were younger than Sophocles wrote plays about Oedipus. These include Achaeus of Eretria, Nichomachus and the elder Xenocles.
The Bibliotheca, a Roman - era mythological handbook, includes a riddle for the Sphinx, borrowing the poetry of Hesiod:
What is that which has one voice and yet becomes four - footed and two - footed and three - footed?
Due to the popularity of Sophocles 's Antigone (c. 442 BC), the ending (lines 1005 -- 78) of Seven against Thebes was added some fifty years after Aeschylus ' death. Whereas the play (and the trilogy of which it is the last play) was meant to end with somber mourning for the dead brothers, the spurious ending features a herald announcing the prohibition against burying Polyneices, and Antigone 's declaration that she will defy that edict.
Oedipus was a figure who was also used in the Latin literature of ancient Rome. Julius Caesar wrote a play on Oedipus, but it has not survived into modern times. Ovid included Oedipus in Metamorphoses, but only as the person who defeated the Sphinx. He makes no mention of Oedipus ' troubled experiences with his father and mother. Seneca the Younger wrote his own play on the story of Oedipus in the first century AD. It differs in significant ways from the work of Sophocles.
Seneca 's play on the myth was intended to be recited at private gatherings and not actually performed. It has however been successfully staged since the Renaissance. It was adapted by John Dryden in his very successful heroic drama Oedipus, licensed in 1678. The 1718 Oedipus was also the first play written by Voltaire. A version of Oedipus by Frank McGuinness was performed at the National Theatre in late 2008, starring Ralph Fiennes and Claire Higgins.
In 1960, Immanuel Velikovsky (1895 -- 1979) published a book called Oedipus and Akhnaton which made a comparison between the stories of the legendary Greek figure, Oedipus, and the historic Egyptian King of Thebes, Akhnaton. The book is presented as a thesis that combines with Velikovsky 's series Ages in Chaos, concluding through his revision of Egyptian history that the Greeks who wrote the tragedy of Oedipus may have penned it in likeness of the life and story of Akhnaton, because in the revision Akhnaton would have lived much closer to the time when the legend first surfaced in Greece, providing an historical basis for the story. Each of the major characters in the Greek story are identified with the people involved in Akhnaton 's family and court, and some interesting parallels are drawn.
In the late 1960s Ola Rotimi published a novel and play, The Gods Are Not To Blame, which retell the Oedipus myth happening in the Yoruba kingdom.
It has been suggested by Robert Graves and others that in the earliest Ur - myth of the hero, he was called Oedipais: "child of the swollen sea. '' He was so named because of the method by which his birth parents tried to abandon him -- by placing him in a chest and tossing it into the ocean. The mythic topos of forsaking a child to the sea or a river is well attested, found (e.g.) in the myths of Perseus, Telephus, Dionysus, Romulus and Remus and Moses. Over the centuries, however, Oedipais seems to have been corrupted into the familiar Oedipus: "swollen foot. '' And it was this new name that might have inspired the addition of a bizarre element to the story of Oedipus ' abandonment on Mt. Cithaeron. Exposure on a mountain was in fact a common method of child abandonment in Ancient Greece. It can thus be argued that the ankle - binding was grafted onto the Oedipus myth to update its relevance.
Sigmund Freud used the name "the Oedipus complex '' to explain the origin of certain neuroses in childhood. It is defined as a male child 's unconscious desire for the exclusive love of his mother. This desire includes jealousy towards the father and the unconscious wish for that parent 's death, as well as the unconscious desire for sexual intercourse with the mother. Oedipus himself, as portrayed in the myth, did not suffer from this neurosis -- at least, not towards Jocasta, whom he only met as an adult (if anything, such feelings would have been directed at Merope -- but there is no hint of that). Freud reasoned that the ancient Greek audience, which heard the story told or saw the plays based on it, did know that Oedipus was actually killing his father and marrying his mother; the story being continually told and played therefore reflected a preoccupation with the theme.
The term oedipism is used in medicine for serious self - inflicted eye injury, an extremely rare form of severe self - harm.
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what do you call mash ki daal in english | Dal - Wikipedia
Dal (also spelled daal, dail, dhal, dahl; pronunciation: (d̪aːl)) is a term used in the Indian subcontinent for dried, split pulses (legumes) (that is, lentils, peas, and beans). The term is also used for various soups prepared from these pulses. These pulses are among the most important staple foods in South Asian countries, and form an important part of Indian, Nepalese, Pakistani, Sri Lankan and Bangladeshi cuisines.
The outer hull is usually stripped off; dal that has not been hulled (whole) is described as chilka (skin), e.g. chilka urad dal, mung dal chilka in Hindi / Urdu. The term dal is often contrasted with the term gram, used in the Indian subcontinent for pulses that are whole rather than split.
Dals are frequently eaten with flatbreads such as rotis or chapatis, or with rice, a combination referred to as dal bhat. Dals are high in protein relative to other plants.
The word dāl derives from the Sanskrit verbal root dal - "to split ''.
Dal preparations are eaten with rice (in eastern India), as well as rotis, chapati and naan (in western India) on the Indian subcontinent. The manner in which it is cooked and presented varies by region. In South India, dal is primarily used to make the dish called sambar. It is also used to make pappu that is mixed with charu and rice.
In a 100 gram amount, cooked (boiled) dal contains 9 % protein, 70 % water, 20 % carbohydrates (includes 8 % fiber), and 1 % fat. Cooked dal (per 100 g) also supplies a rich content (20 % or more of the Daily Value, DV) of the B vitamin, folate (45 % DV) and manganese (25 % DV), with moderate amounts of thiamine (11 % DV) and several dietary minerals, such as iron (19 % DV) and phosphorus (18 % DV).
Note: Carbohydrates do not include fiber. Source: https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/
Ch. = Choline; Ca = Calcium; Fe = Iron; Mg = Magnesium; P = Phosphorus; K = Potassium; Na = Sodium; Zn = Zinc; Cu = Copper; Mn = Manganese; Se = Selenium; % DV = % Daily value i.e. % of DRI (Dietary reference intake) Note: All nutrient values including protein are in % DV per 100 grams of the food item. Significant values are highlighted in light gray color and bold letters. Cooking reduction = % Maximum typical reduction in nutrients due to boiling without draining for ovo - lacto - vegetables group
Although dal generally refers to split pulses, whole pulses can be referred to as sabit dhal and split pulses as dhuli dhal. The hulling of a pulse is intended to improve digestibility and palatability, but, as milling of whole grains into refined grains, affects the nutrition provided by the dish, reducing dietary fibre content. Pulses with their outer hulls intact are also quite popular in the Indian subcontinent as the main cuisine. Over 50 different varieties of pulses are known in the Indian subcontinent.
Most dal recipes are quite simple to prepare. The standard preparation begins with boiling a variety of dal (or a mix) in water with some turmeric, salt to taste, and then adding a fried garnish at the end of the cooking process. In some recipes, tomatoes, tamarind, unripe mango, or other ingredients are added while cooking the dal, often to impart a sour flavour.
The fried garnish for dal goes by many names, including chaunk, tadka and tarka. The ingredients in the chaunk for each variety of dal vary by region and individual tastes. The raw spices (more commonly cumin seeds, mustard seeds, asafoetida, and sometimes fenugreek seeds and dried red chili pepper) are first fried for a few seconds in the hot oil on medium / low heat. This is generally followed by ginger, garlic, and onion, which are generally fried for 10 minutes. After the onion turns golden brown, ground spices (turmeric, coriander, red chili powder, garam masala, etc.) are added. The chaunk is then poured over the cooked dal.
Media related to Dal at Wikimedia Commons
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how many seasons was star trek on for | Star Trek: the original series - wikipedia
NBC
Star Trek is an American science fiction television series created by Gene Roddenberry that follows the adventures of the starship USS Enterprise (NCC - 1701) and its crew. It later acquired the retronym of Star Trek: The Original Series (Star Trek: TOS or simply TOS) to distinguish the show within the media franchise that it began.
The show is set in the Milky Way galaxy, roughly during the 2260s. The ship and crew are led by Captain James T. Kirk (William Shatner), first officer and science officer Spock (Leonard Nimoy), and chief medical officer Leonard McCoy (DeForest Kelley). Shatner 's voice - over introduction during each episode 's opening credits stated the starship 's purpose:
Space -- the final frontier. These are the voyages of the starship Enterprise. Its five - year mission -- to explore strange new worlds -- to seek out new life and new civilizations -- to boldly go where no man has gone before.
The series was produced from September 1966 to December 1967 by Norway Productions and Desilu Productions, and by Paramount Television from January 1968 to June 1969. Star Trek aired on NBC from September 8, 1966, to June 3, 1969, and was actually seen first on September 6, 1966, on Canada 's CTV network. Star Trek 's Nielsen ratings while on NBC were low, and the network canceled it after three seasons and 79 episodes. Several years later, the series became a bona fide hit in broadcast syndication, remaining so throughout the 1970s, achieving cult classic status and a developing influence on popular culture. Star Trek eventually spawned a franchise, consisting of six additional television series, thirteen feature films, numerous books, games, and toys, and is now widely considered one of the most popular and influential television series of all time.
The series contains significant elements of Space Western, as described by Gene Roddenberry and the general audience.
On March 11, 1964, Gene Roddenberry, a long - time fan of science fiction, drafted a short treatment for a science - fiction television series that he called Star Trek. This was to be set on board a large interstellar spaceship named S.S. Yorktown in the 23rd century bearing a crew dedicated to exploring a relatively small portion of the Milky Way Galaxy.
Roddenberry noted a number of influences on his idea, some of which includes A.E. van Vogt 's tales of the spaceship Space Beagle, Eric Frank Russell 's Marathon series of stories, and the film Forbidden Planet (1956). Some have also drawn parallels with the television series Rocky Jones, Space Ranger (1954), a space opera which included many of the elements that were integral to Star Trek -- the organization, crew relationships, missions, part of the bridge layout, and even some technology. Roddenberry also drew heavily from C.S. Forester 's Horatio Hornblower novels that depict a daring sea captain who exercises broad discretionary authority on distant sea missions of noble purpose. He often humorously referred to Captain Kirk as "Horatio Hornblower in Space ''.
Roddenberry had extensive experience in writing for series about the Old West that had been popular television fare in the 1950s and 1960s. Armed with this background, the first draft characterized the new show as "Wagon Train to the stars. '' Like the familiar Wagon Train, each episode was to be a self - contained adventure story, set within the structure of a continuing voyage through space. All future television and movie realizations of the franchise adhered to the "Wagon Train '' paradigm of the continuing journey, with the notable exception of the serialized Star Trek: Deep Space Nine and the third season of Star Trek: Enterprise.
In Roddenberry 's original concept, the protagonist was Captain Robert April of the starship S.S. Yorktown. This character was developed into Captain Christopher Pike, first portrayed by Jeffrey Hunter. April is listed in the Star Trek Chronology, The Star Trek Encyclopedia and at startrek.com as the Enterprise 's first commanding officer, preceding Captain Christopher Pike. The character 's only television / movie appearance is in the Star Trek: The Animated Series episode "The Counter-Clock Incident ''
In April 1964, Roddenberry presented the Star Trek draft to Desilu Productions, a leading independent television production company. He met with Herbert F. Solow, Desilu 's Director of Production. Solow saw promise in the idea and signed a three - year program - development contract with Roddenberry. Lucille Ball, head of Desilu, was not familiar with the nature of the project, but she was instrumental in getting the pilot produced.
The idea was extensively revised and fleshed out during this time -- "The Cage '' pilot filmed in late 1964 differs in many respects from the March 1964 treatment. Solow, for example, added the stardate concept.
Desilu Productions had a first - look deal with CBS. Oscar Katz, Desilu 's Vice President of Production, went with Roddenberry to pitch the series to the network. They refused to purchase the show, as they already had a similar show in development, the 1965 Irwin Allen series Lost in Space.
In May 1964, Solow, who previously worked at NBC, met with Grant Tinker, then head of the network 's West Coast programming department. Tinker commissioned the first pilot -- which became "The Cage ''. NBC turned down the resulting pilot, stating that it was "too cerebral ''. However, the NBC executives were still impressed with the concept, and they understood that its perceived faults had been partly because of the script that they had selected themselves.
NBC made the unusual decision to pay for a second pilot, using the script called "Where No Man Has Gone Before ''. Only the character of Spock, played by Leonard Nimoy, was retained from the first pilot, and only two cast members, Majel Barrett and Nimoy, were carried forward into the series. This second pilot proved to be satisfactory to NBC, and the network selected Star Trek to be in its upcoming television schedule for the fall of 1966.
The second pilot introduced most of the other main characters: Captain Kirk (William Shatner), chief engineer Lt. Commander Scott (James Doohan) and Lt. Sulu (George Takei), who served as a physicist on the ship in the second pilot but subsequently became a helmsman throughout the rest of the series. Paul Fix played Dr. Mark Piper in the second pilot; ship 's doctor Leonard McCoy (DeForest Kelley) joined the cast when filming began for the first season, and he remained for the rest of the series, achieving billing as the third star of the series. Also joining the ship 's permanent crew during the first season were the communications officer, Lt. Nyota Uhura (Nichelle Nichols), the first African - American woman to hold such an important role in an American television series; the captain 's yeoman, Janice Rand (Grace Lee Whitney), who departed midway through the first season; and Christine Chapel (Majel Barrett), head nurse and assistant to McCoy. Walter Koenig joined the cast as Ensign Pavel Chekov in the series ' second season.
In February 1966, Star Trek was nearly killed by Desilu Productions, before airing the first episode. Desilu had gone from making just one half - hour show (The Lucy Show), to deficit financing a portion of two expensive hour - long shows, Mission: Impossible and Star Trek. Solow was able to convince Lucille Ball that both shows should continue.
Once the series was picked up by NBC the production moved to what was then Desilu Productions Gower street location. It was previously the main studio complex used by RKO Pictures and is now part of the Paramount Pictures lot. The series used what are now stages 31 and 32. The show 's production staff included art director Matt Jefferies. Jefferies designed the starship Enterprise and most of its interiors. His contributions to the series were honored in the name of the "Jefferies tube '', an equipment shaft depicted in various Star Trek series. In addition to working with his brother, John Jefferies, to create the hand - held phaser weapons of Star Trek, Jefferies also developed the set design for the bridge of the Enterprise (which was based on an earlier design by Pato Guzman). Jefferies used his practical experience as an airman during World War II and his knowledge of aircraft design to devise a sleek, functional and ergonomic bridge layout.
The costume designer for Star Trek, Bill Theiss, created the striking look of the Starfleet uniforms for the Enterprise, the costumes for female guest stars, and for various aliens, including the Klingons, Vulcans, Romulans, Tellarites, Andorians, and Gideonites among others.
Artist and sculptor Wah Chang, who had worked for Walt Disney Productions, was hired to design and manufacture props: he created the flip - open communicator, often credited as having influenced the configuration of the portable version of the cellular telephone. Chang also designed the portable sensing - recording - computing "tricorder '' device, and various fictitious devices for the starship 's engineering crew and its sick bay. As the series progressed, he helped to create various memorable aliens, such as the Gorn and the Horta.
NBC ordered 16 episodes of Star Trek, besides "Where No Man Has Gone Before ''. The first regular episode of Star Trek, The Man Trap, aired on Thursday, September 8, 1966 from 8: 30 -- 9: 30 as part of an NBC "sneak preview '' block. Reviews were mixed; while The Philadelphia Inquirer and San Francisco Chronicle liked the new show, The New York Times and The Boston Globe were less favorable, and Variety predicted that it "wo n't work '', calling it "an incredible and dreary mess of confusion and complexities ''. Debuting against mostly reruns, Star Trek easily won its time slot with a 40.6 share. The following week against all - new programming, however, the show fell to second (29.4 share) behind CBS. It ranked 33rd (out of 94 programs) over the next two weeks, then the following two episodes ranked 51st in the ratings.
Star Trek 's first - season ratings would in earlier years likely have caused NBC to cancel the show. The network had pioneered research into viewers ' demographic profiles in the early 1960s, however, and, by 1967, it and other networks increasingly considered such data when making decisions; for example, CBS temporarily cancelled Gunsmoke that year because it had too many older and too few younger viewers. Although Roddenberry later claimed that NBC was unaware of Star Trek 's favorable demographics, awareness of Star Trek 's "quality '' audience is what likely caused the network to retain the show after the first and second seasons. NBC instead decided to order 10 more new episodes for the first season, and order a second season in March 1967. The network originally announced that the show would air at 7: 30 -- 8: 30 pm Tuesday, but it was instead given an 8: 30 -- 9: 30 pm Friday slot when the 1967 -- 68 NBC schedule was released, making watching it difficult for the young viewers that the show most attracted.
Star Trek 's ratings continued to decline during the second season. Although Shatner expected the show to end after two seasons and began to prepare for other projects, NBC nonetheless may have never seriously considered cancelling the show. As early as January 1968, the Associated Press reported that Star Trek 's chances for renewal for a third season were "excellent ''. The show had better ratings for NBC than ABC 's competing Hondo, and the competing CBS programs (# 3 Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C. and the first half - hour of the # 12 CBS Friday Night Movie) were in the top 15 in the Nielsen ratings. Again, demographics helped Star Trek survive. Contrary to popular belief among its fans, the show did not have a larger audience of young viewers than its competition while on NBC. The network 's research did, however, indicate that Star Trek had a "quality audience '' including "upper - income, better - educated males '', and other NBC shows had lower overall ratings. The show was unusual at the time in its serious discussion of contemporary societal issues in a futuristic context, unlike Lost in Space which was more "campy '' in nature.
The enthusiasm of Star Trek 's viewers surprised NBC. The network had already received 29,000 fan letters for the show during its first season, more than for any other except The Monkees. When rumors spread in late 1967 that Star Trek was at risk of cancellation, Roddenberry secretly began and funded an effort by Bjo Trimble, her husband John and other fans to persuade tens of thousands of viewers to write letters of support to save the program. Using the 4,000 names on a mailing list for a science - fiction convention, the Trimbles asked fans to write to NBC and ask ten others to also do so. NBC received almost 116,000 letters for the show between December 1967 and March 1968, including more than 52,000 in February alone; according to an NBC executive, the network received more than one million pieces of mail but only disclosed the 116,000 figure. Newspaper columnists encouraged readers to write letters to help save what one called "the best science fiction show on the air ''. More than 200 Caltech students marched to NBC 's Burbank, California studio to support Star Trek in January 1968, carrying signs such as "Draft Spock '' and "Vulcan Power ''. Berkeley and MIT students organized similar protests in San Francisco and New York.
The letters supporting Star Trek, whose authors included New York State Governor Nelson Rockefeller, were different in both quantity and quality from most mail that television networks receive:
The show, according to the 6,000 letters it draws a week (more than any other in television), is watched by scientists, museum curators, psychiatrists, doctors, university professors and other highbrows. The Smithsonian Institution asked for a print of the show for its archives, the only show so honored.
In addition:
Much of the mail came from doctors, scientists, teachers, and other professional people, and was for the most part literate -- and written on good stationery. And if there is anything a network wants almost as much as a high Nielsen ratings it is the prestige of a show that appeals to the upper middle class and high brow audiences.
NBC -- which used such anecdotes in much of its publicity for the show -- made the unusual decision to announce on television, after the episode "The Omega Glory '' on March 1, 1968, that the series had been renewed. The announcement implied a request to stop writing, but instead caused fans to send letters of thanks in similar numbers.
NBC at first planned to move Star Trek to Mondays for the show 's third season, likely in hopes of increasing its audience after the enormous letter campaign that surprised the network. But in March 1968, NBC instead moved the show to 10: 00 pm Friday night, an hour undesirable for its younger audience, so as not to conflict with the highly successful Rowan & Martin 's Laugh - In on Monday evenings, from whose time slot Laugh - In producer George Schlatter had angrily demanded it not be rescheduled. In addition to the undesirable time slot, Star Trek was now being seen on only 181 of NBC 's 210 affiliates.
Roddenberry was frustrated, and complained, "If the network wants to kill us, it could n't make a better move. '' He attempted to persuade NBC to give Star Trek a better day and hour, but was not successful. As a result of this and his own growing exhaustion, he chose to withdraw from the stress of the daily production of Star Trek, though he remained nominally in charge as its "executive producer ''. Roddenberry reduced his direct involvement in Star Trek before the start of the 1968 -- 69 television season, and was replaced by Fred Freiberger as the producer of the television series. NBC next reduced Star Trek 's budget by a significant amount per episode, as the per - minute commercial price had dropped from $39,000 to $36,000 compared to the Season 2 time slot. This caused a significant decline in the quality of many episodes for the 1968 -- 69 season, which emphasized "monster of the week '' stories. Nichols described these budget cuts as an intentional effort to kill off Star Trek:
While NBC paid lip service to expanding Star Trek 's audience, it (now) slashed our production budget until it was actually ten percent lower than it had been in our first season... This is why in the third season you saw fewer outdoor location shots, for example. Top writers, top guest stars, top anything you needed was harder to come by. Thus, Star Trek 's demise became a self - fulfilling prophecy. And I can assure you, that is exactly as it was meant to be.
The last day of filming for Star Trek was January 9, 1969, and after 79 episodes NBC cancelled the show in February despite fans ' attempt at another letter - writing campaign. One newspaper columnist advised a protesting viewer:
You Star Trek fans have fought the "good fight, '' but the show has been cancelled and there 's nothing to be done now.
In 2011, the decision to cancel Star Trek by NBC was ranked # 4 on the TV Guide Network special, 25 Biggest TV Blunders 2.
Although many of the third season 's episodes were considered of poor quality, it gave Star Trek enough episodes for television syndication. Most shows require at least four seasons for syndication, because otherwise there are not enough episodes for daily stripping. Kaiser Broadcasting, however, purchased syndication rights for Star Trek during the first season for its stations in several large cities. The company arranged the unusual deal because it saw the show as effective counterprogramming against the Big Three networks ' 6 pm evening news programs. Paramount began advertising the reruns in trade press in March 1969; as Kaiser 's ratings were good, other stations, such as WPIX in New York City and WKBS in Philadelphia, also purchased the episodes for similar counterprogramming.
Through syndication, Star Trek found a larger audience than it had on NBC, becoming a cult classic. Airing the show in the late afternoon or early evening attracted many new viewers, often young. By 1970, Paramount 's trade advertisements claimed that the show had significantly improved its stations ' ratings, and the Los Angeles Times commented on Star Trek 's ability to "acquire the most enviable ratings in the syndication field ''. By 1972, what the Associated Press described as "the show that wo n't die '' aired in more than 100 American cities and 60 other countries, and more than 3,000 fans attended the first Star Trek convention in New York City.
Fans of the show became increasingly organized, gathering at conventions to trade merchandise, meet actors from the show, and watch screenings of old episodes. Such fans came to be known as "trekkies '', who were noted (and often ridiculed) for their extreme devotion to the show and their encyclopedic knowledge of every episode. Unlike other syndicated reruns, prices for Star Trek rose, instead of falling, over time, because fans enjoyed rewatching each episode many, often dozens of, times; People in 1977 stated that the show "threatens to rerun until the universe crawls back into its little black hole ''. By 1986, 17 years after entering syndication, Star Trek was the most popular syndicated series; by 1987, Paramount made $1 million from each episode; and by 1994, the reruns still aired in 94 % of the United States.
From September 1 to December 24, 1998, the Sci - Fi Channel broadcast a "Special Edition '' of all The Original Series episodes in an expanded 90 - minute format hosted by William Shatner. About 3 -- 4 minutes of each episode that had been edited out of the syndicated shows for additional commercial time were restored for the "Special Edition '' broadcast. In addition to introductory and post-episode commentary by Shatner, the episodes included interviews with members of the regular production team and cast, writers, guest stars, and critics (titled as "Star Trek Insights ''). The episodes were broadcast in the original broadcast sequence, followed by "The Cage, '' to which a full 105 - minute segment was devoted. (For details on each episode 's original airdate, see List of Star Trek: The Original Series episodes.) Leonard Nimoy hosted a second run from December 28, 1998 to March 24, 1999, but not all the episodes were broadcast because the show was abruptly cancelled before completion.
In September 2006, CBS Paramount Domestic Television (now known as CBS Television Distribution, the current rights holders for the Star Trek television franchises) began syndication of an enhanced version of Star Trek: The Original Series in high definition with new CGI visual effects.
Under the direction of Star Trek producer David Rossi, who consulted with Mike and Denise Okuda, the visual and special effects were recreated to give Star Trek: The Original Series a more modern look. Special attention was given to such elements as the Enterprise, alien planets and their images depicted from space, planets seen from orbit, alien spacecraft, and technology such as computer readouts, viewscreen images, and phaser beams.
The restoration and enhancement was performed by CBS Digital. All live - action footage was scanned in high definition from its first - generation 35 mm film elements. While it was possible to retouch and remaster some visual effects, all new exterior ship, space and planet shots were recreated under the supervision of Emmy - nominated visual effects supervisor Niel Wray.
As noted in the "making of '' DVD feature, first generation "original camera negatives '' were used for all live - action footage but not for external shots of the ship and planets. Notable changes include new space shots with a CGI Enterprise, and other new models (for example, a Gorn ship is shown in "Arena ''), redone matte background shots, and other minor touches such as tidying up viewscreens.
A small number of scenes have also been recomposed, and sometimes new actors have been placed into the background of some shots. In addition, the opening theme music has been re-recorded in digital stereo.
The first episode to be released to syndication was "Balance of Terror '' on the weekend of September 16, 2006. Episodes were released at the rate of about one a week and broadcast in a 4: 3 aspect ratio. Despite the HD remastering, CBS chose to deliver the broadcast syndication package in Standard Definition (SD TV). The HD format is commercially available through Blu - ray, or by download such as iTunes, Netflix, and Xbox Live.
While the CGI shots were mastered in a 16: 9 aspect ratio for future applications, they are broadcast in the U.S. and Canada -- along with the live - action footage -- in a 4: 3 aspect ratio to respect the show 's original composition. If the producers were to choose to reformat the entire show for the 16: 9 ratio, live - action footage would have to be cropped, significantly reducing the height of the original image.
On July 26, 2007, CBS Home Entertainment (with distribution by Paramount Home Entertainment) announced that the remastered episodes of TOS would be released on an HD DVD / DVD hybrid format. Season 1 was released on November 20, 2007. Season 2 had been scheduled for release in the summer of 2008, but it was cancelled when Toshiba (which had been helping finance the remastering of the show) pulled out of the HD DVD business. On August 5, 2008, the remastered Season 2 was released on DVD only. For this release, CBS and Paramount used discs without any disc art, making them look like the "Season 1 Remastered '' HD DVD / DVD combo discs, despite having content only on one side. Season 3 was released on DVD only on November 18, 2008. On February 17, 2009 -- Paramount announced the Season 1 of TOS on Blu - ray Disc for a May release to coincide with the new feature film coming from Paramount. The second season was released in a seven disc set on Blu - ray in the U.S. on September 22, 2009. The third season was released on Blu - ray in the U.S. on December 15. With the release of the "Alternate Realities '' box set, remastered Original Series episodes were included in a multi-series compilation for the first time. It is unknown if future compilation releases will exclusively use the remastered episodes or not.
In region 2 and region 4, all three seasons of the remastered Original Series became available on DVD in the slimline edition (in the UK and Germany in steelbook editions) on April 27, 2009 as well as the first season in Blu - ray.
James T. Kirk
Spock
Leonard McCoy
Montgomery Scott
Nyota Uhura
Hikaru Sulu
Pavel Chekov
Christine Chapel
Janice Rand
While still casting the roles, Gene Roddenberry did not mandate Bones McCoy and Spock be male. According to Nichelle Nichols, "They gave me a three - page script to read from that had three characters named Bones, Kirk and somebody called Spock, and they asked me if I would read for the role of Spock. When I looked at this great text, I said to myself, ' I 'll take any one of these roles, ' but I found the Spock character to be very interesting, and I asked them to tell me what she (Spock) was like. ''
It was intended that Sulu 's role be expanded in the second season, but owing to Takei 's part in John Wayne 's The Green Berets, he appeared in only half the season, his role being filled by Walter Koenig as the relatively young, mop - topped Russian navigator Ensign Pavel Chekov. When Takei returned, the two had to share a dressing room and a single episode script. The two appeared together at the Enterprise helm for the remainder of the series. There may be some truth to the unofficial story that the Soviet Union 's newspaper Pravda complained that among the culturally diverse characters there were no Russians, seen as a personal slight to that country since the Soviet Russian Yuri Gagarin had been the first man to make a spaceflight. Gene Roddenberry said in response that "The Chekov thing was a major error on our part, and I 'm still embarrassed by the fact we did n't include a Russian right from the beginning. '' However, documentation from Desilu suggests that the intention was to introduce a character into Star Trek with more sex appeal to teenaged girls. Walter Koenig noted in the 2006 40th anniversary special of Star Trek: The Original Series that he doubted the rumor about Pravda, since Star Trek had never been shown on Soviet television. It has also been claimed that the former member of The Monkees, Davy Jones, was the model for Mr. Chekov.
In addition, the series frequently included characters (usually security personnel wearing red uniforms) who are killed or injured soon after their introduction. So prevalent was this plot device that it inspired the term "redshirt '' to denote a stock character whose sole purpose is to die violently to show the danger facing the main characters.
Star Trek made celebrities of its cast of largely unknown actors. Kelley had appeared in many films and television shows, but mostly in smaller roles that showcased him as a villain. Nimoy also had previous television and film experience but was not well known either. Nimoy had partnered previously with Shatner in a 1964 episode of The Man from U.N.C.L.E., "The Project Strigas Affair, '' and with Kelley (as a doctor) in a 1963 episode of The Virginian, "Man of Violence, '' both more than two years before Star Trek first aired. Before Star Trek, Shatner was well known in the trade, having appeared in several notable films, played Cyrano de Bergerac on Broadway, and even turned down the part of Dr. Kildare. However, when roles became sparse he took the regular job after Jeffrey Hunter 's contract was not renewed. After the episodes aired, many performers found themselves typecast because of their defining roles in the show. (Star Trek: The Next Generation actor Michael Dorn stated in 1991, however: "If what happened to the first cast is called being typecast, then I want to be typecast. Of course, they did n't get the jobs after Trek. But they are making their sixth movie. Name me someone else in television who has made six movies! '')
The three main characters were Kirk, Spock, and McCoy, with writers often playing the different personalities off each other: Kirk was passionate and often aggressive, but with a sly sense of humor; Spock was coolly logical; and McCoy was sardonic, emotional, and illogical, but always compassionate. In many stories the three clashed, with Kirk forced to make a tough decision while Spock advocated the logical but sometimes callous path and McCoy (or "Bones '', as Kirk nicknamed him) insisted on doing whatever would cause the least harm. McCoy and Spock had a sparring relationship that masked their true affection and respect for each other, and their constant arguments became popular with viewers. The show so emphasized dialogue that writer and director Nicholas Meyer (involved with the Star Trek films) called it a radio drama, showing an episode to a film class without video to prove that the plot was still comprehensible.
The Spock character was at first rejected by network executives, who were apprehensive that his vaguely "Satanic '' appearance (with pointed ears and eyebrows) might prove upsetting to some viewers, and (according to Leonard Nimoy) they repeatedly urged Roddenberry to "drop the Martian. '' Roddenberry was also dismayed to discover that NBC 's publicity department deliberately airbrushed out Spock 's pointed ears and eyebrows from early publicity stills sent to network affiliates, because they feared that his "demonic '' appearance might offend potential buyers in the religiously conservative southern states. Spock, however, went on to become one of the most popular characters on the show, as did McCoy 's impassioned country - doctor personality. Spock, in fact, became a sex symbol of sorts -- something no one connected with the show had expected. Leonard Nimoy noted that the question of Spock 's extraordinary sex appeal emerged "almost any time I talked to someone in the press... I never give it a thought... to try to deal with the question of Mr. Spock as a sex symbol is silly. ''
The sequel to the original series, Star Trek: The Next Generation, which premiered in 1987, was set about 100 years after the events of TOS. As that show and its spin - offs progressed, several TOS actors made appearances reprising their original characters:
Besides the above examples, there have been numerous non-canon novels and comic books published over the years in which The Original Series era crew are depicted in The Next Generation era, either through time - travel or other means. In addition, many actors who appeared on The Original Series later made guest appearances as different characters in later series, most notably Majel Barrett, who not only provided the voice for most Starfleet computers in episodes of every spin - off series (including a single appearance on Star Trek: Enterprise, where the computers normally did not speak at all), but also had the recurring role of Lwaxana Troi in The Next Generation and Deep Space Nine. Diana Muldaur, a guest star in the episodes "Return to Tomorrow '' and "Is There in Truth No Beauty? '' of the original Star Trek series, played series regular Dr. Katherine Pulaski in the second season of Star Trek: The Next Generation.
Guest roles on the series have featured actors such as:
In its writing, Star Trek is notable as one of the earliest science - fiction TV series to use the services of leading contemporary science fiction writers, such as Robert Bloch, Norman Spinrad, Harlan Ellison, and Theodore Sturgeon, as well as established television writers. Series script editor Dorothy C. Fontana (originally Roddenberry 's secretary) played a key role in the success of Star Trek -- she edited most of the series ' scripts and wrote several episodes. Her credits read D.C. Fontana at the suggestion of Gene Roddenberry, who felt a female science fiction writer might not be taken seriously in the majority - male field.
Roddenberry often used the setting of a space vessel set many years in the future to comment on social issues of 1960s America, including sexism, racism, nationalism, and global war. In November 1968, just a few months after the first televised interracial touch, the episode "Plato 's Stepchildren '' went incorrectly down in history as the first American television show to feature a scripted interracial kiss between characters (Capt. Kirk and Lt. Uhura), although the kiss was only mimed (obscured by the back of a character 's head) and depicted as involuntary. "Let That Be Your Last Battlefield '' presented a direct allegory about the irrationality and futility of racism. Anti-war themes appear in episodes such as "The Doomsday Machine '', depicting a planet - destroying weapon as an analogy to nuclear weapons deployed under the principle of mutually assured destruction, and "A Taste of Armageddon '' about a society which has "civilized '' war to the point that they no longer see it as something to avoid.
Episodes such as "The Apple '', "Who Mourns for Adonais? '', "The Mark of Gideon '' and "The Return of the Archons '' display subtle anti-religious (owing mainly to Roddenberry 's own secular humanism) and anti-establishment themes. "Bread and Circuses '' and "The Omega Glory '' have themes that are more pro-Christian or patriotic.
The show experienced network and / or sponsor interference, up to and including wholesale censorship of scripts and film footage. This was a regular occurrence in the 1960s and Star Trek suffered from its fair share of tampering. Scripts were routinely vetted and censored by the staff of NBC 's Broadcast Standards Department, who copiously annotated every script with demands for cuts or changes (e.g. "Page 4: Please delete McCoy 's expletive, ' Good Lord ' '' or "Page 43: Caution on the embrace; avoid open - mouthed kiss '').
The series was noted for its sense of humor, such as Spock and McCoy 's pointed, yet friendly, bickering. Certain episodes, such as "The Trouble with Tribbles '', "I, Mudd '' and "A Piece of the Action '', were written and staged as comedies with dramatic elements. Most episodes were presented as action / adventure dramas, frequently including space battles or fist fights between the ship 's crew and guest antagonists.
Several episodes used the concept of planets developing parallel to Earth, allowing reuse of stock props, costumes and sets. "Bread and Circuses '', "Miri '' and "The Omega Glory '' depict such worlds; "A Piece of the Action '', "Patterns of Force '' and "Plato 's Stepchildren '' are based on alien planets that have adopted period Earth cultures (Prohibition - era Chicago, Nazi Germany and ancient Greece, respectively). Two episodes depicting time travel ("Tomorrow Is Yesterday '' and "Assignment: Earth '') conveniently place Enterprise in orbit above 1960s Earth; a third ("The City on the Edge of Forever '') places members of the crew on 1930s Earth.
Several publications have ranked the ten best episodes of Star Trek:
Of the sixteen episodes listed above, ten -- "Where No Man Has Gone Before, '' "The Enemy Within, '' "The Naked Time, '' "Balance of Terror, '' "The Galileo Seven, '' "Arena, '' "Space Seed, '' "This Side of Paradise, '' "The Devil in the Dark, '' and "The City on the Edge of Forever '' -- are from the first season and five -- "Amok Time, '' "The Doomsday Machine, '' "Mirror, Mirror, '' "The Trouble with Tribbles, '' and "Journey to Babel '' -- are from the second season. Only one -- "The Enterprise Incident '' -- derives from the third season.
In 1983, Leonard Nimoy hosted a one - hour special as a promotional tie - in with the film Star Trek III: The Search for Spock, in which he recounted his memories of working on the original series and explained the origins of things such as the Vulcan nerve pinch and the Vulcan salute, as well as a re-airing of the TOS episode "Space Seed ''.
The show 's theme tune, immediately recognizable by many, was written by Alexander Courage, and has been featured in several Star Trek spin - off episodes and motion pictures. Gene Roddenberry subsequently wrote a set of accompanying lyrics, even though the lyrics were never used in the series, nor did Roddenberry ever intend them to be; this allowed him to claim co-composer credit and hence 50 % of the theme 's performance royalties. Courage considered Roddenberry 's actions, while entirely legal, to be unethical. Series producer Robert Justman noted in the book Inside Star Trek The Real Story, that work on the film Doctor Dolittle kept Courage from working on more than two episodes of the first season. However, Justman also believed that Courage lost enthusiasm for the series because of the "royalty '' issue. Courage did not score any episodes of the second season; however he did conduct a recording session for about 30 minutes of "library cues '' for the second season, on June 16, 1967. Courage returned to score two episodes of the third season.
Later episodes used stock recordings from Courage 's earlier work. Jazz trumpeter Maynard Ferguson recorded a jazz fusion version of the tune with his big band during the late 1970s, and Nichelle Nichols performed the song live complete with lyrics.
For budgetary reasons, this series made significant use of "tracked '' music, or music written for other episodes that was reused in later episodes. Of the 79 episodes that were broadcast, only 31 had complete or partial original dramatic underscores created specifically for them. The remainder of the music in any episode was tracked from other episodes and from cues recorded for the music library. Which episodes would have new music was mostly the decision of Robert H. Justman, the Associate Producer during the first two seasons.
Screen credits for the composers were given based on the amount of music composed for, or composed and reused in, the episode. Some of these final music credits were occasionally incorrect.
Beyond the short works of "source '' music (music whose source is seen or acknowledged onscreen) created for specific episodes, eight composers were contracted to create original dramatic underscore during the series run: Alexander Courage, George Duning, Jerry Fielding, Gerald Fried, Sol Kaplan, Samuel Matlovsky, Joseph Mullendore, and Fred Steiner. The composers conducted their own music. Of these composers, Steiner composed the original music for thirteen episodes and it is his instrumental arrangement of Alexander Courage 's main theme that is heard over many of the end title credits of the series.
The tracked musical underscores were chosen and edited to the episode by the music editors, principal of whom were Robert Raff (most of Season One), Jim Henrikson (Season One and Two), and Richard Lapham (Season Three).
Some of the original recordings of the music were released in the United States commercially on the GNP Crescendo Record Co. label. Music for a number of the episodes was re-recorded by Fred Steiner and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra for the Varèse Sarabande label; and by Tony Bremner with the Royal Philharmonic for the Label X label. Finally in December 2012, the complete original recordings were released by La - La Land Records as a 15 - CD box set, with liner notes by Jeff Bond.
Listed in production order. Episodes that were only partially scored are in italics.
Season 1:
Season 2:
Season 3:
Note: Although "The Way to Eden '' had no original score, the episode had special musical material by Arthur Heinemann (the episode 's writer), guest star Charles Napier and Craig Robertson. "Requiem for Methuselah '' contains a Johannes Brahms interpretation by Ivan Ditmars.
Although this series never won any Emmys, Star Trek was nominated for the following Emmy Awards:
Eight of its episodes were nominated for one of science - fiction 's top awards, the Hugo Award, in the category "Best Dramatic Presentation ''. In 1967, the nominated episodes were "The Naked Time '', "The Corbomite Maneuver '', and "The Menagerie ''. In 1968, all nominees were Star Trek episodes: "Amok Time '', "Mirror, Mirror '', "The Doomsday Machine '', "The Trouble with Tribbles '', and "The City on the Edge of Forever ''. Star Trek won both years for the episodes "The Menagerie '' and "The City on the Edge of Forever '', respectively. In 1968, Star Trek (the T.V. show) won a special Hugo Award for Dramatic Presentation. No episode was named. This was the show 's 3rd Hugo Award.
In 1967, Star Trek was also one of the first television programs to receive an NAACP Image Award. In 1968, Star Trek 's most critically acclaimed episode, "The City on the Edge of Forever, '' written by Harlan Ellison, won the prestigious Writers Guild of America Award for Best Original Teleplay, although this was for Ellison 's original draft script, and not for the screenplay of the episode as it aired.
In 1997, "The City on the Edge of Forever '' was ranked # 92 on TV Guide 's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time.
In 2004 and 2007, TV Guide ranked Star Trek as the greatest cult show ever.
In 2013, TV Guide ranked Star Trek # 12 on their list of the 60 Greatest Shows of All Time.
Episodes of the Original Series were among the first television series to be released on the VHS and laserdisc formats in North America in the 1980s, with all episodes eventually being released on both formats. With the advent of DVD in the mid-1990s, single DVDs featuring two episodes each in production order were released. In the early 2000s, Paramount Home Video reissued the series to DVD in a series of three deluxe season boxes with added featurettes and documentaries. In February 2009 Paramount announced that they would release the Original Series on Blu - ray. Season one, two, and three were released on April 28, September 22, and December 15, respectively. The Blu - ray releases let the user choose between "Enhanced Effects '' or "Original Effects '' via technique called multi-angle.
All 79 episodes of the series have been digitally remastered by CBS Home Entertainment (distributed by Paramount) and have since been released on DVD.
Paramount released season one of The Original Series on Blu - ray on April 28, 2009. The Blu - ray release contains both Original and Remastered episodes by seamless branching.
Spacelift: Transporting Trek Into the 21st Century
Starfleet Access for "The Menagerie, Parts I and II ''
Reflections on Spock
Starfleet Access for "The Balance of Terror ''
Life Beyond Trek: William Shatner
To Boldly Go... Season One
The Birth of a Timeless Legacy
Starfleet Access for "Space Seed ''
Sci - Fi Visionaries
Interactive Enterprise Inspection
Billy Blackburn 's Treasure Chest: Rare Home Movies and Special Memories
Kiss ' n ' Tell: Romance in the 23rd Century
Starfleet Access for "Errand of Mercy ''
Starfleet Access for "Amok Time ''
"Content to Go '' featurette via Mobile - Blu: Writing Spock
"Content to Go '' featurette via Mobile - Blu: Creating Chekov
"Content to Go '' featurette via Mobile - Blu: Listening to the Actors
"More Tribbles, More Troubles '' audio commentary by David Gerrold
DS9: "Trials and Tribble - ations ''
"Trials and Tribble - ations '': Uniting Two Legends
Star Trek: The Original Series on Blu - ray
"Trials and Tribble - ations '': An Historic Endeavor
Starfleet Access for "The Trouble with Tribbles ''
"Content to Go '' featurette via Mobile - Blu: Spock 's Mother
To Boldly Go... Season Two
Designing the Final Frontier
Star Trek 's Favorite Moments
Writer 's Notebook: D.C. Fontana
Life Beyond Trek: Leonard Nimoy
Kirk, Spock & Bones: Star Trek 's Great Trio
Star Trek 's Divine Diva: Nichelle Nichols
Enhanced Visual Effects Credits
Chief Engineer 's Log
Memoir from Mr. Sulu
Captain 's Log: Bob Justman
"Where No Man Has Gone Before '' (Unaired, alternate version)
David Gerrold Hosts 2009 Convention Coverage
"The Anthropology of Star Trek '' Comic - Con Panel 2009
The World of Rod Roddenberry -- Comic - Con 2009
Billy Blackburn 's Treasure Chest: Rare Home Movies and Special Memories Part 3
To Boldly Go... Season Three
Collectible Trek
Star Trek 's Impact
CBS Interactive is presenting all 3 seasons of the series via the tv.com iPhone app. The full - length episodes, without the new CGI but digitally processed to remove the original celluloid artifacts, are available to users in the USA at no charge but with embedded ads. Short clips from the shows are also viewable at their web site. The company has recently presented all 3 seasons of the series via its CBS All Access premium streaming service. It has all full - length episodes, without the new CGI, like the tv.com app, and is available to users in the USA with subscription without ad interruptions.
In January 2007, the first season of Star Trek: The Original Series became available for download from Apple 's iTunes Store. Although consumer reviews indicate that some of the episodes on iTunes are the newly "remastered '' editions, iTunes editors had not indicated such, and if so, which are which. All first - season episodes that had been remastered and aired were available from iTunes, except "Where No Man Has Gone Before '', which remains in its original form. On March 20, 2007, the first season was again added to the iTunes Store, with separate downloads for the original and remastered versions of the show, though according to the customer reviews, the original version contains minor revisions such as special effect enhancements.
Netflix began online streaming of five of the six Star Trek television series on July 1, 2011; Deep Space Nine followed on October 1, 2011.
Star Trek: The Original Series has inspired many commercial products, including toys, comic books, and many other materials. The comics are generally considered non-canon.
In the early 1970s the Mego Corporation acquired the license to produce Star Trek action figures, which the company successfully marketed from 1974 -- 1976. During this period, the company produced a line of 8 '' figures featuring Captain Kirk, Mr. Spock, Leonard McCoy, Mr. Scott, Lt. Uhura, "Aliens '' (a Klingon, a Neptunian, the Keeper, a Gorn, a Cheron, a Romulan, a Talosian, an Andorian, and a Mugato), and numerous playsets. (Mego also produced a "life - size '' toy tricorder.)
In the mid-2000s, Paul "Dr. Mego '' Clarke and Joe Sena founded EMCE Toys (pronounced "MC '') to bring Mego toys back to the marketplace. (Mego went out of business in 1983.) Working with Diamond Select Toys, current holders of the Star Trek license, these figures have been selling in comics shops. New characters are currently being produced that Mego did not originally make, such as Lt. Sulu, Ensign Chekov, and "Space Seed '' villain Khan Noonien Singh. The Gorn that Mego produced had a brown Lizard head (identical to the Marvel Comics villain) on a brown body wearing a Klingon outfit. Star Trek fans had frequently wished that Mego had made a "TV - accurate '' Gorn; EMCE Toys and DST produced a new green Gorn based on the TV episode "Arena ''. EMCE Toys hired original Mego packaging artist Harold Schull to illustrate new artwork for Sulu, Chekov, Khan, and the Gorn. EMCE Toys is continuing the Mego revival with the production of more Star Trek figures, including Captain Pike and the Salt Vampire.
The first Star Trek comics were published by Gold Key Comics between 1967 and 1978. These comics were highly stylized and diverged wildly from the TV series continuity. Most storylines used in the Gold Key series featured original characters and concepts, although later issues did include sequels to the original series episodes "The City on the Edge of Forever '', "Metamorphosis '' and "I, Mudd ''. Writers included George Kashdan, Arnold Drake and Len Wein. Originally they were illustrated by Alberto Giolitti, an Italian artist who had never seen the series and only had publicity photos to use as references. Since Giolitti did n't have a publicity photo of James Doohan, early issues of the series had Mr. Scott drawn differently. The original issues, most of which featured photographic covers showing images from the series, are highly collectable. They are fondly remembered by fans, and a series of reprints ("The Key Collection '') of these original titles began to appear in 2004, published by Checker. The Gold Key series had a run of 61 issues. Gold Key lost the Star Trek license to Marvel Comics in 1979 (although Marvel 's license from Paramount prohibited them from utilizing concepts introduced in the original series).
From 1969 to 1973, a series of weekly Star Trek comic strips ran in the British comics magazine eventually known as TV Century 21. A total of 258 issues were produced, as well as various annuals and specials. All were original stories. Two more annuals, under the Mighty TV Comic banner, also produced original Star Trek materials. In addition, the weekly TV Comic reprinted serialized versions of the U.S. Gold Key comics.
In 1977 -- 1978, before home video was widely available, Mandala Productions and Bantam Books published FotoNovels of TOS that included direct adaptations of actual color television episode frames (with word balloons) in comics format.
From February 1984 through February 1996, DC Comics held the license to publish comic books based upon the Star Trek franchise, including Star Trek: The Original Series. The main DC Comics Star Trek title was published in two series, comprising 136 issues, 9 annuals, and a number of special issues, plus several mini-series that linked TOS and the subsequent series Star Trek: The Next Generation (TNG).
Marvel Comics again obtained the Star Trek license in 1996. Marvel (under the "Marvel / Paramount comics '' imprint) published various one - shots and the quarterly Star Trek Unlimited series, which covered TOS as well as TNG. They also introduced the new series Star Trek: Early Voyages, which dealt with Christopher Pike 's adventures as captain of the Enterprise (as depicted in the rejected TOS pilot "The Cage ''). Fan acceptance of these comics got off to a shaky start when Marvel 's inaugural publication of its new Star Trek line turned out to be a crossover between TOS and Marvel 's popular superhero team, the X-Men. However, the series turned out to be relatively popular, registering strong sales.
Beginning in 2006, Tokyopop published two projects based upon the original series. The new comic anthologies, produced by Joshua Ortega, were released annually in September 2006 (Shinsei Shinsei) and 2007 (Kakan ni Shinkou). Five artists and writer teams presented five new stories, per volume, based on the original series.
Roddenberry was "committed to a liberalism that believed in prosperity, technological progress, and universal humanity '' and at odds with the New Left, which "saw the evils of society as the consequence not merely of capitalism but of technology and reason itself. ''
The Original Series has been parodied many times in other television series. Saturday Night Live produced two famous sketches parodying The Original Series, "The Last Voyage of the Starship Enterprise '' in 1976 and William Shatner 's own "Get a life '' sketch in 1986 (which parodied the show 's "trekkie '' followers). "The Last Voyage of the Starship Enterprise '' is a twelve - minute sketch, written by Michael O'Donoghue. It was described by TrekMovie.com as "one of the best Star Trek parody sketches of all time ''. TVSquad ranked Shatner 's "Get a life '' sketch alongside "The Last Voyage... '' as one of the most famous parodies of the show.
The Canadian comedy duo Wayne and Shuster parodied Star Trek as Star Schtick in the late 1970s. An entire Finnish parody series Star Wreck was produced starting in 1992, culminating with Star Wreck: In the Pirkinning in 2005, all available as legal downloads on the web.
The series has also been parodied on The Simpsons, Family Guy and notably in the Futurama episode "Where No Fan Has Gone Before '', which was described by Wired magazine as a "touchstone '' for fans. The 1999 film Galaxy Quest portrays the lives of a once - popular television space - drama crew who are kidnapped by real aliens who have mistaken the fictional series for reality. The main characters are parodies of Star Trek characters, and many of the plot elements refer to or parody popular 1960s TV - series customs.
John Scalzi 's novel Redshirts, winner of the 2013 Hugo Award for Best Novel, uses the theme of red - shirted Star Fleet officers as cannon fodder.
Star Trek has inspired many fans to produce stories for free Internet distribution. Many of these are set in the time of The Original Series, including Star Trek: Phase II which was nominated for a Hugo Award and received support from actors and writers who were involved with The Original Series.
Rod Serling said of Star Trek, "Star Trek was again a very inconsistent show which at times sparkled with true ingenuity and pure science fiction approaches. At other times it was more carnival - like, and very much more the creature of television than the creature of a legitimate literary form. ''
Isaac Asimov and Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry developed a unique relationship during Star Trek 's initial run in the late 1960s. Asimov wrote a critical essay on Star Trek 's scientific accuracy for TV Guide magazine. Roddenberry retorted respectfully with a personal letter explaining the limitations of accuracy when writing a weekly series. Asimov corrected himself with a follow - up essay to TV Guide claiming despite its inaccuracies, that Star Trek was a fresh and intellectually challenging science fiction television show. The two remained friends to the point where Asimov even served as an adviser on a number of Star Trek projects.
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the girl who struck out babe ruth book | Jackie Mitchell - wikipedia
Virne Beatrice "Jackie '' Mitchell Gilbert (August 29, 1913 -- January 7, 1987) was one of the first female pitchers in professional baseball history. Pitching for the Chattanooga Lookouts Class AA minor league baseball team in an exhibition game against the New York Yankees, she struck out Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig in succession.
Jackie Mitchell was born August 29, 1913 in Chattanooga, Tennessee, to Virne Wall Mitchell and Dr. Joseph Mitchell. When she learned how to walk, her father took her to the baseball diamond and taught her the basics of the game. Her next door neighbor, Dazzy Vance, taught her to pitch and showed her his "drop ball '', a type of breaking ball. Vance was a major league pitcher and would eventually be inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame.
At the age of 16, Mitchell began playing for the Engelettes, a women 's team in Chattanooga, Tennessee, and went on to attend a baseball training camp in Atlanta, Georgia. In doing so she attracted the attention of Joe Engel, the president and owner of the Chattanooga Lookouts, who was known for using publicity stunts as a way to draw crowds during the Great Depression. Seeing Mitchell as an opportunity to draw attention to the Lookouts, he signed her to the team on March 25, 1931. She appeared in her first professional game on April 2 becoming only the second woman to play organized baseball behind Lizzie Arlington who pitched for the Reading Coal Heavers against the Allentown Peanuts in a Minor league game in 1898.
The New York Yankees and the Chattanooga Lookouts were scheduled to play an exhibition game in Chattanooga, Tennessee, on April 1, 1931. Due to rain the game was postponed until the next day. Seventeen - year - old Mitchell was brought in to pitch during the first inning by Lookouts manager Bert Niehoff after the starting pitcher, Clyde Barfoot, gave up a double and a single. The next two batters were Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig. After taking a ball, Ruth swung and missed at the next two pitches. Mitchell 's fourth pitch to Ruth was a called third strike. Babe Ruth glared and verbally abused the umpire before being led away by his teammates to sit to wait for another batting turn. The crowd roared for Jackie. Babe Ruth was quoted in a Chattanooga newspaper as having said:
"I do n't know what 's going to happen if they begin to let women in baseball. Of course, they will never make good. Why? Because they are too delicate. It would kill them to play ball every day. ''
Next up was the Iron Horse Lou Gehrig, who swung through the first three pitches to strike out. Jackie Mitchell became famous for striking out two of the greatest baseball players in history.
A few days after Mitchell struck out Ruth and Gehrig, baseball commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis voided her contract and declared women unfit to play baseball as the game was "too strenuous. '' Mitchell continued to play professionally, barnstorming with the House of David, a men 's team famous for their very long hair and long beards. While travelling with the House of David team, she would sometimes wear a fake beard for publicity. She retired in 1937 at the age of 23 after becoming furious since her story about playing baseball was being used something of a side show -- once being asked to pitch while riding a donkey. She refused to come out of retirement when the All - American Girls Professional Baseball League formed in 1943. Major League Baseball would formally ban the signing of women to contracts on June 21, 1952. The ban lasted until 1992 when Carey Schueler was drafted by the Chicago White Sox for the 1993 season.
In 1982 Mitchell was invited to throw out the ceremonial first pitch for the Chattanooga Lookouts on their season opening day.
Jackie Mitchell died in Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia, on January 7, 1987, and was buried in Forest Hills Cemetery in Chattanooga.
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who came up with the idea of uniformitarianism | Uniformitarianism - wikipedia
Uniformitarianism, also known as the Doctrine of Uniformity, refers to the invariance in the principles underpinning science, such as the constancy of causality, or causation, throughout time, but it has also been used to describe invariance of physical laws through time and space. Though an unprovable postulate that can not be verified using the scientific method, uniformitarianism has been a key first principle of virtually all fields of science.
In geology, uniformitarianism has included the gradualistic concept that "the present is the key to the past '' (that events occur at the same rate now as they have always done); many geologists now, however, no longer hold to a strict theory of gradualism. Coined by William Whewell, the word was proposed in contrast to catastrophism by British naturalists in the late 18th century, starting with the work of the geologist James Hutton in his many books including Theory of the Earth. Hutton 's work was later refined by scientist John Playfair and popularised by geologist Charles Lyell 's Principles of Geology in 1830. Today, Earth 's history is considered to have been a slow, gradual process, punctuated by occasional natural catastrophic events.
The earlier conceptions likely had little influence on 18th - century European geological explanations for the formation of Earth. Abraham Gottlob Werner (1749 -- 1817) proposed Neptunism, where strata represented deposits from shrinking seas precipitated onto primordial rocks such as granite. In 1785 James Hutton proposed an opposing, self - maintaining infinite cycle based on natural history and not on the Biblical account.
The solid parts of the present land appear in general, to have been composed of the productions of the sea, and of other materials similar to those now found upon the shores. Hence we find reason to conclude:
Hence we are led to conclude, that the greater part of our land, if not the whole had been produced by operations natural to this globe; but that in order to make this land a permanent body, resisting the operations of the waters, two things had been required;
Hutton then sought evidence to support his idea that there must have been repeated cycles, each involving deposition on the seabed, uplift with tilting and erosion, and then moving undersea again for further layers to be deposited. At Glen Tilt in the Cairngorm mountains he found granite penetrating metamorphic schists, in a way which indicated to him that the presumed primordial rock had been molten after the strata had formed. He had read about angular unconformities as interpreted by Neptunists, and found an unconformity at Jedburgh where layers of greywacke in the lower layers of the cliff face have been tilted almost vertically before being eroded to form a level plane, under horizontal layers of Old Red Sandstone. In the spring of 1788 he took a boat trip along the Berwickshire coast with John Playfair and the geologist Sir James Hall, and found a dramatic unconformity showing the same sequence at Siccar Point. Playfair later recalled that "the mind seemed to grow giddy by looking so far into the abyss of time '', and Hutton concluded a 1788 paper he presented at the Royal Society of Edinburgh, later rewritten as a book, with the phrase "we find no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end ''.
Both Playfair and Hall wrote their own books on the theory, and for decades robust debate continued between Hutton 's supporters and the Neptunists. Georges Cuvier 's paleontological work in the 1790s, which established the reality of extinction, explained this by local catastrophes, after which other fixed species repopulated the affected areas. In Britain, geologists adapted this idea into "diluvial theory '' which proposed repeated worldwide annihilation and creation of new fixed species adapted to a changed environment, initially identifying the most recent catastrophe as the biblical flood.
From 1830 to 1833 Charles Lyell 's multi-volume Principles of Geology was published. The work 's subtitle was "An attempt to explain the former changes of the Earth 's surface by reference to causes now in operation ''. He drew his explanations from field studies conducted directly before he went to work on the founding geology text, and developed Hutton 's idea that the earth was shaped entirely by slow - moving forces still in operation today, acting over a very long period of time. The terms uniformitarianism for this idea, and catastrophism for the opposing viewpoint, were coined by William Whewell in a review of Lyell 's book. Principles of Geology was the most influential geological work in the middle of the 19th century.
Geoscientists support diverse systems of Earth history, the nature of which rest on a certain mixture of views about process, control, rate, and state which are preferred. Because geologists and geomorphologists tend to adopt opposite views over process, rate and state in the inorganic world, there are eight different systems of beliefs in the development of the terrestrial sphere. All geoscientists stand by the principle of uniformity of law. Most, but not all, are directed by the principle of simplicity. All make definite assertions about the quality of rate and state in the inorganic realm.
According to Reijer Hooykaas (1963), Lyell 's uniformitarianism is a family of four related propositions, not a single idea:
None of these connotations requires another, and they are not all equally inferred by uniformitarians.
Gould explained Lyell 's propositions in Time 's Arrow, Time 's Cycle (1987), stating that Lyell conflated two different types of propositions: a pair of methodological assumptions with a pair of substantive hypotheses. The four together make up Lyell 's uniformitarianism.
Methodological assumptions
Substantive hypotheses
Stephen Jay Gould 's first scientific paper, Is uniformitarianism necessary? (1965), reduced these four assumptions to two. He dismissed the first principle, which asserted spatial and temporal invariance of natural laws, as no longer an issue of debate. He rejected the third (uniformity of rate) as an unjustified limitation on scientific inquiry, as it constrains past geologic rates and conditions to those of the present. So, Lyellian uniformitarianism was unnecessary.
Uniformitarianism was proposed in contrast to catastrophism, which states that the distant past "consisted of epochs of paroxysmal and catastrophic action interposed between periods of comparative tranquility '' Especially in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most geologists took this interpretation to mean that catastrophic events are not important in geologic time; one example of this is the debate of the formation of the Channeled Scablands due to the catastrophic Missoula glacial outburst floods. An important result of this debate and others was the re-clarification that, while the same principles operate in geologic time, catastrophic events that are infrequent on human time - scales can have important consequences in geologic history. Derek Ager has noted that "geologists do not deny uniformitarianism in its true sense, that is to say, of interpreting the past by means of the processes that are seen going on at the present day, so long as we remember that the periodic catastrophe is one of those processes. Those periodic catastrophes make more showing in the stratigraphical record than we have hitherto assumed. ''
Even Charles Lyell thought that ordinary geological processes would cause Niagara Falls to move upstream to Lake Erie within 10,000 years, leading to catastrophic flooding of a large part of North America.
Modern geologists do not apply uniformitarianism in the same way as Lyell. They question if rates of processes were uniform through time and only those values measured during the history of geology are to be accepted. The present may not be a long enough key to penetrate the deep lock of the past. Geologic processes may have been active at different rates in the past that humans have not observed. "By force of popularity, uniformity of rate has persisted to our present day. For more than a century, Lyell 's rhetoric conflating axiom with hypotheses has descended in unmodified form. Many geologists have been stifled by the belief that proper methodology includes an a priori commitment to gradual change, and by a preference for explaining large - scale phenomena as the concatenation of innumerable tiny changes. ''
The current consensus is that Earth 's history is a slow, gradual process punctuated by occasional natural catastrophic events that have affected Earth and its inhabitants. In practice it is reduced from Lyell 's conflation, or blending, to simply the two philosophical assumptions. This is also known as the principle of geological actualism, which states that all past geological action was like all present geological action. The principle of actualism is the cornerstone of paleoecology.
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