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what does the prefix meta mean in biology | Meta - Wikipedia
Meta (from the Greek preposition and prefix meta - (μετά -) meaning "after '', or "beyond '') is a prefix used in English to indicate a concept which is an abstraction behind another concept, used to complete or add to the latter.
In Greek, the prefix meta - is generally less esoteric than in English; Greek meta - is equivalent to the Latin words post - or ad -. The use of the prefix in this sense occurs occasionally in scientific English terms derived from Greek. For example: the term Metatheria (the name for the clade of marsupial mammals) uses the prefix meta - in the sense the Metatheria occur on the tree of life adjacent to the Theria (the placental mammals).
In epistemology, and often in common use, the prefix meta - is used to mean about (its own category). For example, metadata are data about data (who has produced them, when, what format the data are in and so on). In a database, metadata are also data about data stored in a data dictionary and describe information (data) about database tables such as the table name, table owner, details about columns, -- essentially describing the table. Also, metamemory in psychology means an individual 's knowledge about whether or not they would remember something if they concentrated on recalling it. The modern sense of "an X about X '' has given rise to concepts like "meta - cognition '' (i.e. cognition about cognition), "meta - emotion '' (i.e. emotion about emotion), "meta - discussion '' (i.e. discussion about discussion), "meta - joke '' (i.e. joke about jokes), and "metaprogramming '' (i.e. writing programs that manipulate programs).
In a rule - based system, a metarule is a rule governing the application of other rules.
Any subject can be said to have a metatheory, a theoretical consideration of its properties, such as its foundations, methods, form and utility, on a higher level of abstraction. In linguistics, a grammar is considered as being expressed in a metalanguage, language operating on a higher level to describe properties of the plain language (and not itself).
The prefix comes from the Greek preposition and prefix meta - (μετά -), from μετά, which meant "after '', "beside '', "with '', "among '' (with respect to the preposition, some of these meanings were distinguished by case marking). Other meanings include "beyond '', "adjacent '' and "self '', and it is also used in the form μητα - as a prefix in Greek, with variants μετ - before vowels and μεθ - "meth - '' before aspirated vowels.
The earliest form of the word "meta '' is the Mycenaean Greek me - ta, written in Linear B syllabic script. The Greek preposition is cognate with the Old English preposition mid "with '', still found as a prefix in midwife. Its use in English is the result of back - formation from the word "metaphysics ''. In origin Metaphysics was just the title of one of the principal works of Aristotle; it was so named (by Andronicus of Rhodes) because in the customary ordering of the works of Aristotle it was the book following Physics; it thus meant nothing more than "(the book that comes) after (the book entitled) Physics ''. However, even Latin writers misinterpreted this as entailing metaphysics constituted "the science of what is beyond the physical ''. Nonetheless, Aristotle 's Metaphysics enunciates considerations of natures above physical realities, which one can examine through this particular part of philosophy, e.g., the existence of God. The use of the prefix was later extended to other contexts based on the understanding of metaphysics to mean "the science of what is beyond the physical ''.
The Oxford English Dictionary cites uses of the meta - prefix as "beyond, about '' (such as meta - economics and meta - philosophy) going back to 1917. However, these formations are parallel to the original "metaphysics '' and "metaphysical '', that is, as a prefix to general nouns (fields of study) or adjectives. Going by the OED citations, it began being used with specific nouns in connection with mathematical logic sometime before 1929. (In 1920 David Hilbert proposed a research project in what was called "metamathematics. '')
A notable early citation is Quine 's 1937 use of the word "metatheorem '', where meta - has the modern meaning of "an X about X ''. (Note earlier uses of "meta - economics '' and even "metaphysics '' do not have this doubled conceptual structure -- they are about or beyond X but they do not themselves constitute an X).
Douglas Hofstadter, in his 1979 book Gödel, Escher, Bach (and in the sequel, Metamagical Themas), popularized this meaning of the term. The book, which deals with self - reference and strange loops, and touches on Quine and his work, was influential in many computer - related subcultures and may be responsible for the popularity of the prefix, for its use as a solo term, and for the many recent coinages which use it. Hofstadter uses meta as a stand - alone word, as an adjective and as a directional preposition ("going meta, '' a term he coins for the old rhetorical trick of taking a debate or analysis to another level of abstraction, as when somebody says "This debate is n't going anywhere ''). This book may also be responsible for the association of "meta '' with strange loops, as opposed to just abstraction. The sentence "This sentence contains thirty - six letters, '' and the sentence which embeds it, are examples of "metasentences '' referencing themselves in this way.
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who holds the record for most points in the premier league | Premier League records and Statistics - wikipedia
The top tier of English football was renamed the Premier League for the start of the 1992 -- 93 season. The following page details the football records and statistics of the Premier League.
This is a list of the top 10 youngest players to score a goal in the Premier League.
The all - time Premier League table is a cumulative record of all match results, points and goals of every team that has played in the Premier League since its inception in 1992. The table that follows is accurate as of the end of the 2017 -- 18 season. Teams in bold are part of the 2018 -- 19 Premier League. Numbers in bold are the record (highest either positive or negative) numbers in each column.
League or status at 2018 -- 19:
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abba thank you for the music doris day version | Thank You for the Music - wikipedia
"Thank You for the Music '' is a song by the Swedish pop group ABBA. It was originally featured on the group 's fifth studio album ABBA: The Album (1977), and was released as a single on 6 November 1983, to promote the Epic Records compilation album of the same name (similar compilations were released in other countries). The song "Our Last Summer '', which was originally featured on the group 's seventh studio album Super Trouper (1980), was the B - side. The song was simultaneously released in Ireland (as Epic were the licensees for both UK and Ireland), and later released in France (by Disques Vogue), with the same B - side but different artwork, and the Netherlands (by Polydor Records), with "Medley '' as the B - side (and again, different artwork).
"Thank You for the Music '' was also released as a B - side with "Eagle '' as the A-side in 1978, which itself was only released in limited territories, namely Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, France, Austria, Switzerland and Australia. It was released as an A-side single in South Africa where it peaked at number 2 in August 1978 and became the eighteenth best - selling single of that year.
The album version was recorded on 21 July 1977 at Glen Studio after a complete alternate version (known as "Thank You for the Music '' (Doris Day version)) was recorded on 2 June 1977 at Marcus Music Studio. The Doris Day version was first released on a box set of the same name on October 31, 1994. Agnetha Fältskog performed the lead vocals, with Anni - Frid Lyngstad joining in on the chorus. "Thank You for the Music '' was intended to form part of a "mini-musical '' called The Girl with the Golden Hair (a phrase which is featured in the song) that songwriters Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson included in ABBA 's 1977 tour. It was the opening track in the four - song musical, which also included "I Wonder (Departure) '', "I 'm a Marionette '' and "Get on the Carousel ''. The first three songs from the musical were featured on ABBA: The Album; the latter remains unreleased. "Thank You for the Music '' is better known in its own right today.
"Gracias por la Música '' is the Spanish - language recording of "Thank You for the Music '', with lyrics by Buddy and Mary McCluskey. The B - side was the Spanish - language version of "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight) '' entitled "¡ Dame! ¡ Dame! ¡ Dame! ''. The song was released in 1980 to promote the band 's Spanish - language album / compilation Gracias Por La Música. It was the group 's seventh best - selling Spanish single, and also peaked at number 4 in Argentina.
"Thank You for the Music '' also formed part of ABBA: The Movie which featured studio recordings of selected songs from the then newly released album ABBA: The Album. The song is included in the final scenes as the hapless journalist finally gets to broadcast his ABBA radio special, including an interview, on Australian radio. The song is accompanied by footage of a studio recording session, a live stage performance and a mimed studio performance by the four members of the group. The song also plays over the closing titles as the camera pans out from the band performing in a hut on an island in the Stockholm archipelago to views of the archipelago itself.
It was not released as a single in the United Kingdom and Ireland until late 1983, peaking at number 33 and number 17 respectively, despite being released in both a poster sleeve and a picture disc in addition to the regular version. The low chart placings could be attributed to ABBA 's declining popularity since their last Top 10 hit in 1981. Because of the song 's inclusion on ABBA: The Album and Greatest Hits Vol. 2 (both of which topped the UK charts), as well as being performed by the band during their world tours, it can be said that "Thank You for the Music '' had been heard by fans and the like many times up to this point. The title itself is often also taken to signal the end of ABBA, leading it to be considered a farewell song. In the Netherlands, the song peaked at number 38, but in France it could only manage number 58.
ABBA
Nobody does ABBA like ABBA. I realized that, as usual, Benny and Bjorn had done the definitive arrangement and all I 'd be doing was copying it; something I just do n't do, of course. It 's an outtake, never completed and in storage with the rest of the stuff in Pennsylvania.
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who plays joey in 10 things i hate about you | 10 Things I Hate About You - wikipedia
10 Things I Hate About You is a 1999 American teen romantic comedy - drama film directed by Gil Junger and starring Julia Stiles, Heath Ledger, Joseph Gordon - Levitt, and Larisa Oleynik. The screenplay, written by Karen McCullah and Kirsten Smith, is a loose modernization of William Shakespeare 's late - 16th century comedy The Taming of the Shrew, retold in a late - 1990s American high school setting. In the story, new student Cameron (Gordon - Levitt) is smitten with Bianca Stratford (Oleynik) and, in order to get around her father 's strict rules on dating, attempts to get bad boy Patrick (Ledger) to date Bianca 's ill - tempered sister, Kat Stratford (Stiles). The film is titled after a poem written by Kat about her bittersweet romance with Patrick. Much of the filming took place in the Seattle metropolitan area, with many scenes shot at Stadium High School in Tacoma.
Released March 31, 1999, 10 Things I Hate About You was number two at the domestic box office during its opening weekend, behind only The Matrix, and was a moderate financial and critical success. It was a breakthrough role for Stiles, Ledger, and Gordon - Levitt, all of whom were nominated for various teen - oriented awards. Ten years later, the film was adapted into a television series of the same title, which ran for twenty episodes and featured Larry Miller reprising his role as the father, Walter Stratford, from the film.
Cameron James, a new student at Padua High School in the Seattle area, becomes instantly smitten with popular sophomore Bianca Stratford. Geeky Michael Eckman warns him that Bianca is vapid and conceited, and that her overprotective father does not allow Bianca or her older sister, the shrewish Kat, to date. Kat, a senior, is accepted to Sarah Lawrence College in New York, but her father, Walter, wants her to stay close to home. Bianca wishes to date affluent senior Joey Donner, but Walter, an obstetrician worrisome of teenage pregnancy, will not allow his daughters to date until they graduate. Frustrated by Bianca 's insistence and Kat 's rebelliousness, Walter declares that Bianca may date only when Kat does, knowing that Kat 's antisocial attitude makes this unlikely.
When Cameron asks Bianca out, she informs him of her father 's new rule and, as a pretense for allowing her to date Joey, suggests that Cameron find someone willing to date Kat. Cameron selects "bad boy '' Patrick Verona, but Patrick scares him off. Michael assists by convincing Joey to pay Patrick to take out Kat, under the pretense that this will allow Joey to date Bianca. Patrick agrees to the deal, but Kat rebuffs his first few advances. Michael and Cameron help him by prying Bianca for information on Kat 's likes and dislikes. Armed with this knowledge, Patrick begins to win Kat 's interest. She goes to a party with him, which enables Bianca to go as well, much to Walter 's dismay.
At the party, Kat becomes upset when she sees Bianca with Joey, and responds by getting drunk. Patrick attends to her, and Kat starts to open up, expressing her interest in starting a band. However, when she tries to kiss him, Patrick pulls away and Kat leaves, infuriated. Meanwhile, Bianca ignores Cameron in favor of Joey, leaving Cameron dejected. Bianca soon realizes, however, that Joey is shallow and self - absorbed, and asks Cameron for a ride home. Cameron admits his feelings for her and his frustration with how she has treated him. Bianca responds by kissing him.
Joey offers to pay Patrick to take Kat to the prom so he can take Bianca. Patrick initially refuses, but relents when Joey offers him more money. Kat is still angry with Patrick, but he wins her over by serenading her with the accompaniment of the marching band, and she helps him sneak out of detention. They go on a date which turns romantic, but Kat becomes suspicious and angry when Patrick insists that she go with him to the prom, an event she is adamantly against. Bianca is irritated that Cameron has not asked her to the prom, and so accepts Joey 's invitation, but Walter will not allow it unless Kat goes too. Kat confesses to Bianca that she dated Joey when they were freshmen and, succumbing to peer pressure, had sex with him. Afterward she regretted it and Joey dumped her, so she vowed to never again do anything just because everyone else was doing it. Bianca insists that she can make her own choices, so Kat agrees to go to the prom with Patrick, and Bianca decides to go with Cameron instead of Joey.
All is going well at the prom until Bianca learns that Joey planned to have sex with her that night. Angry that Bianca has spurned him for Cameron, Joey reveals his arrangement with Patrick, which causes Kat to leave heartbroken. Joey then punches Cameron, but is in turn beaten up by Bianca for having hurt her, Kat, and Cameron. Bianca and Cameron share another kiss.
The next day, Bianca reconciles with Kat and begins dating Cameron. Walter admits that Kat is capable of taking care of herself, and gives her permission to attend Sarah Lawrence College. For an assignment in which the students were required to write their own version of William Shakespeare 's Sonnet 141, Kat reads aloud a poem titled "10 Things I Hate About You '', revealing that she still loves Patrick. Patrick surprises her with a guitar bought with the money that Joey paid him, and confesses that he has fallen for her. Kat forgives him, and the two reconcile with a kiss.
Many of the scenes were filmed on location at Stadium High School and at a house in the Proctor District of Tacoma, Washington. The prom sequence was shot over three days in Seattle.
Costume designer Kim Tillman designed original dresses for Larisa Oleynik and Julia Stiles as well as the period outfits for Susan May Pratt and David Krumholtz. Gabrielle Union 's snakeskin prom dress is a Betsey Johnson design. Heath Ledger and Joseph Gordon - Levitt 's vintage tuxes came from Isadora 's in Seattle.
The primary tagline is an allusion to a poem written by Elizabeth Barrett Browning from her Sonnets from the Portuguese collection. ("How do I loathe thee? Let me count the ways. '') Another tagline is a spoof from Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet ("Romeo, Oh Romeo, Get Out Of My Face. '') and another is a line from The Taming of the Shrew that is spoken in the film by Cameron ("I burn, I pine, I perish! ''). The original script was finalized on November 12, 1997.
In its opening weekend, the film grossed US $8,330,681 in 2,271 theaters in the United States and Canada, averaging $3,668 per venue, and ranking number two at the box office (behind The Matrix). It grossed a total of $38,178,166 in the United States and Canada and $15,300,000 in other territories, about $53,500,000 worldwide. The film had an estimated budget of $16 million and is considered a moderate financial and critical success. On October 12, 1999, the Region 1 DVD was released. In the box office, the film is number ten in teen romance, 18th in high school comedies, and ranked 96th in comedies.
The film received generally positive feedback from critics. Geoff Andrew from Time Out praised the film 's leads, stating "Stiles grows into her character, and Ledger is effortlessly charming ''. Brad Laidman from Film Threat said the film was "pure of heart and perfectly executed. '' Ron Wells, another critic from Film Threat, expressed, "Of all the teen films released this year, this one is, by far, the best. '' Roger Ebert gave the film two and a half stars out of four:
Entertainment Weekly listed the film at # 49 on its list of Best High School Movies.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film got a 61 % from critics, based on 62 reviews, with a rating of 6.1 / 10. The website 's critical consensus was: "Julia Stiles and Heath Ledger add strong performances to an unexpectedly clever script, elevating 10 Things (slightly) above typical teen fare. ''
10 Things I Hate About You was a breakthrough role for stars Stiles, Ledger, and Gordon - Levitt. Gordon - Levitt, Stiles, and Oleynik each received Young Star Award nominations for Best Actor / Actress in a Comedy Film. The movie was nominated for seven Teen Choice Awards: Choice Movie: Breakout Star (Stiles), Choice Movie: Comedy, Choice Movie: Funniest Scene (featuring Krumholtz), Choice Movie: Love Scene (featuring Stiles and Ledger), Choice Movie: Hissy Fit (Gordon - Levitt), Choice Movie: Villain (Gordon - Levitt) and Choice Movie: Soundtrack. The film 's casting directors Marcia Ross and Donna Morong won "Best Casting for Feature Film, Comedy '' at the Casting Society of America in 1999. In 2000, Stiles won the CFCA Award for "Most Promising Actress '' for her role as Kat Stratford (tied with Émilie Dequenne in Rosetta) and an MTV Movie Award for Breakthrough Female Performance. The same year, Ledger was nominated for Best Musical Performance for the song "Ca n't Take My Eyes Off You. ''
The soundtrack album features popular modern rock anthems from 1970s up to the late 1990s, including various covers from Letters to Cleo, who created modernised renditions of songs such as "I Want You To Want Me '' by Cheap Trick and "Cruel to Be Kind '' by Nick Lowe. The albums peak position in the Billboard (magazine) charts was 52nd, which was just after its release and it managed to hold a place in the Billboard top 200 for a total of 27 weeks. Artists such as The Notorious B.I.G. and Joan Jett were also used in the films soundtrack, although were not featured on the soundtrack album. The album was described by AllMusic as "One of the best modern rock soundtracks of the spring 1999 season ''.
In June 1999, the Scholastic Corporation published a novelization of the story, adapted by David Levithan. The story is retold as it is in the film with each chapter written from the point of view of either Bianca, Cameron, Kat, Patrick, or Michael.
In October 2008, ABC Family ordered a pilot episode of 10 Things I Hate About You, a half - hour, single - camera comedy series based on the feature film of the same name. Larry Miller is the only actor from the film to reprise his role in the television series. The director of the film, Gil Junger, directed many of the episodes including the pilot while the film 's music composer, Richard Gibbs, also returned to do the show 's music. The series was adapted and produced by Carter Covington. The show premiered on July 7, 2009, and lasted 20 episodes.
The film is a retelling of William Shakespeare 's play The Taming of the Shrew in an American high school setting. Screenwriters Karen McCullah and Kirsten Smith also wrote the script for She 's the Man (2006), a retelling of Shakespeare 's play Twelfth Night set in an American college.
Kat and Bianca share the same names as the female leads in the original play. Their surname is Stratford, a nod to Shakespeare 's birthplace. Patrick 's surname Verona references the home of his relative character Petruchio. The characters attend Padua High School, named after where the play is set.
Cameron (Lucentio, who disguises himself as a tutor named Cambio) tutors Bianca in French and slips in a line from play while obsessing over her: "I burn, I pine, I perish ''. Patrick 's character reflects the outlandish behavior of Petruchio, and Michael coerces Patrick into the marching band incident with the words from Sonnet 56: "Sweet love, renew thy force ''. The physicality of Petruchio and Katherina is transformed into a playful paintball match; the prom substitutes for the Act V feast; Kat 's poem replaces Katherina 's famous Act V speech; and Joey Donner 's wager over Bianca 's virginity parallels the bet placed by Shakespeare 's husbands regarding their partners ' obedience.
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first season cast of orange is the new black | Orange Is the New Black - Wikipedia
Orange Is the New Black (sometimes abbreviated to OITNB) is an American comedy - drama web television series created by Jenji Kohan for Netflix. The series is based on Piper Kerman 's memoir, Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women 's Prison (2010), about her experiences at FCI Danbury, a minimum - security federal prison. Orange Is the New Black premiered on July 11, 2013 on the streaming service Netflix. In February 2016, the series was renewed for a fifth, sixth, and seventh season. The fifth season was released on June 9, 2017. The series is produced by Tilted Productions in association with Lionsgate Television.
Orange Is the New Black has become Netflix 's most - watched original series. It has received critical acclaim and many accolades. For its first season, the series garnered 12 Primetime Emmy Award nominations, including Outstanding Comedy Series, Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series, and Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series, winning three. A new Emmy rule in 2015 forced the series to change categories from comedy to drama. For its second season, the series received four Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, and Uzo Aduba won for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series. Orange Is the New Black is the first series to score Emmy nominations in both comedy and drama categories. The series has also received six Golden Globe Award nominations, six Writers Guild of America Award nominations, a Producers Guild of America Award, an American Film Institute award, and a Peabody Award.
The series revolves around Piper Chapman (Taylor Schilling), a woman in her 30s living in New York City who is sentenced to 15 months in Litchfield Penitentiary, a minimum - security women 's federal prison (initially operated by the "Federal Department of Corrections, '' a fictional version of the Federal Bureau of Prisons, and later acquired by Management & Correction Corporation (MCC), a private prison company) in upstate New York. Piper had been convicted of transporting a suitcase full of drug money for her girlfriend Alex Vause (Laura Prepon), an international drug smuggler. The offense had ocurred 10 years prior to the start of the series and in that time Piper had moved on to a quiet, law - abiding life among New York 's upper middle class. Her sudden and unexpected indictment severely disrupted her relationships with her fiancé, family and friends.
In prison, Piper is reunited with Alex (who named Piper in her trial, resulting in Piper 's arrest) and they re-examine their relationship. Simultaneously, Piper must learn how to survive in prison and how to overcome its numerous, inherent struggles. Episodes often feature flashbacks of significant events from various inmates ' and prison guards ' pasts. These flashbacks typically explain how the inmate came to be in prison or develop the character 's backstory.
The show pays close attention to how corruption, drug smuggling, funding cuts, overcrowding and guard brutality affect the prisoners ' health and well - being and the prison 's basic ability to fulfil its fundamental responsibilities and ethical obligations as a federal corrections institution. One of the show 's key conflicts involves the prison Director of Human Activities, Joe Caputo, whose efforts and aims as a warden constantly conflict with the business interests of MCC, which acquired the facility when it was about to be shut down.
Show creator Jenji Kohan read Piper Kerman 's memoir after a friend sent it to her. She then set up a meeting with Kerman to pitch her on a TV adaptation, which she notes she "screwed up '' as she spent most of the time asking Kerman about her experiences she described in the book rather than selling her on the show. This appealed to Kerman as it let her know that she was a fan and she signed off on the adaptation. Kohan would later go on to describe the main character, Piper Chapman, as a "trojan horse '' for the series, allowing it to focus on characters whose demographics would not normally be represented on TV.
In July 2011, it was revealed that Netflix was in negotiations with Lionsgate for a 13 - episode TV adaptation of Kerman 's memoirs with Kohan as creator. In November 2011, negotiations were finalized and the series had been greenlit. Casting announcements began in August 2012 with Taylor Schilling, the first to be cast, in the lead role as Piper Chapman, followed by Jason Biggs as Piper 's fiancé Larry Bloom.
Laura Prepon and Yael Stone were next to join the series. Abigail Savage, who plays Gina, and Alysia Reiner, who plays Fig, had auditioned for role of Alex Vause. Prepon initially auditioned for Piper Chapman, however Kohan felt she would not worry about her (in prison), noting a "toughness and a presence to her that was n't right for the character. '' Kohan instead gave her the role of Alex. Stone had originally auditioned for the role of Nicky Nichols, but she was not considered "tough enough '' for the character; she was asked to audition for Lorna Morello instead. Likability was important for Morello, whom casting director Jen Euston deemed "a very helpful, nice, sweet Italian girl. '' Laverne Cox, a black transgender woman, was cast as Sophia Burset, a transgender character. The Advocate touted Orange Is the New Black as possibly the first women - in - prison narrative to cast a transgender woman for this type of role. Natasha Lyonne was to audition for Alex, but was asked to read for the character Nicky Nichols; "(Kohan knew) she could do Nicky with her eyes closed. She was perfect, '' said Euston. Uzo Aduba read for the part of Janae Watson but was offered the character Suzanne "Crazy Eyes '' Warren. Taryn Manning was offered the role of Tiffany "Pennsatucky '' Doggett. This American Life host Ira Glass was offered a role as a public radio host, but he declined. The role instead went to Robert Stanton, who plays the fictional host Maury Kind.
The series is set in a fictional prison in Litchfield, New York, which is a real town in upstate New York, but it does not have a federal penitentiary. The series began filming in the old Rockland Children 's Psychiatric Center in Rockland County, New York, on March 7, 2013. The title sequence features photos of real former female prisoners including Kerman herself.
On June 27, 2013, prior to the series premiere, Netflix renewed the show for a second season consisting of 13 episodes. For the second season, Uzo Aduba, Taryn Manning, Danielle Brooks, and Natasha Lyonne were promoted to series regulars. Laura Prepon did not return as a series regular for a second season because of scheduling conflicts, but returned for season 3 as a regular. On May 5, 2014, the series was renewed for a third season, as revealed by actress Laura Prepon. For the third season, several actors were promoted to series regulars, including Selenis Leyva, Adrienne C. Moore, Dascha Polanco, Nick Sandow, Yael Stone, and Samira Wiley. Both Jason Biggs and Pablo Schreiber were confirmed as not returning for the third season, but Schreiber appeared in the 10th episode of the third season. The series was renewed for a fourth season on April 15, 2015, prior to its third - season premiere. For the fourth season, Jackie Cruz and Lea DeLaria were promoted to series regulars; with Elizabeth Rodriguez also being promoted by the season 's sixth episode. On February 5, 2016, the series was renewed for a fifth, sixth and seventh season.
Orange Is the New Black has received critical acclaim, particularly praised for humanizing prisoners and for its depiction of race, sexuality, gender and body types.
The first season received positive reviews from critics, review aggregator Metacritic gave it a weighted average score of 79 out of 100 based on reviews from 32 critics, indicating favorable reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, season one has a 93 % approval rating based on 40 reviews, with an average rating of 8.2 out of 10. The site 's critical consensus is "Orange Is the New Black is a sharp mix of black humor and dramatic heft, with interesting characters and an intriguing flashback structure. ''
Hank Stuever, television critic for The Washington Post, gave Orange Is the New Black a perfect score. In his review of the series, he stated: "In Jenji Kohan 's magnificent and thoroughly engrossing new series, Orange Is the New Black, prison is still the pits. But it is also filled with the entire range of human emotion and stories, all of which are brought vividly to life in a world where a stick of gum could ignite either a romance or a death threat. '' Maureen Ryan, of The Huffington Post, wrote: "Orange is one of the best new programs of the year, and the six episodes I 've seen have left me hungry to see more. ''
The second season also received critical acclaim. Rotten Tomatoes gave a rating of 98 %, with an average rating of 9.1 out of 10 based on 42 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads: "With a talented ensemble cast bringing life to a fresh round of serial drama, Orange Is the New Black 's sophomore season lives up to its predecessor 's standard for female - led television excellence. Metacritic gave the second season a score of 89 out of 100 based on 31 critics, indicating "universal acclaim. '' David Wiegland of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the season a positive review, calling the first six episodes "not only as great as the first season, but arguably better. ''
The third season received critical acclaim. On Metacritic, it has a score of 83 out of 100 based on 24 reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 96 % rating with an average score of 8.2 out of 10 based on 53 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Thanks to its blend of potent comedy and rich character work, Orange is the New Black remains a bittersweet pleasure in its third season. ''
The fourth season received critical acclaim. On Metacritic, it has a score of 86 out of 100 based on 19 reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 95 % rating with an average score of 8.6 out of 10 based on 39 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Orange is the New Black is back and better than ever, with a powerful fourth season full of compelling performances by the ensemble cast. '' James Poniewozik of The New York Times reviewed the fourth season as "Do you measure the quality of a TV season as a beginning - to - end average or by how well it ends? By the first yardstick, Season 4 is ambitious but uneven; by the latter, it 's the series ' best. ''
The fifth season has received "generally favorable reviews ''. On Metacritic, it has a score of 67 out of 100 based on 20 reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 76 % rating with an average score of 7.47 out of 10 based on 33 reviews.
Orange Is the New Black has received many accolades since its debut. The series has garnered 16 Emmy Award nominations and four wins. For its first season, it received 12 Emmy Award nominations, including Outstanding Comedy Series, Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series, and Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series, winning three. Taylor Schilling received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actress in a Television Series -- Drama. In 2013, the American Film Institute selected the series as one of the Top 10 Television Programs of the Year.
A new Emmy rule in 2015, classifying half - hour shows as comedies and hour - long shows as dramas, forced the series to change categories from comedy to drama for its second season. That year, the series received four Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, and Aduba won her second Emmy Award, for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series. Orange Is the New Black became the first series to receive Emmy nominations in both comedy and drama categories. For its second season, the series also received three Golden Globe Award nominations: Best Television Series -- Musical or Comedy, Best Actress -- Television Series Musical or Comedy for Schilling, and Best Supporting Actress -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film for Aduba. At the 21st Screen Actors Guild Awards, the series won Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series and Aduba won Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series.
For its third season, Orange Is the New Black won Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series and Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series (Aduba). It received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Television Series -- Musical or Comedy. The series has also received, among other accolades, six Writers Guild of America Award nominations, five Satellite Awards, four Critics ' Choice Television Awards, a GLAAD Media Award, an American Cinema Editors Award, a Producers Guild of America Award, and a Peabody Award.
The series began airing on broadcast television in New Zealand on TV2 on August 19, 2013. It premiered in Australia on October 9, 2013, on Showcase. The second season began on Showcase on July 16, 2014, and the third season premiered on June 11, 2015. The first season began airing on broadcast television in the UK on Sony Channel from April 19, 2017.
In April 2017, it was reported that a cybercriminal had stolen the first ten episodes of the fifth season in a security breach of a post-production company. Netflix failed to respond to ransom demands, and the cybercriminal leaked the episodes online. Netflix confirmed the security breach and an ongoing investigation by federal law enforcement. Multichannel News reported that demand for the series significantly increased over the seven - day period following the leak of the episodes. It was also said that the leak would likely cause a decrease in demand for the fifth season when Netflix releases it in June.
Orange Is the New Black generated more viewers and hours viewed in its first week than the other Netflix original series House of Cards and Arrested Development. In October 2013, Netflix stated that the show is a "tremendous success '' for the streaming platform. "It will end the year as our most watched original series ever and, as with each of our other previously launched originals, enjoys an audience comparable with successful shows on cable and broadcast TV. '' As reported in February 2016, Orange Is the New Black remains Netflix 's most - watched original series. In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Orange Is the New Black is one of the shows most watched in urban areas, and despite its "minority - rich ensemble cast, '' the series "appeals more to a white audience. ''
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who was the first choice to play sonam kapoor's hero in raanjhanaa | Raanjhanaa - wikipedia
Raanjhanaa (English: Beloved One) is a 2013 Indian romantic drama film directed by Anand L. Rai and written by Himanshu Sharma. The film is produced by Krishika Lulla under the banner Eros International. It stars Dhanush, in his Bollywood debut, Sonam Kapoor and Abhay Deol in lead roles. The film was released on 21 June 2013 worldwide, while the dubbed Tamil version titled Ambikapathy was released a week later. The dialogues for the Tamil version was written by John Mahendran.
The background score and songs were composed by A.R. Rahman. The Hindi lyrics of the tracks were penned by Irshad Kamil, whereas the Tamil lyrics were written by Vairamuthu. Devansh Bhatnagar debuted in this movie as a junior artist in this movie.
Within a week of release, the film 's collections reached ₹ 34.9 crore (US $5.4 million) domestic nett. The film was declared a hit by Box Office India. Post four weeks of its run, the film grossed over ₹ 135 crore (US $21 million) worldwide.
Kundan Shankar (Dhanush) is the only son of a Tamil Hindu parents settled in Varanasi. Since his childhood, Kundan has had a strong and obsessive one - sided love for Zoya Haider (Sonam Kapoor), a Muslim girl residing in the same neighborhood. He always attempts to be around her but gets slapped several times in the process. Zoya finally changes her mind because of Kundan 's consistency of affection. Her family is orthodox, preventing the lovers from being together. After Zoya moves to Aligarh for further studies, Kundan harmonizes with Zoya 's family, assisting them with chores. Zoya gets into Jawaharlal Nehru University and discovers a long - lost strength as she confronts and then falls for student leader Akram Zaidi (Abhay Deol).
After eight years, Zoya returns to Varanasi, barely recognizing Kundan when she meets him again. Kundan again attempts to ask Zoya for her love but she is reluctant, revealing that she is in love with Akram. She urges Kundan to convince her family about her marriage with Akram. Kundan eventually agrees and gets their wedding arranged, promising Zoya that he will also marry someone else and forget her. He proposes to his childhood friend Bindiya (Swara Bhaskar), who has had a crush on him since childhood.
On the day of Zoya 's marriage, Kundan finds out that Akram is a Sikh, whose actual name is Jasjeet Singh Shergill. This enrages him, as Zoya had used their religious differences to convince him that their match was not possible. He crashes the wedding ceremony and reveals the truth to Zoya 's parents. Kundan is later informed that Zoya tried to commit suicide, and Jasjeet was mercilessly beaten by Zoya 's relatives. At the hospital, Jasjeet tells Kundan that Zoya convinced him to portray himself as Muslim to marry her, a plan he should not have agreed to. While with Jasjeet, Kundan forgets about his own marriage ceremony with Bindiya, taking place that day, and is too late when he returns. Hurt and angry, Kundan 's family disowns him. Jasjeet 's parents take him back to his village. Kundan tries to redeem himself by taking Zoya to Jasjeet 's village. There, he is devastated to find that Jasjeet has succumbed to his injuries, finally understanding that his one - sided love has resulted in an innocent man 's death.
Kundan becomes a homeless vagrant and begins visiting various religious places and volunteering in their activities so that he can atone for his sins. During one such visit, a man advises him to do the right thing rather than run away from his sins. Motivated, Kundan locates Zoya to her university, where she is spearheading the political party "All India Citizen Party '' (AICP), that had been created by Jasjeet. Kundan joins the nearby canteen and serves the party, while trying to get Zoya 's attention. Over time, he becomes popular with the party due to his simple nature. They 're also impressed when Kundan helps them in negotiating some tough situations by using his simplistic witty tricks. However, Zoya holds a grudge that the person who is responsible for Jasjeet 's death is now taking his place. She tries to instigate party members against Kundan but Jasjeet 's sister Rashmi (Shilpi Marwaha) tells Kundan to continue, as he is the best choice for fulfilling Jasjeet 's vision.
Kundan, however, only wants Zoya to forgive him. The Chief Minister tells Zoya that she must get revenge on Kundan. To get back Jasjeet 's position, she tells Zoya to let Kundan get injured as he delivers his campaign speech. Zoya apparently seems to get brainwashed by this plan and as the Chief Minister desired, Kundan is hurt badly and sent to ICU, thus fulfilling Zoya 's revenge.
At a press meet, the Chief Minister denies having any hand in the blast that hurt Kundan. However, Zoya steps forward and reveals that the plan was plotted by her and the Chief Minister and that she is prepared to go to prison for this. Zoya then finds out that Kundan was aware of the plot and still let himself be injured. Shocked, she rushes to the hospital to be with him.
In a final voiceover, a dying Kundan wonders about letting go. He says he might have the desire to live again if Zoya called out to him, but then again, everything has become so tiring, he would rather let go and rest (euphemism for dying). He says that he can be born again and again in the same Varanasi, fall in love with a girl like Zoya again, and become a Raanjhanaa (Beloved one) in her love. Then he slowly dies.
In late 2011, Shahid Kapoor and Sonakshi Sinha were signed as the lead pair for the film. Apparently, they dropped out of the project because of Prabhudeva 's next R... Rajkumar. In late January 2012, actor Dhanush, making his Bollywood debut, signed onto the film for the character of Kundan. The actor reportedly underwent training for fluency in Hindi language to obtain the role. Actress Sonam Kapoor was signed on for the role of the female lead after March 2012. In April 2012, the actress and the director visited the JNU Campus of Delhi for the former to imbibe more for her role. Sonam Kapoor also attended acting workshops with prominent theatre director Arvind Gaur to learn the nuances of street theatre. The director chose to cast actors who could also play younger versions of themselves. In an interview the director stated the film was an intense love story, and its characters would travel to Delhi, Punjab and Chennai, and that actor Abhay Deol would be seen in a special appearance in the film. Urmila Sharma, well known for her Hindi TV serial roles was signed to play the character of Kundan 's mother in the film. Initially, Aditi Rao Hydari was supposed to play the role of Kundan 's childhood friend but she opted out due to lack of availability, being replaced by Swara Bhaskar.
Actor Dhanush plays the character Kundan who has a deep passion for his city Banaras and Zoya. It depicts him a young boy and a teen who turns into a sensitive adult. Sonam Kapoor quoted her character as, "' Zoya ' is childlike and unpredictable. She can be cold and at the same time, objective. She has every quality that makes her desirable to a man. '' In an interview, Kapoor revealed that for playing the role of a school girl in the film, she drew inspiration from the character Jaya Bachchan played in the 1971 film Guddi. Actor Abhay Deol as Akram plays a secure yet confident university student, socialist and a budding politician.
After main casting announcements, filming was substantially delayed; the reason was speculated to be composer A.R. Rahman 's music being denied outright by the film director. Filming officially began in Varanasi, India in early September 2012 and continued for 40 days in and around the city. As per reports, the leading duo were also seen playing the role of 17 - year - old teenagers. In mid-September 2012, the schedule of filming was put on hold as actor Dhanush fell ill on the sets in Varanasi. While filming in October 2012, the actor injured his shoulder during the filming of an action sequence for his Tamil outing Maryan. The consequences led to the scheduled shooting of dance sequences to be postponed and were shot in Varanasi on 19 December 2012. On 4 November 2012, Sonam Kapoor and Abhay Deol shot the song "Tu Mun Shudi '' at India Gate, Delhi, and their dialogue scenes were shot at the Indian Institute of Mass Communication campus in Delhi by early December 2012. Permission to shoot inside was denied to the director by the college authorities. So, the unit shot some scenes in Amity International School, Noida. To avoid footage leaks, over a hundred potential crew members were made present at the filming venue. Certain filming was also done in Gurgaon and Faridabad. The title track of the film was shot on 27 December 2012. The final schedule of filming began in Delhi on 7 January 2013. In March 2013, the film 's crew shot several scenes at the Pataudi Palace in Haryana over two days.
The music and the background score for the film was composed by A.R. Rahman. The soundtrack 's original version has lyrics penned by Irshad Kamil whereas the Tamil version by Vairamuthu. In an interview with Hindustan Times, Rahman stated that he had emphasised the folk - classical genre as the film brings out a fascination for Benaras through the music and hence, most of the songs are character - driven. In all, the soundtrack album has nine original tracks. The original version of the soundtrack was released on the co-branded record labels Sony Music and Eros Music on 31 May 2013 and the Tamil version on 19 June 2013. The soundtrack received positive critical reception on release.
On 10 May 2013, a grand event was held at a set resembling Varanasi at Film City in Goregaon, Mumbai. The lead actors made their entry riding a chariot and performed the title track of the film. The producer stated that the event was promoted in Banarasi style so as to represent the essence of the film and its setting. The film 's music was promoted at the Radio Mirchi Studios in Mumbai on 27 May 2013. Dressed in typical South Indian attire, Dhanush and Sonam Kapoor promoted the Tamil version of Raanjhanaa in Chennai. The leading duo promoted their film in Mumbai, Delhi, Ahmedabad, Lucknow and Jaipur from mid-May to June 2013.
The first look of the characters in the film was revealed as a poster with no credits and film name on the day of Holi 2013. The first theatrical trailer was released on 24 April 2013. The Hindi version of the film released worldwide on 21 June 2013 with the estimated number of release screens being 1,000. The film opened to an occupancy of 50 -- 55 %, the highest compared to other Bollywood films that released on the same date.
Critic Komal Nahta responded positively and said, "On the whole, Raanjhanaa is an interesting, entertaining and a fairly different love story. It is like heady wine and its effect will only grow. '' Rajeev Masand of CNN - IBN wrote, "For its immensely entertaining first half, a winning score by AR Rahman, but most of all for Dhanush, this is a film that 's worth your time. I 'm going with three out of five for Raanjhanaa. It 's not perfect, but it 'll do. '' Resham Sengar of Zee News gave the film 4 out of 5 stars and summarised "Raanjhanaa is a love story that does not fall within the confines of a clichéd Bollywood romance. '' Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave the film 3.5 out of 5 and stated, "On the whole, Raanjhanaa encompasses romance and myriad emotions most wonderfully, besides bravura performances and a popular musical score from the maestro. '' Adarsh also called it "a film that touches the core of your heart '' and said it was "definitely worthy of a watch ''. At NDTV, Saibal Chatterjee gave it 3.5 / 5 and opined in the review, "The film defies the expectations of the audience at several crucial junctures and holds out absolutely no apologies for springing abrupt surprises. A love story with a huge difference that benefits no end from a clutch of exceptional performances. '' Sukanya Verma of Rediff Movies gave 3 out of 5 stars and claimed, "Raanjhanaa is n't easy viewing. Kundan and Zoya are n't easily likeable. They have flaws. They make mistakes. Blunders, really but Rai shows them for what they are; he never paints a pretty picture. And this brutal honesty coupled with a commanding Dhanush is what works. '' Meena Iyer of The Times of India claimed, "Raanjhanaa is a love story that has a Shakespearean touch and is mounted on a lavish scale ''. She noted, "You may not like this film if you can not digest brooding love stories '', and gave it 3.5 out of 5. Kaushik Rmesh of Planet Bollywood gave the film an 8 on 10 and summarised, "A realistic romance that brims with impressive elements (including and especially the enchanting music), Raanjhanaa is surely a winner at the end and must be watched for its unconventional handling and freshness ''.
Nabanita of One India gave the film 3.5 out of 5 and wrote, "Raanjhanaa works, and yes, the movie has maximum possibilities to strike the right chords amongst the audience, only and only because of Dhanush and his heart - touching performance. '' Rachit Gupta of Filmfare called the film a "great love story '' and concluded, "Grab a ticket, clutch the hand of your loved one and go fall in love. This time with great cinema ''. Critics at Indicine gave a score of 65 out of 100 and summarised, "The intentions of Aanand L Rai seem genuine. He wants to show us the world where he grew up in, wants to romanticize the feeling of nostalgia and unrequited love. '' Tushar Joshi writes for DNA India, "Raanjhanaa works because of Dhanush 's ability to make you believe in his love for Zoya. You might not agree with his approach, but deep down you cheer and root for him each time Zoya plants a slap on his face. '' At Deccan Chronicle, Khalid Mohamed mentioned, "Raanjhanaa: Playing ping pong with love '', and gave it three stars out of five. India Today rated the film 3 / 5 and judged, "Raanjhanaa harks back to the way Bollywood used to make love stories once upon a time. With some imagination, the effect would have been nostalgic, too. '' Shubha Shetty Saha of Mid-Day assigned 3.5 / 5 to the film and praised actor Dhanush and stated, "And then the second half is when the pace dips, the sincerity of the storyline gets somewhat hazy and the film gets wee bit disappointing. An absolutely believable one - sided romance takes a slightly deceptive political drama twist and I am not sure if that is what you wanted it to be. It is unpredictable, yes, but not in a great, believable way. '' At Mumbai Mirror, Karan Anshuman pointed, "Raanjhanaa flows like good poetry. It is arguably the best love story of the year so far, the kind of film others in the genre should aspire. ''.
On the contrary to above, critic Mayank Shekhar wrote, "His (Dhanush) character is supposed to be gifted with great inter-personal skills. It does n't quite show. '' Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express gave it 2.5 out of 5 and mentioned, "Raanjhanaa is a film which is all of a piece in its engaging first half, and a good Bollywood launchpad for Dhanush. Makes me want to see what he will do in his second pass. '' At Emirates 24 / 7, Sneha May Francis said, "While music maestro AR Rahman tunes the track, and leaves us occasionally cheerful, the moments are far too few to erase the horrid after effects of this movie. '' Critic Manohar Basu at Koimoi stated, "However a sluggish screenplay and lurching script makes Raanjhanaa a half baked effort and hence gets a 3 / 5 from me. '' Sudhish Kamath of The Hindu concluded, "A dream debut for Dhanush even if the film gets stuck in its messy political subtext that kills the romance. ''
At The Hollywood Reporter, Lisa Tsering left the film unrated and asserted, "The fact that the film marks the Hindi - language debut of South Indian star and YouTube superstar Dhanush is bound to draw interest at the box office, though Rai 's firm refusal to play by the rules of the typical Bollywood love story may make it hard to sustain momentum. ''
The Central Board of Film Censors (CFBC) banned the film before its scheduled release in Pakistan. Chief executive officer of IMGC Global Entertainment Amjad Rasheed, the importer of Raanjhanaa, revealed that he received a letter from the CBFC with directives to shelve the film 's release which stated that the film portrays an inapt image of a Muslim girl (played by Sonam Kapoor) falling in love with a Hindu man and having an affair with him.
The first - day collection was estimated at ₹ 81.5 million (US $1.3 million). The film performed well at multiplexes outside the metros in places like Indore, Kanpur, Banaras, regions of CP Berar, Central India and states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan. On its opening day, it grossed more than 500,000 in the city of Lucknow itself. On Saturday, a day just after release, collections rose to ₹ 68.0 million (US $1.1 million). The film had a growth rate of 40 -- 45 %, making its total first weekend collection ₹ 201 million (US $3.1 million). Within a week of its release, its gross surpassed ₹ 340 million (US $5.3 million) and Box Office India declared it a "Hit ''. After two weeks of release, the film had collected ₹ 520 million (US $8.1 million) at the box office. Raanjhanaa also had the fourth - highest second week collections of the year 2013. It grossed Rs 75 million in its third week, taking its total domestic overall collections to ₹ 600 million (US $9.4 million) and worldwide collections nearing to a remarkable mark and becoming the second highest - grosser of 2013 at the time of its release. The film ended its run with an estimated ₹ 915 million (US $14 million).
Raanjhanaa grossed around ₹ 15.0 million (US $230,000) internationally on its first weekend. Its first weekend gross in the United Kingdom amounted to £ 72,000, while in North America it made $415,000. The film collected $145,000 in the UAE and $46,000 in Australia. Raanjhanaa also grossed $1.55 million in ten days. Further, the film receded its total collections and dropped around $1.8 million by 17 July 2013.
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taylor swift ft. kendrick lamar - bad blood | Bad Blood (Taylor Swift song) - wikipedia
"Bad Blood '' is a song by American singer - songwriter Taylor Swift, from her fifth studio album 1989 (2014). Swift co-wrote the song with its producers Max Martin and Shellback, with a remixed version featuring additional writing and guest vocals from American rapper Kendrick Lamar. The Lamar version was released by Republic Records on May 17, 2015 as the fourth single from 1989. The lyrics of "Bad Blood '' describe betrayal by a close friend. The album version is the eighth track of 1989.
The song reached number one in Australia, Canada, Israel, New Zealand, Scotland, and the United States, becoming the third song from 1989 to do so. The accompanying music video was directed by Joseph Kahn and features an ensemble cast. The video previously held the 24 - Hour Vevo Record with 20.1 million views, before being surpassed by Adele 's "Hello ''. It won Video of the Year and Best Collaboration at the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards. The song received a nomination for Best Pop Duo / Group Performance while its music video won Best Music Video at the 58th Grammy Awards.
Swift co-wrote "Bad Blood '' about an undisclosed female musician. Swift says the artist attempted to sabotage one of her concert tours by hiring people who worked for her. Publications such as Billboard, Rolling Stone, Time, and The Washington Post have speculated that Katy Perry is the subject of the song. Daniel D'Addario for Time and Emily Yahr for The Washington Post noted parallels between "Bad Blood '' 's lyric "If you live like that, you live with ghosts '' and "Ghost '', a song from Perry 's 2013 album Prism. The album version of the song only contains Swift as the vocalist on verses, while the single version features a re-worked instrumental and guest vocals from rapper Kendrick Lamar on verses.
Jem Aswad of Billboard felt the song is "reminiscent of Gwen Stefani 's "Hollaback Girl ''. The Guardian 's Kitty Empire wrote that the song "faintly recalls Charli XCX with its stark beats. '' It is written in the key of G major, following a chord progression of C -- G -- D -- Em, and the tempo runs at 85 beats per minute. Swift 's vocals in the song span from E to E.
The album version received largely negative reviews from critics. Many described the song as "clichéd '' while also criticizing its writing, chorus, and production. Entertainment Weekly listed it as one of the best songs on the album.
In contrast, the remixed version of the song featuring guest vocals from Kendrick Lamar received acclaim from critics, with praise from music critics directed at Lamar 's guest verses and the reworked instrumental. George Seabrook of The Edge awarded the song four and half stars out of five, and called it "glorious '' and "intoxicating ''. He praised the song for "Lamar 's simple, brutally effective verses '' and acknowledged the collaboration as "not just one more meaningless stunt collaboration, but a powerful new duo ''.
"Bad Blood '' first charted on the US Billboard Hot 100 for two weeks in November 2014 and January 2015 as an album cut from 1989, peaking at number 78.
Following the music video premiere at the 2015 Billboard Music Awards, the remixed version of the song featuring Kendrick Lamar re-entered the chart at number 53 and number 26 on the Digital Songs Chart, selling 47,000 digital copies. The following week, the song topped the Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending May 24, 2015, selling 385,000 copies and jumping 52 positions, one of the largest jumps to the top spot in Billboard history. It became her fourth number one single and the third number one from 1989 (following "Shake It Off '' and "Blank Space ''), making Swift the first artist since Adele to yield three Hot 100 chart toppers from the same album; it is also her fourth consecutive top - 10 single from 1989. It also became her 18th top 10 single and Lamar 's second (also his first number - one single in the United States). It dropped to number two the week after, being replaced by Wiz Khalifa 's "See You Again '', where it stayed for five consecutive weeks. It spent another five consecutive weeks at number four, before leaving the top ten of the chart after thirteen consecutive weeks in it on September 5, 2015. By the end of 2015, the song had sold 2,584,000 digital copies in the US, becoming the tenth best selling single of the year. As of November 2017, the song has sold 3.1 million copies in the United States.
The music video was directed by Joseph Kahn, who previously directed the music video for the second single from 1989, "Blank Space ''. The video was filmed in Los Angeles on April 12, 2015, but is set in London. The music video was premiered on May 17, 2015, at the start of the Billboard Music Awards. Each actress chose her character 's name. Swift began teasing the video in May on Instagram by posting photos of each character.
The music video starts with Catastrophe (Taylor Swift) and her partner, Arsyn (Selena Gomez), fighting off a group of men wearing suits in an office in London, for a mysterious briefcase. When all of the men are defeated, Arsyn double crosses Catastrophe by stealing the briefcase in Catastrophe 's hand and kicking her out of a window. The song begins with Catastrophe lying on a broken car, as Welvin da Great (Kendrick Lamar) begins to rap his verse and Lucky Fiori (Lena Dunham) smokes a cigar. Catastrophe is shown being nursed back to health by a trio of girls called The Trinity (all played by Hailee Steinfeld), and after some time, she is ready to start training for her revenge. The other characters in the video are shown in succession, some in training with Catastrophe. They are (in order of appearance):
When her training is complete, Catastrophe and her friends strike out to exact their revenge on Arsyn and her masked henchwomen. The two teams approach each other in what seems to be slow motion while an enormous explosion goes off in the background, blotting out the London skyline, including 30 St Mary Axe, and the video ends with both of the women simultaneously striking each other in the face.
Rolling Stone described it as a "futuristic neo-noir '' video. Daniel D'Addario of Time called it Swift 's "most elaborate '' music video yet, and compared its visuals to those of Sin City. Slate agreed and found other film inspirations: "Along the way, they pay homage to countless films. Besides the video 's Robocop premise, there 's its Sin City aesthetic, its nod to Tron 's light cycles, and its Kill Bill - like fight in the snow. '' Billboard drew parallels between the video and the music videos for the Britney Spears songs "Toxic '' and "Womanizer '', which were both directed by Kahn. The video broke Vevo 's 24 - hour viewing record by accumulating 20.1 million views in its first day of release, beating the 19.6 million 24 - hour record previously held by Nicki Minaj for the music video of her song "Anaconda '' in 2014. It was later broken by Adele 's "Hello '' in October 2015, with 27.7 million views in the first 24 hours. As of May 2018, the video has amassed over 1.2 billion views and was Swift 's third video to achieve this milestone. It is in the top 80 most viewed videos on YouTube.
"Bad Blood '' received eight nominations at the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards. Ultimately, it won Video of the Year and Best Collaboration. It also won the Grammy Award for Best Music Video.
A cover version of "Bad Blood '' was released as the first promotional single from singer - songwriter Ryan Adams ' interpretation of Swift 's 1989 album, released in September 2015.
Credits adapted from liner notes of 1989.
In 2016, the song was used in an Apple commercial which Drake starred in.
For their tenth anniversary, How It Should Have Ended released a cover parody video based on "Bad Blood '', titled "Bat Blood ''. Performed by Batman, voiced by show creator Daniel Baxter, the video parodies the marketing of the then - upcoming film Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, and uses characters from HISHE 's entire history. The lyrics were re-written by Baxter, and the music composed by Bryan English.
Anthony Rizzo of the Chicago Cubs used "Bad Blood '' as one of his walk - up songs during the team 's 2015 and 2016 seasons.
The song is also used in both trailers of the 2017 film, The Lego Ninjago Movie. It was also used in a promo for Teen Titans Go! in November of that year. The episode "Demon Prom '' of that show has the demon referencing Taylor Swift saying "This is not a Taylor Swift video, this is demon prom ''.
For more info on this version, see 1989 (Ryan Adams album).
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Since May 2013, RIAA certifications for digital singles include on - demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads.
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when did university fees increase to £9000 | Tuition fees in the United Kingdom - wikipedia
Tuition fees were first introduced across the entire United Kingdom in September 1998 under the Labour government as a means of funding tuition to undergraduate and postgraduate certificate students at universities, with students being required to pay up to £ 1,000 a year for tuition. However, as a result of the establishment of devolved national administrations for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, different arrangements now exist with regard to the charging of tuition fees in each of the countries of the United Kingdom.
In May 1996, Gillian Shephard, Secretary of State for Education and Employment, commissioned an inquiry, led by the then Chancellor of the University of Nottingham, Sir Ron Dearing, into the funding of British higher education over the next 20 years. This National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education reported to the new Labour Government, in the summer of 1997, stating additional billions of funding would be needed over the period, including £ 350 million in 1998 - 9 and £ 565 million in 1999 - 2000, in order to expand student enrolment, provide more support for part - time students and ensure an adequate infrastructure. The committee, as part of its brief, had controversially investigated the possibility of students contributing to the cost of this expansion, either through loans, a graduate tax, deferred contributions or means testing state assistance, as their report notes:
20.40 We do not underestimate the strength of feeling on the issue of seeking a contribution towards tuition costs: nor do we dispute the logic of the arguments put forward. A detailed assessment of the issues has, however, convinced us that the arguments in favour of a contribution to tuition costs from graduates in work are strong, if not widely appreciated. They relate to equity between social groups, broadening participation, equity with part - time students in higher education and in further education, strengthening the student role in higher education, and identifying a new source of income that can be ring - fenced for higher education.
20.41 We have, therefore, analysed the implications of a range of options against the criteria set out in paragraph 20.2. There is a wide array of options from which to choose, ranging from asking graduates to contribute only to their living costs through to asking all graduates to contribute to their tuition costs. We have chosen to examine four options in depth
In response to the findings, the Teaching and Higher Education Act 1998 was published on 26 November 1997, and enacted on 16 July 1998, part of which introduced tuition fees in all the countries of the United Kingdom. The act introduced a means - tested method of payment for students based on the amount of money their families earned. Starting with 1999 - 2000, maintenance grants for living expenses would also be replaced with loans and paid back at a rate of 9 percent of a graduate 's income above £ 10,000.
Following devolution in 1999, the newly devolved governments in Scotland and Wales brought in their own acts on tuition fees. The Scottish Parliament established, and later abolished a graduate endowment to replace the fees. Wales introduced maintenance grants of up to £ 1,500 in 2002, a value which has since risen to over £ 5000.
In England, tuition fee caps rose with the Higher Education Act 2004. Under the Act, universities in England could begin to charge variable fees of up to £ 3000 a year for students enrolling on courses as from the academic year of 2006 - 07 or later. This was also introduced in Northern Ireland in 2006 - 07 and introduced in Wales in 2007 - 08. In 2009 - 10 the cap rose to £ 3225 a year to take account of inflation. Following the Browne Review in 2010, the cap was controversially raised to £ 9,000 a year, sparking large student protests in London. A judicidal review against the raised fees failed in 2012, and so the new fee system came into use that September.
Students pay interest on loans. In 2012 this rate was set at the retail price index (RPI) plus 3 %. Students who started university between 1998 and 2011 pay Bank of England base rate plus 1 %. Students who started university before 1998 pay interest set at the RPI rate. As a consequence of the 2012 change, students who graduate in 2017 will pay 6.1 % interest, despite the Bank of England base rate being 0.25 %.
Further adjustments were put forth in the 2015 budget, with a proposed fee increase in line with inflation from the 2017 - 18 academic year onwards, and the planned scrapping of maintenance grants from September 2016. The changes were debated by the Third Delegated Legislation Committee in January 2016, rather than in the Commons. The lack of a vote on the matter has drawn criticism, as by circumventing the Commons the measures "automatically become law ''. Tuition fees and perceptions about them are directly linked to satisfaction.
In England, tuition fees are capped at £ 9,250 a year for UK and EU students, with around 76 % of all institutions charging the full amount in 2015 - 16. A loan of the same size is available for most universities, although students of private institutions are only eligible for £ 6,000 a year loans.
From 2017 - 18 onwards, the £ 9,000 fee cap will rise with inflation. Maintenance grants are also available to current students in England, although these are scheduled to cease with the 2016 - 17 academic year. Maintenance loans are available for living costs, and these are means tested. These loans are scheduled to increase in size for 2016 - 17, when the maintenance grant system is phased out. There will be a vote in the autumn to consider a further increase effective with the 2017 - 18 year. Several universities have already advertised fees of £ 9,250 for the year in anticipation of such a vote passing.
In the 2015 spending review, the government also proposed a freeze in the repayment threshold for tuition fee loans at £ 21,000; a figure which was previously set to rise with average earnings. The changes, if passed, will affect all Plan 2 tuition fee loans, backdated to cover loans taken out from 2012.
Many commentators suggested that the 2012 rise in tuition fees in England would put poorer students off applying to university. However, the gap between rich and poor students has slightly narrowed (from 30.5 % in 2010 to 29.8 % in 2013) since the introduction of the higher fees. This may be because universities have used tuition fees to invest in bursaries and outreach schemes. In 2016, The Guardian noted that the number of disadvantaged students applying to university had increased by 72 % from 2006 to 2015, a bigger rise than in Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland. It wrote that most of the gap between richer and poorer students tends to open up between Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 4 (i.e. at secondary school), rather than when applying for university, and so the money raised from tuition fees should be spent there instead.
Tuition fees are currently capped at £ 3,805 in Northern Ireland, with loans of the same size available from Student Finance NI. Loan repayments are made when income rises above £ 17,335 a year, with graduates paying back a percentage of their earnings above this threshold.
Tuition is handled by the Student Awards Agency Scotland (SAAS), which does not charge fees to what it defines as "Young Students ''. Young Students are defined as those under 25, without children, marriage, civil partnership or cohabiting partner, who have not been outside of full - time education for more than three years. Fees exist for those outside the young student definition, typically from £ 1,200 to £ 1,800 for undergraduate courses, dependent on year of application and type of qualification. Postgraduate fees can be up to £ 3,400.
The system has been in place since 2007 when graduate endowments were abolished. Labour 's education spokesperson Rhona Brankin criticised the Scottish system for failing to address student poverty. Scotland has fewer disadvantaged students than England, Wales or Northern Ireland and disadvantaged students receive around £ 560 a year less in financial support than their counterparts in England do.
Like their English counterparts, Welsh universities are able to charge up to £ 9,000 a year in tuition fees. However, Welsh students can apply for fee grants of up to £ 5,190, in addition to a £ 3,810 loan to cover these costs. This system also applies to Welsh students who study elsewhere in the United Kingdom.
There have been two main proposed alternative ways of funding university studies: from general taxation or by a graduate tax.
Tuition is paid for by general taxation in Germany, although only 27 % of young people gain higher education qualification there, whereas in the UK the comparable figure is 48 %. Fully or partly funding universities from general taxation has been criticised by the Liberal Democrat party as a ' tax cut for the rich and a tax rise for the poor ' because people would be taxed to pay for something that many would not derive a benefit from, while graduates generally earn more due to their qualifications and only have to pay them back.
Jeremy Corbyn, current Labour leader, has stated that he would remove tuition fees and instead fund higher education by increasing National Insurance and Corporation Tax. In the long term this would cost the government about £ 8 billion a year.
In July 2017 Lord Adonis, former Number 10 Policy Unit staffer and education minister largely responsible for introducing tuition fees, said that the system had become a "Frankenstein 's monster '' putting many students over £ 50,000 in debt. He argued the system should either be scrapped or fees reverted to between £ 1,000 and £ 3,000 per the initial scheme.
During the 2015 Labour leadership election, Andy Burnham said that he would introduce a graduate tax to replace fees. He was ultimately unsuccessful in his bid for leadership. A graduate tax has been criticised because there would be no way to recover the money from students who move to a different country, or foreign students who return home.
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lack of sleep can be both a cause and effect of excess stress | Effects of stress on memory - wikipedia
The effects of stress on memory include interference with a person 's capacity to encode memory and the ability to retrieve information. During times of stress, the body reacts by secreting stress hormones into the bloodstream. Stress can cause acute and chronic changes in certain brain areas which can cause long - term damage. Over-secretion of stress hormones most frequently impairs long - term delayed recall memory, but can enhance short - term, immediate recall memory. This enhancement is particularly relative in emotional memory. In particular, the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and the amygdala are affected. One class of stress hormone responsible for negatively affecting long - term, delayed recall memory is the glucocorticoids (GCs), the most notable of which is cortisol. Glucocorticoids facilitate and impair the actions of stress in the brain memory process. Cortisol is a known biomarker for stress. Under normal circumstances, the hippocampus regulates the production of cortisol through negative feedback because it has many receptors that are sensitive to these stress hormones. However, an excess of cortisol can impair the ability of the hippocampus to both encode and recall memories. These stress hormones are also hindering the hippocampus from receiving enough energy by diverting glucose levels to surrounding muscles.
Stress affects many memory functions and cognitive functioning of the brain. There are different levels of stress and the high levels can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic stress level is triggered by a cognitive challenge whereas extrinsic can be triggered by a condition not related to a cognitive task. Intrinsic stress can be acutely and chronically experienced by a person. The varying effects of stress on performance or stress hormones are often compared to or known as "inverted - u '' which induce areas in learning, memory and plasticity. Chronic stress can affect the brain structure and cognition.
Studies considered the effects of stress on both intrinsic and extrinsic memory functions, using for both of them Pavlovian conditioning and spatial learning. In regard to intrinsic memory functions, the study evaluated how stress affected memory functions that was triggered by a learning challenge. In regard to extrinsic stress, the study focused on stress that was not related to cognitive task but was elicited by other situations. The results determined that intrinsic stress was facilitated by memory consolidation process and extrinsic stress was determined to be heterogeneous in regard to memory consolidation. Researchers found that high stress conditions were a good representative of the effect that extrinsic stress can cause on memory functioning. It was also proven that extrinsic stress does affect spatial learning whereas acute extrinsic stress does not.
When a stressful situation is encountered, stress hormones are released into the blood stream. Adrenaline is released by the adrenal glands to begin the response in the body. Adrenaline acts as a catalyst for the fight - or - flight response, which is a response of the sympathetic nervous system to encourage the body to react to the apparent stressor. This response causes an increase in heart - rate, blood pressure, and accelerated breathing. The kidneys release glucose, providing energy to combat or flee the stressor. Blood is redirected to the brain and major muscle groups, diverted away from energy consuming bodily functions unrelated to survival at the present time. There are three important axes, the adrenocorticotropic axis, the vasopressin axis and the thyroxine axis, which are responsible for the physiologic response to stress.
When a receptor within the body senses a stressor, a signal is sent to the anterior hypothalamus. At the reception of the signal, corticotrophin - releasing factor (CRF) acts on the anterior pituitary. The anterior pituitary in turn releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH induces the release of corticosteriods and aldosterone from the adrenal gland. These substances are the main factors responsible for the stress response in humans. Cortisol for example stimulates the mobilization of free fatty acids and proteins and the breakdown of amino acids, and increases serum glucose level and blood pressure, among other effects. On the other hand, aldosterone is responsible for water retention associated with stress. As a result of cells retaining sodium and eliminating potassium, water is retained and blood pressure is increased by increasing the blood volume.
A second physiological response in relation to stress occurs via the vasopressin axis. Vasopressin, also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH), is synthesized and regulates fluid loss by manipulating the urinary tract. This pathway allows water reabsorption within the body and decreases the amount of water lost through perspiration. ADH has the greatest effect on blood pressure within the body. Under normal circumstances, ADH will regulate the blood pressure and increase or decrease the blood volume when needed. However, when stress becomes chronic, homeostatic regulation of blood pressure is lost. Vasopressin is released and causes a static increase in blood pressure. This increase in blood pressure under stressful conditions ensures that muscles receive the oxygen that they need to be active and respond accordingly. If these stressful conditions remain elevated, muscles will become fatigued, resulting in hypertension and in extreme cases can result in death.
The third physiological response results in the release of thyrotropic hormone - release factor (TRF) which results in the release of thyrotropic hormone (TTH). TTH stimulates the release of thyroxine and triiodothyronine from the thyroid. This results in an increased basal metabolic rate (BMR). This effect is not as immediate as the other two, and can take days to weeks to become prevalent.
Chronic stress is a stressor that is ongoing for a long period of time. When chronic stress is experienced, our body is in a state of continuous physiological arousal. Normally, our body activates our fight - or - flight - response, and when the perceived stress is over our body returns to a state of homeostasis. When chronic stress is perceived, however, the body is in a continuous state of fight - or - flight response and never reaches a state of homeostasis. The physiological effects of chronic stress can negatively affect memory and learning. One study used rats to show the effects of chronic stress on memory by exposing them to a cat for five weeks and being randomly assigned to a different group each day. Their stress was measured in a naturalistic setting by observing their open field behaviour, and the effect on memory was estimated using the radial arm water maze (RAWM). In the RAWM, rats are taught the place of a platform that is placed below the surface of the water. They must recall this later to discover the platform to exit the water. It was found that the rats exposed to chronic psychosocial stress could not learn to adapt to new situations and environments, and had impaired memory on the RAWM.
Chronic stress affects a person 's cognitive functioning differently for normal subjects versus subjects with mild cognitive impairment. Chronic stress and elevated cortisol (a biomarker for stress) has been known to lead to dementia in elderly people. A longitudinal study was performed which included 61 cognitively normal people and 41 people who suffered from mild cognitive impairment. The participants were between 65 and 97 years old. 52 of the participants were followed for three years and repeatedly received stress and cognitive test assessments. Any patient that suffered from signs or conditions that would affect their cortisol level or cognitive functioning was exempt from participating.
In general, higher event based stress was associated with more rapid cognitive impairment. However, participants with greater cortisol levels showed signs of slower decline. Neither of these effects held for the non-cognitively - impaired group.
Acute stress is a stressor that is an immediate perceived threat. Unlike chronic stress, acute stress is not ongoing and the physiological arousal associated with acute stress is not nearly as demanding. There are mixed findings on the effects of acute stress on memory. One view is that acute stress can impair memory, while others believe that acute stress can actually enhance memory. Several studies have shown that stress and glucocorticoids enhance memory formation while they impair memory retrieval. For acute stress to enhance memory certain circumstances must be met. First, the context in which the stress is being perceived must match the context of the information or material being encoded. Second, the brain regions involved in the retrieval of the memory must match the regions targeted by glucocorticoids. There are also differences in the type of information being remembered or being forgotten while being exposed to acute stress. In some cases neutral stimuli tend to be remembered, while emotionally charged (salient) stimuli tend to be forgotten. In other cases the opposite effect is obtained. What seems to be an important factor in determining what will be impaired and what will be enhanced is the timing of the perceived stressful exposure and the timing of the retrieval. For emotionally salient information to be remembered, the perceived stress must be induced before encoding, and retrieval must follow shortly afterwards. In contrast, for emotionally charged stimuli to be forgotten, the stressful exposure must be after encoding and retrieval must follow after a longer delay.
If stressful information is relatable to a person, the event more prone to be stored in permanent memory. When a person is under stress, the sympathetic system will shift to a constantly (tonically) active state. To further study how acute stress affect memory formation, a study would appropriate to add examine. Acute stress exposure induces the activation of different hormonal and neurotransmitters which effect the memory 's working processes.
A study published in 2009 tested eighteen young healthy males between 19 and 31 years old. All participants were right - handed and had no history of a head injury, or of any medication that could affect a person central nervous system or endocrine system. All of the volunteers participated in two different sessions a month apart. The study consisted on the participants viewing movie clips and pictures that belonged to two different categories: neutral or negative. The participants had to memorize then rate each movie clip or picture by pressing a button with their right hand. They were also monitored in other areas such as their heart rate, pupil diameter, and stress measures by collection of saliva throughout the experiment. The participants mood was assessed by using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule.
The results from the study confirmed that there were physiological measures in regard to stress induction. The participant 's heart rate was elevated and pupil dilation was decreased when viewing the pictures. The study also showed psychological measures that proved that stress induction did cause an increase in subjective stress. In regard to memory enhancement, participants that were shown a stressful picture, often remembered them a day later, which is in accordance with the theory that negative incidents have lasting effects on our memory.
Acute stress can also affect a person 's neural correlates which interfere with the memory formation. During a stressful time, a person 's attention and emotional state may be affected, which could hinder the ability to focus while processing an image. Stress can also enhance the neural state of memory formation.
Short - term memory (STM) is the ability to store small amounts of information for a limited amount of time. The Miller 's Law that the capacity of an average person 's STM is 7 ± 2 objects, and lasts for a matter of seconds. This means that when given a series of items to remember, most people can remember 5 - 9 of those items, the average being 7. However, this limit can be increased by rehearsing the information. Information in STM can be transferred to long - term memory (LTM) by rehearsal and association with other information previously stored in LTM. Most of the research on stress and memory has been done on working memory (WM), as opposed to STM.
Working memory (WM), similar to STM, is the ability to temporarily store information in order to manipulate it for performing complex tasks, such as reasoning. WM is affected to a greater extent by stress than LTM. Stress has been shown to both improve and impair WM. In a study by Duncko et al., the positive effect of stress manifested itself as a decreased reaction time in participants, while the negative effect of stress causes more false alarms and mistakes when compared to a normal condition. The researchers hypothesize that this could be representative of faster information processing, something helpful in a threatening situation. Anxiety has also been shown to adversely affect some of the components of WM, those being the phonological loop, the visuo - spatial sketchpad, and the central executive. The phonological loop is used for auditory STM, the visuo - spatial sketchpad is used for visual and spatial STM, and the central executive links and controls these systems. The disruption of these components impairs the transfer of information from WM to LTM, thus affecting learning. For instance, several studies have demonstrated that acute stress can impair working memory processing likely though reduced neural activity in the prefrontal cortex in both monkeys and humans.
Long - term memory (LTM) is the ability to store an unlimited amount of information over long periods of time, ranging from a few days to many years.
Less is known about the effect of stress on LTM than is known about the effect of stress on STM. This could be due to the fact that LTM is not affected as severely as STM and WM are, and is also influenced by the effect of stress on STM and WM.
The major effect of stress on LTM is that it improves consolidation of memory, while it impairs the retrieval of memory. That is, one will be able to remember information relating to a stressful situation after the fact, but while in a stressful situation it is hard to recall specific information. In a study by Park et al. done on rats, the researchers found that shock induced stress caused the rats to forget what they learned in the phase prior to the shock, but to have distinct memory for where the shock occurred. This negative effect on the retrieval of memories caused by stress can be attributed to cortisol, the stress hormone that is released in stressful situations. A study by Marin et al. demonstrated that stress enhances recall of information reviewed prior to the stressful situation, and that this effect is long lasting.
Explicit memory, or declarative memory, is the intentional recall of past events or learned information and is a discipline of LTM. Explicit memory includes memory for remembering a specific event, such as dinner the week prior, or information about the world, such as the definition for explicit memory. When an anxious state is provoked, percentage recall on explicit memory tasks is enhanced. However, this effect is only present for emotionally associated words. Stress hormones influence the processes carried out in the hippocampus and amygdala which are also associated with emotional responses. Thus, emotional memories are enhanced when stress is induced, as they are both associated with the same areas of the brain, whereas neutral stimuli and stress are not. However, enhancement of explicit memory depends on the time of day. Explicit memory is enhanced by stress when assessed in the afternoon, but impaired when assessed in the morning. Basal cortisol levels are relatively low in the afternoon and much higher in the morning, which can alter the interaction and effects of stress hormones.
Implicit memory, or more precisely procedural memory, is memory of information without conscious awareness or ability to verbalize the process, and is also a discipline of LTM. There are three types of implicit memory, which are: conditioning (emotional behavior), tasks and priming (verbal behavior). For example, the process of riding a bicycle can not be verbalized, but the action can still be executed. When implicit memory is assessed in tandem with stressful cues there is no change in procedural recall.
Autobiographical memory is personal episodic memory of self - related information and specific events. Stress tends to impair the accuracy of autobiographical memories, but does not impair the frequency or confidence in them. After exposure to an emotional and stressful negative event, flashback memories can be evident. However, the more flashback memories present, the less accurate the autobiographical memory. Both aspects of autobiographical memory, episodic memory, the memory system regarding specific events, and semantic memory, the memory system regarding general information about the world, are impaired by an event that induces a stressful response. This causes the recall of an experience of a specific event and the information about the event to be recalled less accurately.
Autobiographical memory, however, is not impaired on a continual decline from the first recall of the information when anxiety is induced. At first recall attempt, the memory is fairly accurate. The impairment begins when reconsolidation is present, such that the more times the memory is brought to conscious awareness, the less accurate it will become. When stress is induced the memory will be susceptible to other influences, such as suggestions from other people, or emotions unrelated to the event but present during recall. Therefore, stress at the encoding of an event positively influences memory, but stress at the time of recollection impairs memory.
Attention is the process by which a concentration is focused on a point of interest, such as an event or physical stimulus. It is theorized that attention toward a stimulus will increase ability to recall information, therefore enhancing memory. When threatening information or a stimulus that provokes anxiety are present, it is difficult to release attention from the negative cue. When in a state of high anxiety, a conceptual memory bias is produced toward the negative stimulus. Therefore, it is difficult to redirect the attention focus away from the negative, anxiety provoking cue. This increases the activation of the pathways associated with the threatening cues, and thus increases the ability to recall the information present while in a high anxious state. However, when in a high anxious state and presented with positive information, there is no memory bias produced. This occurs because it is not as difficult to redirect attention from the positive stimulus as it is from the negative stimulus. This is due to the fact that the negative cue is perceived as a factor in the induced stress, whereas the positive cue is not.
Learning is the modification of behaviour by experience. For example, learning to avoid certain stimuli such as a tornadoes, thunderstorms, large animals, and toxic chemicals, because they can be harmful. This is classified as aversion conditioning, and is related to fear responses.
An anxious state at the time of learning can create a stronger aversion to the stimuli. A stronger aversion can lead to stronger associations in memory between the stimulus and response, therefore enhancing the memory of the response to the stimulus. When extinction is attempted in male and female humans, compared to a neutral control without anxiety, extinction does not occur. This suggests that memory is enhanced for learning, specifically fear learning, when anxiety is present.
Conversely, reversal learning is inhibited by the presence of anxiety. Reversal learning is assessed through the reversal learning task; a stimulus and response relationship is learned through the trial and error method and then without notice, the relationship is reversed, examining the role of cognitive flexibility. Inhibited reversal learning can be associated with the idea that subjects experiencing symptoms of anxiety frustrate easily and are unable to successfully adapt to a changing environment. Thus, anxiety can negatively affect learning when the stimulus and response relationship are reversed or altered.
Much of the research relating to stress and memory has been conducted on animals and can be generalized to humans. One type of stress that is not easily translatable to humans is predator stress: the anxiety an animal experiences when in the presence of a predator. In studies, stress is induced by introducing a predator to a subject either before the learning phase or between the learning phase and the testing phase. Memory is measured by various tests, such as the radial arm water maze (RAWM). In the RAWM, rats are taught the location of a hidden platform and must recall this information later on to find the platform and get out of the water.
Predator Stress has been shown to impair STM. It has been determined that this effect on STM is not due to the fact that a predator is a novel and arousing stimulus, but rather because of the fear that is provoked in the test subjects by the predator.
Predator stress has been shown to increase LTM. In a study done by Sundata et al. on snails, it was shown that when trained in the presence of a predator, snails ' memory persisted for at least 24 hours in adults, while it usually lasts only 3 hours. Juvenile snails, who usually do not have any LTM showed signs of LTM after exposure to a predator.
Predator stress has been shown to improve classical conditioning in males and hinder it in females. A study done by Maeng et al. demonstrated that stress allowed faster classical conditioning of male rats while disrupting the same type of learning in female rats. These gender differences were shown to be caused by the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). When the researchers inactivated that brain region by administering muscimol to the females, no gender differences in classical conditioning were observed 24 hours later. Inactivating the mPFC in the male rats did not prevent the enhanced conditioning that the males previously exhibited. This discrepancy between genders has also been shown to be present in humans. In a 2005 study, Jackson et al. reported that stress enhanced classical conditioning in human males and impaired classical condition in human females.
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is an anxiety disorder that can occur after exposure to horrific events, or after a terrifying ordeal where there is immense physical harm that directly or indirectly affects a person. When the memories of these traumas do not subside, a person may begin to avoid anything that would cause them to relive these events. When this persists over an extended period of time, one may be said to be suffering from PTSD. Examples of events that could lead to the onset of PTSD are war, rape, assault, and childhood neglect. It is estimated that approximately 8 % of American may suffer from this disease which can lead to long - term problems.
Symptoms include persistent frightened thoughts and memories of the trauma or ordeal and emotional numbness. The individual may experience sleeping problems, be easily startled, or experience feelings of detachment or numbness. Sufferers may experience depression and / or display self - destructive behaviours.
There are three categories of symptoms associated with PTSD:
The most effective treatments for PTSD are psychotherapy, medication, and in some circumstance both. Effective psychotherapy involves helping the individual with managing the symptoms, coping with the traumatic event, and working through the traumatic experiences. Medications such as antidepressants has proven to be an effective way to block the effects of stress and to also promote neurogenesis. The medication phenytoin can also block stress caused to the hippocampus with the help of modulation of excitatory amino acids. Preliminary findings indicate that cortisol may be helpful to reduce traumatic memory in PTSD.
PTSD affects memory recall and accuracy. The more the traumatic event is brought to conscious awareness and recalled, the less accurate the memory. PTSD affects the verbal memory of the traumatic event, but does not affect the memory in general. One of the ways traumatic stress affects individuals is that the traumatic event tends to disrupt the stream of memories people obtain through life, creating memories that do not blend in with the rest. This has the effect of creating a split in identity as the person now has good memories they can attribute to one personality and bad memories the can attribute to the "other '' personality. For example, a victim of childhood abuse can group their good and happy experiences under the "pleasant '' personality and their abuse experiences under one "bad or wicked '' personality. This then creates a split personality disorder. Individuals suffering from post traumatic stress disorder often have difficulty remembering facts, appointments and autobiographical details. The traumatic event can result in psychogenic amnesia and in the occurrence of intrusive recollections of the event. Children with PTSD have deficits in cognitive processes essential for learning; their memory systems also under - performs those of normal children. A study using the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test showed that individuals with PTSD scored lower than controls on the memory test, indicating a poorer general knowledge. The study revealed that 78 % of PTSD patients under - performed, and where in the categories labelled "poor memory '' or "impaired memory ''. PTSD patients were specifically worse at the prospective and orientation items on the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test.
A few studies done in the past proved that PTSD can cause cognition and brain structure changes that involve verbal declarative memory deficits. Children that have experienced child abuse may according to neuropsychological testing experience a deficit in verbal declarative memory functioning.
Studies have been conducted on people that were involved in the Vietnam War or the Holocaust, returning Iraq soldiers and people that also suffered from rape and childhood abuse. Different tests were administered such as the Selective Reminding Test, Verbal Learning Test, Paired Associate Recall, the California Verbal New Learning Test, and the Rivermead Behavioral Memory Test. The test results showed that the returning Iraq soldiers did have less verbal memory performance as compared to pre-deployment.
The studies performed on the Vietnam veterans that suffer from PTSD show that there are hippocampal changes in the brain associated with this disorder. The veterans with PTSD showed an 8 % reduction in their right hippocampal volume. The patients that suffered from child abuse showed a 12 % reduction in their mean left hippocampal volume. Several of the studies has also shown that people with PTSD have deficits while performing verbal declarative memory task in their hippicampal.
PTSD can affect several parts of the brain such as the amygdala, hippocampus, and the prefrontal cortex. The amygdala controls our memory and emotional processing; the hippocampus helps with organizing, storing and memory forming. Hippocampus is the most sensitive area to stress. The prefrontal cortex helps with our expression and personality and helps regulate complex cognitive and our behavior functions.
Social anxiety disorder is an anxiety disorder consisting of overwhelming anxiety and excessive self - consciousness in everyday social situations. It is an extreme fear of being scrutinized and judged by others in social and / or performance situations. This fear about a situation can become so severe that it affects work, school, and other typical activities. Social anxiety can be related to one situation (such as talking to people) or it can be much more broad, where a person experiences anxiety around everyone except family members.
People with social anxiety disorder have a constant, chronic fear of being watched and judged by peers and strangers, and of doing something that will embarrass them. People that suffer from this may physically feel sick from the situation, even when the situation is non-threatening. Physical symptoms of the disorder include blushing, profuse sweating, trembling, nausea or abdominal distress, rapid heartbeat, shortness of breath, dizziness or lightheadedness, headaches, and feelings of detachment. Development of low self - esteem, poor social skills, and trouble being assertive are also common signs of social anxiety disorder.
Social anxiety disorder can be treated with many different types of therapy and medication. Exposure therapy is an effective method of treating social anxiety. In exposure therapy a patient is presented with situations that they are afraid of, gradually building up to facing the situation that the patient fears most. This type of therapy helps the patient learn new techniques to cope with different situations that they fear. Role - playing has proven effective for the treatment or social anxiety. Role - playing therapy helps to boost individuals ' confidence relating to other people and helps increase social skills. Medication is another effective method for treating social anxiety. Antidepressants, beta blockers, and anti-anxiety medications are the most commonly prescribed types of medication to treat social anxiety. Moreover, there are new approaches to treat phobias and enhance exposure therapy with glucocorticoids.
Social phobics display a tendency to recall negative emotions about a situation when asked to recall the event. Their emotions typically revolve around themselves, with no recollection of other people 's environments. Social anxiety results in negative aspects of the event to be remembered, leading to a biased opinion of the situation from the perspective of the social phobic compared to the non-social phobic. Social phobics typically displayed better recall than control participants. However, individuals with social anxiety recalled angry faces rather than happy or neutral faces better than control participants.
Obsessive - compulsive disorder (OCD) involves both obsessions and compulsions that disrupt daily routines and activities. The obsessions include recurrent unwanted thoughts that cause compulsions, including repetitive behaviors. Individuals that suffer from OCD may realize that their obsessions are not normal and try to stop their actions, but this only increases the person 's anxiety towards the situation, and has an adverse effect. OCD often revolves around themes in one 's life; for example, fear of coming in contact with germs (obsession). To deal with the fear of germs one may compulsively wash their hands until they are chapped. OCD is a constituent of many other disorders including autism, Tourette 's syndrome, and frontal lobe lesions.
A person that shows a constant need to complete a certain "ritual '', or is constantly plagued with unwelcome thoughts, may suffer from OCD. Themes of obsessions include fear of germs or dirt, having things orderly and symmetrical, and sexual thoughts and images. Signs of obsessions:
Compulsions follow the theme of the obsessions, and are repetitive behaviors that individuals suffering from OCD feel will diminish the effect of the obsession. Compulsions also follow the theme, including hand washing, cleaning, performing actions repeatedly, or extreme orderliness.
Signs of compulsions:
Behavior therapy has proven to be an effective method for treating OCD. Patients are exposed to the theme that is typically avoided, while being restricted from performing their usual anxiety reducing rituals. Behavior therapy rarely eliminates OCD, but it helps to reduce the signs and symptoms. With medication, this reduction of the disorder is even more evident. Antidepressants are usually the first prescribed medication to a patient with OCD. Medications that treat OCD typically inhibit the reuptake of serotonin.
Obsessive - compulsive individuals have difficulty forgetting unwanted thoughts. When they encode this information into memory they encode it as a neutral or positive thought. This is inconsistent with what a person without OCD would think about this thought, leading the individual with OCD to continue displaying their specific "ritual '' to help deal with their anxiety. When asked to forget information they have encoded, OCD patients have difficulty forgetting what they are told to forget only when the subject is negative. Individuals not affected by OCD do not show this tendency. Researchers have proposed a general deficit hypothesis for memory related problems in OCD. There are limited studies investigating this hypothesis. These studies propose that memory is enhanced for menacing events that have occurred during the individuals life. For example, a study demonstrated that individuals with OCD exhibit exceptional recall for previously encountered events, but only when the event promoted anxiety in the individual.
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who plays khaleesi on the game of thrones | Emilia Clarke - wikipedia
Emilia Isabelle Euphemia Rose Clarke (born 23 October 1986) is an English actress. Born in London and brought up in Berkshire, Clarke first gained an interest in acting as a child after seeing the musical Show Boat, on which her father was working as a sound engineer. Clarke studied at the Drama Centre London, and appeared in a number of stage productions. Her television debut came with a guest appearance in an episode of the British soap opera Doctors. In 2010, she was named as one of the UK Stars of Tomorrow by Screen International magazine for her role in Syfy 's film Triassic Attack (2010).
Clarke rose to prominence in 2011 for her breakthrough role as Daenerys Targaryen in the HBO series Game of Thrones (2011 -- present), a performance that has gained her critical acclaim. She has been nominated for three Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, and two Critics Choice Television Awards for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, among other accolades.
Clarke made her Broadway debut as Holly Golightly in a production of Breakfast at Tiffany 's in 2013. In 2015, she was named Esquire 's Sexiest Woman Alive. She is also known for her starring roles as Sarah Connor in the science fiction film Terminator Genisys (2015) and as Louisa Clark in the romance film Me Before You (2016).
Emilia Isabelle Euphemia Rose Clarke was born in London, and grew up in Berkshire. Her father was a theatre sound engineer. Her mother is Jennifer "Jenny '' Clarke, the director of The Anima Foundation. She has an older brother. Clarke 's interest in acting began at the age of three after seeing the musical Show Boat on which her father was working. She was educated at Rye St Antony School and at St Edward 's School, Oxford (graduated 2005). She attended Drama Centre London, and graduated in 2009.
Clarke 's early work includes two plays at St. Edwards, ten plays at Drama Centre London, the 2009 Company of Angels production of Sense, and two 2009 commercials for Samaritans. One of her first film roles was for a University of London students ' short film. Her first television roles were Saskia Mayer in a 2009 episode of the British soap opera Doctors and Savannah in Syfy 's 2010 film Triassic Attack. Screen International magazine named her as one of the "UK Stars of Tomorrow ''.
In 2010 Clarke was cast as Daenerys Targaryen in the HBO fantasy series Game of Thrones, based on the book series A Song of Ice and Fire by George R.R. Martin. She was cast after fellow British actress Tamzin Merchant was replaced for undisclosed reasons. In an interview, Clarke stated that she did the funky chicken and robot dance during her audition. The show debuted in April 2011 to positive reviews and was quickly picked up by the network for a second season. Clarke won the 2011 EWwy Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama for her role as Daenerys. In 2013, Clarke was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series at the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards. She was nominated again in the category in 2015 and 2016.
Clarke has received widespread praise for her performance. Her acting, as she closed Daenerys 's arc initiated in the first episode from a frightened girl to an empowered woman, was praised. Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe called her scenes "mesmerizing '', adding that "Clarke does n't have a lot of emotional variety to work with as Daenerys, aside from fierce determination, and yet she is riveting. '' Todd VanDerWerff for The A.V. Club commented on the difficulty of adapting such an evolution from page to screen, but concluded that "Clarke (...) more than seal (s) the deal here. In 2017, Clarke reportedly became one of the highest paid actors on television, earning £ 2 million per episode of Game of Thrones.
In 2012, Clarke appeared in Spike Island, a film named after the location of The Stone Roses 's seminal 1990 gig. From March to April 2013, Clarke played Holly Golightly in a Broadway production of Breakfast at Tiffany 's. That year, she also starred in Dom Hemingway alongside Jude Law. Critical reaction to the film was mostly positive, though it was a commercial failure.
In May 2014, it was announced that she had joined the feature film Garden of Last Days alongside James Franco, but the movie was scrapped two weeks before production was due to begin. Clarke was offered the role of Anastasia Steele in Fifty Shades of Grey but turned down the part because of the nudity required. She played Sarah Connor in Terminator Genisys (2015), opposite Arnold Schwarzenegger, Jai Courtney, and Jason Clarke. The film grossed over $400 million worldwide, but received generally unfavorable reviews from critics, despite this she did receive nominations for awards like the Teen Choice Award for Choice Summer Movie Star - Female and Germany 's Jupiter Award for Best International Actress.
In 2016, Clarke starred as the female lead, opposite Sam Claflin, in the movie adaption of the best selling book (of the same name), Me Before You, released on 3 June 2016. The film was a commercial success, grossing over $200 million worldwide and is Clarke 's highest - rated film on the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes. For her role as Louisa Clarke, she shared nominations with Sam Claflin for the Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie Liplock and the MTV Television Tearjerker Award.
She played the lead as Nurse Verena, in the film Voice from the Stone which was released on April 2017 in limited release, video on demand and digital HD.
Clarke is also set to be attached to the films The Guns of August opposite Helena Bonham Carter, Set It Up opposite Glen Powell, and Above Suspicion opposite Jack Huston. In November 2016, Clarke was cast as the female lead in the Star Wars untitled Han Solo film set to be released 25 May 2018. In January 2017, Clarke was cast as the lead in the upcoming English language adaptation of the 2015 Korean romantic comedy, The Beauty Inside.
In 2012, Clarke began dating comedian and filmmaker Seth MacFarlane. The two broke up after approximately six months but remain friends. As of October 2015, Clarke resides in Hampstead, London. In 2016, she purchased a house in Venice Beach, Los Angeles. She was voted the most desirable woman in the world by AskMen readers in 2014. She was named Esquire 's Sexiest Woman Alive in 2015. On International Women 's Day 2017, she published a well - received op - ed on HuffPost UK regarding modern feminism and encouraging gender equality.
Clarke was the cover feature for the edition of 13 July 2017 of Rolling Stone, and revealed in the interview that she lost her father to cancer on 10 July 2016.
According to the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, Clarke 's most critically acclaimed films are Dom Hemingway (2014) and Me Before You (2016).
Clarke has been nominated three times for a Primetime Emmy Awards: Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for Game of Thrones.
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what characteristics allow for some plants to grow indoors | Houseplant - wikipedia
A houseplant is a plant that is grown indoors in places such as residences and offices. Houseplants are commonly grown for decorative purposes, but studies have also shown them to have positive psychological effects. Houseplants also help with indoor air purification. Plants used in this fashion are most commonly, though not always, tropical or semi-tropical epiphytes, succulents or cacti.
Houseplants need the correct moisture, light levels, soil mixture, temperature, and humidity. As well, houseplants need the proper fertilizer and correct - sized pots.
Major factors that should be considered when caring for houseplants are moisture, light, soil mixture, temperature, humidity, fertilizers, potting, and pest control. The following includes some general guidelines for houseplant care. For specific houseplant needs, the tags that sometimes come with plants are notoriously unhelpful and generic. Specific care information may be found widely online and in books.
Both under - watering and over-watering can be detrimental to a houseplant; the soil needs to be moist but not flooded.
Different plants require different amounts of light, for different durations. Photoperiodism is a consideration, since some plants such as Poinsettia and Schlumbergera are influenced by either decreasing or increasing daylight hours.
It is possible to supplement window light with artificial lighting of suitable wavelengths.
Houseplants are generally grown in specialized soils called potting compost or potting soil, not in local natural soil. A good potting compost mixture includes soil conditioners to provide the plant with nutrients, support, adequate drainage, and proper aeration. Most potting composts contain a combination of peat and vermiculite or perlite. Concern over environmental damage to peat bogs, however, is leading to the replacement of peat by coir (coconut fibre), which is a sustainable resource. Sterilised soil can also be used.
Most houseplants are tropical evergreen species that adapted to survive in a tropical climate which ranges from 15 ° C to 25 ° C (60 ° F to 80 ° F) year - round. This is similar to the temperature in most homes.
Humidity is slightly more difficult to control than temperature. However most species of houseplant will tolerate low humidity environments if it 's watered regularly. Homes are often around 20 % to 60 % relative humidity. Such a range is acceptable, although most species thrive near 80 % relative humidity. To increase humidity one may mist plants with distilled water or use a humidifier.
Plants require soil minerals, mainly nitrate, phosphate, and potassium. Nitrogen is essential for green, leafy growth. Phosphorus is essential for flowering or fruiting plants. Potassium is essential for strong roots and increased nutrient uptake. Minor and trace elements, such as calcium, magnesium and iron, may also be necessary.
Proper pot size is an important factor to consider. A pot that is too large will cause root disease because of the excess moisture retained in the soil, while a pot that is too small will restrict a plant 's growth. Generally, a plant can stay in the same pot for two or so years. Pots come in a variety of types as well, but usually can be broken down into two groups: porous and non-porous. Porous pots are usually clay and are highly recommended because they provide better aeration as air passes laterally through the sides of the pot. Non-porous pots such as glazed or plastic pots tend to hold moisture longer and restrict airflow. Another needed feature is drainage holes. Usually pots come with holes in the bottom to allow excess water to flow out of the soil which helps to prevent root rot. If a pot does not have drainage holes, it is best to double pot that plant so the inner pot can be lifted out and the excess water accumulated in the bottom of the outer pot can be removed. Soak old pots thoroughly in a solution of 1 part bleach to 10 parts water to kill any bacteria that may remain.
Indoor plants reduce components of indoor air pollution, particularly volatile organic compounds (VOC) such as benzene, toluene, and xylene. The compounds are removed primarily by soil microorganisms. Plants can also remove Carbon dioxide, which is correlated with lower work performance, from indoor areas. The effect has been investigated by NASA for use in spacecraft. Plants also appear to reduce airborne microbes and increase humidity.
Aside from traditional soil mixtures, media such as expanded clay may be employed in hydroponics, in which the plant is grown in a water and nutrient solution. This technique has a number of benefits, including an odorless, reusable, and more hygienic media. Any habitat for soil - bound pests is also eliminated, and the plant 's water supply is less variable. However, some plants do not grow well with this technique, and media is often difficult to find in some parts of the world, such as North America, where hydroponics and specifically hydroculture is not as well - known or widespread.
Subirrigation offers another alternative to top - watering techniques. In this approach the plant is watered from the bottom of the pot. Water is transferred up into the potting media (be it soil or others) by capillary action. Advantages of this technique include controlled amounts of water, resulting in lower chances of overwatering if done correctly, no need to drain plants after watering unlike traditional top - water methods, and less compaction of the media due to the pressure put on the media from top - watering.
Note: Many of these plants are also tropical or subtropical.
Note: Many forced bulbs are also temperate.
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what are the different types of forces in nature | Fundamental interaction - wikipedia
In physics, the fundamental interactions, also known as fundamental forces, are the interactions that do not appear to be reducible to more basic interactions. There are four fundamental interactions known to exist: the gravitational and electromagnetic interactions, which produce significant long - range forces whose effects can be seen directly in everyday life, and the strong and weak interactions, which produce forces at minuscule, subatomic distances and govern nuclear interactions. Some scientists speculate that a fifth force might exist, but this is not widely accepted nor proven.
Each of the known fundamental interactions can be described mathematically as a field. The gravitational force is attributed to the curvature of spacetime, described by Einstein 's general theory of relativity. The other three are discrete quantum fields, and their interactions are mediated by elementary particles described by the Standard Model of particle physics.
Within the Standard Model, the strong interaction is carried by a particle called the gluon, and is responsible for the binding of quarks together to form hadrons, such as protons and neutrons. As a residual effect, it creates the nuclear force that binds the latter particles to form atomic nuclei. The weak interaction is carried by particles called W and Z bosons, and also acts on the nucleus of atoms, mediating radioactive decay. The electromagnetic force, carried by the photon, creates electric and magnetic fields, which are responsible for the attraction between orbital electrons and atomic nuclei which holds atoms together, as well as chemical bonding and electromagnetic waves, including visible light, and forms the basis for electrical technology. Although the electromagnetic force is far stronger than gravity, it tends to cancel itself out within large objects, so over the largest distances (on the scale of planets and galaxies), gravity tends to be the dominant force.
All four fundamental forces are believed to be related, and to unite into a single force at high energies on a minuscule scale, the Planck scale, but particle accelerators can not produce the enormous energies required to experimentally probe this. Efforts to devise a common theoretical framework that would explain the relation between the forces are perhaps the greatest goal of theoretical physicists today. The weak and electromagnetic forces have already been unified with the electroweak theory of Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam, and Steven Weinberg for which they received the 1979 Nobel Prize in physics. Progress is currently being made in uniting the electroweak and strong fields within a Grand Unified Theory (GUT). A bigger challenge is to find a way to quantize the gravitational field, resulting in a theory of quantum gravity (QG) which would unite gravity in a common theoretical framework with the other three forces. Some theories, notably string theory, seek both QG and GUT within one framework, unifying all four fundamental interactions along with mass generation within a theory of everything (ToE).
In his 1687 theory, Isaac Newton postulated space as an infinite and unalterable physical structure existing before, within, and around all objects while their states and relations unfold at a constant pace everywhere, thus absolute space and time. Inferring that all objects bearing mass approach at a constant rate, but collide by impact proportional to their masses, Newton inferred that matter exhibits an attractive force. His law of universal gravitation mathematically stated it to span the entire universe instantly (despite absolute time), or, if not actually a force, to be instant interaction among all objects (despite absolute space.) As conventionally interpreted, Newton 's theory of motion modelled a central force without a communicating medium. Thus Newton 's theory violated the first principle of mechanical philosophy, as stated by Descartes, No action at a distance. Conversely, during the 1820s, when explaining magnetism, Michael Faraday inferred a field filling space and transmitting that force. Faraday conjectured that ultimately, all forces unified into one.
In the early 1870s, James Clerk Maxwell unified electricity and magnetism as effects of an electromagnetic field whose third consequence was light, travelling at constant speed in a vacuum. The electromagnetic field theory contradicted predictions of Newton 's theory of motion, unless physical states of the luminiferous aether -- presumed to fill all space whether within matter or in a vacuum and to manifest the electromagnetic field -- aligned all phenomena and thereby held valid the Newtonian principle relativity or invariance.
The Standard Model of particle physics was developed throughout the latter half of the 20th century. In the Standard Model, the electromagnetic, strong, and weak interactions associate with elementary particles, whose behaviours are modelled in quantum mechanics (QM). For predictive success with QM 's probabilistic outcomes, particle physics conventionally models QM events across a field set to special relativity, altogether relativistic quantum field theory (QFT). Force particles, called gauge bosons -- force carriers or messenger particles of underlying fields -- interact with matter particles, called fermions. Everyday matter is atoms, composed of three fermion types: up - quarks and down - quarks constituting, as well as electrons orbiting, the atom 's nucleus. Atoms interact, form molecules, and manifest further properties through electromagnetic interactions among their electrons absorbing and emitting photons, the electromagnetic field 's force carrier, which if unimpeded traverse potentially infinite distance. Electromagnetism 's QFT is quantum electrodynamics (QED).
The electromagnetic interaction was modelled with the weak interaction, whose force carriers are W and Z bosons, traversing the minuscule distance, in electroweak theory (EWT). Electroweak interaction would operate at such high temperatures as soon after the presumed Big Bang, but, as the early universe cooled, split into electromagnetic and weak interactions. The strong interaction, whose force carrier is the gluon, traversing minuscule distance among quarks, is modeled in quantum chromodynamics (QCD). EWT, QCD, and the Higgs mechanism, whereby the Higgs field manifests Higgs bosons that interact with some quantum particles and thereby endow those particles with mass comprise particle physics ' Standard Model (SM). Predictions are usually made using calculational approximation methods, although such perturbation theory is inadequate to model some experimental observations (for instance bound states and solitons.) Still, physicists widely accept the Standard Model as science 's most experimentally confirmed theory.
Beyond the Standard Model, some theorists work to unite the electroweak and strong interactions within a Grand Unified Theory (GUT). Some attempts at GUTs hypothesize "shadow '' particles, such that every known matter particle associates with an undiscovered force particle, and vice versa, altogether supersymmetry (SUSY). Other theorists seek to quantize the gravitational field by the modelling behaviour of its hypothetical force carrier, the graviton and achieve quantum gravity (QG). One approach to QG is loop quantum gravity (LQG). Still other theorists seek both QG and GUT within one framework, reducing all four fundamental interactions to a Theory of Everything (ToE). The most prevalent aim at a ToE is string theory, although to model matter particles, it added SUSY to force particles -- and so, strictly speaking, became superstring theory. Multiple, seemingly disparate superstring theories were unified on a backbone, M - theory. Theories beyond the Standard Model remain highly speculative, lacking great experimental support.
In the conceptual model of fundamental interactions, matter consists of fermions, which carry properties called charges and spin ± ⁄ (intrinsic angular momentum ± ⁄, where ħ is the reduced Planck constant). They attract or repel each other by exchanging bosons.
The interaction of any pair of fermions in perturbation theory can then be modelled thus:
The exchange of bosons always carries energy and momentum between the fermions, thereby changing their speed and direction. The exchange may also transport a charge between the fermions, changing the charges of the fermions in the process (e.g., turn them from one type of fermion to another). Since bosons carry one unit of angular momentum, the fermion 's spin direction will flip from + ⁄ to − ⁄ (or vice versa) during such an exchange (in units of the reduced Planck 's constant).
Because an interaction results in fermions attracting and repelling each other, an older term for "interaction '' is force.
According to the present understanding, there are four fundamental interactions or forces: gravitation, electromagnetism, the weak interaction, and the strong interaction. Their magnitude and behaviour vary greatly, as described in the table below. Modern physics attempts to explain every observed physical phenomenon by these fundamental interactions. Moreover, reducing the number of different interaction types is seen as desirable. Two cases in point are the unification of:
Both magnitude ("relative strength '') and "range '', as given in the table, are meaningful only within a rather complex theoretical framework. It should also be noted that the table below lists properties of a conceptual scheme that is still the subject of ongoing research.
The modern (perturbative) quantum mechanical view of the fundamental forces other than gravity is that particles of matter (fermions) do not directly interact with each other, but rather carry a charge, and exchange virtual particles (gauge bosons), which are the interaction carriers or force mediators. For example, photons mediate the interaction of electric charges, and gluons mediate the interaction of color charges.
Gravitation is by far the weakest of the four interactions at the atomic scale, where electromagnetic interactions dominate. But the idea that the weakness of gravity can easily be demonstrated by suspending a pin using a simple magnet (such as a refrigerator magnet) is fundamentally flawed. The only reason the magnet is able to hold the pin against the gravitational pull of the entire Earth is due to its relative proximity. There is clearly a short distance of separation between magnet and pin where a breaking point is reached, and due to the large mass of Earth this distance is disappointingly small.
Thus gravitation is very important for macroscopic objects and over macroscopic distances for the following reasons. Gravitation:
Even though electromagnetism is far stronger than gravitation, electrostatic attraction is not relevant for large celestial bodies, such as planets, stars, and galaxies, simply because such bodies contain equal numbers of protons and electrons and so have a net electric charge of zero. Nothing "cancels '' gravity, since it is only attractive, unlike electric forces which can be attractive or repulsive. On the other hand, all objects having mass are subject to the gravitational force, which only attracts. Therefore, only gravitation matters on the large - scale structure of the universe.
The long range of gravitation makes it responsible for such large - scale phenomena as the structure of galaxies and black holes and it retards the expansion of the universe. Gravitation also explains astronomical phenomena on more modest scales, such as planetary orbits, as well as everyday experience: objects fall; heavy objects act as if they were glued to the ground, and animals can only jump so high.
Gravitation was the first interaction to be described mathematically. In ancient times, Aristotle hypothesized that objects of different masses fall at different rates. During the Scientific Revolution, Galileo Galilei experimentally determined that this hypothesis was wrong under certain circumstances -- neglecting the friction due to air resistance, and buoyancy forces if an atmosphere is present (e.g. the case of a dropped air - filled balloon vs a water - filled balloon) all objects accelerate toward the Earth at the same rate. Isaac Newton 's law of Universal Gravitation (1687) was a good approximation of the behaviour of gravitation. Our present - day understanding of gravitation stems from Einstein 's General Theory of Relativity of 1915, a more accurate (especially for cosmological masses and distances) description of gravitation in terms of the geometry of spacetime.
Merging general relativity and quantum mechanics (or quantum field theory) into a more general theory of quantum gravity is an area of active research. It is hypothesized that gravitation is mediated by a massless spin - 2 particle called the graviton.
Although general relativity has been experimentally confirmed (at least for weak fields) on all but the smallest scales, there are rival theories of gravitation. Those taken seriously by the physics community all reduce to general relativity in some limit, and the focus of observational work is to establish limitations on what deviations from general relativity are possible.
Proposed extra dimensions could explain why the gravity force is so weak.
Electromagnetism and weak interaction appear to be very different at everyday low energies. They can be modelled using two different theories. However, above unification energy, on the order of 100 GeV, they would merge into a single electroweak force.
Electroweak theory is very important for modern cosmology, particularly on how the universe evolved. This is because shortly after the Big Bang, the temperature was approximately above 10 K, the electromagnetic force and the weak force were merged into a combined electroweak force.
For contributions to the unification of the weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, Abdus Salam, Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979.
Electromagnetism is the force that acts between electrically charged particles. This phenomenon includes the electrostatic force acting between charged particles at rest, and the combined effect of electric and magnetic forces acting between charged particles moving relative to each other.
Electromagnetism has infinite range like gravity, but is vastly stronger, and therefore describes a number of macroscopic phenomena of everyday experience such as friction, rainbows, lightning, and all human - made devices using electric current, such as television, lasers, and computers. Electromagnetism fundamentally determines all macroscopic, and many atomic levels, properties of the chemical elements, including all chemical bonding.
In a four kilogram (~ 1 gallon) jug of water there are
of total electron charge. Thus, if we place two such jugs a meter apart, the electrons in one of the jugs repel those in the other jug with a force of
This force is larger than the planet Earth would weigh if weighed on another Earth. The atomic nuclei in one jug also repel those in the other with the same force. However, these repulsive forces are canceled by the attraction of the electrons in jug A with the nuclei in jug B and the attraction of the nuclei in jug A with the electrons in jug B, resulting in no net force. Electromagnetic forces are tremendously stronger than gravity but cancel out so that for large bodies gravity dominates.
Electrical and magnetic phenomena have been observed since ancient times, but it was only in the 19th century James Clerk Maxwell discovered that electricity and magnetism are two aspects of the same fundamental interaction. By 1864, Maxwell 's equations had rigorously quantified this unified interaction. Maxwell 's theory, restated using vector calculus, is the classical theory of electromagnetism, suitable for most technological purposes.
The constant speed of light in a vacuum (customarily described with the letter "c '') can be derived from Maxwell 's equations, which are consistent with the theory of special relativity. Einstein 's 1905 theory of special relativity, however, which flows from the observation that the speed of light is constant no matter how fast the observer is moving, showed that the theoretical result implied by Maxwell 's equations has profound implications far beyond electromagnetism on the very nature of time and space.
In another work that departed from classical electro - magnetism, Einstein also explained the photoelectric effect by hypothesizing that light was transmitted in quanta, which we now call photons. Starting around 1927, Paul Dirac combined quantum mechanics with the relativistic theory of electromagnetism. Further work in the 1940s, by Richard Feynman, Freeman Dyson, Julian Schwinger, and Sin - Itiro Tomonaga, completed this theory, which is now called quantum electrodynamics, the revised theory of electromagnetism. Quantum electrodynamics and quantum mechanics provide a theoretical basis for electromagnetic behavior such as quantum tunneling, in which a certain percentage of electrically charged particles move in ways that would be impossible under the classical electromagnetic theory, that is necessary for everyday electronic devices such as transistors to function.
The weak interaction or weak nuclear force is responsible for some nuclear phenomena such as beta decay. Electromagnetism and the weak force are now understood to be two aspects of a unified electroweak interaction -- this discovery was the first step toward the unified theory known as the Standard Model. In the theory of the electroweak interaction, the carriers of the weak force are the massive gauge bosons called the W and Z bosons. The weak interaction is the only known interaction which does not conserve parity; it is left - right asymmetric. The weak interaction even violates CP symmetry but does conserve CPT.
The strong interaction, or strong nuclear force, is the most complicated interaction, mainly because of the way it varies with distance. At distances greater than 10 femtometers, the strong force is practically unobservable. Moreover, it holds only inside the atomic nucleus.
After the nucleus was discovered in 1908, it was clear that a new force, today known as the nuclear force, was needed to overcome the electrostatic repulsion, a manifestation of electromagnetism, of the positively charged protons. Otherwise, the nucleus could not exist. Moreover, the force had to be strong enough to squeeze the protons into a volume that is about 10 m, much smaller than that of the entire atom. From the short range of this force, Hideki Yukawa predicted that it was associated with a massive particle, whose mass is approximately 100 MeV.
The 1947 discovery of the pion ushered in the modern era of particle physics. Hundreds of hadrons were discovered from the 1940s to 1960s, and an extremely complicated theory of hadrons as strongly interacting particles was developed. Most notably:
While each of these approaches offered deep insights, no approach led directly to a fundamental theory.
Murray Gell - Mann along with George Zweig first proposed fractionally charged quarks in 1961. Throughout the 1960s, different authors considered theories similar to the modern fundamental theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) as simple models for the interactions of quarks. The first to hypothesize the gluons of QCD were Moo - Young Han and Yoichiro Nambu, who introduced the quark color charge and hypothesized that it might be associated with a force - carrying field. At that time, however, it was difficult to see how such a model could permanently confine quarks. Han and Nambu also assigned each quark color an integer electrical charge, so that the quarks were fractionally charged only on average, and they did not expect the quarks in their model to be permanently confined.
In 1971, Murray Gell - Mann and Harald Fritzsch proposed that the Han / Nambu color gauge field was the correct theory of the short - distance interactions of fractionally charged quarks. A little later, David Gross, Frank Wilczek, and David Politzer discovered that this theory had the property of asymptotic freedom, allowing them to make contact with experimental evidence. They concluded that QCD was the complete theory of the strong interactions, correct at all distance scales. The discovery of asymptotic freedom led most physicists to accept QCD since it became clear that even the long - distance properties of the strong interactions could be consistent with experiment if the quarks are permanently confined.
Assuming that quarks are confined, Mikhail Shifman, Arkady Vainshtein and Valentine Zakharov were able to compute the properties of many low - lying hadrons directly from QCD, with only a few extra parameters to describe the vacuum. In 1980, Kenneth G. Wilson published computer calculations based on the first principles of QCD, establishing, to a level of confidence tantamount to certainty, that QCD will confine quarks. Since then, QCD has been the established theory of the strong interactions.
QCD is a theory of fractionally charged quarks interacting by means of 8 bosonic particles called gluons. The gluons interact with each other, not just with the quarks, and at long distances the lines of force collimate into strings. In this way, the mathematical theory of QCD not only explains how quarks interact over short distances but also the string - like behavior, discovered by Chew and Frautschi, which they manifest over longer distances.
Numerous theoretical efforts have been made to systematize the existing four fundamental interactions on the model of electroweak unification.
Grand Unified Theories (GUTs) are proposals to show that the three fundamental interactions described by the Standard Model are all different manifestations of a single interaction with symmetries that break down and create separate interactions below some extremely high level of energy. GUTs are also expected to predict some of the relationships between constants of nature that the Standard Model treats as unrelated, as well as predicting gauge coupling unification for the relative strengths of the electromagnetic, weak, and strong forces (this was, for example, verified at the Large Electron -- Positron Collider in 1991 for supersymmetric theories).
Theories of everything, which integrate GUTs with a quantum gravity theory face a greater barrier, because no quantum gravity theories, which include string theory, loop quantum gravity, and twistor theory, have secured wide acceptance. Some theories look for a graviton to complete the Standard Model list of force - carrying particles, while others, like loop quantum gravity, emphasize the possibility that time - space itself may have a quantum aspect to it.
Some theories beyond the Standard Model include a hypothetical fifth force, and the search for such a force is an ongoing line of experimental research in physics. In supersymmetric theories, there are particles that acquire their masses only through supersymmetry breaking effects and these particles, known as moduli can mediate new forces. Another reason to look for new forces is the recent discovery that the expansion of the universe is accelerating (also known as dark energy), giving rise to a need to explain a nonzero cosmological constant, and possibly to other modifications of general relativity. Fifth forces have also been suggested to explain phenomena such as CP violations, dark matter, and dark flow.
In December 2015, two observations in the ATLAS and CMS detectors at the Large Hadron Collider hinted at the existence of a new particle six times heavier than the Higgs boson. However, after obtaining more experimental data, the anomaly appeared to not be significant.
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where does the tradition of releasing 2 doves at a wedding come from | Release dove - wikipedia
A release dove, also called white pigeon, is a rock dove (domestic pigeon) bred for size and overall resemblance to a white dove. Pure white doves do not exist in nature (except as albinos).
Increased public awareness about the cruelty of this practice is decreasing the popularity of releasing "doves '' for various ceremonies.
Although many dove release businesses advertise that their birds will be able to safely return home, most released "doves '' are killed in accidents or by predators before they can make their way back. Very few released birds are able to survive a return flight and are viewed as a disposable commodity by dove release businesses.
The pigeons bred for dove release services are bred for their color and small size, not for their homing abilities or flight speed, as a result, some birds are killed by predatory birds minutes after they are released. Some released birds become confused and are found injured or dead nearby their original release site. Since these are domesticated birds, they do not possess the instincts or skills to survive in the wild.
The Vatican no longer engages in the releasing of doves after an incident in 2014 where Pope Francis released two doves which were promptly attacked by predatory birds as crowds watched.
Release dove handlers each offer their own unique list of release ceremonies to choose from. Some companies will offer either untrained homers, ringnecks, or other types of pigeon or dove. Those types of birds are likely to end up in the claws of a hawk, owl or cat, since they are unable to survive on their own in the wild.
Many birds have been used for ceremonial releases. But only the Rock Dove has been used traditionally as a messenger of the event that they are released at.
There are many breeds of homing pigeons, often called "Thoroughbreds of the Sky ''. Colored homing pigeons are often used for ceremonial release when pure white homing pigeons are not needed or not available. The most common breed of homing pigeon is bred for racing, and typically flies 480 km (300 miles) to 970 km (600 miles) in a race. The earliest homing pigeons were not used for racing, but to carry messages over long distances in a short amount of time. Today, long - distance homing pigeons fly 1,600 km (1,000 miles) or more. All racers are judged and selected for how quickly they return home.
White racing pigeons are most often used for ceremonial release. The pure white pigeon or Rock Dove is associated with all good traits: peace, hope, love, goodwill and family to name a few. They are typically bigger and can be heavier than other Racing Homers as their primary breeding focus has been their ability to fly from many different locations and their looks rather than flight from a few select locations at a high rate of speed. A breed of white Racing Homer called the Belgian Pletinckx can be used for white dove release ceremonies and they make good racers.
Although many people refer to the white homing pigeon as "racing pigeons '', not all white ceremonial release pigeons are used for racing. A racing pigeon is different only in that it is bred for the sport of pigeon racing and breeders select for speed, as well as homing ability; they are in fact the same type of bird.
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name the point and time of departure and arrival at the end of the day | Estimated time of arrival - wikipedia
The estimated time of arrival or ETA is the time when a ship, vehicle, aircraft, cargo or emergency service is expected to arrive at a certain place. One of the more common uses is in public transportation where the movements of trains, buses, airplanes and the like can be used to generate estimated times of arrival depending on either a static timetable or through measurements on traffic intensity. In this respect, the phrase or its abbreviation is often paired with its complement, "estimated time of departure '' or "ETD '', to indicate the expected start time of a particular journey. This information is often conveyed to a passenger information system as part of the core functionality of intelligent transportation systems.
For example, a certain flight may have a calculated ETA based on the speed by which it has covered the distance traveled so far. The remaining distance is divided by the speed previously measured to roughly estimate the arrival time. This particular method does not take into account any unexpected events (such as new wind directions) which may occur on the way to the flight 's destination.
ETA is also used metaphorically in situations where nothing actually moves physically, as in describing the time estimated for a certain task to complete (e.g. work undertaken by an individual; a computation undertaken by a computer program; or a process undertaken by an organization). The associated term is "estimated time of accomplishment '', which may be a backronym. For example, Bittorrent clients specify ETA as the expected time remaining for a file to completely download as 1d4h (1 day and 4 hours), 1w2d (1 week and 2 days), etc.
Accurate and timely estimations of times of arrival are important in several application areas:
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which network will be airing the 2017 nfl hall of fame game | Pro Football Hall of Fame game - wikipedia
The Pro Football Hall of Fame Game is an annual National Football League exhibition game that is held the weekend of the Pro Football Hall of Fame 's induction ceremonies. The game is played at Tom Benson Hall of Fame Stadium, which is located adjacent to the Hall of Fame building in Canton, Ohio. It is traditionally the first game in the NFL 's preseason, marking the end of the NFL 's six - month offseason.
The two teams that play in the Pro Football Hall of Fame Game are typically selected by the league in advance of the remainder of the preseason schedule. The participants are usually announced around the time that the new Hall of Fame members are announced, which coincides with Super Bowl week. Often if a particularly notable player will be entering the Hall of Fame that year a team they were strongly associated with may be selected to play in the game to help maximize attendance and publicity of the game itself. Since 1971, the opponents for each game have traditionally included one AFC team and one NFC team. In 2009, as recognition of the 50th anniversary of the American Football League, the game paired two AFC teams who were part of the "original eight '' franchises of the AFL, the Tennessee Titans (dressed as their previous incarnation, the Houston Oilers) and the Buffalo Bills, whose owner, Ralph Wilson, was inducted into the Hall that year. An all - NFC matchup was scheduled for 2011, but it was canceled due to the 2011 NFL lockout; the following year, another intra-conference matchup of two NFC teams took its place. Since 2012, both competing teams in the game has had at least one prominent alumnus being inducted into the Hall that year.
Because this game and the Hall of Fame 's induction ceremonies are scheduled on the weekend before the league 's regular four - week exhibition season begins, both teams end up playing five exhibition games instead of the normal four, and unlike the Canadian Football League, the league does not remove an exhibition game from another week.
The last four expansion teams to have been added to the league each played in the Hall of Fame Game as their first game. In 1995, expansion clubs Jacksonville and Carolina played one another, and in 2002, Houston was one of the participants. When the Cleveland Browns returned to the league with a rebooted roster in 1999, they too played in the Hall of Fame Game. (The Baltimore Ravens, while officially considered as being established in 1996, did not play in the Hall of Fame Game that year, nor have they played at any time in their existence.)
Prior to the AFL - NFL merger, the Hall of Fame Game was played in August or September, in some cases at the end of the preseason. In 1970, it was moved to the beginning of the preseason. Prior to 2002, it was not uncommon for the game to be played in July. Since 2002, when the league permanently moved the start of the season to the weekend after Labor Day, the game has always been played in early August.
The 2011 game was originally scheduled between the St. Louis Rams and the Chicago Bears, but the game was canceled due to an ongoing labor dispute that had disrupted nearly all league activity during the 2011 offseason. The two clubs had set a deadline of July 22 to ratify a resolution in enough time to prepare for the game. The league and players did not ratify the agreement until July 25, forcing cancellation of the game.
The 2016 edition, which was scheduled to be played between the Green Bay Packers and the Indianapolis Colts, was canceled due to unsafe playing conditions. Mike Silver of NFL.com reported that on the morning of game day, the logos at midfield and the end zones had been painted using paint which was not intended for use on artificial turf. When it was apparent the paint was n't drying fast enough, the field was heated to speed up the drying process, but this caused the turf 's rubber to melt. These issues led to unfavorable play conditions. The affected areas were described as being slick and "like cement, '' making it impossible to get decent footing. Stadium officials attempted to address this by applying a solvent, reportedly paint thinner, to the turf. A Packers employee noticed a label warning that this substance could result in burns when exposed to skin, and alerted others to the discovery. When officially cancelling the game, both the league and the Players Association cited safety concerns.
Both teams were told at 6: 40 p.m. -- an hour and 20 minutes before kickoff -- that the game was going to be canceled. However, fans in the stadium only learned of the pending cancellation via social media. No official announcement was made until just before the scheduled 8 p.m. kickoff.
On December 28, 2016, the NFL announced that the 2017 edition of the game would be played on Thursday, August 3, 2017. The scheduling change makes the Hall of Fame Game the first event of the Hall of Fame Weekend. On February 23, 2017, it was announced the 2017 edition will be played between the Dallas Cowboys and the Arizona Cardinals.
Unlike the majority of NFL preseason games, which air on local networks, the Hall of Fame Game airs nationwide. From 1999 to 2005, the game was held on Monday night, televised as part of ABC 's Monday Night Football package. It had previously been held typically on Saturday afternoons, except from 1963 to 1965 on Sunday afternoons, televised as part of ABC 's Wide World of Sports package (still using the MNF crew). In 1998, the game was put in the MNF package, and played on a Saturday night, which served as a test run for the move to Monday night. Starting in 2006, it was moved to Sunday night, coinciding with the new NBC Sunday Night Football television package. The 2007 game was telecast on NFL Network as NBC was intending to televise the China Bowl game in Beijing, China (a game which was postponed to 2009 and later canceled). The Hall of Fame Game has since bounced between both networks. The 2012 game aired on NFL Network due to NBC 's coverage of the Summer Olympics. After a two - year absence, the game returned to NBC in 2013 and remained on the network until 2015. The 2016 game was scheduled to air on ESPN as it was to be played two days into the 2016 Summer Olympics but the game was canceled due to field conditions, it returned to NBC in 2017 and will remain on the network until 2019.
Westwood One owns national radio rights; it is the only preseason game to air on a nationwide network. Each team 's radio network is also allowed to broadcast the games (albeit usually with fewer affiliates since exhibition games are traditionally much lower priority to non-sports and non-flagship stations).
In 2007 and 2008, the game was broadcast live in both Ireland and the United Kingdom by Sky Sports. It was not shown in 2009 because of a dispute between Sky Sports and the NFL over TV rights. ESPN America (formerly North American Sports Network) broadcasts the game in the rest of Europe.
From 1998 to 2005, the Global Television Network aired the game in Canada, simulcasting ABC; upon the move to Sunday night in 2006, the CTV Television Network aired the game until 2010. With CTV airing the 2012 Summer Olympics, TSN broadcast the Hall of Fame Game in 2012. Azteca 7 aired Spanish - language coverage of the Hall of Fame Game in Mexico from 1998 to 2005; the Game moved to Canal 5 in 2006 and aired on that station until 2010. Due to the cancellation of the 2011 Hall of Fame Game and Televisa 's Summer Olympics coverage, the Hall of Fame Game moved to Televisa Deportes in 2012 and then to Galavision in 2013.
Tom Benson Hall of Fame Stadium is part of the Cleveland market, and is also within 75 miles of numerous other television markets in northeast Ohio and western Pennsylvania. As such, the NBC affiliates (and before them, the ABC affiliates) are within league requirements to blackout the game in the rare event the game does not sell out. Because the stadium only holds 22,375 fans (less than half the NFL 's minimum requirements for its stadiums) and the Hall of Fame induction ceremonies bring large numbers of outside fans to Canton, the game has, to date, always sold out (several NFL teams, as well as the Super Bowl, have similarly enjoyed long sellout streaks).
Most appearances -- 6: Pittsburgh Steelers (1963, 1964, 1983, 1998, 2007, and 2015) and Dallas Cowboys (1968, 1979, 1999, 2010, 2013, and 2017)
Most wins -- 5: Washington Redskins (1965, 1975, 1989, 2004, and 2008)
Longest active drought without Hall of Fame Game appearance -- 26 seasons: Detroit Lions (last appearance -- 1991); 25 seasons: New York Jets (last appearance -- 1992); 23 seasons: Atlanta Falcons and Los Angeles Chargers (last appearance -- 1994); 22 seasons: Carolina Panthers and Jacksonville Jaguars (last appearance -- 1995)
Active teams to have never made a Hall of Fame Game appearance -- Baltimore Ravens
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the principle of kinship selection is based on the assumption that | Kin selection - wikipedia
Kin selection is the evolutionary strategy that favours the reproductive success of an organism 's relatives, even at a cost to the organism 's own survival and reproduction. Kin altruism is altruistic behaviour whose evolution is driven by kin selection. Kin selection is an instance of inclusive fitness, which combines the number of offspring produced with the number an individual can ensure the production of by supporting others, such as siblings.
Charles Darwin discussed the concept of kin selection in his 1859 book, The Origin of Species, where he reflected on the puzzle of sterile social insects, such as honey bees, which leave reproduction to their mothers, arguing that a selection benefit to related organisms (the same "stock '') would allow the evolution of a trait that confers the benefit but destroys an individual at the same time. R.A. Fisher in 1930 and J.B.S. Haldane in 1932 set out the mathematics of kin selection, with Haldane famously joking that he would willingly die for two brothers or eight cousins. In 1964, W.D. Hamilton popularised the concept and the major advance in the mathematical treatment of the phenomenon by George R. Price which has become known as Hamilton 's rule. In the same year John Maynard Smith used the actual term kin selection for the first time.
According to Hamilton 's rule, kin selection causes genes to increase in frequency when the genetic relatedness of a recipient to an actor multiplied by the benefit to the recipient is greater than the reproductive cost to the actor. Hamilton proposed two mechanisms for kin selection. First, kin recognition allows individuals to be able to identify their relatives. Second, in viscous populations, populations in which the movement of organisms from their place of birth is relatively slow, local interactions tend to be among relatives by default. The viscous population mechanism makes kin selection and social cooperation possible in the absence of kin recognition. In this case, nurture kinship, the treatment of individuals as kin as a result of living together, is sufficient for kin selection, given reasonable assumptions about population dispersal rates. Note that kin selection is not the same thing as group selection, where it instead is proposed that natural selection acts on the group as a whole.
In humans, altruism is both more likely and on a larger scale with kin than with unrelated individuals; for example, humans give presents according to how closely related they are to the recipient. In other species, vervet monkeys use allomothering, where related females such as older sisters or grandmothers often care for young, according to their relatedness. The social shrimp Synalpheus regalis protects juveniles within highly related colonies.
Charles Darwin was the first to discuss the concept of kin selection. In The Origin of Species, he wrote clearly about the conundrum represented by altruistic sterile social insects that
This difficulty, though appearing insuperable, is lessened, or, as I believe, disappears, when it is remembered that selection may be applied to the family, as well as to the individual, and may thus gain the desired end. Breeders of cattle wish the flesh and fat to be well marbled together. An animal thus characterised has been slaughtered, but the breeder has gone with confidence to the same stock and has succeeded.
In this passage "the family '' and "stock '' stand for a kin group. These passages and others by Darwin about "kin selection '' are highlighted in D.J. Futuyma 's textbook of reference Evolutionary Biology and in E.O. Wilson 's Sociobiology.
The earliest mathematically formal treatments of kin selection were by R.A. Fisher in 1930 and J.B.S. Haldane in 1932 and 1955. J.B.S. Haldane fully grasped the basic quantities and considerations in kin selection, famously writing "I would lay down my life for two brothers or eight cousins ''. Haldane 's remark alluded to the fact that if an individual loses its life to save two siblings, four nephews, or eight cousins, it is a "fair deal '' in evolutionary terms, as siblings are on average 50 % identical by descent, nephews 25 %, and cousins 12.5 % (in a diploid population that is randomly mating and previously outbred). But Haldane also joked that he would truly die only to save more than a single identical twin of his or more than two full siblings. In 1955 he clarified:
Let us suppose that you carry a rare gene that affects your behaviour so that you jump into a flooded river and save a child, but you have one chance in ten of being drowned, while I do not possess the gene, and stand on the bank and watch the child drown. If the child 's your own child or your brother or sister, there is an even chance that this child will also have this gene, so five genes will be saved in children for one lost in an adult. If you save a grandchild or a nephew, the advantage is only two and a half to one. If you only save a first cousin, the effect is very slight. If you try to save your first cousin once removed the population is more likely to lose this valuable gene than to gain it.... It is clear that genes making for conduct of this kind would only have a chance of spreading in rather small populations when most of the children were fairly near relatives of the man who risked his life.
W.D. Hamilton, in 1963 and especially in 1964 popularised the concept and the more thorough mathematical treatment given to it by George Price.
John Maynard Smith may have coined the actual term "kin selection '' in 1964:
These processes I will call kin selection and group selection respectively. Kin selection has been discussed by Haldane and by Hamilton.... By kin selection I mean the evolution of characteristics which favour the survival of close relatives of the affected individual, by processes which do not require any discontinuities in the population breeding structure.
Kin selection causes changes in gene frequency across generations, driven by interactions between related individuals. This dynamic forms the conceptual basis of the theory of social evolution. Some cases of evolution by natural selection can only be understood by considering how biological relatives influence each other 's fitness. Under natural selection, a gene encoding a trait that enhances the fitness of each individual carrying it should increase in frequency within the population; and conversely, a gene that lowers the individual fitness of its carriers should be eliminated. However, a hypothetical gene that prompts behaviour which enhances the fitness of relatives but lowers that of the individual displaying the behaviour, may nonetheless increase in frequency, because relatives often carry the same gene. According to this principle, the enhanced fitness of relatives can at times more than compensate for the fitness loss incurred by the individuals displaying the behaviour, making kin selection possible. This is a special case of a more general model, "inclusive fitness ''. This analysis has been challenged, Wilson writing that "the foundations of the general theory of inclusive fitness based on the theory of kin selection have crumbled '' and that he now relies instead on the theory of eusociality and "gene - culture co-evolution '' for the underlying mechanics of sociobiology.
"Kin selection '' should not be confused with "group selection '' according to which a genetic trait can become prevalent within a group because it benefits the group as a whole, regardless of any benefit to individual organisms. All known forms of group selection conform to the principle that an individual behaviour can be evolutionarily successful only if the genes responsible for this behaviour conform to Hamilton 's Rule, and hence, on balance and in the aggregate, benefit from the behaviour.
Formally, genes should increase in frequency when
where
This inequality is known as Hamilton 's rule after W.D. Hamilton who in 1964 published the first formal quantitative treatment of kin selection.
The relatedness parameter (r) in Hamilton 's rule was introduced in 1922 by Sewall Wright as a coefficient of relationship that gives the probability that at a random locus, the alleles there will be identical by descent. Subsequent authors, including Hamilton, sometimes reformulate this with a regression, which, unlike probabilities, can be negative. A regression analysis producing statistically significant negative relationships indicates that two individuals are less genetically alike than two random ones (Hamilton 1970, Nature & Grafen 1985 Oxford Surveys in Evolutionary Biology). This has been invoked to explain the evolution of spiteful behaviour consisting of acts that result in harm, or loss of fitness, to both the actor and the recipient.
Several scientific studies have found that the kin selection model can be applied to nature. For example, in 2010 researchers used a wild population of red squirrels in Yukon, Canada to study kin selection in nature. The researchers found that surrogate mothers would adopt related orphaned squirrel pups but not unrelated orphans. The researchers calculated the cost of adoption by measuring a decrease in the survival probability of the entire litter after increasing the litter by one pup, while benefit was measured as the increased chance of survival of the orphan. The degree of relatedness of the orphan and surrogate mother for adoption to occur depended on the number of pups the surrogate mother already had in her nest, as this affected the cost of adoption. The study showed that females always adopted orphans when rB > C, but never adopted when rB < C, providing strong support for Hamilton 's rule.
Altruism occurs where the instigating individual suffers a fitness loss while the receiving individual experiences a fitness gain. The sacrifice of one individual to help another is an example.
Hamilton (1964) outlined two ways in which kin selection altruism could be favoured:
The selective advantage which makes behaviour conditional in the right sense on the discrimination of factors which correlate with the relationship of the individual concerned is therefore obvious. It may be, for instance, that in respect of a certain social action performed towards neighbours indiscriminately, an individual is only just breaking even in terms of inclusive fitness. If he could learn to recognise those of his neighbours who really were close relatives and could devote his beneficial actions to them alone an advantage to inclusive fitness would at once appear. Thus a mutation causing such discriminatory behaviour itself benefits inclusive fitness and would be selected. In fact, the individual may not need to perform any discrimination so sophisticated as we suggest here; a difference in the generosity of his behaviour according to whether the situations evoking it were encountered near to, or far from, his own home might occasion an advantage of a similar kind. '' (1996 (1964), 51)
Kin recognition: First, if individuals have the capacity to recognise kin and to discriminate (positively) on the basis of kinship, then the average relatedness of the recipients of altruism could be high enough for kin selection. Because of the facultative nature of this mechanism, kin recognition and discrimination are expected to be unimportant except among ' higher ' forms of life such as the fish Neolamprologus pulcher (although there is some evidence for it among protozoa). Note also that kin recognition may be selected for inbreeding avoidance, and little evidence indicates that ' innate ' kin recognition plays a role in mediating altruism. A thought experiment on the kin recognition / discrimination distinction is the hypothetical ' green beard ', where a gene for social behaviour is imagined also to cause a distinctive phenotype that can be recognised by other carriers of the gene. Due to conflicting genetic similarity in the rest of the genome, there would be selection pressure for green - beard altruistic sacrifices to be suppressed, making common ancestry the most likely form of inclusive fitness.
Viscous populations: Secondly, even indiscriminate altruism may be favoured in "viscous '' populations with low rates or short ranges of dispersal. Here, social partners are typically genealogically close kin, and so altruism can flourish even in the absence of kin recognition and kin discrimination faculties -- spatial proximity and circumstantial cues serving as a rudimentary form of discrimination. This suggests a rather general explanation for altruism. Directional selection always favours those with higher rates of fecundity within a certain population. Social individuals can often enhance the survival of their own kin by participating in and following the rules of their own group.
Hamilton later modified his thinking to suggest that an innate ability to recognise actual genetic relatedness was unlikely to be the dominant mediating mechanism for kin altruism:
But once again, we do not expect anything describable as an innate kin recognition adaptation, used for social behaviour other than mating, for the reasons already given in the hypothetical case of the trees. (Hamilton 1987, 425)
Hamilton 's later clarifications often go unnoticed, and because of the long - standing assumption that kin selection requires innate powers of kin recognition, some theorists have tried to clarify the position in recent work:
In his original papers on inclusive fitness theory, Hamilton pointed out a sufficiently high relatedness to favour altruistic behaviours could accrue in two ways -- kin discrimination or limited dispersal (Hamilton, 1964, 1971, 1972, 1975). There is a huge theoretical literature on the possible role of limited dispersal reviewed by Platt & Bever (2009) and West et al. (2002a), as well as experimental evolution tests of these models (Diggle et al., 2007; Griffin et al., 2004; Kümmerli et al., 2009). However, despite this, it is still sometimes claimed that kin selection requires kin discrimination (Oates & Wilson, 2001; Silk, 2002). Furthermore, a large number of authors appear to have implicitly or explicitly assumed that kin discrimination is the only mechanism by which altruistic behaviours can be directed towards relatives... (T) here is a huge industry of papers reinventing limited dispersal as an explanation for cooperation. The mistakes in these areas seem to stem from the incorrect assumption that kin selection or indirect fitness benefits require kin discrimination (misconception 5), despite the fact that Hamilton pointed out the potential role of limited dispersal in his earliest papers on inclusive fitness theory (Hamilton, 1964; Hamilton, 1971; Hamilton, 1972; Hamilton, 1975). (West et al. 2010, p. 243 and supplement)
The assumption that kin recognition must be innate, and that cue - based mediation of social cooperation based on limited dispersal and shared developmental context are not sufficient, has obscured significant progress made in applying kin selection and inclusive fitness theory to a wide variety of species, including humans, on the basis of cue - based mediation of social bonding and social behaviours.
Evolutionary psychologists, following early human sociobiologists ' interpretation of kin selection theory initially attempted to explain human altruistic behaviour through kin selection by stating that "behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection. '' However, most Evolutionary psychologists recognise that this common shorthand formulation is inaccurate;
(M) any misunderstandings persist. In many cases, they result from conflating "coefficient of relatedness '' and "proportion of shared genes, '' which is a short step from the intuitively appealing -- but incorrect -- interpretation that "animals tend to be altruistic toward those with whom they share a lot of genes. '' These misunderstandings do n't just crop up occasionally; they are repeated in many writings, including undergraduate psychology textbooks -- most of them in the field of social psychology, within sections describing evolutionary approaches to altruism. (Park 2007, p860)
As with the earlier sociobiological forays into the cross-cultural data, typical approaches are not able to find explanatory fit with the findings of ethnographers insofar that human kinship patterns are not necessarily built upon blood - ties. However, as Hamilton 's later refinements of his theory make clear, it does not simply predict that genetically related individuals will inevitably recognise and engage in positive social behaviours with genetic relatives: rather, indirect context - based mechanisms may have evolved, which in historical environments have met the inclusive fitness criterion (see above section). Consideration of the demographics of the typical evolutionary environment of any species is crucial to understanding the evolution of social behaviours. As Hamilton himself puts it, "Altruistic or selfish acts are only possible when a suitable social object is available. In this sense behaviours are conditional from the start. '' (Hamilton 1987, 420).
Under this perspective, and noting the necessity of a reliable context of interaction being available, the data on how altruism is mediated in social mammals is readily made sense of. In social mammals, primates and humans, altruistic acts that meet the kin selection criterion are typically mediated by circumstantial cues such as shared developmental environment, familiarity and social bonding. That is, it is the context that mediates the development of the bonding process and the expression of the altruistic behaviours, not genetic relatedness per se. This interpretation thus is compatible with the cross-cultural ethnographic data and has been called nurture kinship.
Eusociality (true sociality) is used to describe social systems with three characteristics: an overlap in generations between parents and their offspring, cooperative brood care, and specialised castes of non-reproductive individuals. The social insects provide good examples of organisms with what appear to be kin selected traits. The workers of some species are sterile, a trait that would not occur if individual selection was the only process at work. The relatedness coefficient r is abnormally high between the worker sisters in a colony of Hymenoptera due to haplodiploidy. Hamilton 's rule is presumed to be satisfied because the benefits in fitness for the workers are believed to exceed the costs in terms of lost reproductive opportunity, though this has never been demonstrated empirically. There are competing hypotheses, as well, which may also explain the evolution of social behaviour in such organisms.
In sun - tailed monkey communities, maternal kin (kin related to by mothers) favour each other, but that with relatives more distant than half - siblings, this bias drops significantly.
Alarm calls in ground squirrels appear to confirm kin selection. While calls may alert others of the same species to danger, they draw attention to the caller and expose it to increased risk of predation. The calls occur most frequently when the caller had relatives nearby. Individual male prairie dogs followed through different stages of life modify their rate of calling when closer to kin. These behaviours show that self - sacrifice is directed towards close relatives, and that there is an indirect fitness gain. Surrogate mothers adopt orphaned red squirrels in the wild only when the conditions of Hamilton 's rule were met.
Alan Krakauer of University of California, Berkeley has studied kin selection in the courtship behaviour of wild turkeys. Like a teenager helping her older sister prepare for a party, a subordinate turkey may help his dominant brother put on an impressive team display that is only of direct benefit to the dominant member.
Even certain plants can recognise and respond to kinship ties. Using sea rocket, Susan Dudley at McMaster University, Canada compared the growth patterns of unrelated plants sharing a pot to plants from the same clone. She found that unrelated plants competed for soil nutrients by aggressive root growth. This did not occur with sibling plants.
In the wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus), aggregates of spermatozoa form mobile trains, some of the spermatozoa undergo premature acrosome reactions that correlate to improved mobility of the mobile trains towards the female egg for fertilisation. This association is thought to proceed as a result of a "green beard effect '' in which the spermatozoa perform a kin - selective altruistic act after identifying genetic similarity with the surrounding spermatozoa.
Whether or not Hamilton 's rule always applies, relatedness is often important for human altruism, in that humans are inclined to behave more altruistically toward kin than toward unrelated individuals. Many people choose to live near relatives, exchange sizeable gifts with relatives, and favour relatives in wills in proportion to their relatedness.
Interviews of several hundred women in Los Angeles showed that while non-kin friends were willing to help one another, their assistance was far more likely to be reciprocal. The largest amounts of non-reciprocal help, however, were reportedly provided by kin. Additionally, more closely related kin were considered more likely sources of assistance than distant kin. Similarly, several surveys of American college students found that individuals were more likely to incur the cost of assisting kin when a high probability that relatedness and benefit would be greater than cost existed. Participants ' feelings of helpfulness were stronger toward family members than non-kin. Additionally, participants were found to be most willing to help those individuals most closely related to them. Interpersonal relationships between kin in general were more supportive and less Machiavellian than those between non-kin.
In one experiment, the longer participants (from both the UK and the South African Zulus) held a painful skiing position, the more money or food was presented to a given relative. Participants repeated the experiment for individuals of different relatedness (parents and siblings at r =. 5, grandparents, nieces, and nephews at r =. 25, etc.). The results showed that participants held the position for longer intervals the greater the degree of relatedness between themselves and those receiving the reward.
A study of food - sharing practices on the West Caroline islets of Ifaluk determined that food - sharing was more common among people from the same islet, possibly because the degree of relatedness between inhabitants of the same islet would be higher than relatedness between inhabitants of different islets. When food was shared between islets, the distance the sharer was required to travel correlated with the relatedness of the recipient -- a greater distance meant that the recipient needed to be a closer relative. The relatedness of the individual and the potential inclusive fitness benefit needed to outweigh the energy cost of transporting the food over distance.
Humans may use the inheritance of material goods and wealth to maximise their inclusive fitness. By providing close kin with inherited wealth, an individual may improve his or her kin 's reproductive opportunities and thus increase his or her own inclusive fitness even after death. A study of a thousand wills found that the beneficiaries who received the most inheritance were generally those most closely related to the will 's writer. Distant kin received proportionally less inheritance, with the least amount of inheritance going to non-kin.
A study of childcare practices among Canadian women found that respondents with children provide childcare reciprocally with non-kin. The cost of caring for non-kin was balanced by the benefit a woman received -- having her own offspring cared for in return. However, respondents without children were significantly more likely to offer childcare to kin. For individuals without their own offspring, the inclusive fitness benefits of providing care to closely related children might outweigh the time and energy costs of childcare.
Family investment in offspring among black South African households also appears consistent with an inclusive fitness model. A higher degree of relatedness between children and their caregivers frequently correlated with a higher degree of investment in the children, with more food, health care, and clothing being provided. Relatedness between the child and the rest of the household also positively associated with the regularity of a child 's visits to local medical practitioners and with the highest grade the child had completed in school. Additionally, relatedness negatively associated with a child 's being behind in school for his or her age.
Observation of the Dolgan hunter - gatherers of northern Russia suggested that, while reciprocal food - sharing occurs between both kin and non-kin, there are larger and more frequent asymmetrical transfers of food to kin. Kin are also more likely to be welcomed to non-reciprocal meals, while non-kin are discouraged from attending. Finally, even when reciprocal food - sharing occurs between families, these families are often very closely related, and the primary beneficiaries are the offspring.
Other research indicates that violence in families is more likely to occur when step - parents are present and that "genetic relationship is associated with a softening of conflict, and people 's evident valuations of themselves and of others are systematically related to the parties ' reproductive values ''.
Numerous other studies suggest how inclusive fitness may work amongst different peoples, such as the Ye'kwana of southern Venezuela, the Gypsies of Hungary, and the doomed Donner Party of the United States.
Vervet monkeys display kin selection between siblings, mothers and offspring, and grandparent - grandchild. These monkeys utilise allomothering, where the allomother is typically an older female sibling or a grandmother. Other studies have shown that individuals will act aggressively toward other individuals that were aggressive toward their relatives.
Synalpheus regalis is a eusocial shrimp that protects juveniles in the colony. By defending the young, the large defender shrimp can increase its inclusive fitness. Allozyme data revealed that relatedness within colonies is high, averaging 0.50, indicating that colonies in this species represent close kin groups.
The theory of kin selection has been criticised by Alonso in 1998 and by Alonso and Schuck - Paim in 2002. Alonso and Schuck - Paim argue that the behaviours which kin selection attempts to explain are not altruistic (in pure Darwinian terms) because: (1) they may directly favour the performer as an individual aiming to maximise its progeny (so the behaviours can be explained as ordinary individual selection); (2) these behaviours benefit the group (so they can be explained as group selection); or (3) they are by - products of a developmental system of many "individuals '' performing different tasks (like a colony of bees, or the cells of multicellular organisms, which are the focus of selection). They also argue that the genes involved in sex ratio conflicts could be treated as "parasites '' of (already established) social colonies, not as their "promoters '', and, therefore the sex ratio in colonies would be irrelevant to the transition to eusociality. Those ideas were mostly ignored until they were put forward again in a series of papers by E.O. Wilson, Bert Hölldobler, Martin Nowak and others. Nowak, Tarnita and Wilson argued that
Inclusive fitness theory is not a simplification over the standard approach. It is an alternative accounting method, but one that works only in a very limited domain. Whenever inclusive fitness does work, the results are identical to those of the standard approach. Inclusive fitness theory is an unnecessary detour, which does not provide additional insight or information.
They, like Alonso (1998) and Alonso and Schuck - Paim (2002) earlier, argue for a multi-level selection model instead. This aroused a strong response, including a rebuttal published in Nature from over a hundred researchers.
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who plays danny heffernan on king of queens | Gary Valentine - wikipedia
Gary Joseph Knipfing (born November 22, 1961), better known by his screen name Gary Valentine, is an American actor, comedian, and writer. He is the older brother of actor Kevin James.
Valentine was born Gary Joseph Knipfing in Mineola, New York, to Janet, who had worked in a chiropractor 's office, and Joseph Valentine Knipfing, Jr., who owned an insurance agency. He is of German descent. Valentine has two siblings: Kevin George Knipfing, known as Kevin James, an actor and comedian, and Leslie Knipfing.
Valentine got his start in show business on the stand up comedy stage. After an appearance at the Montreal Comedy Festival, he left his native New York for Los Angeles. There, he quickly landed spots on various talk shows including The Late Late Show with Craig Kilborn, Late Night with Conan O'Brien and The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. He has been headlining comedy clubs and theaters for the past fifteen years.
He is best known for his role as Danny Heffernan on The King of Queens, playing the cousin of principal character Doug Heffernan (performed by his real life brother Kevin James) for nine seasons. Elsewhere on the small screen, he notably appeared on the television show Men of a Certain Age, which was written and directed by Ray Romano, and met with critical acclaim. Prior to his run on the series, he starred in his own half - hour special on Comedy Central along with hosting The X Show on FX.
On the big screen, Valentine has appeared in Stuck on You and I Now Pronounce You Chuck and Larry. He also had a cameo in Jerry Seinfeld 's documentary, Comedian. More recently, he makes occasional appearances as a round table comedian on the popular E! Network late - night talk show Chelsea Lately, and also takes part in the Dusty Peacock web series on Crackle.
Valentine performs comedy tours in clubs across the country. He 's been a frequent guest comedian on shows such as Comics Unleashed and the E! 's show Chelsea Lately. He appeared in Paul Blart Mall Cop, its sequel, Paul Blart: Mall Cop 2, and in the comedy web series Dusty Peacock on Crackle. Valentine also appeared as George Bannister in the movies The Dog Who Saved Christmas (2009), The Dog Who Saved Christmas Vacation (2010) and The Dog Who Saved Halloween (2011). He also played "Maury '' in the 2009 comedy The Deported. He co-hosted The X Show. Most recently, Valentine was executive producer of an upcoming new TV series, The Bachelor Chronicles.
In 2016, Valentine began starring in the CBS sitcom Kevin Can Wait.
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who sang on the banks of the river | Running Bear - wikipedia
"Running Bear '' is a song written by Jiles Perry Richardson (a.k.a. The Big Bopper) and sung most famously by Johnny Preston in 1959. The 1959 recording featured background vocals by Richardson and George Jones and the session 's producer Bill Hall, who provided the "Indian chanting '' of "uga - uga '' during the three verses, as well as the "Indian war cries '' at the start and end of the record. It was No. 1 for three weeks in January 1960 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States. The song also reached No. 1 in the UK Singles Chart in 1960. Coincidentally, "Running Bear '' was immediately preceded in the Hot 100 No. 1 position by Marty Robbins ' "El Paso '', another song in which the protagonist dies. Billboard ranked "Running Bear '' as the No. 4 song of 1960.
Richardson was a friend of Preston and offered "Running Bear '' to him after hearing him perform in a club. Preston recorded the song at the Gold Star Studios in Houston, Texas in 1958. The saxophone was played by Link Davis.
Preston was signed to Mercury Records, and "Running Bear '' was released in August 1959, seven months after Richardson 's death in the plane crash that also killed Buddy Holly and Ritchie Valens.
"Running Bear '' was used in the 1994 movie A Simple Twist of Fate, which stars Steve Martin as Michael McCann, a fine furniture maker in rural Virginia, who adopts a little girl named Mathilda. There is a scene about midway through the movie where he plays "Running Bear '' on the record player, and he and Mathilda are dancing to the song. The song, performed by Ray Gelato, also features in the London night - club scene in the film Scandal, based on the Profumo affair.
The song tells the story of Running Bear, a "young Indian brave '', and Little White Dove, an "Indian maid ''. The two are in love but are separated by two factors:
The two, longing to be together, despite the obstacles and the risks posed by the river, dive into the raging river to unite. After sharing a passionate kiss, they are pulled down by the swift current and drown. The lyrics describe their fate: "Now they 'll always be together / In their happy hunting ground. ''
A German version titled Brauner Bär und Weiße Taube ("Brown Bear and White Dove '') was recorded as a single by Gus Backus in 1960.
In 1960, the Dutch group Het Cocktail Trio recorded a version of the song called Grote Beer (' Great Bear ', but also ' Ursa Maior ') about an Indian who travels in space.
During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Sonny James enjoyed an unprecedented streak of success with his commercially released singles, many of them covers of previous pop hits. One of his 16 consecutive No. 1 singles on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart was a cover version of "Running Bear. '' Released in April 1969, James topped the Hot Country Singles chart in mid-June and spent three weeks at No. 1. The song soon was one of James ' most popular recordings of his career.
Jim Stallings recorded a version of the song on his 1969 album titled Heya!
The Guess Who included the song on their 1972 album Rockin ', although the songwriting credit is incorrectly given to Clarence "Curly '' Herdman, a country and bluegrass fiddler.
The Youngbloods released a version of the song as a single in 1972 and was featured on their album High on a Ridge Top.
Tom Jones recorded a funk version of the song on his 1973 album The Body and Soul of Tom Jones.
Mud recorded the song on their 1974 debut album Mud Rock which reached # 8 in the UK charts.
Danny Davis and the Nashville Brass recorded a toe - tapping version of the song, complete with the standard Nashville Brass banjo - and - steel solo, for their 1975 album Dream Country.
The song was occasionally part of Led Zeppelin 's live repertoire in the early 1970s, during rock medleys contained within long versions of "Whole Lotta Love ''.
In 2012 Ray Stevens covered the song on his 9 - CD box set, The Encyclopedia of Recorded Comedy Music.
Northern Irish punk band, Stiff Little Fingers did a live cover of this, which ended up on their album All the Best and later on the re-issue of their live album, Hanx!.
The song is a staple of Williams and Ree 's live set and is one of the duo 's most popular songs. Ree performs the lead vocals while Williams provides Indian chants and humorous alternatives, such as lyrics from Pump Up the Jam and Ice Ice Baby.
Bob Wills and his Texas Playboys frequently performed the song and it appears their album Time Changes Everything, and on many greatest hits compilations.
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who killed the hound in game of thrones books | Sandor Clegane - wikipedia
Sandor Clegane, nicknamed The Hound, is a fictional character in the A Song of Ice and Fire series of fantasy novels by American author George R.R. Martin, and its television adaptation Game of Thrones.
Introduced in 1996 's A Game of Thrones, Sandor is the younger brother of Ser Gregor Clegane, from the fictional Seven Kingdoms of Westeros. He subsequently appeared in Martin 's A Clash of Kings (1998), A Storm of Swords (2000) and A Feast for Crows (2005).
Sandor Clegane is portrayed by Rory McCann in the HBO television adaptation.
Sandor Clegane, known as the Hound, is a retainer to House Lannister and the younger brother of Gregor Clegane, a.k.a. The Mountain. He is regarded as one of the most dangerous and skilled fighters in Westeros. His face is distinguished by gruesome burn scars, which he received as a child when his brother pushed his head into a brazier. Consequently, he fears fire and hates his brother. He is also scornful of knight 's vows, as his brother is a knight, who indulges in rape and murder in spite of his knightly vows. He is described as a tormented man driven by anger and hate, aspiring only to kill his brother.
Sandor Clegane is not a point of view character in the novels, so his actions are witnessed and interpreted through the eyes of other people, such as Ned Stark, Sansa Stark, and Arya Stark. Sandor is mostly a background character in the novels.
Sandor Clegane is played by the Scottish actor Rory McCann in the television adaptation of the series of books. McCann has received acclaim for his role.
In A Game of Thrones, he acts as bodyguard and servant to Prince Joffrey Baratheon, who calls him Dog.
He is named a knight of Joffrey 's Kingsguard in A Clash of Kings and is often assigned to guard Sansa, trying to protect her from Joffrey 's abuse. He flees King 's Landing during the Battle of the Blackwater, due to the widespread use of wildfire, a fictional substance similar to Greek fire.
In A Storm of Swords, he is captured by the Brotherhood Without Banners which sentences him to trial by combat. Sandor prevails and is set free. He later kidnaps Arya to ransom her to her brother Robb Stark and hopes to earn a place in Robb 's service. He takes her to the Twins, where Robb is attending a wedding. However, just as they arrive, the Freys begin slaughtering the Starks. Sandor and Arya escape. They encounter three of Gregor 's men at an inn, and Sandor is seriously injured in the ensuing fight. Arya abandons him to his apparent death.
He is mentioned a few times in A Feast for Crows (2005), where the Elder Brother mentions to Brienne of Tarth that he found Sandor, who is now "at rest ''. However, the appearance of a mute gravedigger who matches Sandor physically and the Elder Brother 's refusal to confirm if Sandor is dead imply that he may still be alive.
Clegane accompanies the royal court on Robert Baratheon 's visit to Winterfell. On the way back to King 's Landing, Joffrey falsely accuses a butcher 's boy, Mycah, of threatening him, and Clegane kills the boy, attracting the hatred of Mycah 's friend Arya Stark. During the Tourney of the Hand, Sandor 's sadistic elder brother Gregor tries to kill Ser Loras Tyrell after he is unhorsed, but Sandor defends Loras from Gregor until Robert orders the men to stop fighting. When Ned Stark accuses Joffrey of being a bastard born of incest and orders his arrest, Clegane assists the Lannister soldiers in the subsequent purge of the Stark household and Sansa Stark 's capture, though he later comforts Sansa when Joffrey orders her beaten. With Joffrey 's ascension to the throne, Clegane is named to the Kingsguard to replace the ousted Ser Barristan Selmy, though Clegane refuses to take his knight 's vows.
Sandor continues to defend Sansa, including by covering her after Joffrey orders her stripped and rescuing her from being gang - raped during the King 's Landing riots. He participates in the Battle of the Blackwater against Stannis ' Baratheon 's forces, but is visibly horrified when Tyrion Lannister uses wildfire to incinerate much of Stannis ' fleet, and ultimately deserts after witnessing a man burning alive in the battle. Before he leaves, he offers to take Sansa north to Winterfell, but she ultimately refuses.
In the Riverlands, Clegane is arrested by the Brotherhood Without Banners, a group of knights and soldiers sent by Eddard Stark to kill his brother Gregor and restore order to the Riverlands. While being transported to their stronghold, he meets other members of the Brotherhood who are traveling with Arya Stark, and tells them of her true identity. At the Brotherhood 's hideout, their leader Ser Beric Dondarrion accuses Clegane of being a murderer; though Clegane asserts that the murders were done in order to protect Joffrey, Arya testifies that he had killed Mycah despite the boy not harming Joffrey. Ser Beric sentences Clegane to a trial by combat, which Clegane wins to secure his freedom, although Ser Beric is immediately resurrected by the Red Priest Thoros of Myr. Clegane later captures Arya, intending to ransom her to King Robb Stark at the wedding of Edmure Tully and Roslin Frey at The Twins. However, as they arrive at the Twins the Freys turn on the Starks and attack them, and Clegane and Arya barely escape the massacre.
With the rest of House Stark believed dead and the Riverlands now under the rule of House Frey, Clegane decides to ransom Arya to her aunt Lysa Arryn in the Vale. During their journey, Arya reveals to Clegane that she has not forgiven him for killing Mycah and has vowed to kill him. The duo arrive in the Vale to find that Lysa has ostensibly committed suicide. Returning from the Bloody Gate, they encounter Brienne of Tarth, sworn sword to Arya 's mother Catelyn, who had promised to take the Stark children to safety. When Arya refuses to go with Brienne, she and Clegane engage in a brawl that culminates in her throwing Clegane off a cliff, gravely wounding him. Though he begs Arya to kill him, she instead leaves him to die.
It is revealed Clegane had been discovered by a warrior turned septon, Ray, who nursed him back to health. Clegane assists Ray and his followers in building a sept, but one day after a brief journey into nearby woods, he returns to the community to find the villagers slaughtered by members of the Brotherhood Without Banners. Clegane takes up arms again to hunt down those responsible, killing four of them before discovering the remaining three about to be hanged by Ser Beric Dondarrion and Thoros of Myr, who inform him that the group were acting independently of the Brotherhood. Beric allows Clegane to kill two of the outlaws, and asks him to join the Brotherhood in their journey north to fight the White Walkers.
During their journey north, the Brotherhood stops at a farm owned by a farmer that Clegane had previously robbed; inside, they find the bodies of the farmer and his daughter. Remorseful, Clegane digs them a grave with the help of Thoros. Thoros has Clegane look into the flames of Brotherhood 's campfire, and in it he sees the White Walkers and their forces marching towards the Wall.
The Brotherhood attempts to cross the Wall via Eastwatch - by - the - Sea, but are intercepted by wildling scouts manning the castle and locked in the ice cells. Soon after, Jon Snow, Davos Seaworth, Jorah Mormont, and Gendry arrive at Eastwatch, intending to capture a wight to present to Cersei (now Queen of the Seven Kingdoms) as evidence of the White Walkers. Clegane, Beric, and Thoros are released to accompany Jon, Jorah, Gendry and Tormund Giantsbane beyond the Wall. The group soon captures a wight but are surrounded by the White Walkers and their army of wights, though not before Gendry flees to Eastwatch to request Daenerys Targaryen 's aid. Daenerys arrives with her dragons before the group can be overrun, and flies them to safety. Clegane joins Jon, Daenerys and Davos as they sail to King 's Landing.
At King 's Landing, he meets Brienne of Tarth. Despite their previous brutal fight, they converse on civil terms. Sandor learns that Arya is alive and with her family, prompting a rare smile. During the summit in the Dragon Pit outside King 's Landing, Sandor confronts his brother, promising that Sandor will eventually kill him. Sandor brings out the trunk containing the wight, revealing to Cersei and Jaime Lannister the threat that lies beyond the wall.
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first year for fuel injection on harley davidson | Harley - Davidson - wikipedia
Coordinates: 43 ° 02 ′ 46 '' N 87 ° 57 ′ 36 '' W / 43.0460968 ° N 87.9599862 ° W / 43.0460968; - 87.9599862
Harley - Davidson, Inc. (H-D), or Harley, is an American motorcycle manufacturer, founded in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1903.
One of two major American motorcycle manufacturers to survive the Great Depression (along with Indian), the company has survived numerous ownership arrangements, subsidiary arrangements (e.g., Aermacchi 1960 - 1978 and Buell 1987 - 2009), periods of poor economic health and product quality, as well as intense global competition, to become one of the world 's largest motorcycle manufacturers and an iconic brand widely known for its loyal following. There are owner clubs and events worldwide as well as a company - sponsored brand - focused museum.
Noted for a style of customization that gave rise to the chopper motorcycle style, Harley - Davidson traditionally marketed heavyweight, air - cooled cruiser motorcycles with engine displacements greater than 700 cm3 and has broadened its offerings to include its more contemporary VRSC (2002) and middle - weight Street (2015) platforms.
Harley - Davidson manufactures its motorcycles at factories in York, Pennsylvania; Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Kansas City, Missouri (closing); Manaus, Brazil; and Bawal, India. Construction of a new plant in Thailand is scheduled to begin in late 2018. The company markets its products worldwide.
Besides motorcycles, the company licenses and markets merchandise under the Harley - Davidson brand, among them apparel, home decor and ornaments, accessories, toys, and scale figures of its motorcycles, and video games based on its motorcycle line and the community.
In 1901, 20 - year - old William S. Harley drew up plans for a small engine with a displacement of 7.07 cubic inches (116 cc) and four - inch (102 mm) flywheels. The engine was designed for use in a regular pedal - bicycle frame. Over the next two years, Harley and his childhood friend Arthur Davidson worked on their motor - bicycle using the northside Milwaukee machine shop at the home of their friend, Henry Melk. It was finished in 1903 with the help of Arthur 's brother, Walter Davidson. Upon testing their power - cycle, Harley and the Davidson brothers found it unable to climb the hills around Milwaukee without pedal assistance. They quickly wrote off their first motor - bicycle as a valuable learning experiment.
Work immediately began on a new and improved second - generation machine. This first "real '' Harley - Davidson motorcycle had a bigger engine of 24.74 cubic inches (405 cc) with 9.75 inches (25 cm) flywheels weighing 28 lb (13 kg). The machine 's advanced loop - frame pattern was similar to the 1903 Milwaukee Merkel motorcycle (designed by Joseph Merkel, later of Flying Merkel fame). The bigger engine and loop - frame design took it out of the motorized bicycle category and marked the path to future motorcycle designs. The boys also received help with their bigger engine from outboard motor pioneer Ole Evinrude, who was then building gas engines of his own design for automotive use on Milwaukee 's Lake Street.
The prototype of the new loop - frame Harley - Davidson was assembled in a 10 ft × 15 ft (3.0 m × 4.6 m) shed in the Davidson family backyard. Most of the major parts, however, were made elsewhere, including some probably fabricated at the West Milwaukee railshops where oldest brother William A. Davidson was then toolroom foreman. This prototype machine was functional by September 8, 1904, when it competed in a Milwaukee motorcycle race held at State Fair Park. It was ridden by Edward Hildebrand and placed fourth. This is the first documented appearance of a Harley - Davidson motorcycle in the historical record.
In January 1905, small advertisements were placed in the Automobile and Cycle Trade Journal offering bare Harley - Davidson engines to the do - it - yourself trade. By April, complete motorcycles were in production on a very limited basis. That year, the first Harley - Davidson dealer, Carl H. Lang of Chicago, sold three bikes from the five built in the Davidson backyard shed. Years later the original shed was taken to the Juneau Avenue factory where it would stand for many decades as a tribute to the Motor Company 's humble origins until it was accidentally destroyed by contractors cleaning the factory yard in the early 1970s.
In 1906, Harley and the Davidson brothers built their first factory on Chestnut Street (later Juneau Avenue), at the current location of Harley - Davidson 's corporate headquarters. The first Juneau Avenue plant was a 40 ft × 60 ft (12 m × 18 m) single - story wooden structure. The company produced about 50 motorcycles that year.
In 1907, William S. Harley graduated from the University of Wisconsin -- Madison with a degree in mechanical engineering. That year additional factory expansion came with a second floor and later with facings and additions of Milwaukee pale yellow ("cream '') brick. With the new facilities production increased to 150 motorcycles in 1907. The company was officially incorporated that September. They also began selling their motorcycles to police departments around this time, a market that has been important to them ever since.
In 1907 William A. Davidson, brother to Arthur and Walter Davidson, quit his job as tool foreman for the Milwaukee Road railroad and joined the Motor Company.
Production in 1905 and 1906 were all single - cylinder models with 26.84 cubic inch (440 cm3) engines. In February 1907 a prototype model with a 45 - degree V - Twin engine was displayed at the Chicago Automobile Show. Although shown and advertised, very few V - Twin models were built between 1907 and 1910. These first V - Twins displaced 53.68 cubic inches (880 cm3) and produced about 7 horsepower (5.2 kW). This gave about double the power of the first singles. Top speed was about 60 mph (100 km / h). Production jumped from 450 motorcycles in 1908 to 1,149 machines in 1909.
By 1911, some 150 makes of motorcycles had already been built in the United States -- although just a handful would survive the 1910s.
In 1911, an improved V - Twin model was introduced. The new engine had mechanically operated intake valves, as opposed to the "automatic '' intake valves used on earlier V - Twins that opened by engine vacuum. With a displacement of 49.48 cubic inches (811 cm3), the 1911 V - Twin was smaller than earlier twins, but gave better performance. After 1913 the majority of bikes produced by Harley - Davidson would be V - Twin models.
In 1912, Harley - Davidson introduced their patented "Ful - Floteing Seat '', which was suspended by a coil spring inside the seat tube. The spring tension could be adjusted to suit the rider 's weight. More than 3 inches (76 mm) of travel was available. Harley - Davidson would use seats of this type until 1958.
By 1913, the yellow brick factory had been demolished and on the site a new 5 - story structure had been built. Begun in 1910, the factory with its many additions would take up two blocks along Juneau Avenue and around the corner on 38th Street. Despite the competition, Harley - Davidson was already pulling ahead of Indian and would dominate motorcycle racing after 1914. Production that year swelled to 16,284 machines.
In 1917, the United States entered World War I and the military demanded motorcycles for the war effort. Harleys had already been used by the military in the Pancho Villa Expedition but World War I was the first time the motorcycle had been adopted for military issue, first with the British Model H, produced by British Triumph Motorcycles Ltd in 1915. After the U.S. entry into the war, the U.S. military purchased over 20,000 motorcycles from Harley - Davidson.
Harley - Davidson launched a line of bicycles in 1917 in hopes of recruiting customers for its motorcycles. Besides the traditional diamond frame men 's bicycle, models included a step - through frame 3 - 18 "Ladies Standard '' and a 5 - 17 "Boy Scout '' for youth. The effort was discontinued in 1923 because of disappointing sales.
The bicycles were built for Harley - Davidson in Dayton, Ohio, by the Davis Machine Company from 1917 to 1921, when Davis stopped manufacturing bicycles.
By 1920, Harley - Davidson was the largest motorcycle manufacturer in the world, with 28,189 machines produced, and dealers in 67 countries.
In 1921, a Harley - Davidson, ridden by Otto Walker, was the first motorcycle ever to win a race at an average speed greater than 100 mph (160 km / h).
During the 1920s, several improvements were put in place, such as a new 74 cubic inch (1,212.6 cm3) V - Twin, introduced in 1921, and the "teardrop '' gas tank in 1925. A front brake was added in 1928 although notably only on the J / JD models.
In the late summer of 1929, Harley - Davidson introduced its 45 cubic inches (737 cm3) flathead V - Twin to compete with the Indian 101 Scout and the Excelsior Super X. This was the "D '' model, produced from 1929 to 1931. Riders of Indian motorcycles derisively referred to this model as the "three cylinder Harley '' because the generator was upright and parallel to the front cylinder.
The Great Depression began a few months after the introduction of their 45 cubic inch (737 cm3) model. Harley - Davidson 's sales fell from 21,000 in 1929 to 3,703 in 1933. Despite this, Harley - Davidson unveiled a new lineup for 1934, which included a flathead engine and Art Deco styling.
In order to survive the remainder of the Depression, the company manufactured industrial powerplants based on their motorcycle engines. They also designed and built a three - wheeled delivery vehicle called the Servi - Car, which remained in production until 1973.
In the mid-1930s, Alfred Rich Child opened a production line in Japan with the 74 - cubic - inch (1,210 cm3) VL. The Japanese license - holder, Sankyo Seiyaku Corporation, severed its business relations with Harley - Davidson in 1936 and continued manufacturing the VL under the Rikuo name.
An 80 - cubic - inch (1,300 cm3) flathead engine was added to the line in 1935, by which time the single - cylinder motorcycles had been discontinued.
In 1936, the 61E and 61EL models with the "Knucklehead '' OHV engines were introduced. Valvetrain problems in early Knucklehead engines required a redesign halfway through its first year of production and retrofitting of the new valvetrain on earlier engines.
By 1937, all Harley - Davidson flathead engines were equipped with dry - sump oil recirculation systems similar to the one introduced in the "Knucklehead '' OHV engine. The revised 74 - cubic - inch (1,212 cc) V and VL models were renamed U and UL, the 80 - cubic - inch (1,300 cc) VH and VLH to be renamed UH and ULH, and the 45 - cubic - inch (740 cc) R to be renamed W.
In 1941, the 74 - cubic - inch (1,210 cm3) "Knucklehead '' was introduced as the F and the FL. The 80 - cubic - inch (1,300 cc) flathead UH and ULH models were discontinued after 1941, while the 74 inch (1210 cm3) U & UL flathead models were produced up to 1948.
One of only two American cycle manufacturers to survive the Great Depression, Harley - Davidson again produced large numbers of motorcycles for the US Army in World War II and resumed civilian production afterwards, producing a range of large V - twin motorcycles that were successful both on racetracks and for private buyers.
Harley - Davidson, on the eve of World War II, was already supplying the Army with a military - specific version of its 45 cubic inches (740 cm3) WL line, called the WLA. The A in this case stood for "Army ''. Upon the outbreak of war, the company, along with most other manufacturing enterprises, shifted to war work. More than 90,000 military motorcycles, mostly WLAs and WLCs (the Canadian version) were produced, many to be provided to allies. Harley - Davidson received two Army - Navy ' E ' Awards, one in 1943 and the other in 1945, which were awarded for Excellence in Production.
Shipments to the Soviet Union under the Lend - Lease program numbered at least 30,000. The WLAs produced during all four years of war production generally have 1942 serial numbers. Production of the WLA stopped at the end of World War II, but was resumed from 1950 to 1952 for use in the Korean War.
The U.S. Army also asked Harley - Davidson to produce a new motorcycle with many of the features of BMW 's side - valve and shaft - driven R71. Harley largely copied the BMW engine and drive train and produced the shaft - driven 750 cc 1942 Harley - Davidson XA. This shared no dimensions, no parts and no design concepts (except side valves) with any prior Harley - Davidson engine. Due to the superior cooling of the flat - twin engine with the cylinders across the frame, Harley 's XA cylinder heads ran 100 ° F (56 ° C) cooler than its V - twins. The XA never entered full production: the motorcycle by that time had been eclipsed by the Jeep as the Army 's general purpose vehicle, and the WLA -- already in production -- was sufficient for its limited police, escort, and courier roles. Only 1,000 were made and the XA never went into full production. It remains the only shaft - driven Harley - Davidson ever made.
As part of war reparations, Harley - Davidson acquired the design of a small German motorcycle, the DKW RT 125, which they adapted, manufactured, and sold from 1948 to 1966. Various models were made, including the Hummer from 1955 to 1959, but they are all colloquially referred to as "Hummers '' at present. BSA in the United Kingdom took the same design as the foundation of their BSA Bantam.
In 1960, Harley - Davidson consolidated the Model 165 and Hummer lines into the Super-10, introduced the Topper scooter, and bought fifty percent of Aermacchi 's motorcycle division. Importation of Aermacchi 's 250 cc horizontal single began the following year. The bike bore Harley - Davidson badges and was marketed as the Harley - Davidson Sprint. The engine of the Sprint was increased to 350 cc in 1969 and would remain that size until 1974, when the four - stroke Sprint was discontinued.
After the Pacer and Scat models were discontinued at the end of 1965, the Bobcat became the last of Harley - Davidson 's American - made two - stroke motorcycles. The Bobcat was manufactured only in the 1966 model year.
Harley - Davidson replaced their American - made lightweight two - stroke motorcycles with the Italian Aermacchi - built two - stroke powered M - 65, M - 65S, and Rapido. The M - 65 had a semi-step - through frame and tank. The M - 65S was a M - 65 with a larger tank that eliminated the step - through feature. The Rapido was a larger bike with a 125 cc engine. The Aermacchi - built Harley - Davidsons became entirely two - stroke powered when the 250 cc two - stroke SS - 250 replaced the four - stroke 350 cc Sprint in 1974.
Harley - Davidson purchased full control of Aermacchi 's motorcycle production in 1974 and continued making two - stroke motorcycles there until 1978, when they sold the facility to Cagiva, owned by the Castiglioni family.
Established in 1918, the oldest continuously operating Harley - Davidson dealership outside of the United States is in Australia. Sales in Japan started in 1912 then in 1929, Harley - Davidsons were produced in Japan under license to the company Rikuo (Rikuo Internal Combustion Company) under the name of Harley - Davidson and using the company 's tooling, and later under the name Rikuo. Production continued until 1958.
In 1952, following their application to the U.S. Tariff Commission for a 40 percent tax on imported motorcycles, Harley - Davidson was charged with restrictive practices.
In 1969, American Machine and Foundry (AMF) bought the company, streamlined production, and slashed the workforce. This tactic resulted in a labor strike and lower - quality bikes. The bikes were expensive and inferior in performance, handling, and quality to Japanese motorcycles. Sales and quality declined, and the company almost went bankrupt. The "Harley - Davidson '' name was mocked as "Hardly Ableson '', "Hardly Driveable, '' and "Hogly Ferguson '', and the nickname "Hog '' became pejorative.
In 1977, following the successful manufacture of the Liberty Edition to commemorate America 's bicentennial in 1976, Harley - Davidson produced what has become one of its most controversial models, the Harley - Davidson Confederate Edition. The bike was essentially a stock Harley with Confederate - specific paint and details.
In 1981, AMF sold the company to a group of 13 investors led by Vaughn Beals and Willie G. Davidson for $80 million. Inventory was strictly controlled using the just - in - time system.
In the early eighties, Harley - Davidson claimed that Japanese manufacturers were importing motorcycles into the US in such volume as to harm or threaten to harm domestic producers. After an investigation by the U.S. International Trade Commission, President Reagan in 1983 imposed a 45 percent tariff on imported bikes with engine capacities greater than 700 cc. Harley - Davidson subsequently rejected offers of assistance from Japanese motorcycle makers. However, the company did offer to drop the request for the tariff in exchange for loan guarantees from the Japanese.
Rather than trying to match the Japanese, the new management deliberately exploited the "retro '' appeal of the machines, building motorcycles that deliberately adopted the look and feel of their earlier machines and the subsequent customizations of owners of that era. Many components such as brakes, forks, shocks, carburetors, electrics and wheels were outsourced from foreign manufacturers and quality increased, technical improvements were made, and buyers slowly returned.
Harley - Davidson bought the "Sub Shock '' cantilever - swingarm rear suspension design from Missouri engineer Bill Davis and developed it into its Softail series of motorcycles, introduced in 1984 with the FXST Softail.
In response to possible motorcycle market loss due to the aging of baby - boomers, Harley - Davidson bought luxury motorhome manufacturer Holiday Rambler in 1986. In 1996, the company sold Holiday Rambler to the Monaco Coach Corporation.
The "Sturgis '' model, boasting a dual belt - drive, was introduced initially in 1980 and was made for three years. This bike was then brought back as a commemorative model in 1991. By 1990, with the introduction of the "Fat Boy '', Harley once again became the sales leader in the heavyweight (over 750 cc) market. At the time of the Fat Boy model introduction, a story rapidly spread that its silver paint job and other features were inspired by the B - 29; and Fat Boy was a combination of the names of the atomic bombs Fat Man and Little Boy. However, the Urban Legend Reference Pages lists this story as an urban legend.
1993 and 1994 saw the replacement of FXR models with the Dyna (FXD), which became the sole rubber mount FX Big Twin frame in 1994. The FXR was revived briefly from 1999 to 2000 for special limited editions (FXR, FXR & FXR).
Construction started on the $75 million, 130,000 square - foot (12,000 m) Harley - Davidson Museum in the Menomonee Valley on June 1, 2006. It opened in 2008 and houses the company 's vast collection of historic motorcycles and corporate archives, along with a restaurant, café and meeting space.
Harley - Davidson 's association with sportbike manufacturer Buell Motorcycle Company began in 1987 when they supplied Buell with fifty surplus XR1000 engines. Buell continued to buy engines from Harley - Davidson until 1993, when Harley - Davidson bought 49 percent of the Buell Motorcycle Company. Harley - Davidson increased its share in Buell to ninety - eight percent in 1998, and to complete ownership in 2003.
In an attempt to attract newcomers to motorcycling in general and to Harley - Davidson in particular, Buell developed a low - cost, low - maintenance motorcycle. The resulting single - cylinder Buell Blast was introduced in 2000, and was made through 2009, which, according to Buell, was to be the final year of production. The Buell Blast was the training vehicle for the Harley - Davidson Rider 's Edge New Rider Course from 2000 until May 2014, when the company re-branded the training academy and started using the Harley - Davidson Street 500 motorcycles. In those 14 years, more than 350,000 participants in the course learned to ride on the Buell Blast.
On October 15, 2009, Harley - Davidson Inc. issued an official statement that it would be discontinuing the Buell line and ceasing production immediately. The stated reason was to focus on the Harley - Davidson brand. The company refused to consider selling Buell. Founder Erik Buell subsequently established Erik Buell Racing and continued to manufacture and develop the company 's 1125RR racing motorcycle.
In 1998 the first Harley - Davidson factory outside the US opened in Manaus, Brazil, taking advantage of the free economic zone there. The location was positioned to sell motorcycles in the southern hemisphere market.
During its period of peak demand, during the late 1990s and early first decade of the 21st century, Harley - Davidson embarked on a program of expanding the number of dealerships throughout the country. At the same time, its current dealers typically had waiting lists that extended up to a year for some of the most popular models. Harley - Davidson, like the auto manufacturers, records a sale not when a consumer buys their product, but rather when it is delivered to a dealer. Therefore, it is possible for the manufacturer to inflate sales numbers by requiring dealers to accept more inventory than desired in a practice called channel stuffing. When demand softened following the unique 2003 model year, this news led to a dramatic decline in the stock price. In April 2004 alone, the price of HOG shares dropped from more than $60 to less than $40. Immediately prior to this decline, retiring CEO Jeffrey Bleustein profited $42 million on the exercise of employee stock options. Harley - Davidson was named as a defendant in numerous class action suits filed by investors who claimed they were intentionally defrauded by Harley - Davidson 's management and directors. By January 2007, the price of Harley - Davidson shares reached $70.
Starting around 2000, several police departments started reporting problems with high speed instability on the Harley - Davidson Touring motorcycles. A Raleigh, North Carolina police officer, Charles Paul, was killed when his 2002 police touring motorcycle crashed after reportedly experiencing a high speed wobble. The California Highway Patrol conducted testing of the Police Touring motorcycles in 2006. The CHP test riders reported experiencing wobble or weave instability while operating the motorcycles on the test track.
On February 2, 2007, upon the expiration of their union contract, about 2,700 employees at Harley - Davidson Inc. 's largest manufacturing plant in York, Pennsylvania went on strike after failing to agree on wages and health benefits. During the pendency of the strike, the company refused to pay for any portion of the striking employees ' health care.
The day before the strike, after the union voted against the proposed contract and to authorize the strike, the company shut down all production at the plant. The York facility employs more than 3,200 workers, both union and non-union.
Harley - Davidson announced on February 16, 2007, that it had reached a labor agreement with union workers at its largest manufacturing plant, a breakthrough in the two - week - old strike. The strike disrupted Harley - Davidson 's national production and was felt in Wisconsin, where 440 employees were laid off, and many Harley suppliers also laid off workers because of the strike.
On July 11, 2008 Harley - Davidson announced they had signed a definitive agreement to acquire the MV Agusta Group for $109 M USD (€ 70M). MV Agusta Group contains two lines of motorcycles: the high - performance MV Agusta brand and the lightweight Cagiva brand. The acquisition was completed on August 8.
On October 15, 2009, Harley - Davidson announced that it would divest its interest in MV Agusta. Harley - Davidson Inc. sold Italian motorcycle maker MV Agusta to Claudio Castiglioni - a member of the family that had purchased Aermacchi from H-D in 1978 - for a reported 3 euros, ending the transaction in the first week of August 2010. Castiglioni was MV Agusta 's former owner, and had been MV Agusta 's chairman since Harley - Davidson bought it in 2008. As part of the deal, Harley - Davidson put $26 M into MV Agusta 's accounts, essentially giving Castiglioni $26 M to take the brand.
In August 2009, Harley - Davidson announced plans to enter the market in India, and started selling motorcycles there in 2010. The company established a subsidiary, Harley - Davidson India, in Gurgaon, near Delhi, in 2011, and created an Indian dealer network.
According to Interbrand, the value of the Harley - Davidson brand fell by 43 percent to $4.34 billion in 2009. The fall in value is believed to be connected to the 66 percent drop in the company profits in two quarters of the previous year. On April 29, 2010, Harley - Davidson stated that they must cut $54 million in manufacturing costs from its production facilities in Wisconsin, and that they would explore alternative U.S. sites to accomplish this. The announcement came in the wake of a massive company - wide restructuring, which began in early 2009 and involved the closing of two factories, one distribution center, and the planned elimination of nearly 25 percent of its total workforce (around 3,500 employees). The company announced on September 14, 2010 that it would remain in Wisconsin.
The classic Harley - Davidson engines are V - twin engines, with a 45 ° angle between the cylinders. The crankshaft has a single pin, and both pistons are connected to this pin through their connecting rods.
This 45 ° angle is covered under several United States patents and is an engineering tradeoff that allows a large, high - torque engine in a relatively small space. It causes the cylinders to fire at uneven intervals and produces the choppy "potato - potato '' sound so strongly linked to the Harley - Davidson brand.
To simplify the engine and reduce costs, the V - twin ignition was designed to operate with a single set of points and no distributor. This is known as a dual fire ignition system, causing both spark plugs to fire regardless of which cylinder was on its compression stroke, with the other spark plug firing on its cylinder 's exhaust stroke, effectively "wasting a spark ''. The exhaust note is basically a throaty growling sound with some popping. The 45 ° design of the engine thus creates a plug firing sequencing as such: The first cylinder fires, the second (rear) cylinder fires 315 ° later, then there is a 405 ° gap until the first cylinder fires again, giving the engine its unique sound.
Harley - Davidson has used various ignition systems throughout its history -- be it the early points and condenser system, (Big Twin up to 1978 and Sportsters up to 1978), magneto ignition system used on some 1958 to 1969 Sportsters, early electronic with centrifugal mechanical advance weights, (all models 1978 and a half to 1979), or the late electronic with transistorized ignition control module, more familiarly known as the black box or the brain, (all models 1980 to present).
Starting in 1995, the company introduced Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI) as an option for the 30th anniversary edition Electra Glide. EFI became standard on all Harley - Davidson motorcycles, including Sportsters, upon the introduction of the 2007 product line.
In 1991, Harley - Davidson began to participate in the Sound Quality Working Group, founded by Orfield Labs, Bruel and Kjaer, TEAC, Yamaha, Sennheiser, SMS and Cortex. This was the nation 's first group to share research on psychological acoustics. Later that year, Harley - Davidson participated in a series of sound quality studies at Orfield Labs, based on recordings taken at the Talladega Superspeedway, with the objective to lower the sound level for EU standards while analytically capturing the "Harley Sound ''. This research resulted in the bikes that were introduced in compliance with EU standards for 1998.
On February 1, 1994, the company filed a sound trademark application for the distinctive sound of the Harley - Davidson motorcycle engine: "The mark consists of the exhaust sound of applicant 's motorcycles, produced by V - twin, common crankpin motorcycle engines when the goods are in use ''. Nine of Harley - Davidson 's competitors filed comments opposing the application, arguing that cruiser - style motorcycles of various brands use a single - crankpin V - twin engine which produce a similar sound. These objections were followed by litigation. In June 2000, the company dropped efforts to federally register its trademark.
The Revolution engine is based on the VR - 1000 Superbike race program, co-developed by Harley - Davidson 's Powertrain Engineering team and Porsche Engineering in Stuttgart, Germany. It is a liquid cooled, dual overhead cam, internally counterbalanced 60 degree V - twin engine with a displacement of 69 cubic inch (1,130 cm3), producing 115 hp (86 kW) at 8,250 rpm at the crank, with a redline of 9,000 rpm. It was introduced for the new VRSC (V - Rod) line in 2001 for the 2002 model year, starting with the single VRSCA (V - Twin Racing Street Custom) model. The Revolution marks Harley 's first collaboration with Porsche since the V4 Nova project, which, like the V - Rod, was a radical departure from Harley 's traditional lineup until it was cancelled by AMF in 1981 in favor of the Evolution engine.
A 1,250 cc Screamin ' Eagle version of the Revolution engine was made available for 2005 and 2006, and was present thereafter in a single production model from 2005 to 2007. In 2008, the 1,250 cc Revolution Engine became standard for the entire VRSC line. Harley - Davidson claims 123 hp (92 kW) at the crank for the 2008 VRSCAW model. The VRXSE Destroyer is equipped with a stroker (75 mm crank) Screamin ' Eagle 79 cubic inch (1,300 cm3) Revolution Engine, producing more than 165 hp (123 kW).
750 cc and 500 cc versions of the Revolution engine are used in Harley - Davidson 's Street line of light cruisers. These motors, named the Revolution X, use a single overhead cam, screw and locknut valve adjustment, a single internal counterbalancer, and vertically split crankcases; all of these changes making it different from the original Revolution design.
An extreme endurance test of the Revolution engine was performed in a dynometer installation, simulating the German Autobahn (highways without general speed limit) between the Porsche research and development center in Weissach, near Stuttgart to Düsseldorf. Uncounted samples of engines failed, until an engine successfully passed the 500 hour nonstop run. This was the benchmark for the engineers to approve the start of production for the Revolution engine, which was documented in the Discovery channel special Harley - Davidson: Birth of the V - Rod, October 14, 2001.
The first Harley - Davidson motorcycles were powered by single - cylinder IOE engines with the inlet valve operated by engine vacuum, based on the DeDion - Bouton pattern. Singles of this type continued to be made until 1913, when a pushrod and rocker system was used to operate the overhead inlet valve on the single, a similar system having been used on their V - twins since 1911. Single - cylinder motorcycle engines were discontinued in 1918.
Single - cylinder engines were reintroduced in 1925 as 1926 models. These singles were available either as flathead engines or as overhead valve engines until 1930, after which they were only available as flatheads. The flathead single - cylinder motorcycles were designated Model A for engines with magneto systems only and Model B for engines with battery and coil systems, while overhead valve versions were designated Model AA and Model BA respectively, and a magneto - only racing version was designated Model S. This line of single - cylinder motorcycles ended production in 1934.
Modern Harley - branded motorcycles fall into one of six model families: Touring, Softail, Dyna, Sportster, Vrod and Street. These model families are distinguished by the frame, engine, suspension, and other characteristics.
Touring models use Big - Twin engines and large - diameter telescopic forks. All Touring designations begin with the letters FL, e.g., FLHR (Road King) and FLTR (Road Glide).
The touring family, also known as "dressers '' or "baggers '', includes Road King, Road Glide, Street Glide and Electra Glide models offered in various trims. The Road Kings have a "retro cruiser '' appearance and are equipped with a large clear windshield. Road Kings are reminiscent of big - twin models from the 1940s and 1950s. Electra Glides can be identified by their full front fairings. Most Electra Glides sport a fork - mounted fairing referred to as the "Batwing '' due to its unmistakable shape. The Road Glide and Road Glide Ultra Classic have a frame - mounted fairing, referred to as the "Sharknose ''. The Sharknose includes a unique, dual front headlight.
Touring models are distinguishable by their large saddlebags, rear coil - over air suspension and are the only models to offer full fairings with radios and CBs. All touring models use the same frame, first introduced with a Shovelhead motor in 1980, and carried forward with only modest upgrades until 2009, when it was extensively redesigned. The frame is distinguished by the location of the steering head in front of the forks and was the first H-D frame to rubber mount the drivetrain to isolate the rider from the vibration of the big V - twin.
The frame was modified for the 1994 model year when the oil tank went under the transmission and the battery was moved inboard from under the right saddlebag to under the seat. In 1997, the frame was again modified to allow for a larger battery under the seat and to lower seat height. In 2007, Harley - Davidson introduced the 96 cubic inches (1,570 cubic centimetres) Twin Cam 96 engine, as well the six - speed transmission to give the rider better speeds on the highway.
In 2006, Harley introduced the FLHX Street Glide, a bike designed by Willie G. Davidson to be his personal ride, to its touring line.
In 2008, Harley added anti-lock braking systems and cruise control as a factory installed option on all touring models (standard on CVO and Anniversary models). Also new for 2008 is the 6 - US - gallon (23 l; 5.0 imp gal) fuel tank for all touring models. 2008 also brought throttle - by - wire to all touring models.
For the 2009 model year, Harley - Davidson redesigned the entire touring range with several changes, including a new frame, new swingarm, a completely revised engine - mounting system, 17 - inch (430 mm) front wheels for all but the FLHRC Road King Classic, and a 2 -- 1 -- 2 exhaust. The changes result in greater load carrying capacity, better handling, a smoother engine, longer range and less exhaust heat transmitted to the rider and passenger. Also released for the 2009 model year is the FLHTCUTG Tri-Glide Ultra Classic, the first three - wheeled Harley since the Servi - Car was discontinued in 1973. The model features a unique frame and a 103 - cubic - inch (1,690 cm3) engine exclusive to the trike.
In 2014, Harley - Davidson released a redesign for specific touring bikes and called it "Project Rushmore ''. Changes include a new 103CI High Output engine, one handed easy open saddlebags and compartments, a new Boom! Box Infotainment system with either 4.3 inch (10 cm) or 6.5 inch (16.5 cm) screens featuring touchscreen functionality (6.5 inch (16.5 cm) models only), Bluetooth (media and phone with approved compatible devices), available GPS and SiriusXM, Text - to - Speech functionality (with approved compatible devices) and USB connectivity with charging. Other features include ABS with Reflex linked brakes, improved styling, Halogen or LED lighting and upgraded passenger comfort.
These big - twin motorcycles capitalize on Harley 's strong value on tradition. With the rear - wheel suspension hidden under the transmission, they are visually similar to the "hardtail '' choppers popular in the 1960s and 1970s, as well as from their own earlier history. In keeping with that tradition, Harley offers Softail models with "Heritage '' styling that incorporate design cues from throughout their history and used to offer "Springer '' front ends on these Softail models from the factory.
Softail models utilize the big - twin engine (F) and the Softail chassis (ST).
Dyna - frame motorcycles were developed in the 1980s and early 1990s and debuted in the 1991 model year with the FXDB Sturgis offered in limited edition quantities. In 1992 the line continued with the limited edition FXDB Daytona and a production model FXD Super Glide. The new DYNA frame featured big - twin engines and traditional styling. They can be distinguished from the Softail by the traditional coil - over suspension that connects the swingarm to the frame, and from the Sportster by their larger engines. On these models, the transmission also houses the engine 's oil reservoir.
Prior to 2006, Dyna models typically featured a narrow, XL - style 39mm front fork and front wheel, as well as footpegs which the manufacturer included the letter "X '' in the model designation to indicate. This lineup traditionally included the Super Glide (FXD), Super Glide Custom (FXDC), Street Bob (FXDB), and Low Rider (FXDL). One exception was the Wide Glide (FXDWG), which featured thicker 41mm forks and a narrow front wheel, but positioned the forks on wider triple - trees that give a beefier appearance. In 2008, the Dyna Fat Bob (FXDF) was introduced to the Dyna lineup, featuring aggressive styling like a new 2 -- 1 -- 2 exhaust, twin headlamps, a 180 mm rear tire, and, for the first time in the Dyna lineup, a 130 mm front tire. For the 2012 model year, the Dyna Switchback (FLD) became the first Dyna to break the tradition of having an FX model designation with floorboards, detachable painted hard saddlebags, touring windshield, headlight nacelle and a wide front tire with full fender. The new front end resembled the big - twin FL models from 1968 - 1971.
The Dyna family used the 88 - cubic - inch (1,440 cm3) twin cam from 1999 to 2006. In 2007, the displacement was increased to 96 cubic inches (1,570 cm3) as the factory increased the stroke to 4.375 inches (111.1 mm). For the 2012 model year, the manufacturer began to offer Dyna models with the 103 - cubic - inch (1,690 cm3) upgrade. All Dyna models use a rubber - mounted engine to isolate engine vibration. Harley discontinued the Dyna platform in 2017 for the 2018 model year, having been replaced by a completely - redesigned Softail chassis; some of the existing models previously released by the company under the Dyna nameplate have since been carried over to the new Softail line.
Dyna models utilize the big - twin engine (F), footpegs noted as (X) with the exception of the 2012 FLD Switchback, a Dyna model which used floorboards as featured on the Touring (L) models, and the Dyna chassis (D). Therefore, except for the FLD from 2012 to 2016, all Dyna models have designations that begin with FXD, e.g., FXDWG (Dyna Wide Glide) and FXDL (Dyna Low Rider).
Introduced in 1957, the Sportster family were conceived as racing motorcycles, and were popular on dirt and flat - track race courses through the 1960s and 1970s. Smaller and lighter than the other Harley models, contemporary Sportsters make use of 883 cc or 1,200 cc Evolution engines and, though often modified, remain similar in appearance to their racing ancestors.
Up until the 2003 model year, the engine on the Sportster was rigidly mounted to the frame. The 2004 Sportster received a new frame accommodating a rubber - mounted engine. This made the bike heavier and reduced the available lean angle, while it reduced the amount of vibration transmitted to the frame and the rider, providing a smoother ride for rider and passenger.
In the 2007 model year, Harley - Davidson celebrated the 50th anniversary of the Sportster and produced a limited edition called the XL50, of which only 2000 were made for sale worldwide. Each motorcycle was individually numbered and came in one of two colors, Mirage Pearl Orange or Vivid Black. Also in 2007, electronic fuel injection was introduced to the Sportster family, and the Nightster model was introduced in mid-year. In 2009, Harley - Davidson added the Iron 883 to the Sportster line, as part of the Dark Custom series. In the 2008 model year, Harley - Davidson released the XR1200 Sportster in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. The XR1200 had an Evolution engine tuned to produce 91 bhp (68 kW), four - piston dual front disc brakes, and an aluminum swing arm. Motorcyclist featured the XR1200 on the cover of its July 2008 issue and was generally positive about it in their "First Ride '' story, in which Harley - Davidson was repeatedly asked to sell it in the United States. One possible reason for the delayed availability in the United States was the fact that Harley - Davidson had to obtain the "XR1200 '' naming rights from Storz Performance, a Harley customizing shop in Ventura, Calif. The XR1200 was released in the United States in 2009 in a special color scheme including Mirage Orange highlighting its dirt - tracker heritage. The first 750 XR1200 models in 2009 were pre-ordered and came with a number 1 tag for the front of the bike, autographed by Kenny Coolbeth and Scott Parker and a thank you / welcome letter from the company, signed by Bill Davidson. The XR1200 was discontinued in model year 2013.
Except for the street - going XR1000 of the 1980s and the XR1200, most Sportsters made for street use have the prefix XL in their model designation. For the Sportster Evolution engines used since the mid-1980s, there have been two engine sizes. Motorcycles with the smaller engine are designated XL883, while those with the larger engine were initially designated XL1100. When the size of the larger engine was increased from 1,100 cc to 1,200 cc, the designation was changed accordingly from XL1100 to XL1200. Subsequent letters in the designation refer to model variations within the Sportster range, e.g. the XL883C refers to an 883 cc Sportster Custom, while the XL1200S designates the now - discontinued 1200 Sportster Sport.
Introduced in 2001 and produced until 2017, the VRSC muscle bike family bears little resemblance to Harley 's more traditional lineup. Competing against Japanese and American muscle bikes in the upcoming muscle bike / power cruiser segment, the "V - Rod '' makes use of an engine developed jointly with Porsche that, for the first time in Harley history, incorporates overhead cams and liquid cooling. The V - Rod is visually distinctive, easily identified by the 60 - degree V - Twin engine, the radiator and the hydroformed frame members that support the round - topped air cleaner cover. The VRSC platform was also used for factory drag - racing motorcycles.
In 2008, Harley added the anti-lock braking system as a factory installed option on all VRSC models. Harley also increased the displacement of the stock engine from 1,130 to 1,250 cc (69 to 76 cu in), which had only previously been available from Screamin ' Eagle, and added a slipper clutch as standard equipment.
VRSC models include:
VRSC models utilize the Revolution engine (VR), and the street versions are designated Street Custom (SC). After the VRSC prefix common to all street Revolution bikes, the next letter denotes the model, either A (base V - Rod: discontinued), AW (base V - Rod + W for Wide with a 240 mm rear tire), B (discontinued), D (Night Rod: discontinued), R (Street Rod: discontinued), SE and SEII (CVO Special Edition), or X (Special edition). Further differentiation within models are made with an additional letter, e.g., VRSCDX denotes the Night Rod Special.
The VRXSE V - Rod Destroyer is Harley - Davidson 's production drag racing motorcycle, constructed to run the quarter mile in less than ten seconds. It is based on the same revolution engine that powers the VRSC line, but the VRXSE uses the Screamin ' Eagle 1,300 cc "stroked '' incarnation, featuring a 75 mm crankshaft, 105 mm Pistons, and 58 mm throttle bodies.
The V - Rod Destroyer is not a street legal motorcycle. As such, it uses "X '' instead of "SC '' to denote a non-street bike. "SE '' denotes a CVO Special Edition.
The Street, Harley - Davidson 's newest platform and their first all new platform in thirteen years, was designed to appeal to younger riders looking for a lighter bike at a cheaper price. The Street 750 model was launched in India at the 2014 Indian Auto Expo, Delhi - NCR on February 5, 2014. The Street 750 weighs 218 kg and has a ground clearance of 144 mm giving it the lowest weight and the highest ground clearance of Harley - Davidson motorcycles currently available.
The Street 750 uses an all - new, liquid - cooled, 60 ° V - twin engine called the Revolution X. In the Street 750, the engine displaces 749 cc (45.7 cu in) and produces 65 Nm at 4,000 rpm. A six speed transmission is used.
The Street 750 and the smaller - displacement Street 500 has been available since late 2014. Street series motorcycles for the North American market will be built in Harley - Davidson 's Kansas City, Missouri plant, while those for other markets around the world will be built completely in their plant in Bawal, India.
Custom Vehicle Operations (CVO) is a team within Harley - Davidson that produces limited - edition customizations of Harley 's stock models. Every year since 1999, the team has selected two to five of the company 's base models and added higher - displacement engines, performance upgrades, special - edition paint jobs, more chromed or accented components, audio system upgrades, and electronic accessories to create high - dollar, premium - quality customizations for the factory custom market. The models most commonly upgraded in such a fashion are the Ultra Classic Electra Glide, which has been selected for CVO treatment every year from 2006 to the present, and the Road King, which was selected in 2002, 2003, 2007, and 2008. The Dyna, Softail, and VRSC families have also been selected for CVO customization.
The Environmental Protection Agency conducted emissions - certification and representative emissions test in Ann Arbor, Michigan, in 2005. Subsequently, Harley - Davidson produced an "environmental warranty ''. The warranty ensures each owner that the vehicle is designed and built free of any defects in materials and workmanship that would cause the vehicle to not meet EPA standards. In 2005, the EPA and the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (PADEP) confirmed Harley - Davidson to be the first corporation to voluntarily enroll in the One Clean - Up Program. This program is designed for the clean - up of the affected soil and groundwater at the former York Naval Ordnance Plant. The program is backed by the state and local government along with participating organizations and corporations.
Paul Gotthold, Director of Operations for the EPA, congratulated the motor company:
Harley - Davidson has taken their environmental responsibilities very seriously and has already made substantial progress in the investigation and cleanup of past contamination. Proof of Harley 's efforts can be found in the recent EPA determination that designates the Harley property as ' under control ' for cleanup purposes. This determination means that there are no serious contamination problems at the facility. Under the new One Cleanup Program, Harley, EPA, and PADEP will expedite the completion of the property investigation and reach a final solution that will permanently protect human health and the environment.
Harley - Davidson also purchased most of Castalloy, a South Australian producer of cast motorcycle wheels and hubs. The South Australian government has set forth "protection to the purchaser (Harley - Davidson) against environmental risks ''.
In August 2016 Harley - Davidson settled with the EPA for $12 million, without admitting wrongdoing, over the sale of after - market "super tuners ''. Super tuners were devices, marketed for competition, which enabled increased performance of Harley - Davidson products. However, the devices also modified the emission control systems, producing increased hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide. Harley - Davidson is required to buy back and destroy any super tuners which do not meet Clean Air Act requirements and spend $3 million on air pollution mitigation.
Harley Davidson is the main sponsor for Vizag Victors in IPL
The Milwaukee Bucks of the National Basketball Association sport a Harley Davidson sponsor patch on their jerseys.
According to a recent Harley - Davidson study, in 1987 half of all Harley riders were under age 35. Now, only 15 percent of Harley buyers are under 35, and as of 2005, the median age had risen to 46.7. In 2008, Harley - Davidson stopped disclosing the average age of riders; at this point it was 48 years old.
In 1987, the median household income of a Harley - Davidson rider was $38,000. By 1997, the median household income for those riders had more than doubled, to $83,000.
Many Harley - Davidson Clubs exist nowadays around the world, the oldest one, founded in 1928, is in Prague.
Harley - Davidson attracts a loyal brand community, with licensing of the Harley - Davidson logo accounting for almost 5 percent of the company 's net revenue ($41 million in 2004). Harley - Davidson supplies many American police forces with their motorcycle fleets.
From its founding, Harley - Davidson had worked to brand its motorcycles as respectable and refined products, with ads that showed what motorcycling writer Fred Rau called "refined - looking ladies with parasols, and men in conservative suits as the target market ''. The 1906 Harley - Davidson 's effective, and polite, muffler was emphasized in advertisements with the nickname "The Silent Gray Fellow ''. That began to shift in the 1960s, partially in response to the clean - cut motorcyclist portrayed in Honda 's "You meet the nicest people on a Honda '' campaign, when Harley - Davidson sought to draw a contrast with Honda by underscoring the more working - class, macho, and even a little anti-social attitude associated with motorcycling 's dark side. With the 1971 FX Super Glide, the company embraced, rather than distanced, itself from chopper style, and the counterculture custom Harley scene. Their marketing cultivated the "bad boy '' image of biker and motorcycle clubs, and to a point, even outlaw or one - percenter motorcycle clubs.
Beginning in 1920, a team of farm boys, including Ray Weishaar, who became known as the "hog boys '', consistently won races. The group had a live hog as their mascot. Following a win, they would put the hog on their Harley and take a victory lap. In 1983, the Motor Company formed a club for owners of its product taking advantage of the long - standing nickname by turning "hog '' into the acronym HOG., for Harley Owners Group. Harley - Davidson attempted to trademark "hog '', but lost a case against an independent Harley - Davidson specialist, The Hog Farm of West Seneca, New York, in 1999 when the appellate panel ruled that "hog '' had become a generic term for large motorcycles and was therefore unprotectable as a trademark.
On August 15, 2006, Harley - Davidson Inc. had its NYSE ticker symbol changed from HDI to HOG.
Harley - Davidson FL "big twins '' normally had heavy steel fenders, chrome trim, and other ornate and heavy accessories. After World War II, riders wanting more speed would often shorten the fenders or take them off completely to reduce the weight of the motorcycle. These bikes were called "bobbers '' or sometimes "choppers '' because parts considered unnecessary were chopped off. Those who made or rode choppers and bobbers, especially members of motorcycle clubs like the Hells Angels, referred to stock FLs as "garbage wagons ''.
Harley - Davidson established the Harley Owners Group (HOG) in 1983 to build on the loyalty of Harley - Davidson enthusiasts as a means to promote a lifestyle alongside its products. The HOG also opened new revenue streams for the company, with the production of tie - in merchandise offered to club members, numbering more than one million. Other motorcycle brands, and other and consumer brands outside motorcycling, have also tried to create factory - sponsored community marketing clubs of their own. HOG members typically spend 30 percent more than other Harley owners, on such items as clothing and Harley - Davidson - sponsored events.
In 1991, HOG went international, with the first official European HOG Rally in Cheltenham, England. Today, more than one million members and more than 1400 chapters worldwide make HOG the largest factory - sponsored motorcycle organization in the world.
HOG benefits include organized group rides, exclusive products and product discounts, insurance discounts, and the Hog Tales newsletter. A one - year full membership is included with the purchase of a new, unregistered Harley - Davidson.
In 2008, HOG celebrated its 25th anniversary in conjunction with the Harley 105th in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
3rd Southern HOG Rally set to bring together largest gathering of Harley - Davidson owners in South India. More than 600 Harley - Davidson Owners expected to ride to Hyderabad from across 13 HOG Chapters
Harley - Davidson offers factory tours at four of its manufacturing sites, and the Harley - Davidson Museum, which opened in 2008, exhibits Harley - Davidson 's history, culture, and vehicles, including the motor company 's corporate archives.
Due to the consolidation of operations, the Capitol Drive Tour Center in Wauwatosa, Wisconsin was closed in 2009.
Beginning with Harley - Davidson 's 90th anniversary in 1993, Harley - Davidson has had celebratory rides to Milwaukee called the "Ride Home ''. This new tradition has continued every five years, and is referred to unofficially as "Harleyfest '', in line with Milwaukee 's other festivals (Summerfest, German fest, Festa Italiana, etc.). This event brings Harley riders from all around the world. The 105th anniversary celebration was held on August 28 -- 31, 2008, and included events in Milwaukee, Waukesha, Racine, and Kenosha counties, in Southeast Wisconsin. The 110th anniversary celebration was held on August 29 -- 31, 2013. The 115th anniversary was held in Prague, Czech Republic, the home country of the first Harley Davidson Club, on July 5 - 8, 2018 and attracted more than 100.000 visitors and 60.000 bikes.
William S. Harley, Arthur Davidson, William A. Davidson and Walter Davidson, Sr. were inducted into the Labor Hall of Fame for their accomplishments for the H-D company and its workforce.
The company 's origins were dramatized in a 2016 miniseries entitled Harley and the Davidsons, starring Robert Aramayo as William Harley, Bug Hall as Arthur Davidson and Michiel Huisman as Walter Davidson, and premiered on the Discovery Channel as a "three - night event series '' on September 5, 2016.
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harry potter and the scorers stone in hindi | Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone (film) - Wikipedia
Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone (released in some countries as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone) is a 2001 British - American fantasy film directed by Chris Columbus and distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures. It is based on the novel of the same name by J.K. Rowling. The film is the first instalment in the long - running Harry Potter film series, and was written by Steve Kloves and produced by David Heyman. Its story follows Harry Potter 's first year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry as he discovers that he is a famous wizard and begins his education. The film stars Daniel Radcliffe as Harry Potter, with Rupert Grint as Ron Weasley, and Emma Watson as Hermione Granger.
Warner Bros. bought the film rights to the book in 1999 for a reported £ 1 million ($1.275 million) Production began in the United Kingdom in 2000, with Chris Columbus being chosen to create the film from a short list of directors that included Steven Spielberg and Rob Reiner. Rowling insisted that the entire cast be British or Irish, and the film was shot at Leavesden Film Studios and historic buildings around the United Kingdom.
The film was released in theatres in the United Kingdom and the United States on 16 November 2001. It became a critical and commercial success, grossing $974.8 million at the box office worldwide. It was the highest grossing film of 2001. It was nominated for many awards including the Academy Award for Best Original Score, Best Art Direction and Best Costume Design. It was followed by seven sequels, beginning with Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets in 2002 and ending with Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 in 2011, nearly ten years after the first film 's release. It is the 32nd - highest - grossing film of all time and the second - highest - grossing film in the Harry Potter series behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2.
Albus Dumbledore, Minerva McGonagall, and Rubeus Hagrid, professors of Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, deliver an orphaned infant named Harry Potter to his only remaining relatives, the Dursleys. Ten years later, Harry inadvertently causes an accident on a family outing and begins receiving unsolicited letters by owl. Finally, Hagrid re-appears and informs Harry that he is actually a wizard and has been accepted into Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizarding. He also tells Harry of the latter 's past; Harry is the orphaned son of two wizards who met their demise at the hands of Lord Voldemort by a Killing Curse, with Harry being the only survivor of the curse thus, leading to his fame in the wizarding world as "The Boy Who Lived ''. Hagrid takes Harry to Diagon Alley to buy school supplies, then takes him to King 's Cross station to board a train to the school.
Harry meets Ron Weasley, a boy from a large but poor wizarding family, and Hermione Granger, a witch born to non-magical parents while on the train. He also encounters Draco Malfoy, a spoiled child from a wealthy wizarding family who eventually becomes Harry 's biggest rival. At the school, the students assemble in the great hall, where Harry and all the other first - year students are sorted between four houses: Gryffindor, Hufflepuff, Ravenclaw, and Slytherin. The Sorting Hat debates at length which house to sort Harry into. Harry begs not to be placed into Slytherin, due to its reputation for dark wizards, and is eventually placed into Gryffindor along with Ron and Hermione.
At Hogwarts, Harry begins learning wizardry and discovers more about his past and his parents. Harry is also recruited for Gryffindor 's Quidditch team as a Seeker, which is rare for first - year students. While exploring the school one night, Harry and his friends discover a giant three - headed dog named Fluffy in a restricted area of the school. They later find out Fluffy is guarding the Philosopher 's Stone, an item that can be used to grant its owner immortality. Harry suspects that his potions teacher Severus Snape is trying to obtain the stone in order to return Voldemort to a human form. The children learn from Hagrid that Fluffy will fall asleep if played music. Harry, Ron, and Hermione decide to try and find the stone before Snape does, but discover someone has already put Fluffy to sleep. They get past Fluffy and face a series of safeguards which include surviving a deadly plant known as Devil 's Snare, a room filled with aggressive flying keys, and a dangerous life - sized game of chess.
After getting past the tasks, Harry realises that it was Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher Professor Quirrell who was trying to claim the stone and that Snape was protecting him (Harry) all along. Quirrell removes his turban and reveals a weak Voldemort to be living on the back of his head. Through an enchantment placed by Professor Dumbledore, Harry finds himself in possession of the stone. Voldemort attempts to convince Harry to give him the stone by promising to bring his parents back from the dead. When Harry refuses, Quirrell tries to forcefully take the stone, but Harry 's touch turns Quirrell into dust, killing him. When Harry gets back up, Voldemort 's enraged spirit rises from Quirrell 's ashes and passes through Harry, rendering him unconscious.
Harry wakes up in the school 's hospital wing with Dumbledore at his side. Dumbledore explains that the stone has been destroyed and that Ron and Hermione are both fine. The headmaster reveals that Harry was able to defeat Quirrell because when Harry 's mother died to save him, her death gave Harry a love - based protection against Voldemort. Harry, Ron, and Hermione are rewarded with house points for their heroic performances, giving Gryffindor enough points to win the House Cup.
Rowling insisted that the cast be kept British. Susie Figgis was appointed as casting director, working with both Columbus and Rowling in auditioning the lead roles of Harry, Ron and Hermione. Open casting calls were held for the main three roles, with only British children being considered. The principal auditions took place in three parts, with those auditioning having to read a page from the novel, then to improvise a scene of the students ' arrival at Hogwarts, and finally to read several pages from the script in front of Columbus. Scenes from Columbus ' script for the 1985 film Young Sherlock Holmes were also used in auditions. On 11 July 2000, Figgis left the production, complaining that Columbus did not consider any of the thousands of children they had auditioned "worthy ''. On 8 August 2000, the virtually unknown Daniel Radcliffe and newcomers Rupert Grint and Emma Watson were selected to play Harry Potter, Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger, respectively.
Rik Mayall was cast in the role of Peeves, a poltergeist who likes to prank students in the novel. Mayall had to shout his lines off camera during takes, but the scene ended up being cut from the film. David Bradley portrays Argus Filch, the loathed caretaker of Hogwarts. Tom Felton portrays Draco Malfoy, the trio 's enemy. Zoë Wanamaker portrays Madam Hooch, the flying teacher of Hogwarts. Sean Biggerstaff portrays Oliver Wood, captain of the Gryffindor Quidditch team. James and Oliver Phelps appear as Fred and George Weasley, Ron 's older twin brothers. Chris Rankin portrays Percy Weasley, Ron 's older Prefect brother. Bonnie Wright portrays Ron 's younger sister, Ginny Weasley. Harry Melling plays Dudley Dursley, Harry 's Muggle cousin. Matthew Lewis, Devon Murray and Alfred Enoch portray Neville Longbottom, Seamus Finnigan and Dean Thomas, respectively.
In 1997, producer David Heyman searched for a children 's book that could be adapted into a well - received film. He had planned to produce Diana Wynne Jones ' novel The Ogre Downstairs, but his plans fell through. His staff at Heyday Films then suggested Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, which his assistant believed was "a cool idea. '' Heyman pitched the idea to Warner Bros. and in 1999, Rowling sold the company the rights to the first four Harry Potter books for a reported £ 1 million (US $1,982,900). A demand Rowling made was that the principal cast be kept strictly British, nonetheless allowing for the inclusion of Irish actors such as Richard Harris as Dumbledore, and for casting of French and Eastern European actors in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire where characters from the book are specified as such. Rowling was hesitant to sell the rights because she "did n't want to give them control over the rest of the story '' by selling the rights to the characters, which would have enabled Warner Bros. to make non-author - written sequels.
Although Steven Spielberg initially negotiated to direct the film, he declined the offer. Spielberg reportedly wanted the adaptation to be an animated film, with American actor Haley Joel Osment to provide Harry Potter 's voice, or a film that incorporated elements from subsequent books as well. Spielberg contended that, in his opinion, it was like "shooting ducks in a barrel. It 's just a slam dunk. It 's just like withdrawing a billion dollars and putting it into your personal bank accounts. There 's no challenge. '' Rowling maintains that she had no role in choosing directors for the films and that "(a) nyone who thinks I could (or would) have ' veto - ed ' (sic) him (Spielberg) needs their Quick - Quotes Quill serviced. '' Heyman recalled that Spielberg decided to direct A.I. Artificial Intelligence instead.
After Spielberg left, talks began with other directors, including: Chris Columbus, Terry Gilliam, Jonathan Demme, Mike Newell, Alan Parker, Wolfgang Petersen, Rob Reiner, Ivan Reitman, Tim Robbins, Brad Silberling, M. Night Shyamalan and Peter Weir. Petersen and Reiner both pulled out of the running in March 2000, and the choice was narrowed down to Silberling, Columbus, Parker and Gilliam. Rowling 's first choice director was Terry Gilliam, but Warner Bros. chose Columbus, citing his work on other family films such as Home Alone and Mrs. Doubtfire as influences for their decision. Columbus pitched his vision of the film for two hours, stating that he wanted the Muggle scenes "to be bleak and dreary '' but those set in the wizarding world "to be steeped in color, mood, and detail. '' He took inspiration from David Lean 's adaptations of Great Expectations (1946) and Oliver Twist (1948), wishing to use "that sort of darkness, that sort of edge, that quality to the cinematography, '' taking the colour designs from Oliver! and The Godfather.
Steve Kloves was selected to write the screenplay. He described adapting the book as "tough '', as it did not "lend itself to adaptation as well as the next two books. '' Kloves often received synopses of books proposed as film adaptations from Warner Bros., which he "almost never read '', but Harry Potter jumped out at him. He went out and bought the book, and became an instant fan of the series. When speaking to Warner Bros., he stated that the film had to be British, and had to be true to the characters. Kloves was nervous when he first met Rowling as he did not want her to think he was going to "(destroy) her baby. '' Rowling admitted that she "was really ready to hate this Steve Kloves, '' but recalled her initial meeting with him: "The first time I met him, he said to me, ' You know who my favourite character is? ' And I thought, You 're gon na say Ron. I know you 're gon na say Ron. But he said ' Hermione. ' And I just kind of melted. '' Rowling received a large amount of creative control, an arrangement that Columbus did not mind.
Warner Bros. had initially planned to release the film over 4 July 2001 weekend, making for such a short production window that several proposed directors pulled themselves out of the running. Due to time constraints, the date was put back to 16 November 2001.
Two British film industry officials requested that the film be shot in the United Kingdom, offering their assistance in securing filming locations, the use of Leavesden Film Studios, as well as changing the UK 's child labour laws (adding a small number of working hours per week and making the timing of on - set classes more flexible). Warner Bros. accepted their proposal. Filming began in September 2000 at Leavesden Film Studios and concluded on 23 March 2001, with final work being done in July. Principal photography took place on 2 October 2000 at North Yorkshire 's Goathland railway station. Canterbury Cathedral and Scotland 's Inverailort Castle were both touted as possible locations for Hogwarts; Canterbury rejected Warner Bros. proposal due to concerns about the film 's "pagan '' theme. Alnwick Castle and Gloucester Cathedral were eventually selected as the principal locations for Hogwarts, with some scenes also being filmed at Harrow School. Other Hogwarts scenes were filmed in Durham Cathedral over a two - week period; these included shots of the corridors and some classroom scenes. Oxford University 's Divinity School served as the Hogwarts Hospital Wing, and Duke Humfrey 's Library, part of the Bodleian, was used as the Hogwarts Library. Filming for Privet Drive took place on Picket Post Close in Bracknell, Berkshire. Filming in the street took two days instead of the planned single day, so payments to the street 's residents were correspondingly increased. For all the subsequent film 's scenes set in Privet Drive, filming took place on a constructed set in Leavesden Film Studios, which proved to have been cheaper than filming on location. London 's Australia House was selected as the location for Gringotts Wizarding Bank, while Christ Church, Oxford was the location for the Hogwarts trophy room. London Zoo was used as the location for the scene in which Harry accidentally sets a snake on Dudley, with King 's Cross Station also being used as the book specifies.
Because the American title was different, all scenes that mention the philosopher 's stone by name had to be re-shot, once with the actors saying "philosopher 's '' and once with "sorcerer 's ''. The children filmed for four hours and then did three hours of schoolwork. They developed a liking for fake facial injuries from the makeup staff. Radcliffe was initially meant to wear green contact lenses as his eyes are blue, and not green like Harry 's, but the lenses gave Radcliffe extreme irritation. Upon consultation with Rowling, it was agreed that Harry could have blue eyes.
Judianna Makovsky designed the costumes. She re-designed the Quidditch robes, having initially planned to use those shown on the cover of the American book, but deemed them "a mess. '' Instead, she dressed the Quidditch players in "preppie sweaters, 19th century fencing breeches and arm guards. '' Production designer Stuart Craig built the sets at Leavesden Studios, including Hogwarts Great Hall, basing it on many English cathedrals. Although originally asked to use an existing old street to film the Diagon Alley scenes, Craig decided to build his own set, comprising Tudor, Georgian and Queen Anne architecture.
Columbus originally planned to use both animatronics and CGI animation to create the magical creatures, including Fluffy. Nick Dudman, who worked on Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace, was given the task of creating the needed prosthetics, with Jim Henson 's Creature Shop providing creature effects. John Coppinger stated that the magical creatures that needed to be created had to be designed multiple times. The film features nearly 600 special effects shots, involving numerous companies. Industrial Light & Magic created Lord Voldemort 's face on the back of Quirrell, Rhythm & Hues animated Norbert (Hagrid 's baby dragon); and Sony Pictures Imageworks produced the Quidditch scenes.
John Williams was selected to compose the score. Williams composed the score at his homes in Los Angeles and Tanglewood before recording it in London in August 2001. One of the main themes is entitled "Hedwig 's Theme ''; Williams retained it for his finished score as "everyone seemed to like it ''.
Columbus repeatedly checked with Rowling to make sure he was getting minor details correct. Kloves described the film as being "really faithful '' to the book. He added dialogue, of which Rowling approved. One of the lines originally included had to be removed after Rowling told him that it would directly contradict an event in the then - unreleased fifth Harry Potter novel Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix.
Several minor characters have been removed from the film version, most prominent among them the spectral History of Magic teacher, Professor Binns, and Peeves the poltergeist. The book 's first chapter is from the viewpoint of Vernon and Petunia Dursley the day before they are given Harry to look after, highlighting how non-magical people react to magic. The film removes this, beginning with Professor Dumbledore, Professor McGonagall and Hagrid leaving Harry with the Dursleys (although McGonagall tells Dumbledore how she had been watching the Dursleys all day). Harry 's less than pleasant times at Mrs. Figg 's are cut from the film while the boa constrictor from Brazil in the zoo becomes a Burmese Python in the film. Some conflicts, such as Harry and Draco 's encounter with each other in Madam Malkin 's robe shop and midnight duel, are not in the film. Some of Nicolas Flamel 's role is changed or cut altogether. Norbert is mentioned to have been taken away by Dumbledore in the film; whilst the book sees Harry and Hermione have to take him by hand to Charlie Weasley 's friends. Rowling described the scene as "the one part of the book that she felt (could easily) be changed ''. As such, the reason for the detention in the Forbidden Forest was changed: In the novel, Harry and Hermione are put in detention for being caught by Filch when leaving the Astronomy Tower after hours, Neville and Malfoy are given detention when caught in the corridor by Professor McGonagall. In the film, Harry, Hermione and Ron receive detention after Malfoy catches them in Hagrid 's hut after hours (Malfoy however, is given detention for being out of bed after hours). Firenze the centaur, who is described in the book as being palomino with light blonde hair, is shown to be dark in the film. The Quidditch pitch is altered from a traditional stadium to an open field circled by spectator towers.
The first teaser poster was released in December 2000. The first teaser trailer was released via satellite on 2 March 2001 and debuted in cinemas with the release of See Spot Run. The soundtrack was released on 30 October 2001 in a CD format. A video game based on the film was released on 15 November 2001 by Electronic Arts for several consoles. Another video game, for the GameCube, PlayStation 2, and Xbox was released in 2003. Mattel won the rights to produce toys based on the film, to be sold exclusively through Warner Brothers ' stores. Hasbro also produced products, including confectionery items based on those from the series. Warner Bros. signed a deal worth US $150 million with Coca - Cola to promote the film, and Lego produced a series of sets based on buildings and scenes from the film, as well as a Lego Creator video game.
Warner Bros. first released the film on VHS and DVD on 11 February 2002 in the E3 UK 11 May 2002 in the UK and 28 May 2002 in the US. The VHS and DVD (The Special Edition) was re-released in 7 May 2004 An Ultimate Edition was later released exclusively in the US that included a Blu - ray and DVD. The release contains an extended version of the film, with many of the deleted scenes edited back in; additionally, the set includes the existing special features disc, Radcliffe 's, Grint 's, and Watson 's first screen tests, a feature - length special Creating the World of Harry Potter Part 1: The Magic Begins, and a 48 - page hardcover booklet. The extended version has a running time of about 159 minutes, which has previously been shown during certain television airings.
The film had its world premiere on 4 November 2001, in London 's Leicester Square, with the cinema arranged to resemble Hogwarts School. The film was greatly received at the box office. In the United States, it made $32.3 million on its opening day, breaking the single day record previously held by Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace. On the second day of release, the film 's gross increased to $33.5 million, breaking the record for biggest single day again. In total, it made $90.3 million during its first weekend, breaking the record for highest - opening weekend of all time that was previously held by The Lost World: Jurassic Park. It held the record until the following May when Spider - Man made $114.8 million in its opening weekend. The film held onto the No. 1 spot at the box - office for three consecutive weekends. The film also had the highest grossing 5 - day (Wednesday - Sunday) Thanksgiving weekend record of $82.4 million, holding the title for twelve years until both The Hunger Games: Catching Fire and Frozen surpassed it with $110.1 million and $94 million respectively. Similar results were achieved across the world. In the United Kingdom, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone broke the record for the highest - opening weekend ever, both including and excluding previews, making £ 16.3 million with and £ 9.8 million without previews. The film went on to make £ 66.1 million in the UK alone, making it the country 's second highest - grossing film of all - time (after Titanic), until it was surpassed by Mamma Mia!.
In total, the film earned $974.8 million at the worldwide box office, $317.6 million of that in the US and $657.2 million elsewhere, which made it the second highest - grossing film in history at the time, as well as the year 's highest - grossing film. As of 2015, it is the unadjusted twenty - sixth highest - grossing film of all - time and the second highest - grossing Harry Potter film to date after Deathly Hallows - Part 2, which grossed more than $1 billion worldwide. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 55.9 million tickets in the US.
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 80 % based on 194 reviews, with an average rating of 7.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone adapts its source material faithfully while condensing the novel 's overstuffed narrative into an involving -- and often downright exciting -- big - screen magical caper. '' On Metacritic the film has a score of 64 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On CinemaScore, audiences gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert called Philosopher 's Stone "a classic, '' giving the film four out of four stars, and particularly praising the Quidditch scenes ' visual effects. Praise was echoed by both The Telegraph and Empire reviewers, with Alan Morrison of the latter naming it the film 's "stand - out sequence ''. Brian Linder of IGN.com also gave the film a positive review, but concluded that it "is n't perfect, but for me it 's a nice supplement to a book series that I love ''. Although criticising the final half - hour, Jeanne Aufmuth of Palo Alto Online stated that the film would "enchant even the most cynical of moviegoers. '' USA Today reviewer Claudia Puig gave the film three out of four stars, especially praising the set design and Robbie Coltrane 's portrayal of Hagrid, but criticised John Williams ' score and concluded "ultimately many of the book 's readers may wish for a more magical incarnation. '' The sets, design, cinematography, effects and principal cast were all given praise from Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter, although he deemed John Williams ' score "a great clanging, banging music box that simply will not shut up. '' Todd McCarthy of Variety compared the film positively with Gone with the Wind and put "The script is faithful, the actors are just right, the sets, costumes, makeup and effects match and sometimes exceed anything one could imagine. '' Jonathan Foreman of the New York Post recalled that the film was "remarkably faithful, '' to its literary counterpart as well as a "consistently entertaining if overlong adaptation. ''
Richard Corliss of Time magazine, considered the film a "by the numbers adaptation, '' criticising the pace and the "charisma - free '' lead actors. CNN 's Paul Tatara found that Columbus and Kloves "are so careful to avoid offending anyone by excising a passage from the book, the so - called narrative is more like a jamboree inside Rowling 's head. '' Nathaniel Rogers of The Film Experience gave the film a negative review and wrote: "Harry Potter and the Sorceror 's Stone is as bland as movies can get. '' Ed Gonzalez of Slant Magazine wished that the film had been directed by Tim Burton, finding the cinematography "bland and muggy, '' and the majority of the film a "solidly dull celebration of dribbling goo. '' Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times was highly negative about the film, saying "(the film) is like a theme park that 's a few years past its prime; the rides clatter and groan with metal fatigue every time they take a curve. '' He also said it suffered from "a lack of imagination '' and wooden characters, adding, "The Sorting Hat has more personality than anything else in the movie. ''
The film received three Academy Award nominations: Best Art Direction, Best Costume Design, and Best Original Score for John Williams. The film was also nominated for seven BAFTA Awards. These were Best British Film, Best Supporting Actor for Robbie Coltrane, as well as the awards for Best Costume Design, Production Design, Makeup and Hair, Sound and Visual Effects. The film won a Saturn Award for its costumes, and was nominated for eight more awards. It won other awards from the Casting Society of America and the Costume Designers Guild. It was nominated for the AFI Film Award for its special effects, and the Art Directors Guild Award for its production design. It received the Broadcast Film Critics Award for Best Live Action Family Film and was nominated for Best Child Performance (for Daniel Radcliffe) and Best Composer (John Williams). In 2005 the American Film Institute nominated the film for AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores.
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who is the most powerful person in europe | Forbes list of the World 's Most Powerful people - wikipedia
Since 2009, Forbes business magazine had compiled an annual list of the world 's most powerful people. The list has one slot for every 100 million people, meaning in 2009 there were 67 people on the list and by 2018 there were 75. Slots are allocated based on the amount of human and financial resources that they have sway over, as well as their influence on world events.
Note: No list was released for 2017.
President of the United States
General Secretary of the Communist Party of China
President of the United States
President of Russia
General Secretary of the Communist Party of China
General Secretary of the Communist Party of China
President of the United States
Prime Minister of Russia
Chancellor of Germany
President of the United States
Chancellor of Germany
President - elect of the United States
President of Russia
Prime Minister of Russia
King and Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia
Presidents of China
President of Russia
General Secretary of the Communist Party of China
President of the United States
Chancellor of Germany
President of the United States
Chair of the Federal Reserve
Prime Minister of Russia
Chancellor of Germany
Co-Chair of the Gates Foundation Founder of Microsoft
Pope of the Holy See
General Secretary of the Communist Party of China
Chancellor of Germany
Larry Page Co-Founders of Google
Pope of the Holy See
Co-Chair of the Gates Foundation Founder of Microsoft
Pope of the Holy See
Chancellor of Germany
General Secretary of the Communist Party of China
Pope of the Holy See
Chairman and CEO of Amazon
Chief executive of Telmex
Chancellor of Germany
King of Saudi Arabia
Chair of the Federal Reserve
Co-Chair of the Gates Foundation Founder of Microsoft
Chair of the Federal Reserve
Co-Chair of the Gates Foundation Founder of Microsoft
Chair of the Federal Reserve
Pope of the Holy See
Chairman of News Corporation
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
Pope of the Holy See
King of Saudi Arabia
Chair of the Federal Reserve
Co-Chair of the Gates Foundation Founder of Microsoft
Chair of the Federal Reserve
Co-Chair of the Gates Foundation Founder of Microsoft
Chief Executive of Walmart
Chair of the Federal Reserve
President of the European Central Bank
King of Saudi Arabia
President of the European Central Bank
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
Co-Founder of Google
Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia
King of Saudi Arabia
President of the Indian National Congress
Founder & CEO of Facebook
General Secretary of the Communist Party of China
President of the European Central Bank
Larry Page Co-Founders of Google
Prime Minister of India
Co-Chair of the Gates Foundation Founder of Microsoft
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
Chief Executive of Walmart
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
Co-Founder of Google
Co-Founder of Facebook
Co-Founder of Google
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mark knopfler and emmylou harris real live roadrunning | Real live Roadrunning - wikipedia
Real Live Roadrunning is a collaborative live album by British singer - songwriter and guitarist Mark Knopfler and American singer - songwriter Emmylou Harris, released on 14 November 2006 by Mercury Records and Universal Music internationally, and by Warner Bros. Records in the United States. The album was recorded live on 28 June 2006 at the Gibson Amphitheatre in Los Angeles, at the end of their summer tour in support of their critically acclaimed album, All the Roadrunning. Real Live Roadrunning was released as a combined CD / DVD.
The album cover is the second album release that prominently features Knopfler 's National Style 0 Resonator guitar, the same that is featured on the cover of Brothers in Arms, the top - selling album with his former band, Dire Straits.
In his review for AllMusic, James Christopher Monger gave the album three out of five stars, writing that the musicianship "is as flawless as expected, but there 's not a whole lot to separate the tunes here from their studio sisters. '' Mongers concluded, "The accompanying DVD is a much better example of the pair 's quiet dynamic, allowing both the duo and its talented band a broader spectrum on which to emit their wry tales of love, loss, and life. ''
In his review for The Music Box, John Metzger gave the album three and a half out of five stars, writing that although the performances are "impeccable '', the set remains "a flawed affair ''. Metzger believed that the songs and arrangements are too similar to the studio versions on All the Roadrunning, and that the differences between the live versions and the studio versions are mostly subtle. Metzger believed that the true highlights of Real Live Roadrunning are the renewed versions of songs taken from the solo works of Knopfler and Harris, such as "Romeo and Juliet '', "Speedway at Nazareth '', and "Red Dirt Girl ''. Metzger concluded, "Understandably, in transforming their work for the stage, Knopfler and Harris were forced to swap subtlety for zeal, but as the accompanying video makes clear, they still succeeded in retaining the charming intimacy that made All the Roadrunning such a superlative collection in the first place. ''
All songs were written by Mark Knopfler, except where indicated.
Real Live Roadrunning is a collaborative live concert DVD by British singer - songwriter and guitarist Mark Knopfler and American singer - songwriter Emmylou Harris, released on 14 November 2006 by Mercury Records and Universal Music internationally, and by Warner Bros. Records in the United States. The DVD contains a 91 - minute concert, plus special features, including a documentary and interviews.
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where is honduras located on the world map | Honduras - wikipedia
Coordinates: 15 ° 00 ′ N 86 ° 30 ′ W / 15.000 ° N 86.500 ° W / 15.000; - 86.500
Honduras (/ hɒnˈdjʊərəs, - ˈdʊər - / (listen), / - æs /; Spanish: (onˈduɾas)), officially the Republic of Honduras (Spanish: República de Honduras), is a republic in Central America. It has at times been referred to as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras, which became modern - day Belize. Honduras is bordered to the west by Guatemala, to the southwest by El Salvador, to the southeast by Nicaragua, to the south by the Pacific Ocean at the Gulf of Fonseca, and to the north by the Gulf of Honduras, a large inlet of the Caribbean Sea.
Honduras was home to several important Mesoamerican cultures, most notably the Maya, before the Spanish invaded in the sixteenth century. The Spanish introduced Roman Catholicism and the now predominant Spanish language, along with numerous customs that have blended with the indigenous culture. Honduras became independent in 1821 and has since been a republic, although it has consistently endured much social strife and political instability, and remains one of the poorest countries in the western hemisphere. In 1960, the northern part of what was the Mosquito Coast was transferred from Nicaragua to Honduras by the International Court of Justice.
The nation 's economy is primarily agricultural, making it especially vulnerable to natural disasters such as Hurricane Mitch in 1998. The lower class is primarily agriculturally based while wealth is concentrated in the country 's urban centers. Honduras has a Human Development Index of. 625, classifying it as a nation with medium development. When the Index is adjusted for income inequality, its Inequality - adjusted Human Development Index is. 443.
Honduran society is predominately Mestizo; however, American Indian, Black and White individuals also live in Honduras (2017). The nation had a relatively high political stability until its 2009 coup and again with the 2017 presidential election. Honduras has the world 's highest murder rate and high levels of sexual violence.
Honduras spans about 112,492 km and has a population exceeding 9 million. Its northern portions are part of the Western Caribbean Zone, as reflected in the area 's demographics and culture. Honduras is known for its rich natural resources, including minerals, coffee, tropical fruit, and sugar cane, as well as for its growing textiles industry, which serves the international market.
The literal meaning of the term "Honduras '' is "depths '' in Spanish. The name could either refer to the bay of Trujillo as an anchorage, fondura in the Leonese dialect of Spanish, or to Columbus 's alleged quote that "Gracias a Dios que hemos salido de esas Honduras '' ("Thank God we have departed from those depths '').
It was not until the end of the 16th century that Honduras was used for the whole province. Prior to 1580, Honduras referred to only the eastern part of the province, and Higueras referred to the western part. Another early name is Guaymuras, revived as the name for the political dialogue in 2009 that took place in Honduras as opposed to Costa Rica.
Hondurans are often referred to as Catracho or Catracha (fem) in Spanish. The word was coined by Nicaraguans and derives from the last name of the Spanish Honduran General Florencio Xatruch, who in 1857 led Honduran armed forces against an attempted invasion by North American adventurer William Walker. The nickname is considered complimentary, not derogatory.
In pre-Columbian times, modern Honduras was part of the Mesoamerican cultural area. In the west, Mayan civilization flourished for hundreds of years. The dominant state within Honduras ' borders was in Copán. Copán fell with the other Lowland centres during the conflagrations of the Terminal Classic in the 9th century. The Maya of this civilization survive in western Honduras as the Ch'orti ', isolated from their Choltian linguistic peers to the west.
Remnants of other Pre-Columbian cultures are found throughout the country. Archaeologists have studied sites such as Naco (es) and La Sierra in the Naco Valley, Los Naranjos on Lake Yojoa, Yarumela in the Comayagua Valley, La Ceiba and Salitron Viejo (both now under the Cajon Dam reservoir), Selin Farm and Cuyamel in the Aguan valley, Cerro Palenque, Travesia, Curruste, Ticamaya, Despoloncal in the lower Ulua river valley, and many others.
On his fourth and the final voyage to the New World in 1502, Christopher Columbus landed near the modern town of Trujillo, near Guaimoreto Lagoon, becaming the first European to visit the Bay Islands on the coast of Honduras. On 30 July 1502, Columbus sent his brother Bartholomew to explore the islands and Bartholomew encountered a Mayan trading vessel from Yucatán, carrying well - dressed Maya and a rich cargo. Bartholomew 's men stole the cargo they wanted and kidnapped the ship 's elderly captain to serve as an interpreter in the first recorded encounter between the Spanish and the Maya.
In March 1524, Gil González Dávila became the first Spaniard to enter Honduras as a conquistador. followed by Hernán Cortés, who had brought forces down from Mexico. Much of the conquest took place in the following two decades, first by groups loyal to Cristóbal de Olid, and then by those loyal to Francisco Montejo but most particularly by those following Alvarado. In addition to Spanish resources, the conquerors relied heavily on armed forces from Mexico -- Tlaxcalans and Mexica armies of thousands who remained garrisoned in the region.
Resistance to conquest was led in particular by Lempira. Many regions in the north of Honduras never fell to the Spanish, notably the Miskito Kingdom. After the Spanish conquest, Honduras became part of Spain 's vast empire in the New World within the Kingdom of Guatemala. Trujillo and Gracias were the first city - capitals. The Spanish ruled the region for approximately three centuries.
Honduras was organized as a province of the Kingdom of Guatemala and the capital was fixed, first at Trujillo on the Atlantic coast, and later at Comayagua, and finally at Tegucigalpa in the central part of the country.
Silver mining was a key factor in the Spanish conquest and settlement of Honduras. Initially the mines were worked by local people through the encomienda system, but as disease and resistance made this option less available, slaves from other parts of Central America were brought in. When local slave trading stopped at the end of the sixteenth century, African slaves, mostly from Angola, were imported. After about 1650, very few slaves or other outside workers arrived in Honduras.
Although the Spanish conquered the southern or Pacific portion of Honduras fairly quickly, they were less successful on the northern, or Atlantic side. They managed to found a few towns along the coast, at Puerto Caballos and Trujillo in particular, but failed to conquer the eastern portion of the region and many pockets of independent indigenous people as well. The Miskito Kingdom in the northeast was particularly effective at resisting conquest. The Miskito Kingdom found support from northern European privateers, pirates and especially the British formerly English colony of Jamaica, which placed much of the area under its protection after 1740.
Honduras gained independence from Spain in 1821 and was a part of the First Mexican Empire until 1823, when it became part of the United Provinces of Central America. It has been an independent republic and has held regular elections since 1838. In the 1840s and 1850s Honduras participated in several failed attempts at Central American unity, such as the Confederation of Central America (1842 -- 1845), the covenant of Guatemala (1842), the Diet of Sonsonate (1846), the Diet of Nacaome (1847) and National Representation in Central America (1849 -- 1852). Although Honduras eventually adopted the name Republic of Honduras, the unionist ideal never waned, and Honduras was one of the Central American countries that pushed the hardest for a policy of regional unity.
Neoliberal policies favoring international trade and investment began in the 1870s, and soon foreign interests became involved, first in shipping from the north coast, especially tropical fruit and most notably bananas, and then in building railroads. In 1888, a projected railroad line from the Caribbean coast to the capital, Tegucigalpa, ran out of money when it reached San Pedro Sula. As a result, San Pedro grew into the nation 's primary industrial center and second - largest city. Comayagua was the capital of Honduras until 1880, when the capital moved to Tegucigalpa.
Since independence, nearly 300 small internal rebellions and civil wars have occurred in the country, including some changes of régime.
In the late nineteenth century, Honduras granted land and substantial exemptions to several US - based fruit and infrastructure companies in return for developing the country 's northern regions. Thousands of workers came to the north coast as a result to work in banana plantations and other businesses that grew up around the export industry. Banana - exporting companies, dominated until 1930 by the Cuyamel Fruit Company, as well as the United Fruit Company, and Standard Fruit Company, built an enclave economy in northern Honduras, controlling infrastructure and creating self - sufficient, tax - exempt sectors that contributed relatively little to economic growth. American troops landed in Honduras in 1903, 1907, 1911, 1912, 1919, 1924 and 1925.
In 1904, the writer O. Henry coined the term "banana republic '' to describe Honduras, publishing a book called Cabbages and Kings, about a fictional country, Anchuria, inspired by his experiences in Honduras, where he had lived for six months. In The Admiral, O. Henry refers to the nation as a "small maritime banana republic ''; naturally, the fruit was the entire basis of its economy. According to a literary analyst writing for The Economist, "his phrase neatly conjures up the image of a tropical, agrarian country. But its real meaning is sharper: it refers to the fruit companies from the United States that came to exert extraordinary influence over the politics of Honduras and its neighbors. '' In addition to drawing Central American workers north, the fruit companies encouraged immigration of workers from the English - speaking Caribbean, notably Jamaica and Belize, which introduced an African - descended, English - speaking and largely Protestant population into the country, although many of these workers left following changes to immigration law in 1939. Honduras joined the Allied Nations after Pearl Harbor, on 8 December 1941, and signed the Declaration by United Nations on 1 January 1942, along with twenty - five other governments.
Constitutional crises in the 1940s led to reforms in the 1950s. One reform gave workers permission to organize, and a 1954 general strike paralyzed the northern part of the country for more than two months, but led to reforms. In 1963 a military coup unseated democratically elected President Ramón Villeda Morales.
In 1960, the northern part of what was the Mosquito Coast was transferred from Nicaragua to Honduras by the International Court of Justice.
In 1969, Honduras and El Salvador fought what became known as the Football War. Border tensions led to acrimony between the two countries after Oswaldo López Arellano, the president of Honduras, blamed the deteriorating Honduran economy on immigrants from El Salvador. The relationship reached a low when El Salvador met Honduras for a three - round football elimination match preliminary to the World Cup.
Tensions escalated and on 14 July 1969, the Salvadoran army launched an attack on the Honduran army. The Organization of American States negotiated a cease - fire which took effect on 20 July and brought about a withdrawal of Salvadoran troops in early August. Contributing factors to the conflict were a boundary dispute and the presence of thousands of Salvadorans living in Honduras illegally. After the week - long war, as many as 130,000 Salvadoran immigrants were expelled.
Hurricane Fifi caused severe damage when it skimmed the northern coast of Honduras on 18 and 19 September 1974. Melgar Castro (1975 -- 78) and Paz Garcia (1978 -- 82) largely built the current physical infrastructure and telecommunications system of Honduras.
In 1979, the country returned to civilian rule. A constituent assembly was popularly elected in April 1980 to write a new constitution, and general elections were held in November 1981. The constitution was approved in 1982 and the PLH government of Roberto Suazo won the election with a promise to carry out an ambitious program of economic and social development to tackle the recession in which Honduras found itself. He launched ambitious social and economic development projects sponsored by American development aid. Honduras became host to the largest Peace Corps mission in the world, and nongovernmental and international voluntary agencies proliferated. The Peace Corps withdrew its volunteers in 2012, citing safety concerns.
During the early 1980s, the United States established a continuing military presence in Honduras to support El Salvador, the Contra guerrillas fighting the Nicaraguan government, and also develop an air strip and modern port in Honduras. Though spared the bloody civil wars wracking its neighbors, the Honduran army quietly waged campaigns against Marxist - Leninist militias such as the Cinchoneros Popular Liberation Movement, notorious for kidnappings and bombings, and against many non-militants as well. The operation included a CIA - backed campaign of extrajudicial killings by government - backed units, most notably Battalion 316.
In 1998, Hurricane Mitch caused massive and widespread destruction. Honduran President Carlos Roberto Flores said that fifty years of progress in the country had been reversed. Mitch destroyed about 70 % of the country 's crops and an estimated 70 -- 80 % of the transportation infrastructure, including nearly all bridges and secondary roads. Across Honduras 33,000 houses were destroyed, and an additional 50,000 damaged. Some 5,000 people killed, and 12,000 more injured. Total losses were estimated at $3 billion USD.
The 2008 Honduran floods were severe and damaged or destroyed around half of the roads as a result.
In 2009, a constitutional crisis resulted when power transferred in a coup from the president to the head of Congress. The Organization of American States (OAS) suspended Honduras because it did not feel its government was legitimate.
Countries around the world, the OAS, and the United Nations formally and unanimously condemned the action as a coup d'état, refusing to recognize the de facto government, even though the lawyers consulted by the Library of Congress submitted to the United States Congress an opinion that declared the coup legal. The Honduran Supreme Court also ruled that the proceedings had been legal. The government that followed the de facto government established a truth and reconciliation commission, Comisión de la Verdad y Reconciliación, which after more than a year of research and debate concluded that the ousting had been a coup d'état, and illegal in the commission 's opinion.
The north coast of Honduras borders the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean lies south through the Gulf of Fonseca. Honduras consists mainly of mountains, with narrow plains along the coasts. A large undeveloped lowland jungle, La Mosquitia lies in the northeast, and the heavily populated lowland Sula valley in the northwest. In La Mosquitia lies the UNESCO world - heritage site Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, with the Coco River which divides Honduras from Nicaragua.
The Islas de la Bahía and the Swan Islands are off the north coast. Misteriosa Bank and Rosario Bank, 130 to 130 to 150 kilometres (81 to 93 miles) north of the Swan Islands, fall within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of Honduras.
Natural resources include timber, gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, iron ore, antimony, coal, fish, shrimp, and hydropower.
The climate varies from tropical in the lowlands to temperate in the mountains. The central and southern regions are relatively hotter and less humid than the northern coast.
The region is considered a biodiversity hotspot because of the many plant and animal species found there. Like other countries in the region, it contains vast biological resources. Honduras hosts more than 6,000 species of vascular plants, of which 630 (described so far) are orchids; around 250 reptiles and amphibians, more than 700 bird species, and 110 mammalian species, of which half are bats.
In the northeastern region of La Mosquitia lies the Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, a lowland rainforest which is home to a great diversity of life. The reserve was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites List in 1982.
Honduras has rain forests, cloud forests (which can rise up to nearly three thousand metres or 9,800 feet above sea level), mangroves, savannas and mountain ranges with pine and oak trees, and the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System. In the Bay Islands there are bottlenose dolphins, manta rays, parrot fish, schools of blue tang and whale shark.
Deforestation resulting from logging is rampant in Olancho Department. The clearing of land for agriculture is prevalent in the largely undeveloped La Mosquitia region, causing land degradation and soil erosion.
Lake Yojoa, which is Honduras ' largest source of fresh water, is polluted by heavy metals produced from mining activities. Some rivers and streams are also polluted by mining.
Honduras is governed within a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic. The President of Honduras is both head of state and head of government. Executive power is exercised by the Honduran government. Legislative power is vested in the National Congress of Honduras. The judiciary is independent of both the executive branch and the legislature.
The National Congress of Honduras (Congreso Nacional) has 128 members (diputados), elected for a four - year term by proportional representation. Congressional seats are assigned the parties ' candidates on a departmental basis in proportion to the number of votes each party receives.
In 1963, a military coup removed the democratically elected president, Ramón Villeda Morales. A string of authoritarian military governments held power uninterrupted until 1981, when Roberto Suazo Córdova was elected president.
The party system was dominated by the conservative National Party of Honduras (Partido Nacional de Honduras: PNH) and the liberal Liberal Party of Honduras (Partido Liberal de Honduras: PLH) until the 2009 Honduran coup d'état removed Manuel Zelaya from office and put Roberto Micheletti in his place.
Current Honduran president Juan Orlando Hernández took office on 27 January 2014. After managing to stand for a second term, a very close election in 2017 left uncertainty as to whether Hernandez or his main challenger, television personality Salvador Nasralla, had prevailed.
Two Honduran names that surfaced in the Panama Papers disclosures belong to highly successful businessmen from some of Honduras ' most prominent families. Jaime Rosenthal and Gilberto Goldstein are among the elite of Honduras, both successful businessmen and politicians. Rosenthal was a vice-president in the 1980s administration of José Azcona del Hoyo. His son César Rosenthal was, according to the Panama Papers, the sole stockholder of Renton Management S.A., a Panamanian entity created to purchase airplanes.
Honduras and Nicaragua had tense relations throughout 2000 and early 2001 due to a boundary dispute off the Atlantic coast. Nicaragua imposed a 35 % tariff against Honduran goods due to the dispute.
In June 2009 a coup d'état ousted President Manuel Zelaya; he was taken in a military aircraft to neighboring Costa Rica. The General Assembly of the United Nations voted to denounce the coup and called for the restoration of Zelaya. Several Latin American nations including Mexico temporarily severed diplomatic relations with Honduras. In July 2010, full diplomatic relations were once again re-established with Mexico. The United States sent out mixed messages after the coup; Obama called the ouster a coup and expressed support for Zelaya 's return to power. US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, advised by John Negroponte, the former Reagan - era to Ambassador Honduras implicated in the Iran - Contra affair, refrained from expressing support. She has since explained that the US would have had to cut aid if it called Zelaya 's ouster a military coup, although the US has a record of ignoring these events when it chooses. Zelaya had expressed an interest in Hugo Chávez ' Bolivarian Alliance for Peoples of our America (ALBA), and had actually joined in 2008. After the 2009 coup, Honduras withdrew its membership.
This interest in regional agreements may have increased the alarm of establishment politicians. When Zelaya began calling for a "fourth ballot box '' to determine whether Hondurans wished to convoke a special constitutional congress, this sounded a lot to some like the constitutional amendments that had extended the terms of both Hugo Chavez and Evo Morales. "Chavez has served as a role model for like - minded leaders intent on cementing their power. These presidents are barely in office when they typically convene a constitutional convention to guarantee their reelection, '' said a 2009 Spiegel International analysis, which noted that one reason to join ALBA was discounted Venezuelan oil. In addition to Chavez and Morales, Carlos Menem of Argentina, Fernando Henrique Cardoso of Brazil and Columbian President Álvaro Uribe had all taken this step, and Washington and the EU were both accusing the Sandanista government in Nicaragua of tampering with election results. Politicians of all stripes expressed opposition to Zelaya 's referendum proposal, and the Attorney - General accused him of violating the constitution. The Honduran Supreme Court agreed, saying that the constitution had put the Supreme Electoral Tribunal in charge of elections and referenda, not the National Statistics Institute, which Zelaya had proposed to have run the count. Whether or not Zelaya 's removal from power had constitutional elements, the Honduran constitution explicitly protects all Hondurans from forced expulsion for Honduras.
The United States maintains a small military presence at one Honduran base. The two countries conduct joint peacekeeping, counter-narcotics, humanitarian, disaster relief, humanitarian, medical and civic action exercises. U.S. troops conduct and provide logistics support for a variety of bilateral and multilateral exercises. The United States is Honduras ' chief trading partner.
Honduras has a military with the Honduran Army, Honduran Navy and Honduran Air Force.
Honduras is divided into 18 departments. The capital city is Tegucigalpa in the Central District within the department of Francisco Morazán.
A new administrative division called ZEDE (Zonas de empleo y desarrollo económico) was created in 2013. ZEDEs have a high level of autonomy with their own political system at a judicial, economic and administrative level, and are based on free market capitalism.
The World Bank categorizes Honduras as a low middle - income nation. The nation 's per capita income sits at around 600 US dollars making it one of the lowest in North America.
In 2010, 50 % of the population were still living below the poverty line. By 2016 more than 66 % was living below the poverty line. Estimates put unemployment at about 27.9 %, which is more than 1.2 million Hondurans.
Economic growth in the last few years has averaged 7 % a year, one of the highest rates in Latin America (2010). Despite this, Honduras has seen the least development amongst all Central American countries. Honduras is ranked 130 of 188 countries with a Human Development Index of. 625 that classifies the nation as having medium development (2015). The three factors that go into Honduras ' HDI (an extended and healthy life, accessibility of knowledge and standard of living) have all improved since 1990 but still remain relatively low with life expectancy at birth being 73.3, expected years of schooling being 11.2 (mean of 6.2 years) and GNI per capita being $4,466 (2015). The HDI for Latin America and the Caribbean overall is 0.751 with life expectancy at birth being 68.6, expected years of schooling being 11.5 (mean of 6.6) and GNI per capita being $6,281 (2015).
The 2009 Honduran coup d'état led to a variety of economic trends in the nation. Overall growth has slowed, averaging 5.7 percent from 2006 -- 2008 but slowing to 3.5 percent annually between 2010 and 2013. Following the coup trends of decreasing poverty and extreme poverty were reversed. The nation saw a poverty increase of 13.2 percent and in extreme poverty of 26.3 percent in just 3 years. Furthermore, unemployment grew between 2008 and 2012 from 6.8 percent to 14.1 percent.
Because much of the Honduran economy is based on small scale agriculture of only a few exports, natural disasters have a particularly devastating impact. Natural disasters such as 1998 Hurricane Mitch have contributed to this inequality as they particularly affecting poor rural areas. Additionally, they are a large contributor to food insecurity in the country as farmers are left unable to provide for their families. A study done by Honduras NGO, World Neighbors, determined the tems "increased workload, decreased basic grains, expensive food, and fear '' were most associated with Hurricane Mitch.
The rural and urban poor were hit hardest by Hurricane Mitch. Those in Southern and Western regions specifically were considered most vulnerable as they both subject environmental destruction and home to many sustenance farmers. Due to disasters such as Hurricane Mitch, the agricultural economic sector has declined a third in the past twenty years. This is mostly due to a decline in exports such as banana and coffee that were affected by factors such as natural disasters. Indigenous communities along the Patuca River were hit extremely hard as well. The mid-Pataca region was almost completely destroyed. Over 80 % of rice harvest and all of banana, plantain, and manioc harvests were lost. Relief and reconstruction efforts following the storm were partial and incomplete reinforcing existing levels of poverty rather than reversing it, especially for indigenous communities. The period between the end food donations and the following harvest led to extreme hunger causing deaths amongst the Tawahka population. Those that were considered the most "land - rich '' lost 36 % of their total land on average. Those that were the most "land - poor, '' lost less total land but a greater share of their overall total. This meant that those hit hardest were single women as their constitute the majority of this population.
Since the 1970s when Honduras was designated a "food priority country '' by the UN, organizations such as The World Food Program (WFP) have worked to decrease malnutrition and food insecurity. A large majority of Honduran famers live in extreme poverty, or below 180 US dollars per capita. Currently one fourth of children are affected by chronic malnutrition. WFP is currently working with the Honduran government on a School Feeding Program which provides meals for 21,000 Honduran schools, reaching 1.4 million school children. WFP also participates in disaster relief through reparations and emergency response in order to aid in quick recovery that tackles the effects of natural disasters on agricultural production.
Honduras ' Poverty Reduction Strategy was implemented in 1999 and aimed to cut extreme poverty in half by 2015. While spending on poverty - reduction aid increased there was only a 2.5 % increase in GDP between 1999 and 2002. This improvement left Honduras still below that of countries that lacked aid through Poverty Reduction Strategy behind those without it. The World Bank believes that this inefficiency stems from a lack of focus on infrastructure and rural development. Extreme poverty saw a low of 36.2 percent only two years after the implementation of the strategy but then increased to 66.5 percent by 2012.
Poverty Reduction Strategies were also intended to affect social policy through increased investment in education and health sectors. This was expected to lift poor communities out of poverty while also increasing the work force as a means of stimulating the Honduran economy. Conditional cash transfers were used to do this by the Family Assistance Program. This program was restructured in 1998 in an attempt to increase effectiveness of cash transfers for health and education specifically for those in extreme poverty. Overall spending within Poverty Reduction Strategies have been focused on education and health sectors increasing social spending from 44 % of Honduras ' GDP in 2000 to 51 % in 2004.
Critics of aid from International Finance Institutions believe that the World Bank 's Poverty Reduction Strategy result in little substantive change to Honduran policy. Poverty Reduction Strategies also excluded clear priorities, specific intervention strategy, strong commitment to the strategy and more effective macro-level economic reforms according to Jose Cuesta of Cambridge University. Due to this he believes that the strategy did not provide a pathway for economic development that could lift Honduras out of poverty resulting in neither lasting economic growth of poverty reduction.
Prior to its 2009 coup Honduras widely expanded social spending and an extreme increase in minimum wage. Efforts to decrease inequality were swiftly reversed following the coup. When Zelaya was removed from office social spending as a percent of GDP decreased from 13.3 percent in 2009 to 10.9 recent in 2012. This decrease in social spending exacerbated the effects of the recession, which the nation was previously relatively well equipped to deal with.
The World Bank Group Executive Board approved a plan known as the new Country Partnership Framework (CPF). This plan 's objectives are to expand social program coverage, strengthen infrastructure, increase financing accessibility, strengthen regulatory framework and institutional capacity, improve the productivity of rural areas, strengthen natural disaster and climate change resiliency, and the buildup local governments so that violence and crime rates will decrease. The overall aim of the initiative is to decrease inequality and vulnerability of certain populations while increasing economic growth. Additionally the signing of the U.S. - Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) was meant to diversify the economy in order to promote growth and expand the range of exports the country is reliant on.
Levels of income inequality in Honduras are higher than in any other Latin American country. Unlike other Latin American countries, inequality steadily increased in Honduras between 1991 and 2005. Between 2006 and 2010 inequality saw a decrease but increased again in 2010.
When Honduras ' Human Development Index is adjusted for inequality (known as the IHDI) Honduras ' development index is reduced to. 443. The levels of inequality in each aspect of development can also be assessed. In 2015 inequality of life expectancy at birth was 19.6 %, inequality in education was 24.4 % and inequality in income was 41.5 % The overall loss in human development due to inequality was 29.2.
The IHDI for Latin America and the Caribbean overall is 0.575 with an overall loss of 23.4 %. In 2015 for the entire region, inequality of life expectancy at birth was 22.9 %, inequality in education was 14.0 % and inequality in income was 34.9 %. While Honduras has a higher life expectancy than other countries in the region (before and after inequality adjustments), its quality of education and economic standard of living are lower. Income inequality and education inequality have a large impact on the overall development of the nation.
Inequality also exists between rural and urban areas as it relates to the distribution of resources. Poverty is concentrated in southern, eastern, and western regions where rural and indigenous peoples live. North and central Honduras are home to the country 's industries and infrastructure, resulting in low levels of poverty. Poverty is concentrated in rural Honduras, a pattern that is reflected throughout Latin America. The effects of poverty on rural communities are vast. Poor communities typically live in adobe homes, lack material resources, have limited access to medical resources, and live off of basics such as rice, maize and beans.
The lower class predominantly consists of rural subsistence farmers and landless peasants. Since 1965 there has been an increase in the number of landless peasants in Honduras which has led to a growing class of urban poor individuals. These individuals often migrate to urban centers in search of work in the service sector, manufacturing, or construction. Demographers believe that without social and economic reform, rural to urban migration will increase, resulting in the expansion of urban centers. Within the lower class, underemployment is a major issue. Individuals that are underemployed often only work as part - time laborers on seasonal farms meaning their annual income remains low. In the 1980s peasant organizations and labor unions such as the National Federation of Honduran Peasants, The National Association of Honduran Peasants and the National Union of Peasants formed.
It is not uncommon for rural individuals to voluntarily enlist in the military, however this often does not offer stable or promising career opportunities. The majority of high - ranking officials in the Honduran army are recruited from elite military academies. Additionally, the majority of enlistment in the military is forced. Forced recruitment largely relies on an alliance between the Honduran government, military and upper class Honduran society. In urban areas males are often sought out from secondary schools while in rural areas roadblocks aided the military in handpicking recruits. Higher socio - economic status enables individuals to more easily evade the draft.
Middle class Honduras is a small group defines by relatively low membership and income levels. Movement from lower to middle class is typically facilitated by higher education. Professionals, students, farmers, merchants, business employees, and civil servants are all considered a part of the Honduran middle class. Opportunities for employment and the industrial and commercial sectors are slow growing, limiting middle class membership.
The Honduran upper class has much higher income levels than the rest of the Honduran population reflecting large amounts of income inequality. Much of the upper class affords their success to the growth of cotton and livestock exports post-World War II. The wealthy are not politically unified and differ in political and economic views.
The currency is the Honduran lempira.
The government operates both the electrical grid, Empresa Nacional de Energía Eléctrica (ENEE) and the land - line telephone service, Hondutel. ENEE receives heavy subsidies to counter its chronic financial problems, but Hondutel is no longer a monopoly. The telecommunication sector was opened to private investment on 25 December 2005, as required under CAFTA. The price of petroleum is regulated, and the Congress often ratifies temporary price regulation for basic commodities.
Gold, silver, lead and zinc are mined.
In 2005 Honduras signed CAFTA, a free trade agreement with the United States. In December 2005, Puerto Cortes, the primary seaport of Honduras, was included in the U.S. Container Security Initiative.
In 2006 the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and the Department of Energy announced the first phase of the Secure Freight Initiative (SFI), which built upon existing port security measures. SFI gave the U.S. government enhanced authority, allowing it to scan containers from overseas for nuclear and radiological materials in order to improve the risk assessment of individual US - bound containers. The initial phase of Secure Freight involved deploying of nuclear detection and other devices to six foreign ports:
Containers in these ports have been scanned since 2007 for radiation and other risk factors before they are allowed to depart for the United States.
For economic development a 2012 memorandum of understanding with a group of international investors obtained Honduran government approval to build a zone (city) with its own laws, tax system, judiciary and police, but opponents brought a suit against it in the Supreme Court, calling it a "state within a state ''. In 2013, Honduras ' Congress ratified Decree 120, which led to the establishment of ZEDEs. The government began construction of the first zones in June 2015.
About half of the electricity sector in Honduras is privately owned. The remaining generation capacity is run by ENEE (Empresa Nacional de Energía Eléctrica). Key challenges in the sector are:
Infrastructure for transportation in Honduras consists of: 699 kilometres (434 miles) of railways; 13,603 kilometres (8,453 miles) of roadways; seven ports and harbors; and 112 airports altogether (12 Paved, 100 unpaved). The Ministry of Public Works, Transport and Housing (SOPRTRAVI in Spanish acronym) is responsible for transport sector policy.
Water supply and sanitation in Honduras differ greatly from urban centers to rural villages. Larger population centers generally have modernized water treatment and distribution systems, but water quality is often poor because of lack of proper maintenance and treatment. Rural areas generally have basic drinking water systems with limited capacity for water treatment. Many urban areas have sewer systems in place to collect wastewater, but proper treatment of wastewater is rare. In rural areas sanitary facilities are generally limited to latrines and basic septic pits.
Water and sanitation services were historically provided by the Servicio Autónomo de Alcantarillas y Aqueductos (es) (SANAA). In 2003, the government enacted a new "water law '' which called for the decentralization of water services. Under the 2003 law, local communities have both the right and the responsibility to own, operate, and control their own drinking water and wastewater systems. Since this law passed, many communities have joined together to address water and sanitation issues on a regional basis.
Many national and international non-government organizations have a history of working on water and sanitation projects in Honduras. International groups include the Red Cross, Water 1st, Rotary Club, Catholic Relief Services, Water for People, EcoLogic Development Fund, CARE, the Canadian Executive Service Organization (CESO - SACO), Engineers Without Borders -- USA, Flood The Nations, Students Helping Honduras (SHH), Global Brigades, and Agua para el Pueblo in partnership with AguaClara at Cornell University.
In addition, many government organizations work on projects in Honduras, including the European Union, the USAID, the Army Corps of Engineers, Cooperacion Andalucia, the government of Japan, and others.
Honduras had a population of 9,112,867 in 2016. The proportion of the population below the age of 15 in 2010 was 36.8 %, 58.9 % were between 15 and 65 years old, and 4.3 % were 65 years old or older.
Since 1975, emigration from Honduras has accelerated as economic migrants and political refugees sought a better life elsewhere. A majority of expatriate Hondurans live in the United States. A 2012 US State Department estimate suggested that between 800,000 and one million Hondurans lived in the United States at that time, nearly 15 % of the Honduran population. The large uncertainty about numbers is because numerous Hondurans live in the United States without a visa. In the 2010 census in the United States, 617,392 residents identified as Hondurans, up from 217,569 in 2000.
The ethnic breakdown of Honduran society was 90 % Mestizo, 7 % American Indian, 2 % Black and 1 % White (2017). The 1927 Honduran census provides no racial data but in 1930 five classifications were created: white, Indian, Negro, yellow, and mestizo. This system was used in the 1935 and 1940 census. Mestizo was used to describe individuals that did not fit neatly into the categories of white, Indian, negro or yellow or who are of mixed white - Indian descent.
John Gillin considers Honduras to be one of thirteen "Mestizo countries '' (Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Cuba, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay). He claims that in much as Spanish America little attention is paid to race and race mixture resulting in social status having little reliance on one 's physical features. However, in "Mestizo countries '' such as Honduras, this is not the case. Social stratification from Spain was able to develop in these countries through colonization.
During colonization the majority of Honduras ' indigenous population was killed or died of disease resulting in a more homogenous indigenous population compared to other colonies. Nine indigenous and African American groups are recognized by the government in Honduras. The majority of Amerindians in Honduras are Lenca, followed by the Miskito, Cho'rti ', Tolupan, Pech and Sumo. Around 50,000 Lenca individuals live in the west and western interior of Honduras while the other small native groups are located throughout the country.
The majority of blacks in Honduran are culturally ladino, meaning they are culturally Hispanic. Non-ladino groups in Honduras include the Black Carib, Miskito, Arab immigrants and the black population of the Islas de la Bahía The Black Carib population descended from freed slaves from Saint Vincent. The Miskito population (about 10,000 individuals) are the descendants of African and British immigrants and are extremely racially diverse. While the Black Carib and Miskito populations have similar origins, Black Caribs are considered black while Miskitos are considered indigenous. This is largely a reflection of cultural differences, as Black Caribs have retained much of their original African culture. The majority of Arab Hondurans are of Palestinian and Lebanese descent. They are known as "turcos '' in Honduras because of migration during the rule of the Ottoman Empire. They have maintained cultural distinctiveness and prospered economically.
The male to female ratio of the Honduran population is 1.01. This ratio stands at 1.05 at birth, 1.04 from 15 -- 24 years old, 1.02 from 25 -- 54 years old,. 88 from 55 -- 64 years old, and. 77 for those 65 years or older.
The Gender Development Index (GDI) was. 942 in 2015 with an HDI of. 600 for females and. 637 for males. Life expectancy at birth for males is 70.9 and 75.9 for females. Expected years of schooling in Honduras is 10.9 years for males (mean of 6.1) and 11.6 for females (mean of 6.2). These measures do not reveal a large disparity between male and female development levels, however, GNI per capita is vastly different by gender. Males have a GNI per capita of $6,254 while that of females is only $2,680. Honduras ' overall GDI is higher than that of other medium HDI nations (. 871) but lower than the overall HDI for Latin America and the Caribbean (. 981).
The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) ranks Honduras 116th for measures including women 's political power, and female access to resources. The Gender Inequality Index (GII) depicts gender - based inequalities in Honduras according to reproductive health, empowerment, and economic activity. Honduras has a GII of. 461 and ranked 101 of 159 countries in 2015. 25.8 % of Honduras ' parliament is female and 33.4 % of adult females have a secondary education of higher while only 31.1 % of adult males do. Despite this, while male participation in the labor market is 84.4, female participation is 47.2 %. Honduras ' maternal mortality ratio is 129 and the adolescent birth rate is 65.0 for women ages 15 -- 19.
Familialism and machismo carry a lot of weight within Honduran society. Familialism refers to the idea of individual interests being second to that of the family, most often in relation to dating and marriage, abstinence, and parental approval and supervision of dating. Aggression and proof of masculinity through physical dominance are characteristic of machismo.
Honduras has historically functioned with a patriarchal system like many other Latin American countries. Honduran men claim responsibility for family decisions including reproductive health decisions. Recently Honduras has seen an increase in challenges to this notion as feminist movements and access to global media increases. There has been an increase in educational attainment, labor force participating, urban migration, late - age marriage, and contraceptive use amongst Honduran women.
Between 1971 and 2001 Honduran total fertility rate decreased from 7.4 births to 4.4 births. This is largely attributable to an increase in educational attainment and workforce participation by women, as well as more widespread use of contraceptives. In 1996 50 % of women were using at least one type of contraceptive. By 2001 62 % were largely due to female sterilization, birth control in the form of a pill, injectable birth control, and IUDs. A study done in 2001 of Honduran men and women reflect conceptualization of reproductive health and decision making in Honduras. 28 % of men and 25 % of women surveyed believed men were responsible for decisions regarding family size and family planning uses. 21 % of men believed men were responsible for both.
Sexual violence against women has proven to be a large issue in Honduras that has caused many to migrate to the U.S. The prevalence of child sexual abuse was 7.8 % in Honduras with the majority of reports being from children under the age of 11. Women that experienced sexual abuse as children were found to be twice as likely to be in violent relationships. Femicide is widespread in Honduras. In 2014, 40 % of unaccompanied refugee minors were female. Gangs are largely responsible for sexual violence against women as they often use sexual violence. Between 2005 and 2013 according to the UN Special Repporteur on Violence Against Women, violent deaths increased 263.4 percent. Impunity for sexual violence and femicide crimes was 95 percent in 2014. Additionally, many girls are forced into human trafficking and prostitution.
Between 1995 and 1997 Honduras recognized domestic violence as both a public health issue and a punishable offense due to efforts by the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO). PAHO 's subcommittee on Women, Health and Development was used as a guide to develop programs that aid in domestic violence prevention and victim assistance programs However, a study done in 2009 showed that while the policy requires health care providers to report cases of sexual violence, emergency contraception, and victim referral to legal institutions and support groups, very few other regulations exist within the realm of registry, examination and follow - up. Unlike other Central American countries such as El Salvador, Guatemala and Nicaragua, Honduras does not have detailed guidelines requiring service providers to be extensively trained and respect the rights of sexual violence victims. Since the study was done the UNFPA and the Health Secretariat of Honduras have worked to develop and implement improved guidelines for handling cases of sexual violence.
An educational program in Honduras known as Sistema de Aprendizaje Tutorial (SAT) has attempted to "undo gender '' through focusing on gender equality in everyday interactions. Honduras ' SAT program is one of the largest in the world, second only to Colombia 's with 6,000 students. It is currently sponsored by Asociacion Bayan, a Honduran NGO, and the Honduran Ministry of Education. It functions by integrating gender into curriculum topics, linking gender to the ideas of justice and equality, encouraging reflection, dialogue and debate and emphasizing the need for individual and social change. This program was found to increase gender consciousness and a desire for gender equality amongst Honduran women through encouraging discourse surrounding existing gender inequality in the Honduran communities.
In addition to Spanish a number of indigenous languages are spoken in Honduras, as well as Honduran sign language and Bay Islands Creole English.
The main indigenous languages are:
The Lenca isolate lost all its fluent native speakers in the 20th century but is currently undergoing revival efforts among the members of the ethnic population of about 100,000. The largest immigrant languages are Arabic (42,000), Armenian (1,300), Turkish (900), Yue Chinese (1,000).
Although most Hondurans are nominally Roman Catholic (which would be considered the main religion), membership in the Roman Catholic Church is declining while membership in Protestant churches is increasing. The International Religious Freedom Report, 2008, notes that a CID Gallup poll reported that 51.4 % of the population identified themselves as Catholic, 36.2 % as evangelical Protestant, 1.3 % claiming to be from other religions, including Muslims, Buddhists, Jews, Rastafarians, etc. and 11.1 % do not belong to any religion or unresponsive. 8 % reported as being either atheistic or agnostic. Customary Catholic church tallies and membership estimates 81 % Catholic where the priest (in more than 185 parishes) is required to fill out a pastoral account of the parish each year.
The CIA Factbook lists Honduras as 97 % Catholic and 3 % Protestant. Commenting on statistical variations everywhere, John Green of Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life notes that: "It is n't that... numbers are more right than (someone else 's) numbers... but how one conceptualizes the group. '' Often people attend one church without giving up their "home '' church. Many who attend evangelical megachurches in the US, for example, attend more than one church. This shifting and fluidity is common in Brazil where two - fifths of those who were raised evangelical are no longer evangelical and Catholics seem to shift in and out of various churches, often while still remaining Catholic.
Most pollsters suggest an annual poll taken over a number of years would provide the best method of knowing religious demographics and variations in any single country. Still, in Honduras are thriving Anglican, Presbyterian, Methodist, Seventh - day Adventist, Lutheran, Latter - day Saint (Mormon) and Pentecostal churches. There are Protestant seminaries. The Catholic Church, still the only "church '' that is recognized, is also thriving in the number of schools, hospitals, and pastoral institutions (including its own medical school) that it operates. Its archbishop, Oscar Andres Rodriguez Maradiaga, is also very popular, both with the government, other churches, and in his own church. Practitioners of the Buddhist, Jewish, Islamic, Bahá'í, Rastafari and indigenous denominations and religions exist.
The fertility rate is approximately 3.7 per woman. The under - five mortality rate is at 40 per 1,000 live births. The health expenditure was US $ (PPP) 197 per person in 2004. There are about 57 physicians per 100,000 people.
About 83.6 % of the population are literate and the net primary enrollment rate was 94 % in 2004. In 2014, the primary school completion rate was 90.7 %. Honduras has bilingual (Spanish and English) and even trilingual (Spanish with English, Arabic, and / or German) schools and numerous universities.
The higher education is governed by the National Autonomous University of Honduras which has centers in the most important cities of Honduras.
Owing to insufficient law enforcement resources, crime in Honduras is rampant and criminals operate with a high degree of impunity. Consequently, Honduras has one of the highest murder rates in the world. Official statistics from the Honduran Observatory on National Violence show Honduras ' homicide rate was 60 per 100,000 in 2015 with the majority of homicide cases unprosecuted.
Highway assaults and carjackings at roadblocks or checkpoints set up by criminals with police uniforms and equipment occur frequently. Although reports of kidnappings of foreigners are not common, families of kidnapping victims often pay ransoms without reporting the crime to police out of fear of retribution, so kidnapping figures may be underreported.
Owing to measures taken by government and business in 2014 to improve tourist safety, Roatan and the Bay Islands have lower crime rates than the Honduran mainland.
In the less populated region of Gracias a Dios, narcotics - trafficking is rampant and police presence is scarce. Threats against U.S. citizens by drug traffickers and other criminal organizations have resulted in the U.S. Embassy placing restrictions on the travel of U.S. officials through the region.
The most renowned Honduran painter is José Antonio Velásquez (es). Other important painters include Carlos Garay, and Roque Zelaya. Some of Honduras ' most notable writers are Lucila Gamero de Medina, Froylán Turcios, Ramón Amaya Amador and Juan Pablo Suazo Euceda, Marco Antonio Rosa, Roberto Sosa, Eduardo Bähr, Amanda Castro, Javier Abril Espinoza, Teófilo Trejo, and Roberto Quesada.
The José Francisco Saybe theater in San Pedro Sula is home to the Círculo Teatral Sampedrano (Theatrical Circle of San Pedro Sula)
Honduran cuisine is a fusion of indigenous Lenca cuisine, Spanish cuisine, Caribbean cuisine and African cuisine. There are also dishes from the Garifuna people. Coconut and coconut milk are featured in both sweet and savory dishes. Regional specialties include fried fish, tamales, carne asada and baleadas.
Other popular dishes include: meat roasted with chismol and carne asada, chicken with rice and corn, and fried fish with pickled onions and jalapeños. Some of the ways seafood and some meats are prepared in coastal areas and in the Bay Islands involve coconut milk.
The soups Hondurans enjoy include bean soup, mondongo soup tripe soup, seafood soups and beef soups. Generally these soups are served mixed with plantains, yuca, and cabbage, and served with corn tortillas.
Other typical dishes are the montucas or corn tamales, stuffed tortillas, and tamales wrapped in plantain leaves. Honduran typical dishes also include an abundant selection of tropical fruits such as papaya, pineapple, plum, sapote, passion fruit and bananas which are prepared in many ways while they are still green.
At least half of Honduran households have at least one television. Public television has a far smaller role than in most other countries. Honduras ' main newspapers are La Prensa, El Heraldo, La Tribuna and Diario Tiempo. The official newspaper is La Gaceta (Honduras) (es).
Punta is the main music of Honduras, with other sounds such as Caribbean salsa, merengue, reggae, and reggaeton all widely heard, especially in the north, and Mexican rancheras heard in the rural interior of the country.
Some of Honduras ' national holidays include Honduras Independence Day on 15 September and Children 's Day or Día del Niño, which is celebrated in homes, schools and churches on 10 September; on this day, children receive presents and have parties similar to Christmas or birthday celebrations. Some neighborhoods have piñatas on the street. Other holidays are Easter, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, Day of the Soldier (3 October to celebrate the birth of Francisco Morazán), Christmas, El Dia de Lempira on 20 July, and New Year 's Eve.
Honduras Independence Day festivities start early in the morning with marching bands. Each band wears different colors and features cheerleaders. Fiesta Catracha takes place this same day: typical Honduran foods such as beans, tamales, baleadas, cassava with chicharron, and tortillas are offered.
On Christmas Eve people reunite with their families and close friends to have dinner, then give out presents at midnight. In some cities fireworks are seen and heard at midnight. On New Year 's Eve there is food and "cohetes '', fireworks and festivities. Birthdays are also great events, and include piñatas filled with candies and surprises for the children.
La Ceiba Carnival is celebrated in La Ceiba, a city located in the north coast, in the second half of May to celebrate the day of the city 's patron saint Saint Isidore. People from all over the world come for one week of festivities. Every night there is a little carnaval (carnavalito) in a neighborhood. On Saturday there is a big parade with floats and displays with people from many countries. This celebration is also accompanied by the Milk Fair, where many Hondurans come to show off their farm products and animals.
The flag of Honduras is composed of three equal horizontal stripes. The blue upper and lower stripes represent the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. The central stripe is white. It contains five blue stars representing the five states of the Central American Union. The middle star represents Honduras, located in the center of the Central American Union.
The coat of arms was established in 1945. It is an equilateral triangle, at the base is a volcano between three castles, over which is a rainbow and the sun shining. The triangle is placed on an area that symbolizes being bathed by both seas. Around all of this an oval containing in golden lettering: "Republic of Honduras, Free, Sovereign and Independent ''.
The "National Anthem of Honduras '' is a result of a contest carried out in 1914 during the presidency of Manuel Bonilla. In the end, it was the poet Augusto Coello that ended up writing the anthem, with German - born Honduran composer Carlos Hartling writing the music. The anthem was officially adopted on 15 November 1915, during the presidency of Alberto de Jesús Membreño (es). The anthem is composed of a choir and seven stroonduran.
The national flower is the famous orchid, Rhyncholaelia digbyana (formerly known as Brassavola digbyana), which replaced the rose in 1969. The change of the national flower was carried out during the administration of general Oswaldo López Arellano, thinking that Brassavola digbiana "is an indigenous plant of Honduras; having this flower exceptional characteristics of beauty, vigor and distinction '', as the decree dictates it.
The national tree of Honduras was declared in 1928 to be simply "the Pine that appears symbolically in our Coat of Arms '' (el Pino que figura simbólicamente en nuestro Escudo), even though pines comprise a genus and not a species, and even though legally there 's no specification as for what kind of pine should appear in the coat of arms either. Because of its commonality in the country, the Pinus oocarpa species has become since then the species most strongly associated as the national tree, but legally it is not so. Another species associated as the national tree is the Pinus caribaea.
The national mammal is the white - tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), which was adopted as a measure to avoid excessive depredation. It is one of two species of deer that live in Honduras. The national bird of Honduras is the scarlet macaw (Ara macao). This bird was much valued by the pre-Columbian civilizations of Honduras.
Legends and fairy tales are paramount in Honduran culture. Lluvia de Peces (Rain of Fish) is an example of this. The legends of El Cadejo and La Llorona are also popular.
The Honduran nation, has in its history had two nominations for the Nobel Prize.
The major sports in Honduras are football, basketball, rugby, volleyball and cycling, with smaller followings for athletics, softball and handball. Information about some of the sports organisations in Honduras are listed below:
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how did china become permanent member un security council | China and the United Nations - wikipedia
China was one of the charter members of the United Nations and is one of five permanent members of its Security Council. It has used its veto the least of any of the permanent members.
One of the victorious Allies of the Second World War (locally known as the Second Sino - Japanese War), the Republic of China (ROC) joined the UN at its founding in 1945. The subsequent resumption of the Chinese Civil War led to the establishment of the People 's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949. Nearly all of mainland China was soon under its control and the ROC fled to the island of Taiwan. The One - China policy advocated by both governments precluded dual representation but, amid the Cold and Korean wars, the United States and its allies opposed the replacement of the ROC at the United Nations, although they were persuaded to pressure the government of the ROC to accept international recognition of Mongolia 's independence in 1961. The United Kingdom, France, and other American allies individually shifted their recognitions of China to the PRC and Albania brought annual votes to replace the ROC with the PRC, but these were defeated since -- after General Assembly Resolution 1668 -- a change in recognition required a two - thirds vote.
Amid the Sino - Soviet split and Vietnam War, American President Nixon entered into negotiations with Communist Chairman Mao, initially through a secret 1971 trip undertaken by Henry Kissinger to visit Zhou Enlai. On October 25, 1971, Albania 's motion to recognize the People 's Republic of China as the sole legal China was passed as General Assembly Resolution 2758. It was supported by most of the communist states (including the Soviet Union) and non-aligned countries (such as India), but also by some American allies such as the United Kingdom and France. Nixon then personally visited China the next year, beginning the normalization of Sino - American relations. Since that time, the Republic of China has softened its own One - China Policy and sought international recognition. These moves have been opposed and mostly blocked by the People 's Republic of China, forcing the Republic of China to join international organizations under other names. These include "Chinese Taipei '' at the International Olympic Committee.
The Republic of China 's most recent request for admission was turned down in 2007, but a number of Western governments -- led by the United States -- protested to the UN 's Office of Legal Affairs to force the global body and its secretary - general to stop using the reference "Taiwan is a part of China ''.
The Republic of China used its Security Council veto only once, to stop the admission of the Mongolian People 's Republic to the United Nations in 1955 on the grounds it recognized all of Mongolia as part of China.
As of June 2012, the People 's Republic of China had used its Security Council veto eight times, fewer than other countries with the veto: in 1972 to veto the admission of Bangladesh (which it recognized as a province of Pakistan), in 1973 (in conjunction with the Soviet Union) to veto a resolution on the ceasefire in the Yom Kippur War, in 1997 to veto ceasefire observers to Guatemala (which recognised the ROC as the legitimate government of China), in 1999 to veto an extension of observers to the Republic of Macedonia (same), in 2007 (in conjunction with Russia) to veto criticizing Myanmar (Burma) on its human rights record, in 2008 (with Russia) to veto sanctions against Zimbabwe, in 2011 (with Russia) to veto sanctions against Syria, and in February 2012 (with Russia) to veto for the second time a draft resolution calling for foreign military intervention in Syria.
The ROC co-founded the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) in 1943 (prior to the establishment of UN) and is one of four members of its policy - making Central Committee. UNRRA provided supplies and services to areas under occupation by the Axis Powers. The largest project undertaken by UNRRA was the China program which had a total estimated cost of $658.4 million. UNRRA China Office was opened in Shanghai at the end of 1944, and operated until the official termination of the office on December 31, 1947. Final work and responsibilities were finished by March, 1948. UNRRA cooperated with Chinese National Relief and Rehabilitation Administration, led by Jiang Tingfu, to distribute relief supplies in China. UNRRA functions were later transferred to several UN agencies, including the International Refugee Organization and the World Health Organization.
Peng Chun Chang of ROC was the Vice-Chairman of United Nations Commission on Human Rights that drafted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Eleanor Roosevelt, as the driving force behind the Declaration, recalled in her memoirs:
Dr. Chang was a pluralist and held forth in charming fashion on the proposition that there is more than one kind of ultimate reality. The Declaration, he said, should reflect more than simply Western ideas and Dr. Humphrey would have to be eclectic in his approach... at one point Dr. Chang suggested that the Secretariat might well spend a few months studying the fundamentals of Confucianism!
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the UN General Assembly as Resolution 217 A (III) on December 10, 1948, as the result of the experience of the Second World War. The ROC was one of the 48 states that voted for it.
On February 1, 1951, after cease fire negotiations failed, United Nations General Assembly passed resolution 498 and called the intervention of the People 's Republic of China in Korea an act of aggression.
As of June 2012, China had sent 3,362 military personnel to 13 UN peacekeeping operations in its first dispatch of military observers to the United Nations peacekeeping operations since military team to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
The International Criminal Court is a permanent tribunal to prosecute individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression. The Court has jurisdiction if a situation is referred to the Court by the United Nations Security Council. As of May 2013, 122 states have ratified or acceded to the Rome Statute that established the Court, but the PRC is not one of them. The PRC, as well its neighbouring rival India, has been critical of the Court.
China ranked 7th among member states for contributing 3.93 % of United Nations Peacekeeping operations budget for 2013 -- 2015. United States ranked first by contributing 27.14 %.
The 1954 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). The Nobel Foundation noted that UNHCR, among other contributions, was asked by UN General Assembly (Resolution 1167 and 1784), in 1957 and again in 1962, to assist Chinese refugees in Hong Kong whose numbers are estimated at over one million. UNHCR assistance was also given to needy refugees among the Chinese refugees in Macao, and the Tibetan refugees in India and Nepal. India hosted some 110,000 Tibetan refugees as of the end of 2001. UNHCR estimates that there are 15,000 Tibetans who arrived in Nepal prior to 1990 and were recognized by the Government as refugees.
The Republic of China (ROC) was a charter member of the United Nations and one of five permanent members of the Security Council until 1971. The ROC joined the United Nations as a founding member on October 24, 1945.
The "Big Four '' victors of World War II (Nationalist China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States) were the founding members of the United Nations that drafted the United Nations Charter in 1944, which was ratified on 26 June 1945 by the representatives of 50 countries. China, in recognition of its long - standing fight against aggression, was accorded the honor of being the first to sign UN Charter. President Franklin Roosevelt had acknowledged China 's war effort in World War II and stated his desire to allow China to "play its proper role in maintaining peace and prosperity '' in the world. Thus, despite opposition from other leaders, especially Winston Churchill, China became a permanent member of the Security Council from its creation in 1945.
In 1949, the Communist Party of China won the Chinese Civil War in mainland China and established the People 's Republic of China (PRC), claiming to be the sole legitimate government of China. The ROC government retreated to the island of Taiwan (which it gained control of in 1945 at the end of hostilities in WWII), Quemoy Island, and the Matsu Islands. Until 1991, the ROC also actively claimed to be the sole legitimate government of China, and during the 1950s and 1960s this claim was accepted by the United States and most of its allies. While the PRC was an ally of the Soviet Union, the U.S. sought to prevent the Communist bloc from gaining another permanent seat in the Security Council. To protest the exclusion of the PRC, Soviet representatives boycotted the UN from January to August 1950, so they did n't veto the intervention of UN military forces in Korea.
The ROC complained to the UN against the Soviet Union for violating the Sino - Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance and the United Nations Charter in 1949; as a result, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 291 and 292, referring the complaint "to the Interim Committee of the General Assembly for continuous examination and study ''. In 1952, the United Nations General Assembly found that the Soviet Union prevented the National Government of the ROC from re-establishing Chinese authority in Manchuria after Japan surrendered, and gave military and economic aid to the Chinese Communists, who founded the PRC in 1949, against the National Government of the ROC. Resolution 505 was passed to condemn the Soviet Union with 25 countries supporting, 9 countries opposing, 24 countries abstaining, and 2 countries non-voting. The resolution also affirmed the ROC as the "Central Government of China ''.
The ROC used its veto only once. Recognition of the Soviets ' violation of their friendship treaty abrogated its recognition of Mongolia 's independence. It therefore vetoed its admission into the United Nations on 13 December 1955, claiming it -- as Outer Mongolia -- to be an integral part of China. Mongolia 's application had been tabled at the UN on 24 June 1946, but had been blocked by Western countries, as part of a protracted Cold War dispute about the admission of new members to the UN. The General Assembly, by Resolution 918 (X) of 8 December 1955, had recommended to the Security Council that this dispute should be ended by the admission, in a single resolution, of a list of eighteen countries. On 14 December 1955, the Security Council adopted a compromise proposed by the Soviet Union, and the General Assembly, by Resolution 995 (X), admitted sixteen countries into UN, omitting Mongolia and Japan from the list. This postponed the admission of Mongolia until 1961, when the Soviet Union agreed to lift its veto on the admission of Mauritania, in return for the admission of Mongolia. Faced with pressure from nearly all the other African countries, the ROC relented under protest. Mongolia and Mauritania were both admitted to the UN on 27 October 1961. The same year, United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1668 made China 's representation an "important question '' requiring a two - thirds majority vote to alter.
From the 1960s onwards, nations friendly to the PRC, led by the People 's Republic of Albania under Enver Hoxha, moved an annual resolution in the General Assembly to expel the "representatives of Chiang Kai - shek '' (an implicit reference to the ROC) and permit the PRC to represent China at the UN. Every year the United States was able to assemble enough votes to block this resolution. Both sides rejected compromise proposals to allow both states to participate in the UN, based on the One - China policy.
The admission of newly independent developing nations in the 1960s gradually turned the General Assembly from being Western - dominated to being dominated by countries sympathetic to Beijing. Not only the newly founded developing countries, but also most of the Western countries eventually decided to recognise the PRC. During the 1950s and 1960s, United Kingdom, Switzerland, Sweden, and France shifted their recognition of China from Taipei to Beijing. In the early 1970s, Canada, Turkey, and more western countries established diplomatic relations with the PRC, and severed diplomatic relations with the ROC.
In a Security Council meeting on 9 February 1971, Somalia objected to the credentials of the representative of Republic of China as China representation, and ROC and the United States responded that the question of China 's representation should not be dealt with in the Security Council.
Seeking to place more diplomatic pressure on the Soviet Union, American president Richard Nixon sent his national security advisor Henry Kissinger on two trips to the People 's Republic of China in July and October 1971 (the first of which was made in secret via Pakistan) to confer with Premier Zhou Enlai, then in charge of Chinese foreign policy. His trips paved the way for the groundbreaking 1972 summit between Nixon, Zhou, and Communist Party of China Chairman Mao Zedong, as well as the formalization of relations between the two countries, ending 23 years of diplomatic isolation and mutual hostility in favor of a tacit strategic anti-Soviet alliance between China and the United States.
On 15 July 1971, 17 UN members requested that a question of the "Restoration of the lawful rights of the People 's Republic of China in the United Nations '' be placed on the provisional agenda of the twenty - sixth session of the UN General Assembly, claiming that the PRC, a "founding member of the United Nations and a permanent member of the Security Council, had since 1949 been refused by systematic maneuvers the right to occupy the seat to which it is entitled ipso jure ''. On 25 September 1971, a draft resolution, A / L. 630 and Add. l and 2, was submitted by 23 states including 17 of the states which had joined in placing the question on the agenda, to "restore to the People 's Republic of China all its rights and expel forthwith the representatives of Chiang Kai - shek. '' On 29 September 1971, another draft resolution, A / L. 632 and Add. l and 2, sponsored by 22 members, was proposed declaring that any proposal to deprive the Republic of China of representation was an important question under Article 18 of the UN Charter, and thus would require a two - thirds supermajority for approval. A / L. 632 and Add. l and 2 was rejected on 25 October 1971 by a vote of 59 to 55, with 15 abstentions.
Saudi Arabia submitted a proposition allowing the ROC to retain its seat at the UN and its affiliated organizations "until the people of the Island of Taiwan are enabled by a referendum or a plebiscite '' under the auspices of the UN to choose among three options: continued independence as a sovereign state with a neutral status defined by a treaty recorded by the UN; a confederation with the PRC; or a federation with the PRC, but was not supported by the United States.
On 25 October 1971, the United States moved that a separate vote be taken on the provisions in the resolution "to expel forthwith the representatives of Chiang Kai - shek from the place which they unlawfully occupied at the United Nations and in all the organizations related to it '' in the draft resolution. This motion would have allowed the PRC to join the UN as "China 's representative '', while allowing the ROC to remain a regular UN member (if there had been enough votes for it). The motion was rejected by a vote of 61 to 51, with 16 abstentions. The representative of ROC made a declaration that the rejection of the 22 - power draft resolution calling for a two - thirds majority was a flagrant violation of the United Nations Charter which governed the expulsion of Member States and that the delegation of the Republic of China had decided not to take part in any further proceedings of the General Assembly. With the support from 26 African UN Member States and in accordance with Article 18 of the UN Charter, the Assembly then adopted Resolution 2758, with 76 countries supporting, 35 countries opposing, 17 countries abstaining, and 3 countries non-voting, withdrawing recognition of the representatives of Chiang Kai - shek as the legitimate representative of China, and recognizing the Government of PRC as the only legitimate representative of China to the United Nations. At a Security Council meeting on November 23, 1971, after the General Assembly passed Resolution 2758, the President of the Council and the other representatives made statements welcoming the representatives of the People 's Republic of China. The ROC lost not only its Security Council seat, but any representation in the UN.
Following the adoption of Resolution 2758, the Republic of China was no longer represented by a Permanent Representative at the UN. In addition to losing its seat in the UN, the UN Secretary - General concluded from the resolution that the General Assembly considered Taiwan to be a province of China, and thus it does not permit the ROC to become a party treaties for which it is the depository.
In 1993 the ROC began campaigning to rejoin the UN separately from the People 's Republic of China. A number of options were considered, including seeking membership in the specialized agencies, applying for observer status, applying for full membership, or having resolution 2758 revoked to reclaim the seat of China in the UN.
Every year from 1993 -- 2006, UN member states submitted a memorandum to the UN Secretary - General requesting that the UN General Assembly consider allowing the ROC to resume participating in the United Nations. This approach was chosen, rather than a formal application for membership, because it could be enacted by the General Assembly, while a membership application would need Security Council approval, where the PRC held a veto. Early proposals recommended admitting the ROC with parallel representation over China, along with the People 's Republic of China, pending eventual reunification, citing examples of other divided countries which had become separate UN member states, such as East and West Germany and North and South Korea. Later proposals emphasized that the ROC was a separate state, over which the PROC had no effective sovereignty. These proposed resolutions referred to the ROC under a variety of names: "Republic of China in Taiwan '' (1993 -- 94), "Republic of China on Taiwan '' (1995 -- 97, 1999 -- 2002), "Republic of China '' (1998), "Republic of China (Taiwan) '' (2003) and "Taiwan '' (2004 -- 06).
However, all fourteen attempts were unsuccessful as the General Assembly 's General Committee declined to put the issue on the Assembly 's agenda for debate, under strong opposition from the PRC.
While all these proposals were vague, requesting the ROC be allowed to participate in UN activities without specifying any legal mechanism, in 2007 the ROC submitted a formal application under the name "Taiwan '' for full membership in the UN. On September 15, 2007, over 3,000 Taiwanese Americans and their supporters rallied in front of the UN building in New York City, and over 300,000 Taiwanese people rallied in Taiwan, all in support of the ROC joining the UN. The ROC also won the backing of many Members of the European Parliament on this issue. However, the application was rejected by the United Nations Office of Legal Affairs citing General Assembly Resolution 2758, without being forwarded to the Security Council. Secretary - General of the United Nations Ban Ki - moon stated that:
The position of the United Nations is that the People 's Republic of China is representing the whole of China as the sole and legitimate representative Government of China. The decision until now about the wish of the people in Taiwan to join the United Nations has been decided on that basis. The resolution (General Assembly Resolution 2758) that you just mentioned is clearly mentioning that the Government of China is the sole and legitimate Government and the position of the United Nations is that Taiwan is part of China.
Responding to the UN 's rejection of its application, the ROC government has stated that Taiwan is not now nor has it ever been under the jurisdiction of the PRC, and that since General Assembly Resolution 2758 did not clarify the issue of Taiwan 's representation in the UN, it does not prevent Taiwan 's participation in the UN as an independent sovereign nation. The ROC argued that Resolution 2758 merely transferred the UN seat from the ROC to the PRC, but did not address the issue of Taiwan 's representation in the UN. The ROC government also criticized Ban for asserting that Taiwan is part of China and returning the application without passing it to the Security Council or the General Assembly, contrary to UN 's standard procedure (Provisional Rules of Procedure of the Security Council, Chapter X, Rule 59). The ROC emphasized that the United Nations has never taken a formal stance regarding the sovereignty of Taiwan. On the other hand, the PRC government, which has stated that Taiwan is part of China and firmly opposes the application of any Taiwan authorities to join the UN either as a member or an observer, praised that UN 's decision "was made in accordance with the UN Charter and Resolution 2758 of the UN General Assembly, and showed the UN and its member states ' universal adherence to the one - China principle ''. A group of UN member states put forward a draft resolution for that autumn 's UN General Assembly calling on the Security Council to consider the application.
Ban Ki - moon also came under fire for this statement from the United States via non-official channels. There are unconfirmed reports that Ban 's comments prompted the US to restate its position regarding the status of Taiwan. A Heritage Foundation article suggests that the US may have presented a démarche stating among others that:
If the UN Secretariat insists on describing Taiwan as a part of the PRC, or on using nomenclature for Taiwan that implies such status, the United States will be obliged to disassociate itself on a national basis from such position. ''
The Wall Street Journal criticized Ban Ki - moon for rejecting the ROC 's July 2007 application and regarded Ban 's interpretation of Resolution 2758 (that Taiwan was part of China) as erroneous. Nevertheless, Secretary General Ban Ki - Moon 's statement reflected long - standing UN convention and is mirrored in other documents promulgated by the United Nations. For example, the UN 's "Final Clauses of Multilateral Treaties, Handbook '', 2003 (a publication which predated his tenure in Office) states:
(r) egarding the Taiwan Province of China, the Secretary - General follows the General Assembly 's guidance incorporated in resolution 2758 (XXVI) of the General Assembly of 25 October 1971 on the restoration of the lawful rights of the People 's Republic of China in the United Nations. The General Assembly decided to recognize the representatives of the Government of the People 's Republic of China as the only legitimate representatives of China to the United Nations. Hence, instruments received from the Taiwan Province of China will not be accepted by the Secretary - General in his capacity as depositary.
In 2008, two referendums by the ROC on joining the UN failed because of low voter participation. That autumn the ROC took a new approach, with its allies submitting a resolution requesting that the "Republic of China (Taiwan) '' be allowed to have "meaningful participation '' in the UN specialized agencies. Again the issue was not put on the Assembly 's agenda when the United Nations subcommittee ruled it would not let the General Assembly consider the ROC 's application to join UN activities. Shortly after this, the United States and the European Union both expressed their support for "Taiwan '' (neither recognises the ROC) to have "meaningful participation '' in UN agencies that do not require statehood, such as the World Health Organization. In May 2009, the Department of Health of the Republic of China was invited by the World Health Organization to attend the 62nd World Health Assembly as an observer under the name "Chinese Taipei ''. This was the ROC 's first participation in an event organized by a UN-affiliated agency since 1971, as a result of the improved cross-strait relations since Ma Ying - jeou became the President of the Republic of China a year before.
In 2009, the ROC chose not to bring the issue of its participation in the UN up for debate at the General Assembly for the first time since it began the campaign in 1993.
A 2013 United States congressional report describes US bipartisan "One China '' policy as follows:
The United States has its own "one China '' policy (vs. the PRC 's "one China '' principle) and position on Taiwan 's status. Not recognizing the PRC 's claim over Taiwan nor Taiwan as a sovereign state, U.S. policy has considered Taiwan 's status as unsettled.
The Constitution of the Republic of China still claims to be the government of the whole of China. Taiwan independence supporters say that the non-assertion of the claim is mainly due to PRC 's public statement that any attempts to change the ROC constitution is interpreted as declaring independence, which will lead to "military actions '' from the PRC. Given the PRC 's attitude, even having the General Assembly admit the ROC or "Taiwan '' as an observer, as with Palestine, would be problematic; the case of Palestine is different from that of the ROC because of the UN 's commitment to a two - state solution for the Israeli -- Palestinian conflict but not for the Taiwan issue.
The People 's Republic of China (PRC), commonly called China today, was admitted into the UN in 1971 on the 21st time of voting on its application. The PRC was admitted into the UN on a vote of 76 in favor, 35 opposed, and 17 abstentions. In contrast with Republic of China 's tactics to remain in the UN for past years, the PRC sees its ideological differences and national interests above international obligations enshrined by the United Nations as its national agenda to the UN in the subsequent voting records henceforth, especially when military conflicts arise for international intervention on some of world 's most oppressive and totalitarian regimes or for United Nations peacekeeping forces to take the duties, the PRC will vote supporting the opposite side of United States of America or abstaining.
In the 1960s and early 1970s that the United States ' close ally, Pakistan, especially under the presidency of Ayub Khan, was carrying out messenger diplomacy to the PRC 's entry into the UN by the United States ' diplomacy to People 's Republic of China in the time of Sino - Soviet split. This involved secret visits by American officials to the PRC. In 1971, Henry Kissinger made a secret visit to the PRC through Pakistan.
Since the early 1980s, and particularly since 1989, by means of vigorous monitoring and the strict maintenance of standards, United Nations human rights organizations have encouraged China to move away from its insistence on the principle of noninterference, to take part in resolutions critical of human rights conditions in other nations, and to accept the applicability to itself of human rights norms and UN procedures. Even though China has continued to suppress political dissidents at home, and appears at times resolutely defiant of outside pressure to reform, Ann Kent argues that it has gradually begun to implement some international human rights standards. On human rights issues, the PRC has been increasingly influential by the bargaining of its robust Macroeconomics growth for the domestic social equality. In 1995, they won 43 percent of the votes in the General Assembly; by 2006 they won 82 percent.
In the 1991 Gulf War resolution, the PRC abstained, and it voted for the ultimatum to Iraq in the period leading up to the 2003 War in Iraq. Most observers believe that the PRC would have abstained had a resolution authorizing force against Iraq in 2003 reached the Security Council.
When an enlargement of the Security Council was discussed in 1995, China encouraged African states to demand their seats as a counter-move to Japan 's ambitions, thereby nullified the Japanese initiative.
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the light in the piazza the light in the piazza | The Light in the Piazza (musical) - wikipedia
The Light in the Piazza is a musical with a book by Craig Lucas and music and lyrics by Adam Guettel. Based on a novella by Elizabeth Spencer, the story is set in the 1950s and revolves around Margaret Johnson, a wealthy Southern woman and her developmentally stalled daughter (due to an unfortunate encounter with her birthday pony), Clara, who spend a summer together in Italy. When Clara falls in love with a young Italian man, Margaret is forced to reconsider not only Clara 's future, but her own deep seated hopes and regrets as well.
The score breaks from the 21st century tradition of pop music on Broadway by moving into the territory of Neoromantic classical music and opera, with unexpected harmonic shifts and extended melodic structures, and is more heavily orchestrated than most Broadway scores. Many of the lyrics are in Italian or broken English, as many of the characters are fluent only in Italian.
The Light in the Piazza was developed as a musical at the Intiman Playhouse in Seattle in June 2003 and then at the Goodman Theatre in Chicago in early 2004. After 36 previews, the Broadway production opened on April 18, 2005 at the Vivian Beaumont Theater in Lincoln Center, where it ran for 504 performances and closed on July 2, 2006. The musical was directed by Bartlett Sher, choreographed by Jonathan Butterell, with lighting by Christopher Akerlind, set by Michael Yeargan and costumes by Catherine Zuber. The cast featured Victoria Clark, Kelli O'Hara, Matthew Morrison, Michael Berresse and Sarah Uriarte Berry. Chris Sarandon joined the cast as Signor Naccarelli later in the run, Aaron Lazar was a replacement in the role of Fabrizio Naccarelli and Katie Rose Clarke was a replacement in the role of Clara Johnson. In the pre-Broadway production in Seattle and Chicago, Kelli O'Hara played the role of Franca rather than Clara (who was played by Celia Keenan - Bolger), and Steven Pasquale had played Fabrizio, but could not open on Broadway due to a conflict with the television series Rescue Me that he had just joined.
On June 15, 2006, shortly before its closing night, the show was broadcast on the PBS television series Live from Lincoln Center, and drew more than two million viewers. The cast consisted of Victoria Clark (Margaret Johnson), Katie Rose Clarke (Clara Johnson), Aaron Lazar (Fabrizio), Chris Sarandon (Signor Naccarelli), Patti Cohenour (Signora Naccarelli), Michael Berresse (Giuseppe Naccarelli), Sarah Uriarte Berry (Franca), and Beau Gravitte (Roy Johnson).
A United States national tour starring Christine Andreas as Margaret, Elena Shaddow as Clara, and David Burnham as Fabrizio Naccarelli started at the Orpheum Theatre in San Francisco, California, in August 2006 and ended in Chicago on July 22, 2007.
A Japanese production of the musical was produced in December 2007, having a limited engagement of about a month. It starred Kaho Shimada as Margaret Johnson.
An Australian concert version had a one - night presentation at the Lyric Theatre, Star City in Sydney on August 17, 2008. The cast consisted of members of the Australian company of The Phantom of the Opera, with Jackie Rees as Margaret, Kathleen Moore as Clara and James Pratt as Fabrizio. The production was directed by John O'May.
In the summer of 2008, Guettel reconfigured the musical as a smaller chamber piece for the Weston Playhouse Theatre Company, Weston, Vermont, where Sarah Uriarte Berry reprised her role as Franca.
The show had its opera house premiere in October 2008 at Piedmont Opera in Winston - Salem, North Carolina. It starred Jill Gardner as Margaret and Sarah Jane McMahon as Clara, directed by Dorothy Danner and conducted by James Allbritten.
The first Los Angeles area local premiere was seen at the Covina Center for the Arts, in Covina, California in 2009. It starred Christopher Callen as "Margaret '', Brooke Tansley as "Clara '' and Craig D ' Amico as "Fabrizio '' (all Broadway veterans) under the direction of Brady Schwind.
The Lethbridge Symphony Orchestra in Alberta presented the musical at the Yates Memorial Theatre October 19 -- 21, 2009 which was the Canadian première. Directed by Fran Rude and musical direction by Ken Rogers this production starred Diane Llewelyn - Jones as Margaret, Nicole Higginson as Clara and Steven Morton as Fabrizio.
The Berkeley Street Theatre in Toronto saw the Canadian première by Acting Up Stage open on January 30, 2010.
The Arena Stage (Washington, DC), production ran from March 5, 2010 through April 11, 2010, with Hollis Resnik as Margaret.
The European premiere was directed by Paul Kerryson at the Curve Theatre, Leicester, UK in May 2009, starring Lucy Schaufer as Margaret and Caroline Sheen as Clara, with design by George Souglides, musical direction by Julian Kelly, lighting design by Giuseppe di Iorio, sound design by Paul Groothuis.
A highly acclaimed production at Theo Ubique Cabaret Theater in Chicago opened on March 11, 2012 starring Kelli Harrington as Margaret and Rachel Klippel as Clara. Harrington 's performance won the Jeff Award for Best Actress. The run has been extended through June.
The 2013 Shaw Festival production runs in rep at the Court House Theatre in Niagara on the Lake, Ontario, Canada. Preview began July 3, 2013 and officially opened July 26, 2013. Directed by Jay Turvey, starring Patty Jamieson as Margaret Johnson, the show runs till October 13.
Front Porch Theatricals (Pittsburgh) staged a performance as the second show of their 2015 season in August. It received rave reviews from both local and national critics with Broadway World hailing the overall production and Josh Grosso in the role of Fabrizio. The cast included Becki Toth as Margaret and Lindsay Bayer as Clara. It was directed by Stephen Santa.
On April 4, 2016, the entire original Broadway cast reunited for a benefit concert version of the musical at the Vivian Beaumont Theater, where it originally played.
ACT 1
In the early morning of their first day in Florence, Margaret reads from her guidebook to Clara as the piazza around them is waking up and coming to life ("Statues and Stories ''). A breeze carries Clara 's hat off her head and across the square where a young Italian man, Fabrizio, miraculously catches it, mid-air, and returns it to her. The two are instantly smitten. But Margaret steers her daughter away from the encounter, bringing her next to the Uffizi Gallery where the reaching figures in the paintings speak to Clara of her own yearnings ("The Beauty Is ''). Fabrizio appears, hoping to arrange a time to meet with Clara, but once again Margaret intervenes.
Alone, Fabrizio sings in Italian his declaration of love at first sight for Clara, along with a heartfelt cry of fear that she could never love anyone as lost and without position as he ("Il Mondo Era Vuoto ''). Fabrizio begs his father and his brother Giuseppe to help him dress more presentably for Clara. Giuseppe attempts to teach Fabrizio some dance steps as well ("American Dancing '').
At the Duomo, Fabrizio once again catches up with Margaret and Clara, and this time Fabrizio 's father, Signor Naccarelli, is able to help penetrate Margaret 's resistance to any further involvement. They all agree to meet at sunset to take a walk and admire the view of the city from above at the Piazzale Michelangelo ("Passeggiata '').
Margaret and Clara are invited to have tea at the Naccarelli home. Giuseppe 's wife, Franca, takes Clara on a tour of the apartment, and alone in a separate room, she warns Clara about how quickly love can stale in marriage ("The Joy You Feel ''). Though the Naccarellis are universally impressed with Clara, Margaret tries without success to share her deep reservations. When she looks in Fabrizio 's eyes and sees the love there, she ca n't bring herself to disappoint him, as much as she feels she must; for there is something about Clara that none of these people know. Clara secretly makes plans to meet Fabrizio at midnight near the hotel.
Margaret calls her husband Roy, who is back in the states. She tries to tell him what is happening with Clara and Fabrizio, but he is brusque and not very understanding, cutting short the conversation. Margaret, alone in her hotel room, reflects on the loneliness in her marriage ("Dividing Day ''). She checks in Clara 's room, and finds that she is missing.
On her way to meet Fabrizio, Clara becomes lost in the maze - like streets of Florence. She loses all poise and control, becoming hysterical and screaming like a child ("Hysteria ''). Her mother takes her back to the hotel and, as Clara sleeps, reveals the source of her disquiet. When Clara was a young girl, she was kicked in the head by a Shetland pony, and the accident has caused her mental and emotional abilities to develop abnormally. Margaret feels that she must take Clara away from Florence at once, and she steps down into the lobby to have a drink. While she is away, Fabrizio comes to the room, distraught; he can not find the right words to express his feelings, and Clara urges him to use any other means; Clara accepts Fabrizio 's proposal of marriage, and the two are embracing, half undressed, as Margaret walks in on them ("Say It Somehow '').
ACT 2
Margaret takes Clara to Rome to distract her and put an end to the affair. Back in Florence, the Naccarelli household is in complete chaos. As the family despairs, Signora Naccarelli translates in an aside; Fabrizio believes he has ruined everything with Clara, his father attempts to comfort him, and Giuseppe and Franca desire finer details ("Aiutami '').
No matter what Margaret tries, her daughter refuses to give her an inch, culminating into a painful confrontation wherein Margaret slaps Clara across the face. Clara erupts with a torrent of feeling, centered on Fabrizio and the nature of love ("The Light in the Piazza ''). This causes Margaret to relent, to set aside her doubts and considerations, and to no longer stand in the way of the wedding. The two return to Florence.
Clara is instructed in the Latin catechism in preparation for converting to Catholicism while around her everyone in the extended family sings of their feelings, stirred up by the immediate presence of such intense, young love ("Octet Part 1 ''). Franca, in an attempt to arouse her husband 's jealousy, kisses Fabrizio right on the mouth, and Clara witnesses it, breaking into a furious rant that ends with her throwing a drink on Franca. As Clara breaks down, Franca commends her for her bravery and declares her own desire to fight for Giuseppe. She toasts the upcoming union and is joined by the rest of the family ("Octet Part 2 '').
At the wedding rehearsal, Clara and Fabrizio are filling out the necessary forms when Signor Naccarelli sees something on Clara 's form that causes him to call off the wedding and take his family away at once. Clara wants to know what is wrong with her, but her mother says there is nothing at all wrong. With Clara sobbing and broken, alone in one of the pews of the church, Margaret reveals her worst fears and her shame at having been the source of her daughter 's lifelong suffering. She resolves to do whatever it takes to give Clara a chance for happiness ("The Beauty Is (Reprise) '').
Margaret tries to reason with Signor Naccarelli, who saw Clara 's childlike handwriting as she completed her marriage form. Seemingly unconcerned with her immaturity or her handwriting, Signor Naccarelli admits that he saw Clara write her age on the forms -- 26 -- and that this makes her an unsuitable bride for his son who is only 20. Relieved that he has not discovered their secret, Margaret begs him to change his mind, but he will not. She invites him to take a walk with her, and the two wander from one end of Florence to the other as the sun slowly sets and the night comes on ("Let 's Walk ''). By giving him time to mull things over and by not pressuring him, Margaret succeeds in putting the wedding back on track; Signor Naccarelli says he will meet them at the church the following morning.
From the hotel room, Margaret calls Roy to tell him about the wedding. As might be predicted, he insists that Clara can not handle the responsibilities of marriage. Clara, in her wedding dress, stands in the shadows, overhearing her mother 's side of the conversation. Margaret says, "Just because she is n't normal, Roy, does n't mean she 's consigned to a life of loneliness. She must n't be made to accept less from life just because she is n't like you or me. '' Shattered, Clara slips out of the hotel room and runs once more through Florence ("Interlude ''), meeting Fabrizio at the church in order to tell him that she can not marry him; she wo n't allow herself to cause him any pain. Fabrizio assuages all of her fears ("Love to Me '').
Moments before the wedding, Clara tells Margaret she ca n't leave her; Margaret assures her she can. Left alone, Margaret breaks open all the repressed doubts and yearnings that she has carried for years on end about love, realizing at last that the chance of love somehow outweighs the terrible risks. She joins the wedding ceremony ("Fable '').
CurtainUp called the musical a "gorgeously staged and musically sophisticated adaptation... the Guettel sound is nevertheless plush and enjoyable with a genuine musical theater sensibility... Lucas has made room for the young lovers ' voices and retained enough of the psychological complexities to prevent this from being the dated soap opera it could easily have been. '' Michael Feingold, in his review for the Village Voice, commented: "It has some considerable shortcomings... but its main distinction is that its humanity separates it from the bulk of current musical theater. ''
Critic John Simon, in New York magazine, wrote: "Anyone who cares about the rather uncertain future of this truly American genre should -- must -- see the show, think and worry about it, and reach his or her own conclusions... Craig Lucas 's book seems perfectly adequate to me, but the emphasis must be on Adam Guettel 's music and lyrics... the music, though fluctuating between the Sondheimesque and offbeat but still Broadwayish and the art - songlike and even operatic, is steadily absorbing, even if only intermittently melodious. One duet, "Let 's Walk, '' is an unqualified hit, but the rest, without fully cohering, is also arresting. Ted Sperling and Guettel 's jaunty orchestrations add to the slightly disorienting but wholly fascinating harmonies and instrumentation. ''
Ben Brantley, in The New York Times, deemed the show "encouragingly ambitious and discouragingly unfulfilled... the production comes into its own only in the sweetly bitter maternal regrets and dreams of Margaret Johnson. '' He further made special mention of the "gorgeous autumn - leaf - strewn set '', the "lush golden lighting '' and "the delectable period costumes ''.
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where are the winter olympics going to be held this year | 2018 Winter Olympics - wikipedia
The 2018 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XXIII Olympic Winter Games (French: Les XXIIIeme Jeux olympiques d'hiver; Hangul: 제 23 회 동계 올림픽; RR: Je - isipsamhoe Donggye Ollimpik) and commonly known as PyeongChang 2018 ((phjʌŋ. tɕhaŋ)), is a major international multi-sport event scheduled to take place from 9 to 25 February 2018 in Pyeongchang County, South Korea.
The elected host city was announced on 6 July 2011 by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) after the 123rd IOC Session in Durban, South Africa. Pyeongchang won its bid on the first round of voting, receiving more votes than both Munich, Germany and Annecy, France combined.
These will be South Korea 's second Olympic Games and its first Winter Games; Seoul hosted the Summer Games in 1988. Pyeongchang will be the third Asian city to host the Winter Games; the first two were in Japan, at Sapporo (1972) and Nagano (1998).
Pyeongchang bid to host both the 2010 and 2014 Winter Olympic Games but lost in the final rounds of voting by three and four votes respectively. Pyeongchang won its bid for the 2018 Winter Olympic Games in the first round of voting, receiving 63 of the 95 votes cast, giving it the majority required to be elected host city.
Munich also launched a bid to host these Games. Prior to Beijing 's successful 2022 Winter Olympics bid, Munich would have become the first city to host both the Winter and the Summer Games, having previously hosted the 1972 Summer Olympics, but received 25 votes. Annecy launched a bid, but failed to secure public support from local citizens. Their bid received seven votes.
Pyeongchang was elected as the host city at the 123rd IOC Session in Durban, earning the necessary majority of at least 48 votes in just one round of voting.
The ticket prices for the 2018 Winter Olympics were announced in April 2016 and went on sale in October 2016, ranging from ₩ 20,000 (approximately $ 17) to ₩ 900,000 ($776). Tickets for the opening and closing ceremonies will range from ₩ 220,000 ($190) to ₩ 1.5 million ($1293). The exact prices were determined through market research; around 50 % of the tickets are due to cost about ₩ 80,000 ($69) or less, and tickets in sports that are relatively unknown in the region, such as biathlon and luge, will be made cheaper in order to encourage attendance. By contrast, figure skating and the Men 's hockey gold medal game carry the most expensive tickets of the Games.
As of 11 October, domestic ticket sales for the games have been slow. Of the 750,000 seats allocated to South Koreans, only 20.7 % have been sold. International sales have been a bit better, with 59.7 % of the 320,000 allocated tickets sold. In total, 55 % of tickets are sold. Sales of tickets to the Paralympic Games are even more dismal, with only 4.2 percent sold.
On 5 August 2011, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) announced the formation of the Pyeongchang 2018 Coordination Commission. On 4 October 2011, it was announced that the Organizing Committee for the 2018 Winter Olympics will be headed by Kim Jin - sun. The Pyeongchang Organizing Committee for the 2018 Olympic & Paralympic Winter Games (POCOG) was launched at its inaugural assembly on 19 October 2011. The first tasks of the organizing committee was to put together a master plan for the games as well as forming a design for the venues. The IOC Coordination Commission for the 2018 Winter Olympics made their first visit to Pyeongchang in March 2012. By then, construction was already underway on the Olympic Village. In June 2012, construction began on a high - speed rail line that will connect Pyeongchang to Seoul.
The International Paralympic Committee met with the Pyeongchang 2018 organizing committee for an orientation in July 2012. Then - IOC President Jacques Rogge visited Pyeongchang for the first time in February 2013.
On 27 June 2014 the PyeongChang Olympic Committee announced their mascot selection contest. The contest ran from 15 September 2014 to 30 September 2014. The 2013 Special Olympics World Winter Games were held in Pyeongchang.
The Pyeongchang Organizing Committee for the 2018 Olympic & Paralympic Winter Games created Pyeongchang WINNERS in 2014 by recruiting university students living in South Korea to spread awareness of the Olympic Games through social networking services and news articles.
The Alpensia Resort in Daegwallyeong - myeon will be the focus of the 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympics.
The coastal cluster is located in the city of Gangneung. The Gangneung Olympic Park will include the following four venues:
In addition, a stand - alone venue is located on the grounds of Catholic Kwandong University:
The 2018 Winter Olympics will feature 102 events in 15 sports. Four new disciplines in existing sports will be introduced in Pyeongchang, including big air snowboarding (which will replace the parallel slalom), mixed doubles curling, mass start speed skating, and mixed team alpine skiing.
For the first time since 1998, the National Hockey League will not provide accommodations (including a break in the season for all teams during the Olympics) to allow its players to participate in the Men 's ice hockey tournament. The NHL 's decision stemmed from demands for the IOC to cover the cost of insuring the NHL players that participate in the Games. Although it did pay to insure NHL players in Sochi, the IOC was unwilling to do so for Pyeongchang, and was concerned that the NHL 's demand could set a precedent for other professional sports bodies to follow in the future. NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman added that the IOC did n't allow the NHL to promote the involvement of its players in the Olympics. The NHL secured the cooperation of the International Ice Hockey Federation and the IOC, who agreed to establish a blacklist forbidding national teams from nominating or accepting players under NHL contract to their Olympic rosters.
Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of medal events contested in each sports discipline.
The emblem for the Games was unveiled on 3 May 2013. It is a stylized representation of the hangul letters ᄑ p and ᄎ ch, being the initial sounds of 평창 Pyeongchang. Additionally the left symbol is said to represent the Korean philosophical triad of heaven, earth and humanity (Korean: 천지인 cheon - ji - in), and the right symbol to represent a crystal of ice.
The name of the host city has been intentionally formatted in all official materials as "PyeongChang '', rather than "Pyeongchang ''. This is to alleviate potential confusion with Pyongyang, the similarly - named capital of neighbouring North Korea.
The official pictograms for 24 sports across 15 disciplines were revealed in January 2017 and are designed using the Korean alphabet as an inspiration.
The official mascots for the Games, Soohorang (수 호랑), a white tiger, and Bandabi (반 다비), an Asiatic black bear, were unveiled on 2 June 2016.
Broadcast rights to the 2018 Winter Olympics in some countries were already sold as part of long - term broadcast rights deals, including the Games ' local rightsholder SBS -- who extended its rights to the Olympics through 2024 in July 2011.
On 29 June 2015, the IOC announced that Discovery Communications had acquired exclusive rights to the Olympics from 2018 through 2024 across Europe, excluding Russia, on all platforms. Discovery 's rights deal will, initially, not cover France due to pre-existing rights deals with France Télévisions that run through the 2020 Games. Unlike previous pan-European deals, such as with the European Broadcasting Union and Sportfive, Discovery will not solely serve as a reseller, and intends to carry coverage on its regional properties, such as Eurosport, but has committed to sub-licensing at least 100 hours of coverage to free - to - air networks. In the United Kingdom, Discovery will hold exclusive pay television rights under license from the BBC, in return for the BBC sub-licensing the free - to - air rights to the 2022 and 2024 Olympics from Discovery.
In the United States, the Games will once again be broadcast by NBC under a long - term contract with NBCUniversal; it will be NBC 's first Olympics without long - time primary host Bob Costas, who announced his retirement from the role in favour of Mike Tirico on 7 February 2017. On 28 March 2017, NBC also announced that it would air most primetime coverage simultaneously in all time zones, rather than tape - delayed for the west coast.
On 20 September 2017, South Korea 's President Moon Jae - in said the country is pushing to ensure security at Pyeongchang Winter Olympic Games amid rising tensions over the North Korea 's nuclear tests and a series of missile launches. However, on the next day, French Minister of Youth Affairs and Sports Laura Flessel - Colovic said France 's Winter Olympics team will boycott the games unless South Korea 's security is guaranteed.
On 22 September 2017, Austria and Germany joined France in considering not attending the Games. Karl Stoss, head of Austria 's national Olympic committee, said that, "if the situation worsens and the security of our athletes is no longer guaranteed, we will not go to South Korea. '' The German interior ministry said the security question and the possibility of keeping the German team at home would be addressed "in good time '' by the government. Several days later, Laura Flessel - Colovic reaffirmed France 's participation in the games. Both countries are yet to decide on reaffirming.
On 6 December 2017, United States Ambassador to the United Nations, Nikki Haley said it 's an "open question, '' whether US athletes will be able to attend the Pyeongchang Winter Olympic Games due to the increasingly hostile neighbor of North Korea.
On 5 December 2017, the IOC voted to suspend the Russian Olympic Committee over its state - sponsored doping program, which was in effect during the 2014 Winter Olympics. Individual Russian athletes may be allowed to compete in Pyeongchang under the Olympic flag as Olympic Athletes from Russia (OAR) if they are verified to have no previous doping violations and a consistent history of drug tests.
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where did the french national anthem come from | La Marseillaise - wikipedia
"La Marseillaise '' (French pronunciation: (la maʁsɛjɛːz)) is the national anthem of France. The song was written in 1792 by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle in Strasbourg after the declaration of war by France against Austria, and was originally titled "Chant de guerre pour l'Armée du Rhin '' ("War Song for the Rhine Army '').
The Marseillaise was a revolutionary song, an anthem to freedom, a patriotic call to mobilize all the citizens and an exhortation to fight against tyranny and foreign invasion. The French National Convention adopted it as the Republic 's anthem in 1795. The song acquired its nickname after being sung in Paris by volunteers from Marseille marching to the capital. The song is the first example of the "European march '' anthemic style. The anthem 's evocative melody and lyrics have led to its widespread use as a song of revolution and its incorporation into many pieces of classical and popular music.
As the French Revolution continued, the monarchies of Europe became concerned that revolutionary fervor would spread to their countries. The War of the First Coalition was an effort to stop the revolution, or at least contain it to France. Initially, the French army did not distinguish itself, and Coalition armies invaded France. On 25 April 1792, baron Philippe - Frédéric de Dietrich, the mayor of Strasbourg, requested his guest Rouget de Lisle compose a song "that will rally our soldiers from all over to defend their homeland that is under threat ''. That evening, Rouget de Lisle wrote "Chant de guerre pour l'Armée du Rhin '' (English: "War Song for the Army of the Rhine ''), and dedicated the song to Marshal Nicolas Luckner, a Bavarian in French service from Cham. A plaque on the building on Place Broglie where De Dietrich 's house once stood commemorates the event. De Dietrich was executed the next year during the Reign of Terror.
The melody soon became the rallying call to the French Revolution and was adopted as "La Marseillaise '' after the melody was first sung on the streets by volunteers (fédérés in French) from Marseille by the end of May. These fédérés were making their entrance into the city of Paris on 30 July 1792 after a young volunteer from Montpellier called François Mireur had sung it at a patriotic gathering in Marseille, and the troops adopted it as the marching song of the National Guard of Marseille. A newly graduated medical doctor, Mireur later became a general under Napoléon Bonaparte and died in Egypt at age 28.
The song 's lyric reflects the invasion of France by foreign armies (from Prussia and Austria) that were under way when it was written. Strasbourg itself was attacked just a few days later. The invading forces were repulsed from France following their defeat in the Battle of Valmy. As the vast majority of Alsatians did not speak French, a German version ("Auf, Brüder, auf dem Tag entgegen '') was published in October 1792 in Colmar.
The Convention accepted it as the French national anthem in a decree passed on 14 July 1795, making it France 's first anthem. It later lost this status under Napoleon I, and the song was banned outright by Louis XVIII and Charles X, only being re-instated briefly after the July Revolution of 1830. During Napoleon I 's reign, "Veillons au salut de l'Empire '' was the unofficial anthem of the regime, and in Napoleon III 's reign, it was "Partant pour la Syrie ''. During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, "La Marseillaise '' was recognised as the anthem of the international revolutionary movement; as such, it was adopted by the Paris Commune in 1871, albeit with new lyrics under the title "La marseillaise de la Commune ''. Eight years later, in 1879, it was restored as France 's national anthem, and has remained so ever since.
Several musical antecedents have been cited for the melody:
Rouget de Lisle himself never signed the Marseillaise score.
Only the first verse (and sometimes the forth and sixth) and the first chorus are sung today in France. There are some slight historical variations in the lyrics of the song; the following is the version listed at the official website of the French presidency.
Allons enfants de la Patrie, Le jour de gloire est arrivé! Contre nous de la tyrannie L'étendard sanglant est levé, (bis) Entendez - vous dans les campagnes Mugir ces féroces soldats? Ils viennent jusque dans vos bras Égorger vos fils, vos compagnes! Aux armes, citoyens, Formez vos bataillons, Marchons, marchons! Qu'un sang impur Abreuve nos sillons! Que veut cette horde d'esclaves, De traîtres, de rois conjurés? Pour qui ces ignobles entraves, Ces fers dès longtemps préparés? (bis) Français, pour nous, ah! quel outrage Quels transports il doit exciter! C'est nous qu'on ose méditer De rendre à l'antique esclavage! Aux armes, citoyens... Quoi! des cohortes étrangères Feraient la loi dans nos foyers! Quoi! Ces phalanges mercenaires Terrasseraient nos fiers guerriers! (bis) Grand Dieu! Par des mains enchaînées Nos fronts sous le joug se ploieraient De vils despotes deviendraient Les maîtres de nos destinées! Aux armes, citoyens... Tremblez, tyrans et vous perfides L'opprobre de tous les partis, Tremblez! vos projets parricides Vont enfin recevoir leurs prix! (bis) Tout est soldat pour vous combattre, S'ils tombent, nos jeunes héros, La terre en produit de nouveaux, Contre vous tout prêts à se battre! Aux armes, citoyens... Français, en guerriers magnanimes, Portez ou retenez vos coups! Épargnez ces tristes victimes, À regret s'armant contre nous. (bis) Mais ces despotes sanguinaires, Mais ces complices de Bouillé, Tous ces tigres qui, sans pitié, Déchirent le sein de leur mère! Aux armes, citoyens... Amour sacré de la Patrie, Conduis, soutiens nos bras vengeurs Liberté, Liberté chérie, Combats avec tes défenseurs! (bis) Sous nos drapeaux que la victoire Accoure à tes mâles accents, Que tes ennemis expirants Voient ton triomphe et notre gloire! Aux armes, citoyens... (Couplet des enfants) Nous entrerons dans la carrière Quand nos aînés n'y seront plus, Nous y trouverons leur poussière Et la trace de leurs vertus (bis) Bien moins jaloux de leur survivre Que de partager leur cercueil, Nous aurons le sublime orgueil De les venger ou de les suivre Aux armes, citoyens...
Arise, children of the Fatherland, The day of glory has arrived! Against us, tyranny 's Bloody standard is raised, (repeat) Do you hear, in the countryside, The roar of those ferocious soldiers? They 're coming right into your arms To cut the throats of your sons, your women! To arms, citizens, Form your battalions, Let 's march, let 's march! Let an impure blood Water our furrows! What does this horde of slaves, Of traitors and conspiring kings want? For whom have these vile chains, These irons, been long prepared? (repeat) Frenchmen, for us, ah! What outrage What furious action it must arouse! It is to us they dare plan A return to the old slavery! To arms, citizens... What! Foreign cohorts Would make the law in our homes! What! These mercenary phalanxes Would strike down our proud warriors! (repeat) Great God! By chained hands Our brows would yield under the yoke! Vile despots would themselves become The masters of our destinies! To arms, citizens... Tremble, tyrants and you traitors The shame of all parties, Tremble! Your parricidal schemes Will finally receive their prize! (repeat) Everyone is a soldier to combat you, If they fall, our young heroes, Will be produced anew from the ground, Ready to fight against you! To arms, citizens... Frenchmen, as magnanimous warriors, Bear or hold back your blows! Spare those sorry victims, For regretfully arming against us. (repeat) But these bloodthirsty despots, These accomplices of Bouillé, All these tigers who mercilessly Tear apart their mother 's breast! To arms, citizens... Sacred love of the Fatherland, Lead, support our avenging arms Liberty, cherished Liberty, Fight with thy defenders! (repeat) Under our flags may victory Hurry to thy manly accents, So that thy expiring enemies See thy triumph and our glory! To arms, citizens... (Children 's Verse) We shall enter the (military) career When our elders are no longer there, There we shall find their dust And the trace of their virtues (repeat) Much less keen to survive them Than to share their coffins, We shall have the sublime pride To avenge or follow them. To arms, citizens...
These verses were omitted from the national anthem.
Dieu de clémence et de justice Vois nos tyrans, juge nos coeurs Que ta bonté nous soit propice Défends - nous de ces oppresseurs (bis) Tu règnes au ciel et sur terre Et devant Toi, tout doit fléchir De ton bras, viens nous soutenir Toi, grand Dieu, maître du tonnerre. Aux armes, citoyens... Peuple français, connais ta gloire; Couronné par l'Égalité, Quel triomphe, quelle victoire, D'avoir conquis la Liberté! (bis) Le Dieu qui lance le tonnerre Et qui commande aux éléments, Pour exterminer les tyrans, Se sert de ton bras sur la terre. Aux armes, citoyens... Nous avons de la tyrannie Repoussé les derniers efforts; De nos climats, elle est bannie; Chez les Français les rois sont morts. (bis) Vive à jamais la République! Anathème à la royauté! Que ce refrain, partout porté, Brave des rois la politique. Aux armes, citoyens... La France que l'Europe admire A reconquis la Liberté Et chaque citoyen respire Sous les lois de l'Égalité; (bis) Un jour son image chérie S'étendra sur tout l'univers. Peuples, vous briserez vos fers Et vous aurez une Patrie! Aux armes, citoyens... Foulant aux pieds les droits de l'Homme, Les soldatesques légions Des premiers habitants de Rome Asservirent les nations. (bis) Un projet plus grand et plus sage Nous engage dans les combats Et le Français n'arme son bras Que pour détruire l'esclavage. Aux armes, citoyens... Oui! Déjà d'insolents despotes Et la bande des émigrés Faisant la guerre aux Sans - culottes Par nos armes sont altérés; (bis) Vainement leur espoir se fonde Sur le fanatisme irrité, Le signe de la Liberté Fera bientôt le tour du monde. Aux armes, citoyens... À vous! Que la gloire environne, Citoyens, illustres guerriers, Craignez, dans les champs de Bellone, Craignez de flétrir vos lauriers! (bis) Aux noirs soupçons inaccessibles Envers vos chefs, vos généraux, Ne quittez jamais vos drapeaux, Et vous resterez invincibles. Aux armes, citoyens... (Couplet des enfants) Enfants, que l'Honneur, la Patrie Fassent l'objet de tous nos vœux! Ayons toujours l'âme nourrie Des feux qu'ils inspirent tous deux. (bis) Soyons unis! Tout est possible; Nos vils ennemis tomberont, Alors les Français cesseront De chanter ce refrain terrible: Aux armes, citoyens...
God of mercy and justice See our tyrants, judge our hearts Thy goodness be with us Defend us from these oppressors (repeat) You reign in heaven and on earth And before You all must bend In your arms, come support us You Great God, Lord of the thunder. To arms, citizens... French people know thy glory Crowned by Equality, What a triumph, what a victory, To have won Freedom! (repeat) The God who throws thunder And who commands the elements, To exterminate the tyrants Uses your arm on the ground. To arms, citizens... Of tyranny, we have Rebuffed the final efforts; It is banished from our climes; In France the kings are dead. (repeat) Forever live the Republic! Anathema to royalty! May this refrain sung everywhere, Defy the politics of kings. To arms, citizens... France that Europe admires Has regained Liberty And every citizen breathes Under the laws of Equality, (repeat) One day its beloved image Will extend throughout the universe. Peoples, you will break your chains And you will have a Fatherland! To arms, citizens... Trampling on the rights of man, soldierly legions The first inhabitants of Rome enslave nations. (repeat) A larger project and wiser We engage in battle And the Frenchman does not arm himself But to destroy slavery. To arms, citizens... Yes! Already insolent despots And the band of emigrants Waging war on the sans - culottes (lit. without - breeches) By our weapons are withered; (repeat) Vainly their hope is based On piqued fanaticism The sign of Liberty Will soon spread around the world. To arms, citizens... To you! Let glory surround Citizens, illustrious warriors, Fear in the fields of Bellona, Fear the sullying of your laurels! (repeat) As for dark unfounded suspicions Towards your leaders, your generals, Never leave your flags, And you will remain invincible. To arms, citizens... (Children 's Verse) Children, let Honour and Fatherland be the object of all our wishes! Let us always have souls nourished With fires that might inspire both. (repeat) Let us be united! Anything is possible; Our vile enemies will fall, Then the French will cease To sing this fierce refrain: To arms, citizens...
"La Marseillaise '' was arranged for soprano, chorus and orchestra by Hector Berlioz in about 1830.
Franz Liszt wrote a piano transcription of the anthem.
During World War I, bandleader James Reese Europe played a jazz version of "La Marseillaise '', which can be heard on part 2 of the Ken Burns TV documentary Jazz.
Serge Gainsbourg recorded a reggae version in 1978, titled "Aux armes et cætera ''.
Jacky Terrasson also recorded a jazz version of "La Marseillaise '', included in his 2001 album A Paris.
In Russia, "La Marseillaise '' was used as a republican revolutionary anthem by those who knew French starting in the 18th century, almost simultaneously with its adoption in France. In 1875 Peter Lavrov, a narodist revolutionary and theorist, wrote a Russian - language text (not a translation of the French one) to the same melody. This "Worker 's Marseillaise '' became one of the most popular revolutionary songs in Russia and was used in the Revolution of 1905. After the February Revolution of 1917, it was used as the semi-official national anthem of the new Russian republic. Even after the October Revolution, it remained in use for a while alongside The Internationale.
The English philosopher and reformer Jeremy Bentham, who was declared an honorary citizen of France in 1791 in recognition of his sympathies for the ideals of the French Revolution, was not enamoured of "La Marseillaise ''. Contrasting its qualities with the "beauty '' and "simplicity '' of "God Save the King '', he wrote in 1796:
The War whoop of anarchy, the Marseillais Hymn, is to my ear, I must confess, independently of all moral association, a most dismal, flat, and unpleasing ditty: and to any ear it is at any rate a long winded and complicated one. In the instance of a melody so mischievous in its application, it is a fortunate incident, if, in itself, it should be doomed neither in point of universality, nor permanence, to gain equal hold on the affections of the people.
Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, a former President of France, has said that it is ridiculous to sing about drenching French fields with impure Prussian blood as a German Chancellor takes the salute in Paris. A 1992 campaign to change the words of the song involving more than 100 prominent French citizens, including Danielle Mitterrand, wife of then - President François Mitterrand, was unsuccessful.
The historian Simon Schama discussed "La Marseillaise '' on BBC Radio 4 's Today programme on 17 November 2015 (in the immediate aftermath of the Paris attacks), saying it was "... the great example of courage and solidarity when facing danger; that 's why it is so invigorating, that 's why it really is the greatest national anthem in the world, ever. Most national anthems are pompous, brassy, ceremonious, but this is genuinely thrilling. Very important in the song... is the line ' before us is tyranny, the bloody standard of tyranny has risen '. There is no more ferocious tyranny right now than ISIS, so it 's extremely easy for the tragically and desperately grieving French to identify with that ''.
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where did the russian orthodox church come from | Russian Orthodox Church - wikipedia
Coordinates: 55 ° 42 ′ 40 '' N 37 ° 37 ′ 45 '' E / 55.71111 ° N 37.62917 ° E / 55.71111; 37.62917
The Russian Orthodox Church (ROC; Russian: Ру́сская правосла́вная це́рковь, tr. Rússkaya pravoslávnaya tsérkov), alternatively legally known as the Moscow Patriarchate (Russian: Моско́вский патриарха́т, tr. Moskóvskiy patriarkhát), is one of the autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches, since 15 October 2018 not in communion with the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. The Primate of the ROC is the Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus '. The ROC, as well as the primate thereof, officially ranks fifth in the Orthodox order of precedence, immediately below the four ancient Patriarchates of the Greek Orthodox Church, those of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The official Christianization of Kievan Rus ' widely seen as the birth of the ROC is believed to have occurred in 988 through the baptism of the Kievan prince Vladimir and his people by the clergy of the Ecumenical Patriarchate whose constituent part the ROC remained for the next six centuries, while the Kievan see remained in the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate until 1686.
The ROC currently claims its exclusive jurisdiction over the Orthodox Christians, irrespective of their ethnic background, who reside in the former member republics of the Soviet Union, excluding Georgia and Armenia, although this claim is disputed in such countries as Estonia, Moldova and Ukraine and consequently parallel canonical Orthodox jurisdictions exist in those: Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church and Metropolis of Bessarabia, respectively. It also exercises ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the autonomous Church of Japan and the Orthodox Christians resident in the People 's Republic of China. The ROC branches in Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Moldova and Ukraine since the 1990s enjoy various degrees of self - government, albeit short of the status of formal ecclesiastical autonomy. In Ukraine, ROC (represented by the Ukrainian Orthodox Church) has tensions with schismatic groups supported by the current government. The debate over recognition of the Orthodox church in Ukraine as autocephalous has caused tension between the Russian Church and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.
The ROC should not be confused with the Orthodox Church in America (OCA), another autocephalous Orthodox Church (since 1970, albeit not universally recognised in this status), that traces its existence in North America to the time of the Russian missionaries in Alaska (then part of the Russian Empire) in the late 18th century, and still adheres to the ROC liturgical tradition.
The ROC should also not be confused with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (also known as the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad, or ROCOR), headquartered in New York, New York, U.S.A. The ROCOR was instituted in the 1920s by Russian communities outside then Communist Russia, which refused to recognize the authority of the Moscow Patriarchate then de facto headed by Metropolitan Sergius Stragorodsky. The two Churches reconciled on May 17, 2007; the ROCOR is now a self - governing part of the Russian Orthodox Church.
The Christian community that developed into what is now known as the Russian Orthodox Church is traditionally said to have been founded by the Apostle Andrew, who is thought to have visited Scythia and Greek colonies along the northern coast of the Black Sea. According to one of the legends, Andrew reached the future location of Kiev and foretold the foundation of a great Christian city. The spot where he reportedly erected a cross is now marked by St. Andrew 's Cathedral.
By the end of the first millennium AD, eastern Slavic lands started to come under the cultural influence of the Eastern Roman Empire. In 863 -- 69, the Byzantine Greek monks Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius, both from Greek Macedonia, translated parts of the Bible into Old Church Slavonic language for the first time, paving the way for the Christianization of the Slavs and Slavicized peoples of Eastern Europe, the Balkans, Ukraine, and Southern Russia. There is evidence that the first Christian bishop was sent to Novgorod from Constantinople either by Patriarch Photius or Patriarch Ignatios, c. 866 -- 67.
By the mid-10th century, there was already a Christian community among Kievan nobility, under the leadership of Byzantine Greek priests, although paganism remained the dominant religion. Princess Olga of Kiev was the first ruler of Kievan Rus ′ to convert to Christianity, either in 945 or 957. Her grandson, Vladimir of Kiev, made Rus ' officially a Christian state. The official Christianization of Kievan Rus ' is widely believed to have occurred in 988 AD, when Prince Vladimir was baptised himself and ordered his people to be baptised by the priests from the Eastern Roman Empire.
The Kievan church was a junior metropolitanate of the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Ecumenical patriarch appointed the metropolitan, who usually was a Greek, who governed the Church of Rus '. The Metropolitan 's residence was originally located in Kiev itself, the capital of the medieval Rus ' state.
As Kiev was losing its political, cultural, and economical significance due to the Mongol invasion, Metropolitan Maximus moved to Vladimir in 1299; his successor, Metropolitan Peter moved the residence to Moscow in 1325.
Following the tribulations of the Mongol invasion, the Russian Church was pivotal in the survival and life of the Russian state. Despite the politically motivated murders of Mikhail of Chernigov and Mikhail of Tver, the Mongols were generally tolerant and even granted tax exemption to the Church. Such holy figures as Sergius of Radonezh and Metropolitan Alexis helped the country to withstand years of Mongol rule, and to expand both economically and spiritually. The Trinity monastery founded by Sergius of Radonezh became the setting for the flourishing of spiritual art, exemplified by the work of Andrey Rublev, among others. The followers of Sergius founded four hundred monasteries, thus greatly extending the geographical extent of the Grand Duchy of Moscow.
In 1439, at the Council of Florence, some Orthodox hierarchs from Byzantium as well as Metropolitan Isidore, who represented the Russian Church, signed a union with the Roman Church, whereby the Eastern Church would recognise the primacy of the Pope. However, the Moscow Prince Vasili II rejected the act of the Council of Florence brought to Moscow by Isidore in March 1441. Isidore was in the same year removed from his position as an apostate and expelled from Moscow. The Russian metropolitanate remained effectively vacant for the next few years due largely to the dominance of Uniates in Constantinople then. In December 1448, Jonas, a Russian bishop, was installed by the Council of Russian bishops in Moscow as Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia (with permanent residence in Moscow) without the consent from Constantinople. This occurred five years prior to the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and, unintentionally, signified the beginning of an effectively independent church structure in the Moscow (North - Eastern Russian) part of the Russian Church. Subsequently, there developed a theory in Moscow that saw Moscow as the Third Rome, the legitimate successor to Constantinople, and the Primate of the Moscow Church as head of all the Russian Church. Meanwhile, the newly established in 1458 Russian Orthodox (initially Uniate) metropolitanate in Kiev (then in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and subsequently in the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth) continued under the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical See until 1686, when it was transferred to the jurisdiction of Moscow.
The reign of Ivan III and his successor was plagued by a number of heresies and controversies. One party, led by Nil Sorsky and Vassian Kosoy, called for the secularisation of monastic properties. They were opposed by the influential Joseph of Volotsk, who defended ecclesiastical ownership of land and property. The sovereign 's position fluctuated, but eventually he threw his support to Joseph. New sects sprang up, some of which showed a tendency to revert to Mosaic law: for instance, the archpriest Aleksei converted to Judaism after meeting a certain Zechariah the Jew.
In the 1540s, Metropolitan Macarius codified Russian hagiography and convened a number of church synods, which culminated in the Hundred Chapter Council of 1551. This Council unified church ceremonies and duties throughout the Moscow Church. At the demand of the church hierarchy, the government lost its jurisdiction over ecclesiastics. Reinforced by these reforms, the Moscow Church felt powerful enough to occasionally challenge the policies of the tsar. Metropolitan Philip, in particular, decried the abuses of Ivan the Terrible, who eventually engineered his deposition and murder.
During the reign of Tsar Fyodor I his brother - in - law Boris Godunov contacted the Ecumenical Patriarch, who "was much embarrassed for want of funds, '' with a view to establishing a patriarchal see in Moscow. As a result of Godunov 's efforts, Metropolitan Job of Moscow became in 1589 the first Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus ', making the Russian Church autocephalous. The four other patriarchs have recognized the Moscow Patriarchate as one of the five honourable Patriarchates. During the next half a century, when the tsardom was weak, the patriarchs (notably Hermogenes and Philaret) would help run the state along with (and sometimes instead of) the tsars.
At the urging of the Zealots of Piety, in 1652 Patriarch Nikon of Moscow resolved to centralize power that had been distributed locally, while conforming Russian Orthodox rites and rituals to those of the Greek Orthodox Church, as interpreted by pundits from the Kiev Ecclesiastical Academy. For instance, he insisted that Russian Christians cross themselves with three fingers, rather than the then - traditional two. This aroused antipathy among a substantial section of believers, who saw the changed rites as heresy, although the extent to which these changes can be regarded as minor or major ritual significance remains open to debate. After the implementation of these innovations at the church council of 1666 -- 1667, the Church anathematized and suppressed those who acted contrary to them with the support of Muscovite state power. These traditionalists became known as "Old Believers '' or "Old Ritualists ''.
Although Nikon 's far - flung ambitions of steering the country to a theocratic form of government precipitated his defrocking and exile, Tsar Aleksey deemed it reasonable to uphold many of his innovations. During the Schism of the Russian Church, the Old Ritualists were separated from the main body of the Orthodox Church. Archpriest Avvakum Petrov and many other opponents of the church reforms were burned at the stake, either forcibly or voluntarily. Another prominent figure within the Old Ritualists ' movement, Boyarynya Morozova, was starved to death in 1675. Others escaped from the government persecutions to Siberia.
Several years after the Council of Pereyaslav (1654) that heralded the subsequent incorporation of eastern regions of the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth into the Tsardom of Russia, the see of the Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus ' was transferred to the Moscow patriarchate (1686).
Peter the Great (1682 -- 1725) had an agenda of radical modernization of Russian government, army, dress and manners. He made Russia a formidable political power. Peter was not religious and had a low regard for the Church, so he put it under tight governmental control. He replaced the Patriarch with a Holy Synod, which he controlled. The Tsar appointed all bishops. A clerical career was not a route chosen by upper - class society. Most parish priests were sons of priests, were very poorly educated, and very poorly paid. The monks in the monasteries had a slightly higher status; they were not allowed to marry. Politically, the church was impotent. Catherine the Great later in the 18th century seized most of the church lands, and put the priests on a small salary supplemented by fees for services such as baptism and marriage.
In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the Russian Orthodox Church experienced a vast geographic expansion. Numerous financial and political incentives (as well as immunity from military service) were offered local political leaders who would convert to Orthodoxy, and bring their people with them.
In the following two centuries, missionary efforts stretched out across Siberia into Alaska. Eminent people on that missionary effort included St. Innocent of Irkutsk and St. Herman of Alaska. In emulation of Stephen of Perm, they learned local languages and translated gospels and hymns. Sometimes those translations required the invention of new systems of transcription.
In the aftermath of the Treaty of Pereyaslav, the Ottomans (supposedly acting on behalf of the Russian regent Sophia Alekseyevna) pressured the Patriarch of Constantinople into transferring the Metropolis of Kiev from the jurisdiction of Constantinople to that of Moscow. The handover brought millions of faithful and half a dozen dioceses under the ultimate administrative care of the Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus ' (and later of the Holy Synod of Russia), leading to the significant Ukrainian presence in the Russian Church, which continued well into the 18th century, with Theophanes Prokopovich, Epiphanius Slavinetsky, Stephen Yavorsky and Demetrius of Rostov being among the most notable representatives of this trend. The exact terms and conditions of the handover of the Kiev Metroplis is a contested issue.
In 1700, after Patriarch Adrian 's death, Peter the Great prevented a successor from being named, and in 1721, following the advice of Feofan Prokopovich, Archbishop of Pskov, the Holy and Supreme Synod was established under Archbishop Stephen Yavorsky to govern the church instead of a single primate. This was the situation until shortly after the Russian Revolution of 1917, at which time the Local Council (more than half of its members being lay persons) adopted the decision to restore the Patriarchy. On November 5 (according to the Julian calendar) a new patriarch, Tikhon, was named through casting lots.
The late 18th century saw the rise of starchestvo under Paisiy Velichkovsky and his disciples at the Optina Monastery. This marked a beginning of a significant spiritual revival in the Russian Church after a lengthy period of modernization, personified by such figures as Demetrius of Rostov and Platon of Moscow. Aleksey Khomyakov, Ivan Kireevsky and other lay theologians with Slavophile leanings elaborated some key concepts of the renovated Orthodox doctrine, including that of sobornost. The resurgence of Eastern Orthodoxy was reflected in Russian literature, an example is the figure of Starets Zosima in Fyodor Dostoyevsky 's Brothers Karamazov.
During the final decades of the imperial order in Russia many educated Russians sought to return to the church and tried to bring their faith back to life. No less evident were non-conformist paths of spiritual searching known as "God - Seeking ''. Writers, artists and intellectuals in large numbers were drawn to private prayer, mysticism, spiritualism, theosophy and Eastern religions. A fascination with primitive feeling, with the unconscious and the mythic was apparent, along with visions of coming catastrophes and redemption.
In 1909, a volume of essays appeared under the title Vekhi ("Milestones '' or "Landmarks ''), authored by a group of leading left - wing intellectuals, including Sergei Bulgakov, Peter Struve and former Marxists. They bluntly repudiated the materialism and atheism that had dominated the thought of the intelligentsia for generations as leading inevitably to failure and moral disaster. The essays created a sensation.
It is possible to see a similarly renewed vigor and variety in religious life and spirituality among the lower classes, especially after the upheavals of 1905. Among the peasantry there was widespread interest in spiritual - ethical literature and non-conformist moral - spiritual movements, an upsurge in pilgrimage and other devotions to sacred spaces and objects (especially icons), persistent beliefs in the presence and power of the supernatural (apparitions, possession, walking - dead, demons, spirits, miracles and magic), the renewed vitality of local "ecclesial communities '' actively shaping their own ritual and spiritual lives, sometimes in the absence of clergy, and defining their own sacred places and forms of piety. Also apparent was the proliferation of what the Orthodox establishment branded as "sectarianism '', including both non-Orthodox Christian denominations, notably Baptists, and various forms of popular Orthodoxy and mysticism.
In 1914, there were 55,173 Russian Orthodox churches and 29,593 chapels, 112,629 priests and deacons, 550 monasteries and 475 convents with a total of 95,259 monks and nuns in Russia.
The year 1917 was a major turning point in Russian history, and also the Russian Orthodox Church. In early March 1917 (O.S.), the Czar was forced to abdicate, the Russian empire began to implode, and the government ′ s direct control of the Church was all but over by August 1917. On 15 August (O.S.), in the Moscow Dormition Cathedral in the Kremlin, the Local (Pomestniy) Council of the ROC, the first such convention since the late 17th century, opened. The Council continued its sessions until September 1918 and adopted a number of important reforms, including the restoration of Patriarchy, a decision taken 3 days after the Bolsheviks overthrew the Provisional Government in Petrograd on 25 October (O.S.). On 5 November, Metropolitan Tikhon of Moscow was selected as the first Russian Patriarch after about 300 years of the Synodal rule.
In early February 1918, the Bolshevik - controlled government of Soviet Russia enacted the Decree on separation of church from state and school from church that proclaimed separation of church and state in Russia, freedom to '' profess any religion or profess none '', deprived religious organisations of the right to own any property and legal status. Legal religious activity in the territories controlled by Bolsheviks was effectively reduced to services and sermons inside church buildings. The Decree and attempts by Bolshevik officials to requisition church property caused sharp resentment on the part of the ROC clergy and provoked violent clashes on some occasions: on 1 February (19 January O.S.), hours after the bloody confrontation in Petrograd ′ s Alexander Nevsky Lavra between the Bolsheviks trying to take control of the monastery ′ s premises and the believers, Patriarch Tikhon issued a proclamation that anathematised the perpetrators of such acts.
The Church was caught in the crossfire of the Russian Civil War that began later in 1918, and Church leadership, despite their attempts to be politically neutral (from the autumn of 1918), as well as the clergy generally were perceived by the Soviet authorities as a "counter-revolutionary '' force and thus subject to suppression and eventual liquidation.
In the first five years after the Bolshevik revolution, 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed.
The Soviet Union, formally created in December 1922, was the first state to have elimination of religion as an ideological objective espoused by the country ′ s ruling political party. Toward that end, the Communist regime confiscated church property, ridiculed religion, harassed believers, and propagated materialism and atheism in schools. Actions toward particular religions, however, were determined by State interests, and most organized religions were never outlawed.
Orthodox clergy and active believers were treated by the Soviet law - enforcement apparatus as anti-revolutionary elements and were habitually subjected to formal prosecutions on political charges, arrests, exiles, imprisonment in camps, and later could also be incarcerated in mental hospitals.
Thousands of church buildings and initially all the monasteries were taken over by the Soviet government and either destroyed or converted to secular use. It was impossible to build new churches. Practising Orthodox Christians were restricted from prominent careers and membership in communist organizations (the party, the Komsomol). Anti-religious propaganda was openly sponsored and encouraged by the government, which the Church was not given an opportunity to publicly respond to. The government youth organization, the Komsomol, encouraged its members to vandalize Orthodox churches and harass worshippers. Seminaries were closed down, and the church was restricted from using the press. Theological schools were closed (until some were re-opened in the latter 1940s), and church publications were suppressed.
However, the Soviet policy vis - a-vis organised religion vacillated over time between, on the one hand, a utopian determination to substitute secular rationalism for what they considered to be an outmoded "superstitious '' worldview and, on the other, pragmatic acceptance of the tenaciousness of religious faith and institutions. In any case, religious beliefs and practices did persist, not only in the domestic and private spheres but also in the scattered public spaces allowed by a state that recognized its failure to eradicate religion and the political dangers of an unrelenting culture war.
The Russian Orthodox church was drastically weakened in May 1922, when the Renovated (Living) Church, a reformist movement backed by the Soviet secret police, broke away from Patriarch Tikhon (also see the Josephites and the Russian True Orthodox Church), a move that caused division among clergy and faithful that persisted until 1946.
The sixth sector of the OGPU, led by Yevgeny Tuchkov, began aggressively arresting and executing bishops, priests, and devout worshippers, such as Metropolitan Veniamin in Petrograd in 1922 for refusing to accede to the demand to hand in church valuables (including sacred relics). In the time between 1927 and 1940, the number of Orthodox Churches in the Russian Republic fell from 29,584 to less than 500. Between 1917 and 1935, 130,000 Orthodox priests were arrested. Of these, 95,000 were put to death. Many thousands of victims of persecution became recognized in a special canon of saints known as the "new martyrs and confessors of Russia ''.
When Patriarch Tikhon died in 1925, the Soviet authorities forbade patriarchal election. Patriarchal locum tenens (acting Patriarch) Metropolitan Sergius (Stragorodsky, 1887 -- 1944), going against the opinion of a major part of the church 's parishes, in 1927 issued a declaration accepting the Soviet authority over the church as legitimate, pledging the church 's cooperation with the government and condemning political dissent within the church. By this declaration Sergius granted himself authority that he, being a deputy of imprisoned Metropolitan Peter and acting against his will, had no right to assume according to the XXXIV Apostolic canon, which led to a split with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia abroad and the Russian True Orthodox Church (Russian Catacomb Church) within the Soviet Union, as they allegedly remained faithful to the Canons of the Apostles, declaring the part of the church led by Metropolitan Sergius schism, sometimes coined Sergianism. Due to this canonical disagreement it is disputed which church has been the legitimate successor to the Russian Orthodox Church that had existed before 1925.
In 1927, Metropolitan Eulogius (Georgiyevsky) of Paris broke with the ROCOR (along with Metropolitan Platon (Rozhdestvensky) of New York, leader of the Russian Metropolia in America). In 1930, after taking part in a prayer service in London in supplication for Christians suffering under the Soviets, Evlogy was removed from office by Sergius and replaced. Most of Evlogy 's parishes in Western Europe remained loyal to him; Evlogy then petitioned Ecumenical Patriarch Photius II to be received under his canonical care and was received in 1931, making a number of parishes of Russian Orthodox Christians outside Russia esp. in Western Europe an Exarchate of the Ecumenical Patriarchate as the Archdiocese of Russian Orthodox churches in Western Europe.
Moreover, in the 1929 elections, the Orthodox Church attempted to formulate itself as a full - scale opposition group to the Communist Party, and attempted to run candidates of its own against the Communist candidates. Article 124 of the 1936 Soviet Constitution officially allowed for freedom of religion within the Soviet Union, and along with initial statements of it being a multi-candidate election, the Church again attempted to run its own religious candidates in the 1937 elections. However the support of multicandidate elections was retracted several months before the elections were held and in neither 1929 nor 1937 were any candidates of the Orthodox Church elected.
After Nazi Germany 's attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, Joseph Stalin revived the Russian Orthodox Church to intensify patriotic support for the war effort. On September 4, 1943, Metropolitans Sergius (Stragorodsky), Alexius (Simansky) and Nicholas (Yarushevich) had a meeting with Stalin and received a permission to convene a council on September 8, 1943, which elected Sergius Patriarch of Moscow and all the Rus '. This is considered by some as violation of the XXX Apostolic canon, as no church hierarch could be consecrated by secular authorities. A new patriarch was elected, theological schools were opened, and thousands of churches began to function. The Moscow Theological Academy Seminary, which had been closed since 1918, was re-opened.
In December 2017 Security Service of Ukraine lifted classified top secret status of documents reveals that the NKGB of the USSR and its units in the Union and autonomous republics, territories and regions were engaged in the selection of candidates for participation in the council from the representatives of the clergy and the laity. To this end, it was necessary to outline "persons who have religious authority among the clergy and believers, and at the same time checked for civic or patriotic work ''.
"It is important to ensure that the number of nominated candidates is dominated by the agents of the NKGB, capable of holding the line that we need at the Council, '' the letter sent in September 1944 to the place signed by the head of the 2nd Directorate of the NKGB of the USSR Fedotov and the head of the Fifth Division 2nd Directorate of Karpov.
Between 1945 and 1959 the official organization of the church was greatly expanded, although individual members of the clergy were occasionally arrested and exiled. The number of open churches reached 25,000. By 1957 about 22,000 Russian Orthodox churches had become active. But in 1959 Nikita Khrushchev initiated his own campaign against the Russian Orthodox Church and forced the closure of about 12,000 churches. By 1985 fewer than 7,000 churches remained active. Members of the church hierarchy were jailed or forced out, their places taken by docile clergy, many of whom had ties with the KGB. This decline was evident from the dramatic decay of many of the abandoned churches and monasteries that were previously common in even the smallest villages from the pre-revolutionary period.
A new and widespread persecution of the church was subsequently instituted under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev and Leonid Brezhnev. A second round of repression, harassment and church closures took place between 1959 and 1964 when Nikita Khrushchev was in office. The number of Orthodox churches fell from around 22,000 in 1959 to around 8,000 in 1965; priests, monks and faithful were killed or imprisoned and the number of functioning monasteries was reduced to less than twenty.
Subsequent to Khrushchev 's overthrow, the Church and the government remained on unfriendly terms until 1988. In practice, the most important aspect of this conflict was that openly religious people could not join the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, which meant that they could not hold any political office. However, among the general population, large numbers remained religious.
Some Orthodox believers and even priests took part in the dissident movement and became prisoners of conscience. The Orthodox priests Gleb Yakunin, Sergiy Zheludkov and others spent years in Soviet prisons and exile for their efforts in defending freedom of worship. Among the prominent figures of that time were Father Dmitri Dudko and Father Aleksandr Men. Although he tried to keep away from practical work of the dissident movement intending to better fulfil his calling as a priest, there was a spiritual link between Fr Aleksandr and many of the dissidents. For some of them he was a friend; for others, a godfather; for many (including Yakunin), a spiritual father.
By 1987 the number of functioning churches in the Soviet Union had fallen to 6,893 and the number of functioning monasteries to just 18. In 1987 in the Russian SFSR, between 40 % and 50 % of newborn babies (depending on the region) were baptized. Over 60 % of all deceased received Christian funeral services.
Beginning in the late 1980s, under Mikhail Gorbachev, the new political and social freedoms resulted in many church buildings being returned to the church, to be restored by local parishioners. A pivotal point in the history of the Russian Orthodox Church came in 1988, the millennial anniversary of the Baptism of Kievan Rus '. Throughout the summer of that year, major government - supported celebrations took place in Moscow and other cities; many older churches and some monasteries were reopened. An implicit ban on religious propaganda on state TV was finally lifted. For the first time in the history of the Soviet Union, people could see live transmissions of church services on television.
Gleb Yakunin, a critic of the Moscow Patriarchate who was one of those who briefly gained access to the KGB archive documents in the early 1990s, argued that the Moscow Patriarchate was "practically a subsidiary, a sister company of the KGB ''. Critics charge that the archives showed the extent of active participation of the top ROC hierarchs in the KGB efforts overseas. George Trofimoff, the highest - ranking US military officer ever indicted for, and convicted of, espionage by the United States and sentenced to life imprisonment on September 27, 2001, had been "recruited into the service of the KGB '' by Igor Susemihl (a.k.a. Zuzemihl), a bishop in the Russian Orthodox Church (subsequently, a high - ranking hierarch -- the ROC Metropolitan Iriney of Vienna, who died in July 1999).
Konstanin Kharchev, former chairman of the Soviet Council on Religious Affairs, explained: "Not a single candidate for the office of bishop or any other high - ranking office, much less a member of Holy Synod, went through without confirmation by the Central Committee of the CPSU and the KGB ''. Professor Nathaniel Davis points out: "If the bishops wished to defend their people and survive in office, they had to collaborate to some degree with the KGB, with the commissioners of the Council for Religious Affairs, and with other party and governmental authorities ''. Patriarch Alexy II, acknowledged that compromises were made with the Soviet government by bishops of the Moscow Patriarchate, himself included, and publicly repented of these compromises.
Metropolitan Alexy (Ridiger) of Leningrad, ascended the patriarchal throne in 1990 and presided over the partial return of Orthodox Christianity to Russian society after 70 years of repression, transforming the ROC to something resembling its pre-communist appearance; some 15,000 churches had been re-opened or built by the end of his tenure, and the process of recovery and rebuilding has continued under his successor Patriarch Kirill. According to figures released on March 2, 2011, the Church had 164 dioceses, 217 bishops, and 30,675 parishes served by 28,934 priests and 3,625 deacons. There were 805 monasteries and 30 theological schools.
The Russian Church also sought to fill the ideological vacuum left by the collapse of Communism and even, in the opinion of some analysts, became "a separate branch of power ''.
In August 2000, the ROC adopted its Basis of the Social Concept and in July 2008, its Basic Teaching on Human Dignity, Freedom and Rights.
Under Patriarch Aleksey, there were difficulties in the relationship between the Russian Orthodox Church and the Vatican, especially since 2002, when Pope John Paul II created a Catholic diocesan structure for Russian territory. The leaders of the Russian Church saw this action as a throwback to prior attempts by the Vatican to proselytize the Russian Orthodox faithful to become Roman Catholic. This point of view was based upon the stance of the Russian Orthodox Church (and the Eastern Orthodox Church) that the Church of Rome is in schism, after breaking off from the Orthodox Church. The Roman Catholic Church, on the other hand, while acknowledging the primacy of the Russian Orthodox Church in Russia, believed that the small Roman Catholic minority in Russia, in continuous existence since at least the 18th century, should be served by a fully developed church hierarchy with a presence and status in Russia, just as the Russian Orthodox Church is present in other countries (including constructing a cathedral in Rome, near the Vatican).
There occurred strident conflicts with the Ecumenical Patriarchate, most notably over the Orthodox Church in Estonia in the mid-1990s, which resulted in unilateral suspension of eucharistic relationship between the churches by the ROC. The tension lingered on and could be observed at the meeting in Ravenna in early October 2007 of participants in the Orthodox -- Catholic Dialogue: the representative of the Moscow Patriarchate, Bishop Hilarion Alfeyev, walked out of the meeting due to the presence of representatives from the Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church which is in the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate. At the meeting, prior to the departure of the Russian delegation, there were also substantive disagreements about the wording of a proposed joint statement among the Orthodox representatives. After the departure of the Russian delegation, the remaining Orthodox delegates approved the form which had been advocated by the representatives of the Ecumenical Patriarchate. The Ecumenical See 's representative in Ravenna said that Hilarion 's position "should be seen as an expression of authoritarianism whose goal is to exhibit the influence of the Moscow Church. But like last year in Belgrade, all Moscow achieved was to isolate itself once more since no other Orthodox Church followed its lead, remaining instead faithful to Constantinople. ''
Canon Michael Bourdeaux, former president of the Keston Institute, said in January 2008 that "the Moscow Patriarchate acts as though it heads a state church, while the few Orthodox clergy who oppose the church - state symbiosis face severe criticism, even loss of livelihood. '' Such a view is backed up by other observers of Russian political life. Clifford J. Levy of The New York Times wrote in April 2008: "Just as the government has tightened control over political life, so, too, has it intruded in matters of faith. The Kremlin 's surrogates in many areas have turned the Russian Orthodox Church into a de facto official religion, warding off other Christian denominations that seem to offer the most significant competition for worshipers. (...) This close alliance between the government and the Russian Orthodox Church has become a defining characteristic of Mr. Putin 's tenure, a mutually reinforcing choreography that is usually described here as working ' in symphony '. ''
Throughout Patriarch Alexy 's reign, the massive program of costly restoration and reopening of devastated churches and monasteries (as well as the construction of new ones) was criticized for having eclipsed the church 's principal mission of evangelizing.
On 5 December 2008, the day of Patriarch Alexy 's death, the Financial Times said: "While the church had been a force for liberal reform under the Soviet Union, it soon became a center of strength for conservatives and nationalists in the post-communist era. Alexei 's death could well result in an even more conservative church. ''
On 27 January 2009, the ROC Local Council elected Metropolitan Kirill of Smolensk Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus ′ by 508 votes out of a total of 700. He was enthroned on 1 February 2009.
Patriarch Kirill implemented reforms in the administrative structure of the Moscow Patriarchate: on 27 July 2011 the Holy Synod established the Central Asian Metropolitan District, reorganizing the structure of the Church in Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan. In addition, on 6 October 2011, at the request of the Patriarch, the Holy Synod introduced the metropoly (Russian: митрополия, mitropoliya), administrative structure bringing together neighboring eparchies.
Under Patriarch Kirill, the ROC continued to maintain close ties with the Kremlin enjoying the patronage of president Vladimir Putin, who has sought to mobilize Russian Orthodoxy both inside and outside Russia. Patriarch Kirill endorsed Putin 's election in 2012, referring in February to Putin 's tenure in the 2000s as "God ′ s miracle. '' Nevertheless, Russian inside sources were quoted in the autumn 2017 as saying that Putin ′ s relationship with Patriarch Kirill had been deteriorating since 2014 due to the fact that the presidential administration had been misled by the Moscow Patriarchate as to the extent of support for pro-Russian uprising in eastern Ukraine; also, due to Kirill ′ s personal unpopularity he had come to be viewed as a political liability.
The Moscow Patriarchate ′ s traditional rivalry with the Patriarchate of Constantinople led to the ROC ′ s non-attendance of the Holy Great Council that had been prepared by all the Orthodox Churches for decades.
The Holy Synod of the ROC, at its session on 15 October 2018, severed full communion with the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. The decision was taken in response to the move made by the Patriarchate of Constantinople a few days prior that effectively ended the Moscow Patriarchate ′ s jurisdiction over Ukraine and promised autocephaly to Ukraine, the ROC ′ s and the Kremlin ′ s fierce opposition notwithstanding.
The ROC constituent parts in other than the Russian Federation countries of its exclusive jurisdiction such as Ukraine, Belarus et al., are legally registered as separate legal entities in accordance with the relevant legislation of those independent states.
Ecclesiastiacally, the ROC is organized in a hierarchical structure. The lowest level of organization, which normally would be a single ROC building and its attendees, headed by a priest who acts as Father superior (Russian: настоятель, nastoyatel), constitute a parish (Russian: приход, prihod). All parishes in a geographical region belong to an eparchy (Russian: епархия -- equivalent to a Western diocese). Eparchies are governed by bishops (Russian: епископ, episcop or архиерей, archiereus). There are 261 Russian Orthodox eparchies worldwide (June 2012).
Further, some eparchies may be organized into exarchates (currently the Belorussian exarchate), and since 2003 into metropolitan districts (митрополичий округ), such as the ROC eparchies in Kazakhstan and the Central Asia (Среднеазиатский митрополичий округ).
Since the early 1990s, the ROC eparchies in some newly independent states of the former USSR enjoy the status of self - governing Churches within the Moscow Patriarchate (which status, according to the ROC legal terminology, is distinct from the '' autonomous '' one): the Estonian Orthodox Church of Moscow Patriarchate, Latvian Orthodox Church, Moldovan Orthodox Church, Ukrainian Orthodox Church, the last one being virtually fully independent in administrative matters. Similar status, since 2007, is enjoyed by the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (previously fully independent and deemed schismatic by the ROC). The Chinese Orthodox Church and the Japanese Orthodox Churches were granted full autonomy by the Moscow Patriarchate, but this autonomy is not universally recognized.
Smaller eparchies are usually governed by a single bishop. Larger eparchies, exarchates, and self - governing Churches are governed by a Metropolitan archbishop and sometimes also have one or more bishops assigned to them.
The highest level of authority in the ROC is vested in the Local Council (Pomestny Sobor), which comprises all the bishops as well as representatives from the clergy and laypersons. Another organ of power is the Bishops ' Council (Архиерейский Собор). In the periods between the Councils the highest administrative powers are exercised by the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church, which includes seven permanent members and is chaired by the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, Primate of the Moscow Patriarchate.
Although the Patriarch of Moscow enjoys extensive administrative powers, unlike the Pope, he has no direct canonical jurisdiction outside the diocese of Moscow, nor does he have single - handed authority over matters pertaining to faith as well as issues concerning the entire Orthodox Christian community such as the Catholic - Orthodox split.
Russian traders settled in Alaska during the 18th century. In 1740, a Divine Liturgy was celebrated on board a Russian ship off the Alaskan coast. In 1794, the Russian Orthodox Church sent missionaries -- among them Saint Herman of Alaska -- to establish a formal mission in Alaska. Their missionary endeavors contributed to the conversion of many Alaskan natives to the Orthodox faith. A diocese was established, whose first bishop was Saint Innocent of Alaska. The headquarters of this North American Diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church was moved from Alaska to California around the mid-19th century.
It was moved again in the last part of the same century, this time to New York, New York. This transfer coincided with a great movement of Greek - Catholics to the Orthodox Church in the East of the United States. This movement, which increased the numbers of Orthodox Christians in America, resulted from a conflict between John Ireland, the politically powerful Roman Catholic Archbishop of Saint Paul, Minnesota; and Alexis Toth, an influential Ruthenian Catholic priest of St. Mary 's church in Minneapolis. Archbishop Ireland 's refusal to accept Fr. Toth 's credentials as a priest induced Fr. Toth to convert St. Mary 's to the Orthodox Church, and further resulted in the conversion of tens of thousands of other Greek - Catholics in North America to the Orthodox Church under his guidance and inspiration. For this reason, Ireland is sometimes ironically remembered as the "Father of the Orthodox Church in America ''. These Greek - Catholics were received into Orthodoxy into the existing North American diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church. At the same time large numbers of Greeks and other Orthodox Christians were also immigrating to America. At this time all Orthodox Christians in North America were united under the omophorion (church authority and protection) of the Patriarch of Moscow, through the Russian Church 's North American diocese. The unity was not merely theoretical, but was a reality, since there was then no other diocese on the continent. Under the aegis of this diocese, which at the turn of the 20th century was ruled by Bishop (and future Patriarch) Tikhon, Orthodox Christians of various ethnic backgrounds were ministered to, both non-Russian and Russian; a Syro - Arab mission was established under the episcopal leadership of Saint Raphael of Brooklyn, who was the first Orthodox bishop to be consecrated in America.
In 1920, Patriarch Tikhon issued an ukase (decree) that dioceses of the Church of Russia that were cut off from the governance of the highest Church authority (i.e. the Holy Synod and the Patriarch) should be managed independently until such time as normal relations with the highest Church authority could be resumed; and on this basis, the North American diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church (known as the "Metropolia '') continued to exist in a de facto autonomous mode of self - governance. The financial hardship that beset the North American diocese as the result of the Russian Revolution resulted in a degree of administrative chaos, with the result that other national Orthodox communities in North America turned to the churches in their respective homelands for pastoral care and governance.
A group of bishops who had left Russia in the wake of the Russian Civil War gathered in Sremski - Karlovci, which has been traditionally known as the seat of Serbian Orthodox Church in the Habsburg Monarchy, and in 1918 became part of Kingdom of Serbia, subsequently, in 1918, Yugoslavia, and adopted a pro-monarchist stand. The group further claimed to speak as a synod for the entire "free '' Russian church. This group, which to this day includes a sizable portion of the Russian emigration, was formally dissolved in 1922 by Patriarch Tikhon, who then appointed metropolitans Platon and Evlogy as ruling bishops in America and Europe, respectively. Both of these metropolitans continued to entertain relations intermittently with the synod in Karlovci.
Between the World Wars, the Metropolia coexisted and at times cooperated with an independent synod later known as Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR), sometimes also called the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad. The two groups eventually went their separate ways. ROCOR, which moved its headquarters to North America after the Second World War, claimed but failed to establish jurisdiction over all parishes of Russian origin in North America. The Metropolia, as a former diocese of the Russian Church, looked to the latter as its highest church authority, albeit one from which it was temporarily cut off under the conditions of the Communist regime in Russia.
After World War II, the Patriarchate of Moscow made unsuccessful attempts to regain control over these groups. After resuming communication with Moscow in early 1960s, and being granted autocephaly in 1970, the Metropolia became known as the Orthodox Church in America. However, recognition of this autocephalous status is not universal, as the Ecumenical Patriarch (under whom is the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America) and some other jurisdictions have not officially accepted it. The reasons for this are complex; nevertheless the Ecumenical Patriarch and the other jurisdictions remain in communion with the OCA. The Patriarchate of Moscow thereby renounced its former canonical claims in the United States and Canada; it also acknowledged an autonomous church established in Japan that same year.
Russia 's Church was devastated by the repercussions of the Bolshevik Revolution. One of its effects was a flood of refugees from Russia to the United States, Canada, and Europe. The Revolution of 1918 severed large sections of the Russian church -- dioceses in America, Japan, and Manchuria, as well as refugees in Europe -- from regular contacts with the main church.
Based on an ukase (decree) issued by Patriarch Tikhon, Holy Synod and Supreme Council of the Church stated that dioceses of the Church of Russia that were cut off from the governance of the highest Church authority (i.e. the Holy Synod and the Patriarch) should be managed independently until such time as normal relations with the highest Church authority could be resumed, the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia was established; by bishops who had left Russia in the wake of the Russian Civil War. They first met in Constantinople, and then moved to Sremski - Karlovci, Yugoslavia. After World War II, they moved their headquarters to Munich, and 1950 to New York City, New York, where it remains to this day.
On December 28, 2006, it was officially announced that the Act of Canonical Communion would finally be signed between the ROC and ROCOR. The signing took place on the May 17, 2007, followed immediately by a full restoration of communion with the Moscow Patriarchate, celebrated by a Divine Liturgy at the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow, at which the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia Alexius II and the First Hierarch of ROCOR concelebrated for the first time.
Under the Act, the ROCOR remains a self - governing entity within the Church of Russia. It is independent in its administrative, pastoral, and property matters. It continues to be governed by its Council of Bishops and its Synod, the Council 's permanent executive body. The First - Hierarch and bishops of the ROCOR are elected by its Council and confirmed by the Patriarch of Moscow. ROCOR bishops participate in the Council of Bishops of the entire Russian Church.
In response to the signing of the act of canonical communion, Bishop Agathangel (Pashkovsky) of Odessa and parishes and clergy in opposition to the Act broke communion with ROCOR, and established ROCA (A) Some others opposed to the Act have joined themselves to other Greek Old Calendarist groups.
Currently both the OCA and ROCOR, since 2007, are in communion with the ROC.
The Russian Orthodox Church has four levels of self - government.
In accordance with the practice of the Orthodox Church, a particular hero of faith can initially be canonized only at a local level within local churches and eparchies. Such rights belong to the ruling hierarch and it can only happen when the blessing of the patriarch is received. The task of believers of the local eparchy is to record descriptions of miracles, to create the hagiography of a saint, to paint an icon, as well as to compose a liturgical text of a service where the saint is canonized. All of this is sent to the Synodal Commission for canonization which decides whether to canonize the local hero of faith or not. Then the patriarch gives his blessing and the local hierarch performs the act of canonization at the local level. However, the liturgical texts in honor of a saint are not published in all Church books but only in local publications. In the same way these saints are not yet canonized and venerated by the whole Church, only locally. When the glorification of a saint exceeds the limits of an eparchy, then the patriarch and Holy Synod decides about their canonization on the Church level. After receiving the Synod 's support and the patriarch 's blessing, the question of glorification of a particular saint on the scale of the entire Church is given for consideration to the Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church.
In the period following the revolution, and during the communist persecutions up to 1970, no canonizations took place. Only in 1970 did the Holy Synod made a decision to canonize a missionary to Japan, Nicholas Kasatkin (1836 -- 1912). In 1977, St. Innocent of Moscow (1797 -- 1879), the Metropolitan of Siberia, the Far East, the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, and Moscow was also canonized. In 1978 it was proclaimed that the Russian Orthodox Church had created a prayer order for Meletius of Kharkov, which practically signified his canonization because that was the only possible way to do it at that time. Similarly, the saints of other Orthodox Churches were added to the Church calendar: in 1962 St. John the Russian, in 1970 St. Herman of Alaska, in 1993 Silouan the Athonite, the elder of Mount Athos, already canonized in 1987 by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. In the 1980s the Russian Orthodox Church re-established the process for canonization; a practice that had ceased for half a century.
In 1989, the Holy Synod established the Synodal Commission for canonization. The 1990 Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church gave an order for the Synodal Commission for Canonisation to prepare documents for canonization of new martyrs who had suffered from the 20th century Communist repressions. In 1991 it was decided that a local commission for canonization would be established in every eparchy which would gather the local documents and would send them to the Synodal Commission. Its task was to study the local archives, collect memories of believers, record all the miracles that are connected with addressing the martyrs. In 1992 the Church established 25 January as a day when it venerates the new 20th century martyrs of faith. The day was specifically chosen because on this day in 1918 the Metropolitan of Kiev Vladimir (Bogoyavlensky) was killed, thus becoming the first victim of communist terror among the hierarchs of the Church.
During the 2000 Council of the Russian Orthodox Church, the greatest general canonization in the history of the Orthodox Church took place: not only regarding the number of saints but also as in this canonization, all unknown saints were mentioned. There were 1,765 canonized saints known by name and others unknown by name but "known to God ''.
The use and making of icons entered Kievan Rus ' following its conversion to Orthodox Christianity in AD 988. As a general rule, these icons strictly followed models and formulas hallowed by Byzantine art, led from the capital in Constantinople. As time passed, the Russians widened the vocabulary of types and styles far beyond anything found elsewhere in the Orthodox world. Russian icons are typically paintings on wood, often small, though some in churches and monasteries may be much larger. Some Russian icons were made of copper. Many religious homes in Russia have icons hanging on the wall in the krasny ugol, the "red '' or "beautiful '' corner. There is a rich history and elaborate religious symbolism associated with icons. In Russian churches, the nave is typically separated from the sanctuary by an iconostasis (Russian ikonostas, иконостас), or icon - screen, a wall of icons with double doors in the centre. Russians sometimes speak of an icon as having been "written '', because in the Russian language (like Greek, but unlike English) the same word (pisat ', писать in Russian) means both to paint and to write. Icons are considered to be the Gospel in paint, and therefore careful attention is paid to ensure that the Gospel is faithfully and accurately conveyed. Icons considered miraculous were said to "appear. '' The "appearance '' (Russian: yavlenie, явление) of an icon is its supposedly miraculous discovery. "A true icon is one that has ' appeared ', a gift from above, one opening the way to the Prototype and able to perform miracles ''.
Bell ringing, which has a history in the Russian Orthodox tradition dating back to the baptism of Rus ', plays an important part in the traditions of the Russian Orthodox Church.
In May 2011, Hilarion Alfeyev, the Metropolitan of Volokolamsk and head of external relations for the Moscow Patriarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church, stated that Orthodox and Evangelical Christians share the same positions on "such issues as abortion, the family, and marriage '' and desire "vigorous grassroots engagement '' between the two Christian communions on such issues.
The Metropolitan also believes in the possibility of peaceful coexistence between Islam and Christianity because the two religions have never fought religious wars in Russia. Alfeyev stated that the Russian Orthodox Church "disagrees with atheist secularism in some areas very strongly '' and "believes that it destroys something very essential about human life. ''
Today the Russian Orthodox Church has ecclesiastical missions in Jerusalem and some other countries around the world.
The ROC is often said to be the largest of the Eastern Orthodox churches in the world. Including all the autocephalous churches under its supervision, its adherents number more than 150 million worldwide -- about half of the 300 million estimated adherents of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Among Christian churches, the Russian Orthodox Church is second only to the Roman Catholic Church in terms of numbers of followers. Within Russia the results of a 2007 VTsIOM poll indicated that about 75 % of the population considered themselves Orthodox Christians. Up to 65 % of ethnic Russians as well as Russian - speakers belonging to other ethnic groups from Russia (Ossetians, Caucasus Greeks etc.) and a similar percentage of Belarusians and Ukrainians identify themselves as "Orthodox ''. However, according to a poll published by the church related website Pravmir.com (ru) in December 2012, only 41 % of the Russian population identified itself with the Russian Orthodox Church. Pravmir.com also published a 2012 poll by the respected Levada organization VTsIOM indicating that 74 % of Russians considered themselves Orthodox.
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why is christ the redeemer statue a wonder | Christ the Redeemer (statue) - Wikipedia
Christ the Redeemer (Portuguese: Cristo Redentor, standard Brazilian Portuguese: (ˈkɾistu ʁedẽˈtoʁ), local pronunciation: (ˈkɾiɕtŭ̻ xe̞dẽ̞ˈtoɦ)) is an Art Deco statue of Jesus Christ in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, created by French sculptor Paul Landowski and built by Brazilian engineer Heitor da Silva Costa, in collaboration with French engineer Albert Caquot. Romanian sculptor Gheorghe Leonida fashioned the face. Constructed between 1922 and 1931, the statue is 30 metres (98 ft) high, excluding its 8 - metre (26 ft) pedestal. The arms stretch 28 metres (92 ft) wide.
The statue weighs 635 metric tons (625 long, 700 short tons), and is located at the peak of the 700 - metre (2,300 ft) Corcovado mountain in the Tijuca Forest National Park overlooking the city of Rio de Janeiro. A symbol of Christianity across the world, the statue has also become a cultural icon of both Rio de Janeiro and Brazil, and is listed as one of the New7Wonders of the World. It is made of reinforced concrete and soapstone.
Vincentian priest, Pedro Maria Boss, first suggested placing a Christian monument on Mount Corcovado in the mid 1850s to honor Princess Isabel, princess regent of Brazil and the daughter of Emperor Pedro II, but the project was not approved. In 1889 the country became a republic, and due to the separation of church and state, the proposed statue was dismissed.
The Catholic Circle of Rio made a second proposal for a landmark statue on the mountain in 1920. The group organized an event called Semana do Monumento ("Monument Week '') to attract donations and collect signatures to support the building of the statue. The organization was motivated by what they perceived as ' Godlessness ' in the society. The donations came mostly from Brazilian Catholics. The designs considered for the "Statue of the Christ '' included a representation of the Christian cross, a statue of Jesus with a globe in his hands, and a pedestal symbolizing the world. The statue of Christ the Redeemer with open arms, a symbol of peace, was chosen.
Local engineer Heitor da Silva Costa designed the statue. French sculptor Paul Landowski created the work.
In 1922, Landowski commissioned fellow Parisian Romanian sculptor Gheorghe Leonida, who studied sculpture at the Fine Arts Conservatory in Bucharest and in Italy.
A group of engineers and technicians studied Landowski 's submissions and felt building the structure of reinforced concrete (designed by Albert Caquot) instead of steel was more suitable for the cross-shaped statue. The concrete making up the base was supplied from Limhamn, Sweden. The outer layers are soapstone, chosen for its enduring qualities and ease of use. Construction took nine years, from 1922 to 1931 and cost the equivalent of US $250,000 (equivalent to $3,400,000 in 2017) and the monument opened on October 12, 1931. During the opening ceremony, the statue was to be lit by a battery of floodlights turned on remotely by Italian shortwave radio inventor Guglielmo Marconi, stationed 5,700 miles (9,200 km) away in Rome but because of bad weather, the lights were activated on - site.
In October 2006, on the 75th anniversary of the statue 's completion, Archbishop of Rio, Cardinal Eusebio Oscar Scheid, consecrated a chapel, named after Brazil 's patron saint -- Our Lady of the Apparition, under the statue, allowing Catholics to hold baptisms and weddings there.
Lightning struck the statue during a violent thunderstorm on February 10, 2008, causing some damage to the fingers, head and eyebrows. The Rio de Janeiro state government initiated a restoration effort to replace some of the outer soapstone layers and repair the lightning rods on the statue. Lightning damaged it again, on January 17, 2014, dislodging a finger on the right hand.
In 2010, a massive restoration of the statue began. Work included cleaning, replacing the mortar and soapstone on the exterior, restoring iron in the internal structure, and waterproofing the monument. Vandals attacked the statue during renovation, spraying paint along the arm. Mayor Eduardo Paes called the act "a crime against the nation ''. The culprits later apologized and presented themselves to the police.
In reference to Brazil striker Ronaldo 's usual goal celebration of both arms outstretched, the Pirelli tyre company ran a 1998 commercial in which he replaced the statue while in an Inter Milan strip. The commercial was controversial with the Catholic Church. In 2015 two Russian and Ukrainian urban explorers, Vadim Makhorov and Vitaly Raskalov from Ontheroofs, climbed the statue with captured video footage and photos.
In 1990, several organizations, including the Archdiocese of Rio de Janeiro, media company Grupo Globo, oil company Shell do Brasil, environmental regulator IBAMA, National Institute of Historic and Artistic Heritage, and the city government of Rio de Janeiro entered an agreement to conduct restoration work.
More work on the statue and its environs was conducted in 2003 and early 2010. In 2003, a set of escalators, walkways, and elevators were installed to facilitate access to the platform surrounding the statue. The four - month restoration in 2010 focused on the statue itself. The statue 's internal structure was renovated and its soapstone mosaic covering was restored by removing a crust of fungi and other microorganisms and repairing small cracks. The lightning rods located in the statue 's head and arms were also repaired, and new lighting fixtures were installed at the foot of the statue.
The restoration involved one hundred people and used more than 60,000 pieces of stone taken from the same quarry as the original statue. During the unveiling of the restored statue, it was illuminated with green - and - yellow lighting in support of the Brazil national football team playing in the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
Maintenance work needs to be conducted periodically due to the strong winds and erosion to which the statue is exposed, as well as lightning strikes. The original pale stone is no longer available in sufficient quantities, and replacement stones are increasingly darker in hue.
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death cab for cutie will follow you into the dark | I Will Follow You into the Dark - wikipedia
"I Will Follow You into the Dark '' is a song by indie rock band Death Cab for Cutie, the third single from their fifth album Plans, released on August 30, 2005.
Written and performed by Ben Gibbard, it is an acoustic solo ballad, and was recorded in monaural with a single microphone and little editing.
The single was released on Atlantic Records, becoming one of Death Cab for Cutie 's lowest - charting singles, peaking number 28 on the Modern Rock Tracks, number 66 on the UK Singles Chart and failing to chart on the Billboard Hot 100; however, "I Will Follow You into the Dark '' was certified as gold by the Recording Industry Association of America, and is the band 's best - selling single to - date. Despite charting lower than other singles, the single is still one of the band 's most played songs on commercial radio stations. The song 's popularity has led it to be featured in a various television shows and movies, and has been covered by numerous artists.
The song was written entirely by Death Cab for Cutie 's lead singer and guitarist Ben Gibbard.
Nearing age 29, Gibbard had never lost anyone really special in his life. Growing older during an ideal and comfortable time of his life led him to begin obsessing over death, the afterlife, and the weight of his relationships. He started to take stock of the importance of the people in his life and felt a need to say something about it, writing the song to deal with his problems of focusing on life by expanding his scope to include death and what comes afterward.
"It 's just this idea that what if somebody dies and we 're just floating, just stumbling around in infinite darkness, and I 'm just trying to find some kind of spiritual kind of peace with myself, and the world. ''
Originally planned to be recorded later in the sessions for Plans, technical issues arose with one set of headphones while tracking the vocals for a different song. Producer and guitarist Chris Walla told Gibbard to take a break while the issues were being addressed. Gibbard picked up his guitar and began playing "I Will Follow You into the Dark '', which was still going through the vocal microphone. Walla was impressed by the sound, leading him to suggest they do a quick tracking of the performance. It was this mono recording, with the only editing being mild compression and de-essing, that was eventually featured on the album and released as a single. Due to the impromptu nature of the recording, the vocals on the track are mixed louder than the guitar, and Gibbard 's breathing can be heard at the start of the song.
Two music videos were created for "I Will Follow You into the Dark '':
The main music video, filmed in Romania and directed by Jamie Thraves, features Ben Gibbard in a small sparsely decorated apartment, playing the song while sitting on his bed when he notices a hole in the wooden floor. Gibbard goes about daily activities while avoiding the constantly expanding hole, eventually rolling out of bed into it, hanging on by his fingertips. He finally lets go, only to land unharmed on solid ground within the void about as deep as his height. The song ends with Gibbard walking into the darkness, then pans to show the entire room again with the floor restored to its original, intact state.
An alternative video, directed by Monkmus, appears on the Death Cab for Cutie 's DVD Directions: The Plans Video Album. In this video, a picture - book takes up the center of the video frame, and the pages turn as the song progresses. Within the book, two rabbits meet and fall in love. Time passes until one of the rabbits apparently dies. There are other references to death throughout the video, such as a rotten bowl of fruit and an elderly man who appears to die, leaving his grandson behind. The video ends with a picture of the two rabbits together, presumably in eternal happiness together.
"I Will Follow You into the Dark '' has two separate United Kingdom - exclusive, colored vinyl 7 '' releases with B - sides recorded as part of the band 's Rolling Stone originals session. The part - one release is printed on teal vinyl with "Photobooth '' from The Forbidden Love EP as the B - side, and the part - two release is printed on clear orange vinyl with a B - side of "Brothers on a Hotel Bed ''. The CD single was also only released in the UK and contains the same "Brothers on a Hotel Bed '' B - side.
Critical response to "I Will Follow You into the Dark '' was generally positive. In their reviews for the album Plans, Robert Christgau selected the song as his "choice cut '', Pitchfork Media called it the album 's "quiet centerpiece '' and praised its "unexpected turns of phrase '', PopMatters called it "one of the best written pop songs of the year -- if not of the past five years '', and Tiny Mix Tapes stated that it was "one of the band 's best songs to date. '' Rolling Stone however, said that the song "demonstrates how wise Gibbard is to let the band mess with his pristine melodies, which would sound wispy and ignorable on their own. ''
The song was nominated for the 2007 Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals, but lost to "My Humps '' by The Black Eyed Peas. By being nominated in this category, instead of for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance, it credited the entire band for Gibbard 's solo performance.
The song achieved gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America in December 2009, for over 500,000 sales. "I Will Follow You into the Dark '' became Death Cab for Cutie 's best - selling single to date, and their overall second best - selling release after the album Plans itself.
"I Will Follow You into the Dark '' was featured on the soundtrack of the 2007 film The Invisible, a remake of the 2002 Swedish film Den Osynlige. In 2008 it was featured in the television series 90210, in the episode "That Which We Destroy ''. The song was featured in the sitcom Scrubs, in the season eight episode entitled "My Last Words '', first broadcast in January 2009. The same year it was also the title of an episode of Grey 's Anatomy in the fifth season, originally airing in March 2009. It was used in the 2011 Nikita episode "Into the Dark '' (of which it was also the namesake), and was also used in the film Friends With Benefits the same year. An instrumental version of the song was featured in the 2011 film Crazy, Stupid, Love. The song was also used for the end credits of Mike Birbiglia 's Netflix comedy special My Girlfriend 's Boyfriend.
The 2012 film Into the Dark, originally titled I Will Follow You Into the Dark, derives its name from the song.
The book series, "ghostgirl '', references the song in the books.
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the main intention of the fairness doctrine was to | FCC Fairness Doctrine - wikipedia
The fairness doctrine of the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC), introduced in 1949, was a policy that required the holders of broadcast licenses both to present controversial issues of public importance and to do so in a manner that was -- in the FCC 's view -- honest, equitable, and balanced. The FCC eliminated the policy in 1987 and removed the rule that implemented the policy from the Federal Register in August 2011.
The fairness doctrine had two basic elements: It required broadcasters to devote some of their airtime to discussing controversial matters of public interest, and to air contrasting views regarding those matters. Stations were given wide latitude as to how to provide contrasting views: It could be done through news segments, public affairs shows, or editorials. The doctrine did not require equal time for opposing views but required that contrasting viewpoints be presented. The demise of this FCC rule has been considered by some to be a contributing factor for the rising level of party polarization in the United States.
The main agenda for the doctrine was to ensure that viewers were exposed to a diversity of viewpoints. In 1969 the United States Supreme Court upheld the FCC 's general right to enforce the fairness doctrine where channels were limited. But the courts did not rule that the FCC was obliged to do so. The courts reasoned that the scarcity of the broadcast spectrum, which limited the opportunity for access to the airwaves, created a need for the doctrine.
The fairness doctrine is not the same as the equal - time rule. The fairness doctrine deals with discussion of controversial issues, while the equal - time rule deals only with political candidates.
In 1938, a former Yankee Network employee named Lawrence J. Flynn challenged the license of John Shepard III 's WAAB in Boston, and also lodged a complaint about WNAC. Flynn asserted that these stations were being used to air one - sided political viewpoints and broadcast attacks (including editorials) against local (and federal) politicians that Shepard opposed. The FCC requested that Shepard provide details about these programs, and to appease the commission, the Yankee Network agreed to drop the editorials. But Flynn created a company called Mayflower Broadcasting and tried to get the FCC to award him WAAB 's license; however, the FCC refused. Instead, in 1941, the commission made a ruling that came to be known as the Mayflower Decision which declared that radio stations, due to their public interest obligations, must remain neutral in matters of news and politics, and they were not allowed to give editorial support to any particular political position or candidate.
In 1949, the Mayflower Doctrine, which had forbidden editorializing on the radio since 1941, was repealed. This made way for the Fairness Doctrine. The 1949 FCC Commission Report served as the foundation for the Fairness Doctrine. It established two forms of regulation on broadcasters: to provide adequate coverage of public issues, and to ensure that coverage fairly represented opposing views. The second rule required broadcasters to provide reply time to issue - oriented citizens. Broadcasters could therefore trigger Fairness Doctrine complaints without editorializing. The commission required neither of the Fairness Doctrine 's obligations before 1949. Until then broadcasters had to satisfy only general "public interest '' standards of the Communications Act.
The doctrine remained a matter of general policy and was applied on a case - by - case basis until 1967, when certain provisions of the doctrine were incorporated into FCC regulations.
In a 1969 textbook case, the United States courts of appeals, in an opinion written by Warren Burger, directed the FCC to revoke Lamar Broadcasting 's licence for television station WLBT due to the station 's segregationist politics and ongoing censorship of NBC network news coverage of the US civil rights movement.
In 1974, the Federal Communications Commission stated that the Congress had delegated it the power to mandate a system of "access, either free or paid, for person or groups wishing to express a viewpoint on a controversial public issue... '' but that it had not yet exercised that power because licensed broadcasters had "voluntarily '' complied with the "spirit '' of the doctrine. It warned that:
In one landmark case, the FCC argued that teletext was a new technology that created soaring demand for a limited resource, and thus could be exempt from the fairness doctrine. The Telecommunications Research and Action Center (TRAC) and Media Access Project (MAP) argued that teletext transmissions should be regulated like any other airwave technology, hence the Fairness Doctrine was applicable (and must be enforced by the FCC). In 1986, Judges Robert Bork and Antonin Scalia of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit concluded that the Fairness Doctrine did apply to teletext but that the FCC was not required to apply it. In a 1987 case, Meredith Corp. v. FCC, two other judges on the same court declared that Congress did not mandate the doctrine and the FCC did not have to continue to enforce it.
In Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. FCC, 395 U.S. 367 (1969), the U.S. Supreme Court upheld (by a vote of 8 - 0) the constitutionality of the fairness doctrine in a case of an on - air personal attack, in response to challenges that the doctrine violated the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The case began when journalist Fred J. Cook, after the publication of his Goldwater: Extremist of the Right, was the topic of discussion by Billy James Hargis on his daily Christian Crusade radio broadcast on WGCB in Red Lion, Pennsylvania. Mr. Cook sued arguing that the fairness doctrine entitled him to free air time to respond to the personal attacks.
Although similar laws are unconstitutional when applied to the press, the Court cited a Senate report (S. Rep. No. 562, 86th Cong., 1st Sess., 8 - 9 (1959)) stating that radio stations could be regulated in this way because of the limited public airwaves at the time. Writing for the Court, Justice Byron White declared:
The Court warned that if the doctrine ever restrained speech, then its constitutionality should be reconsidered.
However, in the case of Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo, 418 U.S. 241 (1974), Chief Justice Warren Burger wrote (for a unanimous court):
This decision differs from Red Lion v. FCC in that it applies to a newspaper, which, unlike a broadcaster, is unlicensed and can theoretically face an unlimited number of competitors.
In 1984, the Supreme Court ruled that Congress could not forbid editorials by non-profit stations that received grants from the Corporation for Public Broadcasting (FCC v. League of Women Voters of California, 468 U.S. 364 (1984)). The Court 's 5 - 4 majority decision by William J. Brennan, Jr. stated that while many now considered that expanding sources of communication had made the fairness doctrine 's limits unnecessary:
After noting that the FCC was considering repealing the fairness doctrine rules on editorials and personal attacks out of fear that those rules might be "chilling speech '', the Court added:
In 1985, under FCC Chairman Mark S. Fowler, a communications attorney who had served on Ronald Reagan 's presidential campaign staff in 1976 and 1980, the FCC released a report stating that the doctrine hurt the public interest and violated free speech rights guaranteed by the First Amendment.
In 1986, the 99th Congress directed the FCC to examine alternatives to the Fairness Doctrine and to submit a report to Congress on the subject.
In August 1987, under FCC Chairman Dennis R. Patrick, the FCC abolished the doctrine by a 4 - 0 vote, in the Syracuse Peace Council decision, which was upheld by a panel of the Appeals Court for the D.C. Circuit in February 1989, though the Court stated in their decision that they made "that determination without reaching the constitutional issue. '' The FCC suggested in Syracuse Peace Council that because of the many media voices in the marketplace, the doctrine be deemed unconstitutional, stating that:
At the 4 - 0 vote, Chairman Patrick said,
Sitting commissioners at the time of the vote were:
Dennis R. Patrick, Chairman, Republican (Named a FCC commissioner by Ronald Reagan in 1983)
Mimi Weyforth Dawson, Republican (Named a FCC commissioner by Ronald Reagan in 1986)
Patricia Diaz Dennis, Democrat (Named a FCC commissioner by Ronald Reagan in 1986)
James H. Quello, Democrat (Named a FCC commissioner by Richard M. Nixon in 1974)
The FCC vote was opposed by members of Congress who said the FCC had tried to "flout the will of Congress '' and the decision was "wrongheaded, misguided and illogical. ''. The decision drew political fire and tangling, where cooperation with Congress was at issue. In June 1987, Congress attempted to preempt the FCC decision and codify the Fairness Doctrine, but the legislation was vetoed by President Ronald Reagan. Another attempt to revive the doctrine in 1991 was stopped when President George H.W. Bush threatened another veto.
Fowler said in February 2009 that his work toward revoking the Fairness Doctrine under the Reagan Administration had been a matter of principle (his belief that the Doctrine impinged upon the First Amendment), not partisanship. Fowler described the White House staff raising concerns, at a time before the prominence of conservative talk radio and during the preeminence of the Big Three television networks and PBS in political discourse, that repealing the policy would be politically unwise. He described the staff 's position as saying to Reagan:
Instead, Reagan supported the effort and later vetoed the Democratic - controlled Congress 's effort to make the doctrine law.
Two corollary rules of the doctrine, the personal attack rule and the "political editorial '' rule, remained in practice until 2000. The "personal attack '' rule applied whenever a person (or small group) was subject to a personal attack during a broadcast. Stations had to notify such persons (or groups) within a week of the attack, send them transcripts of what was said and offer the opportunity to respond on - the - air. The "political editorial '' rule applied when a station broadcast editorials endorsing or opposing candidates for public office, and stipulated that the unendorsed candidates be notified and allowed a reasonable opportunity to respond.
The U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit ordered the FCC to justify these corollary rules in light of the decision to repeal the Fairness Doctrine. The FCC did not provide prompt justification so both corollary rules were repealed in October 2000.
In February 2005, U.S. Representative Louise Slaughter (D - NY) and 23 co-sponsors introduced the Fairness and Accountability in Broadcasting Act (H.R. 501) in the 1st Session of the 109th Congress of 2005 - 7 (when Republicans held a majority of both Houses). The bill would have shortened a station 's license term from eight years to four, with the requirement that a license - holder cover important issues fairly, hold local public hearings about its coverage twice a year, and document to the FCC how it was meeting its obligations. The bill was referred to committee, but progressed no further.
In the same Congress, Representative Maurice Hinchey (D - NY) introduced legislation "to restore the Fairness Doctrine ''. H.R. 3302, also known as the "Media Ownership Reform Act of 2005 '' or MORA, had 16 co-sponsors in Congress.
In June 2007, Senator Richard Durbin (D - IL) said, "It 's time to reinstitute the Fairness Doctrine, '' an opinion shared by his Democratic colleague, Senator John Kerry (D - MA). However, according to Marin Cogan of The New Republic in late 2008:
On June 24, 2008, U.S. Representative Nancy Pelosi (D - CA), the Speaker of the House at the time, told reporters that her fellow Democratic Representatives did not want to forbid reintroduction of the Fairness Doctrine, adding "the interest in my caucus is the reverse. '' When asked by John Gizzi of Human Events, "Do you personally support revival of the ' Fairness Doctrine? ' '', the Speaker replied "Yes. '' On October 22, 2008, Senator Jeff Bingaman (D - NM) told a conservative talk radio host in Albuquerque, New Mexico:
On December 15, 2008, U.S. Representative Anna Eshoo (D - CA) told The Daily Post in Palo Alto, California that she thought it should also apply to cable and satellite broadcasters.
On February 11, 2009, Senator Tom Harkin (D - Iowa) told Press, "... we got ta get the Fairness Doctrine back in law again. '' Later in response to Press 's assertion that "... they are just shutting down progressive talk from one city after another, '' Senator Harkin responded, "Exactly, and that 's why we need the fair -- that 's why we need the Fairness Doctrine back. '' Former President Bill Clinton has also shown support for the Fairness Doctrine. During a February 13, 2009, appearance on the Mario Solis Marich radio show, Clinton said:
Clinton cited the "blatant drumbeat '' against the stimulus program from conservative talk radio, suggesting that it does n't reflect economic reality.
The Fairness Doctrine has been strongly opposed by prominent conservatives and libertarians who view it as an attack on First Amendment rights and property rights. Editorials in The Wall Street Journal and The Washington Times in 2005 and 2008 said that Democratic attempts to bring back the Fairness Doctrine have been made largely in response to conservative talk radio.
In 1987, Edward O. Fritts, president of the National Association of Broadcasters, in applauding President Reagan 's veto of a bill intended to turn the doctrine into law, said that the doctrine is an infringement on free speech and intrudes on broadcasters ' journalistic judgment.
In 2007, Senator Norm Coleman (R - MN) proposed an amendment to a defense appropriations bill that forbade the FCC from "using any funds to adopt a fairness rule. '' It was blocked, in part on grounds that "the amendment belonged in the Commerce Committee 's jurisdiction ''.
In the same year, the Broadcaster Freedom Act of 2007 was proposed in the Senate by Senators Coleman with 35 co-sponsors (S. 1748) and John Thune (R - SD) with 8 co-sponsors (S. 1742) and in the House by Republican Representative Mike Pence (R - IN) with 208 co-sponsors (H.R. 2905). It provided that:
Neither of these measures came to the floor of either house.
On August 12, 2008, FCC Commissioner Robert M. McDowell stated that the reinstitution of the Fairness Doctrine could be intertwined with the debate over network neutrality (a proposal to classify network operators as common carriers required to admit all Internet services, applications and devices on equal terms), presenting a potential danger that net neutrality and Fairness Doctrine advocates could try to expand content controls to the Internet. It could also include "government dictating content policy ''. The conservative Media Research Center 's Culture & Media Institute argued that the three main points supporting the Fairness Doctrine -- media scarcity, liberal viewpoints being censored at a corporate level, and public interest -- are all myths.
In June 2008, Barack Obama 's press secretary wrote that Obama (then a Democratic U.S. Senator from Illinois and candidate for President):
On February 16, 2009, Mark Fowler said:
In February 2009, a White House spokesperson said that President Obama continues to oppose the revival of the Doctrine.
In the 111th Congress (January 2009 to January 2011), the Broadcaster Freedom Act of 2009 (S. 34, S. 62, H.R. 226) was introduced to block reinstatement of the Doctrine. On February 26, 2009, by a vote of 87 - 11, the Senate added that act as an amendment to the District of Columbia House Voting Rights Act of 2009 (S. 160), (a bill which later passed the Senate 61 - 37, but not the House of Representatives). The Associated Press reported that the vote on the Fairness Doctrine rider was:
The AP report went on to say that President Obama had no intention of reimposing the doctrine, but Republicans (led by Sen. Jim DeMint, R - SC) wanted more in the way of a guarantee that the doctrine would not be reimposed.
Media reform organizations such as Free Press feel that a return to the Fairness Doctrine is not as important as setting stronger station ownership caps and stronger "public interest '' standards enforcement (with funding from fines given to public broadcasting).
Under the Fair Packaging and Labeling Act, the FTC requires that all ' consumer commodities ' bear a label with an accurate ' statement identifying the commodity '. If revenue - generating commercial broadcasts (whether by radio, tv, or internet) are a ' consumer commodity ', then they must be accurately labeled. That would seem to preclude ' News ' that is not genuine, ' Opinion ' that is not the author 's actual opinion, or ' Analysis ' that is not at least arguably analytical. Note that in general the FTC only has authority over commercial aspects (pertaining to revenue) rather than speech.
In an August 13, 2008 telephone poll released by Rasmussen Reports, 47 % of 1,000 likely voters supported a government requirement that broadcasters offer equal amounts of liberal and conservative commentary, while 39 % opposed such a requirement. In the same poll, 57 % opposed and 31 % favored requiring Internet websites and bloggers that offer political commentary to present opposing points of view. By a margin of 71 % - 20 % the respondents agreed that it is "possible for just about any political view to be heard in today 's media '' (including the Internet, newspapers, cable TV and satellite radio), but only half the sample said they had followed recent news stories about the Fairness Doctrine closely. (The margin of error was 3 %, with a 95 % confidence interval.)
In June 2011, the Chairman and a subcommittee chairman of the House Energy and Commerce Committee, both Republicans, said that the FCC, in response to their requests, had set a target date of August 2011 for removing the Fairness Doctrine and other "outdated '' regulations from the FCC 's rulebook.
On August 22, 2011, the FCC voted to remove the rule that implemented the Fairness Doctrine, along with more than 80 other rules and regulations, from the Federal Register following an executive order by President Obama directing a "government - wide review of regulations already on the books '' to eliminate unnecessary regulations.
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who sings can't you see what that woman's been doing to me | Ca n't You See (the Marshall Tucker Band song) - wikipedia
"Ca n't You See '' is a song written by Toy Caldwell of The Marshall Tucker Band. The song was originally recorded by the band on their 1973 debut album, The Marshall Tucker Band, and released as the album 's first single. It was re-released in 1977 and peaked at number 75 on the Billboard Hot 100. Cover versions of "Ca n't You See '' have charted for Waylon Jennings (in 1976) and the Zac Brown Band with Kid Rock (2010).
The song is featured in the 2001 films Blow and Scotland, PA, the 2008 Joshua Michael Stern film Swing Vote, and at least two commercials: one for Busch Beer (2011) and one for tourism in Gatlinburg, Tennessee (2012).
A live version is included as the final track on the band 's 1975 album, Searchin ' for a Rainbow.
The original recording is noted for its flute introduction and ending, both by Jerry Eubanks.
The song, musically, is a cross between country rock and Southern rock.
The lyrics are noted as being dark, reflecting heartache and "a man running as far away as he can to begin the process of healing himself ''.
"Ca n't You See '' was covered by American country music artist Waylon Jennings for his 1976 album Are You Ready for the Country. Jennings ' version was released as the album 's first single in July 1976 and peaked at number 4 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart. It also reached number 1 on the RPM Country Tracks chart in Canada.
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who sings this is what dreams are made of | The Lizzie McGuire Movie - wikipedia
The Lizzie McGuire Movie is a 2003 American teen comedy film released by Walt Disney Pictures on May 2, 2003. The film serves as the finale of the Disney Channel television series of the same name, and was the first theatrical film based on a Disney Channel series. The film stars Hilary Duff, Adam Lamberg, Robert Carradine, Hallie Todd and Jake Thomas, and tells the story of Lizzie 's graduation trip to Rome. At its release, the film peaked at number two at the domestic box office behind X2: X-Men United. The Lizzie McGuire Movie was released on August 12, 2003 on VHS and DVD. The Lizzie McGuire Movie was directed by Jim Fall.
The film begins as Lizzie McGuire prepares for her junior - high graduation with one of her two closest friends, David "Gordo '' Gordon. Her other best friend, Miranda, has chosen to skip the graduation ceremony in favor of a trip to Mexico City to visit relatives. During the ceremony, Lizzie trips onstage and accidentally brings the curtain down on her fellow graduates; this causes her to be teased by her ex-best friend, Kate Sanders, and her younger brother Matt. After graduation, Lizzie and her class embark on a trip to Rome, Italy, chaperoned by their future high school principal, the stern Angela Ungermeyer. To their dismay, Lizzie and Kate are assigned to the same hotel room.
Their class visits the Trevi Fountain, where Lizzie is approached by an Italian pop star named Paolo who mistakes her for his singing partner, Isabella. Paolo asks Lizzie to meet him at the fountain the next day, and she feigns illness to sneak away. He explains that he and Isabella are booked for the Italian Music Awards, but she left Italy after their breakup. Paolo tells Lizzie that Isabella lip syncs, and begs her to pose as Isabella for the concert. She reluctantly agrees, and begins to enjoy the designer clothes, dance rehearsals, and adoration from fans.
Lizzie continues to fake being ill to prepare for the concert, but Kate quickly figures out her secret. To Lizzie 's surprise, Kate agrees to help her and the two become friends again. Lizzie begins to fall in love with Paolo, to Gordo 's dismay. Ethan suspects Gordo is jealous of Paolo, though he insists otherwise. Meanwhile, Ms. Ungermeyer interrogates the students to learn who has been sneaking out. Gordo takes the blame, and is sent back home as punishment. Lizzie is shocked when Kate says that Gordo sacrificed himself to protect her.
At the airport Gordo meets Isabella, who has returned for the concert and is upset to hear that Lizzie is impersonating her. She and Gordo realize that Paolo is planning to cut Lizzie 's microphone at the concert, demonstrating to the crowd that Isabella is a fake. Paolo 's plan is to ruin Isabella 's career and embarrass Lizzie. Gordo and Isabella rush to the concert to stop him. Back home, Matt browses the Internet and finds Italian gossip sites with pictures of Lizzie as Isabella. When he tells his parents, the family flies to Rome to stop Lizzie and bring her home. Ms. Ungermeyer realizes that Lizzie is missing again, and Ethan accidentally reveals that she is at the Italian Music Awards. The class rushes to the concert to find Lizzie. Gordo and Isabella find her backstage preparing for the show, and warn her about Paolo 's scheme. Lizzie refuses to believe them at first, but Isabella insists that Gordo can be trusted and Paolo is using her.
During the performance Isabella and Gordo expose Paolo by turning on his microphone, revealing his real voice. Embarrassed, Paolo runs off and is ambushed outside by paparazzi. His bodyguard, Sergei, tells him it is time to face reality and quits. Sergei flirts with Ms. Ungermeyer, who has gotten the class and Lizzie 's family into the concert by beating up the bouncers. Isabella introduces Lizzie to the crowd, and has her sing "What Dreams Are Made Of ''. As a singer, Lizzie gains a newfound confidence. Later, they celebrate at the hotel 's after party. Ms. Ungermeyer rescinds Gordo 's punishment, and Lizzie 's parents, despite being proud of Lizzie, tell her she is grounded for the rest of the summer. Lizzie and Gordo sneak away from the party to go up to the roof. They promise to never let things change between them. The two kiss and rejoin the party.
Credits adapted from The New York Times.
The film, produced by Stan Rogow, was directed by Jim Fall from a screenplay by Susan Estelle Jansen, Ed Decter and John J. Strauss and filmed on location in Rome, Italy in the fall of 2002. All the series characters reprised their roles except for Lalaine (Miranda Sanchez), who left the series late in the second season to film the Disney Channel original movie You Wish! Her character was said to be on vacation with her family in Mexico City.
The film had a mixed critical reception based on 96 reviews on Rotten Tomatoes, giving a 40 % overall approval rating. The site 's consensus stated it was a "harmless piece of fluff that ought to satisfy fans of the TV show ''. Scott Brown of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B+: "Let 's face it: Lizzie McGuire (Hilary Duff) is just too darn polished to be a junior - high underdog, even by the standards of her ' luxe suburban environs '. But that has n't tarnished her comeback - kid cred among the six - and - ups who faithfully follow her Disney Channel show -- and it does n't make The Lizzie McGuire Movie, a clever, agreeably weightless theatrical outing, any less enjoyable. '' Conversely, Roger Ebert gave the film two stars out of four, but praised Borstein 's performance, calling her work "the only really delightful element in the movie; everything else is simply slick and professional. ''
In its opening weekend the film grossed $17,338,755 in 2,825 theaters in the United States and Canada, ranking second behind X2: X-Men United. By the end of its run, The Lizzie McGuire Movie grossed $42,734,455 domestically and $12,800,000 internationally for a worldwide total of $55,534,455.
The Lizzie McGuire Movie 's soundtrack was released on April 22, 2003. It is composed primarily of songs from (or inspired by) the film, including Hilary Duff 's "Why Not '' and her sister Haylie 's "Girl in the Band ''. "Why Not '' was released as a single outside the United States on June 23, 2003 and later included on Hilary Duff 's second album, Metamorphosis (with different lyrics in the first verse). The album has been certified platinum by the CRIA, and 2x platinum by the RIAA for selling 2,000,000 copies in the U.S.
The final song ' what dreams are made of ' increased in popularity in 2003 when Carla Callow performed a cover of the duet as a solo act. Originally only meant for her close friends Holly and Brittany, the cover gained a major following around the world. Sadly, Carla did not get to perform this song at Hilliards talent show. In a controversial move, the group went with ABBA 's mama mia and came 3rd overall. It has been widely speculated that if Carla went in as a solo act to perform the duet she would have won convincingly. There is rumor that Carla may hold a one off benefit concert in the near future that will include many duets performed by her only.
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how old was elijah when he died in the bible | Elijah - wikipedia
Elijah (/ ɪˈlaɪdʒə /; ih - LY - jə; Hebrew: אֱלִיָּהוּ , Eliyahu, meaning "My God is Yahu / Jah '') or latinized form Elias (/ ɪˈlaɪəs / ih - LY - əs; Greek: Ἡλίας, Elías; Syriac: ܐܸܠܝܼܵܐ , Elyāe; Arabic: إلياس or إليا, Ilyās or Ilyā) was, according to the Books of Kings in the Hebrew Bible, a prophet and a miracle worker who lived in the northern kingdom of Israel during the reign of King Ahab (9th century BC). In 1 Kings 18, Elijah defended the worship of the Jewish God over that of the Canaanite deity Baal. God also performed many miracles through Elijah, including resurrection (raising the dead), bringing fire down from the sky, and entering Heaven alive "by fire ''. He is also portrayed as leading a school of prophets known as "the sons of the prophets ''. Following his ascension, Elisha his disciple and most devoted assistant took over his role as leader of this school. The Book of Malachi prophesies Elijah 's return "before the coming of the great and terrible day of the LORD '', making him a harbinger of the Messiah and of the eschaton in various faiths that revere the Hebrew Bible. References to Elijah appear in Ecclesiasticus, the New Testament, the Mishnah and Talmud, the Quran, the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants, and Bahá'í writings.
In Judaism, Elijah 's name is invoked at the weekly Havdalah ritual that marks the end of Shabbat, and Elijah is invoked in other Jewish customs, among them the Passover Seder and the brit milah (ritual circumcision). He appears in numerous stories and references in the Haggadah and rabbinic literature, including the Babylonian Talmud.
The Christian New Testament notes that some people thought that Jesus was, in some sense, Elijah. But Jesus makes it clear that John the Baptist is "the Elijah '' who was promised to come in Malachi 3: 23 in the Septuagint. (Malachi 4: 5) Elijah appears with Moses during the Transfiguration of Jesus. Elijah is also a figure in various Christian folk traditions, at times identified with earlier pagan thunder or sky gods.
In Islam, Elijah appears in the Quran as a prophet and messenger of God, where his biblical narrative of preaching against the worshipers of Baal is recounted in a concise form. Due to his importance to Muslims, Catholics and Orthodox Christians, Elijah has been venerated as the patron saint of Bosnia and Herzegovina since 1752.
According to the Bible, by the 9th century BC, the Kingdom of Israel, once united under Solomon, was divided into the northern Kingdom of Israel and southern Kingdom of Judah, which retained the historical capital of Jerusalem along with its Temple. However, scholars today are divided as to whether the united Kingdom under Solomon ever existed. Omri, King of Israel, continued policies dating from the reign of Jeroboam, contrary to religious law, that were intended to reorient religious focus away from Jerusalem: encouraging the building of local temple altars for sacrifices, appointing priests from outside the family of the Levites, and allowing or encouraging temples dedicated to Baal, an important deity in ancient Canaanite religion. Omri achieved domestic security with a marriage alliance between his son Ahab and princess Jezebel, a priestess of Baal and the daughter of the king of Sidon in Phoenicia. These solutions brought security and economic prosperity to Israel for a time, but did not bring peace with the Israelite prophets, who were interested in a strict deuteronomic interpretation of the religious law.
Under Ahab 's kingship, these tensions were exacerbated. Ahab built a temple for Baal, and his wife Jezebel brought a large entourage of priests and prophets of Baal and Asherah into the country. It is in this context that Elijah is introduced in 1 Kings 17: 1 as Elijah "the Tishbite ''. He warns Ahab that there will be years of catastrophic drought so severe that not even dew will form, because Ahab and his queen stand at the end of a line of kings of Israel who are said to have "done evil in the sight of the Lord. ''
No background for the person of Elijah is given except for his brief description as being a "Tishbite. '' His name in Hebrew means "My God is Yahweh '', and may be a title applied to him because of his challenge to worship of Baal.
As told in the Hebrew Bible, Elijah 's challenge is bold and direct. Baal was the Canaanite god responsible for rain, thunder, lightning, and dew. Elijah not only challenges Baal on behalf of God himself, but he also challenges Jezebel, her priests, Ahab and the people of Israel.
After Elijah 's confrontation with Ahab, God tells him to flee out of Israel, to a hiding place by the brook Chorath, east of the Jordan, where he will be fed by ravens. When the brook dries up, God sends him to a widow living in the town of Zarephath in Phoenicia. When Elijah finds her and asks to be fed, she says that she does not have sufficient food to keep her and her own son alive. Elijah tells her that God will not allow her supply of flour or oil to run out, saying, "Do not be afraid... For thus says the Lord the God of Israel: The jar of meal will not be emptied and the jug of oil will not fail until the day that the Lord sends rain on the earth. '' She feeds him the last of their food, and Elijah 's promise miraculously comes true. God gave her "manna '' from heaven even while he was withholding food from his unfaithful people in the promised land. Some time later the widow 's son dies and the widow cries, "You have come to me to bring my sin to remembrance, and to cause the death of my son! '' Elijah prays that God might restore her son so that the trustworthiness of God 's word might be demonstrated. 1 Kings 17: 22 relates how God "listened to the voice of Elijah; the life of the child came into him again, and he revived. '' This is the first instance of raising the dead recorded in Scripture. This non-Israelite widow was granted the life of her son, the only hope for a widow in ancient society. The widow cried, "... the word of the Lord in your mouth is truth. '' She made a confession that the Israelites had failed to make.
After more than three years of drought and famine, God tells Elijah to return to Ahab and announce the end of the drought: not occasioned by repentance in Israel but by the command of the Lord, who had determined to reveal himself again to his people. While on his way, Elijah meets Obadiah, the head of Ahab 's household, who had hidden a hundred Jewish prophets when Ahab and Jezebel had been killing them. Elijah sends Obadiah back to Ahab to announce his return to Israel.
When Ahab confronts Elijah, he refers to him as the "troubler of Israel. '' Elijah responds by throwing the charge back at Ahab, saying that it is Ahab who has troubled Israel by allowing the worship of false gods. Elijah then berates both the people of Israel and Ahab for their acquiescence in Baal worship. "How long will you go limping with two different opinions? If the Lord is God, follow him; but if Baal, then follow him. '' And the people were silent. The Hebrew for this word, "go limping '' or "waver '', is the same as that used for "danced '' in 1 Kings 18, verse 26, where the prophets of Baal frantically dance. Elijah speaks with sharp irony: in the religious ambivalence of Israel.
Elijah proposes a direct test of the powers of Baal and the Jewish God. The people of Israel, 450 prophets of Baal, and 400 prophets of Asherah are summoned to Mount Carmel. Two altars are built, one for Baal and one for God. Wood is laid on the altars. Two oxen are slaughtered and cut into pieces; the pieces are laid on the wood. Elijah then invites the priests of Baal to pray for fire to light the sacrifice. They pray from morning to noon without success. Elijah ridicules their efforts. "At noon Elijah mocked them, saying, ' Cry aloud! Surely he is a god; either he is meditating, or he has wandered away, or he is on a journey, or perhaps he is asleep and must be awakened. ' '' They respond by cutting themselves and adding their own blood to the sacrifice (such mutilation of the body was strictly forbidden in the Mosaic law). They continue praying until evening without success.
Elijah now orders that the altar of God be drenched with water from "four large jars '' poured three times. He asks God to accept the sacrifice. Fire falls from the sky, consuming the water, the sacrifice and the stones of the altar itself as well. Elijah then orders the deaths of the priests of Baal. Elijah prays earnestly for rain to fall again on the land. Then the rains begin, signaling the end of the famine.
Jezebel, enraged that Elijah had ordered the deaths of her priests, threatens to kill Elijah. Later Elijah would prophesize about Jezebel 's death, because of her sin. Elijah flees to Beersheba in Judah, continues alone into the wilderness, and finally sits down under a shrub, praying for death. He falls asleep under the tree; the angel of the Lord touches him and tells him to wake up and eat. When he awakens he finds bread and a jar of water. He eats, drinks, and goes back to sleep. The angel comes a second time and tells him to eat and drink because he has a long journey ahead of him.
Elijah travels for forty days and forty nights to Mount Horeb, where Moses had received the Ten Commandments. Elijah is the only person described in the Bible as returning to Horeb, after Moses and his generation had left Horeb several centuries before. He seeks shelter in a cave. God again speaks to Elijah: "What doest thou here, Elijah? ''. Elijah did not give a direct answer to the Lord 's question but evades and equivocates, implying that the work the Lord had begun centuries earlier had now come to nothing, and that his own work was fruitless. Unlike Moses, who tried to defend Israel when they sinned with the golden calf, Elijah bitterly complains over the Israelites ' unfaithfulness and says he is the "only one left ''. Up until this time Elijah has only the word of God to guide him, but now he is told to go outside the cave and "stand before the Lord. '' A terrible wind passes, but God is not in the wind. A great earthquake shakes the mountain, but God is not in the earthquake. Then a fire passes the mountain, but God is not in the fire. Then a "still small voice '' comes to Elijah and asks again, "What doest thou here, Elijah? '' Elijah again evades the question and his lament is unrevised, showing that he did not understand the importance of the divine revelation he had just witnessed. God then sends him out again, this time to Damascus to anoint Hazael as king of Aram, Jehu as king of Israel, and Elisha as his replacement.
Elijah encounters Ahab again in 1 Kings 21, after Ahab has acquired possession of a vineyard by murder. Ahab desires to have the vineyard of Naboth of Jezreel. He offers a better vineyard or a fair price for the land. But Naboth tells Ahab that God has told him not to part with the land. Ahab accepts this answer with sullen bad grace. Jezebel, however, plots a method for acquiring the land. She sends letters, in Ahab 's name, to the elders and nobles who lived near Naboth. They are to arrange a feast and invite Naboth. At the feast, false charges of cursing God and Ahab are to be made against him. The plot is carried out and Naboth is stoned to death. When word comes that Naboth is dead, Jezebel tells Ahab to take possession of the vineyard.
God again speaks to Elijah and sends him to confront Ahab with a question and a prophecy: "Have you killed, and also taken possession? '' and, "In the place where dogs licked up the blood of Naboth, dogs will also lick up your blood. '' Ahab begins the confrontation by calling Elijah his enemy. Elijah responds by throwing the charge back at him, telling him that he has made himself the enemy of God by his own actions. Elijah then goes beyond the prophecy he was given and tells Ahab that his entire kingdom will reject his authority; that Jezebel will be eaten by dogs within Jezreel; and that his family will be consumed by dogs as well (if they die in a city) or by birds (if they die in the country). When Ahab hears this he repents to such a degree that God relents in punishing Ahab but will punish Jezebel and their son: Ahaziah.
Elijah 's story continues now from Ahab to an encounter with Ahaziah. The scene opens with Ahaziah seriously injured in a fall. He sends to the priests of Baalzebub in Ekron, outside the kingdom of Israel, to know if he will recover. Elijah intercepts his messengers and sends them back to Ahaziah with a message "Is it because there is no God in Israel that you are sending to inquire of Baal - zebub, the god of Ekron? '' Ahaziah asks the messengers to describe the person who gave them this message. They tell him he was a hairy man with a leather belt around his waist and he instantly recognizes the description as Elijah the Tishbite.
Ahaziah sends out three groups of soldiers to arrest Elijah. The first two are destroyed by fire which Elijah calls down from heaven. The leader of the third group asks for mercy for himself and his men. Elijah agrees to accompany this third group to Ahaziah, where he gives his prophecy in person. Ahaziah dies without recovering from his injuries in accordance with Elijah 's word.
According to 2 Kings 2: 3 -- 9, Elisha (Eliseus) and "the sons of the prophets '' knew beforehand that Elijah would one day be assumed into heaven. Elisha asked Elijah to "let a double portion '' of Elijah 's "spirit '' be upon him. Elijah agreed, with the condition that Elisha would see him be "taken ''.
Elijah, in company with Elisha, approaches the Jordan. He rolls up his mantle and strikes the water. The water immediately divides and Elijah and Elisha cross on dry land. Suddenly, a chariot of fire and horses of fire appear and Elijah is lifted up in a whirlwind. As Elijah is lifted up, his mantle falls to the ground and Elisha picks it up.
Elijah is mentioned once more in 2 Chronicles 21: 12, which will be his final mention in the Hebrew Bible. A letter is sent under the prophet 's name to Jehoram of Judah. It tells him that he has led the people of Judah astray in the same way that Israel was led astray. The prophet ends the letter with a prediction of a painful death. This letter is a puzzle to readers for several reasons. First, it concerns a king of the southern kingdom, while Elijah concerned himself with the kingdom of Israel. Second, the message begins with "Thus says YHVH, God of your father David... '' rather than the more usual "... in the name of YHVH the God of Israel. '' Also, this letter seems to come after Elijah 's ascension into the whirlwind. Michael Wilcock, formerly of Trinity College, Bristol, suggests a number of possible reasons for this letter, among them that it may be an example of a better known prophet 's name being substituted for that of a lesser known prophet. John Van Seters, however, rejects the letter as having any connection with the Elijah tradition. However, Wilcock argues that Elijah 's letter, ' does address a very ' northern ' situation in the southern kingdom ', and thus is authentic.
"Lo, I will send you the prophet Elijah before the great and terrible day of the Lord comes. He will turn the hearts of parents to their children and the hearts of children to their parents, so that I will not come and strike the land with a curse. ''
While the final mention of Elijah in the Hebrew Bible is in the Book of Chronicles, the Christian Bible 's ordering of the books of the Septuagint places the Book of Malachi, which prophesies a messiah, before the Gospels and means that Elijah 's final Old Testament appearance is in the Book of Malachi, where it is written, "Lo, I will send you the prophet Elijah before the great and terrible day of the Lord comes. '' That day is described as the burning of a great furnace, "... so that it will leave them neither root nor branch. '' In Christianity it is traditionally believed that Elijah 's appearance during the transfiguration of Jesus fulfilled this prophecy. Moreover, in the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus identifies John the Baptist as the spiritual successor to Elijah: "and if you are willing to accept it, he is Elijah who is to come. '' Finally, the verses in Malachi are believed to indicate that Elijah has a role in the end - times, immediately before the second coming of Jesus.
According to Susanne Otto, the Elijah stories were added to the Deuteronomistic History in four stages. The first stage dates from the final edition of the History, about 560 BC, when the three stories of Naboth 's vineyard, the death of Ahaziah, and the story of Jehu 's coup were included to embody the themes of the reliability of God 's word and the cycle of Baal worship and religious reform in the history of the Northern Kingdom. The narratives about the Omride wars were added shortly afterwards to illustrate a newly introduced theme, that the attitude of the king towards God determines the fate of Israel. According to Otto, 1 Kings 17 -- 18 was added in early post-Exilic times (after 538 BC) to demonstrate the possibility of a new life in community with God after the time of judgment. Additionally, Otto suggests that in the fifth century BC, 1 Kings 19: 1 -- 18 and the remaining Elisha stories were inserted to give prophecy a legitimate foundation in the history of Israel. The foregoing Otto analysis is heavily disputed amongst biblical scholars.
Jewish legends about Elijah abound in the aggadah, which is found throughout various collections of rabbinic literature, including the Babylonian Talmud. This varied literature does not merely discuss his life, but has created a new history of him, which, beginning with his death -- or "translation '' -- ends only with the close of the history of the human race. The volume of references to Elijah in Jewish Tradition stands in marked contrast to that in the Canon. As in the case of most figures of Jewish legend, so in the case of Elijah, the biblical account became the basis of later legend. Elijah the precursor of the Messiah, Elijah zealous in the cause of God, Elijah the helper in distress: these are the three leading notes struck by the Aggadah, endeavoring to complete the biblical picture with the Elijah legends. His career is extensive, colorful, and varied. He has appeared the world over in the guise of a beggar and scholar.
From the time of Malachi, who says of Elijah that God will send him before "the great and dreadful day '' (Mal. 3: 23), down to the later stories of the Chasidic rabbis, reverence and love, expectation and hope, were always connected in the Jewish consciousness with Elijah.
Three different theories regarding Elijah 's origin are presented in the Aggadah literature: (1) he belonged to the tribe of Gad, (2) he was a Benjamite from Jerusalem, identical with the Elijah mentioned in I Chronicles 8: 27, and (3) he was a priest.
Many Christian Church fathers also have stated that Elijah was a priest. Some Rabbis have speculated that he should be identified with Phinehas.
According to later Kabbalistic literature, Elijah was really an angel in human form, so that he had neither parents nor offspring. See Melchizedek.
The Midrash Rabbah Exodus 4: 2 states "Elijah should have revived his parents as he had revived the son of the Zarephathite '' indicating he surely had parents.
The Talmud states "Said he (Rabbah) to him (Elijah): Art thou not a priest: why then dost thou stand in a cemetery? ''
In spite of Elijah 's many miracles, the mass of the Jewish people remained as godless as before. A midrash tells that they even abolished the sign of the covenant, and the prophet had to appear as Israel 's accuser before God.
In the same cave where God once appeared to Moses and revealed Himself as gracious and merciful, Elijah was summoned to appear before God. By this summons he perceived that he should have appealed to God 's mercy, instead of becoming Israel 's accuser. The prophet, however, remained relentless in his zeal and severity, so that God commanded him to appoint his successor.
The vision in which God revealed Himself to Elijah gave him at the same time a picture of the destinies of man, who has to pass through "four worlds. '' This world was shown to the prophet by God through symbolism: in the form of the wind, since it disappears as the wind; storm is the day of death, before which man trembles; fire is the judgment in Gehenna; and the stillness is the last day.
Three years after this vision Elijah was "translated. '' Concerning the place to which Elijah was transferred, opinions differ among Jews and Christians, but the old view was that Elijah was received among the heavenly inhabitants, where he records the deeds of men, a task which according to the apocalyptic literature is entrusted to Enoch.
But as early as the middle of the 2nd century, when the notion of translation to heaven underwent divergent possible interpretations by Christian theologians, the assertion was made that Elijah never entered into heaven proper. In later literature paradise is generally designated as the abode of Elijah, but since the location of paradise is itself uncertain, the last two statements may be identical.
"At the appointed time, it is written, you are destined to calm the wrath of God before it breaks out in fury, to turn the hearts of parents to their children, and to restore the tribes of Jacob. ''
In the Wisdom of Jesus ben Sira (Sirach 48: 10) his tasks are altered to: 1) herald the eschaton, 2) calm God 's fury, 3) restore familial peace, and 4) restore the 12 tribes.
At Jewish circumcision ceremonies, a chair is set aside for the use of the prophet Elijah. Elijah is said to be a witness at all circumcisions when the sign of the covenant is placed upon the body of the child. This custom stems from the incident at Mount Horeb (1 Kings 19): Elijah had arrived at Mount Horeb after the demonstration of God 's presence and power on Mount Carmel. (1 Kings 18) God asks Elijah to explain his arrival, and Elijah replies: "I have been very jealous for the Lord, the God of hosts; for the people of Israel have forsaken thy covenant, thrown down thy altars, and slain thy prophets with the sword; and I, even I only, am left; and they seek my life, to take it away '' (1 Kings 19: 10). According to Rabbinic tradition, Elijah 's words were patently untrue (1 Kings 18: 4 and 1 Kings 19: 18), and since Elijah accused Israel of failing to uphold the covenant, God would require Elijah to be present at every covenant of circumcision.
In the Talmudic literature, Elijah would visit rabbis to help solve particularly difficult legal problems. Malachi had cited Elijah as the harbinger of the eschaton. Thus, when confronted with reconciling impossibly conflicting laws or rituals, the rabbis would set aside any decision "until Elijah comes. ''
One such decision was whether the Passover Seder required four or five cups of wine. Each serving of wine corresponds to one of the "four expressions of redemption '' in the Book of Exodus:
I am the Lord, and I will bring you out from under the burdens of the Egyptians, and I will deliver you from their bondage, and I will redeem you with an out - stretched arm and with great acts of judgment, and I will take you for my people, and I will be your God; and you shall know that I am the Lord your God, who has brought you out from under the burdens of the Egyptians '' (Exodus 6: 6 -- 7).
The next verse, "And I will bring you into the land which I swore to give to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob; I will give it to you for a possession. I am the Lord. '' (Exodus 6: 8) was not fulfilled until the generation following the Passover story, and the rabbis could not decide whether this verse counted as part of the Passover celebration (thus deserving of another serving of wine). Thus, a cup was left for the arrival of Elijah.
In practice the fifth cup has come to be seen as a celebration of future redemption. Today, a place is reserved at the seder table and a cup of wine is placed there for Elijah. During the seder, the door of the house is opened and Elijah is invited in. Traditionally, the cup is viewed as Elijah 's and is used for no other purpose.
Havdalah is the ceremony that concludes the Sabbath Day (Saturday evening in Jewish tradition). As part of the concluding hymn, an appeal is made to God that Elijah will come during the following week. "Elijah the Prophet, Elijah the Tishbite. Let him come quickly, in our day with the messiah, the son of David. ''
The volume of references to Elijah in folklore stands in marked contrast to that in the canon. Elijah 's miraculous transferral to heaven led to speculation as to his true identity. Louis Ginzberg equates him with Phinehas the grandson of Aaron (Exodus 6: 25). Because of Phinehas ' zealousness for God, he and his descendants were promised, "a covenant of lasting priesthood '' (Numbers 25: 13). Therefore, Elijah is a priest as well as a prophet. Elijah is also equated with the Archangel Sandalphon, whose four wing beats will carry him to any part of the earth. When forced to choose between death and dishonor, Rabbi Kahana chose to leap to his death. Before he could strike the ground, Elijah / Sandalphon had appeared to catch him. Yet another name for Elijah is "Angel of the Covenant ''
References to Elijah in Jewish folklore range from short observations (e.g. It is said that when dogs are happy for no reason, it is because Elijah is in the neighborhood) to lengthy parables on the nature of God 's justice.
One such story is that of Rabbi Joshua ben Levi. The rabbi, a friend of Elijah 's, was asked what favor he might wish. The rabbi answered only that he be able to join Elijah in his wanderings. Elijah granted his wish only if he refrained from asking any questions about any of the prophet 's actions. He agreed and they began their journey. The first place they came to was the house of an elderly couple who were so poor they had only one old cow. The old couple gave of their hospitality as best they could. The next morning, as the travelers left, Elijah prayed that the old cow would die and it did. The second place they came to was the home of a wealthy man. He had no patience for his visitors and chased them away with the admonition that they should get jobs and not beg from honest people. As they were leaving, they passed the man 's wall and saw that it was crumbling. Elijah prayed that the wall be repaired and it was so. Next, they came to a wealthy synagogue. They were allowed to spend the night with only the smallest of provisions. When they left, Elijah prayed that every member of the synagogue might become a leader.
Finally, they came to a very poor synagogue. Here they were treated with great courtesy and hospitality. When they left, Elijah prayed that God might give them a single wise leader. At this Rabbi Joshua could no longer hold back. He demanded of Elijah an explanation of his actions. At the house of the old couple, Elijah knew that the Angel of Death was coming for the old woman. So he prayed that God might have the angel take the cow instead. At the house of the wealthy man, there was a great treasure hidden in the crumbling wall. Elijah prayed that the wall be restored thus keeping the treasure away from the miser. The story ends with a moral: A synagogue with many leaders will be ruined by many arguments. A town with a single wise leader will be guided to success and prosperity. "Know then, that if thou seest an evil - doer prosper, it is not always unto his advantage, and if a righteous man suffers need and distress, think not God is unjust. ''
The Elijah of legend did not lose any of his ability to afflict the comfortable. The case of Rabbi Eliezer son of Rabbi Simon ben Yohai is illustrative. Once, when walking a beach, he came upon a hideously ugly man -- the prophet in disguise. The man greeted him courteously, "Peace be with thee, Rabbi. '' Instead of returning the greeting, the rabbi could not resist an insult, "How ugly you are! Is there anyone as ugly as you in your town? '' Elijah responded with, "I do n't know. Perhaps you should tell the Master Architect how ugly is this, His construction. '' The rabbi realized his wrong and asked for pardon. But Elijah would not give it until the entire city had asked for forgiveness for the rabbi and the rabbi had promised to mend his ways.
Elijah was always seen as deeply pious, it seems only natural that he would be pitted against an equally evil individual. This was found in the person of Lilith. Lilith in legend was the first wife of Adam. She rebelled against Adam, the angels, and even God. She came to be seen as a demon and a witch.
Elijah encountered Lilith and instantly recognized and challenged her, "Unclean one, where are you going? '' Unable to avoid or lie to the prophet, she admitted she was on her way to the house of a pregnant woman. Her intention was to kill the woman and eat the child.
Elijah pronounced his malediction, "I curse you in the Name of the Lord. Be silent as a stone! '' But, Lilith was able to make a bargain with Elijah. She promises to "forsake my evil ways '' if Elijah will remove his curse. To seal the bargain she gives Elijah her names so that they can be posted in the houses of pregnant women or new born children or used as amulets. Lilith promises, "where I see those names, I shall run away at once. Neither the child nor the mother will ever be injured by me. ''
In the New Testament, Jesus would say for those who believed, John the Baptist was Elijah, who would come before the "great and terrible day '' as predicted by Malachi.
Some English translations of the New Testament use Elias, a Latin form of the name. In the King James Version, "Elias '' appears only in the texts translated from Greek.
John the Baptist preached a message of repentance and baptism. He predicted the day of judgment using imagery similar to that of Malachi. He also preached that the Messiah was coming. All of this was done in a style that immediately recalled the image of Elijah to his audience. He wore a coat of camel 's hair secured with a leather girdle (Matthew 3: 4, Mark 1: 6). He also frequently preached in wilderness areas near the Jordan River.
In the Gospel of John, when John the Baptist was asked by a delegation of priests (present tense) "Art thou Elias '', he replied "I am not '' (John 1: 21). Matthew 11: 14 and Matthew 17: 10 -- 13 however, make it clear that John was the spiritual successor to Elijah. In the Nativity of St. John the Baptist in Luke, Gabriel appears to Zechariah, John 's father, and told him that John "will turn many of the sons of Israel to the Lord their God, '' and that he will go forth "in the spirit and power of Elijah '' (Luke 1: 16 -- 17).
In the Gospel of Luke, Herod Antipas hears some of the stories surrounding Jesus Christ. Some tell Herod that Jesus is John the Baptist (whom Herod had executed) come back to life. Others tell him that Jesus is Elijah. Later in the same gospel, Jesus asks his disciples who the people say that he is. The apostles ' answer includes Elijah among others.
However Jesus ' ministry had little in common with that of Elijah; in particular, he preached the forgiveness of one 's enemies, while Elijah killed his. Miracle stories similar to those of Elijah were associated with Jesus (e.g. raising of the dead, miraculous feeding). Jesus implicitly separates himself from Elijah when he rebukes James and John for desiring to call down fire upon an unwelcoming Samaritan village in a similar manner to Elijah. Likewise, Jesus rebukes a potential follower who wanted first to return home to say farewell to his family, whereas Elijah permitted this of his replacement Elisha.
During Jesus ' crucifixion, some of the onlookers wonder if Elijah will come to rescue him, as by the time of Jesus, Elijah had entered folklore as a rescuer of Jews in distress.
Elijah makes an appearance in the New Testament during an incident known as the Transfiguration.
At the summit of an unnamed mount, Jesus ' face begins to shine. The disciples who are with Him hear the voice of God announce that Jesus is "My beloved Son. '' The disciples also see Moses and Elijah appear and talk with Jesus. Peter is so struck by the experience that he asks Jesus if they should build three "tabernacles '': one for Elijah, one for Jesus and one for Moses.
There is agreement among some Christian theologians that Elijah appears to hand over the responsibility of the prophets to Jesus as the woman by the well said to Jesus (John 4: 19) "I perceive thou art a prophet. '' and Moses also likewise came to hand over the responsibility of the law for the divinely announced Son of God.
Elijah is mentioned four more times in the New Testament: in Luke, Romans, Hebrews, and James. In Luke 4: 24 -- 27, Jesus uses Elijah as an example of rejected prophets. Jesus says, "No prophet is accepted in his own country, '' and then mentions Elijah, saying that there were many widows in Israel, but Elijah was sent to one in Phoenicia. In Romans 11: 1 -- 6, Paul cites Elijah as an example of God 's never forsaking his people (the Israelites). Hebrews 11: 35 ("Women received their dead raised to life again... '') refers to both Elijah raising the son of the widow of Zarephath and Elisha raising the son of the woman of Shunem, citing both Elijah and Elisha as Old Testament examples of faith. In James 5: 16 -- 18, James says, "The effectual fervent prayer of a righteous man availeth much, '' and then cites Elijah 's prayers which started and ended the famine in Israel as examples.
In Western Christianity, the Prophet Elijah is commemorated as a saint with a feast day on 20 July by the Roman Catholic Church and the Lutheran Church -- Missouri Synod. Catholics believe that he was unmarried and celibate.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite, he is commemorated on the same date (in the 21st century, Julian Calendar 20 July corresponds to Gregorian Calendar 2 August). He is greatly revered among the Orthodox as a model of the contemplative life. He is also commemorated on the Orthodox liturgical calendar on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers (the Sunday before the Nativity of the Lord).
Elijah has been venerated as the patron saint of Bosnia and Herzegovina since 26 August 1752, replacing George of Lydda at the request of Bishop Pavao Dragičević. The reasons for the replacement are unclear. It has been suggested that Elijah was chosen because of his importance to all three main religious groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina -- Catholics, Muslims and Orthodox Christians. Pope Benedict XIV is said to have approved Bishop Dragičević 's request with the remark that a wild nation deserved a wild patron.
Elijah is revered as the spiritual Father and traditional founder of the Catholic religious Order of Carmelites. In addition to taking their name from Mt. Carmel where the first hermits of the order established themselves, the Calced Carmelite and Discalced Carmelite traditions pertaining to Elijah focus upon the prophet 's withdrawal from public life. The medieval Carmelite Book of the First Monks offers some insight into the heart of the Orders ' contemplative vocation and reverence for the prophet.
In the 17th Century the Bollandist Society, whose declared aim was to search out and classify materials concerning the saints venerated by the Church, and to print what seemed to be the most reliable sources of information entered into controversy with the Carmelites on this point. In writing of St. Albert, Patriarch of Jerusalem and author of the Carmelite rule, the Bollandist Daniel Papebroch stated that the attribution of Carmelite origin to Elijah was insufficiently grounded. The Carmelites reacted strongly. From 1681 to 1698 a series of letters, pamphlets and other documents was issued by each side. The Carmelites were supported by a Spanish tribunal, while the Bollandists had the support of Jean de Launoy and the Sorbonne. In November 1698, Pope Innocent XII ordered an end to the controversy.
Since most Eastern Churches either use Greek as their liturgical language or translated their liturgies from the Greek, Elias (or its modern iotacized form Ilias) is the form of the prophet 's name used among most members of the Eastern Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite.
The feast day of saint Elias falls on July 20 of the Orthodox liturgical calendar (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian Calendar, July 20 currently falls on August 2 of the modern Gregorian Calendar). This day is a major holiday in Lebanon and is one of a handful of holidays there whose celebration is accompanied by a launching of fireworks by the general public. The full name of St. Elias in Lebanon translates to St. Elias the Living because it is believed that he did not die but rode his fiery chariot to heaven. The reference to the fiery chariot is likely why the Lebanese celebrate this holiday with fireworks.
Elias is also commemorated, together with all of the righteous persons of the Old Testament, on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers (the Sunday before the Nativity of the Lord).
The Apolytikion in the Fourth Tone for St. Elias:
The incarnate Angel, the Cornerstone of the Prophets, the second Forerunner of the Coming of Christ, the glorious Elias, who from above, sent down to Elisha the grace to dispel sickness and cleanse lepers, abounds therefore in healing for those who honor him.
The Kontakion in the Second Tone for St. Elias:
O Prophet and foreseer of the great works of God, O greatly renowned Elias, who by your word held back the clouds of rain, intercede for us to the only Loving One.
Starting in the fifth century, Elias is often connected with Helios, the Sun. The two words have very similar pronunciations in post-classical Greek; Elijah rode in his chariot of fire to heaven (2 Kings 2: 11) just as Helios drove the chariot of the sun across the sky; and the holocaust sacrifice offered by Elijah and burned by fire from heaven (1 Kings 18: 38) corresponds to the sun warming the earth.
Sedulius writes poetically in the fifth century that the "bright path to glittering heaven '' suits Elias both "in merits and name '', as changing one letter makes his name "Helios ''; but he does not identify the two. A homily entitled De ascensione Heliae, misattributed to Chrysostom, claims that poets and painters use the ascension of Elijah as a model for their depictions of the sun, and says that "Elijah is really Helios ''. Saint Patrick appears to conflate Helios and Elias. In modern times, much Greek folklore also connects Elias with the sun.
In Greece, chapels and monasteries dedicated to Prophet Elias (Προφήτης Ηλίας) are often found on mountaintops, which themselves are often named after him. Since Wachsmuth (1864), the usual explanation for this has been that Elias was identified with Helios, who had mountaintop shrines. But few shrines of Helios were on mountaintops, and sun - worship was subsumed by Apollo - worship by Christian times, and so could not be confused with Elias. The modern folklore is not good evidence for the origin of the association of the sun, Elias, and mountaintops. Perhaps Elias is simply a "natural patron of high places ''.
The association of Elias with mountaintops seems to come from a different pagan tradition: Elias took on the attributes and the locales associated with Zeus, especially his associations with mountains and his powers over rain, thunder, lighting, and wind. When Elias prevailed over the priests of Baal, it was on Mount Carmel (1 Kings 18: 38), which later became known as Mount St. Elias. When he spent forty days in a cave, it was on Mount Horeb (1 Kings 19: 8). When Elias confronted Ahab, he stopped the rains for three years (1 Kings 17: 1 - 18: 1).
A map of mountain - cults of Zeus shows that most of these sites are now dedicated to Elias, including Mount Olympus, Mount Lykaion, Mount Arachnaion, and Mount Taleton on the mainland, and Mount Kenaion, Mount Oche, and Mount Kynados in the islands. Of these, the only one with a recorded tradition of a Helios cult is Mount Taleton.
Elias is associated with pre-Christian lightning gods in many other European traditions.
Among Albanians, pilgrimages are made to mountaintops to ask for rain during the summer. One such tradition that is gaining popularity is the 2 August pilgrimage to Ljuboten on the Sharr mountains. Muslims refer to this day as Aligjyn ("Ali Day ''), and it is believed that Ali becomes Elias at midday.
As Elijah was described as ascending into heaven in a fiery chariot, the Christian missionaries who converted Slavic tribes likely found him an ideal analogy for Perun, the supreme Slavic god of storms, thunder and lightning bolts. In many Slavic countries Elijah is known as Elijah the Thunderer (Ilija Gromovnik), who drives the heavens in a chariot and administers rain and snow, thus actually taking the place of Perun in popular beliefs. Perun is also sometimes conflated with the legendary hero Elijah of Murom. The feast of St. Elias is known as Ilinden in South Slavic, and was chosen as the day of the Ilinden - Preobrazhenie Uprising in 1903; it is now the holiday of Republic Day in the Republic of Macedonia.
In Estonian folklore Elijah is considered to be the successor of Ukko, the lightning spirit.
In Georgian mythology, he replaces Elwa. A Georgian story about Elijah:
Once Jesus, the prophet Elijah, and St. George were going through Georgia. When they became tired and hungry they stopped to dine. They saw a Georgian shepherd and decided to ask him to feed them. First, Elijah went up to the shepherd and asked him for a sheep. After the shepherd asked his identity Elijah said that, he was the one who sent him rain to get him a good profit from farming. The shepherd became angry at him and told him that he was the one who also sent thunderstorms, which destroyed the farms of poor widows. (After Elijah, Jesus and St. George attempt to get help and eventually succeed).
Elias has other pagan associations: a modern legend about Elias mirrors precisely the legend of Odysseus seeking a place where the locals would not recognize an oar -- hence the mountaintops.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church) acknowledges Elijah as a prophet. The LDS Church teaches that the Malachi prophecy of the return of Elijah was fulfilled on April 3, 1836, when Elijah visited the prophet and founder of the church, Joseph Smith, along with Oliver Cowdery, in the Kirtland Temple as a resurrected being. This event is chronicled in Doctrine and Covenants 110: 13 -- 16. This experience forms the basis for the church 's focus on genealogy and family history and belief in the eternal nature of marriage and families.
In Latter - day Saint theology, the name - title Elias is not always synonymous with Elijah and is often used for people other than the biblical prophet. According to Joseph Smith,
The spirit of Elias is first, Elijah second, and Messiah last. Elias is a forerunner to prepare the way, and the spirit and power of Elijah is to come after, holding the keys of power, building the Temple to the capstone, placing the seals of the Melchizedek Priesthood upon the house of Israel, and making all things ready; then Messiah comes to His Temple, which is last of all.
People to whom the title Elias is applied in Mormonism include Noah, the angel Gabriel (who is considered to be the same person as Noah in Mormon doctrine), Elijah, John the Baptist, John the Apostle, and an unspecified man who was a contemporary of Abraham.
Detractors of Mormonism have often alleged that Smith, in whose time and place the King James Version was the only available English translation of the Bible, simply failed to grasp the fact that the Elijah of the Old Testament and the Elias of the New Testament are the same person. Latter - day Saints deny this and say that the difference they make between the two is deliberate and prophetic. The names Elias and Elijah refer to one who prepares the way for the coming of the Lord. This is applicable to John the Baptist coming to prepare the way for the Lord and His baptism; it also refers to Elijah appearing during the transfiguration to prepare for Jesus by restoring keys of sealing power. Jesus then gave this power to the Twelve saying, "Verily I say unto you, Whatsoever ye shall bind on earth shall be bound in heaven: and whatsoever ye shall loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven. ''
Elijah (Arabic: إلياس or إليا; Ilyas or Ilya) is also mentioned as a prophet in the Qur'an, al - An'am 85. Elijah 's narrative in the Qur'an and later Muslim tradition resembles closely that in the Hebrew Bible and Muslim literature records Elijah 's primary prophesying as taking place during the reign of Ahab and Jezebel as well as Ahaziah. He is seen by Muslims to be the prophetic predecessor to Elisha. While neither the Bible nor the Qur'an mentions the genealogy of Elijah, some scholars of Islam believe he may have come from the priestly family of the prophet Aaron. Elijah is rarely associated with Islamic eschatology and Islam views Jesus as the Messiah. However, Elijah is expected to come back along with the mysterious figure known as Khidr during the Last Judgment. Elijah 's figure has been identified with a number of other prophets and saints, including Idris, which is believed by some scholars to have been another name for Elijah, and Khidr. Islamic legend later developed the figure of Elijah, greatly embellishing upon his attributes, and some apocryphal literature gave Elijah the status of a half - human, half - angel. Elijah also appears in later works of literature, including the Hamzanama.
Elijah is mentioned in the Quran, where his preaching is recounted in a concise manner. The Quran narrates that Elijah told his people to come to the worship of God and to leave the worship of Baal, the primary idol of the area. The Quran states, "Verily Elijah was one of the apostles. When he said to his people: "Will you not fear God? "Will ye call upon Ba'al and leave the Best of Creators, God, your LORD and Cherisher and the LORD and Cherisher of your fathers of old? '' As - Saaffat 123 -- 126
The Quran makes it clear that the majority of Elijah 's people denied the prophet and continued to follow idolatry. However, it mentions that a small number of devoted servants of God among them followed Elijah and believed in and worshiped God. The Quran states, "They denied him (Elijah), and will surely be brought to punishment, Except the sincere and devoted Servants of God (among them). And We left his (memory) for posterity. '' As - Saaffat 127 -- 128
In the Quran, God praises Elijah in two places:
Peace be upon Elijah! This is how We reward those who do good. He is truly among our believing servants.
And Zachariah and John and Jesus and Elijah, they were all from among the righteous
Numerous commentators, including Abdullah Yusuf Ali, have offered commentary on VI: 85 saying that Elijah, Zechariah, John the Baptist and Jesus were all spiritually connected. Abdullah Yusuf Ali says, "The third group consists not of men of action, but Preachers of Truth, who led solitary lives. Their epithet is: "the Righteous. '' They form a connected group round Jesus. Zachariah was the father of John the Baptist, who is referenced as "Elias, which was for to come '' (Matt 11: 14); and Elias is said to have been present and talked to Jesus at the Transfiguration on the Mount (Matt. 17: 3). ''
Muslim literature and tradition recounts that Elijah preached to the Kingdom of Israel, ruled over by Ahab and later his son Ahaziah. He is believed to have been a "prophet of the desert -- like John the Baptist ''. Elijah is believed to have preached with zeal to Ahab and his wife Jezebel, who according to Muslim tradition was partly responsible for the worship of false idols in this area. Muslims believe that it was because the majority of people refused to listen to Elijah that Elisha had to continue preaching the message of God to Israel after him.
Elijah has been the subject of legends and folktales in Muslim culture, usually involving his meeting with Khidr, and in one legend, with Muhammad himself. Most such legends, however, are regarded as folktales rather than actual events. In Islamic mysticism, however, Elijah is associated closely with the sage Khidr. One legend reported that Elijah and Khidr met together every year in Jerusalem to go on the pilgrimage to Mecca. Elijah appears also in the Hamzanama numerous times, where he is spoken of as being the brother of Khidr as well as one who drunk from the Fountain of Youth.
Although most Muslim scholars believed that Elijah preached in Israel, some early commentators on the Qur'an stated that Elijah was sent to Baalbek, in Lebanon. Modern scholars have rejected this claim, stating that the connection of the city with Elijah would have been made because of the first half of the city 's name, that of Baal, which was the deity that Elijah exhorted his people to stop worshiping. Scholars who reject identification of Elijah 's town with Baalbek further argue that the town of Baalbek is not mentioned with the narrative of Elijah in either the Qur'an or the Hebrew Bible.
In the Bahá'í Faith, the Báb, founder of the Bábí Faith, is believed to be the return of Elijah and John the Baptist. Both Elijah and John the Baptist are considered to be Lesser Prophets, whose stations are below that of a Manifestation of God like Jesus Christ, Buddha, Muhammad, the Báb or Bahá'u'lláh. The Báb is buried on Mount Carmel, where Elijah had his confrontation with the prophets of Baal.
That ravens fed Elijah by the brook Chorath has been questioned. The Hebrew text at 1 Kings 17: 4 -- 6 uses the word עֹרְבִים ` ōrvīm, which means ravens, but with a different vocalization might equally mean Arabs. The Septuagint has κορακες, ravens, and other traditional translations followed.
Alternatives have been proposed for many years; for example Adam Clarke (d. 1832) treated it as a discussion already of long standing. Objections to the traditional translation are that ravens are ritually unclean (see Leviticus 11: 13 -- 17) as well as physically dirty; it is difficult to imagine any method of delivery of the food which is not disgusting. The parallelism with the incident that follows, where Elijah is fed by the widow, also suggests a human, if mildly improbable, agent.
Prof. John Gray chooses Arabs, saying "We adopt this reading solely because of its congruity with the sequel, where Elijah is fed by an alien Phoenician woman. '' His translation of the verses in question is:
And the word of Jehovah came to Elijah saying, Go hence and turn eastward and hide thyself in the Wadi Chorath east of the Jordan, and it shall be that thou shalt drink of the wadi, and I have commanded the Arabs to feed thee there. And he went and did according to the word of Jehovah and went and dwelt in the Wadi Chorath east of the Jordan. And the Arabs brought him bread in the morning and flesh in the evening and he would drink of the wadi.
In the Gospel of John, Jesus says: "And no man hath ascended up to heaven, but he that came down from heaven, (even) the Son of man which is in heaven. '' (John 3: 13)
Traditionally Christianity interprets the "Son of Man '' as a title of Jesus, but this has never been an article of faith and there are other interpretations. Further interpreting this quote, some Christians believe that Elijah was not assumed into heaven but simply transferred to another assignment either in heaven or with King Jehoram of Judah. The prophets reacted in such a way that makes sense if he was carried away, and not simply straight up (2 Kings 2: 16).
The question of whether Elijah was in heaven or elsewhere on earth depends partly on the view of the letter Jehoram received from Elijah in 2 Chronicles 21 after Elijah had ascended. Some have suggested that the letter was written before Elijah ascended, but only delivered later. The rabbinical Seder Olam explains that the letter was delivered seven years after his ascension. This is also a possible explanation for some variation in manuscripts of Josephus ' Antiquities of the Jews when dealing with this issue. Others have argued that Elijah was only "caught away '' such as Philip in Acts 8: 39 John Lightfoot reasoned that it must have been a different Elijah.
Elijah 's name typically occurs in Jewish lists of those who have entered heaven alive.
Centuries after his departure the Jewish nation awaits the coming of Elijah to precede the coming of the Messiah. For many Christians this prophecy was fulfilled in the gospels, where he appears during the Transfiguration alongside Moses (Matthew 17: 9 -- 13). Commentators have said that Moses ' appearance represented the law, while Elijah 's appearance represented the prophets. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints believes that Elijah returned on April 3, 1836 in an appearance to Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery, fulfilling the prophecy in Malachi.
The Bahá'í Faith believes Elijah returned as the biblical prophet John the Baptist and as the Báb who founded the Bábí Faith in 1844.
The Nation of Islam believes Elijah returned as Elijah Muhammad, black separatist religious leader (who claimed to be a "messenger '', not a prophet). This is considered less important than their belief that Allah himself showed up in the person of Fard Muhammad, the founder of the group. It differs notably from most beliefs about Elijah, in that his re-appearance is usually the precursor to a greater one 's appearance, rather than an afterthought.
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where does the paper for money come from | Crane Currency - wikipedia
Crane Currency is a manufacturer of cotton - based paper products used in the printing of national currencies, passports and banknotes. Crane remains the predominant supplier of paper for use in U.S. currency (Federal Reserve Notes).
Stephen Crane was the first in the Crane family to become a papermaker, buying his first mill, "The Liberty Paper Mill '', in 1770. He sold currency - type paper to engraver Paul Revere, who printed the American Colonies ' first paper money. In 1801, Crane was founded by Zenas Crane, Henry Wiswall and John Willard. The company 's original mill had a daily output of 20 posts (1 post = 125 sheets). Shortly after, in 1806, Crane began printing currency on cotton paper for local, as well as regional, banks, before officially printing for the government. Crane developed a method to embed parallel silk threads in banknote paper to denominate notes and deter counterfeiting in 1844.
In 1879, Crane grew when Winthrop M. Crane won a contract to deliver U.S. currency paper to the Bureau of Engraving and Printing in Washington, D.C. Crane produced both the yellow (issued in 1883 -- 1884) and the white (1884 -- 1894) watermarked security papers for the nation 's Postal Notes. These early money orders were produced for sale throughout the postal system by the Homer Lee Bank Note Company (1883 -- 1887), the American Bank Note Company (1887 -- 1891), and Dunlap & Clarke (1891 -- 1894). In 1922, Crane & Co. incorporated, with Frederick G. Crane elected as president.
In 2002, Crane purchased the company Tumba Bruk from the Central Bank of Sweden (Riksbank) and operates this today as Crane AB.
In 2015, Crane announced that it would be turning over its stationery division to employees via a "management buyout '' by the end of December.
In 2016, Crane announced plans to build a new banknote printing facility and customer experience center in the country of Malta. The facility will be 15,000 square meters in size and will have space for 3 print lines. The "state - of - the - art '' $100 million facility was announced on Wednesday, September 21, 2016 by Maltese Prime Minister Joseph Muscat.
In 2017 Crane Currency was sold to Crane Company.
Crane 's Motion security technology is being introduced into high denomination banknotes worldwide. The design involves a micro-lens array interacting with graphics far smaller than any microprinting.
Sweden 's 1000 kronor banknote, released in 2006, was the first banknote to use Crane 's Motion technology. A 2007 AP article reveals that the US Bureau of Engraving and Printing will use a new security thread containing "650,000 tiny lenses '' (now believed to be over 1 million lenses per inch of thread) in the $100 bill design released on October 8, 2013.
In 2008, Crane acquired Visual Physics, a subsidiary of Nanoventions, based in Atlanta, Georgia. This purchase gave Crane exclusive control of Motion micro-optic security technology that is used for the protection of banknotes.
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when does season three of rick and morty come out on dvd | Rick and Morty (season 3) - wikipedia
The third season of the animated television series Rick and Morty originally aired in the United States on Cartoon Network 's late night programming block, Adult Swim. It premiered with "The Rickshank Rickdemption '', which aired unannounced on April 1, 2017 as part of Adult Swim 's annual April Fools ' prank. The remaining episodes began airing weekly four months later, on July 30, 2017. The season concluded on October 1, 2017 and consisted of ten episodes.
The premiere picks up where the second - season finale left off, as the show continues to follow the adventures of the members of the Smith household. When Jerry asks Beth to choose between him and Rick, the strength of their marriage is put to the test. Jerry is confronted with the loss of his family, while Beth begins to discover her independence again. Morty and Summer deal with their parents ' separation by seeking more control over their lives. Rick 's nihilistic viewpoint prevents him from bonding with his family, as he remains unable to change his self - destructive behavior.
The season received positive reviews, with critics highlighting its focus on character development. Furthermore, Rick and Morty delivered the highest ratings in Adult Swim 's history and was the top - rated comedy among millennials on television. The season has also received a number of awards and nominations, including a Critics ' Choice Award for "Best Animated Series ''.
Rick is interrogated via a mind - computer link, inside a galactic federal prison. Summer and Morty attempt to rescue him, but they are captured by SEAL Team Ricks, who take them to the Citadel of Ricks and decide to assassinate Rick. Back at the prison, Rick tricks both the federal agents and his aspiring assassins by switching bodies with them. He then teleports the entire Citadel into the federal prison, prompting a massive battle. Amid the confusion, Rick rescues Morty and Summer and uses the Galactic Federation 's mainframe to make its currency worthless. The Federation falls into chaos and collapses as a result, with the aliens leaving Earth. Rick, Morty, and Summer return home, where Jerry gives Beth an ultimatum to choose between him and Rick. Beth chooses Rick and they decide to get a divorce. After the new status quo is established, Rick reveals to Morty that his ulterior motive was to become his de facto male influence. This escalates into a nonsensical angry rant, centered around Rick 's desire to find more of the discontinued McDonald 's Szechuan sauce, a promotional product for the 1998 film Mulan.
Rick takes Morty and Summer to a Mad Max-esque version of Earth, where they are chased by a group of scavengers, known as Death Stalkers. Rick notices that the group is carrying a valuable rock of Isotope 322, so he and the kids join them in hope of stealing it. Summer falls in love with the Death Stalkers ' leader, while Morty is given the strength of a giant arm, which takes him in search of its previous owner 's killer. Rick leaves and replaces the kids with androids to fool Beth. When he returns, he helps the Death Stalkers use the Isotope to power a more advanced civilization. Summer does n't like how the change softens the Death Stalkers, and she decides to follow Rick and Morty back home. Before leaving, Rick steals the isotope. The experience helps the kids overcome their parents ' divorce. Summer reconciles with Jerry, and Morty realizes he must live his own life.
Rick turns himself into a pickle to get out of attending school - ordered family therapy, but Beth takes Rick 's serum which would revert the transformation. Left alone, Rick eventually rolls down into an open sewer drain, where he manages to manipulate the nervous systems of dead roaches and rats to build himself a mobile exoskeleton, with added weapons such as razors and drills. He unwittingly escapes into a foreign government agency. The guards try to kill Rick, under orders from the agency director, but Rick kills them all. In the process, Rick battles and ultimately befriends a prisoner named Jaguar. Rick changes his mind and decides to attend the therapy session, arriving towards the end. Dr. Wong gives her diagnosis, observing that Rick crafts relationships that punish emotions and vulnerability. On their way home, Rick apologizes to Beth for deceiving her and uses the serum to turn human again. Morty and Summer wish to continue seeing Dr. Wong, but Rick and Beth ignore them.
At Morty 's insistence, Rick agrees to join the Vindicators, a group of intergalactic superheroes, to fight their arch - nemesis, Worldender. Rick can not hide his disdain for the superheroes, while Morty is thrilled. The next morning, the Vindicators enter Worldender 's base, only to find that, the previous night, Rick had killed him and set up a variety of puzzles that the Vindicators must solve to survive while he was blackout drunk. They start arguing and kill one another, while Morty solves all the puzzles, as he knows what Rick had in mind when he put them up. After all puzzles are solved, the only ones left alive are Rick, Morty and Supernova, a member of the Vindicators. Supernova tries to kill Rick and Morty, but before she can do so, the three of them are transported to a party that Rick also set up while blackout drunk, where she gets away.
To bolster Jerry 's self - esteem, Rick takes him on an adventure at Morty 's request. They visit an otherworldly resort within an immortality field so Jerry wo n't be harmed while away. Jerry encounters Risotto Groupon, an alien who blames Rick for his kingdom being usurped. Risotto enlists Jerry in a plot to kill Rick, but Jerry backs out after Rick apologizes for ruining his marriage. Meanwhile, Summer deals with self - esteem issues as well. Her boyfriend, Ethan, leaves her for a larger - breasted girlfriend, and Summer attempts to enlarge her own breasts using one of Rick 's devices. Her aim is off, and she grows to freakish proportions. Morty wants to call Rick for assistance, but Beth refuses. Arrogantly trying to prove her own self - worth, Beth repeatedly fails to fix the problem and is tricked into releasing three tiny technical support workers that were trapped inside the machine. Once Morty figures out how the machine works, he restores Summer 's size and spitefully uses it to deform Ethan in an act of vengeance.
After a six - day outer space adventure that leaves them on the verge of psychological collapse, Rick and Morty decide to spend some time at an alien spa. There, they use a machine that extracts a person 's negative personality traits. However, without Rick and Morty knowing, those traits are transposed into toxic physical counterparts, characterized by Rick 's arrogance and Morty 's self - loathing. On the other hand, the true Rick becomes more considerate, and Morty 's confidence soars, which allows him to start dating girls. Toxic Rick uses a moonlight tower to remake the whole Earth in his own image, but the true Rick reverts the situation by merging back with him. Morty avoids merging back with his toxic counterpart and goes on to live a life as a stockbroker in New York City. Rick tracks him down with the help of Jessica, Morty 's classmate, and restores order by re-injecting the negative personality traits into him.
As Rick and Morty adventure to Atlantis, the episode shifts focus towards the Citadel, a secret society populated by numerous versions of Ricks and Mortys. There, a group of Mortys journey to a portal to have their wishes granted, a rookie cop Rick starts working with an experienced Morty cop to take down drug dealers and a worker Rick revolts at a wafer factory, where the key ingredient is extracted from a Rick hooked up to a machine to re-experience his best memories. Meanwhile, an election is held for the new president of the Citadel. Despite being the underdog, the Morty Party candidate manages to secure the presidency. When his campaign manager receives information that the new president is in fact Evil Morty from the first - season episode "Close Rick - counters of the Rick Kind '', he attempts to assassinate him but he fails. Evil Morty orders the execution of a shadow council of Ricks and anybody else he considers a potential threat to his rule.
After Morty requests to have a traumatic memory deleted, Rick reveals a room where he has been storing a number of memories he has removed from Morty 's mind. However, as it turns out, besides the memories that Morty did n't want to keep from their adventures, the room also contains memories in which Rick was made to look foolish, so he had them forcibly removed from Morty. This revelation prompts a fight, during which Rick and Morty have their memories accidentally erased. Morty scours the memories to replace the ones he lost, but he is displeased with the truth he finds, and convinces Rick that they should kill themselves. Summer enters the room moments before they commit suicide. At this point, it is revealed that Rick has a contingency plan should this happen. Summer, following written instructions, tranquilizes Rick and Morty, restores their memories and drags them to the living room. Rick and Morty wake up on the couch, believing that they slept through an entire "Interdimensional Cable '' episode.
Rick and Beth enter Froopyland, a fantasy world created by Rick for young Beth. Their goal is to recover Tommy, Beth 's childhood friend who 's been trapped in Froopyland, and prevent the execution of his father, who is being falsely accused of eating him. Tommy, who has survived all these years by resorting to bestiality, incest and cannibalism, refuses to return to the real world. Rick and Beth manage to save his father 's life by creating a clone of Tommy. Back at home, Beth is presented with the option of having a replacement clone of her created, so that she will be free to travel the world. Meanwhile, Jerry dates an alien hunter named Kiara, to Morty and Summer 's dismay. When he decides to get out of the relationship, Kiara is enraged and tries to kill the kids, whom she holds responsible. The situation is resolved following the revelation that Kiara was using Jerry to get over her previous boyfriend, much like Jerry was doing with her.
The President calls on Rick and Morty to defeat a monster in the tunnels underneath the White House, which they do with little effort. Annoyed that he constantly calls on them without any gratitude, they go back home, with the President quickly finding out. The resulting argument leads to a battle of egos that culminates in a fight in the White House between Rick and the President 's security. Meanwhile, fearing she might be a clone made by Rick, Beth reunites with Jerry to figure out the truth. Shortly after, the entire family gets together to hide from Rick, but he tracks them down. Rick eventually submits to Jerry once again being a family member. Rick ends his conflict with the President by pretending to be Fly Fishing Rick, a Rick from a different reality, and calling a truce. The episode ends with the family happy to be together again, except for Rick who is disappointed about losing his dominant position.
The actors and actresses listed below lend their voices to the corresponding animated characters.
Other cast members of the season, who each have voiced one or more characters, include: Dan Harmon, Brandon Johnson, Tom Kenny, Maurice LaMarche, Nolan North, Cassie Steele, Kari Wahlgren, Laura Bailey, John DiMaggio, Ryan Ridley, Scott Chernoff, Dan Benson, Clancy Brown, Echo Kellum, Melique Berger, William Holmes, Tara Strong, Jeff B. Davis, Jonas Briedis, Phil Hendrie, Rob Paulsen, Alex Jayne Go, Jennifer Hale and Mariana Wise.
On August 12, 2015, shortly after a successful second - season premiere, Adult Swim renewed the series for a third season. Talking about the show 's renewal, co-creator Dan Harmon said that it is "an honor to see Rick and Morty join the exclusive club of shows with over nineteen episodes. ''
Female writers were added to the staff for the first time, and -- counting out the co-creators of the show, Justin Roiland and Dan Harmon -- the writing room was gender - balanced. Sarah Carbiener, one of the new female writers, said that she managed to learn many things from her experience as a member of the writing team. Carbiener explained that she had to "learn how to come up with a lot of story, fast, and how to make it all turn and tie up right, '' because a story that for other shows would have been an entire episode, for Rick and Morty it will be only its first few minutes. Dan Harmon, talking about the writing process, said that the episodes were written collectively by the staff, and that the name of the writer that appears in the credits of an episode is usually that of the person who has been assigned to prepare the episode 's outline. Writing began on November 2, 2015, and the first episode was recorded on February 18, 2016.
In July 2016, already behind on schedule, the production team admitted that the success of the series has increased pressure to meet the expectations of the viewers. Creative freedom provided by Adult Swim entails taking responsibility for product quality. As the bar rises higher, work becomes harder, improvements are constantly being sought, and this often results in delays. Writing was finally completed in November 2016. On February 5, 2017, Dan Harmon, answering questions regarding the delayed release, announced on his podcast, Harmontown, that the show was in the animation process, after a long period of writing.
On June 24, 2017, when production of the season had been completed, Harmon wrote a series of posts on Twitter, explaining that the writing process took that long to complete because of his perfectionism. As a result, the third season of the show consisted of only ten episodes instead of fourteen, as was initially intended.
Following the conclusion of the show 's third season, Adult Swim has made a livestream marathon of Rick and Morty available to watch on its official website in select regions, hoping to dissuade viewers from watching other illegal livestreams. The third season will be released on DVD and Blu - ray on May 15, 2018, with special features including exclusive commentary and animatics for every episode, "inside the episode '', the origins of Rick and Morty, and an exclusive "inside the recording booth '' session. Uncensored versions of the season are also available to purchase on various digital platforms, including iTunes, Amazon and Microsoft Store. The digital release also includes commentary on every episode, as well as seven more short videos featuring co-creators Dan Harmon and Justin Roiland. The season is also available to watch on Netflix, in a number of countries outside the United States, including the United Kingdom.
The season currently holds a 97 % approval rating from review aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes based on 15 reviews, with an average rating of 8.76 out of 10.
Jesse Schedeen of IGN described the third season of the show as darker and more unpredictable than the first two, and praised its high - concept storytelling and character development. Schedeen gave the season an 8.8 out of 10 rating, saying that it "did n't quite reach the heights of Season 2, but it is the series ' most consistently entertaining and ambitious season yet. ''
Julia Alexander of Polygon highlighted the philosophical conflict between nihilist realism and life in ignorant bliss as the season 's main theme, and noted that "after an introspective season built on the importance of self - realization and reflection, Rick and Morty 's third year ended on a total reset '', with Beth and the kids seeking comfort through escapism and ignoring the realities of their lives. Kayla Cobb of Decider focused on the dynamism displayed by Beth and Summer, as the characters broke the stereotypical conventions of the first two seasons. Cobb stated that "Season 3 is the first time Rick and Morty really handed over the reigns (sic) to its leading ladies, and it was a horrifying delight. ''
Rick and Morty completed its third season with overall viewership numbers increased by 81 % over the previous season, and delivered the highest ratings in Adult Swim 's history. Rick and Morty was the most popular television comedy within the 18 -- 24 and 18 - 34 age ranges in the United States, based on "Live + 7 '' ratings data spanning from December 2016 to September 2017. This rating system tracks live viewership plus streaming and on - demand viewing over an initial week - long period, and provides a more accurate picture of delayed viewing as compared to "Live + Same Day '' ratings. Considering that episodes of the third season originally aired at 11: 30 p.m. on Sundays, it is very likely that people would have watched them on - demand the next day or several days later.
Christina Miller, the president of Adult Swim, told Fortune that Rick and Morty "goes beyond just appealing to millennials, '' as numbers suggest that people of all ages are watching the show. The second episode of the season, which aired nearly four months after the unannounced premiere, was the season 's most - watched episode with 2.86 million viewers, and the second - best on cable for the day it aired in adults 18 - 49, behind the weekly episode of Game of Thrones. The season finale was watched by 2.6 million live plus same day viewers and it was the most - watched telecast across all age groups.
The Szechuan sauce reference in the season premiere brought huge online attention for McDonald 's discontinued promotional product. Internet memes spread rapidly on Reddit and Twitter, more than 40,000 people signed a petition at Change.org, asking for the return of the sauce, while an eBay auction resulted in a 20 - year - old packet of this teriyaki sauce being sold for $14,700. On October 7, 2017, McDonald 's served limited quantities of Szechuan sauce, with the company calling it "the year 's most talked - about dipping sauce. ''
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what type of jurisdiction does a juvenile court have | Juvenile court - wikipedia
A juvenile court (or young offender 's court) is a tribunal having special authority to pass judgements for crimes that are committed by children or adolescents who have not attained the age of majority. In most modern legal systems, children and teens who commit a crime are treated differently from legal adults that have committed the same offense.
Industrialized countries differ in whether juveniles should be tried as adults for serious crimes or considered separately. Since the 1970s, minors have been tried increasingly as adults in response to "increases in violent juvenile crime. '' Young offenders may still not be prosecuted as adults. Serious offenses, such as murder or rape, can be prosecuted through adult court in England. However, as of 2007, no United States data reported any exact numbers of juvenile offenders prosecuted as adults. In contrast, countries such as Australia and Japan are in the early stages of developing and implementing youth - focused justice initiatives as a deferment from adult court.
Globally, the United Nations ' has encouraged nations to reform their systems to fit with a model in which "entire society (must) ensure the harmonious development of adolescence '' despite the delinquent behavior that may be causing issues. The hope was to create a more "child - friendly justice ''. Despite all the changes made by the United Nations, the rules in practice are less clear cut. Changes in a broad context cause issues of implementation locally, and international crimes committed by youth are causing additional questions regarding the benefit of separate proceedings for juveniles.
Issues of juvenile justice have become increasingly global in several cultural contexts. As globalization has occurred in recent centuries, issues of justice, and more specifically protecting the rights of children as it relates to juvenile courts, have been called to question. Global policies regarding this issue have become more widely accepted, and a general culture of treatment of children offenders has adapted to this trend.
Juvenile court is a special court or department of a trial court that deals with under - age defendants who are charged with crimes, are neglected, or are out of the control of their parents. The normal age of these defendants is under 18, but the age of majority changes based on the state or nation. Juvenile court does not have jurisdiction in cases in which minors are charged as adults. The procedure in juvenile court is not always adversarial, although the minor is entitled to legal representation by a lawyer. Parents or social workers and probation officers may be involved in the process to achieve positive results and save the minor from involvement in future crimes. However, serious crimes and repeated offenses can result in sentencing juvenile offenders to prison, with transfer to a state prison upon reaching adulthood with limited maximum sentences, often until the age of 18, 21, 23 or 25. Where parental neglect or loss of control is a problem, the juvenile court may seek out foster homes for the juvenile, treating the child as a ward of the court. A juvenile court handles cases of both delinquency and dependency. Delinquency refers to crimes committed by minors, and dependency includes cases where a non-parental person is chosen to care for a minor.
When looking at juvenile justice as a whole two types of models tend to be used: restorative justice and criminal justice. Within the United States, there are systematic shifts towards a more restorative model of justice especially surrounding juveniles. Canada has long been practicing under a restorative model of justice and continues to grow and expand upon practices of integrating youth offenders into the community in hopes that they do not recidivate but become positive, contributing members of society. In addition to these countries, Austria has taken an initiative to implement victim - offender mediation programs geared towards a more restorative form of justice. New Zealand completely restructured their system with an emphasis on what the indigenous people, Māori, practiced for many years. This includes a family - centered focus that lowers youth incarceration. Globally, there is a trend of utilizing the traditional values of past generations to create a positive impact throughout juvenile court systems.
In an era where crimes against the state, in violation of international law are prosecuted, children who are subjected to this crime are now being called into question on how to deal with them. More precisely this problem applies to children soldiers. Controversy has risen in regards to starting a special juvenile court or ' special court ' for children being prosecuted for international crimes. In Sierra Leone, for example, people wanted the perpetrators to be held entirely responsible despite age or social context. When a juvenile is deferred to the special court, their treatment would be treated with more respect as well as a promotion of rehabilitation and reintegration, taking into account how young many of the child soldiers were. The Secretary General termed the use of the tribunals as a "moral dilemma ''. The children who become soldiers often do so as a result of a structural or systemic threat in their lives; however, they still are responsible for many violent and heinous acts. In this way they are both victims of regimes and guilty parties, causing the problem and dilemma that the United Nations has tried to address in Sierra Leone as well as other countries.
Although the rules governing juvenile court vary significantly from state to state, the broad goal of U.S. juvenile courts is to provide a remedial or rehabilitative alternative to the adult criminal justice system. Although not always met, the ideal is to put a juvenile offender on the correct path to be a law - abiding adult.
Rules for jurisdiction of a juvenile court depend upon the state. In most states, juvenile court jurisdiction continues through the age of eighteen, but in some states it may end at age seventeen or younger. At times, a juvenile offender who is initially charged in juvenile court will be waived to adult court, meaning that the offender may be tried and sentenced in the same manner as an adult.
There is no uniform national age from which a child is accountable in the juvenile court system; this varies between states.
States vary in relation to the age at which a child may be subject to juvenile court proceedings for delinquent behavior. Most states do not specify a minimum age as a matter of law. Of states that set a minimum age, for status offenses:
And for delinquency:
All states have laws that allow, and at times require, young offenders to be prosecuted or sentenced as adults for more serious offenses, Without regard to their age.
In Kent v. United States (1966), the United States Supreme Court held that a juvenile must be afforded due process rights, specifically that a waiver of jurisdiction from a juvenile court to a district court must be voluntary and knowing. The U.S. Supreme Court held, in the case of In re Gault (1967), that children accused in a juvenile delinquency proceeding have the rights to due process, counsel, and against self - incrimination, essentially the Miranda rights. Writing for the majority, Associate Justice Abe Fortas wrote, "Under our Constitution, the condition of being a boy does not justify a kangaroo court. '' However, most juvenile proceedings are held without a jury as McKeiver v. Pennsylvania (1971) decided that minors do not have the same rights in this regard as adults.
In some jurisdictions, in addition to delinquent cases, juvenile court hears cases involving child custody, child support, and visitation as well as cases where children are alleged to be abused or neglected.
Procedures in juvenile court, for juveniles charged with delinquent acts (acts that would be crimes if committed by adults) or status offenses (offenses that can only be committed by minors, such as running away from home, curfew violations and truancy) are typically less formal than proceedings in adult courts. Proceedings may be closed to the public, and a juvenile offender 's name may be kept out of the public record.
In an American juvenile court, it is possible to avoid placing formal charges. Factors that may affect a court 's treatment of a juvenile offender and the disposition of the case include:
Along with these seven, four "unofficial '' factors can sway an official:
In Connecticut, a referral can be made to a non-court associated committee referred to as a Juvenile Review Board. These boards can present a resolution that does not result in a juvenile criminal record. However, there are circumstances such as the types of cases the board will accept.
Juvenile court sentences may range from:
Mandatory minimum sentences found their way into the juvenile justice system in the late 1970s out of concern that some juveniles were committing very serious criminal offenses. Mandatory minimum sentences might be imposed in juvenile court for some very serious crimes, such as homicide, and apply to juveniles in the same manner as adults if the juvenile is waived to adult court. The U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that the use of mandatory life sentences for juvenile offenders is unconstitutional.
In his 1997 book No Matter How Loud I Shout, a study of the Los Angeles ' Juvenile Courts, Edward Humes argued that juvenile court systems are in need of radical reform. He stated that the system sends too many children with good chances of rehabilitation to adult court while pushing aside and acquitting children early on the road to crime instead of giving counseling, support, and accountability. 57 % of children arrested for the first time are never arrested again, 27 % are arrested one or two more times, and 16 % commit four or more crimes.
In the United States specifically, there are arguments made against having a separate court for youths and juvenile delinquents. From this perspective, the construction of youth and being young is morphing and as such people believe the legal system should reflect these changes. Childhood currently, looks very different and is socially constructed in a much different pattern than in past historical context. Some argue that within our current social climate, a juvenile court system and having a separate deferment for people under the age of majority is no longer necessary as there are such blurred lines between the stages of childhood, youth, and young adulthood.
On a global scale, the United Nations has implemented reforms as it relating to juvenile courts and juvenile justice as a whole. Rules and regulations have been implemented to protect the children 's rights, more specifically creating guidelines for punishment. Movements towards less punitive measures or agencies have been a trend in this regard. For example, in the United Nations general assembly, there was a proposal that "no child or young person should be subjected to harsh or degrading correction or punishment measures ''. Many Western countries have been condemned for not put these policies into practice nor differentiate the youths from adults in procedure or punishment. The United Nations believes that youths should have less harsh punishment and be deferred to more community supportive programs like tribunals or courts geared towards young people. In Western Europe, there are many countries also criticized and looked at by the United Nations for the disproportionate representation of racial and ethnic minorities in the juvenile court system of the racial and ethnic minority being over-represented.
The current regime allows for many systemic perpetuations of class divides, discrimination and gender inequalities. Another reform made by the United Nations is "informalism '' in the mid-1900s where a push for diversion and less criminalizing happened. This was when many deferred programs and alternatives to formal criminal and adult jurisdictions changed, making it more child - friendly. In more recent years, the restorative justice model has been promoted as a better way to process and reintegrate youth who are involved in the court system back into the community. This model is multifaceted and requires a change in the cultural understanding of what it means to commit a crime as a person under the age of majority. The United Nations has offered aid to countries looking to move towards a restorative justice model as it is a positive change in from a human rights discourse. Difficulty in implementing restorative justice comes with cultural differences cross-nationally as well as the scope and breadth of the model. Additionally, the traditional values of adversarial justice have been rooted in the juvenile system for a very long time, which makes it difficult implement change on a global scale. Overall, the United Nation 's attempts at changing the conversation and structure surrounding juvenile courts, have made small strides as many other issues continually being addressed.
There are also many arguments against the globalization of the reforms of juvenile court systems. Global juvenile justice lacks solutions to the flaws that come out of placing them in such a broad range of social contexts. For example, the case study of Moroccan youth as well as other ethnic minorities or migrant groups living in the Netherlands. There is a disconnect between the idea that crime is a local social problem, but there are movements to solve the problems more generically and on a much broader spectrum. In the Netherlands, the emphasis of juvenile court is rehabilitation despite the reality being a more punitive focused system when placed in practice. Juvenile courts cause further system bias and exclusion for these minority groups, and the disparity is a source of concern. One reason for this problem is the public discourse and police scrutiny -- all of which stem from the failed cultural integration. Globalization of youth justice and the court then perpetuates this idea of an "international scapegoat '' and causes issues that need more careful consideration for the putting global practices to work in local communities. As some scholars argue, globalization does not simplify the problem but rather complicates it as it challenges "traditional modes of analysis '' and creates problems of identity.
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who voiced winnie the pooh in the new movie | Christopher Robin (film) - wikipedia
Christopher Robin is a 2018 American fantasy comedy - drama film directed by Marc Forster and written by Alex Ross Perry, Tom McCarthy and Allison Schroeder, from a story by Greg Brooker and Mark Steven Johnson. The film is inspired by A.A. Milne and E.H. Shepard 's book Winnie - the - Pooh and is a live - action / CGI extension of the Disney franchise of the same name. The film stars Ewan McGregor as the titular character alongside Hayley Atwell, as well as the voices of Jim Cummings and Brad Garrett. The plot follows Christopher Robin as he has grown up and lost his sense of imagination, only to be reunited with his old stuffed bear friend, Winnie - the - Pooh.
Plans of a live - action Winnie the Pooh adaptation were announced in April 2015, and Forster was confirmed as director in November 2016. McGregor signed on as Christopher Robin in April 2017 and principal photography began in August of that year in the United Kingdom, lasting until November.
Christopher Robin had its premiere in Burbank, California on July 30, 2018. Released in the United States on August 3, 2018, by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, the film has grossed over $115 million worldwide and received mostly positive reviews from critics.
Christopher Robin is leaving for boarding school, so his friends from the Hundred Acre Wood -- Winnie the Pooh, Tigger, Piglet, Eeyore, Kanga, Roo, Owl, and Rabbit -- throw a goodbye party. Christopher comforts Pooh and tells him that he will never forget him.
Christopher goes to boarding school, after which he grows up, meets and marries architect Evelyn, with whom he has daughter Madeline. He serves in the British Army during World War II. After the war, he works as an efficiency expert at Winslow Luggages. He neglects his family due to his demanding job and plans on sending Madeline to boarding school. With the company hitting hard times, Giles Winslow Jr. tells Christopher to decrease expenditures by 20 %, largely by choosing which employees to lay off, and to present his plan on Monday. This causes Christopher to reluctantly miss joining his family at their countryside cottage in Sussex for a summer - ending weekend.
When Pooh awakens and is unable to find his friends, he decides to travel through Christopher 's door and finds himself in London. He reunites with Christopher, who is shocked to see Pooh, but takes him back to his London home. After a night and morning of chaos (including Pooh knocking down all of his kitchen shelves in search of honey), Christopher escorts the bear back to Sussex on the next train.
After sneaking past Christopher 's cottage, the two enter the Hundred Acre Wood. Christopher becomes exasperated by Pooh 's absent - mindedness and fear of Heffalumps and Woozles. Christopher angrily tells Pooh that he is not a child anymore, before the two get separated in the fog. Christopher discovers Eeyore and Piglet, who lead him to the others, hiding in a log out of fear of a Heffalump. Unable to persuade his friends that he is truly Christopher Robin, he pretends to defeat a Heffalump to convince them. Finally believing that it is Christopher Robin, they joyfully greet him. When they reunite with Pooh at their meeting spot, Christopher apologizes for getting upset earlier. Christopher tells Pooh how lost he feels, but Pooh reminds him that they have found each other and comforts him with a hug. The next morning, Christopher, realising how late he is, rushes from the Hundred Acre Wood to make his presentation. He encounters his family and, unable to tell them about his old friends in the Hundred Acre Wood, leaves.
Pooh realizes that Tigger removed Christopher 's paperwork when drying his briefcase, so Pooh, Tigger, Piglet and Eeyore decide to travel to London to give it back. They meet Madeline, who recognizes them from her father 's drawings. She joins them, wanting to dissuade her father about boarding school; Evelyn follows after discovering a note Madeline left.
At the meeting, Christopher discovers that his briefcase contains items from the woods that Tigger left for him. Evelyn arrives and Christopher joins her to search London for Madeline. Madeline 's group stow away in Winslow company crates, but Tigger, Eeyore and Piglet are accidentally thrown out, and they encounter Christopher and Evelyn in the process. Madeline and Pooh arrive near the Winslow building and reunite with Christopher 's group, but Madeline accidentally trips on the stairs and loses all but one of the papers, upsetting her and Pooh. Christopher assures Madeline of her importance to him and that he will not send her to boarding school.
Christopher improvises a plan involving reducing the prices of luggage, giving employees paid leave, and selling their luggage to everyday people to increase demand. Winslow Jr., who instead proposed firing some of the staff, dismisses the idea; Winslow Sr. warms to it and agrees to the plan. Winslow Jr. is humiliated as Christopher points out that he contributed nothing to the plan, having been golfing all weekend.
Christopher finally takes his family into the Hundred Acre Wood to meet the rest of his friends.
In a mid-credits scene, the employees of Winslow 's are seen having fun at the beach while Richard M. Sherman performs "Busy Doing Nothing '' on a piano. Pooh, Piglet, Eeyore and Tigger are relaxing on beach chairs with Eeyore saying "Thank you for noticing me ''.
On April 2, 2015, Walt Disney Pictures announced that a live - action adaptation based on the characters from the Winnie the Pooh franchise was in development which would take a similar pattern to 2010 's Alice in Wonderland, 2014 's Maleficent, and 2015 's Cinderella. Alex Ross Perry was hired to write the script and Brigham Taylor hired to produce the film, about an adult Christopher Robin returning to the Hundred Acre Wood to spend time with Pooh and the gang. On November 18, 2016, it was reported that the studio had hired Marc Forster to direct the film, titled Christopher Robin, and the project would have "strong elements of magical realism as it seeks to tell an emotional journey with heartwarming adventure. '' On March 1, 2017, Tom McCarthy was hired to rewrite the existing screenplay.
On April 26, 2017, Ewan McGregor was announced to play the title character while Allison Schroeder was recruited to do additional work on the script. On June 22, 2017, it was revealed that Gemma Arterton had been in negotiations to portray the wife of the title character but, ultimately, she passed on the role. In August and September 2017, Hayley Atwell and Mark Gatiss were cast as Evelyn, Christopher Robin 's wife and Giles Winslow, Christopher Robin 's boss, while Brad Garrett and Nick Mohammed were cast as Eeyore and Piglet with Jim Cummings reprising his roles as both Winnie the Pooh and Tigger. In January 2018, Peter Capaldi, Sophie Okonedo and Toby Jones were cast as Rabbit, Kanga and Owl respectively. Chris O'Dowd was originally announced as the voice of Tigger, but later stepped down from the role after audiences in test screenings reacted negatively towards how he voiced the character and was replaced by Cummings.
Principal photography on the film began in early August 2017, in the United Kingdom, and concluded on November 4, 2017. Much of the filming of the Hundred Acre Wood scenes took place at Ashdown Forest, which was the original inspiration for the setting, as well as Windsor Great Park.
Jóhann Jóhannsson was hired to score the film, shortly before his death on February 9, 2018. The film is dedicated to his memory. Klaus Badelt was announced as taking over composing duties for Jóhannsson, but the score was ultimately written by Geoff Zanelli and Jon Brion. At an Academy event, songwriter and Disney Legend Richard Sherman revealed that the film would feature the iconic "Winnie the Pooh '' theme, and that he was working on three new songs for the film, titled "Goodbye Farewell '', "Busy Doing Nothing '' and "Christopher Robin '', with the first one being performed by the voice cast, and the last two by Sherman. "Up, Down and Touch the Ground '' and "The Wonderful Thing About Tiggers '' are also included in the film.
Visual effects studios Framestore and Method Studios, are leading the animation for the Hundred Acre Wood characters, with Overall Vfx Supervisor Chris Lawrence and Animation Supervisor Michael Eames leading the teams.
Christopher Robin premiered in Burbank, California on July 30, 2018, and was released on August 3, 2018 by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. The film was denied release in China, as some have speculated it was due to Chinese netizens have drawn comparisons between Winnie the Pooh and Chinese leader Xi Jinping since mid 2017. Other industry insider speculates it was likely due to other reasons such as the film 's size and the presence of other Hollywood films in the market.
The first teaser poster of the film was released on March 5, 2018, and the first teaser trailer was unveiled the following day.
On May 24, 2018, it was announced that the full trailer would premiere the following day during McGregor 's appearance on The Ellen DeGeneres Show.
As of August 28, 2018, Christopher Robin has grossed $79.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $36.4 million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $115.6 million.
In the United States and Canada, Christopher Robin was released alongside The Spy Who Dumped Me, The Darkest Minds, and Death of a Nation: Can We Save America a Second Time?. The film made $9.5 million on its first day, including $1.5 million from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $24.6 million, finishing second at the box office behind holdover Mission: Impossible -- Fallout. The film fell 47 % to $13 million in its second weekend, finishing third behind The Meg and Mission: Impossible -- Fallout. In its third weekend, the film declined 31 % to $8.9 million, finishing in sixth place. The movie retained its sixth place position during its fourth weekend and grossed $6.3 million, dropping 29 %.
On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 71 % based on 191 reviews, with an average rating of 6.1 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Christopher Robin may not equal A.A. Milne 's stories -- or their animated Disney adaptations -- but it should prove sweet enough for audiences seeking a little childhood magic. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 59 out of 100, based on 42 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it 4.5 out of 5 stars.
Ben Kenigsberg of the New York Times reviewed the film this way: "Once Christopher Robin softens its insufferable, needlessly cynical conception of the title character, it offers more or less what a Pooh reboot should: a lot of nostalgia, a bit of humor and tactile computer animation. '' And David Sims of The Atlantic wrote, "It 's an odd, melancholic experience that at times recalls Terrence Malick as it does A.A. Milne, but there will certainly be some viewers in its exact wheelhouse. '' Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave the film 3 out of 4 stars and said, "Pooh 's wisdom and kindness can not be denied. The same impulses worked for the two Paddington movies, God knows. Christopher Robin is n't quite in their league, but it 's affecting nonetheless. '' Richard Lawson of Vanity Fair gave the film a positive review and heavily praised the voice performance from Cummings, calling it "Oscar - worthy ''. Overall, he said, "As Winnie the Pooh (and Tigger too), the veteran voice actor gives such sweet, rumpled, affable life to the wistful bear of literary renown that it routinely breaks the heart. Cummings 's performance understands something more keenly than the movie around it; he taps into a vein of humor and melancholy that is pitched at an exact frequency, one that will speak to child and adult alike. His Pooh is an agreeable nuisance and an accidental philosopher, delivering nonsensical (and yet entirely sensible) adages in a friendly, deliberate murmur ringed faintly with sadness. I wanted to (gently) yank him from the screen and take him home with me, his fuzzy little paw in mine as we ambled to the subway, the summer sun fading behind us. He 's a good bear, this Pooh. ''
Conversely, Alonso Duralde of TheWrap called the film "slow and charmless '' and wrote, "What we 're left with is a Hook - style mid-life crisis movie aimed at kids, designed to shame parents who spend too much time at the office and not enough with their families. '' Sarah Melton from Exclaim! gave the film a rating of 5 / 10, calling it a "sickly sweet tale '' with a predictable ending. Helen O'Hara of Empire magazine gave the film a 2 out of 5 stars and said "Everyone 's trying hard, but they ca n't quite live up to the particularly gentle, warm tone of Pooh himself. Unlike the bear of very little brain, this is a film pulled in different directions with entirely too many thoughts in its head ''.
The performance of Ewan McGregor as Christopher Robin was particularly well received. David Fear of Rolling Stone said, "He 's an actor who can roll with this movie 's punches, whether it requires him to be light on his feet or dragged down by existential despair, exhilarated by childlike play or exasperated by a house - wrecking creature who says things like, ' People say nothing is impossible, but I do nothing every day '. '' Adam Forsgren for East Idaho News wrote, "First and foremost is McGregor 's performance in the title role. The guy sells being the put - upon, overburdened office drone so well that it 's a treat to see him begin to rediscover his younger self and let himself play... McGregor is the glue that holds this whole movie together. '' Stephanie Zacharek of Time stated, "But it 's doubtful the movie would work at all if not for McGregor: He turns Christopher 's anxiety into a haunting presence, the kind of storm cloud that we can all, now and then, feel hovering above us. Yet McGregor is also an actor capable of expressing unalloyed delight. And when, as Christopher Robin, he finally does, some of that delight rubs off on us too. '' Brian Lowry also noted in his review for CNN, "Give much of the credit to McGregor in the thankless task of playing opposite his adorably furry co-stars, ably handling the comedy derived from the fact that he does n't dare let others see them. ''
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where does the brazos river meet the gulf | Brazos River - wikipedia
The Brazos River (/ ˈbræzəs / (listen) BRAZZ - əs), called the Rio de los Brazos de Dios (translated as "The River of the Arms of God '') by early Spanish explorers, is the 11th - longest river in the United States of America at 1,280 miles (2,060 km) from its headwater source at the head of Blackwater Draw, Curry County, New Mexico to its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico with a 45,000 - square - mile (116,000 km) drainage basin. It sometimes is used to mark the boundary between East Texas and West Texas.
The Brazos proper begins at the confluence of the Salt Fork and Double Mountain Fork, two tributaries of the Upper Brazos that rise on the high plains of the Llano Estacado, flowing 840 miles (1,350 km) through the center of Texas. Another major tributary of the Upper Brazos is the Clear Fork Brazos River, which passes by Abilene and joins the main river near Graham. Important tributaries of the Lower Brazos include the Paluxy River, the Bosque River, the Little River, Yegua Creek, Nolan River, the Leon River, the San Gabriel River, the Lampasas River and the Navasota River.
Initially running east towards Dallas - Fort Worth, the Brazos turns south, passing through Waco and the Baylor University campus, further south to near Calvert, Texas then past Bryan and College Station, then through Richmond, Texas in Fort Bend County, and into the Gulf of Mexico in the marshes just south of Freeport.
The main stem of the Brazos is dammed in three places, all north of Waco, forming Possum Kingdom Lake, Lake Granbury, and Lake Whitney. Of these three, Granbury was the last to be completed, in 1969. When its construction was proposed in the mid-1950s, John Graves wrote the book, Goodbye to a River. A small municipal dam (Lake Brazos Dam) is near the downstream city limit of Waco at the end of the Baylor campus; it raises the level of the river through the city to form a town lake. This impoundment of the Brazos through Waco is locally called Lake Brazos. A total of nineteen major reservoirs are located along the Brazos.
North Fork Double Mountain Fork Brazos River at the edge of the Llano Estacado.
Salt Fork Brazos River in Kent County, Texas.
Double Mountain Fork Brazos River north of Rotan, Texas.
Double Mountain Fork Brazos River at the site of former Rath City, Texas.
The Brazos in north Central Texas.
The Brazos in southeast Central Texas west of Bryan, Texas.
It is unclear when it was first named by European explorers, since it was often confused with the Colorado River not far to the south, but it was certainly seen by René - Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle. Later Spanish accounts call it Los Brazos de Dios (the arms of God), for which name there were several different explanations, all involving it being the first water to be found by desperately thirsty parties. In 1842, native Indian commissioner of Texas, Ethan Stroud established a trading post on this river.
Brazos River was the scene of a battle between the Texas Navy and Mexican Navy during the Texas Revolution. Texas Navy ship Independence was defeated by one Mexican vessel.
The river was important for navigation before and after the American Civil War, and steam boats sailed as far up the river as Washington - on - the - Brazos. While attempts to improve commercial navigation on the river continued, railroads proved more reliable. The Brazos River also flooded, often seriously, on a regular basis before a piecemeal levee system was replaced, notably in 1913 when a massive flood affected the course of the river. The river is primarily important today as a source of water for power, irrigation, and recreation. The water is administered by the Brazos River Authority.
The river also features prominently in a number of prison songs, because at one time nearly every prison in Texas was near the Brazos.
The 2000 book, Sandbars and Sternwheelers: Steam Navigation on the Brazos by Pamela A. Puryear and Nath Winfield, Jr., with introduction by J. Milton Nance, examines the early vessels that attempted to navigate the Brazos.
On June 2, 2016, the rising of the river required evacuations for portions of Brazoria County.
The Brazos River watershed covers a total area of 119,174 square kilometers. Within the watershed lie 42 lakes and rivers which have a combined storage capacity of 2.5 million acre - feet. The Brazos watershed also has an estimated ground water availability of 119,275 acre - feet per year. Approximately 31 % of the land use within the watershed is cropland. Approximately 61 % is grassland (30 %) shrubland (19.8 %) and forest (11 %) while urban use only makes up 4.6 %. The population density within the watershed is 19.5 people per square kilometer.
The main water quality issues within the Brazos Watershed are high nutrient loads, high bacterial and salinity levels and low dissolved oxygen. These water quality issues can be attributed to livestock, fertilizer and chemical run off. Sources of run off are croplands, pastures, and industrial sites among others. Fracking is also cause for concern regarding water quality within the Brazos Watershed. The Barnett Shale lies partially within the watershed which is the second largest source of natural gas in the US. Studies have shown that the watershed receiving the most toxic pollution is the lower Brazos river which received 33.4 million pounds of toxic waste in 2012.
Canoeing is a very popular recreational activity on the Brazos River with many locations favorable for launching and recovery. The best paddling can be found immediately below Possum Kingdom Lake and Lake Granbury.
Sandbar Camping is also permitted since the entire streambed of the river is considered to be state - owned public property. Fishing, camping, and picnicking are legal here, including on the sandbars. Several scout camps are located along the Brazos River and they support a wide range of water and shoreline activities for scouts, youth groups and family groups.
The Brazos River Authority maintains several public campsites along the river and at the lakes. Hunting and fishing are also permitted at select locations along the river.
Outdoor enthusiasts enjoy the opportunity to find beautiful scenery and abundant wildlife on the river. Fly fishing and river fishing for largemouth bass are popular.
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when did the world celebrate it most recent millennium | Millennium celebrations - wikipedia
The Millennium celebrations were a worldwide, coordinated series of events celebrating New Year 's Eve in 1999 -- 2000, marking the end of the second millennium and beginning of the new, third millennium. This also marks the ending of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century. Many countries held official festivities in the weeks and months leading up to the millennium, such as those organised in the USA by the White House Millennium Council, and most major cities produced firework displays at midnight. Equally, many private venues, cultural and religious centres held events and a diverse range of memorabilia was created -- such as souvenir postage stamps.
As with every New Year 's Eve, many events were timed with the "stroke of midnight '' at the timezone of the location. There were also many events associated with the dawn on 1 January. While there was debate over whether the millennium truly begins in 2000 or 2001 the popularity of the round number made New Year 's 1999 -- 2000 a global celebration. An international television broadcast called 2000 Today was produced by a consortium of 60 broadcasters, while an alternative program Millennium Live was cancelled two days before the event.
Some countries in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, and hence close to the International Date Line engaged in "Millennium politics '' to argue they were the first to enter the new millennium. Variously, the Chatham Islands, New Zealand, Tonga, Fiji and Kiribati all laid debatable claims to the status -- by moving the dateline itself, institution of daylight savings and claiming "first territory '', "first land '', "first inhabited land '' or "first city ''.
The US Navy submarine Topeka positioned itself 400 feet underwater, straddling both the International date line and the equator.
At Caroline Island, renamed as "Millennium Island '' in the mid-Pacific, the republic of Kiribati claimed the first land to see the new millennium.
On the Chatham Islands there was a Maori blessing. "As they faced the Pacific Ocean, a beacon was lit and school children sang. ''
In Auckland, a fireworks display on the Harbour made New Zealand the first industrial nation to celebrate the year 2000, being just west of the International Dateline.
Sydney, hosts of the 2000 Summer Olympics, held a large fireworks display centering on the Harbour Bridge with the locally famous graffito Eternity being recreated. For the first time in its history, the Sydney Opera House precinct was almost completely cordoned off from the public. Instead, tickets costing as much as $2000 each were being sold for Opera House parties. However, public transport and access was available to view the fireworks on the Bridge, which included the "waterfall '' effect.
In Tokyo, there were a series of concerts and a fireworks display. At midnight, temple bells across Japan were rung 108 times to "dispel the evils of mankind ''.
In Beijing, alongside fireworks and dragon dances, President Jiang Zemin lit an "eternal flame '' and "pledging China would restore its lost glory ''.
In the Philippines, Millennium Parties simultaneously began in different parts of the Country. President Joseph Estrada and top Government Officials joined the celebrations at the Rizal Park (which was broadcast on ABS - CBN) while in the Ayala Millennium Center, Regine Velasquez sang the Philippine Millennium Theme Song, "Written in the Sand '' at the top of the Peninsula Manila at about ten minutes to Philippine Midnight as part of the 10 - minute window on the Philippines in the 2000 Today (Global Millennium Day Broadcasts on GMA)
South Africa 's Nelson Mandela lit a candle in his former cell at Robben Island at the stroke of midnight.
Moscow 's Government and its National Government had sponsored parties across the city. They all celebrated as the Spasskaya Tower ring in the New Millennium
Athens held a fireworks display over the Acropolis and a televised choir sang the Olympic anthem, a Byzantine anthem and the Greek national anthem.
In Jerusalem, and particularly at the Mount of Olives, fears that doomsday fanatics "... could try to trigger an apocalypse prompted one of Israel 's biggest peacetime police operations. ''
In Giza, a concert called The Twelve Dreams of the Sun with music by Jean Michel Jarre was held on the pyramids.
Paris was the focal point of celebrations in France where searchlights and 20,000 strobe lights for the event for installed on the Eiffel tower. They still operate each night.
In Rome, Pope John Paul II led a traditional Te Deum service at St. Peter 's Basilica.
In London, attention focused around Big Ben, the Millennium Dome and fireworks display, called the "River of Fire '' went along several kilometers of the Thames.
The Irish national television channel RTÉ produced a marathon 19 - hour broadcast called Millennium Eve: Celebrate 2000.
Rio de Janeiro held a special party led by Gal Costa at minutes to midnight. South Georgia and the Sandwich Islands became the first place in the Americas to celebrate the millennium but with no person on it, all of the British inhabitants chose to spend the midnight celebrations back at GMT time
In Newfoundland and Labrador a concert was held that was broadcast to thousands of Canadians as the small island celebrated being the first place in North America to welcome the twenty - first century. Meanwhile, in Bermuda celebrations were marked as the first Caribbean nation to crossover to the new millennium reached it highest at midnight.
In Ottawa, Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien presided over celebrations on Parliament Hill, which included artistic performances and a midnight fireworks display launched from the Peace Tower.
Fireworks were launched from the CN Tower in Toronto.
In New York, a new Times Square Ball made of Waterford Crystal was commissioned and organizers expected a total attendance exceeding 2 million spectators.
A Millennium Celebration was held at the Walt Disney World theme park in Florida, primarily at Epcot.
U.S. President Bill Clinton watched with thousands of spectators in Washington, D.C. as the Washington Monument lit up at midnight. Washington was also the world 's largest Y2K command center despite GMT being the coordinated time zone.
In Los Angeles, the Hollywood Sign became illuminated in various colors, one of the very few times the sign became lit.
Hawaiian celebrations were centered in Honolulu. The party was headed by the Governor and his family.
"Samoa remains unchallenged in its claim as the last place on Earth to celebrate the closing of the century. ''
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who is the girl locked up in once upon a time season 7 | Once Upon a Time (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of the American ABC fantasy - drama Once Upon a Time was ordered on May 11, 2017. It will consist of 22 episodes, airing on Fridays, having premiered on October 6, 2017.
This season marks a significant change for the series, as it was announced at the end of the sixth season that the majority of the main cast members would not be returning for season 7. Lana Parrilla, Colin O'Donoghue, and Robert Carlyle will be the only ones remaining. Andrew J. West and Alison Fernandez were announced as new regulars in May 2017. Dania Ramirez and Gabrielle Anwar were announced as additional regulars in July 2017. In August 2017, it was announced that Mekia Cox had been promoted to series regular after initially joining the cast in July as recurring.
The storyline is softly rebooted with a main narrative led by an adult Henry Mills, set several years after last season 's events.
Years after the Final Battle was won, Henry decides to leave Storybrooke to other realms in search of his own story. After years of realm travelling, he ends up in the New Enchanted Forest, where he gets tangled into a conflict between Cinderella, Lady Tremaine, Drizella, Mother Gothel, and a resistance lead by Princess Tiana that eventually leads to the casting of another curse that takes the inhabitants to a newly created neighbourhood called Hyperion Heights in Seattle. Lucy, Henry 's daughter, tries to get Henry to believe again and to break the curse while Drizella tries to prevent it. meanwhile Lady Tremaine tries to awaken her comatose daughter Anastasia with the help of an imprisoned Mother Gothel.
In January 2017, while season 6 was still in production, ABC president Channing Dungey spoke of a possible "reset '' of the show 's narrative in the event that the show received a season 7 order. After much speculation, executive producers Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis later confirmed that certain characters would have their storylines wrapped up and that the back - end of the sixth season had been written with the season 7 narrative change in mind. Despite the major changes from seasons past, the showrunners have said that they do not view season 7 as a complete reboot of the show. Horowitz said: "I hesitate to use the word "reboot. '' We 're more thinking about it as a hybrid of a lot of things. We 're paying homage to the original premise, but there are certain characters who are returning and some who are not. It 's a combination of a lot of things, but what we 're trying to do is go in a new direction but stay true to the spirit of what the show has always been. ''
In July 2017, the creators announced that the series now take place in the Seattle neighborhood of Hyperion Heights, which was created under a new and darker curse. Residents of this neighborhood include displaced characters from the original and new versions of the Enchanted Forest, as well as regular people from the Land Without Magic. This differs from Storybrooke in season 1, which was an isolated town that was blocked off from real - world Maine. The initial villain is Lady Tremaine, who assumes the role of an urban developer who seeks to "gentrify the neighborhood '' and push out and separate fairy tale residents. Meanwhile, Storybrooke and various Fairy Tale Land locations still appear in the flashbacks of the season as the story bounces back and forth between the characters ' lives before and during the latest curse.
In May 2017, it was announced that Lana Parrilla, Colin O'Donoghue, and Robert Carlyle would be the only series regulars from season 6 to continue onto season 7. It was teased that the three would be portraying their original characters but with cursed identities, similar to the circumstances in season 1. In July, the first promo of the season revealed that Killian is now a Seattle police officer with the last name Rogers, who is living with an unexplained sense of loss. In August, it was revealed that Regina is now a bar owner named Roni, who is more dressed down and is "no longer in charge. ''
Former main cast member Jennifer Morrison has confirmed that she has agreed to return for one episode, later revealed to be the second episode of the season. Morrison announced her last filming day on July 19, 2017. On July 22, it was confirmed that Emilie de Ravin would return for the fourth episode in the seventh season.
In March 2017, Andrew J. West and Alison Fernandez were cast for unknown guest roles in the season six finale. During the episode, it was revealed that West was portraying an adult Henry Mills, while Fernandez portrayed his daughter, Lucy. After that episode 's airing, they were confirmed as series regulars for season 7. West will be taking over the role from Jared S. Gilmore, who has been confirmed to appear in at least the first two episodes of the season.
On July 6, 2017, it was announced that Dania Ramirez and Gabrielle Anwar would be two additional series regulars for season 7. Additionally, Adelaide Kane, Mekia Cox, and Rose Reynolds were cast in recurring roles for the upcoming season. On July 15, it was announced that Ramirez would be portraying Cinderella, albeit a different version from the one previously played by Jessy Schram for the first six seasons. On July 22 at San Diego Comic - Con, it was revealed that Anwar and Kane will be portraying Lady Tremaine and Drizella, respectively. Cox would be portraying Tiana from The Princess and the Frog, while Reynolds would be playing an alternate version of Alice, a character previously heavily featured in the spin - off Once Upon a Time in Wonderland. In August 2017, Cox was promoted to series regular.
On August 1, it was announced that Giles Matthey would return as an adult Gideon for the season 's fourth episode. The episode, also featuring Emilie de Ravin, would be centered around Rumple. On that same day, it was also announced that Emma Booth was cast in a major recurring role as the Witch, whose more specific identity would be revealed later on during the season. On August 25, Kevin Ryan announced that he would be making an appearance as a new prince in the upcoming season. On August 30, it was announced that Robin Givens had been cast as Tiana 's mother, Eudora.
On September 8, it was announced that Meegan Warner would be guest starring as an alternate version of Rapunzel, a character previously featured in one episode of season 3. It was later revealed that the character would appear in a multi-episode arc. On September 20, it was announced that former main Rebecca Mader would return for multiple episodes in the seventh season as Zelena, who will also have a cursed identity.
On October 2, it was announced that Dr. Facilier from The Princess and the Frog would make an appearance during the season, later revealed to be portrayed by Daniel Francis in the season 's fifth episode. On October 3, it was announced that flashbacks of the ninth episode would feature a "tweenage '' Anastasia, Lady Tremaine 's other biological daughter.
On November 1, it was announced that Tiera Skovbye would be recurring as an older version of Robin, the daughter of Zelena and Robin Hood. On November 2, it was announced that Nathan Parsons had been cast in a recurring role as Nick, a lawyer and potential love interest for another character. On November 3, it was announced that the show was casting for the role of Naveen from The Princess and the Frog, who will be appearing in the second half of the season. On November 16, actor Chad Rook announced that he had been cast in an unknown role.
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who gets the money from the trevi fountain | Trevi fountain - wikipedia
The Trevi Fountain (Italian: Fontana di Trevi) is a fountain in the Trevi district in Rome, Italy, designed by Italian architect Nicola Salvi and completed by Pietro Bracci. Standing 26.3 metres (86 ft) high and 49.15 metres (161.3 ft) wide, it is the largest Baroque fountain in the city and one of the most famous fountains in the world. The fountain has appeared in several notable films, including Federico Fellini 's La Dolce Vita and the eponymous Three Coins in the Fountain.
The fountain at the junction of three roads (tre vie) marks the terminal point of the "modern '' Acqua Vergine, the revived Aqua Virgo, one of the aqueducts that supplied water to ancient Rome. In 19 BC, supposedly with the help of a virgin, Roman technicians located a source of pure water some 13 km (8.1 mi) from the city. (This scene is presented on the present fountain 's façade.) However, the eventual indirect route of the aqueduct made its length some 22 km (14 mi). This Aqua Virgo led the water into the Baths of Agrippa. It served Rome for more than 400 years.
In 1629 Pope Urban VIII, finding the earlier fountain insufficiently dramatic, asked Gian Lorenzo Bernini to sketch possible renovations, but the project was abandoned when the pope died. Though Bernini 's project was never constructed, there are many Bernini touches in the fountain as it exists today. An early, influential model by Pietro da Cortona, preserved in the Albertina, Vienna, also exists, as do various early 18th century sketches, most unsigned, as well as a project attributed to Nicola Michetti one attributed to Ferdinando Fuga and a French design by Edme Bouchardon.
Competitions had become the rage during the Baroque era to design buildings, fountains and even the Spanish Steps. In 1730 Pope Clement XII organized a contest in which Nicola Salvi initially lost to Alessandro Galilei -- but due to the outcry in Rome over the fact that a Florentine won, Salvi was awarded the commission anyway. Work began in 1732 and the fountain was completed in 1762, long after Salvi 's death, when Pietro Bracci 's Oceanus (god of all water) was set in the central niche.
Salvi died in 1751 with his work half finished, but he had made sure a stubborn barber 's unsightly sign would not spoil the ensemble, hiding it behind a sculpted vase, called by Romans the asso di coppe, the "Ace of Cups ''.
The Trevi Fountain was finished in 1762 by Giuseppe Pannini, who substituted the present allegories for planned sculptures of Agrippa and "Trivia '', the Roman virgin. It was officially opened and inaugurated on May 22 by Pope Clement XIII.
The majority of the piece is made from Travertine stone, quarried near Tivoli, about 35 kilometres (22 miles) east of Rome.
The fountain was refurbished in 1998; the stonework was scrubbed and all cracks and other areas of deterioration were repaired by skilled artisans and the fountain was equipped with recirculating pumps.
In January 2013, it was announced that the Italian fashion company Fendi would sponsor a 20 - month, 2.2 - million - euro restoration of the fountain; it was to be the most thorough restoration in the fountain 's history.
Restoration work began in June 2014 and was completed in November 2015. The fountain was reopened with an official ceremony on the evening of November 3, 2015. The restoration included the installation of more than 100 LED lights to improve the nighttime illumination of the fountain.
The backdrop for the fountain is the Palazzo Poli, given a new façade with a giant order of Corinthian pilasters that link the two main stories. Taming of the waters is the theme of the gigantic scheme that tumbles forward, mixing water and rockwork, and filling the small square. Tritons guide Oceanus ' shell chariot, taming hippocamps.
In the centre a robustly - modelled triumphal arch is superimposed on the palazzo façade. The centre niche or exedra framing Oceanus has free - standing columns for maximal light and shade. In the niches flanking Oceanus, Abundance spills water from her urn and Salubrity holds a cup from which a snake drinks. Above, bas reliefs illustrate the Roman origin of the aqueducts.
The tritons and horses provide symmetrical balance, with the maximum contrast in their mood and poses (by 1730, rococo was already in full bloom in France and Germany).
Coins are purportedly meant to be thrown using the right hand over the left shoulder. This was the theme of 1954 's Three Coins in the Fountain and the Academy Award - winning song by that name which introduced the picture.
An estimated 3,000 Euros are thrown into the fountain each day. In 2016, an estimated US $1.5 million was thrown into the fountain. The money has been used to subsidise a supermarket for Rome 's needy; however, there are regular attempts to steal coins from the fountain although it is illegal to do so.
In 1973, Italian National Postal Service dedicated a postage stamp to the Trevi Fountain.
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what are the four stages of cognitive development proposed by piaget | Piaget 's theory of cognitive development - wikipedia
Piaget 's theory of cognitive development is a comprehensive theory about the nature and development of human intelligence. It was first created by the Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget (1896 -- 1980). The theory deals with the nature of knowledge itself and how humans gradually come to acquire, construct, and use it. Piaget 's theory is mainly known as a developmental stage theory.
To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes resulting from biological maturation and environmental experience. He believed that children construct an understanding of the world around them, experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment, then adjust their ideas accordingly. Moreover, Piaget claimed that cognitive development is at the center of the human organism, and language is contingent on knowledge and understanding acquired through cognitive development. Piaget 's earlier work received the greatest attention.
Child - centered classrooms and "open education '' are direct applications of Piaget 's views. Despite its huge success, Piaget 's theory has some limitations that Piaget recognized himself: for example, the theory supports sharp stages rather than continuous development (horizontal and vertical décalage).
Piaget noted that reality is a dynamic system of continuous change. Reality is defined in reference to the two conditions that define dynamic systems. Specifically, he argued that reality involves transformations and states. Transformations refer to all manners of changes that a thing or person can undergo. States refer to the conditions or the appearances in which things or persons can be found between transformations. For example, there might be changes in shape or form (for instance, liquids are reshaped as they are transferred from one vessel to another, and similarly humans change in their characteristics as they grow older), in size (a toddler does not walk and run without falling, but after 7 yrs of age, the child 's sensory motor anatomy is well developed and now acquires skill faster), or in placement or location in space and time (e.g., various objects or persons might be found at one place at one time and at a different place at another time). Thus, Piaget argued, if human intelligence is to be adaptive, it must have functions to represent both the transformational and the static aspects of reality. He proposed that operative intelligence is responsible for the representation and manipulation of the dynamic or transformational aspects of reality, and that figurative intelligence is responsible for the representation of the static aspects of reality.
Operative intelligence is the active aspect of intelligence. It involves all actions, overt or covert, undertaken in order to follow, recover, or anticipate the transformations of the objects or persons of interest. Figurative intelligence is the more or less static aspect of intelligence, involving all means of representation used to retain in mind the states (i.e., successive forms, shapes, or locations) that intervene between transformations. That is, it involves perception, imitation, mental imagery, drawing, and language. Therefore, the figurative aspects of intelligence derive their meaning from the operative aspects of intelligence, because states can not exist independently of the transformations that interconnect them. Piaget stated that the figurative or the representational aspects of intelligence are subservient to its operative and dynamic aspects, and therefore, that understanding essentially derives from the operative aspect of intelligence.
At any time, operative intelligence frames how the world is understood and it changes if understanding is not successful. Piaget stated that this process of understanding and change involves two basic functions: assimilation and accommodation.
Through his study of the field of education, Piaget focused on two processes, which he named assimilation and accommodation. To Piaget, assimilation meant integrating external elements into structures of lives or environments, or those we could have through experience. Assimilation is how humans perceive and adapt to new information. It is the process of fitting new information into pre-existing cognitive schemas. Assimilation in which new experiences are reinterpreted to fit into, or assimilate with, old ideas. It occurs when humans are faced with new or unfamiliar information and refer to previously learned information in order to make sense of it. In contrast, accommodation is the process of taking new information in one 's environment and altering pre-existing schemas in order to fit in the new information. This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation. Accommodation is imperative because it is how people will continue to interpret new concepts, schemas, frameworks, and more. Piaget believed that the human brain has been programmed through evolution to bring equilibrium, which is what he believed ultimately influences structures by the internal and external processes through assimilation and accommodation.
Piaget 's understanding was that assimilation and accommodation can not exist without the other. They are two sides of a coin. To assimilate an object into an existing mental schema, one first needs to take into account or accommodate to the particularities of this object to a certain extent. For instance, to recognize (assimilate) an apple as an apple, one must first focus (accommodate) on the contour of this object. To do this, one needs to roughly recognize the size of the object. Development increases the balance, or equilibration, between these two functions. When in balance with each other, assimilation and accommodation generate mental schemas of the operative intelligence. When one function dominates over the other, they generate representations which belong to figurative intelligence.
In his theory of Cognitive development, Jean Piaget proposed that humans progress through four developmental stages: the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational period. The first of these, the sensorimotor stage "extends from birth to the acquisition of language. '' In this stage, infants progressively construct knowledge and understanding of the world by coordinating experiences (such as vision and hearing) with physical interactions with objects (such as grasping, sucking, and stepping). Infants gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform within it. They progress from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage.
Children learn that they are separate from the environment. They can think about aspects of the environment, even though these may be outside the reach of the child 's senses. In this stage, according to Piaget, the development of object permanence is one of the most important accomplishments. Object permanence is a child 's understanding that an object continues to exist even though they can not see or hear it. Peek - a-boo is a game in which children who have yet to fully develop object permanence respond to sudden hiding and revealing of a face. By the end of the sensorimotor period, children develop a permanent sense of self and object and will quickly lose interest in Peek - a-boo.
Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into six sub-stages ".
By observing sequences of play, Piaget was able to demonstrate that, towards the end of the second year, a qualitatively new kind of psychological functioning occurs, known as the pre-operational stage, the second of Piaget 's four developmental stages. It starts when the child begins to learn to speak at age two and lasts up until the age of seven. During the pre-operational stage of cognitive development, Piaget noted that children do not yet understand concrete logic and can not mentally manipulate information. Children 's increase in playing and pretending takes place in this stage. However, the child still has trouble seeing things from different points of view. The children 's play is mainly categorized by symbolic play and manipulating symbols. Such play is demonstrated by the idea of checkers being snacks, pieces of paper being plates, and a box being a table. Their observations of symbols exemplifies the idea of play with the absence of the actual objects involved.
The pre-operational stage is sparse and logically inadequate in regard to mental operations. The child is able to form stable concepts as well as magical beliefs. The child, however, is still not able to perform operations, which are tasks that the child can do mentally, rather than physically. Thinking in this stage is still egocentric, meaning the child has difficulty seeing the viewpoint of others. The Pre-operational Stage is split into two substages: the symbolic function substage, and the intuitive thought substage. The symbolic function substage is when children are able to understand, represent, remember, and picture objects in their mind without having the object in front of them. The intuitive thought substage is when children tend to propose the questions of "why? '' and "how come? '' This stage is when children want to understand everything.
At about two to four years of age, children can not yet manipulate and transform information in a logical way. However, they now can think in images and symbols. Other examples of mental abilities are language and pretend play. Symbolic play is when children develop imaginary friends or role - play with friends. Children 's play becomes more social and they assign roles to each other. Some examples of symbolic play include playing house, or having a tea party. The type of symbolic play in which children engage is connected with their level of creativity and ability to connect with others. Additionally, the quality of their symbolic play can have consequences on their later development. For example, young children whose symbolic play is of a violent nature tend to exhibit less prosocial behavior and are more likely to display antisocial tendencies in later years.
In this stage, there are still limitations, such as egocentrism and precausal thinking.
Egocentrism occurs when a child is unable to distinguish between their own perspective and that of another person. Children tend to stick to their own viewpoint, rather than consider the view of others. Indeed, they are not even aware that such a concept as "different viewpoints '' exists. Egocentrism can be seen in an experiment performed by Piaget and Swiss developmental psychologist Bärbel Inhelder, known as the three mountain problem. In this experiment, three views of a mountain are shown to the child, who is asked what a traveling doll would see at the various angles. The child will consistently describe what they can see from the position from which they are seated, regardless of the angle from which they are asked to take the doll 's perspective. Egocentrism would also cause a child to believe, "I like Sesame Street, so Daddy must like Sesame Street, too. ''
Similar to preoperational children 's egocentric thinking is their structuring of a cause and effect relationships. Piaget coined the term "precausal thinking '' to describe the way in which preoperational children use their own existing ideas or views, like in egocentrism, to explain cause - and - effect relationships. Three main concepts of causality as displayed by children in the preoperational stage include: animism, artificialism and transductive reasoning.
Animism is the belief that inanimate objects are capable of actions and have lifelike qualities. An example could be a child believing that the sidewalk was mad and made them fall down, or that the stars twinkle in the sky because they are happy. Artificialism refers to the belief that environmental characteristics can be attributed to human actions or interventions. For example, a child might say that it is windy outside because someone is blowing very hard, or the clouds are white because someone painted them that color. Finally, precausal thinking is categorized by transductive reasoning. Transductive reasoning is when a child fails to understand the true relationships between cause and effect. Unlike deductive or inductive reasoning (general to specific, or specific to general), transductive reasoning refers to when a child reasons from specific to specific, drawing a relationship between two separate events that are otherwise unrelated. For example, if a child hears the dog bark and then a balloon popped, the child would conclude that because the dog barked, the balloon popped.
At between about the ages of 4 and 7, children tend to become very curious and ask many questions, beginning the use of primitive reasoning. There is an emergence in the interest of reasoning and wanting to know why things are the way they are. Piaget called it the "intuitive substage '' because children realize they have a vast amount of knowledge, but they are unaware of how they acquired it. Centration, conservation, irreversibility, class inclusion, and transitive inference are all characteristics of preoperative thought. Centration is the act of focusing all attention on one characteristic or dimension of a situation, whilst disregarding all others. Conservation is the awareness that altering a substance 's appearance does not change its basic properties. Children at this stage are unaware of conservation and exhibit centration. Both centration and conservation can be more easily understood once familiarized with Piaget 's most famous experimental task.
In this task, a child is presented with two identical beakers containing the same amount of liquid. The child usually notes that the beakers do contain the same amount of liquid. When one of the beakers is poured into a taller and thinner container, children who are younger than seven or eight years old typically say that the two beakers no longer contain the same amount of liquid, and that the taller container holds the larger quantity (centration), without taking into consideration the fact that both beakers were previously noted to contain the same amount of liquid. Due to superficial changes, the child was unable to comprehend that the properties of the substances continued to remain the same (conservation).
Irreversibility is a concept developed in this stage which is closely related to the ideas of centration and conservation. Irreversibility refers to when children are unable to mentally reverse a sequence of events. In the same beaker situation, the child does not realize that, if the sequence of events was reversed and the water from the tall beaker was poured back into its original beaker, then the same amount of water would exist. Another example of children 's reliance on visual representations is their misunderstanding of "less than '' or "more than ''. When two rows containing equal amounts of blocks are placed in front of a child, one row spread farther apart than the other, the child will think that the row spread farther contains more blocks.
Class inclusion refers to a kind of conceptual thinking that children in the preoperational stage can not yet grasp. Children 's inability to focus on two aspects of a situation at once inhibits them from understanding the principle that one category or class can contain several different subcategories or classes. For example, a four - year - old girl may be shown a picture of eight dogs and three cats. The girl knows what cats and dogs are, and she is aware that they are both animals. However, when asked, "Are there more dogs or animals? '' she is likely to answer "more dogs ''. This is due to her difficulty focusing on the two subclasses and the larger class all at the same time. She may have been able to view the dogs as dogs or animals, but struggled when trying to classify them as both, simultaneously. Similar to this is concept relating to intuitive thought, known as "transitive inference ''.
Transitive inference is using previous knowledge to determine the missing piece, using basic logic. Children in the preoperational stage lack this logic. An example of transitive inference would be when a child is presented with the information "A '' is greater than "B '' and "B '' is greater than "C ''. This child may have difficulty here understanding that "A '' is also greater than "C ''.
The concrete operational stage is the third stage of Piaget 's theory of cognitive development. This stage, which follows the preoperational stage, occurs between the ages of 7 and 11 (preadolescence) years, and is characterized by the appropriate use of logic. During this stage, a child 's thought processes become more mature and "adult like ''. They start solving problems in a more logical fashion. Abstract, hypothetical thinking is not yet developed in the child, and children can only solve problems that apply to concrete events or objects. At this stage, the children undergo a transition where the child learns rules such as conservation. Piaget determined that children are able to incorporate Inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning involves drawing inferences from observations in order to make a generalization. In contrast, children struggle with deductive reasoning, which involves using a generalized principle in order to try to predict the outcome of an event. Children in this stage commonly experience difficulties with figuring out logic in their heads. For example, a child will understand that "A is more than B '' and "B is more than C ''. However, when asked "is A more than C? '', the child might not be able to logically figure the question out in his or her head.
Two other important processes in the concrete operational stage are logic and the elimination of egocentrism.
Egocentrism is the inability to consider or understand a perspective other than one 's own. It is the phase where the thought and morality of the child is completely self focused. During this stage, the child acquires the ability to view things from another individual 's perspective, even if they think that perspective is incorrect. For instance, show a child a comic in which Jane puts a doll under a box, leaves the room, and then Melissa moves the doll to a drawer, and Jane comes back. A child in the concrete operations stage will say that Jane will still think it 's under the box even though the child knows it is in the drawer. (See also False - belief task.)
Children in this stage can, however, only solve problems that apply to actual (concrete) objects or events, and not abstract concepts or hypothetical tasks. Understanding and knowing how to use full common sense has not yet been completely adapted.
Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were able to incorporate inductive logic. On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty using deductive logic, which involves using a general principle to predict the outcome of a specific event. This includes mental reversibility. An example of this is being able to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. For example, a child might be able to recognize that his or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal, and draw conclusions from the information available, as well as apply all these processes to hypothetical situations.
The abstract quality of the adolescent 's thought at the formal operational level is evident in the adolescent 's verbal problem solving ability. The logical quality of the adolescent 's thought is when children are more likely to solve problems in a trial - and - error fashion. Adolescents begin to think more as a scientist thinks, devising plans to solve problems and systematically test opinions. They use hypothetical - deductive reasoning, which means that they develop hypotheses or best guesses, and systematically deduce, or conclude, which is the best path to follow in solving the problem. During this stage the adolescent is able to understand love, logical proofs and values. During this stage the young person begins to entertain possibilities for the future and is fascinated with what they can be.
Adolescents also are changing cognitively by the way that they think about social matters. Adolescent egocentrism governs the way that adolescents think about social matters, and is the heightened self - consciousness in them as they are, which is reflected in their sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility. Adolescent egocentrism can be dissected into two types of social thinking, imaginary audience that involves attention - getting behavior, and personal fable, which involves an adolescent 's sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility. These two types of social thinking begin to affect a child 's egocentrism in the concrete stage. However, it carries over to the formal operational stage when they are then faced with abstract thought and fully logical thinking.
Piagetian tests are well known and practiced to test for concrete operations. The most prevalent tests are those for conservation. There are some important aspects that the experimenter must take into account when performing experiments with these children.
One example of an experiment for testing conservation is the water level task. An experimenter will have two glasses that are the same size, fill them to the same level with liquid, which the child will acknowledge is the same. Then, the experimenter will pour the liquid from one of the small glasses into a tall, thin glass. The experimenter will then ask the child if the taller glass has more liquid, less liquid, or the same amount of liquid. The child will then give his answer. The experimenter will ask the child why he gave his answer, or why he thinks that is.
The final stage is known as the formal operational stage (adolescence and into adulthood, roughly ages 11 to approximately 15 -- 20): Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. This form of thought includes "assumptions that have no necessary relation to reality. '' At this point, the person is capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts.
Piaget stated that "hypothetico - deductive reasoning '' becomes important during the formal operational stage. This type of thinking involves hypothetical "what - if '' situations that are not always rooted in reality, i.e. counterfactual thinking. It is often required in science and mathematics.
While children in primary school years mostly used inductive reasoning, drawing general conclusions from personal experiences and specific facts, adolescents become capable of deductive reasoning, in which they draw specific conclusions from abstract concepts using logic. This capability results from their capacity to think hypothetically.
"However, research has shown that not all persons in all cultures reach formal operations, and most people do not use formal operations in all aspects of their lives ''.
Piaget and his colleagues conducted several experiments to assess formal operational thought.
In one of the experiments, Piaget evaluated the cognitive capabilities of children of different ages through the use of a scale and varying weights. The task was to balance the scale by hooking weights on the ends of the scale. To successfully complete the task, the children must use formal operational thought to realize that the distance of the weights from the center and the heaviness of the weights both affected the balance. A heavier weight has to be placed closer to the center of the scale, and a lighter weight has to be placed farther from the center, so that the two weights balance each other. While 3 - to 5 - year olds could not at all comprehend the concept of balancing, children by the age of 7 could balance the scale by placing the same weights on both ends, but they failed to realize the importance of the location. By age 10, children could think about location but failed to use logic and instead used trial - and - error. Finally, by age 13 and 14, in early adolescence, some children more clearly understood the relationship between weight and distance and could successfully implement their hypothesis.
Piaget sees children 's conception of causation as a march from "primitive '' conceptions of cause to those of a more scientific, rigorous, and mechanical nature. These primitive concepts are characterized as supernatural, with a decidedly non-natural or non-mechanical tone. Piaget has as his most basic assumption that babies are phenomenists. That is, their knowledge "consists of assimilating things to schemas '' from their own action such that they appear, from the child 's point of view, "to have qualities which, in fact, stem from the organism ''. Consequently, these "subjective conceptions, '' so prevalent during Piaget 's first stage of development, are dashed upon discovering deeper empirical truths.
Piaget gives the example of a child believing that the moon and stars follow him on a night walk. Upon learning that such is the case for his friends, he must separate his self from the object, resulting in a theory that the moon is immobile, or moves independently of other agents.
The second stage, from around three to eight years of age, is characterized by a mix of this type of magical, animistic, or "non-natural '' conceptions of causation and mechanical or "naturalistic '' causation. This conjunction of natural and non-natural causal explanations supposedly stems from experience itself, though Piaget does not make much of an attempt to describe the nature of the differences in conception. In his interviews with children, he asked questions specifically about natural phenomena, such as: "What makes clouds move? '', "What makes the stars move? '', "Why do rivers flow? '' The nature of all the answers given, Piaget says, are such that these objects must perform their actions to "fulfill their obligations towards men ''. He calls this "moral explanation ''.
Parents can use Piaget 's theory when deciding how to determine what to buy in order to support their child 's growth. Teachers can also use Piaget 's theory, for instance, when discussing whether the syllabus subjects are suitable for the level of students or not. For example, recent studies have shown that children in the same grade and of the same age perform differentially on tasks measuring basic addition and subtraction fluency. While children in the preoperational and concrete operational levels of cognitive development perform combined arithmetic operations (such as addition and subtraction) with similar accuracy, children in the concrete operational level of cognitive development have been able to perform both addition problems and subtraction problems with overall greater fluency.
The stage of cognitive growth of a person differ from another. Cognitive development or thinking is an active process from the beginning to the end of life. Intellectual advancement happens because people at every age and developmental period looks for cognitive equilibrium. To achieve this balance, the easiest way is to understand the new experiences through the lens of the preexisting ideas. Infants learn that new objects can be grabbed in the same way of familiar objects, and adults explain the day 's headlines as evidence for their existing worldview.
However, the application of standardized Piagetian theory and procedures in different societies established widely varying results that lead some to speculate not only that some cultures produce more cognitive development than others but that without specific kinds of cultural experience, but also formal schooling, development might cease at certain level, such as concrete operational level. A procedure was done following methods developed in Geneva (i.e. water level task). Participants were presented with two beakers of equal circumference and height, filled with equal amounts of water. The water from one beaker was transferred into another with taller and smaller circumference. The children and young adults from non-literate societies of a given age were more likely to think that the taller, thinner beaker had more water in it. On the other hand, an experiment on the effects of modifying testing procedures to match local cultural produced a different pattern of results. In the revised procedures, the participants explained in their own language and indicated that while the water was now "more '', the quantity was the same. Piaget 's water level task has also been applied to the elderly by Formann and results showed an age - associated non-linear decline of performance.
In 1967, Piaget considered the possibility of RNA molecules as likely embodiments of his still - abstract schemas (which he promoted as units of action) -- though he did not come to any firm conclusion. At that time, due to work such as that of Swedish biochemist Holger Hydén, RNA concentrations had, indeed, been shown to correlate with learning, so the idea was quite plausible.
However, by the time of Piaget 's death in 1980, this notion had lost favor. One main problem was over the protein which, it was assumed, such RNA would necessarily produce, and that did not fit in with observation. It was determined that only about 3 % of RNA does code for protein. Hence, most of the remaining 97 % (the "ncRNA '') could theoretically be available to serve as Piagetian schemas (or other regulatory roles in the 2000s under investigation). The issue has not yet been resolved experimentally, but its theoretical aspects were reviewed in 2008 -- then developed further from the viewpoints of biophysics and epistemology. Meanwhile, this RNA - based approach also unexpectedly offered explanations for other several biological issues unresolved, thus providing some measure of corroboration.
Piaget designed a number of tasks to verify hypotheses arising from his theory. The tasks were not intended to measure individual differences, and they have no equivalent in psychometric intelligence tests. Notwithstanding the different research traditions in which psychometric tests and Piagetian tasks were developed, the correlations between the two types of measures have been found to be consistently positive and generally moderate in magnitude. A common general factor underlies them. It has been shown that it is possible to construct a battery consisting of Piagetian tasks that is as good a measure of general intelligence as standard IQ tests.
Piagetian accounts of development have been challenged on several grounds. First, as Piaget himself noted, development does not always progress in the smooth manner his theory seems to predict. Décalage, or progressive forms of cognitive developmental progression in a specific domain, suggest that the stage model is, at best, a useful approximation. Furthermore, studies have found that children may be able to learn concepts and capability of complex reasoning that supposedly represented in more advanced stages with relative ease (Lourenço & Machado, 1996, p. 145). More broadly, Piaget 's theory is "domain general, '' predicting that cognitive maturation occurs concurrently across different domains of knowledge (such as mathematics, logic, and understanding of physics or language). Piaget did not take into account variability in a child 's performance notably how a child can differ in sophistication across several domains.
During the 1980s and 1990s, cognitive developmentalists were influenced by "neo-nativist '' and evolutionary psychology ideas. These ideas de-emphasized domain general theories and emphasized domain specificity or modularity of mind. Modularity implies that different cognitive faculties may be largely independent of one another, and thus develop according to quite different timetables, which are "influenced by real world experiences ''. In this vein, some cognitive developmentalists argued that, rather than being domain general learners, children come equipped with domain specific theories, sometimes referred to as "core knowledge, '' which allows them to break into learning within that domain. For example, even young infants appear to be sensitive to some predictable regularities in the movement and interactions of objects (for example, an object can not pass through another object), or in human behavior (for example, a hand repeatedly reaching for an object has that object, not just a particular path of motion), as it becomes the building block of which more elaborate knowledge is constructed.
Piaget 's theory has been said to undervalue the influence that culture has on cognitive development. Piaget demonstrates that a child goes through several stages of cognitive development and come to conclusions on their own but in reality, a child 's sociocultural environment plays an important part in their cognitive development. Social interaction teaches the child about the world and helps them develop through the cognitive stages, which Piaget neglected to consider.
More recent work has strongly challenged some of the basic presumptions of the "core knowledge '' school, and revised ideas of domain generality -- but from a newer dynamic systems approach, not from a revised Piagetian perspective. Dynamic systems approaches harken to modern neuroscientific research that was not available to Piaget when he was constructing his theory. One important finding is that domain - specific knowledge is constructed as children develop and integrate knowledge. This enables the domain to improve the accuracy of the knowledge as well as organization of memories. However, this suggests more of a "smooth integration '' of learning and development than either Piaget, or his neo-nativist critics, had envisioned. Additionally, some psychologists, such as Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner, thought differently from Piaget, suggesting that language was more important for cognition development than Piaget implied.
In recent years, several theorists attempted to address concerns with Piaget 's theory by developing new theories and models that can accommodate evidence which violates Piagetian predictions and postulates.
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what is chamber music in the classical era | Chamber music - wikipedia
Chamber music is a form of classical music that is composed for a small group of instruments -- traditionally a group that could fit in a palace chamber or a large room. Most broadly, it includes any art music that is performed by a small number of performers, with one performer to a part (in contrast to orchestral music, in which each string part is played by a number of performers). However, by convention, it usually does not include solo instrument performances.
Because of its intimate nature, chamber music has been described as "the music of friends ''. For more than 100 years, chamber music was played primarily by amateur musicians in their homes, and even today, when chamber music performance has migrated from the home to the concert hall, many musicians, amateur and professional, still play chamber music for their own pleasure. Playing chamber music requires special skills, both musical and social, that differ from the skills required for playing solo or symphonic works.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe described chamber music (specifically, string quartet music) as "four rational people conversing ''. This conversational paradigm -- which refers to the way one instrument introduces a melody or motif and then other instruments subsequently "respond '' with a similar motif -- has been a thread woven through the history of chamber music composition from the end of the 18th century to the present. The analogy to conversation recurs in descriptions and analyses of chamber music compositions.
From its earliest beginnings in the Medieval period to the present, chamber music has been a reflection of the changes in the technology and the society that produced it.
During the Middle Ages and the early Renaissance, instruments were used primarily as accompaniment for singers. String players would play along with the melody line sung by the singer. There were also purely instrumental ensembles, often of stringed precursors of the violin family, called consorts.
Some analysts consider the origin of classical instrumental ensembles to be the sonata da camera (chamber sonata) and the sonata da chiesa (church sonata). These were compositions for one to five or more instruments. The sonata da camera was a suite of slow and fast movements, interspersed with dance tunes; the sonata da chiesa was the same, but the dances were omitted. These forms gradually developed into the trio sonata of the Baroque -- two treble instruments and a bass instrument, often with a keyboard or other chording instrument (harpsichord, organ, harp or lute, for example) filling in the harmony. Both the bass instrument and the chordal instrument would play the basso continuo part.
During the Baroque period, chamber music as a genre was not clearly defined. Often, works could be played on any variety of instruments, in orchestral or chamber ensembles. The Art of Fugue by Johann Sebastian Bach, for example, can be played on a keyboard instrument (harpsichord or organ) or by a string quartet or a string orchestra. The instrumentation of trio sonatas was also often flexibly specified; some of Handel 's sonatas are scored for "German flute, Hoboy (oboe) or Violin '' Bass lines could be played by violone, cello, theorbo, or bassoon, and sometimes three or four instruments would join in the bass line in unison. Sometimes composers mixed movements for chamber ensembles with orchestral movements. Telemann 's ' Tafelmusik ' (1733), for example, has five sets of movements for various combinations of instruments, ending with a full orchestral section.
Baroque chamber music was often contrapuntal; that is, each instrument played the same melodic materials at different times, creating a complex, interwoven fabric of sound. Because each instrument was playing essentially the same melodies, all the instruments were equal. In the trio sonata, there is often no ascendent or solo instrument, but all three instruments share equal importance.
The harmonic role played by the keyboard or other chording instrument was subsidiary, and usually the keyboard part was not even written out; rather, the chordal structure of the piece was specified by numeric codes over the bass line, called figured bass.
In the second half of the 18th century, tastes began to change: many composers preferred a new, lighter Galant style, with "thinner texture,... and clearly defined melody and bass '' to the complexities of counterpoint. Now a new custom arose that gave birth to a new form of chamber music: the serenade. Patrons invited street musicians to play evening concerts below the balconies of their homes, their friends and their lovers. Patrons and musicians commissioned composers to write suitable suites of dances and tunes, for groups of two to five or six players. These works were called serenades (sera = night), nocturnes, divertimenti, or cassations (from gasse = street). The young Joseph Haydn was commissioned to write several of these.
Joseph Haydn is generally credited with creating the modern form of chamber music as we know it. In 83 string quartets, 45 piano trios, and numerous string trios, duos and wind ensembles, Haydn established the conversational style of composition and the overall form that was to dominate the world of chamber music for the next two centuries.
An example of the conversational mode of composition is Haydn 's string quartet Op. 20, No. 4 in D major. In the first movement, after a statement of the main theme by all the instruments, the first violin breaks into a triplet figure, supported by the second violin, viola and cello. The cello answers with its own triplet figure, then the viola, while the other instruments play a secondary theme against this movement. Unlike counterpoint, where each part plays essentially the same melodic role as the others, here each instrument contributes its own character, its own comment on the music as it develops.
Haydn also settled on an overall form for his chamber music compositions, which would become the standard, with slight variations, to the present day. The characteristic Haydn string quartet has four movements:
His innovations earned Haydn the title "father of the string quartet '', and he was recognized by his contemporaries as the leading composer of his time. But he was by no means the only composer developing new modes of chamber music. Even before Haydn, many composers were already experimenting with new forms. Giovanni Battista Sammartini, Ignaz Holzbauer, and Franz Xaver Richter wrote precursors of the string quartet.
If Haydn created the conversational style of composition, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart greatly expanded its vocabulary. His chamber music added numerous masterpieces to the chamber music repertoire. Mozart 's seven piano trios and two piano quartets were the first to apply the conversational principle to chamber music with piano. Haydn 's piano trios are essentially piano sonatas with the violin and cello playing mostly supporting roles, doubling the treble and bass lines of the piano score. But Mozart gives the strings an independent role, using them as a counter to the piano, and adding their individual voices to the chamber music conversation.
Mozart introduced the newly invented clarinet into the chamber music arsenal, with the Kegelstatt Trio for viola, clarinet and piano, K. 498, and the Quintet for Clarinet and String Quartet, K. 581. He also tried other innovative ensembles, including the quintet for violin, two violas, cello, and horn, K. 407, quartets for flute and strings, and various wind instrument combinations. He wrote six string quintets for two violins, two violas and cello, which explore the rich tenor tones of the violas, adding a new dimension to the string quartet conversation.
Mozart 's string quartets are considered the pinnacle of the classical art. The six string quartets that he dedicated to Haydn, his friend and mentor, inspired the elder composer to say to Mozart 's father, "I tell you before God as an honest man that your son is the greatest composer known to me either in person or by reputation. He has taste, and, what is more, the most profound knowledge of composition. ''
Many other composers wrote chamber compositions during this period that were popular at the time and are still played today. Luigi Boccherini, Italian composer and cellist, wrote nearly a hundred string quartets, and more than one hundred quintets for two violins, viola and two cellos. In this innovative ensemble, later used by Schubert, Boccherini gives flashy, virtuosic solos to the principal cello, as a showcase for his own playing. Violinist Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf and cellist Johann Baptist Wanhal, who both played pickup quartets with Haydn on second violin and Mozart on viola, were popular chamber music composers of the period.
The turn of the 19th century saw dramatic changes in society and in music technology which had far - reaching effects on the way chamber music was composed and played.
Throughout the 18th century, the composer was normally an employee of an aristocrat, and the chamber music he or she composed was for the pleasure of aristocratic players and listeners. Haydn, for example, was an employee of Nikolaus I, Prince Esterházy, a music lover and amateur baryton player, for whom Haydn wrote many of his string trios. Mozart wrote three string quartets for the King of Prussia, Frederick William II, a cellist. Many of Beethoven 's quartets were first performed with patron Count Andrey Razumovsky on second violin. Boccherini composed for the king of Spain.
With the bankruptcy of the aristocracy and new social orders throughout Europe, composers increasingly had to make money by selling their compositions and performing concerts. They often gave subscription concerts, which involved renting a hall and collecting the receipts from the performance. Increasingly, they wrote chamber music not only for rich patrons, but for professional musicians playing for a paying audience.
At the beginning of the 19th century, luthiers developed new methods of constructing the violin, viola and cello that gave these instruments a richer tone, more volume, and more carrying power. Also at this time, bowmakers made the violin bow longer, with a thicker ribbon of hair under higher tension. This improved projection, and also made possible new bowing techniques. In 1820, Louis Spohr invented the chinrest, which gave violinists more freedom of movement in their left hands, for a more nimble technique. These changes contributed to the effectiveness of public performances in large halls, and expanded the repertoire of techniques available to chamber music composers.
Throughout the Baroque era, the harpsichord was one of the main instruments used in chamber music. The harpsichord used quills to pluck strings, and it had a delicate sound. Due to the design of the harpsichord, the attack or weight with which the performer played the keyboard did not change the volume or tone. In between about 1750 and the late 1700s, the harpsichord gradually fell out of use. By the late 1700s, the pianoforte became more popular as an instrument for performance. Even though the pianoforte was invented by Bartolomeo Cristofori at the beginning of the 1700s, it did not become widely used until the end of that century, when technical improvements in its construction made it a more effective instrument. Unlike the harpsichord, the pianoforte could play soft or loud dynamics and sharp sforzando attacks depending on how hard or soft the performer played the keys. The improved pianoforte was adopted by Mozart and other composers, who began composing chamber ensembles with the piano playing a leading role. The piano was to become more and more dominant through the 19th century, so much so that many composers, such as Franz Liszt and Frédéric Chopin, wrote almost exclusively for solo piano (or solo piano with orchestra).
Ludwig van Beethoven straddled this period of change as a giant of Western music. Beethoven transformed chamber music, raising it to a new plane, both in terms of content and in terms of the technical demands on performers and audiences. His works, in the words of Maynard Solomon, were "... the models against which nineteenth - century romanticism measured its achievements and failures. '' His late quartets, in particular, were considered so daunting an accomplishment that many composers after him were afraid to try composing quartets; Johannes Brahms composed and tore up 20 string quartets before he dared publish a work that he felt was worthy of the "giant marching behind ''.
Beethoven made his formal debut as a composer with three Piano Trios, Op. 1. Even these early works, written when Beethoven was only 22, while adhering to a strictly classical mold, showed signs of the new paths that Beethoven was to forge in the coming years. When he showed the manuscript of the trios to Haydn, his teacher, prior to publication, Haydn approved of the first two, but warned against publishing the third trio, in C minor, as too radical, warning it would not "... be understood and favorably received by the public. ''
Haydn was wrong -- the third trio was the most popular of the set, and Haydn 's criticisms caused a falling out between him and the sensitive Beethoven. The trio is, indeed, a departure from the mold that Haydn and Mozart had formed. Beethoven makes dramatic deviations of tempo within phrases and within movements. He greatly increases the independence of the strings, especially the cello, allowing it to range above the piano and occasionally even the violin.
If his Op. 1 trios introduced Beethoven 's works to the public, his Septet, Op. 20, established him as one of Europe 's most popular composers. The septet, scored for violin, viola, cello, contrabass, clarinet, horn, and bassoon, was a huge hit. It was played in concerts again and again. It appeared in transcriptions for many combinations -- one of which, for clarinet, cello and piano, was written by Beethoven himself -- and was so popular that Beethoven feared it would eclipse his other works. So much so that by 1815, Carl Czerny wrote that Beethoven "could not endure his septet and grew angry because of the universal applause which it has received. '' The septet is written as a classical divertimento in six movements, including two minuets, and a set of variations. It is full of catchy tunes, with solos for everyone, including the contrabass.
In his 17 string quartets, composed over the course of 37 of his 56 years, Beethoven goes from classical composer par excellence to creator of musical Romanticism, and finally, with his late string quartets, he transcends classicism and romanticism to create a genre that defies categorization. Stravinsky referred to the Große Fuge, of the late quartets, as, "... this absolutely contemporary piece of music that will be contemporary forever. ''
The string quartets 1 -- 6, Op. 18, were written in the classical style, in the same year that Haydn wrote his Op. 76 string quartets. Even here, Beethoven stretched the formal structures pioneered by Haydn and Mozart. In the quartet Op. 18, No. 1, in F major, for example, there is a long, lyrical solo for cello in the second movement, giving the cello a new type of voice in the quartet conversation. And the last movement of Op. 18, No. 6, "La Malincolia '', creates a new type of formal structure, interleaving a slow, melancholic section with a manic dance. Beethoven was to use this form in later quartets, and Brahms and others adopted it as well.
In the years 1805 to 1806, Beethoven composed the three Op. 59 quartets on a commission from Count Razumovsky, who played second violin in their first performance. These quartets, from Beethoven 's middle period, were pioneers in the romantic style. Besides introducing many structural and stylistic innovations, these quartets were much more difficult technically to perform -- so much so that they were, and remain, beyond the reach of many amateur string players. When first violinist Ignaz Schuppanzigh complained of their difficulty, Beethoven retorted, "Do you think I care about your wretched violin when the spirit moves me? '' Among the difficulties are complex syncopations and cross-rhythms; synchronized runs of sixteenth, thirty - second, and sixty - fourth notes; and sudden modulations requiring special attention to intonation. In addition to the Op. 59 quartets, Beethoven wrote two more quartets during his middle period -- Op. 74, the "Harp '' quartet, named for the unusual harp - like effect Beethoven creates with pizzicato passages in the first movement, and Op. 95, the "Serioso ''.
The Serioso is a transitional work that ushers in Beethoven 's late period -- a period of compositions of great introspection. "The particular kind of inwardness of Beethoven 's last style period '', writes Joseph Kerman, gives one the feeling that "the music is sounding only for the composer and for one other auditor, an awestruck eavesdropper: you. '' In the late quartets, the quartet conversation is often disjointed, proceeding like a stream of consciousness. Melodies are broken off, or passed in the middle of the melodic line from instrument to instrument. Beethoven uses new effects, never before essayed in the string quartet literature: the ethereal, dreamlike effect of open intervals between the high E string and the open A string in the second movement of quartet Op. 132; the use of sul ponticello (playing on the bridge of the violin) for a brittle, scratchy sound in the Presto movement of Op. 131; the use of the Lydian mode, rarely heard in Western music for 200 years, in Op. 132; a cello melody played high above all the other strings in the finale of Op. 132. Yet for all this disjointedness, each quartet is tightly designed, with an overarching structure that ties the work together.
Beethoven wrote eight piano trios, five string trios, two string quintets, and numerous pieces for wind ensemble. He also wrote ten sonatas for violin and piano and five sonatas for cello and piano.
As Beethoven, in his last quartets, went off in his own direction, Franz Schubert carried on and established the emerging romantic style. In his 31 years, Schubert devoted much of his life to chamber music, composing 15 string quartets, two piano trios, string trios, a piano quintet commonly known as the Trout Quintet, an octet for strings and winds, and his famous quintet for two violins, viola, and two cellos.
Schubert 's music, as his life, exemplified the contrasts and contradictions of his time. On the one hand, he was the darling of Viennese society: he starred in soirées that became known as Schubertiaden, where he played his light, mannered compositions that expressed the gemütlichkeit of Vienna of the 1820s. On the other hand, his own short life was shrouded in tragedy, wracked by poverty and ill health. Chamber music was the ideal medium to express this conflict, "to reconcile his essentially lyric themes with his feeling for dramatic utterance within a form that provided the possibility of extreme color contrasts. '' The String Quintet in C, D. 956, is an example of how this conflict is expressed in music. After a slow introduction, the first theme of the first movement, fiery and dramatic, leads to a bridge of rising tension, peaking suddenly and breaking into the second theme, a lilting duet in the lower voices. The alternating Sturm und Drang and relaxation continue throughout the movement.
These contending forces are expressed in some of Schubert 's other works: in the quartet Death and the Maiden, the Rosamunde quartet and in the stormy, one - movement Quartettsatz, D. 703.
Unlike Schubert, Felix Mendelssohn had a life of peace and prosperity. Born into a wealthy Jewish family in Hamburg, Mendelssohn proved himself a child prodigy. By the age of 16, he had written his first major chamber work, the String Octet, Op. 20. Already in this work, Mendelssohn showed some of the unique style that was to characterize his later works; notably, the gossamer light texture of his scherzo movements, exemplified also by the Canzonetta movement of the String Quartet, Op. 12, and the scherzo of the Piano Trio No. 1 in D minor, Op. 49.
Another characteristic that Mendelssohn pioneered is the cyclic form in overall structure. This means the reuse of thematic material from one movement to the next, to give the total piece coherence. In his second string quartet, he opens the piece with a peaceful adagio section in A major, that contrasts with the stormy first movement in A minor. After the final, vigorous Presto movement, he returns to the opening adagio to conclude the piece. This string quartet is also Mendelssohn 's homage to Beethoven; the work is studded with quotes from Beethoven 's middle and late quartets.
During his adult life, Mendelssohn wrote two piano trios, seven works for string quartet, two string quintets, the octet, a sextet for piano and strings, and numerous sonatas for piano with violin, cello, and clarinet.
Robert Schumann continued the development of cyclic structure. In his Piano Quintet in E flat, Op. 44, Schumann wrote a double fugue in the finale, using the theme of the first movement and the theme of the last movement. Both Schumann and Mendelssohn, following the example set by Beethoven, revived the fugue, which had fallen out of favor since the Baroque period. However, rather than writing strict, full - length fugues, they used counterpoint as another mode of conversation between the chamber music instruments. Many of Schumann 's chamber works, including all three of his string quartets and his piano quartet have contrapuntal sections interwoven seamlessly into the overall compositional texture.
The composers of the first half of the 19th century were acutely aware of the conversational paradigm established by Haydn and Mozart. Schumann wrote that in a true quartet "everyone has something to say... a conversation, often truly beautiful, often oddly and turbidly woven, among four people. '' Their awareness is exemplified by composer and virtuoso violinist Louis Spohr. Spohr divided his 36 string quartets into two types: the quatuor brillant, essentially a violin concerto with string trio accompaniment; and quatuor dialogue, in the conversational tradition.
The middle of the 19th century saw more changes in society and in musical tastes, which had their impact on chamber music composition and performance. While improvements in instruments led to more public performances of chamber music, it remained very much a type of music to be played as much as performed. Amateur quartet societies sprang up throughout Europe, and no middling - sized city in Germany or France would be without one. These societies sponsored house concerts, compiled music libraries, and encouraged the playing of quartets and other ensembles.
Thousands of quartets were published by hundreds of composers; between 1770 and 1800, more than 2000 quartets were published, and the pace did not decline in the next century. Throughout the 19th century, composers published string quartets now long neglected: George Onslow wrote 36 quartets and 35 quintets; Gaetano Donizetti wrote dozens of quartets, Antonio Bazzini, Anton Reicha, Carl Reissiger, Joseph Suk and others wrote to fill an insatiable demand for quartets. In addition, there was a lively market for string quartet arrangements of popular and folk tunes, piano works, symphonies, and opera arias.
But opposing forces were at work. The middle of the 19th century saw the rise of superstar virtuosi, who drew attention away from chamber music toward solo performance. Frédéric Chopin and Franz Liszt presented "recitals '' -- a term coined by Liszt -- that drew crowds of ecstatic fans who swooned at the sound of their playing. The piano, which could be mass - produced, became an instrument of preference, and many composers, like Chopin and Liszt, composed primarily if not exclusively for piano.
The ascendance of the piano, and of symphonic composition, was not merely a matter of preference; it was also a matter of ideology. In the 1860s, a schism grew among romantic musicians over the direction of music. Liszt and Richard Wagner led a movement that contended that "pure music '' had run its course with Beethoven, and that new, programmatic forms of music -- in which music created "images '' with its melodies -- were the future of the art. The composers of this school had no use for chamber music. Opposing this view was Johannes Brahms and his associates, especially the powerful music critic Eduard Hanslick. This War of the Romantics shook the artistic world of the period, with vituperative exchanges between the two camps, concert boycotts, and petitions.
Although amateur playing thrived throughout the 19th century, this was also a period of increasing professionalization of chamber music performance. Professional quartets began to dominate the chamber music concert stage. The Hellmesberger Quartet, led by Joseph Hellmesberger, and the Joachim Quartet, led by Joseph Joachim, debuted many of the new string quartets by Brahms and other composers. Another famous quartet player was Vilemina Norman Neruda, also known as Lady Hallé. Indeed, during the last third of the century, women performers began taking their place on the concert stage: an all - women string quartet led by Emily Shinner, and the Lucas quartet, also all women, were two notable examples.
It was Johannes Brahms who carried the torch of Romantic music toward the 20th century. Heralded by Robert Schumann as the forger of "new paths '' in music, Brahms 's music is a bridge from the classical to the modern. On the one hand, Brahms was a traditionalist, conserving the musical traditions of Bach and Mozart. Throughout his chamber music, he uses traditional techniques of counterpoint, incorporating fugues and canons into rich conversational and harmonic textures. On the other hand, Brahms expanded the structure and the harmonic vocabulary of chamber music, challenging traditional notions of tonality. An example of this is in the Brahms second string sextet, Op. 36.
Traditionally, composers wrote the first theme of a piece in the key of the piece, firmly establishing that key as the tonic, or home, key of the piece. The opening theme of Op. 36 starts in the tonic (G major), but already by the third measure has modulated to the unrelated key of E-flat major. As the theme develops, it ranges through various keys before coming back to the tonic G major. This "harmonic audacity '', as Swafford describes it, opened the way for bolder experiments to come.
Not only in harmony, but also in overall musical structure, Brahms was an innovator. He developed a technique that Arnold Schoenberg described as "developing variation ''. Rather than discretely defined phrases, Brahms often runs phrase into phrase, and mixes melodic motives to create a fabric of continuous melody. Schoenberg, the creator of the 12 - tone system of composition, traced the roots of his modernism to Brahms, in his essay "Brahms the Progressive ''.
All told, Brahms published 24 works of chamber music, including three string quartets, five piano trios, the quintet for piano and strings, Op. 34, and other works. Among his last works were the clarinet quintet, Op. 115, and a trio for clarinet, cello and piano. He wrote a trio for the unusual combination of piano, violin and horn, Op. 40. He also wrote two songs for alto singer, viola and piano, Op. 91, reviving the form of voice with string obbligato that had been virtually abandoned since the Baroque.
The exploration of tonality and of structure begun by Brahms was continued by composers of the French school. César Franck 's piano quintet in F minor, composed in 1879, further established the cyclic form first explored by Schumann and Mendelssohn, reusing the same thematic material in each of the three movements. Claude Debussy 's string quartet, Op. 10, is considered a watershed in the history of chamber music. The quartet uses the cyclic structure, and constitutes a final divorce from the rules of classical harmony. "Any sounds in any combination and in any succession are henceforth free to be used in a musical continuity '', Debussy wrote. Pierre Boulez said that Debussy freed chamber music from "rigid structure, frozen rhetoric and rigid aesthetics ''.
Debussy 's quartet, like the string quartets of Maurice Ravel and of Gabriel Fauré, created a new tone color for chamber music, a color and texture associated with the Impressionist movement. Violist James Dunham, of the Cleveland and Sequoia Quartets, writes of the Ravel quartet, "I was simply overwhelmed by the sweep of sonority, the sensation of colors constantly changing... '' For these composers, chamber ensembles were the ideal vehicle for transmitting this atmospheric sense, and chamber works constituted much of their oeuvre.
Parallel with the trend to seek new modes of tonality and texture was another new development in chamber music: the rise of nationalism. Composers turned more and more to the rhythms and tonalities of their native lands for inspiration and material. "Europe was impelled by the Romantic tendency to establish in musical matters the national boundaries more and more sharply '', wrote Alfred Einstein. "The collecting and sifting of old traditional melodic treasures... formed the basis for a creative art - music. '' For many of these composers, chamber music was the natural vehicle for expressing their national characters.
Czech composer Antonín Dvořák created in his chamber music a new voice for the music of his native Bohemia. In 14 string quartets, three string quintets, two piano quartets, a string sextet, four piano trios, and numerous other chamber compositions, Dvořák incorporates folk music and modes as an integral part of his compositions. For example, in the piano quintet in A major, Op. 81, the slow movement is a Dumka, a Slavic folk ballad that alternates between a slow expressive song and a fast dance. Dvořák 's fame in establishing a national art music was so great that the New York philanthropist and music connoisseur Jeannette Thurber invited him to America, to head a conservatory that would establish an American style of music. There, Dvořák wrote his string quartet in F major, Op. 96, nicknamed "The American ''. While composing the work, Dvořák was entertained by a group of Kickapoo Indians who performed native dances and songs, and these songs may have been incorporated in the quartet.
Bedřich Smetana, another Czech, wrote a piano trio and string quartet, both of which incorporate native Czech rhythms and melodies. In Russia, Russian folk music permeated the works of the late 19th - century composers. Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky uses a typical Russian folk dance in the final movement of his string sextet, Souvenir de Florence, Op. 70. Alexander Borodin 's second string quartet contains references to folk music, and the slow Nocturne movement of that quartet recalls Middle Eastern modes that were current in the Muslim sections of southern Russia. Edvard Grieg used the musical style of his native Norway in his string quartet in G minor, Op. 27.
In Hungary, composers Zoltán Kodály and Béla Bartók pioneered the science of ethnomusicology by performing one of the first comprehensive studies of folk music. Ranging across the Magyar provinces, they transcribed, recorded, and classified tens of thousands of folk melodies. They used these tunes in their compositions, which are characterized by the asymmetrical rhythms and modal harmonies of that music. Their chamber music compositions, and those of the Czech composer Leoš Janáček, combined the nationalist trend with the 20th century search for new tonalities. Janáček 's string quartets not only incorporate the tonalities of Czech folk music, they also reflect the rhythms of speech in the Czech language.
The end of western tonality, begun subtly by Brahms and made explicit by Debussy, posed a crisis for composers of the 20th century. It was not merely an issue of finding new types of harmonies and melodic systems to replace the diatonic scale that was the basis of western harmony; the whole structure of western music -- the relationships between movements and between structural elements within movements -- was based on the relationships between different keys. So composers were challenged with building a whole new structure for music.
This was coupled with the feeling that the era that saw the invention of automobiles, the telephone, electric lighting, and world war needed new modes of expression. "The century of the aeroplane deserves its music '', wrote Debussy.
The search for a new music took several directions. The first, led by Bartók, was toward the tonal and rhythmic constructs of folk music. Bartók 's research into Hungarian and other eastern European and Middle Eastern folk music revealed to him a musical world built of musical scales that were neither major nor minor, and complex rhythms that were alien to the concert hall. In his fifth quartet, for example, Bartók uses a time signature of 3 + 2 + 2 + 3 8 (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (3 + 2 + 2 + 3) (8))), "startling to the classically - trained musician, but second - nature to the folk musician. '' Structurally, also, Bartók often invents or borrows from folk modes. In the sixth string quartet, for example, Bartók begins each movement with a slow, elegiac melody, followed by the main melodic material of the movement, and concludes the quartet with a slow movement that is built entirely on this elegy. This is a form common in many folk music cultures.
Bartók 's six string quartets are often compared with Beethoven 's late quartets. In them, Bartók builds new musical structures, explores sonorities never previously produced in classical music (for example, the snap pizzicato, where the player lifts the string and lets it snap back on the fingerboard with an audible buzz), and creates modes of expression that set these works apart from all others. "Bartók 's last two quartets proclaim the sanctity of life, progress and the victory of humanity despite the anti-humanistic dangers of the time '', writes analyst John Herschel Baron. The last quartet, written when Bartók was preparing to flee the Nazi invasion of Hungary for a new and uncertain life in the U.S., is often seen as an autobiographical statement of the tragedy of his times.
Bartók was not alone in his explorations of folk music. Igor Stravinsky 's Three Pieces for String Quartet is structured as three Russian folksongs, rather than as a classical string quartet. Stravinsky, like Bartók, used asymmetrical rhythms throughout his chamber music; the Histoire du soldat, in Stravinsky 's own arrangement for clarinet, violin and piano, constantly shifts time signatures between two, three, four and five beats to the bar. In Britain, composers Ralph Vaughan Williams, William Walton and Benjamin Britten drew on English folk music for much of their chamber music: Vaughan Williams incorporates folksongs and country fiddling in his first string quartet. American composer Charles Ives wrote music that was distinctly American. Ives gave programmatic titles to much of his chamber music; his first string quartet, for example, is called "From the Salvation Army '', and quotes American Protestant hymns in several places.
A second direction in the search for a new tonality was twelve - tone serialism. Arnold Schoenberg developed the twelve - tone method of composition as an alternative to the structure provided by the diatonic system. His method entails building a piece using a series of the twelve notes of the chromatic scale, permuting it and superimposing it on itself to create the composition.
Schoenberg did not arrive immediately at the serial method. His first chamber work, the string sextet Verklärte Nacht, was mostly a late German romantic work, though it was bold in its use of modulations. The first work that was frankly atonal was the second string quartet; the last movement of this quartet, which includes a soprano, has no key signature. Schoenberg further explored atonality with Pierrot Lunaire, for singer, flute or piccolo, clarinet, violin, cello and piano. The singer uses a technique called Sprechstimme, halfway between speech and song.
After developing the twelve - tone technique, Schoenberg wrote a number of chamber works, including two more string quartets, a string trio, and a wind quintet. He was followed by a number of other twelve - tone composers, the most prominent of whom were his students Alban Berg, who wrote the Lyric Suite for string quartet, and Anton Webern, who wrote Five Movements for String Quartet, op. 5.
Twelve - tone technique was not the only new experiment in tonality. Darius Milhaud developed the use of polytonality, that is, music where different instruments play in different keys at the same time. Milhaud wrote 18 string quartets; quartets number 14 and 15 are written so that each can be played by itself, or the two can be played at the same time as an octet. Milhaud also used jazz idioms, as in his Suite for clarinet, violin and piano.
The American composer Charles Ives used not only polytonality in his chamber works, but also polymeter. In his first string quartet he writes a section where the first violin and viola play in 3 4 (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (3) (4))) time while the second violin and cello play in 4 4 (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (4) (4))).
The plethora of directions that music took in the first quarter of the 20th century led to a reaction by many composers. Led by Stravinsky, these composers looked to the music of preclassical Europe for inspiration and stability. While Stravinsky 's neoclassical works -- such as the Double Canon for String Quartet -- sound contemporary, they are modeled on Baroque and early classical forms -- the canon, the fugue, and the Baroque sonata form.
Paul Hindemith was another neoclassicist. His many chamber works are essentially tonal, though they use many dissonant harmonies. Hindemith wrote seven string quartets and two string trios, among other chamber works. At a time when composers were writing works of increasing complexity, beyond the reach of amateur musicians, Hindemith explicitly recognized the importance of amateur music - making, and intentionally wrote pieces that were within the abilities of nonprofessional players.
Dmitri Shostakovich was one of the most prolific of chamber music composers of the 20th century, writing 15 string quartets, two piano trios, the piano quintet, and numerous other chamber works. Shostakovich 's music was for a long time banned in the Soviet Union and Shostakovich himself was in personal danger of deportation to Siberia. His eighth quartet is an autobiographical work, that expresses his deep depression from his ostracization, bordering on suicide: it quotes from previous compositions, and uses the four - note motif DSCH, the composer 's initials.
As the century progressed, many composers created works for small ensembles that, while they formally might be considered chamber music, challenged many of the fundamental characteristics that had defined the genre over the last 150 years.
The idea of composing music that could be played at home has been largely abandoned. Bartók was among the first to part with this idea. "Bartók never conceived these quartets for private performance but rather for large, public concerts. '' Aside from the many almost insurmountable technical difficulties of many modern pieces, some of them are hardly suitable for performance in a small room. For example, Different Trains by Steve Reich is scored for live string quartet and recorded tape, which layers together a carefully orchestrated sound collage of speech, recorded train sounds, and three string quartets.
Since the invention of electrical telecommunication devices in the 19th century, players of a string quartet can even conduct a conversation when they are flying over the audience in four separate helicopters, as in the Helicopter String Quartet by Karlheinz Stockhausen. When the piece was performed in 1995, the players had earphones with a click track to enable them to play at the right time.
Traditionally, the composer wrote the notes, and the performer interpreted them. But this is no longer the case in much modern music. In Für kommende Zeiten (For Times to Come), Stockhausen writes verbal instructions describing what the performers are to play. "Star constellations / with common points / and falling stars... Abrupt end '' is a sample.
Composer Terry Riley describes how he works with the Kronos Quartet, an ensemble devoted to contemporary music: "When I write a score for them, it 's an unedited score. I put in just a minimal amount of dynamics and phrasing marks... we spend a lot of time trying out different ideas in order to shape the music, to form it. At the end of the process, it makes the performers actually own the music. That to me is the best way for composers and musicians to interact. ''
Composers seek new timbres, remote from the traditional blend of strings, piano and woodwinds that characterized chamber music in the 19th century. This search led to the incorporation of new instruments in the 20th century, such as the theremin and the synthesizer in chamber music compositions.
Many composers sought new timbres within the framework of traditional instruments. "Composers begin to hear new timbres and new timbral combinations, which are as important to the new music of the twentieth century as the so - called breakdown of functional tonality, '' writes music historian James McCalla. Examples are numerous: Bartók 's Sonata for two pianos and percussion (1937), Schoenberg 's Pierrot lunaire, Charles Ives 's Quartertone Pieces for two pianos tuned a quartertone apart. Other composers used electronics and extended techniques to create new sonorities. An example is George Crumb 's Black Angels, for electric string quartet (1970). The players not only bow their amplified instruments, they also beat on them with thimbles, pluck them with paper clips and play on the wrong side of the bridge or between the fingers and the nut.
What do these changes mean for the future of chamber music? "With the technological advances have come questions of aesthetics and sociological changes in music '', writes analyst Baron. "These changes have often resulted in accusations that technology has destroyed chamber music and that technological advance is in inverse proportion to musical worth. The ferocity of these attacks only underscores how fundamental these changes are, and only time will tell if humankind will benefit from them. ''
Analysts agree that the role of chamber music in society has changed profoundly in the last 50 years; yet there is little agreement as to what that change is. On the one hand, Baron contends that "chamber music in the home... remained very important in Europe and America until the Second World War, after which the increasing invasion of radio and recording reduced its scope considerably. '' This view is supported by subjective impressions. "Today there are so many more millions of people listening to music, but far fewer playing chamber music just for the pleasure of it '', says conductor and pianist Daniel Barenboim.
However, recent surveys suggest there is, on the contrary, a resurgence of home music making. In the radio program "Amateurs Help Keep Chamber Music Alive '' from 2005, reporter Theresa Schiavone cites a Gallup poll showing an increase in the sale of stringed instruments in America. Joe Lamond, president of the National Association of Music Manufacturers (NAMM) attributes the increase to a growth of home music - making by adults approaching retirement. "I would really look to the demographics of the (baby) boomers '', he said in an interview. These people "are starting to look for something that matters to them... nothing makes them feel good more than playing music. ''
A study by the European Music Office in 1996 suggests that not only older people are playing music. "The number of adolescents today to have done music has almost doubled by comparison with those born before 1960 '', the study shows. While most of this growth is in popular music, some is in chamber music and art music, according to the study.
While there is no agreement about the number of chamber music players, the opportunities for amateurs to play have certainly grown. The number of chamber music camps and retreats, where amateurs can meet for a weekend or a month to play together, has burgeoned. Music for the Love of It, an organization to promote amateur playing, publishes a directory of music workshops that lists more than 500 workshops in 24 countries for amateurs in 2008 The Associated Chamber Music Players (ACMP) offers a directory of over 5,000 amateur players worldwide who welcome partners for chamber music sessions.
Regardless of whether the number of amateur players has grown or shrunk, the number of chamber music concerts in the west has increased greatly in the last 20 years. Concert halls have largely replaced the home as the venue for concerts. Baron suggests that one of the reasons for this surge is "the spiraling costs of orchestral concerts and the astronomical fees demanded by famous soloists, which have priced both out of the range of most audiences. '' The repertoire at these concerts is almost universally the classics of the 19th century. However, modern works are increasingly included in programs, and some groups, like the Kronos Quartet, devote themselves almost exclusively to contemporary music and new compositions; and ensembles like the Turtle Island String Quartet, that combine classical, jazz, rock and other styles to create crossover music. Cello Fury and Project Trio offer a new spin to the standard chamber ensemble. Cello Fury consists of three cellists and a drummer and Project Trio includes a flutist, bassist, and cellist.
Several groups such as Classical Revolution and Simple Measures have taken classical chamber music out of the concert hall and into the streets. Simple Measures, a group of chamber musicians in Seattle (Washington, USA), gives concerts in shopping centers, coffee shops, and streetcars. The Providence (Rhode Island, USA) String Quartet has started the "Storefront Strings '' program, offering impromptu concerts and lessons out of a storefront in one of Providence 's poorer neighborhoods. "What really makes this for me '', said Rajan Krishnaswami, cellist and founder of Simple Measures, "is the audience reaction... you really get that audience feedback. ''
Chamber music performance is a specialized field, and requires a number of skills not normally required for the performance of symphonic or solo music. Many performers and authors have written about the specialized techniques required for a successful chamber musician. Chamber music playing, writes M.D. Herter Norton, requires that "individuals... make a unified whole yet remain individuals. The soloist is a whole unto himself, and in the orchestra individuality is lost in numbers... ''.
Many performers contend that the intimate nature of chamber music playing requires certain personality traits.
David Waterman, cellist of the Endellion Quartet, writes that the chamber musician "needs to balance assertiveness and flexibility. '' Good rapport is essential. Arnold Steinhardt, first violinist of the Guarneri Quartet, notes that many professional quartets suffer from frequent turnover of players. "Many musicians can not take the strain of going mano a mano with the same three people year after year. ''
Mrs. Norton, a violinist who studied quartet playing with the Kneisel Quartet at the beginning of the last century, goes so far that players of different parts in a quartet have different personality traits. "By tradition the first violin is the leader '' but "this does not mean a relentless predominance. '' The second violinist "is a little everybody 's servant. '' "The artistic contribution of each member will be measured by his skill in asserting or subduing that individuality which he must possess to be at all interesting. ''
"For an individual, the problems of interpretation are challenging enough '', writes Waterman, "but for a quartet grappling with some of the most profound, intimate and heartfelt compositions in the music literature, the communal nature of decision - making is often more testing than the decisions themselves. ''
The problem of finding agreement on musical issues is complicated by the fact that each player is playing a different part, that may appear to demand dynamics or gestures contrary to those of other parts in the same passage. Sometimes these differences are even specified in the score -- for example, where cross-dynamics are indicated, with one instrument crescendoing while another is getting softer.
One of the issues that must be settled in rehearsal is who leads the ensemble at each point of the piece. Normally, the first violin leads the ensemble. By leading, this means that the violinist indicates the start of each movement and their tempos by a gesture with her head or bowing hand. However, there are passages that require other instruments to lead. For example, John Dalley, second violinist of the Guarneri Quartet, says, "We 'll often ask (the cellist) to lead in pizzicato passages. A cellist 's preparatory motion for pizzicato is larger and slower than that of a violinist. ''
Players discuss issues of interpretation in rehearsal; but often, in mid-performance, players do things spontaneously, requiring the other players to respond in real time. "After twenty years in the (Guarneri) Quartet, I 'm happily surprised on occasion to find myself totally wrong about what I think a player will do, or how he 'll react in a particular passage '', says violist Michael Tree.
Playing together constitutes a major challenge to chamber music players. Many compositions pose difficulties in coordination, with figures such as hemiolas, syncopation, fast unison passages and simultaneously sounded notes that form chords that are challenging to play in tune. But beyond the challenge of merely playing together from a rhythmic or intonation perspective is the greater challenge of sounding good together.
To create a unified chamber music sound -- to blend -- the players must coordinate the details of their technique. They must decide when to use vibrato and how much. They often need to coordinate their bowing and "breathing '' between phrases, to ensure a unified sound. They need to agree on special techniques, such as spiccato, sul tasto, sul ponticello, and so on.
Balance refers to the relative volume of each of the instruments. Because chamber music is a conversation, sometimes one instrument must stand out, sometimes another. It is not always a simple matter for members of an ensemble to determine the proper balance while playing; frequently, they require an outside listener, or a recording of their rehearsal, to tell them that the relations between the instruments are correct.
Chamber music playing presents special problems of intonation. The piano is tuned using equal temperament, that is, the 12 notes of the scale are spaced exactly equally. This method makes it possible for the piano to play in any key; however, all the intervals except the octave sound very slightly out of tune. String players can play with just intonation, that is, they can play specific intervals (such as fifths) exactly in tune. Moreover, string and wind players can use expressive intonation, changing the pitch of a note to create a musical or dramatic effect. "String intonation is more expressive and sensitive than equal - tempered piano intonation. ''
However, using true and expressive intonation requires careful coordination with the other players, especially when a piece is going through harmonic modulations. "The difficulty in string quartet intonation is to determine the degree of freedom you have at any given moment '', says Steinhardt.
Players of chamber music, both amateur and professional, attest to a unique enchantment with playing in ensemble. "It is not an exaggeration to say that there opened out before me an enchanted world '', writes Walter Willson Cobbett, devoted amateur musician and editor of Cobbett 's Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber Music.
Ensembles develop a close intimacy of shared musical experience. "It is on the concert stage where the moments of true intimacy occur '', writes Steinhardt. "When a performance is in progress, all four of us together enter a zone of magic somewhere between our music stands and become a conduit, messenger, and missionary... It is an experience too personal to talk about and yet it colors every aspect of our relationship, every good - natured musical confrontation, all the professional gossip, the latest viola joke. ''
The playing of chamber music has been the inspiration for numerous books, both fiction and nonfiction. An Equal Music by Vikram Seth, explores the life and love of the second violinist of a fictional quartet, the Maggiore. Central to the story is the tensions and the intimacy developed between the four members of the quartet. "A strange composite being we are (in performance), not ourselves any more, but the Maggiore, composed of so many disjunct parts: chairs, stands, music, bows, instruments, musicians... '' The Rosendorf Quartet, by Nathan Shaham, describes the trials of a string quartet in Palestine, before the establishment of the state of Israel. For the Love of It by Wayne Booth is a nonfictional account of the author 's romance with cello playing and chamber music.
Numerous societies are dedicated to the encouragement and performance of chamber music. Some of these are:
In addition to these national and international organizations, there are also numerous regional and local organizations that support chamber music. Some of the most prominent professional American chamber music ensembles and organizations are:
This is a partial list of the types of ensembles found in chamber music. The standard repertoire for chamber ensembles is rich, and the totality of chamber music in print in sheet music form is nearly boundless. See the articles on each instrument combination for examples of repertoire.
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who supplied ballot boxes in first general election | Ballot box - wikipedia
A ballot box is a temporarily sealed container, usually a square box though sometimes a tamper resistant bag, with a narrow slot in the top sufficient to accept a ballot paper in an election but which prevents anyone from accessing the votes cast until the close of the voting period.
It will usually be located in a polling station although in some countries, notably Ireland, Italy and Russia, there may also be ballot boxes that are taken to people 's homes where they would otherwise be unable to travel to the polling station. When very large ballot papers are used, there may be a feeder mechanism to assist in the deposit of the paper into the box.
Transparent ballot boxes may be used in order for people to be able to witness that the box is empty prior to the start of the election (i.e. not stuffed with fraudulent votes).
At the close of the election all boxes can be taken to a single location for tallying (The count) and the result declared. Alternately the boxes can be tallied at the polling station, with individual stations announcing their results to be tallied (known as precinct count).
Ballot boxes are obsolete in some jurisdictions because of the increase in paperless electronic voting.
The word ballot derives from voting systems based upon the use of a small ball instead of a voting paper: see blackball.
The first British secret ballot using ballot papers and a ballot box was held in Pontefract on 15 August 1872, under the terms of the recently enacted Ballot Act 1872. In a ministerial by - election following his appointment as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, Hugh Childers was re-elected as MP for Pontefract. The original ballot box, sealed in wax with a liquorice stamp, is held at Pontefract Museum.
A cardboard ballot box used during the first federal vote in Washington, D.C..
A wooden ballot box used in the northeastern United States c. 1870.
A galvanized metal ballot box used in Tulare County, California United States c. 1936.
A voter putting her envelope into a clear ballot box during the 2007 French presidential election.
A glass globe ballot jar c. 1884.
An Acme voting machine of Bridgewater, Connecticut c. 1880.
A translucent ballot box (Tiobox) used in Slovenia.
An old metal ballot box used in Norway.
A ballot box at the start of the controversial 2014 Crimean referendum.
Clear sided ballot boxes used in the Haitian general election in 2006
A man in Sarakhs put his vote to ballot, Iranian presidential election, 2013
Secured ballot boxes in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Ballot boxes used in the Philippines before automation was implemented in 2010.
A recycling bin as ballot box for the German federal election, 2017; Central Electoral Office of the City of Bochum
See Checkbox
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who plays dr riggs on grey's anatomy | Martin Henderson - wikipedia
Martin Henderson (born 8 October 1974) is a New Zealand actor, best known for his roles on the ABC medical drama Off the Map as Dr. Ben Keeton, the ABC medical drama Grey 's Anatomy as Dr. Nathan Riggs, and for his performance as Noah Clay in the critically lauded 2002 horror film The Ring, while remaining known in his home country for his teenage role as Stuart Neilson in the soap opera Shortland Street.
Martin was born in Auckland, New Zealand, and began acting at the age of thirteen, appearing in Strangers, a local television production. He attended Birkenhead Primary and Westlake Boys High schools.
Henderson starred in the prime - time soap opera Shortland Street, where he played the character of Stuart Neilson from 1992 to 1995. He subsequently appeared in a number of Australian films and television productions including Echo Point and Home and Away, before moving to the United States in 1997, to pursue a career in Hollywood films and to train in a two - year program at the Neighborhood Playhouse in New York City.
Henderson spent more than a year unsuccessfully auditioning for film roles in Los Angeles. In 2001, he was finally cast in a supporting role in the John Woo - directed war film Windtalkers. In 1999, he appeared in Kick, for which he was nominated for an AACTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role.
In 2002, he starred opposite actress Naomi Watts in the horror film The Ring. Following the box office success of the film, Martin received a role playing the character of Drew in Perfect Opposites, and subsequently was cast as the lead character in the biker film Torque, released in early 2004 to mixed reviews. In 2004, he starred opposite Indian actress Aishwarya Rai in the romantic film Bride and Prejudice and appeared in Britney Spears ' "Toxic '' music video. In 2005, he appeared in the award - winning Little Fish starring Cate Blanchett. In 2006, Henderson received rave reviews in London 's West End in a theatre production of Fool for Love with Juliette Lewis.
He was set to star alongside Jordana Brewster in the television series adapted from the 2005 film Mr. & Mrs. Smith. However, the series was not picked up by any network. In 2006, he appeared in the movie Flyboys. Henderson also appeared in a commercial for the 2008 Cadillac CTS, and the House episode "Painless ''. In 2010, Henderson was cast in Grey 's Anatomy creator Shonda Rhimes ' short - lived television series Off the Map. In 2014, Henderson starred in the multi-platform Australian drama television series Secrets & Lies and starred in the SundanceTV drama series The Red Road.
In June 2015, Deadline reported Henderson would join Grey 's Anatomy starting in November, as a potential love interest for series lead Ellen Pompeo 's Meredith Grey. The actor exited two years later, his final appearance in October 2017. Henderson told Deadline that his departure was a storytelling based decision, adding, "This (was) my final year so I was expecting Nathan 's storyline to be wrapped up. '' That same year, he appeared in Everest, with Jake Gyllenhaal.
Henderson is both a New Zealand and American citizen.
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what does the white half moon on your fingernail mean | Lunula (anatomy) - wikipedia
The lunula, or lunulae (pl.) (from Latin, meaning ' little moon '), is the crescent - shaped whitish area of the bed of a fingernail or toenail. The lunula is the visible part of the root of the nail.
In humans, it appears by week 14 of gestation, and has a primary structural role in defining the free edge of the distal nail plate (the part of the nail that grows outward).
It is located at the end of the nail (that is closest to the skin of the finger), but it still lies under the nail. It is not actually white but only appears so when it is seen through the nail. Outlining the nail matrix, the lunula is a very delicate part of the nail structure. If one damages the lunula, the nail will be permanently deformed. Even when the totality of the nail is removed, the lunula remains in place and is similar in appearance to another smaller fingernail embedded in the nail bed.
In most cases, it is half - moon - shaped and has unique histologic features. Examinations concluded that the lunula was an area of loose dermis with lesser developed collagen bundles. It appears whitish because a thickened underlying stratum basale obscures the underlying blood vessels.
The lunula is most noticeable on the thumb; however, not everyone 's lunulae are visible. In some cases, the eponychium may partially or completely cover the lunula.
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when did the british army got final defeat against the united state of america | American Revolutionary war - wikipedia
Allied victory:
Thirteen Colonies (before 1776) United States (after 1776) Vermont Republic French Empire Spanish Empire
Co-belligerents:
Dutch Republic Mysore
British Empire Hanover
German mercenaries: Hesse - Kassel Hesse - Hanau Waldeck Brunswick Ansbach Anhalt - Zerbst
George Washington Thomas Chittenden Louis XVI Charles III
William V Hyder Ali † Tipu Sultan
George III Lord North Lord George Germain
United States: Army & Militia: 40,000 (average) 200,000 (total served) Navy: 5,000 sailors (peak 1779) 53 frigates and sloops (total served) State Navies: 106 ships (total served) Privateers: 55,000 sailors (total served) 1,697 ships
Allies: Army: 63,000 French and Spanish (Gibraltar) Navy: 146 ships - of - the - line (1782)
American Indian Allies:
Great Britain: Army: 48,000 (America peak) 121,000 (global 1781) 7,500 (Gibraltar) Navy: 94 ships - of - the - line (1782) 104 frigates (1781) 37 sloops (1781) 171,000 sailors
Loyalists: 25,000 (total served)
Hanoverians: 2,365 (total served)
German mercenaries: 29,875 (total served)
American Indian Allies:
United States: 25,000 -- 70,000 total dead 6,800 killed in battle 17,000 died of disease
France: at least 7,000 dead (2,112 in the United States)
Spain: 5,000 killed
Netherlands: 500 killed
Great Britain: Army: 43,633 total dead ~ 9,372 killed in battle 27,000 died of disease Navy: 1,243 killed in battle 18,500 died of disease (1776 -- 1780) 42,000 deserted
Germans: 7,774 total dead 1,800 killed in battle 4,888 deserted
Loyalists: 7,000 total dead 1,700 killed in battle 5,300 died of disease (estimated)
The American Revolutionary War (1775 -- 1783), also known as the American War of Independence, was a global war that began as a conflict between Great Britain and its Thirteen Colonies which declared independence as the United States of America.
After 1765, growing philosophical and political differences strained the relationship between Great Britain and its colonies. Patriot protests against taxation without representation followed the Stamp Act and escalated into boycotts, which culminated in 1773 with the Sons of Liberty destroying a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor. Britain responded by closing Boston Harbor and passing a series of punitive measures against Massachusetts Bay Colony. Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, and they established a shadow government which wrested control of the countryside from the Crown. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, establishing committees and conventions that effectively seized power.
British attempts to disarm the Massachusetts militia at Concord in April 1775 led to open combat. Militia forces then besieged Boston, forcing a British evacuation in March 1776, and Congress appointed George Washington to command the Continental Army. Concurrently, an American attempt to invade Quebec and raise rebellion against the British failed decisively. On July 2, 1776, the Continental Congress voted for independence, issuing its declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe launched a British counter-offensive, capturing New York City and leaving American morale at a low ebb. However, victories at Trenton and Princeton restored American confidence. In 1777, the British launched an invasion from Quebec under John Burgoyne, intending to isolate the New England Colonies. Instead of assisting this effort, Howe took his army on a separate campaign against Philadelphia, and Burgoyne was decisively defeated at Saratoga in October 1777.
Burgoyne 's defeat had drastic consequences; France formally allied with the Americans and entered the war in 1778, and Spain joined the war the following year as an ally of France but not as an ally of the United States. In 1780, the Kingdom of Mysore attacked the British in India, and tensions between Great Britain and the Netherlands erupted into open war. In North America, the British mounted a "Southern strategy '' led by Charles Cornwallis which hinged upon a Loyalist uprising, but too few came forward. Cornwallis suffered reversals at King 's Mountain and Cowpens. He retreated to Yorktown, Virginia, intending an evacuation, but a decisive French naval victory deprived him of an escape. A Franco - American army led by the Comte de Rochambeau and Washington then besieged Cornwallis ' army and, with no sign of relief, he surrendered in October 1781.
Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tories in Parliament, and the surrender gave them the upper hand. In early 1782, Parliament voted to end all offensive operations in North America, but the war continued in Europe and India. Britain remained under siege in Gibraltar but scored a major victory over the French navy. On September 3, 1783, the belligerent parties signed the Treaty of Paris in which Great Britain agreed to recognize the sovereignty of the United States and formally end the war. French involvement had proven decisive, but France made few gains and incurred crippling debts. Spain made some minor territorial gains but failed in its primary aim of recovering Gibraltar. The Dutch were defeated on all counts and were compelled to cede territory to Great Britain. In India, the war against Mysore and its allies concluded in 1784 without any territorial changes.
Parliament passed the Stamp Act in 1765. Colonists condemned the tax because their rights as Englishmen protected them from being taxed by a Parliament in which they had no elected representatives. Parliament argued that the colonies were "represented virtually '', an idea that was criticized throughout the Empire. Parliament did repeal the act in 1766; however, it also affirmed its right to pass laws that were binding on the colonies. From 1767, Parliament began passing legislation to raise revenue for the salaries of civil officials, ensuring their loyalty while inadvertently increasing resentment among the colonists, and opposition soon became widespread.
Enforcing the acts proved difficult. The seizure of the sloop Liberty in 1768 on suspicions of smuggling triggered a riot. In response, British troops occupied Boston, and Parliament threatened to extradite colonists to face trial in England. Tensions rose after the murder of Christopher Seider by a customs official in 1770 and escalated into outrage after British troops fired on civilians in the Boston Massacre. In 1772, colonists in Rhode Island boarded and burned a customs schooner. Parliament then repealed all taxes except the one on tea, passing the Tea Act in 1773, attempting to force colonists to buy East India Company tea on which the Townshend duties were paid, thus implicitly agreeing to Parliamentary supremacy. The landing of the tea was resisted in all colonies, but the governor of Massachusetts permitted British tea ships to remain in Boston Harbor. So, the Sons of Liberty destroyed the tea chests, an incident that later became known as the "Boston Tea Party ''.
Parliament then passed punitive legislation. It closed Boston Harbor until the tea was paid for and revoked the Massachusetts Charter, taking upon themselves the right to directly appoint the Massachusetts Governor 's Council. Additionally, the royal governor was granted powers to undermine local democracy. Further measures allowed the extradition of officials for trial elsewhere in the Empire, if the governor felt that a fair trial could not be secured locally. The act 's vague reimbursement policy for travel expenses left few with the ability to testify, and colonists argued that it would allow officials to harass them with impunity. Further laws allowed the governor to billet troops in private property without permission. The colonists referred to the measures as the "Intolerable Acts '', and they argued that both their constitutional rights and their natural rights were being violated, viewing the acts as a threat to all of America. The acts were widely opposed, driving neutral parties into support of the Patriots and curtailing Loyalist sentiment.
The colonists responded by establishing the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, effectively removing Crown control of the colony outside Boston. Meanwhile, representatives from twelve colonies convened the First Continental Congress to respond to the crisis. The Congress narrowly rejected a proposal to create an American parliament to act in concert with the British Parliament; instead, they passed a compact declaring a trade boycott against Britain. The Congress also affirmed that Parliament had no authority over internal American matters, but they were willing to consent to trade regulations for the benefit of the empire, and they authorized committees and conventions to enforce the boycott. The boycott was effective, as imports from Britain dropped by 97 % in 1775 compared to 1774.
Parliament refused to yield. In 1775, it declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and enforced a blockade of the colony. It then passed legislation to limit colonial trade to the British West Indies and the British Isles. Colonial ships were barred from the Newfoundland cod fisheries, a measure which pleased Canadiens but damaged New England 's economy. These increasing tensions led to a mutual scramble for ordnance and pushed the colonies toward open war. Thomas Gage was the British Commander - in - Chief and military governor of Massachusetts, and he received orders on April 14, 1775 to disarm the local militias.
On April 18, 1775, 700 troops were sent to confiscate militia ordnance stored at Concord. Fighting broke out, forcing the regulars to conduct a fighting withdrawal to Boston. Overnight, the local militia converged on and laid siege to Boston. On March 25, 4,500 British reinforcements arrived with generals William Howe, John Burgoyne, and Henry Clinton. The British seized the Charlestown peninsula on June 17 after a costly frontal assault, leading Howe to replace Gage. Many senior officers were dismayed at the attack, which had gained them little, while Gage wrote to London stressing the need for a large army to suppress the revolt. On July 3, George Washington took command of the Continental Army besieging Boston. Howe made no effort to attack, much to Washington 's surprise. A plan was rejected to assault the city, and the Americans instead fortified Dorchester Heights in early March 1776 with heavy artillery captured from a raid on Fort Ticonderoga. The British were permitted to withdraw unmolested on March 17, and they sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia. Washington then moved his army to New York.
Starting in August 1775, American Privateers began to raid villages in Nova Scotia, first at Saint John, then Charlottetown and Yarmouth. They continued in 1776 at Canso and then a land assault on Fort Cumberland.
Meanwhile, British officials in Quebec began lobbying Indian tribes to support them, while the Americans urged them to maintain their neutrality. In April 1775, Congress feared an Anglo - Indian attack from Canada and authorized an invasion of Quebec. Quebec had a largely Francophone population and had been under British rule for only 12 years, and the Americans expected that they would welcome being liberated from the British. The Americans attacked Quebec City on December 31 after an arduous march but were defeated. After a loose siege, the Americans withdrew on May 6. 1776. A failed counter-attack on June 8 ended American operations in Quebec. However, the British could not conduct an aggressive pursuit because of American ships on Lake Champlain. On October 11, the British defeated the American squadron, forcing them to withdraw to Ticonderoga and ending the campaign. The invasion cost the Patriots their support in British public opinion, while aggressive anti-Loyalist policies diluted Canadien support. The Patriots continued to view Quebec as a strategic aim, though no further attempts to invade were ever made.
In Virginia, Royal governor Lord Dunmore had attempted to disarm the militia as tensions increased, although no fighting broke out. He issued a proclamation on November 7, 1775 promising freedom for slaves who fled their Patriot masters to fight for the Crown. Dunmore 's troops were overwhelmed by Patriots at Great Bridge, and Dunmore fled to naval ships anchored off Norfolk. Subsequent negotiations broke down, so Dunmore ordered the ships to destroy the town.
Fighting broke out on November 19 in South Carolina between Loyalist and Patriot militias, and the Loyalists were subsequently driven out of the colony. Loyalists were recruited in North Carolina to reassert colonial rule in the South, but they were decisively defeated and Loyalist sentiment was subdued. A troop of British regulars set out to reconquer South Carolina and launched an attack on Charleston on June 28, 1776, but it failed and effectively left the South in Patriot control until 1780.
The shortage of gunpowder had led Congress to authorize an expedition against the Bahamas colony in the British West Indies in order to secure ordnance there. On March 3, 1776, the Americans landed after a bloodless exchange of fire, and the local militia offered no resistance. They confiscated all the supplies that they could load and sailed away on March 17. The squadron reached New London, Connecticut on April 8, after a brief skirmish with the Royal Navy frigate HMS Glasgow on April 6.
After fighting began, Congress launched a final attempt to avert war, which Parliament rejected as insincere. King George then issued a Proclamation of Rebellion on August 23, 1775, which only served to embolden the colonists in their determination to become independent. After a speech by the King, Parliament rejected coercive measures on the colonies by 170 votes. British Tories refused to compromise, while Whigs argued that current policy would drive the colonists towards independence. Despite opposition, the King himself began micromanaging the war effort. The Irish Parliament pledged to send troops to America, and Irish Catholics were allowed to enlist in the army for the first time. Irish Protestants favored the Americans, while Catholics favored the King.
The initial hostilities provided a sobering military lesson for the British, causing them to rethink their views on colonial military capability. The weak British response gave the Patriots the advantage, and the British lost control over every colony. The army had been deliberately kept small in England since 1688 to prevent abuses of power by the King. Parliament secured treaties with small German states for additional troops and sent an army of 32,000 men to America after a year, the largest that it had ever sent outside Europe at the time.
In the colonies, the success of Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense had boosted public support for independence. On July 2, Congress voted in favor of independence with twelve affirmatives and one abstention, issuing its declaration on July 4. Washington read the declaration to his men and the citizens of New York on July 9, invigorating the crowd to tear down a lead statue of the King and melting it to make bullets. British Tories criticized the signatories for not extending the same standards of equality to slaves.
Patriots followed independence with the Test Laws, requiring residents to swear allegiance to the state in which they lived, intending to root out neutrals or opponents to independence. Failure to do so meant possible imprisonment, exile, or even death. American Tories were barred from public office, forbidden from practising medicine and law, forced to pay increased taxes, or even barred from executing wills or becoming guardians to orphans. Congress enabled states to confiscate Loyalist property to fund the war. Some Quakers who remained neutral had their property confiscated. States later prevented Loyalists from collecting any debts that they were owed.
After regrouping at Halifax, William Howe determined to take the fight to the Americans. He set sail in June 1776 and began landing troops on Staten Island near the entrance to New York Harbor on July 2. Due to poor military intelligence, Washington split his army to positions on Manhattan Island and across the East River in western Long Island, and an informal attempt to negotiate peace was rejected by the Americans. On August 27, Howe outflanked Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights. Howe restrained his subordinates from pursuit, opting to besiege Washington instead.
Washington withdrew to Manhattan without any losses in men or ordnance. Following the withdrawal, the Staten Island Peace Conference failed to negotiate peace, as the British delegates did not possess the authority to recognize independence. Howe then seized control of New York City on September 15, and unsuccessfully engaged the Americans the following day. He attempted to encircle Washington, but the Americans successfully withdrew. On October 28, the British fought an indecisive action against Washington, in which Howe declined to attack Washington 's army, instead concentrating his efforts upon a hill that was of no strategic value.
Washington 's retreat left his forces isolated, and the British captured an American fortification on November 16, taking 3,000 prisoners and amounting to what one historian terms "the most disastrous defeat of the entire war ''. Washington 's army fell back four days later. Henry Clinton then captured Newport, Rhode Island, an operation which he opposed, feeling that the 6,000 troops assigned to him could have been better employed in the pursuit of Washington. The American prisoners were then sent to the infamous prison ships in which more American soldiers and sailors died of disease and neglect than died in every battle of the war combined. Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington, but Howe ordered him to halt, and Washington marched away unmolested.
The outlook of the American cause was bleak; the army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men and would be reduced further when the enlistments expired at the end of the year. Popular support wavered, morale ebbed away, and Congress abandoned Philadelphia. Loyalist activity surged in the wake of the American defeat, especially in New York.
News of the campaign was well received in Britain. Festivities took place in London, public support reached a peak, and the King awarded the Order of the Bath to William Howe. The successes led to predictions that the British could win within a year. The American defeat revealed what one writer views as Washington 's strategic deficiencies, such as dividing a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one, his inexperienced staff misreading the situation, and his troops fleeing in disorder when fighting began. In the meantime, the British entered winter quarters and were in a good place to resume campaigning.
On December 25, 1776, Washington stealthily crossed the Delaware River, and his army overwhelmed the Hessian garrison at Trenton, New Jersey the following morning, taking 900 prisoners. The decisive victory rescued the army 's flagging morale and gave a new hope to the cause for independence. Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton, but his efforts were repulsed on January 2. Washington outmanoeuvred Cornwallis that night, and defeated his rearguard the following day. The victories proved instrumental in convincing the French and Spanish that the Americans were worthwhile allies, as well as recovering morale in the army. Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey on January 6, though a protracted guerrilla conflict continued. While encamped, Howe made no attempt to attack, much to Washington 's amazement.
In December 1776, John Burgoyne returned to London to set strategy with Lord George Germain. Burgoyne 's plan was to establish control of the Champlain - George - Hudson route from New York to Quebec, isolating New England. Efforts could then be concentrated on the southern colonies, where it was believed Loyalist support was in abundance.
Burgoyne 's plan was to lead an army along Lake Champlain, while a strategic diversion advanced along the Mohawk River, and both would rendezvous at Albany. Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777, quickly capturing Ticonderoga on July 5. Leaving 1,300 men behind as a garrison, Burgoyne continued the advance. Progress was slow; the Americans blocked roads, destroyed bridges, dammed streams and denuded the area of food. Meanwhile, Barry St. Ledger 's diversionary column laid siege to Fort Stanwix. St. Ledger withdrew to Quebec on August 22 after his Indian support abandoned him. On August 16, a Hessian foraging expedition was soundly defeated at Bennington, and more than 700 troops were captured. Meanwhile, the vast majority of Burgoyne 's Indian support abandoned him and Howe informed Burgoyne he would launch his campaign on Philadelphia as planned, and would be unable to render aid.
Burgoyne decided to continue the advance. On September 19, he attempted to flank the American position, and clashed at Freeman 's Farm. The British won, but at the cost of 600 casualties. Burgoyne then dug in, but suffered a constant haemorrhage of deserters, and critical supplies were running low. On October 7, a British reconnaissance in force against the American lines was repulsed with heavy losses. Burgoyne then withdrew with the Americans in pursuit, and by October 13, he was surrounded. With no hope of relief and supplies exhausted, Burgoyne surrendered on October 17, and 6,222 soldiers became prisoners of the Americans. The decisive success spurred France to enter the war as an ally of the United States, securing the final elements needed for victory over Britain, that of foreign assistance.
Meanwhile, Howe launched his campaign against Washington, though his initial efforts to bring him to battle in June 1777 failed. Howe declined to attack Philadelphia overland via New Jersey, or by sea via the Delaware Bay, even though both options would have enabled him to assist Burgoyne if necessary. Instead, he took his army on a time - consuming route through the Chesapeake Bay, leaving him completely unable to assist Burgoyne. This decision was so difficult to understand, Howe 's critics accused him of treason.
Howe outflanked and defeated Washington on September 11, though he failed to follow - up on the victory and destroy his army. A British victory at Willistown left Philadelphia defenceless, and Howe captured the city unopposed on September 26. Howe then moved 9,000 men to Germantown, north of Philadelphia. Washington launched a surprise attack on Howe 's garrison on October 4, which was eventually repulsed. Again, Howe did not follow - up on his victory, leaving the American army intact and able to fight. Later, after several days of probing American defences at White Marsh, Howe inexplicably ordered a retreat to Philadelphia, astonishing both sides. Howe ignored the vulnerable American rear, where an attack could have deprived Washington of his baggage and supplies. On December 19, Washington 's army entered winter quarters at Valley Forge. Poor conditions and supply problems resulted in the deaths of some 2,500 troops. Howe, only 20 miles (32 km) away, made no effort to attack, which critics observed could have ended the war.
The Continental Army was put through a new training program, supervised by Baron von Steuben, introducing the most modern Prussian methods of drilling. Meanwhile, Howe resigned and was replaced by Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778. Clinton received orders to abandon Philadelphia and fortify New York following France 's entry into the war. On June 18, the British departed Philadelphia, with the reinvigorated Americans in pursuit. The two armies fought at Monmouth Court House on June 28, with the Americans holding the field, greatly boosting morale and confidence. By July, both armies were back in the same positions they had been two years prior.
The defeat at Saratoga caused considerable anxiety in Britain over foreign intervention. The North ministry sought reconciliation with the colonies by consenting to their original demands, although Lord North refused to grant independence. No positive reply was received from the Americans.
French foreign minister the Comte de Vergennes was strongly anti-British, and he sought a casus belli to go to war with Britain following the conquest of Canada in 1763. The French had covertly supplied the Americans through neutral Dutch ports since the onset of the war, proving invaluable throughout the Saratoga campaign. The French public favored war, though Vergennes and King Louis XVI were hesitant, owing to the military and financial risk. The American victory at Saratoga convinced the French that supporting the Patriots was worthwhile, but doing so also brought major concerns. The King was concerned that Britain 's concessions would be accepted, and that she would then reconcile with the Colonies to strike at French and Spanish possessions in the Caribbean. To prevent this, France formally recognized the United States on February 6, 1778 and followed with a military alliance. France aimed to expel Britain from the Newfoundland fishery, end restrictions on Dunkirk sovereignty, regain free trade in India, recover Senegal and Dominica, and restore the Treaty of Utrecht provisions pertaining to Anglo - French trade.
Spain was wary of provoking war with Britain before she was ready, so she covertly supplied the Patriots via her colonies in New Spain. Congress hoped to persuade Spain into an open alliance, so the first American Commission met with the Count of Aranda in 1776. Spain was still reluctant to make an early commitment, owing to a lack of direct French involvement, the threat against their treasure fleets, and the possibility of war with Portugal, Spain 's neighbor and a close ally of Britain. However, Spain affirmed its desire to support the Americans the following year, hoping to weaken Britain 's empire. In the Spanish - Portuguese War (1776 - 77), the Portuguese threat was neutralized. On 12 April 1779, Spain signed the Treaty of Aranjuez with France and went to war against Britain. Spain sought to recover Gibraltar and Menorca in Europe, as well as Mobile and Pensacola in Florida, and also to expel the British from Central America.
Meanwhile, George III had given up on subduing America while Britain had a European war to fight. He did not welcome war with France, but he believed that Britain had made all necessary steps to avoid it and cited the British victories over France in the Seven Years ' War as a reason to remain optimistic. Britain tried in vain to find a powerful ally to engage France, leaving it isolated, preventing Britain from focusing the majority of her efforts in one theater, and forcing a major diversion of military resources from America. Despite this, the King determined never to recognize American independence and to ravage the colonies indefinitely, or until they pleaded to return to the yoke of the Crown. Mahan argues that Britain 's attempt to fight in multiple theaters simultaneously without major allies was fundamentally flawed, citing impossible mutual support, exposing the forces to defeat in detail.
Since the outbreak of the conflict, Britain had appealed to her ally, the neutral Dutch Republic, to loan her the use of the Scots Brigade for service in America, but pro-American sentiment among the Dutch public forced them to deny the request. Consequently, the British attempted to invoke several treaties for outright Dutch military support, but the Republic still refused. Moreover, American troops were being supplied with ordnance by Dutch merchants via their West Indies colonies. French supplies bound for America had also passed through Dutch ports. The Republic maintained free trade with France following France 's declaration of war on Britain, citing a prior concession by Britain on this issue. Britain responded by confiscating Dutch shipping, and even firing upon it. Consequently, the Republic joined the First League of Armed Neutrality to enforce their neutral status. The Republic had also given sanctuary to American privateers and had drafted a treaty of commerce with the Americans. Britain argued that these actions contravened the Republic 's neutral stance and declared war in December 1780.
Soon after France declared war, French and British fleets fought an indecisive action off Ushant on 27 July 1778. Spain entered the war on 12 April 1779, with a primary goal of capturing Gibraltar, Spanish troops under the Duc de Crillon laid siege to the Rock on 24 June. The naval blockade, however, was relatively weak, and the British were able to resupply the garrison. Meanwhile, a plan was formulated for a combined Franco - Spanish invasion of the British mainland, but the expedition failed due to a combination of poor planning, disease, logistical issues, and high financial expenditures. However, a diversionary Franco - American squadron did meet with some success on 23 September under John Paul Jones. On 16 January 1780, the Royal Navy under George Rodney scored a major victory over the Spanish, weakening the naval blockade of Gibraltar.
A Franco - Spanish fleet commanded by Luis de Córdova intercepted and decisively defeated a large British convoy off the Azores led by John Moutray on 9 August which was bound for the West Indies. The defeat was catastrophic for Britain, which lost 52 merchant ships, 5 East Indiamen, 80,000 muskets, equipment for 40,000 troops, 294 guns, and 3,144 men, making it one of the most complete naval captures ever made. The loss was valued at some £ 1.5 million (£ 181 million in today 's money), dealing a severe blow to British commerce.
The French blockaded the lucrative sugar islands of Barbados and Jamaica, intending to damage British trade. French troops led by the Marquis de Bouillé captured Dominica on 7 September 1778 in order to improve communication among French Caribbean islands and to strike a blow to privateering. The British defeated a French naval force on 15 December and captured St. Lucia on 28 December. Both fleets received reinforcements through the first half of 1779, but the French under the Comte d'Estaing had superiority in the Caribbean and began capturing British territories, seizing St. Vincent on 18 June and Grenada on 4 July. The British fleet under John Byron was tactically defeated on July 6, having pursued d'Estaing from Grenada, the worst loss that the Royal Navy had suffered since 1690. Naval skirmishes continued until 17 April 1780, when British and French fleets clashed indecisively off Martinique.
At New Orleans Governor Bernardo de Gálvez decided conquered West Florida and Mobile.
In Central America, the defense of Guatemala was a priority for Spain. The British intended to capture the key fortress of San Fernando de Omoa and drive the Spanish from the region. After inadequate first attempts, 1,200 British troops led by William Dalrymple arrived on 16 October, and they captured the fort on 20 October. However, the British suffered terribly due to disease and were forced to abandon the fort on 29 November; Spanish troops subsequently reoccupied it. In 1780, Jamaica 's governor John Dalling planned an expedition to cut New Spain in two by capturing Granada, which would subsequently allow them full control of the San Juan River. A British expedition set out on 3 February 1780, led by John Polson and Horatio Nelson. They reached Fort San Juan on 17 March and laid siege, capturing it on 29 April. The British were ravaged by disease and were running low on food due to poor logistics. They withdrew on 8 November, the expedition having suffered a decisive defeat; some 2,500 troops had perished, making it the costliest British disaster of the war.
The British East India Company moved quickly to capture French possessions in India when they learned about the hostilities with France, and they took Pondicherry on 19 October 1778 after a two - week siege. The Company resolved to drive the French completely out of India, and they captured the Malabar port of Mahé in 1779 where French ordnance passed through.
Mahé was under the protection of Mysore 's ruler Hyder Ali (the Tipu Sultan), and tensions were already inflamed because the British had supported Malabar rebels who had risen against him; so the fall of Mahé precipitated war. Hyder Ali invaded the Carnatic region in July 1780 and laid siege to Tellicherry and Arcot. A British relief force of 7,000 men under William Baille was intercepted and destroyed by the Tipu Sultan on 10 September, the worst defeat suffered by a European army in India at the time.
Ali then renewed the siege at Arcot instead of pressing on for a decisive victory against a second British army at Madras, capturing it on 3 November. The delay allowed British forces to regroup for campaigning the following year.
Henry Clinton withdrew from Philadelphia, consolidating his forces in New York following the British defeat at Saratoga and the entry of France into the war. French admiral the Comte d'Estaing had been dispatched to North America in April 1778 to assist Washington, and he arrived shortly after Clinton withdrew into New York. The Franco - American forces felt that New York 's defenses were too formidable for the French fleet, and they opted to attack Newport. This effort was launched on August 29, but it failed when the French opted to withdraw, and this displeased the Americans. The war then ground down to a stalemate, with the majority of actions fought as large skirmishes, such as those at Chestnut Neck and Little Egg Harbor. In the summer of 1779, the Americans captured British posts at Stony Point and Paulus Hook.
In July, Clinton unsuccessfully attempted to coax Washington into a decisive engagement by making a major raid into Connecticut. That month, a large American naval operation attempted to retake Maine, but it resulted in the worst American naval defeat until Pearl Harbor in 1941. The high frequency of Iroquois raids on the locals compelled Washington to mount a punitive expedition which destroyed a large number of Iroquois settlements, but the effort ultimately failed to stop the raids. During the winter of 1779 -- 80, the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at Valley Forge. Morale was poor; public support was being eroded by the long war; the national currency was virtually worthless; the army was plagued with supply problems; desertion was common; and whole regiments mutinied over the conditions in early 1780.
In 1780, Clinton launched an attempt to retake New Jersey. On June 7, 6,000 men invaded under Hessian general Wilhelm von Knyphausen, but they met stiff resistance from the local militia. The British held the field, but Knyphausen feared a general engagement with Washington 's main army and withdrew. Knyphausen and Clinton decided upon a second attempt two weeks later which was soundly defeated at Springfield, effectively ending British ambitions in New Jersey. Meanwhile, American general Benedict Arnold had defected to the British, and he conspired to betray the key American fortress of West Point by surrendering it to the enemy. The plot was foiled when British spy master John André was captured, so Arnold fled to British lines in New York. He attempted to justify his betrayal by appealing to Loyalist public opinion, but the Patriots strongly condemned him as a coward and turncoat.
The war to the west of the Appalachians was largely confined to skirmishing and raids. An expedition of militia was halted due to adverse weather in February 1778 which had set out to destroy British military supplies in settlements along the Cuyahoga River. Later in the year, a second campaign was undertaken to seize the Illinois Country from the British. The Americans captured Kaskaskia on July 4 and then secured Vincennes, although Vincennes was recaptured by Henry Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit. In early 1779, the Americans counterattacked by undertaking a risky winter march, and they secured the surrender of the British at Vincennes, taking Hamilton prisoner.
On May 25, 1780, the British launched an expedition into Kentucky as part of a wider operation to clear resistance from Quebec to the Gulf coast. The expedition met with only limited success, though hundreds of settlers were killed or captured. The Americans responded with a major offensive along the Mad River in August which met with some success, but it did little to abate the Indian raids on the frontier. French militia attempted to capture Detroit, but it ended in disaster when Miami Indians ambushed and defeated the gathered troops on November 5. The war in the west had become a stalemate; the Americans did not have the manpower to simultaneously defeat the hostile Indian tribes and occupy their land.
The British turned their attention to conquering the South in 1778, after Loyalists in London assured them of a strong Loyalist base there. A southern campaign also had the advantage of keeping the Royal Navy closer to the Caribbean, where it would be needed to defend lucrative colonies against the Franco - Spanish fleets. On December 29, 1778, an expeditionary corps from New York captured Savannah, and British troops then moved inland to recruit Loyalist support. There was a promising initial turnout in early 1779, but then a large Loyalist militia was defeated at Kettle Creek on February 14 and they had to recognize their dependence upon the British. The British, however, defeated Patriot militia at Brier Creek on March 3, and then launched an abortive assault on Charleston, South Carolina. The operation became notorious for its high degree of looting by British troops, enraging both Loyalists and Patriot colonists.
In October, a combined Franco - American effort failed to recapture Savannah. In May 1780, Henry Clinton captured Charleston, taking over 5,000 prisoners and effectively destroying the Continental Army in the south. Organized American resistance in the region collapsed when Banastre Tarleton defeated the withdrawing Americans at Waxhaws on May 29.
Clinton returned to New York, leaving Charles Cornwallis in command in Charleston to oversee the southern war effort. Far fewer Loyalists than expected joined him. In the interim, the war was carried on by Patriot militias who effectively suppressed Loyalists by winning victories in Fairfield County, Lincolnton, Huck 's Defeat, Stanly County, and Lancaster County.
Congress appointed Horatio Gates, victor at Saratoga, to lead the American effort in the south. He suffered a major defeat at Camden on August 16, 1780, setting the stage for Cornwallis to invade North Carolina. The British attempted to subjugate the countryside, and Patriot militia continued to fight against them, so Cornwallis dispatched troops to raise Loyalist forces to cover his left flank as he moved north. This wing of Cornwallis ' army was virtually destroyed on October 7, irreversibly breaking Loyalist support in the Carolinas. Cornwallis subsequently aborted his advance and retreated back into South Carolina. In the interim, Washington replaced Gates with his trusted subordinate, Nathanael Greene.
Greene was unable to confront the British directly, so he dispatched a force under Daniel Morgan to recruit additional troops. Morgan then defeated the cream of the British army under Tarleton on January 17, 1781 at Cowpens. Cornwallis was criticized for having detached a substantial part of his army without adequate support, but he advanced into North Carolina despite the setbacks, gambling that he would receive substantial Loyalist support there. Greene evaded combat with Cornwallis, instead wearing his army down through a protracted war of attrition.
By March, Greene 's army had increased in size enough that he felt confident in facing Cornwallis. The two armies engaged at Guilford Courthouse on March 15; Greene was beaten, but Cornwallis ' army suffered irreplaceable casualties. Compounding this, far fewer Loyalists were joining than the British had previously expected. Cornwallis ' casualties were such that he was compelled to retreat to Wilmington for reinforcement, leaving the Patriots in control of the interior of the Carolinas and Georgia.
Greene then proceeded to reclaim the South. The American troops suffered a reversal at Hobkirk 's Hill on April 25; nonetheless, they continued to dislodge strategic British posts in the area, capturing Fort Watson and Fort Motte. Augusta was the last major British outpost in the South outside of Charleston and Savannah, but the Americans reclaimed possession of it on June 6. A British force clashed with American troops at Eutaw Springs on September 8 in a final effort to stop Greene, but the British casualties were so high that they withdrew to Charleston. Minor skirmishes continued in the Carolinas until the end of the war, and British troops were effectively confined to Charleston and Savannah for the remainder of the conflict.
Cornwallis had discovered that the majority of American supplies in the Carolinas were passing through Virginia, and he had written to both Lord Germain and Clinton detailing his intentions to invade. Cornwallis believed that a successful campaign there would cut supplies to Greene 's army and precipitate a collapse of American resistance in the South. Clinton strongly opposed the plan, favoring a campaign farther north in the Chesapeake Bay region. Lord Germain wrote to Cornwallis to approve his plan and neglected to include Clinton in the decision - making, even though Clinton was Cornwallis ' superior officer, and Cornwallis then decided to move into Virginia without informing Clinton. Clinton, however, had failed to construct a coherent strategy for British operations in 1781, owing to his difficult relationship with his naval counterpart Marriot Arbuthnot.
Following the calamitous operations at Newport and Savannah, French planners realized that closer cooperation with the Americans was required to achieve success. The French fleet led by the Comte de Grasse had received discretionary orders from Paris to assist joint efforts in the north if naval support was needed. Washington and the Comte de Rochambeau discussed their options. Washington pushed for an attack on New York, while Rochambeau preferred a strike in Virginia where the British were less well - established and thus easier to defeat. Franco - American movements around New York caused Clinton a great deal of anxiety, fearing an attack on the city. His instructions were vague to Cornwallis during this time, rarely forming explicit orders. However, Clinton did instruct Cornwallis to establish a fortified naval base and to transfer troops to the north to defend New York. Cornwallis dug in at Yorktown and awaited the Royal Navy.
Washington still favored an assault on New York, but he acquiesced to the French when they opted to send their fleet to their preferred target of Yorktown. In August, the combined Franco - American army moved south to coordinate with de Grasse in defeating Cornwallis. The British lacked sufficient naval resources to effectively counter the French, but they dispatched a fleet under Thomas Graves to assist Cornwallis and attempt to gain naval dominance. On September 5, the French fleet decisively defeated Graves, giving the French control of the seas around Yorktown and cutting off Cornwallis from reinforcements and relief. Despite the continued urging of his subordinates,
Cornwallis made no attempt to break out and engage the Franco - American army before it had established siege works, expecting that reinforcements would arrive from New York, and the Franco - American army laid siege to Yorktown on September 28. Cornwallis continued to think that relief was imminent from Clinton, and he abandoned his outer defenses which were immediately occupied by American troops -- serving to hasten his subsequent defeat. The British then failed in an attempt to break out of the siege across the river at Gloucester Point when a storm hit. Cornwallis and his subordinates were under increasing bombardment and facing dwindling supplies; they agreed that their situation was untenable and negotiated a surrender on October 17, 1781, and 7,685 soldiers became prisoners of the Americans. The same day as the surrender, 6,000 troops under Clinton had departed New York, sailing to relieve Yorktown.
On 25 November 1781, news arrived in London of the surrender at Yorktown. The Whig opposition gained traction in Parliament, and a motion was proposed on December 12 to end the war which was defeated by only one vote. On 27 February 1782, the House voted against further war in America by 19 votes.
Lord Germain was dismissed and a vote of no confidence was passed against North. The Rockingham Whigs came to power and opened negotiations for peace. Rockingham died and was succeeded by the Earl of Shelburne. Despite their defeat, the British still had 30,000 troops garrisoned in New York, Charleston, and Savannah. Henry Clinton was recalled and was replaced by Guy Carleton who was under orders to suspend offensive operations.
After hostilities with the Dutch began in late 1780, Britain had moved quickly, enforcing a blockade across the North Sea. Within weeks, the British had captured 200 Dutch merchantmen, and 300 more were holed up in foreign ports, though political turmoil within the Republic and peace negotiations by both sides helped keep conflict to a minimum. The majority of the Dutch public favored a military alliance with France against Britain; however, the Dutch Stadtholder impeded these efforts, hoping to secure an early peace. To restore diminishing trade a Dutch squadron under Johan Zoutman escorted a fleet of some 70 merchantmen from the Texel. Zoutman 's ships were intercepted by Sir Hyde Parker, who engaged Zoutman at Dogger Bank on 5 August 1781. Though the contest was tactically inconclusive, the Dutch fleet did not leave harbor again during the war, and their merchant fleet remained crippled.
On 6 January 1781, a French attempt to capture Jersey to neutralize British privateering failed. Frustrated in their attempts to capture Gibraltar, a Franco - Spanish force of 14,000 men under the Duc de Mahon invaded Minorca on 19 August. After a long siege of St. Philip 's, the British garrison under James Murray surrendered on 5 February 1782, securing a primary war goal for the Spanish. At Gibraltar, a major Franco - Spanish assault on 13 September 1782 was repulsed with heavy casualties. On 20 October 1782, following a successful resupply of Gibraltar, British ships under Richard Howe successfully refused battle to the Franco - Spanish fleet under Luis de Córdova, denying Córdova dominance at sea. On 7 February 1783, after 1,322 days of siege, the Franco - Spanish army withdrew, decisively defeated.
In the West Indies, on 29 -- 30 April 1781, a Royal Navy squadron under Samuel Hood was narrowly defeated by the French, led by the Comte de Grasse, who continued seizing British territories: Tobago fell on 2 June; Demerara and Essequibo on 22 January 1782; St. Kitts and Nevis on 12 February, despite a British naval victory on 25 January; and Montserrat on 22 February. In 1782, the primary strategic goal of the French and Spanish was the capture of Jamaica, whose sugar exports were more valuable to the British than the Thirteen Colonies combined. On 7 April 1782, de Grasse departed Martinique to rendezvous with Franco - Spanish troops at Saint Domingue and invade Jamaica from the north. The British under Hood and George Rodney pursued and decisively defeated the French off Dominica between 9 -- 12 April. The Franco - Spanish plan to conquer Jamaica was in ruins, and the balance of naval power in the Caribbean shifted to the Royal Navy.
After the fall of Mobile to Spanish troops under Bernardo de Gálvez, an attempt to capture Pensacola was thwarted due to a hurricane. Emboldened by the disaster, John Campbell, British commander at Pensacola, decided to recapture Mobile. Campbell 's expeditionary force of around 700 men was defeated on 7 January 1781. After re-grouping at Havana, Gálvez set out for Pensacola on 13 February. Arriving on 9 March, siege operations did not begin until 24 March, owing to difficulties in bringing the ships into the bay. After a 45 - day siege, Gálvez decisively defeated the garrison, securing the conquest of West Florida. In May, Spanish troops captured the Bahamas, although the British bloodlessly recaptured the islands the following year on 18 April.
In Guatemala, Matías de Gálvez led Spanish troops in an effort to dislocate British settlements along the Gulf of Honduras. Gálvez captured Roatán on 16 March 1782, and then quickly took Black River. Following the decisive naval victory at the Saintes, Archibald Campbell, the Royal governor of Jamaica, authorized Edward Despard to re-take Black River, which he did on 22 August. However, with peace talks opening, and Franco - Spanish resources committed to the siege of Gibraltar, no further offensive operations took place.
Few operations were conducted against the Dutch, although several Dutch colonies were captured by the British in 1781. Sint Eustatius, a key supply port for the Patriots, was sacked by British forces under George Rodney on 3 February 1782, plundering the island 's wealth.
Following Dutch entry into the conflict, East India Company troops under Hector Munro captured the Dutch port of Negapatam after a three - week siege on 11 October 1781. Soon after, British Admiral Edward Hughes captured Trincomalee after a brief engagement on 11 January 1782.
In March 1781, French Admiral Bailli de Suffren was dispatched to India to assist colonial efforts. Suffren arrived off the Indian coast in February 1782, where he clashed with a British fleet under Hughes, winning a narrow tactical victory. After landing troops at Porto Novo to assist Mysore, Suffren 's fleet clashed with Hughes again Providien on 12 April. There was no clear victor, though Hughes ' fleet came off worse, and he withdrew to the British - held port of Trincomalee. Hyder Ali wished for the French to capture Negapatam to establish naval dominance over the British, and this task fell to Suffren. Suffren 's fleet clashed with Hughes again off Negapatam on 6 July. Suffren withdrew to Cuddalore, strategically defeated, and the British remained in control of Negapatam. Intending to find a more suitable port than Cuddalore, Suffren captured Trincomalee on 1 September, and successfully engaged Hughes two days later.
Meanwhile, Ali 's troops loosely blockaded Vellore as the East India Company regrouped. Company troops under Sir Eyre Coote led a counter-offensive, defeating Ali at Porto Novo on 1 July 1781, Pollilur on 27 August, and Sholinghur on 27 September, expelling the Mysorean troops from the Carnatic. On 18 February 1782, Tipu Sultan defeated John Braithwaite near Tanjore, taking his entire 1,800 - strong force prisoner. The war had, by this point, reached an uneasy stalemate. On 7 December 1782, Hyder Ali died, and the rule of Mysore passed to his son, Tipu Sultan.
Sultan advanced along the west coast, laying siege to Mangalore on 20 May 1783. Meanwhile, on the east coast, an army under James Stuart besieged the French - held port of Cuddalore on 9 June 1783. On 20 June, key British naval support for the siege was neutralized when Suffren defeated Hughes ' fleet off Cuddalore, and though narrow, the victory gave Suffren the opportunity to displace British holdings in India. On 25 June, the Franco - Mysorean defenders made repeated sorties against British lines, though all assaults failed. On 30 June, news arrived of a preliminary peace between the belligerent powers, and the siege was effectively over when the French abandoned the siege. Mangalore remained under siege, and capitulated to Sultan on 30 January 1784. Little fighting took place thereafter, and Mysore and Britain made peace on 11 March.
Following the surrender at Yorktown, the Whig party came to power in Britain and began opening negotiations for a cessation of hostilities. While peace negotiations were being undertaken, British troops in America were restricted from launching further offensives. Prime Minister the Earl of Shelburne was reluctant to accept American independence as a prerequisite for peace, as the British were aware that the French economy was nearly bankrupt, and reinforcements sent to the West Indies could potentially reverse the situation there. He preferred that the colonies accept Dominion status within the Empire, though a similar offer had been rejected by the Americans in 1778. Negotiations soon began in Paris.
The Americans initially demanded that Quebec be ceded to them as spoils of war, a proposal that was dropped when Shelburne accepted American demands for recognition of independence. On April 19, 1782, the Dutch formally recognized the United States as a sovereign power, enhancing American leverage at the negotiations. Spain initially impeded the negotiations, refusing to enter into peace talks until Gibraltar had been captured. The Comte de Vergennes proposed that American territory be confined to the east of the Appalachians; Britain would have sovereignty over the area north of the Ohio River, below which an Indian barrier state would be established under Spanish control. The United States fiercely opposed the proposal.
The Americans skirted their allies, recognizing that more favorable terms would be found in London. They negotiated directly with Shelburne, who hoped to make Britain a valuable trading partner of America at the expense of France. To this end, Shelburne offered to cede all the land east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida, and south of Quebec, while also allowing American fishermen access to the rich Newfoundland fishery. Shelburne was hoping to facilitate the growth of the American population, creating lucrative markets that Britain could exploit at no administrative cost to London. As Vergennes commented, "the English buy peace rather than make it ''.
Throughout the negotiations, Britain never consulted her American Indian allies, forcing them to reluctantly accept the treaty. However, the subsequent tension erupted into conflicts between the Indians and the young United States, the largest being the Northwest Indian War. Britain continued trying to create an Indian buffer state in the American Midwest as late as 1814 during the War of 1812.
Britain negotiated separate treaties with Spain, France, and the Dutch Republic. Gibraltar proved to be a stumbling block in the peace talks; Spain offered to relinquish their conquests in West Florida, Menorca, and the Bahamas in exchange for Gibraltar, terms which Shelburne steadfastly refused. Shelburne instead offered to cede East Florida, West Florida, and Menorca if Spain would relinquish the claim on Gibraltar, terms which were reluctantly accepted. However, in the long - term, the new territorial gains were of little value to Spain. France 's only net gains were the island of Tobago in the Caribbean and Senegal in Africa, after agreeing to return all other colonial conquests to British sovereignty. Britain returned Dutch Caribbean territories to Dutch sovereignty, in exchange for free trade rights in the Dutch East Indies and control of the Indian port of Negapatnam.
Preliminary peace articles were signed in Paris on 30 November 1782, while preliminaries between Britain, Spain, France, and the Netherlands continued until September 1783. The United States Congress of the Confederation ratified the Treaty of Paris on January 14, 1784. Copies were sent back to Europe for ratification by the other parties involved, the first reaching France in March 1784. British ratification occurred on April 9, 1784, and the ratified versions were exchanged in Paris on May 12, 1784. The war formally concluded on September 3, 1783.
The last British troops departed New York City on November 25, 1783, marking the end of British rule in the new United States.
The total loss of life throughout the conflict is largely unknown. As was typical in wars of the era, diseases such as smallpox claimed more lives than battle. Between 1775 and 1782, a smallpox epidemic broke out throughout North America, killing 40 people in Boston alone. Historian Joseph Ellis suggests that Washington 's decision to have his troops inoculated against the disease was one of his most important decisions.
Between 25,000 and 70,000 American Patriots died during active military service. Of these, approximately 6,800 were killed in battle, while at least 17,000 died from disease. The majority of the latter died while prisoners of war of the British, mostly in the prison ships in New York Harbor. If the upper limit of 70,000 is accepted as the total net loss for the Patriots, it would make the conflict proportionally deadlier than the American Civil War. Uncertainty arises due to the difficulties in accurately calculating the number of those who succumbed to disease, as it is estimated at least 10,000 died in 1776 alone. The number of Patriots seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000.
The French suffered approximately 7,000 total dead throughout the conflict; of those, 2,112 were killed in combat in the American theaters of war.
The Dutch suffered around 500 total killed, owing to the minor scale of their conflict with Britain.
British returns in 1783 listed 43,633 rank and file deaths across the British Armed Forces. A table from 1781 puts total British Army deaths at 9,372 soldiers killed in battle across the Americas; 6,046 in North America (1775 -- 1779), and 3,326 in the West Indies (1778 -- 1780). In 1784, a British lieutenant compiled a detailed list of 205 British officers killed in action during the war, encompassing Europe, the Caribbean and the East Indies. Extrapolations based upon this list puts British Army losses in the area of at least 4,000 killed or died of wounds. Approximately 7,774 Germans died in British service in addition to 4,888 deserters; of the former, it is estimated 1,800 were killed in combat.
Around 171,000 sailors served in the Royal Navy during the war; approximately a quarter of whom had been pressed into service. Around 1,240 were killed in battle, while an estimated 18,500 died from disease (1776 -- 1780). The greatest killer at sea was scurvy, a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency. It was not until 1795 that scurvy was eradicated from the Royal Navy after the Admiralty declared lemon juice and sugar were to be issued among the standard daily rations of sailors. Around 42,000 sailors deserted during the war. The impact on merchant shipping was substantial; an estimated 3,386 merchant ships were seized by enemy forces during the war; of those, 2,283 were taken by American privateers alone.
At the start of the war, the economy of the colonies was flourishing, and the free white population enjoyed the highest standard of living in the world. The Royal Navy enforced a naval blockade during the war to financially cripple the colonies, however, this proved unsuccessful; 90 % of the population worked in farming, not in coastal trade, and, as such, the American economy proved resilient enough to withstand the blockade.
Congress had immense difficulties throughout the conflict to efficiently finance the war effort. As the circulation of hard currency declined, the Americans had to rely on loans from American merchants and bankers, France, Spain and the Netherlands, saddling the young nation with crippling debts. Congress attempted to remedy this by printing vast amounts of paper money and bills of credit to raise revenue. The effect was disastrous; inflation skyrocketed, and the paper money became virtually worthless. The inflation spawned a popular phrase that anything of little value was "not worth a continental ''.
By 1791, the United States had accumulated a national debt of approximately $75.5 million. The United States finally solved its debt and currency problems in the 1790s, when Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton secured legislation by which the national government assumed all of the state debts, and, in addition, created a national bank and a funding system based on tariffs and bond issues that paid off the foreign debts.
Britain spent around £ 80 million and ended with a national debt of £ 250 million, (£ 27.1 billion in today 's money), generating a yearly interest of £ 9.5 million annually. The debts piled upon that which it had already accumulated from the Seven Years ' War. Due to wartime taxation upon the British populace, the tax for the average Briton amounted to approximately four shillings in every pound.
The French spent approximately 1.3 billion livres on aiding the Americans, accumulating a national debt of 3.315. 1 billion livres by 1783 on war costs. Unlike Britain, which had a very efficient taxation system, the French tax system was highly unstable, eventually leading to a financial crisis in 1786. The debts contributed to a worsening fiscal crisis that ultimately begat the French Revolution at the end of the century. The debt continued to spiral; on the eve of the French Revolution, the national debt had skyrocketed to 12 billion livres.
Spain had nearly doubled her military spending during the war, from 454 million reales in 1778 to over 700 million in 1779. Spain more easily disposed of her debts unlike her French ally, partially due to the massive increase in silver mining in her American colonies; production increased approximately 600 % in Mexico, and by 250 % in Peru and Bolivia.
The population of Great Britain and Ireland in 1780 was approximately 12.6 million, while the Thirteen Colonies held a population of some 2.8 million, including some 500,000 slaves. Theoretically, Britain had the advantage, however, many factors inhibited the procurement of a large army.
In 1775, the standing British Army, exclusive of militia, comprised 45,123 men worldwide, made up of 38,254 infantry and 6,869 cavalry. The Army had approximately eighteen regiments of foot, some 8,500 men, stationed in North America. Standing armies had played a key role in the purge of the Long Parliament in 1648, the maintenance of a military dictatorship under Oliver Cromwell, and the overthrow of James II, and, as such, the Army had been deliberately kept small in peacetime to prevent abuses of power by the King. Despite this, eighteenth century armies were not easy guests, and were regarded with scorn and contempt by the press and public of the New and Old World alike, derided as enemies of liberty. An expression ran in the Navy; "A messmate before a shipmate, a shipmate before a stranger, a stranger before a dog, a dog before a soldier ''.
Parliament suffered chronic difficulties in obtaining sufficient manpower, and found it impossible to fill the quotas they had set. The Army was a deeply unpopular profession, one contentious issue being pay. A Private infantryman was paid a wage of just 8 d. per day, the same pay as for a New Model Army infantryman, 130 years earlier. The rate of pay in the army was insufficient to meet the rising costs of living, turning off potential recruits, as service was nominally for life.
To entice people to enrol, Parliament offered a bounty of £ 1.10 s for every recruit. As the war dragged on, Parliament became desperate for manpower; criminals were offered military service to escape legal penalties, and deserters were pardoned if they re-joined their units. After the defeat at Saratoga, Parliament doubled the bounty to £ 3, and increased it again the following year, to £ 3.3 s, as well as expanding the age limit from 17 -- 45 to 16 -- 50 years of age.
Impressment, essentially conscription by the "press gang '', was a favored recruiting method, though it was unpopular with the public, leading many to enlist in local militias to avoid regular service. Attempts were made to draft such levies, much to the chagrin of the militia commanders. Competition between naval and army press gangs, and even between rival ships or regiments, frequently resulted in brawls between the gangs in order to secure recruits for their unit. Men would maim themselves to avoid the press gangs, while many deserted at the first opportunity. Pressed men were militarily unreliable; regiments with large numbers of such men were deployed to garrisons such as Gibraltar or the West Indies, purely to increase the difficulty in successfully deserting.
By 1781, the Army numbered approximately 121,000 men globally, 48,000 of whom were stationed throughout the Americas. Of the 171,000 sailors who served in the Royal Navy throughout the conflict, around a quarter were pressed. Interestingly, this same proportion, approximately 42,000 men, deserted during the conflict. At its height, the Navy had 94 ships - of - the - line, 104 frigates and 37 sloops in service.
In 1775, Britain unsuccessfully attempted to secure 20,000 mercenaries from Russia, and the use of the Scots Brigade from the Dutch Republic, such was the shortage of manpower. Parliament managed to negotiate treaties with the princes of German states for large sums of money, in exchange for mercenary troops. In total, 29,875 troops were hired for British service from six German states; Brunswick (5,723), Hesse - Kassel (16,992), Hesse - Hannau (2,422), Ansbach - Bayreuth (2,353), Waldeck - Pyrmont (1,225) and Anhalt - Zerbst (1,160). King George III, who also ruled Hanover as a Prince - elector of the Holy Roman Empire, was approached by Parliament to loan the government Hanoverian soldiers for service in the war. Hanover supplied 2,365 men in five battalions, however, the lease agreement permitted them to only be used in Europe.
Without any major allies, the manpower shortage became critical when France and Spain entered the war, forcing a major diversion of military resources from the Americas. Recruiting adequate numbers of Loyalist militia in America proved difficult due to high Patriot activity. To bolster numbers, the British promised freedom and grants of land to slaves who fought for them. Approximately 25,000 Loyalists fought for the British throughout the war, and provided some of the best troops in the British service; the British Legion, a mixed regiment of 250 dragoons and 200 infantry commanded by Banastre Tarleton, gained a fearsome reputation in the colonies, especially in the South.
Britain had a difficult time appointing a determined senior military leadership in America. Thomas Gage, Commander - in - Chief of North America at the outbreak of the war, was criticized for being too lenient on the rebellious colonists. Jeffrey Amherst, who was appointed Commander - in - Chief of the Forces in 1778, refused a direct command in America, due to unwillingness to take sides in the war. Admiral Augustus Keppel similarly opposed a command, stating; "I can not draw the sword in such a cause ''. The Earl of Effingham resigned his commission when his regiment was posted to America, while William Howe and John Burgoyne were opposed to military solutions to the crisis. Howe and Henry Clinton both stated they were unwilling participants, and were only following orders.
As was the case in many European armies, except the Prussian Army, officers in British service could purchase commissions to ascend the ranks. Despite repeated attempts by Parliament to suppress it, the practise was common in the Army. Values of commissions varied, but were usually in line with social and military prestige, for example, regiments such as the Guards commanded the highest prices. The lower ranks often regarded the treatment to high - ranking commissions by wealthier officers as "plums for (their) consumption ''. Wealthy individuals lacking any formal military education, or practical experience, often found their way into positions of high responsibility, diluting the effectiveness of a regiment. Though Royal authority had forbade the practise since 1711, it was still permitted for infants to hold commissions. Young boys, often orphans of deceased wealthy officers, were taken from their schooling and placed in positions of responsibility within regiments.
Logistical organization of eighteenth century armies was chaotic at best, and the British Army was no exception. No logistical corps existed in the modern sense; while on campaign in foreign territories such as America, horses, wagons, and drivers were frequently requisitioned from the locals, often by impressment or by hire. No centrally organized medical corps existed. It was common for surgeons to have no formal medical education, and no diploma or entry examination was required. Nurses sometimes were apprentices to surgeons, but many were drafted from the women who followed the army. Army surgeons and doctors were poorly paid and were regarded as social inferiors to other officers.
The heavy personal equipment and wool uniform of the regular infantrymen were wholly unsuitable for combat in America, and the outfit was especially ill - suited to comfort and agile movement. During the Battle of Monmouth in late June 1778, the temperature exceeded 100 ° F (37.8 ° C) and is said to have claimed more lives through heat stroke than through actual combat. The standard - issue firearm of the British Army was the Land Pattern Musket. Some officers preferred their troops to fire careful, measured shots (around two per minute), rather than rapid firing. A bayonet made firing difficult, as its cumbersome shape hampered ramming down the charge into the barrel. British troops had a tendency to fire impetuously, resulting in inaccurate fire, a trait for which John Burgoyne criticized them during the Saratoga campaign. Burgoyne instead encouraged bayonet charges to break up enemy formations, which was a preferred tactic in most European armies at the time.
Every battalion in America had organized its own rifle company by the end of the war, although rifles were not formally issued to the army until the Baker Rifle in 1801. Flintlocks were heavily dependent on the weather; high winds could blow the gunpowder from the flash pan, while heavy rain could soak the paper cartridge, ruining the powder and rendering the musket unable to fire. Furthermore, flints used in British muskets were of notoriously poor quality; they could only be fired around six times before requiring resharpening, while American flints could fire sixty. This led to a common expression among the British: "Yankee flint was as good as a glass of grog ''.
Provisioning troops and sailors proved to be an immense challenge, as the majority of food stores had to be shipped overseas from Britain. The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the Army from living off the land. Other factors also impeded this option; the countryside was too sparsely populated and the inhabitants were largely hostile or indifferent, the network of roads and bridges was poorly developed, and the area which the British controlled was so limited that foraging parties were frequently in danger of being ambushed. After France entered the war, the threat of the French navy increased the difficulty of transporting supplies to America. Food supplies were frequently in bad condition. The climate was also against the British in the southern colonies and the Caribbean, where the intense summer heat caused food supplies to sour and spoil.
Life at sea was little better. Sailors and passengers were issued a daily food ration, largely consisting of hardtack and beer. The hardtack was often infested by weevils and was so tough that it earned the nicknames "molar breakers '' and "worm castles '', and it sometimes had to be broken up with cannon shot. Meat supplies often spoiled on long voyages. The lack of fresh fruit and vegetables gave rise to scurvy, one of the biggest killers at sea.
Discipline was harsh in the armed forces, and the lash was used to punish even trivial offences -- and not used sparingly. For instance, two redcoats received 1,000 lashes each for robbery during the Saratoga campaign, while another received 800 lashes for striking a superior officer. Flogging was a common punishment in the Royal Navy and came to be associated with the stereotypical hardiness of sailors.
Despite the harsh discipline, a distinct lack of self - discipline pervaded all ranks of the British forces. Soldiers had an intense passion for gambling, reaching such excesses that troops would often wager their own uniforms. Many drank heavily, and this was not exclusive to the lower ranks; William Howe was said to have seen many "crapulous mornings '' while campaigning in New York. John Burgoyne drank heavily on a nightly basis towards the end of the Saratoga campaign. The two generals were also reported to have found solace with the wives of subordinate officers to ease the stressful burdens of command. During the Philadelphia campaign, British officers deeply offended local Quakers by entertaining their mistresses in the houses where they had been quartered. Some reports indicated that British troops were generally scrupulous in their treatment of non-combatants. This is contrasted diaries of Hessian soldiers, who recorded their disapproval of British conduct towards the colonists, such as the destruction of property and the execution of prisoners.
The presence of Hessian soldiers caused considerable anxiety among the colonists, both Patriot and Loyalist, who viewed them as brutal mercenaries. British soldiers were often contemptuous in their treatment of Hessian troops, despite orders from General Howe that "the English should treat the Germans as brothers ''. The order only began to have any real effect when the Hessians learned to speak a minimal degree of English, which was seen as a prerequisite for the British troops to accord them any respect.
During peacetime, the Army 's idleness led to it being riddled with corruption and inefficiency, resulting in many administrative difficulties once campaigning began.
The British leadership soon discovered it had overestimated the capabilities of its own troops, while underestimating those of the colonists, causing a sudden re-think in British planning. The ineffective initial response of British military and civil officials to the onset of the rebellion had allowed the advantage to shift to the colonists, as British authorities rapidly lost control over every colony. A microcosm of these shortcomings were evident at the Battle of Bunker Hill. It took ten hours for the British leadership to respond following the sighting of the Americans on the Charlestown Peninsula, giving the colonists ample time to reinforce their defenses. Rather than opt for a simple flanking attack that would have rapidly succeeded with minimal loss, the British decided on repeated frontal attacks. The results were telling; the British suffered 1,054 casualties of a force of around 3,000 after repeated frontal assaults. The British leadership had nevertheless remained excessively optimistic, believing that just two regiments could suppress the rebellion in Massachusetts.
Debate persists over whether a British defeat was a guaranteed outcome. Ferling argues that the odds were so long, the defeat of Britain was nothing short of a miracle. Ellis, however, considers that the odds always favored the Americans, and questions whether a British victory by any margin was realistic. Ellis argues that the British squandered their only opportunities for a decisive success in 1777, and that the strategic decisions undertaken by William Howe underestimated the challenges posed by the Americans. Ellis concludes that, once Howe failed, the opportunity for a British victory "would never come again ''. Conversely, the United States Army 's official textbook argues that, had Britain been able to commit 10,000 fresh troops to the war in 1780, a British victory was within the realms of possibility.
Historians such as Ellis and Stewart have observed that, under William Howe 's command, the British squandered several opportunities to achieve a decisive victory over the Americans. Throughout the New York and Philadelphia campaigns, Howe made several strategic errors, errors which cost the British opportunities for a complete victory. At Long Island, Howe failed to even attempt an encirclement of Washington, and actively restrained his subordinates from mounting an aggressive pursuit of the defeated American army. At White Plains, he refused to engage Washington 's vulnerable army, and instead concentrated his efforts upon a hill which offered the British no strategic advantage. After securing control of New York, Howe dispatched Henry Clinton to capture Newport, a measure which Clinton was opposed to, on the grounds the troops assigned to his command could have been put to better use in pursuing Washington 's retreating army. Despite the bleak outlook for the revolutionary cause and the surge of Loyalist activity in the wake of Washington 's defeats, Howe made no attempt to mount an attack upon Washington while the Americans settled down into winter quarters, much to their surprise.
During planning for the Saratoga campaign, Howe was left with the choice of committing his army to support Burgoyne, or capture Philadelphia, the revolutionary capital. Howe decided upon the latter, determining that Washington was of a greater threat. When Howe launched his campaign, he took his army upon a time - consuming route through the Chesapeake Bay, rather than the more sensible choices of overland through New Jersey, or by sea through the Delaware Bay. The move left him unable to assist Burgoyne even if it was required of him. The decision so angered Parliament, that Howe was accused by Tories on both sides of the Atlantic of treason.
During the Philadelphia campaign, Howe failed to pursue and destroy the defeated Americans on two occasions; once after the Battle of Brandywine, and again after the Battle of Germantown. At the Battle of White Marsh, Howe failed to even attempt to exploit the vulnerable American rear, and then inexplicably ordered a retreat to Philadelphia after only minor skirmishes, astonishing both sides. While the Americans wintered only twenty miles away, Howe made no effort to attack their camp, which critics argue could have ended the war. Following the conclusion of the campaign, Howe resigned his commission, and was replaced by Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778.
Contrary to Howe 's more hostile critics, however, there were strategic factors at play which impeded aggressive action. Howe may have been dissuaded from pursuing aggressive manoeuvres due to the memory of the grievous losses the British suffered at Bunker Hill. During the major campaigns in New York and Philadelphia, Howe often wrote of the scarcity of adequate provisions, which hampered his ability to mount effective campaigns. Howe 's tardiness in launching the New York campaign, and his reluctance to allow Cornwallis to vigorously pursue Washington 's beaten army, have both been attributed to the paucity of available food supplies.
During the winter of 1776 -- 1777, Howe split his army into scattered cantonments. This decision dangerously exposed the individual forces to defeat in detail, as the distance between them was such that they could not mutually support each other. This strategic failure allowed the Americans to achieve victory at the Battle of Trenton, and the concurrent Battle of Princeton. While a major strategic error to divide an army in such a manner, the quantity of available food supplies in New York was so low that Howe had been compelled to take such a decision. The garrisons were widely spaced so their respective foraging parties would not interfere with each other 's efforts. Howe 's difficulties during the Philadelphia campaign were also greatly exacerbated by the poor quality and quantity of available provisions.
In 1780, the primary British strategy hinged upon a Loyalist uprising in the south, for which Charles Cornwallis was chiefly responsible. After an encouraging success at Camden, Cornwallis was poised to invade North Carolina. However, any significant Loyalist support had been effectively destroyed at the Battle of Kings Mountain, and the British Legion, the cream of his army, had been decisively defeated at the Battle of Cowpens. Following both defeats, Cornwallis was fiercely criticized for detaching a significant portion of his army without adequate mutual support. Despite the defeats, Cornwallis chose to proceed into North Carolina, gambling his success upon a large Loyalist uprising which never materialized. As a result, subsequent engagements cost Cornwallis valuable troops he could not replace, as at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse, and the Americans steadily wore his army down in an exhaustive war of attrition. Cornwallis had thus left the Carolinas ripe for reconquest. The Americans had largely achieved this aim by the end of 1781, effectively confining the British to the coast, and undoing all the progress they had made in the previous year.
In a last - ditch attempt to win the war in the South, Cornwallis resolved to invade Virginia, in order to cut off the American 's supply base to the Carolinas. Henry Clinton, Cornwallis ' superior, strongly opposed the plan, believing the decisive confrontations would take place between Washington in the North. London had approved Cornwallis plan, however they had failed to include Clinton in the decision - making, despite his seniority over Cornwallis, leading to a muddled strategic direction. Cornwallis then decided to invade Virginia without informing Clinton of his intentions. Clinton, however, had wholly failed to construct a coherent strategy for British campaigning that year, owing to his fractious relationship that he shared with Mariot Arbuthnot, his naval counterpart.
As the Franco - American army approached Cornwallis at Yorktown, he made no attempt to sally out and engage before siege lines could be erected, despite the repeated urging of his subordinate officers. Expecting relief to soon arrive from Clinton, Cornwallis prematurely abandoned all of his outer defences, which were then promptly occupied by the besiegers, serving to hasten the British defeat. These factors contributed to the eventual surrender of Cornwallis ' entire army, and the end of major operations in North America.
Like Howe before him, Clinton 's efforts to campaign suffered from chronic supply issues. In 1778, Clinton wrote to Germain complaining of the lack of supplies, even after the arrival of a convoy from Ireland. That winter, the supply issue had deteriorated so badly, that Clinton expressed considerable anxiety over how the troops were going to be properly fed. Clinton was largely inactive in the North throughout 1779, launching few major campaigns. This inactivity was partially due to the shortage of food. By 1780, the situation had not improved. Clinton wrote a frustrated correspondence to Germain, voicing concern that a "fatal consequence will ensue '' if matters did not improve. By October that year, Clinton again wrote to Germain, angered that the troops in New York had not received "an ounce '' of that year 's allotted stores from Britain.
Suppressing a rebellion in America presented the British with major problems. The key issue was distance; it could take up to three months to cross the Atlantic, and orders from London were often outdated by the time that they arrived. The colonies had never been formally united prior to the conflict and there was no centralized area of ultimate strategic importance. Traditionally, the fall of a capital city often signalled the end of a conflict, yet the war continued unabated even after the fall of major settlements such as New York, Philadelphia (which was the Patriot capital), and Charleston. Britain 's ability to project its power overseas lay chiefly in the power of the Royal Navy, allowing her to control major coastal settlements with relative ease and enforce a strong blockade of colonial ports. However, the overwhelming majority of the American population was agrarian, not urban. As a result, the American economy proved resilient enough to withstand the blockade 's effects.
The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the British from using the harsh methods of suppressing revolts that they had used in Scotland and Ireland. For example, British troops looted and pillaged the locals during an aborted attack on Charleston in 1779, enraging both Patriots and Loyalists. Neutral colonists were often driven into the ranks of the Patriots when brutal combat broke out between Tories and Whigs across the Carolinas in the later stages of the war. Conversely, Loyalists were often emboldened when Patriots resorted to intimidating suspected Tories, such as destroying property or tarring and feathering. The vastness of the American countryside and the limited manpower available meant that the British could never simultaneously defeat the Americans and occupy captured territory. One British statesman described the attempt as "like trying to conquer a map ''.
Wealthy Loyalists wielded great influence in London and were successful in convincing the British that the majority view in the colonies was sympathetic toward the Crown. Consequently, British planners pinned the success of their strategies on popular uprisings of Loyalists. Historians have estimated that Loyalists made up only 15 -- 20 % of the population (vs. 40 - 45 % Patriots) and that they continued to deceive themselves on their level of support as late as 1780. The British discovered that any significant level of organized Loyalist activity would require the continued presence of British regulars, which presented them with a major dilemma. The manpower that the British had available was insufficient to both protect Loyalist territory and counter American advances. The vulnerability of Loyalist militias was repeatedly demonstrated in the South, where they suffered strings of defeats to their Patriot neighbors. The most crucial juncture of this was at Kings Mountain, and the victory of the Patriot partisans irreversibly crippled Loyalist military capability in the South.
Upon the entry of France and Spain into the conflict, the British were forced to severely limit the number of troops and warships that they sent to North America in order to defend other key territories and the British mainland. As a result, King George III abandoned any hope of subduing America militarily while he had a European war to contend with. The small size of Britain 's army left them unable to concentrate their resources primarily in one theater as they had done in the Seven Years ' War, leaving them at a critical disadvantage. The British were compelled to disperse troops from the Americas to Europe and the East Indies, and these forces were unable to assist one other as a result, precariously exposing them to defeat. In North America, the immediate strategic focus of the French, Spanish, and British shifted to Jamaica, whose sugar exports were more valuable to the British than the economy of the Thirteen Colonies combined.
Following the end of the war, Britain had lost some of her most populous colonies. However, the economic effects of the loss were negligible in the long - term, and she became a global superpower just 32 years after the end of the conflict.
The Americans began the war with significant disadvantages compared to the British. They had no national government, no national army or navy, no financial system, no banks, no established credit, and no functioning government departments, such as a treasury. The Congress tried to handle administrative affairs through legislative committees, which proved inefficient. The state governments were themselves brand new and officials had no administrative experience. In peacetime the colonies relied heavily on ocean travel and shipping, but that was now shut down by the British blockade and the Americans had to rely on slow overland travel.
However, the Americans had multiple advantages that in the long run outweighed the initial disadvantages they faced. The Americans had a large prosperous population that depended not on imports but on local production for food and most supplies, while the British were mostly shipped in from across the ocean. The British faced a vast territory far larger than Britain or France, located at a far distance from home ports. Most of the Americans lived on farms distant from the seaports -- the British could capture any port but that did not give them control over the hinterland. They were on their home ground, had a smoothly functioning, well organized system of local and state governments, newspapers and printers, and internal lines of communications. They had a long - established system of local militia, previously used to combat the French and Native Americans, with companies and an officer corps that could form the basis of local militias, and provide a training ground for the national army created by Congress.
Motivation was a major asset. The Patriots wanted to win; over 200,000 fought in the war; 25,000 died. The British expected the Loyalists to do much of the fighting, but they did much less than expected. The British also hired German mercenaries to do much of their fighting.
At the onset of the war, the Americans had no major international allies. Battles such as the Battle of Bennington, the Battles of Saratoga and even defeats such as the Battle of Germantown proved decisive in gaining the attention and support of powerful European nations such as France and Spain, who moved from covertly supplying the Americans with weapons and supplies, to overtly supporting them militarily, moving the war to a global stage.
The new Continental Army suffered significantly from a lack of an effective training regime, and largely inexperienced officers and sergeants. The inexperience of its officers was compensated for in part by its senior officers; officers such as George Washington, Horatio Gates, Charles Lee, Richard Montgomery and Francis Marion all had military experience with the British Army during the French and Indian War. The Americans solved their training dilemma during their stint in Winter Quarters at Valley Forge, where they were relentlessly drilled and trained by General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, a veteran of the famed Prussian General Staff. He taught the Continental Army the essentials of military discipline, drills, tactics and strategy, and wrote the Revolutionary War Drill Manual. When the Army emerged from Valley Forge, it proved its ability to equally match the British troops in battle when they fought a successful strategic action at the Battle of Monmouth.
When the war began, the 13 colonies lacked a professional army or navy. Each colony sponsored local militia. Militiamen were lightly armed, had little training, and usually did not have uniforms. Their units served for only a few weeks or months at a time, were reluctant to travel far from home and thus were unavailable for extended operations, and lacked the training and discipline of soldiers with more experience. If properly used, however, their numbers could help the Continental armies overwhelm smaller British forces, as at the battles of Concord, Bennington and Saratoga, and the siege of Boston. Both sides used partisan warfare but the Americans effectively suppressed Loyalist activity when British regulars were not in the area.
Seeking to coordinate military efforts, the Continental Congress established a regular army on June 14, 1775, and appointed George Washington as commander - in - chief. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress, and Washington used both his regulars and state militia throughout the war.
Three current branches of the United States Military trace their institutional roots to the American Revolutionary War; the United States Army comes from the Continental Army, formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775. The United States Navy recognizes October 13, 1775 as the date of its official establishment, the passage of the resolution of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia that created the Continental Navy. And the United States Marine Corps traces its institutional roots to the Continental Marines of the war, formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on November 10, 1775, a date regarded and celebrated as the birthday of the Marine Corps. At the beginning of 1776, Washington 's army had 20,000 men, with two - thirds enlisted in the Continental Army and the other third in the various state militias. At the end of the American Revolution in 1783, both the Continental Navy and Continental Marines were disbanded. About 250,000 men served as regulars or as militiamen for the Revolutionary cause in the eight years of the war, but there were never more than 90,000 men under arms at one time. About 55,000 American sailors served aboard privateers during the war. The American privateers had almost 1,700 ships, and they captured 2,283 enemy ships. John Paul Jones became the first great American naval hero, capturing HMS Drake on April 24, 1778, the first victory for any American military vessel in British waters.
Armies were small by European standards of the era, largely attributable, on the American side, to limitations such as lack of powder and other logistical capabilities; and, on the British side, to the difficulty of transporting troops across the Atlantic, as well as the dependence on local supplies, which the Patriots tried to cut off. The largest force Washington commanded was certainly under 17,000, and may have been no more than 13,000 troops, and even the combined American and French forces at the siege of Yorktown amounted to only about 19,000. By comparison, Duffy notes that in an era when European rulers were generally revising their forces downward, in favor of a size that could be most effectively controlled (the very different perspective of mass conscript armies came later, during the French Revolutionary and then the Napoleonic Wars), the largest army that Frederick the Great ever led into battle was 65,000 men (at Prague in 1757), and at other times he commanded between 23,000 and 50,000 men, considering the latter the most effective number.
African Americans -- slave and free -- served on both sides during the war. The British recruited slaves belonging to Patriot masters and promised freedom to those who served by act of Lord Dunmore 's Proclamation. Because of manpower shortages, George Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. Small all - black units were formed in Rhode Island and Massachusetts; many slaves were promised freedom for serving. Some of the men promised freedom were sent back to their masters, after the war was over, out of political convenience. Another all - black unit came from Saint - Domingue with French colonial forces. At least 5,000 black soldiers fought for the Revolutionary cause.
Tens of thousands of slaves escaped during the war and joined British lines; others simply moved off in the chaos. For instance, in South Carolina, nearly 25,000 slaves (30 % of the enslaved population) fled, migrated or died during the disruption of the war. This greatly disrupted plantation production during and after the war. When they withdrew their forces from Savannah and Charleston, the British also evacuated 10,000 slaves belonging to Loyalists. Altogether, the British evacuated nearly 20,000 blacks at the end of the war. More than 3,000 of them were freedmen and most of these were resettled in Nova Scotia; other blacks were sold in the West Indies.
Most American Indians east of the Mississippi River were affected by the war, and many tribes were divided over the question of how to respond to the conflict. A few tribes were on friendly terms with the other Americans, but most Indians opposed the union of the Colonies as a potential threat to their territory. Approximately 13,000 Indians fought on the British side, with the largest group coming from the Iroquois tribes, who fielded around 1,500 men. The powerful Iroquois Confederacy was shattered as a result of the conflict, whatever side they took; the Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga nations sided with the British. Members of the Mohawk nation fought on both sides. Many Tuscarora and Oneida sided with the colonists. The Continental Army sent the Sullivan Expedition on raids throughout New York to cripple the Iroquois tribes that had sided with the British. Mohawk leaders Joseph Louis Cook and Joseph Brant sided with the Americans and the British respectively, and this further exacerbated the split.
Early in July 1776, a major action occurred in the fledgling conflict when the Cherokee allies of Britain attacked the western frontier areas of North Carolina. Their defeat resulted in a splintering of the Cherokee settlements and people, and was directly responsible for the rise of the Chickamauga Cherokee, bitter enemies of the Colonials who carried on a frontier war for decades following the end of hostilities with Britain.
Creek and Seminole allies of Britain fought against Americans in Georgia and South Carolina. In 1778, a force of 800 Creeks destroyed American settlements along the Broad River in Georgia. Creek warriors also joined Thomas Brown 's raids into South Carolina and assisted Britain during the Siege of Savannah. Many Indians were involved in the fighting between Britain and Spain on the Gulf Coast and up the Mississippi River -- mostly on the British side. Thousands of Creeks, Chickasaws, and Choctaws fought in major battles such as the Battle of Fort Charlotte, the Battle of Mobile, and the Siege of Pensacola.
Pybus (2005) estimates that about 20,000 slaves defected to or were captured by the British, of whom about 8,000 died from disease or wounds or were recaptured by the Patriots. The British took some 12,000 at the end of the war; of these 8000 remained in slavery. Including those who left during the war, a total of about 8000 to 10,000 slaves gained freedom. About 4000 freed slaves went to Nova Scotia and 1200 blacks remained slaves.
Baller (2006) examines family dynamics and mobilization for the Revolution in central Massachusetts. He reports that warfare and the farming culture were sometimes incompatible. Militiamen found that living and working on the family farm had not prepared them for wartime marches and the rigors of camp life. Rugged individualism conflicted with military discipline and regimentation. A man 's birth order often influenced his military recruitment, as younger sons went to war and older sons took charge of the farm. A person 's family responsibilities and the prevalent patriarchy could impede mobilization. Harvesting duties and family emergencies pulled men home regardless of the sergeant 's orders. Some relatives might be Loyalists, creating internal strains. On the whole, historians conclude the Revolution 's effect on patriarchy and inheritance patterns favored egalitarianism.
McDonnell (2006) shows a grave complication in Virginia 's mobilization of troops was the conflicting interests of distinct social classes, which tended to undercut a unified commitment to the Patriot cause. The Assembly balanced the competing demands of elite slave - owning planters, the middling yeomen (some owning a few slaves), and landless indentured servants, among other groups. The Assembly used deferments, taxes, military service substitute, and conscription to resolve the tensions. Unresolved class conflict, however, made these laws less effective. There were violent protests, many cases of evasion, and large - scale desertion, so that Virginia 's contributions came at embarrassingly low levels. With the British invasion of the state in 1781, Virginia was mired in class division as its native son, George Washington, made desperate appeals for troops.
These are some of the standard works about the war in general that are not listed above; books about specific campaigns, battles, units, and individuals can be found in those articles.
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who does the voice of king julian in madagascar | Danny Jacobs (actor) - Wikipedia
Daniel C. Jacobs Jr. (born July 7, 1968), known as Danny Jacobs, is an American actor, singer, voice artist, and comedian, best known as the voice of King Julien in The Penguins of Madagascar (2008), Merry Madagascar (2009), and All Hail King Julien (2014), substituting for Sacha Baron Cohen. In Madagascar 3: Europe 's Most Wanted (2012), he provided Julien 's singing voice in the soundtrack. Jacobs also impersonated Baron Cohen 's character Borat Sagdiyev in Epic Movie (2007).
Jacobs was born Daniel C. Jacobs, Jr. in Detroit, Michigan. He is the sixth of seven children. Jacobs attended St. Matthew Elementary School, Bishop Gallagher High School (which later merged with St. Florian High School to become Trinity Catholic High School), Wayne State University, and the University of Arizona (where he majored in musical theatre).
Jacobs was nominated for the 2010 Annie Award for Voice Acting in a Television Production for his voice role of King Julien in Merry Madagascar, but lost the award to Tom Kenny.
He won a 2011 Daytime Emmy Award and 2015 Daytime Emmy Award for his voice role of King Julien in The Penguins of Madagascar and All Hail King Julien.
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rockin around the christmas tree brenda lee album | Rockin ' Around the Christmas Tree - wikipedia
"Rockin ' Around the Christmas Tree '' is a Christmas song written by Johnny Marks and recorded by Brenda Lee in 1958; it has since been recorded by numerous other music artists. By the song 's 50th anniversary in 2008, Lee 's original version had sold over 25 million copies with the 4th most digital downloads sold of any Christmas single.
Despite her mature - sounding voice, Lee recorded this song when she was only thirteen years old. The song 's declaration of a rock and roll sound notwithstanding, its instrumentation also fits the country music genre, which Lee more fully embraced as her career evolved. The recording features Hank Garland on guitar, Grady Martin on guitar, Boots Randolph on sax, and veteran session player Buddy Harman on drums. The song is written in the key of A-flat major.
An instrumental version of the song appears as background music in the 1964 television special Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer, which exclusively featured music written by Marks. It can be heard in the scene where Rudolph first arrives at the Reindeer Games and meets another reindeer named Fireball. A fully sung version of the song would later appear in Rankin / Bass 's 1979 sequel Rudolph and Frosty 's Christmas in July. The song was also used in the 1990 film Home Alone during a scene when Kevin McCallister pretends that there is a holiday party taking place in his house, and discourages the burglars from robbing it.
Although Decca released the single in both 1958 and again in 1959, it did not sell well until Lee became a popular star in 1960. That Christmas holiday season, Lee 's "Rockin ' Around the Christmas Tree '' peaked at No. 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 pop singles chart. It continued to sell well during subsequent holiday seasons, peaking as high as No. 3 on Billboard 's Christmas Singles chart in December 1965.
It peaked at No. 6 in the UK Charts, when it was released there in 1963. In 2013, due to downloads, it became one of a number of songs to re-enter the UK Singles Chart near Christmas time - it peaked at No. 63 on Sunday 15 December 2013. In 2017, it reached number 9, its highest position since 1963.
Radio stations ranging from Top 40 to Adult Contemporary to Country Music to Oldies to even Adult Standards played this version. Lee 's recording still receives a great deal of airplay, and has since turned into a perennial holiday favorite, and beginning in 2015 has returned annually to the Billboard Hot 100 chart:
As of November 25, 2016, Nielsen SoundScan estimated total sales of the digital track at 1,000,000 downloads, placing it fifth on the list of all - time best - selling Christmas / holiday digital singles in SoundScan history.
A version of the song by Kim Wilde and Mel Smith (credited as "Mel & Kim '' as a parody of then - popular sister act Mel and Kim), featuring Pete Thomas, reached No. 3 on the UK Singles Chart during the Christmas season 1987. The track was recorded to raise funds for Comic Relief. Its accompanying video featured the two hosting a Christmas party with guests including The Mekon and an appearance from Smith 's comedy partner Griff Rhys Jones, carol singers played by the band Curiosity Killed the Cat and Spitting Image puppets of Bette Midler and Tina Turner.
Kim Wilde recorded a new version of the song on her 2013 holiday album Wilde Winter Songbook together with Nik Kershaw.
Bob Rivers did a parody of the song entitled "Shoppin ' Around for a Christmas Tree, '' released on his White Trash Christmas album in 2002.
The following artists have each recorded the song: 1968 Bill Haley & His Comets, for the U.S. label United Artists Records (not released commercially at the time) 1970 Lynn Anderson, for her album The Christmas Album 1971 The Partridge Family, for their album A Partridge Family Christmas Card 1983 Lou Ann Barton, for the compilation album An Austin Rhythm and Blues Christmas 1986 Mickey Gilley, for the compilation album The Nashville Christmas Album 1992 Amy Grant, for her album Home for Christmas 123456 Ronnie Spector and Darlene Love, for the charity compilation album A Very Special Christmas 2 1993 Dion DiMucci, for his album Rock n ' Roll Christmas 1994 Alvin and the Chipmunks and Patty Loveless, for the album A Very Merry Chipmunk 1995 Gary Hoey, for his album Ho! Ho! Hoey II 1997 Hanson, for their album Snowed In 1998 Cyndi Lauper, for her album Merry Christmas... Have a Nice Life 123456 Dion, from the various artists Christmas compilation album Cruising Christmas 1999 Alabama, for their album Christmas Vol. II (this cover version peaked at No. 64 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart) 1999 Element, for the compilation album Happy Christmas Vol. 2 2000 Green Day, posted for their fans on their website greenday.com 123456 Jessica Simpson with Rosie O'Donnell, for O'Donnell's album Another Rosie Christmas 123456 Mek Pek, for his rockabilly - project Mek and the X-Mas Peks 2004 LeAnn Rimes, for her album What a Wonderful World (this cover version peaked at No. 3 on Billboard Adult Contemporary chart, No. 48 on Billboard Country Singles chart, and No. 30 on Billboard 's Holiday Songs chart) 2006 Rhonda Vincent, for her album Beautiful Star: A Christmas Collection 2007 Hannah Montana for the Disney Channel Holiday soundtrack 123456 Toby Keith, for his album A Classic Christmas 123456 1910 Fruitgum Company, for their album Bubblegum Christmas 123456 Helena Vondráčková on her album Vanoce S Helenou - To Nej as "Vanoce Jak Hrom '' 2008 Davie Allan & the Arrows, for their album Fuzz for the Holidays 123456 Joe Lynn Turner and others, for the album We Wish You a Metal Xmas and a Headbanging New Year 2009 Lotta Engberg (titled "Julen Är Här ''), for the album Jul hos mig 2011 Vanessa Neigert, for her album "Ich geb ' ne Party '' 2011 Chicago, for their album Chicago XXXIII: O Christmas Three 123456 She & Him, for their album A Very She & Him Christmas 123456 3 Voices & Beatur, for their album It 's Beginning to Look a Lot Like Christmas 2012 Victoria Justice, for the compilation album Merry Nickmas 123456 Bella Thorne, for the compilation album Disney Channel Holiday Playlist 123456 Mike Cannistraro, for the compilation album Boston 's Best Holiday Hits 123456 JOE - BOY, for debut download single release 2013 The fictional New Directions glee club, for the Glee episode "Previously Unaired Christmas '' and album Glee: The Music, The Christmas Album Volume 4 123456 Il Volo for their album Buon Natale: The Christmas Album 2015 The Brian Setzer Orchestra, for their album Rockin ' Rudolph 2015 Jann Arden on her album A Jann Arden Christmas 123456 Kaitlyn Baker, for single release.
Chasing Deer, as a B - Side to their "Together at Christmas '' single.
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which is the latest buzz word in the present world | List of buzzwords - wikipedia
This is a list of common buzzwords which form part of the jargon of corporate, academic, government, and everyday work and social environments, as well as by writers and public speakers.
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a surge in which hormone is responsible for ovulation | Ovulation - wikipedia
Ovulation is the release of eggs from the ovaries. In humans, this event occurs when the ovarian follicles rupture and release the secondary oocyte ovarian cells. After ovulation, during the luteal phase, the egg will be available to be fertilized by sperm. In addition, the uterine lining (endometrium) is thickened to be able to receive a fertilized egg. If no conception occurs, the uterine lining as well as blood will be shed during menstruation.
In humans, ovulation occurs about midway through the menstrual cycle, after the follicular phase. The few days surrounding ovulation (from approximately days 10 to 18 of a 28 - day cycle), constitute the most fertile phase. The time from the beginning of the last menstrual period (LMP) until ovulation is, on average, 14.6 days, but with substantial variation between females and between cycles in any single female, with an overall 95 % prediction interval of 8.2 to 20.5 days.
The process of ovulation is controlled by the hypothalamus of the brain and through the release of hormones secreted in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle - stimulating hormone (FSH). In the preovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle, the ovarian follicle will undergo a series of transformations called cumulus expansion, which is stimulated by FSH. After this is done, a hole called the stigma will form in the follicle, and the secondary oocyte will leave the follicle through this hole. Ovulation is triggered by a spike in the amount of FSH and LH released from the pituitary gland. During the luteal (post-ovulatory) phase, the secondary oocyte will travel through the fallopian tubes toward the uterus. If fertilized by a sperm, the fertilized secondary oocyte or ovum may implant there 6 -- 12 days later.
The follicular phase (or proliferative phase) is the phase of the menstrual cycle during which the ovarian follicles mature. The follicular phase lasts from the beginning of menstruation to the start of ovulation.
For ovulation to be successful, the ovum must be supported by the corona radiata and cumulus oophorous granulosa cells. The latter undergo a period of proliferation and mucification known as cumulus expansion. Mucification is the secretion of a hyaluronic acid - rich cocktail that disperses and gathers the cumulus cell network in a sticky matrix around the ovum. This network stays with the ovum after ovulation and has been shown to be necessary for fertilization.
An increase in cumulus cell number causes a concomitant increase in antrum fluid volume that can swell the follicle to over 20 mm in diameter. It forms a pronounced bulge at the surface of the ovary called the blister.
Estrogen levels peak towards the end of the follicular phase. This causes a surge in levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle - stimulating hormone (FSH). This lasts from 24 to 36 hours, and results in the rupture of the ovarian follicles, causing the oocyte to be released from the ovary.
Through a signal transduction cascade initiated by LH, proteolytic enzymes are secreted by the follicle that degrade the follicular tissue at the site of the blister, forming a hole called the stigma. The secondary oocyte leaves the ruptured follicle and moves out into the peritoneal cavity through the stigma, where it is caught by the fimbriae at the end of the fallopian tube. After entering the fallopian tube, the oocyte is pushed along by cilia, beginning its journey toward the uterus.
By this time, the oocyte has completed meiosis I, yielding two cells: the larger secondary oocyte that contains all of the cytoplasmic material and a smaller, inactive first polar body. Meiosis II follows at once but will be arrested in the metaphase and will so remain until fertilization. The spindle apparatus of the second meiotic division appears at the time of ovulation. If no fertilization occurs, the oocyte will degenerate between 12 and 24 hours after ovulation. Approximately 1 - 2 % of ovulations release more than one oocyte. This tendency increases with maternal age. Fertilization of two different oocytes by two different spermatozoa results in fraternal twins.
The mucous membrane of the uterus, termed the functionalis, has reached its maximum size, and so have the endometrial glands, although they are still non-secretory.
The follicle proper has met the end of its lifespan. Without the oocyte, the follicle folds inward on itself, transforming into the corpus luteum (pl. corpora lutea), a steroidogenic cluster of cells that produces estrogen and progesterone. These hormones induce the endometrial glands to begin production of the proliferative endometrium and later into secretory endometrium, the site of embryonic growth if implantation occurs. The action of progesterone increases basal body temperature by one - quarter to one - half degree Celsius (one - half to one degree Fahrenheit). The corpus luteum continues this paracrine action for the remainder of the menstrual cycle, maintaining the endometrium, before disintegrating into scar tissue during menses.
The start of ovulation can be detected by signs. Because the signs are not readily discernible by people other than the female, humans are said to have a concealed ovulation. In many animal species there are distinctive signals indicating the period when the female is fertile. Several explanations have been proposed to explain concealed ovulation in humans.
Females near ovulation experience changes in the cervical mucus, and in their basal body temperature. Furthermore, many females experience secondary fertility signs including Mittelschmerz (pain associated with ovulation) and a heightened sense of smell, and can sense the precise moment of ovulation.
Many females experience heightened sexual desire in the several days immediately before ovulation. One study concluded that females subtly improve their facial attractiveness during ovulation.
Symptoms related to the onset of ovulation, the moment of ovulation and the body 's process of beginning and ending the menstrual cycle vary in intensity with each female but are fundamentally the same. The charting of such symptoms -- primarily basal body temperature, mittelschmerz and cervical position -- is referred to as the sympto - thermal method of fertility awareness, which allow auto - diagnosis by a female of her state of ovulation. Once training has been given by a suitable authority, fertility charts can be completed on a cycle - by - cycle basis to show ovulation. This gives the possibility of using the data to predict fertility for natural contraception and pregnancy planning.
The moment of ovulation has been photographed.
Disorders of ovulation are classified as menstrual disorders and include oligoovulation and anovulation:
The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed the following classification of ovulatory disorders:
Ovulation induction is a promising assisted reproductive technology for patients with conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and oligomenorrhea. It is also used in in vitro fertilization to make the follicles mature before egg retrieval. Usually, ovarian stimulation is used in conjunction with ovulation induction to stimulate the formation of multiple oocytes. Some sources include ovulation induction in the definition of ovarian stimulation.
A low dose of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) may be injected after completed ovarian stimulation. Ovulation will occur between 24 -- 36 hours after the HCG injection.
By contrast, induced ovulation in some animal species occurs naturally, ovulation can be stimulated by coitus.
Contraception can be achieved by suppressing the ovulation.
The majority of hormonal contraceptives and conception boosters focus on the ovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle because it is the most important determinant of fertility. Hormone therapy can positively or negatively interfere with ovulation and can give a sense of cycle control to the female.
Estradiol and progesterone, taken in various forms including combined oral contraceptive pills, mimics the hormonal levels of the menstrual cycle and engage in negative feedback of folliculogenesis and ovulation.
Ovulation Calculator = = External links = =
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a note on the generation of random normal deviates | Box -- Muller transform - wikipedia
The Box -- Muller transform, by George Edward Pelham Box and Mervin Edgar Muller, is a pseudo-random number sampling method for generating pairs of independent, standard, normally distributed (zero expectation, unit variance) random numbers, given a source of uniformly distributed random numbers. The method was in fact first mentioned by Raymond E.A.C. Paley and Norbert Wiener in 1934, and it is more likely than not that this source was well known to Box and Muller, which, however, failed to mention it in their article of 1958.
The Box -- Muller transform is commonly expressed in two forms. The basic form as given by Box and Muller takes two samples from the uniform distribution on the interval (0, 1) and maps them to two standard, normally distributed samples. The polar form takes two samples from a different interval, (− 1, + 1), and maps them to two normally distributed samples without the use of sine or cosine functions.
The Box -- Muller transform was developed as a more computationally efficient alternative to the inverse transform sampling method. The Ziggurat algorithm gives an even more efficient method. Furthermore, the Box -- Muller transform can be employed for drawing from truncated bivariate Gaussian densities.
Suppose U and U are independent random variables that are uniformly distributed in the interval (0, 1). Let
and
Then Z and Z are independent random variables with a standard normal distribution.
The derivation is based on a property of a two - dimensional Cartesian system, where X and Y coordinates are described by two independent and normally distributed random variables, the random variables for R and Θ (shown above) in the corresponding polar coordinates are also independent and can be expressed as
and
Because R is the square of the norm of the standard bivariate normal variable (X, Y), it has the chi - squared distribution with two degrees of freedom. In the special case of two degrees of freedom, the chi - squared distribution coincides with the exponential distribution, and the equation for R above is a simple way of generating the required exponential variate.
The polar form was first proposed by J. Bell and then modified by R. Knop. While several different versions of the polar method have been described, the version of R. Knop will be described here because it is the most widely used, in part due to its inclusion in Numerical Recipes.
Given u and v, independent and uniformly distributed in the closed interval (− 1, + 1), set s = R = u + v. (Clearly R = s (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle R = (\ sqrt (s)))). If s = 0 or s ≥ 1, discard u and v, and try another pair (u, v). Because u and v are uniformly distributed and because only points within the unit circle have been admitted, the values of s will be uniformly distributed in the open interval (0, 1), too. The latter can be seen by calculating the cumulative distribution function for s in the interval (0, 1). This is the area of a circle with radius s (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (\ sqrt (s))), divided by π (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ pi). From this we find the probability density function to have the constant value 1 on the interval (0, 1). Equally so, the angle θ divided by 2 π (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle 2 \ pi) is uniformly distributed in the interval (0, 1) and independent of s.
We now identify the value of s with that of U and θ / (2 π) (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ theta / (2 \ pi)) with that of U in the basic form. As shown in the figure, the values of cos θ = cos 2 π U 2 (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ cos \ theta = \ cos 2 \ pi U_ (2)) and sin θ = sin 2 π U 2 (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ sin \ theta = \ sin 2 \ pi U_ (2)) in the basic form can be replaced with the ratios cos θ = u / R = u / s (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ cos \ theta = u / R = u / (\ sqrt (s))) and sin θ = v / R = v / s (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ sin \ theta = v / R = v / (\ sqrt (s))), respectively. The advantage is that calculating the trigonometric functions directly can be avoided. This is helpful when trigonometric functions are more expensive to compute than the single division that replaces each one.
Just as the basic form produces two standard normal deviates, so does this alternate calculation.
and
The polar method differs from the basic method in that it is a type of rejection sampling. It discards some generated random numbers, but can be faster than the basic method because it is simpler to compute (provided that the random number generator is relatively fast) and is more numerically robust. It avoids the use of trigonometric functions, which can be expensive in some computing environments. It discards 1 − π / 4 ≈ 21.46 % of the total input uniformly distributed random number pairs generated, i.e. discards 4 / π − 1 ≈ 27.32 % uniformly distributed random number pairs per Gaussian random number pair generated, requiring 4 / π ≈ 1.2732 input random numbers per output random number.
The basic form requires two multiplications, 1 / 2 logarithm, 1 / 2 square root, and one trigonometric function for each normal variate. On some processors, the cosine and sine of the same argument can be calculated in parallel using a single instruction. Notably for Intel - based machines, one can use the fsincos assembler instruction or the expi instruction (usually available from C as an intrinsic function), to calculate complex
and just separate the real and imaginary parts.
Note: To explicitly calculate the complex - polar form use the following substitutions in the general form,
Let r = − 2 l n (u 1) (\ displaystyle r = (\ sqrt (- 2ln (u_ (1))))) and z = 2 π u 2 (\ displaystyle z = 2 \ pi u_ (2)) then,
r e i z = − 2 l n (u 1) e i 2 π u 2 = − 2 l n (u 1) (cos (2 π u 2) + i sin (2 π u 2)) (\ displaystyle \ re ^ (iz) = (\ sqrt (- 2ln (u_ (1)))) e ^ (i2 \ pi u_ (2)) = (\ sqrt (- 2ln (u_ (1)))) \ left (\ cos (2 \ pi u_ (2)) + i \ sin (2 \ pi u_ (2)) \ right)).
The polar form requires 3 / 2 multiplications, 1 / 2 logarithm, 1 / 2 square root, and 1 / 2 division for each normal variate. The effect is to replace one multiplication and one trigonometric function with a single division and a conditional loop.
It should be noted that fsincos has become very fast in modern CPU architectures, such that the speed "benefit '' of the rejection sampling method is no longer factual. Meanwhile, the floating - point division by s, and the conditional loop, both remain a significant expense in the rejection sampling algorithm, which are not present in the basic form.
When a computer is used to produce a uniform random variable it will inevitably have some inaccuracies because there is a lower bound on how close numbers can be to 0. If the generator uses 32 bits per output value, the smallest non-zero number that can be generated is 2 − 32 (\ displaystyle 2 ^ (- 32)). When U 1 (\ displaystyle U_ (1)) and U 2 (\ displaystyle U_ (2)) are equal to this the Box -- Muller transform produces a normal random variable equal to − 2 ln (2 − 32) cos (2 π 2 − 32) ≈ 6.66 (\ displaystyle (\ sqrt (- 2 \ ln (2 ^ (- 32)))) \ cos (2 \ pi 2 ^ (- 32)) \ approx 6.66) This means that the algorithm will not produce random variables more than 6.66 standard deviations from the mean. This corresponds to a proportion of 2.74 × 10 − 11 (\ displaystyle 2.74 \ times 10 ^ (- 11)) lost due to the truncation.
The standard Box -- Muller transform generates values from the standard normal distribution (i.e. standard normal deviates) with mean 0 and standard deviation 1. The implementation below in standard C++ generates values from any normal distribution with mean μ (\ displaystyle \ mu) and variance σ 2 (\ displaystyle \ sigma ^ (2)). If Z (\ displaystyle Z) is a standard normal deviate, then X = Z σ + μ (\ displaystyle X = Z \ sigma + \ mu) will have a normal distribution with mean μ (\ displaystyle \ mu) and standard deviation σ (\ displaystyle \ sigma). Note that because the random number generator rand has not been seeded, the same series of values will always be returned from the generateGaussianNoise function.
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who is johnny ray in come on eileen | Come on Eileen - wikipedia
"Come On Eileen '' is a song by English group Dexys Midnight Runners (credited to Dexys Midnight Runners and the Emerald Express), released in the UK on 25 June 1982 as a single from their album Too - Rye - Ay. It reached number one in the US, and was their second number one hit in the UK, following 1980 's "Geno ''. The song was written by Kevin Rowland, Jim Paterson and Billy Adams; it was produced by Clive Langer and Alan Winstanley.
"Come On Eileen '' won Best British Single at the 1983 Brit Awards and in 2015 the song was voted by the British public as the nation 's sixth favourite 1980s number one in a poll for ITV. It was ranked number 18 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of the ' 80s.
There are various versions of the song, some in addition to the main section featuring either an intro of a Celtic fiddle solo, or an a cappella coda both based on Thomas Moore 's Irish folk song "Believe Me, if All Those Endearing Young Charms ''.
The main section begins with a Celtic - style fiddle played over a drum beat, with the bass guitar and piano providing accompaniment.
The lyrics of the song begin with the lines:
The phrase "Come on Eileen '' is used as the chorus to the song, which was loosely inspired by the song "A Man Like Me '' by the 1960s British soul group Jimmy James and the Vagabonds.
The bridge of "Come On Eileen '' features an improvised counter-melody which begins in a slow tempo and gets faster and faster over an accelerando vocal backing. The chord sequence of the bridge is actually the same as the verses, but transposed up by a whole tone.
Throughout the song, there are numerous tempo changes and key changes:
Although often believed to have been inspired by a childhood friend with whom Kevin Rowland had a romantic, and later sexual, relationship in his teens, there was actually no real Eileen. "In fact she was composite, to make a point about Catholic repression. ''
Dexys Midnight Runners ' CD compilations again omit the introduction and coda but use the unedited main section (4.06).
The 1982 music video was filmed in the inner south London suburb of Kennington in the vicinity of the corner of Brook Drive and Hayles Street. The character of "Eileen '' in the music video, as well as on the single cover, is played by Máire Fahey, sister of Siobhan Fahey from Bananarama.
Archival footage of Johnnie Ray arriving at London Heathrow Airport in 1954 was featured in the video.
In a poll by Channel 4, a UK TV channel, the song was placed at number 38 in the 100 greatest number one singles of all time. Similar polls by the music channel VH1 placed the song at number three in the 100 Greatest One - hit Wonders of all time, number 18 in VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of the 1980 's and number one in the 100 Greatest One Hit Wonders of the 80s (the group had a previous number - one single in the UK -- "Geno '' in 1980 -- but "Come On Eileen '' was their only US hit). "Come on Eileen '' has sold 1.33 million copies in the UK as of June 2013.
The song reached number one in the United States on the Billboard Hot 100 charts during the week ending 23 April 1983. "Come on Eileen '' prevented Michael Jackson from having back - to - back number one hits in the US: "Billie Jean '' was the number one single the previous week, while "Beat It '' was the number one song the following week.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
In 1997, ska band Save Ferris released a cover of the song as a single.
In 2004, the band 4 - 4 - 2 was formed to cover the song as "Come On England '' with altered lyrics to support the England national football team during their appearance in the 2004 European Championships.
On 7 August 2005, the song was used to wake the astronauts of Space Shuttle Discovery on the final day of STS - 114 in reference to commander Eileen Collins.
The song was used in the films Tommy Boy, Take Me Home Tonight and The Perks of Being a Wallflower.
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where is the liver in the human body located | Liver - wikipedia
The liver, an organ only found in vertebrates, detoxifies various metabolites, synthesizes proteins, and produces biochemicals necessary for digestion. In humans, it is located in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen, below the diaphragm. Its other roles in metabolism include the regulation of glycogen storage, decomposition of red blood cells and the production of hormones.
The liver is an accessory digestive gland that produces bile, an alkaline compound which helps the breakdown of fat. Bile aids in digestion via the emulsification of lipids. The gallbladder, a small pouch that sits just under the liver, stores bile produced by the liver. The liver 's highly specialized tissue consisting of mostly hepatocytes regulates a wide variety of high - volume biochemical reactions, including the synthesis and breakdown of small and complex molecules, many of which are necessary for normal vital functions. Estimates regarding the organ 's total number of functions vary, but textbooks generally cite it being around 500.
Terminology related to the liver often starts in hepat - from ἡπατο -, the Greek word for liver.
No way is yet known to compensate for the absence of liver function in the long term, although liver dialysis techniques can be used in the short term. Artificial livers are yet to be developed to promote long - term replacement in the absence of the liver. As of 2018, liver transplantation is the only option for complete liver failure.
The liver is a reddish - brown, wedge - shaped organ with four lobes of unequal size and shape. A human liver normally weighs 1.44 -- 1.66 kg (3.2 -- 3.7 lb), and has a width of about 15 cm. It is both the heaviest internal organ and the largest gland in the human body. Located in the right upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity, it rests just below the diaphragm, to the right of the stomach and overlies the gallbladder.
The liver is connected to two large blood vessels: the hepatic artery and the portal vein. The hepatic artery carries oxygen - rich blood from the aorta via the celiac plexus, whereas the portal vein carries blood rich in digested nutrients from the entire gastrointestinal tract and also from the spleen and pancreas. These blood vessels subdivide into small capillaries known as liver sinusoids, which then lead to lobules.
Lobules are the functional units of the liver. Each lobule is made up of millions of hepatic cells (hepatocytes), which are the basic metabolic cells. The lobules are held together by a fine, dense, irregular, fibroelastic connective tissue layer which extends from the fibrous capsule covering the entire liver known as Glisson 's capsule. This extends into the structure of the liver, by accompanying the blood vessels (veins and arteries), ducts, and nerves at the hepatic hilum. The whole surface of the liver except for the bare area, is covered in a serous coat derived from the peritoneum, and this firmly adheres to the inner Glisson 's capsule.
The liver is grossly divided into two parts when viewed from above -- a right and a left lobe, and four parts when viewed from below (left, right, caudate, and quadrate lobes).
The falciform ligament, divides the liver into a left and right lobe. From below, the two additional lobes are located between the right and left lobes, one in front of the other. A line can be imagined running from the left of the vena cava and all the way forward to divide the liver and gallbladder into two halves. This line is called "Cantlie 's line ''.
Other anatomical landmarks include the ligamentum venosum and the round ligament of the liver (ligamentum teres), which further divide the left side of the liver in two sections. An important anatomical landmark, the porta hepatis, divides this left portion into four segments, which can be numbered starting at the caudate lobe as I in an anticlockwise manner. From this parietal view, seven segments can be seen, because the eighth segment is only visible in the visceral view.
On the diaphragmatic surface, apart from a triangular bare area where it connects to the diaphragm, the liver is covered by a thin, double - layered membrane, the peritoneum, that helps to reduce friction against other organs. This surface covers the convex shape of the two lobes where it accommodates the shape of the diaphragm. The peritoneum folds back on itself to form the falciform ligament and the right and left triangular ligaments.
These peritoneal ligaments are not related to the anatomic ligaments in joints, and the right and left triangular ligaments have no known functional importance, though they serve as surface landmarks. The falciform ligament functions to attach the liver to the posterior portion of the anterior body wall.
The visceral surface or inferior surface, is uneven and concave. It is covered in peritoneum apart from where it attaches the gallbladder and the porta hepatis.
Several impressions on the surface of the liver accommodate the various adjacent structures and organs. Underneath the right lobe and to the right of the gallbladder fossa are two impressions, one behind the other and separated by a ridge. The one in front is a shallow colic impression, formed by the hepatic flexure and the one behind is a deeper renal impression accommodating part of the right kidney and part of the suprarenal gland.
The suprarenal impression is a small, triangular, depressed area on the liver. It is located close to the right of the fossa, between the bare area and the caudate lobe, and immediately above the renal impression. The greater part of the suprarenal impression is devoid of peritoneum and it lodges the right suprarenal gland.
Medial to the renal impression is a third and slightly marked impression, lying between it and the neck of the gall bladder. This is caused by the descending portion of the duodenum, and is known as the duodenal impression.
The inferior surface of the left lobe of the liver presents behind and to the left the gastric impression. This is moulded over the upper front surface of the stomach, and to the right of this is a rounded eminence, the tuber omentale, which fits into the concavity of the lesser curvature of the stomach and lies in front of the anterior layer of the lesser omentum.
Microscopically, each liver lobe is seen to be made up of hepatic lobules. The lobules are roughly hexagonal, and consist of plates of hepatocytes radiating from a central vein. The central vein joins to the hepatic vein to carry blood out from the liver. A distinctive component of a lobule is the portal triad, which can be found running along each of the lobule 's corners. The portal triad, misleadingly named, consists of five structures: a branch of the hepatic artery, a branch of the hepatic portal vein, and a bile duct, as well as lymphatic vessels and a branch of the vagus nerve. Between the hepatocyte plates are liver sinusoids, which are enlarged capillaries through which blood from the hepatic portal vein and hepatic artery enters via the portal triads, then drains to the central vein.
Histology, the study of microscopic anatomy, shows two major types of liver cell: parenchymal cells and nonparenchymal cells. About 70 -- 85 % of the liver volume is occupied by parenchymal hepatocytes. Nonparenchymal cells constitute 40 % of the total number of liver cells but only 6.5 % of its volume. The liver sinusoids are lined with two types of cell, sinusoidal endothelial cells, and phagocytic Kupffer cells. Hepatic stellate cells are nonparenchymal cells found in the perisinusoidal space, between a sinusoid and a hepatocyte. Additionally, intrahepatic lymphocytes are often present in the sinusoidal lumen.
The central area or hepatic hilum, includes the opening known as the porta hepatis which carries the common bile duct and common hepatic artery, and the opening for the portal vein. The duct, vein, and artery divide into left and right branches, and the areas of the liver supplied by these branches constitute the functional left and right lobes. The functional lobes are separated by the imaginary plane, Cantlie 's line, joining the gallbladder fossa to the inferior vena cava. The plane separates the liver into the true right and left lobes. The middle hepatic vein also demarcates the true right and left lobes. The right lobe is further divided into an anterior and posterior segment by the right hepatic vein. The left lobe is divided into the medial and lateral segments by the left hepatic vein.
The hilar area of the liver is described in terms of three plates that contain the bile ducts and blood vessels. The contents of the whole plate system are surrounded by a sheath. The three plates are the hilar plate, the cystic plate and the umbilical plate and the plate system is the site of the many anatomical variations to be found in the liver.
In the widely used Couinaud system, the functional lobes are further divided into a total of eight subsegments based on a transverse plane through the bifurcation of the main portal vein. The caudate lobe is a separate structure that receives blood flow from both the right - and left - sided vascular branches. The Couinaud classification of liver anatomy divides the liver into eight functionally independent liver segments. Each segment has its own vascular inflow, outflow and biliary drainage. In the centre of each segment are branches of the portal vein, hepatic artery, and bile duct. In the periphery of each segment is vascular outflow through the hepatic veins. The classification system uses the vascular supply in the liver to separate the functional units (numbered I to VIII), with unit 1, the caudate lobe, receiving its supply from both the right and the left branches of portal vein. It contains one or more hepatic veins which drain directly into the inferior vena cava. The remainder of the units (II to VIII) are numbered in a clockwise fashion:
About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 60 % of these genes are expressed in a normal, adult liver. Over 400 genes are more specifically expressed in the liver, with some 150 genes highly specific for liver tissue. A large fraction of the corresponding liver specific proteins are mainly expressed in hepatocytes and secreted into the blood and constitute plasma proteins. Other liver specific proteins are certain liver enzymes such as HAO1 and RDH16, proteins involved in bile synthesis such as BAAT and SLC27A5, and transporter proteins involved in the metabolism of drugs, such as ABCB11 and SLC2A2. Examples of highly liver - specific proteins include apolipoprotein A II, coagulation factors F2 and F9, complement factor related proteins, and the fibrinogen beta chain protein.
Organogenesis, the development of the organs takes place from the third to the eighth week during embryogenesis. The origins of the liver lie in both the ventral portion of the foregut endoderm (endoderm being one of the three embryonic germ layers) and the constituents of the adjacent septum transversum mesenchyme. In the human embryo, the hepatic diverticulum is the tube of endoderm that extends out from the foregut into the surrounding mesenchyme. The mesenchyme of septum transversum induces this endoderm to proliferate, to branch, and to form the glandular epithelium of the liver. A portion of the hepatic diverticulum (that region closest to the digestive tube) continues to function as the drainage duct of the liver, and a branch from this duct produces the gallbladder. Besides signals from the septum transversum mesenchyme, fibroblast growth factor from the developing heart also contributes to hepatic competence, along with retinoic acid emanating from the lateral plate mesoderm. The hepatic endodermal cells undergo a morphological transition from columnar to pseudostratified resulting in thickening into the early liver bud. Their expansion forms a population of the bipotential hepatoblasts. Hepatic stellate cells are derived from mesenchyme.
After migration of hepatoblasts into the septum transversum mesenchyme, the hepatic architecture begins to be established, with liver sinusoids and bile canaliculi appearing. The liver bud separates into the lobes. The left umbilical vein becomes the ductus venosus and the right vitelline vein becomes the portal vein. The expanding liver bud is colonized by hematopoietic cells. The bipotential hepatoblasts begin differentiating into biliary epithelial cells and hepatocytes. The biliary epithelial cells differentiate from hepatoblasts around portal veins, first producing a monolayer, and then a bilayer of cuboidal cells. In ductal plate, focal dilations emerge at points in the bilayer, become surrounded by portal mesenchyme, and undergo tubulogenesis into intrahepatic bile ducts. Hepatoblasts not adjacent to portal veins instead differentiate into hepatocytes and arrange into cords lined by sinudoidal epithelial cells and bile canaliculi. Once hepatoblasts are specified into hepatocytes and undergo further expansion, they begin acquiring the functions of a mature hepatocyte, and eventually mature hepatocytes appear as highly polarized epithelial cells with abundant glycogen accumulation. In the adult liver, hepatocytes are not equivalent, with position along the portocentrovenular axis within a liver lobule dictating expression of metabolic genes involved in drug metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, ammonia detoxification, and bile production and secretion. WNT / β - catenin has now been identified to be playing a key role in this phenomenon.
At birth, the liver comprises roughly 4 % of body weight and weighs on average 120 g. Over the course of further development, it will increase to 1.4 -- 1.6 kg but will only take up 2.5 -- 3.5 % of body weight.
In the growing fetus, a major source of blood to the liver is the umbilical vein, which supplies nutrients to the growing fetus. The umbilical vein enters the abdomen at the umbilicus and passes upward along the free margin of the falciform ligament of the liver to the inferior surface of the liver. There, it joins with the left branch of the portal vein. The ductus venosus carries blood from the left portal vein to the left hepatic vein and then to the inferior vena cava, allowing placental blood to bypass the liver.
In the fetus, the liver does not perform the normal digestive processes and filtration of the infant liver because nutrients are received directly from the mother via the placenta. The fetal liver releases some blood stem cells that migrate to the fetal thymus, creating the T - cells or T - lymphocytes. After birth, the formation of blood stem cells shifts to the red bone marrow.
After 2 -- 5 days, the umbilical vein and ductus venosus are completely obliterated; the former becomes the round ligament of liver and the latter becomes the ligamentum venosum. In the disorders of cirrhosis and portal hypertension, the umbilical vein can open up again.
The various functions of the liver are carried out by the liver cells or hepatocytes. The liver is thought to be responsible for up to 500 separate functions, usually in combination with other systems and organs. Currently, no artificial organ or device is capable of reproducing all the functions of the liver. Some functions can be carried out by liver dialysis, an experimental treatment for liver failure. The liver also accounts for about 20 % of resting total body oxygen consumption.
The liver receives a dual blood supply from the hepatic portal vein and hepatic arteries. The hepatic portal vein delivers around 75 % of the liver 's blood supply, and carries venous blood drained from the spleen, gastrointestinal tract, and its associated organs. The hepatic arteries supply arterial blood to the liver, accounting for the remaining quarter of its blood flow. Oxygen is provided from both sources; about half of the liver 's oxygen demand is met by the hepatic portal vein, and half is met by the hepatic arteries. The hepatic artery also has both alpha - and beta - adrenergic receptors; therefore, flow through the artery is controlled, in part, by the splanchnic nerves of the autonomic nervous system.
Blood flows through the liver sinusoids and empties into the central vein of each lobule. The central veins coalesce into hepatic veins, which leave the liver and drain into the inferior vena cava.
The biliary tract is derived from the branches of the bile ducts. The biliary tract, also known as the biliary tree, is the path by which bile is secreted by the liver then transported to the first part of the small intestine, the duodenum. The bile produced in the liver is collected in bile canaliculi, small grooves between the faces of adjacent hepatocytes. The canaliculi radiate to the edge of the liver lobule, where they merge to form bile ducts. Within the liver, these ducts are termed intrahepatic bile ducts, and once they exit the liver, they are considered extrahepatic. The intrahepatic ducts eventually drain into the right and left hepatic ducts, which exit the liver at the transverse fissure, and merge to form the common hepatic duct. The cystic duct from the gallbladder joins with the common hepatic duct to form the common bile duct. The biliary system and connective tissue is supplied by the hepatic artery alone
Bile either drains directly into the duodenum via the common bile duct, or is temporarily stored in the gallbladder via the cystic duct. The common bile duct and the pancreatic duct enter the second part of the duodenum together at the hepatopancreatic ampulla, also known as the ampulla of Vater.
The liver plays a major role in carbohydrate, protein, amino acid, and lipid metabolism.
The liver performs several roles in carbohydrate metabolism: The liver synthesizes and stores around 100 g of glycogen via glycogenesis, the formation of glycogen from glucose. When needed, the liver releases glucose into the blood by performing glycogenolysis, the breakdown of glycogen into glucose. The liver is also responsible for gluconeogenesis, which is the synthesis of glucose from certain amino acids, lactate, or glycerol. Adipose and liver cells produce glycerol by breakdown of fat, which the liver uses for gluconeogenesis.
The liver is responsible for the mainstay of protein metabolism, synthesis as well as degradation. It is also responsible for a large part of amino acid synthesis. The liver plays a role in the production of clotting factors, as well as red blood cell production. Some of the proteins synthesized by the liver include coagulation factors I (fibrinogen), II (prothrombin), V, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XIII, as well as protein C, protein S and antithrombin. In the first trimester fetus, the liver is the main site of red blood cell production. By the 32nd week of gestation, the bone marrow has almost completely taken over that task. The liver is a major site of production for thrombopoietin, a glycoprotein hormone that regulates the production of platelets by the bone marrow.
The liver plays several roles in lipid metabolism: it performs cholesterol synthesis, lipogenesis, and the production of triglycerides, and a bulk of the body 's lipoproteins are synthesized in the liver.
The liver plays a key role in digestion, as it produces and excretes bile (a yellowish liquid) required for emulsifying fats and help the absorption of vitamin K from the diet. Some of the bile drains directly into the duodenum, and some is stored in the gallbladder.
The liver also produces insulin - like growth factor 1, a polypeptide protein hormone that plays an important role in childhood growth and continues to have anabolic effects in adults.
The liver is responsible for the breakdown of insulin and other hormones. The liver breaks down bilirubin via glucuronidation, facilitating its excretion into bile. The liver is responsible for the breakdown and excretion of many waste products. It plays a key role in breaking down or modifying toxic substances (e.g., methylation) and most medicinal products in a process called drug metabolism. This sometimes results in toxication, when the metabolite is more toxic than its precursor. Preferably, the toxins are conjugated to avail excretion in bile or urine. The liver breaks down ammonia into urea as part of the urea cycle, and the urea is excreted in the urine.
The oxidative capacity of the liver decreases with aging and therefore any medications that require oxidation (for instance, benzodiazepines) are more likely to accumulate to toxic levels. However, medications with shorter half - lives, such as lorazepam and oxazepam, are preferred in most cases when benzodiazepines are required in regard to geriatric medicine.
The liver is a vital organ and supports almost every other organ in the body. Because of its strategic location and multidimensional functions, the liver is also prone to many diseases. The bare area of the liver is a site that is vulnerable to the passing of infection from the abdominal cavity to the thoracic cavity.
Hepatitis is a common condition of inflammation of the liver. The most usual cause of this is viral, and the most common of these infections are hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E. Some of these infections are sexually transmitted. Inflammation can also be caused by other viruses in the family Herpesviridae such as the herpes simplex virus. Chronic (rather than acute) infection with hepatitis B virus or hepatitis C virus is the main cause of liver cancer. Globally, about 248 million individuals are chronically infected with HBV (with 843,724 in the U.S.) and 142 million are chronically infected with HCV (with 2.7 million in the U.S.). Globally there are about 114 million and 20 million cases of hepatitis A and hepatitis E respectively, but these generally resolve, and do not become chronic (see Hepatitis A, Hepatitis E). Hepatitis D virus is a "satellite '' of hepatitis B virus (can only infect in the presence of hepatitis B), and co-infects nearly 20 million people with hepatitis B, globally (see Hepatitis D).
Hepatic encephalopathy is caused by an accumulation of toxins in the bloodstream that are normally removed by the liver. This condition can result in coma and can prove fatal.
Other disorders caused by excessive alcohol consumption are grouped under alcoholic liver diseases and these include alcoholic hepatitis, fatty liver, and cirrhosis. Factors contributing to the development of alcoholic liver diseases are not only the quantity and frequency of alcohol consumption, but can also include gender, genetics, and liver insult.
Liver damage can also be caused by drugs, particularly paracetamol and drugs used to treat cancer. A rupture of the liver can be caused by a liver shot used in combat sports.
Budd -- Chiari syndrome is a condition caused by blockage of the hepatic veins (including thrombosis) that drain the liver. It presents with the classical triad of abdominal pain, ascites and liver enlargement.
Primary biliary cholangitis is an autoimmune disease of the liver. It is marked by slow progressive destruction of the small bile ducts of the liver, with the intralobular ducts (Canals of Hering) affected early in the disease. When these ducts are damaged, bile and other toxins build up in the liver (cholestasis) and over time damages the liver tissue in combination with ongoing immune related damage. This can lead to scarring (fibrosis) and cirrhosis. Cirrhosis increases the resistance to blood flow in the liver, and can result in portal hypertension. Congested anastomoses between the portal venous system and the systemic circulation, can be a subsequent condition.
Many diseases of the liver are accompanied by jaundice caused by increased levels of bilirubin in the system. The bilirubin results from the breakup of the hemoglobin of dead red blood cells; normally, the liver removes bilirubin from the blood and excretes it through bile.
There are also many pediatric liver diseases, including biliary atresia, alpha - 1 antitrypsin deficiency, alagille syndrome, progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis, Langerhans cell histiocytosis and hepatic hemangioma a benign tumour the most common type of liver tumour, thought to be congenital. A genetic disorder causing multiple cysts to form in the liver tissue, usually in later life, and usually asymptomatic, is polycystic liver disease. Diseases that interfere with liver function will lead to derangement of these processes. However, the liver has a great capacity to regenerate and has a large reserve capacity. In most cases, the liver only produces symptoms after extensive damage.
Hepatomegaly refers to an enlarged liver and can be due to many causes. It can be palpated in a liver span measurement.
Liver diseases may be diagnosed by liver function tests -- blood tests that can identify various markers. For example, acute - phase reactants are produced by the liver in response to injury or inflammation.
The classic symptoms of liver damage include the following:
The diagnosis of liver disease is made by liver function tests, groups of blood tests, that can readily show the extent of liver damage. If infection is suspected, then other serological tests will be carried out. A physical examination of the liver can only reveal its size and any tenderness, and some form of imaging such as an ultrasound or CT scan may also be needed. Sometimes a liver biopsy will be necessary, and a tissue sample is taken through a needle inserted into the skin just below the rib cage. This procedure may be helped by a sonographer providing ultrasound guidance to an interventional radiologist.
Axial CT image showing anomalous hepatic veins coursing on the subcapsular anterior surface of the liver.
Maximum intensity projection (MIP) CT image as viewed anteriorly showing the anomalous hepatic veins coursing on the anterior surface of the liver
Lateral MIP view in the same patient
A CT scan in which the liver and portal vein are shown.
The liver is the only human internal organ capable of natural regeneration of lost tissue; as little as 25 % of a liver can regenerate into a whole liver. This is, however, not true regeneration but rather compensatory growth in mammals. The lobes that are removed do not regrow and the growth of the liver is a restoration of function, not original form. This contrasts with true regeneration where both original function and form are restored. In some other species, such as fish, the liver undergoes true regeneration by restoring both shape and size of the organ. In the liver, large areas of the tissues are formed but for the formation of new cells there must be sufficient amount of material so the circulation of the blood becomes more active.
This is predominantly due to the hepatocytes re-entering the cell cycle. That is, the hepatocytes go from the quiescent G0 phase to the G1 phase and undergo mitosis. This process is activated by the p75 receptors. There is also some evidence of bipotential stem cells, called hepatic oval cells or ovalocytes (not to be confused with oval red blood cells of ovalocytosis), which are thought to reside in the canals of Hering. These cells can differentiate into either hepatocytes or cholangiocytes. Cholangiocytes are the epithelial lining cells of the bile ducts. They are cuboidal epithelium in the small interlobular bile ducts, but become columnar and mucus secreting in larger bile ducts approaching the porta hepatis and the extrahepatic ducts. Research is being carried out on the use of stem cells for the generation of an artificial liver.
Scientific and medical works about liver regeneration often refer to the Greek Titan Prometheus who was chained to a rock in the Caucasus where, each day, his liver was devoured by an eagle, only to grow back each night. The myth suggests the ancient Greeks may have known about the liver 's remarkable capacity for self - repair.
Human liver transplants were first performed by Thomas Starzl in the United States and Roy Calne in Cambridge, England in 1963 and 1967, respectively.
Liver transplantation is the only option for those with irreversible liver failure. Most transplants are done for chronic liver diseases leading to cirrhosis, such as chronic hepatitis C, alcoholism, and autoimmune hepatitis. Less commonly, liver transplantation is done for fulminant hepatic failure, in which liver failure occurs over days to weeks.
Liver allografts for transplant usually come from donors who have died from fatal brain injury. Living donor liver transplantation is a technique in which a portion of a living person 's liver is removed (hepatectomy) and used to replace the entire liver of the recipient. This was first performed in 1989 for pediatric liver transplantation. Only 20 percent of an adult 's liver (Couinaud segments 2 and 3) is needed to serve as a liver allograft for an infant or small child.
More recently, adult - to - adult liver transplantation has been done using the donor 's right hepatic lobe, which amounts to 60 percent of the liver. Due to the ability of the liver to regenerate, both the donor and recipient end up with normal liver function if all goes well. This procedure is more controversial, as it entails performing a much larger operation on the donor, and indeed there have been at least two donor deaths out of the first several hundred cases. A recent publication has addressed the problem of donor mortality, and at least 14 cases have been found. The risk of postoperative complications (and death) is far greater in right - sided operations than that in left - sided operations.
With the recent advances of noninvasive imaging, living liver donors usually have to undergo imaging examinations for liver anatomy to decide if the anatomy is feasible for donation. The evaluation is usually performed by multidetector row computed tomography (MDCT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). MDCT is good in vascular anatomy and volumetry. MRI is used for biliary tree anatomy. Donors with very unusual vascular anatomy, which makes them unsuitable for donation, could be screened out to avoid unnecessary operations.
MDCT image. Arterial anatomy contraindicated for liver donation
MDCT image. Portal venous anatomy contraindicated for liver donation
MDCT image. 3D image created by MDCT can clearly visualize the liver, measure the liver volume, and plan the dissection plane to facilitate the liver transplantation procedure.
Phase contrast CT image. Contrast is perfusing the right liver but not the left due to a left portal vein thrombus.
Some cultures regard the liver as the seat of the soul.
In Greek mythology, the gods punished Prometheus for revealing fire to humans by chaining him to a rock where a vulture (or an eagle) would peck out his liver, which would regenerate overnight. (The liver is the only human internal organ that actually can regenerate itself to a significant extent.) Many ancient peoples of the Near East and Mediterranean areas practiced a type of divination called haruspicy or hepatomancy, where they tried to obtain information by examining the livers of sheep and other animals.
In Plato, and in later physiology, the liver was thought to be the seat of the darkest emotions (specifically wrath, jealousy and greed) which drive men to action. The Talmud (tractate Berakhot 61b) refers to the liver as the seat of anger, with the gallbladder counteracting this.
The Persian, Urdu, and Hindi languages (جگر or जिगर or jigar) refer to the liver figurative speech to indicate courage and strong feelings, or "their best ''; e.g., "This Mecca has thrown to you the pieces of its liver! ''. The term jan e jigar, literally "the strength (power) of my liver '', is a term of endearment in Urdu. In Persian slang, jigar is used as an adjective for any object which is desirable, especially women. In the Zulu language, the word for liver (isibindi) is the same as the word for courage.
The legend of Liver - Eating Johnson (died 1900) says that he would cut out and eat the liver of each man killed after dinner.
In the motion picture The Message, Hind bint Utbah is implied or portrayed eating the liver of Hamza ibn ' Abd al - Muttalib during the Battle of Uhud in 624. Although there are narrations that suggest that Hind "tasted '' (rather than ate) the liver of Hamza, the authenticity of these narrations has to be questioned.
On November 26, 1987, the city of Ferrol, Spain, inaugurated what is believed to be the only monument to the liver in the world. The then - mayor, Jaime Quintanilla, also happened to be a doctor, and thought it appropriate to promote the monument. At an approximate cost of $3.200, the monument stands in the village of Balón. A plaque reads (in Galician, free translation): "The Liver (is the) basis of Life '', and below "Through History, Mankind tried to cure all illness. By helping it on this duty, you are doing a great job. We are grateful for it ''.
Humans commonly eat the livers of mammals, fowl, and fish as food. Domestic pig, ox, lamb, calf, chicken, and goose livers are widely available from butchers and supermarkets.
Liver can be baked, boiled, broiled, fried, stir - fried, or eaten raw (asbeh nayeh or sawda naye in Lebanese cuisine, or liver sashimi in Japanese cuisine. In many preparations, pieces of liver are combined with pieces of meat or kidneys, as in the various forms of Middle Eastern mixed grill (e.g. meurav Yerushalmi). Well - known examples include liver pâté, foie gras, chopped liver, and leverpastej. Liver sausages such as Braunschweiger and liverwurst are also a valued meal. Liver sausages may also be used as spreads. A traditional South African delicacy, skilpadjies, is made of minced lamb 's liver wrapped in netvet (caul fat), and grilled over an open fire.
Animal livers are rich in iron, vitamin A and vitamin B; and cod liver oil is commonly used as a dietary supplement. Traditionally, some fish livers were valued as food, especially the stingray liver. It was used to prepare delicacies, such as poached skate liver on toast in England, as well as the beignets de foie de raie and foie de raie en croute in French cuisine.
The liver is found in all vertebrates, and is typically the largest visceral (internal) organ. Its form varies considerably in different species, and is largely determined by the shape and arrangement of the surrounding organs. Nonetheless, in most species it is divided into right and left lobes; exceptions to this general rule include snakes, where the shape of the body necessitates a simple cigar - like form. The internal structure of the liver is broadly similar in all vertebrates.
An organ sometimes referred to as a liver is found associated with the digestive tract of the primitive chordate Amphioxus. Although it performs many functions of a liver, it is not considered a true liver but a homolog of the vertebrate liver. The amphioxus hepatic caecum produces the liver - specific proteins vitellogenin, antithrombin, plasminogen, alanine aminotransferase, and insulin / Insulin - like growth factor (IGF)
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why do you find large mammals in the arctic tundra but not in alpine tundra | Tundra - wikipedia
In physical geography, tundra (/ ˈtʌndrə, ˈtʊn - /) is a type of biome where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons. The term tundra comes through Russian тундра (tûndra) from the Kildin Sami word тӯндар (tūndâr) meaning "uplands '', "treeless mountain tract ''. There are three types of tundra: Arctic tundra, alpine tundra, and Antarctic tundra. In tundra, the vegetation is composed of dwarf shrubs, sedges and grasses, mosses, and lichens. Scattered trees grow in some tundra regions. The ecotone (or ecological boundary region) between the tundra and the forest is known as the tree line or timberline.
Arctic tundra occurs in the far Northern Hemisphere, north of the taiga belt. The word "tundra '' usually refers only to the areas where the subsoil is permafrost, or permanently frozen soil. (It may also refer to the treeless plain in general, so that northern Sápmi would be included.) Permafrost tundra includes vast areas of northern Russia and Canada. The polar tundra is home to several peoples who are mostly nomadic reindeer herders, such as the Nganasan and Nenets in the permafrost area (and the Sami in Sápmi).
Arctic tundra contains areas of stark landscape and is frozen for much of the year. The soil there is frozen from 25 to 90 cm (10 to 35 in) down, and it is impossible for trees to grow. Instead, bare and sometimes rocky land can only support low growing plants such as moss, heath (Ericaceae varieties such as crowberry and black bearberry), and lichen. There are two main seasons, winter and summer, in the polar tundra areas. During the winter it is very cold and dark, with the average temperature around − 28 ° C (− 18 ° F), sometimes dipping as low as − 50 ° C (− 58 ° F). However, extreme cold temperatures on the tundra do not drop as low as those experienced in taiga areas further south (for example, Russia 's and Canada 's lowest temperatures were recorded in locations south of the tree line). During the summer, temperatures rise somewhat, and the top layer of seasonally - frozen soil melts, leaving the ground very soggy. The tundra is covered in marshes, lakes, bogs and streams during the warm months. Generally daytime temperatures during the summer rise to about 12 ° C (54 ° F) but can often drop to 3 ° C (37 ° F) or even below freezing. Arctic tundras are sometimes the subject of habitat conservation programs. In Canada and Russia, many of these areas are protected through a national Biodiversity Action Plan.
Tundra tends to be windy, with winds often blowing upwards of 50 -- 100 km / h (30 -- 60 mph). However, in terms of precipitation, it is desert - like, with only about 15 -- 25 cm (6 -- 10 in) falling per year (the summer is typically the season of maximum precipitation). Although precipitation is light, evaporation is also relatively minimal. During the summer, the permafrost thaws just enough to let plants grow and reproduce, but because the ground below this is frozen, the water can not sink any lower, and so the water forms the lakes and marshes found during the summer months. There is a natural pattern of accumulation of fuel and wildfire which varies depending on the nature of vegetation and terrain. Research in Alaska has shown fire - event return intervals (FRIs) that typically vary from 150 to 200 years, with dryer lowland areas burning more frequently than wetter highland areas.
The biodiversity of tundra is low: 1,700 species of vascular plants and only 48 species of land mammals can be found, although millions of birds migrate there each year for the marshes. There are also a few fish species. There are few species with large populations. Notable animals in the Arctic tundra include caribou (reindeer), musk ox, Arctic hare, Arctic fox, snowy owl, lemmings, and polar bears (only near ocean - fed bodies of water). Tundra is largely devoid of poikilotherms such as frogs or lizards.
Due to the harsh climate of Arctic tundra, regions of this kind have seen little human activity, even though they are sometimes rich in natural resources such as oil and uranium. In recent times this has begun to change in Alaska, Russia, and some other parts of the world.
A severe threat to tundra is global warming, which causes permafrost to melt. The melting of the permafrost in a given area on human time scales (decades or centuries) could radically change which species can survive there.
Another concern is that about one third of the world 's soil - bound carbon is in taiga and tundra areas. When the permafrost melts, it releases carbon in the form of carbon dioxide and methane, both of which are greenhouse gases. The effect has been observed in Alaska. In the 1970s the tundra was a carbon sink, but today, it is a carbon source. Methane is produced when vegetation decays in lakes and wetlands.
The amount of greenhouse gases which will be released under projected scenarios for global warming have not been reliably quantified by scientific studies, although a few studies were reported to be underway in 2011. It is uncertain whether the impact of increased greenhouse gases from this source will be minimal or massive.
In locations where dead vegetation and peat has accumulated there is a risk of wildfire such as the 1,039 km (401 sq mi) of tundra which burned in 2007 on the north slope of the Brooks Range in Alaska. Such events may both result from and contribute to global warming.
Antarctic tundra occurs on Antarctica and on several Antarctic and subantarctic islands, including South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands and the Kerguelen Islands. Most of Antarctica is too cold and dry to support vegetation, and most of the continent is covered by ice fields. However, some portions of the continent, particularly the Antarctic Peninsula, have areas of rocky soil that support plant life. The flora presently consists of around 300 -- 400 lichens, 100 mosses, 25 liverworts, and around 700 terrestrial and aquatic algae species, which live on the areas of exposed rock and soil around the shore of the continent. Antarctica 's two flowering plant species, the Antarctic hair grass (Deschampsia antarctica) and Antarctic pearlwort (Colobanthus quitensis), are found on the northern and western parts of the Antarctic Peninsula. In contrast with the Arctic tundra, the Antarctic tundra lacks a large mammal fauna, mostly due to its physical isolation from the other continents. Sea mammals and sea birds, including seals and penguins, inhabit areas near the shore, and some small mammals, like rabbits and cats, have been introduced by humans to some of the subantarctic islands. The Antipodes Subantarctic Islands tundra ecoregion includes the Bounty Islands, Auckland Islands, Antipodes Islands, the Campbell Island group, and Macquarie Island. Species endemic to this ecoregion include Nematoceras dienemum and Nematoceras sulcatum, the only subantarctic orchids; the royal penguin; and the Antipodean albatross.
There is some ambiguity on whether Magellanic moorland, on the west coast of Patagonia, should be considered tundra or not. Phytogeographer Edmundo Pisano called it tundra (Spanish: tundra Magallánica) since he considered the low temperatures key to restrict plant growth.
The flora and fauna of Antarctica and the Antarctic Islands (south of 60 ° south latitude) are protected by the Antarctic Treaty.
Alpine tundra does not contain trees because the climate and soils at high altitude block tree growth. Alpine tundra is distinguished from arctic tundra in that alpine tundra typically does not have permafrost, and alpine soils are generally better drained than arctic soils. Alpine tundra transitions to subalpine forests below the tree line; stunted forests occurring at the forest - tundra ecotone (the treeline) are known as Krummholz.
Alpine tundra occurs in mountains worldwide. The flora of the alpine tundra is characterized by dwarf shrubs close to the ground. The cold climate of the alpine tundra is caused by the low air temperatures, and is similar to polar climate.
Tundra climates ordinarily fit the Köppen climate classification ET, signifying a local climate in which at least one month has an average temperature high enough to melt snow (0 ° C (32 ° F)), but no month with an average temperature in excess of 10 ° C (50 ° F). The cold limit generally meets the EF climates of permanent ice and snows; the warm - summer limit generally corresponds with the poleward or altitudinal limit of trees, where they grade into the subarctic climates designated Dfd, Dwd and Dsd (extreme winters as in parts of Siberia), Dfc typical in Alaska, Canada, parts of Scandinavia, European Russia, and Western Siberia (cold winters with months of freezing), or even Cfc (no month colder than − 3 ° C (27 ° F) as in parts of Iceland and southernmost South America). Tundra climates as a rule are hostile to woody vegetation even where the winters are comparatively mild by polar standards, as in Iceland.
Despite the potential diversity of climates in the ET category involving precipitation, extreme temperatures, and relative wet and dry seasons, this category is rarely subdivided. Rainfall and snowfall are generally slight due to the low vapor pressure of water in the chilly atmosphere, but as a rule potential evapotranspiration is extremely low, allowing soggy terrain of swamps and bogs even in places that get precipitation typical of deserts of lower and middle latitudes. The amount of native tundra biomass depends more on the local temperature than the amount of precipitation.
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list of unincorporated cities in los angeles county | List of unincorporated communities in Los Angeles County, California - wikipedia
There are 76 unincorporated communities in Los Angeles County, California. The estimated population is 1,095,592, out of a total of 9,818,605 of the entire county.
Communities
(as of 2010 Census)
Place
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what do you mean by abscissa and ordinate | Abscissa and ordinate - wikipedia
In mathematics, the abscissa (/ æbˈsɪs. ə /; plural abscissae or abscissæ or abscissas) and the ordinate are respectively the first and second coordinate of a point in a coordinate system.
The abscissa of a point is the signed measure of its projection on the primary axis, whose absolute value is the distance between the projection and the origin of the axis, and whose sign is given by the location on the projection relative to the origin (before: negative; after: positive).
The ordinate of a point is the signed measure of its projection on the secondary axis, whose absolute value is the distance between the projection and the origin of the axis, and whose sign is given by the location on the projection relative to the origin (before: negative; after: positive).
Usually these are the horizontal and vertical coordinates of a point in a two - dimensional rectangular Cartesian coordinate system. The terms can also refer to the horizontal and vertical axes respectively (typically x-axis and y -- axis) of a two - dimensional graph. An ordered pair consists of two terms -- the abscissa (horizontal, usually x) and the ordinate (vertical, usually y) -- which define the location of a point in two - dimensional rectangular space.
Though the word "abscissa '' (Latin; "linea abscissa '', "a line cut off '') has been used at least since De Practica Geometrie published in 1220 by Fibonacci (Leonardo of Pisa), its use in its modern sense may be due to Venetian mathematician Stefano degli Angeli in his work Miscellaneum Hyperbolicum, et Parabolicum of 1659.
In his 1892 work Vorlesungen über Geschichte der Mathematik, Volume 2, ("Lectures on history of mathematics '') German historian of mathematics Moritz Cantor writes
In a somewhat obsolete variant usage, the abscissa of a point may also refer to any number that describes the point 's location along some path, e.g. the parameter of a parametric equation. Used in this way, the abscissa can be thought of as a coordinate - geometry analog to the independent variable in a mathematical model or experiment (with any ordinates filling a role analogous to dependent variables).
This article is based on material taken from the Free On - line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008 and incorporated under the "relicensing '' terms of the GFDL, version 1.3 or later.
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which one of the deadliest catch captains died | Phil Harris (fisherman) - wikipedia
Phillip Charles "Phil '' Harris (December 19, 1956 -- February 9, 2010) was an American captain and part owner of the crab fishing vessel Cornelia Marie, which is featured on Discovery Channel 's documentary reality TV series Deadliest Catch. He suffered a massive stroke while offloading C. opilio crab in port at Saint Paul Island, Alaska, on January 29, 2010. Despite extreme improvements in his condition, Harris died on February 9, 2010 at the age of 53, while suffering a pulmonary embolism in the hospital.
The episode of Deadliest Catch featuring the Captain 's death aired on July 20, 2010, followed by a special tribute episode.
Harris started fishing with his father at age eight and after high school began crab fishing. He initially worked on a crab boat as an unpaid deckhand until he proved his worth. By the time he was 21 he was one of the youngest crab fishing boat captains on the Bering Sea. He had been captain of the Cornelia Marie for more than 20 years at the time of his death.
From 2004 and until his death, Harris and his boat were followed by an embedded film crew for the series Deadliest Catch. The Cornelia Marie was first shown during the opilio crab portion of Season 1, as partner ship of the F / V Maverick. The Cornelia Marie was heavily involved in search efforts for the Big Valley after it sank. It became a regular fixture of the show from the second season on.
Harris was thrown from his bunk during a storm in the 2008 season, and thought he had broken his ribs. He spent several hours coughing up blood until his sons and crew finally convinced him to seek medical attention and enlisted the film crew to watch his condition. Doctors later determined that he had suffered a pulmonary embolism. Medical treatment for this condition prevented him from fishing for almost a year. He returned for the opilio crab fishing season in January 2009.
Some of Harris 's sea stories were included in the book Deadliest Catch: Desperate Hours. In 2008, Harris developed a line of coffees, "Captain 's Reserve '', with blends named after fishing themes such as "Harris Family Blend '' and "Midnight Sunrise. ''
Harris 's chain - smoking, which was frequently seen on the show, added to his health woes.
Captain Harris suffered a massive stroke during the sixth televised opilio crab season of Deadliest Catch. He was offloading crab on January 29, 2010 at St. Paul Island, Alaska. He was flown to Anchorage for surgery, and was placed in an induced coma to reduce intracranial pressure and swelling. He awoke from the coma after his condition improved. He was squeezing hands, talking, and showing other signs of improvement. Harris ' doctors were amazed by his extreme improvement, saying that he was making gains in a few days that usually take months for stroke victims. However, Harris died from an intracranial hemorrhage on February 9, 2010.
Captain Phil Harris was cremated, and half of the ashes were buried (in an ornately painted Harley Davidson motorcycle gas tank) with the remains of his mother. Harris ' family spread the remainder of the ashes at sea.
His sons Jacob and Joshua issued a statement from the Harris family, saying, "It is with great sadness that we say goodbye to our dad -- Captain Phil Harris. Dad has always been a fighter and continued to be until the end. For us and the crew, he was someone who never backed down. We will remember and celebrate that strength. Thanks to everyone for their thoughts and prayers. ''
The sixth season of Deadliest Catch featured footage of Phil Harris at work for the last time. The series began airing on the Discovery Channel on April 13, 2010. A memorial service to Phil Harris was hosted by the Discovery Channel along Seattle 's waterfront on Smith Cove Cruise Terminal at Pier 91 on Friday evening, April 30, 2010. This was the night before the Puget Sound 's annual Opening Day for boating season. Phil 's sons Jake and Josh Harris spoke at this service. A boat gave a final salute from the location where Phil 's vessel is based in Elliott Bay.
Harris was single at the time of his death, but had been married and divorced twice. His first marriage, from 1982 to 1991 was to Mary Harris, mother of his two sons, Joshua and Jacob. Joshua and Jacob worked on board his fishing vessel, Cornelia Marie, as deckhands. His hometown was Bothell, Washington. He enjoyed driving fast and owned both a Harley - Davidson motorcycle and a Chevrolet Corvette. Besides driving fast and fishing, he also enjoyed building bird feeders.
Before his death, Phil Harris set up a coffee company called the Captain 's Reserve. His sons Jake and Joshua are now in the process of promoting the brand and expanding the family business. National retail expansion began January 2011, and went global the same year.
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who took the first wicket in t20 cricket | List of bowlers who have taken a wicket with their first ball in a format of International cricket - wikipedia
Fifty - nine bowlers have taken a wicket with the very first ball they bowled in one of the three formats of international cricket. Twenty bowlers have performed this feat in Test cricket. The first was Australian Tom Horan, who dismissed Walter Read with his first ball on 26 January 1883, and the most recent is South African bowler Hardus Viljoen who dismissed the England captain Alastair Cook on 15 January 2016. Seven of these twenty bowlers have been English cricketers. However, this accomplishment has not always led to a long and illustrious career. Only Maurice Tate, Intikhab Alam and Nathan Lyon went on to play in more than ten Tests. Arthur Coningham, Matt Henderson, Dennis Smith, and Tyrell Johnson were One - Test wonders, and Smith 's only Test wicket was the one he took with his first ball.
In One Day International (ODI) matches, twenty - four bowlers have taken a wicket with their first ball. The first to accomplish this was English bowler Geoff Arnold, who bowled Graeme Watson on 24 August 1972. The most recent is Mosaddek Hossain, from Bangladesh, who struck with his debut delivery on 28 September 2016. Not all of these bowlers took their first wicket in their debut match. Clive Lloyd, Inzamam - ul - Haq, Sadagoppan Ramesh, and Martin van Jaarsveld did not bowl in their debut matches, and took their first wicket on a later appearance. Ramesh and Wavell Hinds took their first wickets during the same match on 6 September 1999; the former in the first innings of the match and the latter in the second. It was also the only wicket taken by Ramesh during his ODI career.
In Twenty20 International (T20I) cricket, fourteen bowlers have taken a wicket with their first ball. The first to achieve this feat was Australian Michael Kasprowicz who took wickets with his first and second delivery in this format on 17 May 2005, dismissing New Zealand 's Stephen Fleming and Mathew Sinclair. Hong Kong 's Nadeem Ahmed and Nepal 's Paras Khadka took their first wickets during the same match on 16 March 2014; the former in the first innings of the match and the latter in the second. The most recent, on 3 January 2017, is Lockie Ferguson of New Zealand, who became the second bowler to achieve the feat of two T20I wickets in his first two deliveries by dismissing Sabbir Rahman and Soumya Sarkar of Bangladesh.
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ethnocentric organisations are characterised by the belief that | Ethnocentrism - wikipedia
Ethnocentrism is judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one 's own culture. Ethnocentric individuals judge other groups relative to their own ethnic group or culture, especially with concern for language, behavior, customs, and religion. These ethnic distinctions and subdivisions serve to define each ethnicity 's unique cultural identity. William G. Summer defined it as "the technical name for the view of things in which one 's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it. '' He further characterized ethnocentrism as often leading to pride, vanity, beliefs of one 's own group 's superiority, and contempt of outsiders. This may occur for the differentiation of people between in - groups and out - groups. Two main view points of ethnocentrism are the social sciences and the genetics. In anthropology, cultural relativism is used as an antithesis and an antonym to ethnocentrism. In biology, ethnocentrism is considered a natural condition of mankind.
The term "ethnocentrism '' was coined by Ludwig Gumplowicz and subsequently employed by William G. Sumner. Gumplowicz defined ethnocentrism as the reasons by virtue of which each people believed it had always occupied the highest point not only among contemporaneous peoples and nations but also in relation to all peoples of the historical past (Der Rassenkampf, 1883). Sumner relied on observing the tendency for people to differentiate between the in - group and others, disseminating it in his 1906 work Folkways.
In 1996, Robert K. Merton commented that "although the practice of seeing one 's own group as the center of things is empirically correlated with a belief in superiority, centrality and superiority need to be kept analytically distinct in order to deal with patterns of alienation from one 's membership group and contempt for it. ''
People born into a particular culture that grow up absorbing the values and behaviors of the culture will develop a worldview that considers their culture to be the norm. If people then experience other cultures that have different values and normal behaviors, they will find that the thought patterns appropriate to their birth culture and the meanings their birth culture attaches to behaviors are not appropriate for the new cultures. However, since people are accustomed to their birth culture, it can be difficult for them to see the behaviors of people from a different culture from the viewpoint of that culture rather than from their own.
Explicit ethnocentrism and implicit ethnocentrism. Explicit ethnocentrism involves the ability to express the feelings about outsiders (people from other groups), and implicit ethnocentrism refers to the inhibition of the feelings for outsiders.
Anthropologists such as Franz Boas and Bronislaw Malinowski argued that any human science had to transcend the ethnocentrism of the scientist. Both urged anthropologists to conduct ethnographic fieldwork in order to overcome their ethnocentrism. Boas developed the principle of cultural relativism where the "context '' plays an important role to the understanding of other people 's values, and Malinowski developed the theory of functionalism as guides for producing non-ethnocentric studies of different cultures. Classic examples of anti-ethnocentric anthropology include Margaret Mead 's Coming of Age in Samoa (1928), Malinowski 's The Sexual Life of Savages in North - Western Melanesia (1929), and Ruth Benedict 's Patterns of Culture (1934). (Mead and Benedict were two of Boas 's students.)
Examples of ethnocentrism include religiocentric constructs claiming a divine association like "divine nation '', "God 's Own Country '', "God 's Chosen People '', and "God 's Promised Land ''. Although this may be seen as classic examples, a study published by Brill showed that religious attitudes do not effect on negative out - group attitudes.
In Precarious Life, Judith Butler discusses recognizing the Other in order to sustain the Self and the problems of not being able to identify the Other. Butler writes:
Consumer ethnocentrism refers to the preference of buying products from one 's own country with the purpose of protecting the economy and the jobs of people in the country. It involves the brand and quality of the products. In order to measure the levels of a consumer 's ethnocentric tendencies, the CETSACALE was created and used for many countries and cultures.
The idea of cultural relativism refers to the idea that what is considered true in one culture may not be in another one. This relates is the opposite of ethnocentrism; referring to the idea of being aware that different beliefs and cultures exist. Classic examples of this are the use of certain words that may have a different meaning in another country. the term used to describe this examples is linguistic relativism. However, a person does not necessarily need to apply the concept of cultural relativism to not be ethnocentric.
In a research published by PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America) suggested that ethnocentrism may be mediated by the oxytocin hormone. It was found that in randomized controlled trials "oxytocin creates intergroup bias because oxytocin motivates in - group favoritism and, to a lesser extent, out - group derogation ''.
In The Selfish Gene, evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins writes that "Blood - feuds and inter-clan warfare are easily interpretable in terms of Hamilton 's genetic theory. '' Simulation - based experiments in evolutionary game theory have attempted to provide an explanation for the selection of ethnocentric - strategy phenotypes.
There is not a single reason to determine the causes of ethnocentrism, different areas of sciences tried to explain how ethnocentrism works. The Social identity approach suggests that a person is ethnocentric due to a strong identification with the inter - culture which may lead to negative feelings to the outsiders. Social scientists believe that the lack of contact with outsiders may be a cause stereotype towards other groups.
Realistic conflict theory assumes that ethnocentrism happens due to "real or perceived conflict '' in between groups. this happens also with new members of a group where the dominant group may perceive the new ones as treat.
Notes
Further reading
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who wrote the song it never rains in southern california | It Never Rains in Southern California - wikipedia
"It Never Rains in Southern California '', written by Albert Hammond and Mike Hazlewood, is a song first released by Hammond, a British born singer - songwriter, in 1972. Instrumental backing was provided by L.A. session musicians from the Wrecking Crew. The song is from his album, It Never Rains in Southern California. Hammond 's version peaked at number five on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 that year.
In the UK the song is perhaps the quintessential example of a turntable hit: a song which, although very frequently played and requested on radio, never makes it into the charts. Through the 1970s, the record was re-issued at least five times by various labels but remained outside the UK top 40, despite yet more airplay, and is still frequently to be heard on UK radio.
The song concerns the struggles of an actor who moves out to California to pursue a career in Hollywood but does not have any success and deteriorates in the process. In the chorus, Hammond sings: "It never rains in California, but girl do n't they warn ya. It pours, man, it pours. ''
In 1989, Hammond re-recorded the song for his Best of Me greatest hits compilation.
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what was the role of japanese involvement in the war | Japan during World War I - wikipedia
Japan participated in World War I from 1914 to 1918 in an alliance with Entente Powers and played an important role in securing the sea lanes in the West Pacific and Indian Oceans against the Imperial German Navy as the member of the Allies. Politically, the Japanese Empire seized the opportunity to expand its sphere of influence in China, and to gain recognition as a great power in postwar geopolitics.
Japan 's military, taking advantage of the great distances and Imperial Germany 's preoccupation with the war in Europe, seized German possessions in the Pacific and East Asia, but there was no large - scale mobilization of the economy. Foreign Minister Katō Takaaki and Prime Minister Ōkuma Shigenobu wanted to use the opportunity to expand Japanese influence in China. They enlisted Sun Yat - sen (1866 -- 1925), then in exile in Japan, but they had little success. The Imperial Japanese Navy, a nearly autonomous bureaucratic institution, made its own decision to undertake expansion in the Pacific. It captured Germany 's Micronesian territories north of the equator, and ruled the islands until they were transitioned to civilian control in 1921. The operation gave the Navy a rationale for enlarging its budget to double the Army budget and expanding the fleet. The Navy thus gained significant political influence over national and international affairs.
In the first week of World War I Japan proposed to the United Kingdom, its ally since 1902, that Japan would enter the war if it could take Germany 's Pacific territories. On 7 August 1914, the British government officially asked Japan for assistance in destroying the raiders from the Imperial German Navy in and around Chinese waters. Japan sent Germany an ultimatum on 23 August 1914, which went unanswered; Japan then formally declared war on Germany on 23 August 1914 in the name of the Emperor Taishō. As Vienna refused to withdraw the Austro - Hungarian cruiser SMS Kaiserin Elisabeth from Qingdao, Japan declared war on Austria - Hungary, too, on 25 August 1914.
Japanese forces quickly occupied German - leased territories in the Far East. On 2 September 1914, Japanese forces landed on China 's Shandong province and surrounded the German settlement at Tsingtao (Qingdao). During October, acting virtually independently of the civil government, the Imperial Japanese Navy seized several of Germany 's island colonies in the Pacific - the Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands - with virtually no resistance. The Japanese Navy conducted the world 's first naval - launched air raids against German - held land targets in Shandong province and ships in Qiaozhou Bay from the seaplane - carrier Wakamiya. On 6 September 1914 a seaplane launched by Wakamiya unsuccessfully attacked the Austro - Hungarian cruiser Kaiserin Elisabeth and the German gunboat Jaguar with bombs.
The Siege of Tsingtao concluded with the surrender of German colonial forces on 7 November 1914.
In February 1915, marines from the Imperial Japanese Navy ships based in Singapore helped suppress a mutiny by Indian troops against the British government. With Japan 's European allies heavily involved in the war in Europe, Japan sought further to consolidate its position in China by presenting the Twenty - One Demands to Chinese President Yuan Shikai in January 1915. If achieved, the Twenty - One Demands would have essentially reduced China to a Japanese protectorate, and at the expense of numerous privileges already enjoyed by the European powers in their respective spheres of influence within China. In the face of slow negotiations with the Chinese government, widespread and increasing anti-Japanese sentiments, and international condemnation (particularly from the United States), Japan withdrew the final group of demands, and a treaty was signed by China on 25 May 1915.
Throughout 1915 -- 1916, German efforts to negotiate a separate peace with Japan failed. On 3 July 1916, Japan and Russia signed a treaty whereby each pledged not to make a separate peace with Germany, and agreed to consultation and common action should the territory or interests of each in China be threatened by an outside third party. Although Russia had a claim to Chinese territory by the Kyakhta and other treaties, Japan discouraged Russia from annexing Heilongjiang and began to slowly push the other powers out, such as the Germans in the Twenty - One Demands (1915). The delineating line between Russian (north) and Japanese (south) spheres of influences in China was the Chinese Eastern Railway.
On 18 December 1916 the British Admiralty again requested naval assistance from Japan. Two of the four cruisers of the First Special Squadron at Singapore were sent to Cape Town, South Africa, and four destroyers were sent to the Mediterranean for basing out of Malta. Rear - Admiral Sato Kozo on the cruiser Akashi and 10th and 11th destroyer units (eight destroyers) arrived in Malta on 13 April 1917 via Colombo and Port Said. Eventually this Second Special Squadron totalled during the war 3 cruisers (Akashi, Izumo, Nisshin), 14 destroyers (8 Kaba - class, 4 Momo - class, 2 ex-British Acorn - class), 2 sloops, 1 tender (Kanto).
The Second Special Squadron carried out escort duties for troop transports and anti-submarine operations. No ship was lost, but on 11 June 1917 a Kaba - class destroyer (Sakaki) was hit by a torpedo from an Austro - Hungarian submarine (U 27) off Crete; 59 Japanese sailors died. The Japanese squadron made a total of 348 escort sorties from Malta, escorting 788 ships containing around 700,000 soldiers, thus contributing greatly to the war effort, for a total loss of 72 Japanese sailors killed in action. A further 7,075 people were rescued from damaged and sinking ships. In return for this assistance, Great Britain recognized Japan 's territorial gains in Shantung and in the Pacific islands north of the equator.
With the American entry into World War I on 6 April 1917, the United States and Japan found themselves on the same side, despite their increasingly acrimonious relations over China and competition for influence in the Pacific. This led to the Lansing -- Ishii Agreement of 2 November 1917 to help reduce tensions.
On July 9, Commander Kyōsuke Eto, military attaché with the Royal Navy, was killed in the HMS Vanguard disaster.
In late 1917, Japan exported 12 Arabe - class destroyers, based on Kaba - class design, to France.
In 1918, Japan continued to extend its influence and privileges in China via the Nishihara Loans. Following the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, Japan and the United States sent forces to Siberia in 1918 to bolster the armies of the White movement leader Admiral Alexander Kolchak against the Bolshevik Red Army. In this Siberian Intervention, the Imperial Japanese Army initially planned to send more than 70,000 troops to occupy Siberia as far west as Lake Baikal. The plan was scaled back considerably due to opposition from the United States.
Toward the end of the war, Japan increasingly filled orders for needed war material for its European allies. The wartime boom helped to diversify the country 's industry, increase its exports, and transform Japan from a debtor to a creditor nation for the first time. Exports quadrupled from 1913 to 1918. The massive capital influx into Japan and the subsequent industrial boom led to rapid inflation. In August 1918, rice riots caused by this inflation erupted in towns and cities throughout Japan.
The year 1919 saw Japan 's representative Saionji Kinmochi sitting alongside the "Big Four '' (Lloyd George, Wilson, Clemenceau, Orlando) leaders at the Versailles Peace Conference. Tokyo gained a permanent seat on the Council of the League of Nations, and the Paris Peace Conference confirmed the transfer to Japan of Germany 's rights in Shandong. Similarly, Germany 's more northerly Pacific islands came under a Japanese mandate, called the South Pacific Mandate. Despite Japan 's prowess on a global scale, and its sizable contribution to the allied war effort in response to British pleas for assistance in the Mediterranean and East Asia, the Western powers present at the Treaty of Versailles rejected Japan 's bid for a racial equality clause in subsequent Treaty of Versailles. Japan nevertheless was not doubted to have emerged as a great power in international politics by the close of the war.
The prosperity brought on by World War I did not last. Although Japan 's light industry had secured a share of the world market, Japan returned to debtor - nation status soon after the end of the war. The ease of Japan 's victory, the negative impact of the Showa recession in 1926, and internal political instabilities helped contribute to the rise of Japanese militarism in the late 1920s to 1930s.
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india vs sri lanka head to head odi | Indian cricket Team Records - wikipedia
This page details India national cricket team records.
Source: (1), (2), (3) Last updated: 7 November 2017 (Test, ODI, T20)
† Only applies to Tests. ‡ Only applies to ODIs and T20Is. ¤ Tie matches were considered as half win and half loss.
1549 runs v Australia at Sydney on 2 January 2004. 1st innings India -- 705 / 7 decl Australia -- 474 2nd innings India -- 211 / 2 decl Australia -- 357 / 6 Result: Match drawn
482 runs v England at Lord 's, London on 27 June 1936. 1st innings India -- 147 England -- 134 2nd innings India -- 93 England -- 108 / 1 Result: England won by 9 wickets
By Innings by an innings and 239 runs v Bangladesh at Dhaka on 25 May 2007. By Runs by 337 runs v South Africa at Delhi on 7 December 2015.
By Runs by 13 runs v Australia at Mumbai on 3 November 2004.
64 extras (12 b, 25 lb, 0 w, 27 nb) v West Indies at Kolkata on 26 December 1987.
Virender Sehwag -- 319, 309
Karun Nair - 303 *
Mahendra Singh Dhoni -- 60
Dhoni - 27 wins
Sachin Tendulkar - 200 (World Record)
Sachin Tendulkar -- 15921 runs (World Record)
Rahul Dravid - 31,258 (World Record)
Rahul Dravid - 44152 minute (world record)
Virender Sehwag -- 319 runs v South Africa at Chennai on March 2008
Shikhar Dhawan -- 187 runs v Australia at Mohali on 15 March 2013. Rohit Sharma - 177 runs v West Indies at Kolkata on 8 Nov 2013.
The highest ever partnership for India was the 413 run first - wicket partnership between Vinoo Mankad & Pankaj Roy v New Zealand at Chennai on 6 January 1956.
Anil Kumble -- 619 wickets
Anil Kumble -- 10 / 74 v Pakistan at Delhi on 4 February 1999.
Narendra Hirwani -- 16 / 136 v West Indies at Chennai on 11 January 1988.
Bapu Nadkarni -- 1.63
Ravichandran Ashwin -- 51.4
Bapu Nadkarni -- 0.15 (32 overs, 27 maidens, 5 runs, 0wickets) v England at Chennai on 10 January 1964. (World Record)
Harbhajan Singh -- 8.4 v West Indies at Kingston on 30 June 2006.
Rajesh Chauhan -- 276 runs (78 overs, 8 maidens, 1 wicket) v Sri Lanka at Colombo on 2 August 1997.
Rahul Dravid -- 210 catches (World - Record) Mahendra Singh Dhoni - 209 catches
5 Yajurvindra Singh v England at Bangalore on 28 January 1977. Mohammad Azharuddin v Pakistan at Karachi on 15 November 1989. Krishnamachari Srikkanth v Australia at Perth on 1 February 1992. Ajinkya Rahane v Sri Lanka at Galle on 15 August 2015.
Ajinkya Rahane - 8 catches v Sri Lanka at Galle on 15 August 2015. (World Record) Yajurvindra Singh -- 7 catches v England at Bangalore on 28 January 1977.
Mahendra Singh Dhoni -- 294 (256 catches, 38 stumpings)
Syed Kirmani -- 6 (5 catches, 1 stumping) vs New Zealand at Christchurch on 5 February 1976. Mahendra Singh Dhoni -- 6 (6 catches) vs New Zealand at Wellington on 3 April 2009. Wriddhiman Saha - 6 (5 catches, 1 stumping) vs West Indies at Antigua on 21 July 2016.
Mahendra Singh Dhoni -- 9 (9 catches) vs Australia at Melbourne on 26 December 2014. Nayan Mongia -- 8 (8 catches) vs Pakistan at Kolkata on 16 February 1999. Mahendra Singh Dhoni -- 8 (7 catches, 1 stumping) vs Australia at Perth on 16 January 2008. Mahendra Singh Dhoni -- 8 (6 catches, 2 stumping) vs Bangladesh at Dhaka on 24 January 2010 Mahendra Singh Dhoni -- 8 (6 catches, 2 stumping) vs West Indies at Mumbai on 22 November 2011
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where is the clavicle located in your body | Clavicle - wikipedia
The clavicle or collarbone is a long bone that serves as a strut between the shoulder blade and the sternum or breastbone. There are two clavicles, one on the left and one on the right. The clavicle is the only long bone in the body that lies horizontally. Together with the shoulder blade it makes up the shoulder girdle. It is a touchable bone and in people who have less fat in this region, the location of the bone is clearly visible, as it creates a bulge in the skin. It receives its name from the Latin: clavicula ("little key '') because the bone rotates along its axis like a key when the shoulder is abducted. The clavicle is the most commonly fractured bone. It can easily be fractured due to impacts to the shoulder from the force of falling on outstretched arms or by a direct hit.
The collarbone is a large doubly curved long bone that connects the arm to the trunk of the body. Located directly above the first rib it acts as a strut to keep the scapula in place so that the arm can hang freely. Medially, it articulates with the manubrium of the sternum (breastbone) at the sternoclavicular joint. At its lateral end it articulates with the acromion, a process of the scapula (shoulder blade) at the acromioclavicular joint. It has a rounded medial end and a flattened lateral end.
From the roughly pyramidal sternal end, each collarbone curves laterally and anteriorly for roughly half its length. It then forms an even larger posterior curve to articulate with the acromion of the scapula. The flat acromial end of the collarbone is broader than the sternal end. The acromial end has a rough inferior surface that bears a ridge, the trapezoid line, and a slight rounded projection, the conoid tubercle (above the coracoid process). These surface features are attachment sites for muscles and ligaments of the shoulder.
It can be divided into three parts: medial end, lateral end and shaft.
The medial end is quadrangular and articulates with the clavicular notch of the manubrium of the sternum to form the sternoclavicular joint. The articular surface extends to the inferior aspect for attachment with the first costal cartilage.
It gives attachments to:
The lateral end is flat from above downward. It bears a facet for attachment to the acromion process of the scapula, forming the acromioclavicular joint. The area surrounding the joint gives an attachment to the joint capsule. The anterior border is concave forward and posterior border is convex backward.
The shaft is divided into the medial two - thirds and the lateral one third. The medial part is thicker than the lateral.
The medial two - thirds of the shaft has four surfaces and no borders.
The lateral third of the shaft has two borders and two surfaces.
The collarbone is the first bone to begin the process of ossification (laying down of minerals onto a preformed matrix) during development of the embryo, during the fifth and sixth weeks of gestation. However, it is one of the last bones to finish ossification at about 21 -- 25 years of age. A study measuring 748 males and 252 females saw a difference in collarbone length between age groups 18 -- 20 and 21 -- 25 of about 6 and 5 mm (0.24 and 0.20 in) for males and females respectively. Its lateral end is formed by intramembranous ossification while medially it is formed by endochondral ossification. It consists of a mass of cancellous bone surrounded by a compact bone shell. The cancellous bone forms via two ossification centres, one medial and one lateral, which fuse later on. The compact forms as the layer of fascia covering the bone stimulates the ossification of adjacent tissue. The resulting compact bone is known as a periosteal collar.
Even though it is classified as a long bone, the collarbone has no medullary (bone marrow) cavity like other long bones, though this is not always true. It is made up of spongy cancellous bone with a shell of compact bone. It is a dermal bone derived from elements originally attached to the skull.
The shape of the clavicle varies more than most other long bones. It is occasionally pierced by a branch of the supraclavicular nerve. In males it is thicker and more curved and the sites of muscular attachments are more pronounced. The left clavicle is usually longer and not as strong as the right clavicle. In males the clavicle is larger, longer, heavier and generally more massive than that of females. Clavicle form is a reliable criterion for sex determination.
The collarbones are sometimes partly or completely absent in cleidocranial dysostosis.
The levator claviculae muscle, present in 2 -- 3 % of people, originates on the transverse processes of the upper cervical vertebrae and is inserted in the lateral half of the clavicle.
The collarbone serves several functions:
Muscles and ligaments that attach to the collarbone include:
A vertical line drawn from the mid-clavicle called the mid-clavicular line is used as a reference in describing cardiac apex beat during medical examination. It is also useful for evaluating an enlarged liver, and for locating the gallbladder which is between the mid-clavicular line and the transpyloric plane.
Clavicle fractures (colloquially, a broken collarbone) occur as a result of injury or trauma. The most common type of fractures occur when a person falls horizontally on the shoulder or with an outstretched hand. A direct hit to the collarbone will also cause a break. In most cases, the direct hit occurs from the lateral side towards the medial side of the bone. Fractures of the clavicle typically occur at the angle, where the greatest change in direction of the bone occurs. This results in the sternocleidomastoid muscle lifting the medial aspect superiorly, which can result in perforation of the overlying skin.
The clavicle first appears as part of the skeleton in primitive bony fish, where it is associated with the pectoral fin; they also have a bone called the cleithrum. In such fish, the paired clavicles run behind and below the gills on each side, and are joined by a solid symphysis on the fish 's underside. They are, however, absent in cartilaginous fish and in the vast majority of living bony fish, including all of the teleosts.
The earliest tetrapods retained this arrangement, with the addition of a diamond - shaped interclavicle between the base of the clavicles, although this is not found in living amphibians. The cleithrum disappeared early in the evolution of reptiles, and is not found in any living amniotes, but the interclavicle is present in most modern reptiles, and also in monotremes. In modern forms, however, there are a number of variations from the primitive pattern. For example, crocodilians and salamanders lack clavicles altogether (although crocodilians do retain the interclavicle), while in turtles, they form part of the armoured plastron.
The interclavicle is absent in marsupials and placental mammals. In many mammals, the clavicles are also reduced, or even absent, to allow the scapula greater freedom of motion, which may be useful in fast - running animals.
Though a number of fossil hominin (humans and chimpanzees) clavicles have been found, most of these are mere segments offering limited information on the form and function of the pectoral girdle. One exception is the clavicle of AL 333x6 / 9 attributed to Australopithecus afarensis which has a well - preserved sternal end. One interpretation of this specimen, based on the orientation of its lateral end and the position of the deltoid attachment area, suggests that this clavicle is distinct from those found in extant apes (including humans), and thus that the shape of the human shoulder dates back to less than 3 to 4 million years ago. However, analyses of the clavicle in extant primates suggest that the low position of the scapula in humans is reflected mostly in the curvature of the medial portion of the clavicle rather than the lateral portion. This part of the bone is similar in A. afarensis and it is thus possible that this species had a high shoulder position similar to that in modern humans.
In dinosaurs the main bones of the pectoral girdle were the scapula (shoulder blade) and the coracoid, both of which directly articulated with the clavicle. The clavicle was present in saurischian dinosaurs but largely absent in ornithischian dinosaurs. The place on the scapula where it articulated with the humerus (upper bone of the forelimb) is the called the glenoid. The clavicles fused in some theropod dinosaurs to form a furcula, which is the equivalent to a wishbone.
In birds, the clavicles and interclavicle have fused to form a single Y - shaped bone, the furcula or "wishbone '' which evolved from the clavicles found in coelurosaurian theropods.
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who was inducted into the rock and roll hall of fame in 2018 | List of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees - wikipedia
The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, established in 1983 and located in Cleveland, Ohio, United States, is dedicated to recording the history of some of the best - known and most influential musicians, bands, producers, and others that have in some major way influenced the music industry, particularly in the area of rock and roll. Originally, there were four categories of induction: performers, non-performers, early influences, and lifetime achievement. In 2000, "sidemen '' was introduced as a category.
The only category that has seen new inductees every single year is the performers category. Artists become eligible for induction in that category 25 years after the release of their first record. In order to be inducted, an artist must be nominated by a committee that selects anywhere from nine to a dozen candidates. Ballots are then sent to 600 "rock experts '' who evaluate the candidates and vote on who should be inducted. The performers that receive the highest number of votes and more than 50 percent of the vote are inducted. In 2010, the number inducted was five. The rest of the categories are voted on by special committees. As of 2017, new inductees will be honored at an annual ceremony held alternately in New York and at the Hall of Fame in Cleveland; prior to that, the ceremonies rotated between Cleveland, New York, and Los Angeles.
The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame has garnered criticism for allegedly allowing the nomination process to be controlled by a few individuals, nominating too many artists in too many genres that are not entirely rock, ignoring entire rock genres, and using technicalities to induct groups who may not have been among the top vote getters. The Sex Pistols, who were inducted in 2006, refused to attend the ceremony; John Lydon writing a note, read out by Jann Wenner, calling the museum a "piss stain. ''
The performers category is meant for recording artists and bands that have "influence and significance to the development and perpetuation of rock and roll. '' Artists become eligible for induction in that category 25 years after the release of their first record. In order to be inducted, an artist must be nominated by a committee that selects anywhere from nine to a dozen candidates. Ballots are sent to 600 "rock experts '' who then evaluate the candidates and vote on who should be inducted. The performers who receive the highest number of votes and more than 50 percent of the vote are inducted. In 2011, the number inducted was five. The rest of the categories are voted on by special committees. In 2012, six additional bands and groups were inducted as performers by a special committee, due to the controversial nature of their band being excluded when their lead singer was inducted. "There was a lot of discussion about this, '' said Terry Stewart, a member of the nominating committee. "There had always been conversations about why the groups were n't included when the lead singers were inducted. Very honestly, nobody could really answer that question -- it was so long ago... We decided we 'd sit down as an organization and look at that. This is the result. ''
^ Note 1. These backing bands were inducted by a separate committee, and not by the ballot voting used for all other performer inductees.
^ Note 2. This artist was later inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame after inducting someone else.
^ Note 3. This artist was already a member of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame when they inducted someone else.
^ Note 4. Dire Straits were the first artist in the hall 's history to not have an official induction speaker. Band member John Illsley did the induction speech himself.
Artists inducted into the early influences category are those "whose music predated rock and roll but had an impact on the evolution of rock and roll and inspired rock 's leading artists. '' Unlike the performers category, these inductees are selected by a committee. The full process is not transparent and it is unclear who comprises this selection committee.
^ A. Inducted members: Bill Kenny, Charlie Fuqua, Deek Watson, and Orville "Hoppy '' Jones. ^ B. Inducted members: Roy Crain Sr., R.H. Harris, Jesse Farley, and E.A. Rundless. ^ C. Inducted members: Sonny Til, Tommy Gaither, George Nelson, Johnny Reed, and Alexander Sharp. ^ D. Inducted members: Bob Wills, Tommy Duncan, Leon McAuliffe, Johnny Gimble, Joe "Jody '' Holley, Tiny Moore, Herb Remington, Eldon Shamblin, and Al Stricklin. ^ E. Nominated as a performer. ^ F. Inducted members: John L. Tanner, Eugene Tanner, James E. Moore, Obadiah H. Carter and Lowman Pauling, Jr
The non-performer category honors "songwriters, producers, disc jockeys, record executives, journalists and other industry professionals who have had a major influence on the development of rock and roll. '' Several of the inductees in this category were in fact prominent performers as well. The inductees in this category are selected by the same committee that chooses the early influences. The full process is not transparent and it is unclear who comprises this selection committee. This category has been criticized for inducting those that have "been coming to the dinner for years and paying for their tickets '' and not revealing their full criteria. In 2008, this category was renamed the "Ahmet Ertegün Award ''.
This category, which replaced sidemen, "honors those musicians, producers and others who have spent their careers out of the spotlight working with major artists on various parts of their recording and live careers. ''
^ G. Inducted members: Garry Tallent, Roy Bittan, Max Weinberg, Steven Van Zandt, Nils Lofgren, Patti Scialfa, Clarence Clemons, Danny Federici, Vini Lopez, David Sancious.
At the 2018 ceremony, a new induction category for singles was announced by Steven Van Zandt. According to Van Zandt, the category is "a recognition of the excellence of the singles that shaped rock ' n ' roll, kind of a rock ' n ' roll jukebox, records by artists not in the Rock Hall -- which is not to say these artists will never be in the Rock Hall. They just are not in the Rock Hall at the moment. ''
Established in 2000, the sidemen category "honors those musicians who have spent their careers out of the spotlight, performing as backup musicians for major artists on recording sessions and in concert. '' A separate committee, composed mainly of producers, chooses the inductees. In 2010, the category was renamed to "Award for Musical Excellence ''. According to Joel Peresman, the president of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Foundation, "This award gives us flexibility to dive into some things and recognize some people who might not ordinarily get recognized. ''
The following were inducted for "Lifetime Achievement in the Non-Performer Category. ''
As of 2017, 22 performers have been inducted twice or more; fourteen have been recognized as a solo artist and with a band and seven have been inducted with two separate bands. Eric Clapton is the only one to be inducted three times: as a solo artist, with Cream and with The Yardbirds. Clyde McPhatter was the first to ever be inducted twice and is one of three artists to be inducted first as a solo artist and then as a member of a band, the other artists being Neil Young and Rod Stewart. Stephen Stills is the only artist to be inducted twice in the same year. Crosby, Stills & Nash, inducted in 1997, is the only band to see all of its inducted members be inducted with other acts: David Crosby with The Byrds in 1991, Stephen Stills with Buffalo Springfield in 1997, and Graham Nash with The Hollies in 2010.
Two inducted bands were spinoffs of other inducted bands. Journey was founded by two former members of Santana. Led Zeppelin was founded by lead guitarist Jimmy Page after The Yardbirds broke up, with the encouragement of the band 's management. They were originally billed as "The New Yardbirds. ''
The Beatles, inducted in 1988, is the second band to have all of its members be inducted, as well as the only band to have each of its members be inducted for their solo careers as their second induction. Ringo Starr is the first inductee to be inducted twice in different categories (The Beatles were inducted in the performers category in 1988 and Starr was inducted as a solo artist in the Award for Musical Excellence category in 2015). He also holds the record for the longest time between first and second inductions, at 27 years. Both of Stills ' inductions happened during the 1997 ceremony and Clapton and McPhatter were inducted in back - to - back years (1987 / 88 for McPhatter, 1992 / 93 for Clapton, as well as his solo induction in 2000).
The Traveling Wilburys are the only band to have all of its members be inducted without the band itself having been inducted: Roy Orbison as a solo artist in 1987, Bob Dylan as a solo artist in 1988, George Harrison with the Beatles in 1988 and as a solo artist in 2004, Tom Petty with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers in 2002, and Jeff Lynne with the Electric Light Orchestra in 2017.
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wake up and smell the roses roger waters | Smell the Roses - Wikipedia
"Smell the Roses '' is a song by English rock musician and former Pink Floyd member Roger Waters, and the ninth track on his fifth studio album, Is This the Life We Really Want? It was released as a single on 20 April 2017, and the album was released on 2 June 2017, by Columbia Records.
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where is the las vegas football stadium going to be built | Las Vegas stadium - wikipedia
Las Vegas Stadium is the working name for a domed stadium under construction in Paradise, Nevada for the Las Vegas Raiders of the National Football League (NFL) and the UNLV Rebels football team from the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV). It is located on about 62 acres west of Mandalay Bay at Russell Road and Hacienda Avenue and between Polaris Avenue and Dean Martin Drive, just west of Interstate 15. Construction of the $1.9 billion stadium began in September 2017 and is expected to be completed in time for the 2020 NFL season.
In January 2016, reports emerged that Las Vegas Sands was considering developing a stadium in conjunction with Majestic Realty and UNLV, on a 42 - acre site owned by UNLV. Raiders owner Mark Davis visited Las Vegas on January 29 to tour the site and meet with Sands chairman Sheldon Adelson and other local figures. A relocation to Las Vegas would be a long - term proposal for the Raiders, as Sam Boyd Stadium is undersized for the NFL and there are no other professional - caliber stadiums in Nevada; the Raiders plan to remain in Oakland until the stadium is complete.
On March 21, 2016, when asked about Las Vegas, Davis said, "I think the Raiders like the Las Vegas plan, '' and "it 's a very very very intriguing and exciting plan '', referring to the stadium plan in Las Vegas. Davis also met with Nevada Governor Brian Sandoval about the stadium plan. On April 1, 2016, Davis toured Sam Boyd Stadium to evaluate whether UNLV could serve as a temporary home of the team and was with UNLV football coach Tony Sanchez, athletic director Tina Kunzer - Murphy, adviser Don Snyder and school president Len Jessup to further explore the possibility of the Raiders moving to Las Vegas.
On April 28, 2016, Davis said he wanted to move the Raiders to Las Vegas and pledged $500 million toward the construction of the proposed $2.4 billion domed stadium. "Together we can turn the Silver State into the silver and black state, '' Davis said.
In the spring of 2016, the board of directors of Las Vegas Sands rejected Adelson 's stadium proposal. Adelson decided to move ahead with the stadium as an individual investment, pledging $650 million of his personal wealth to the project.
The viability of the Tropicana Avenue site was called into serious question in June 2016, when Southwest Airlines objected to the location because its proximity to the northern end of one of McCarran Airport 's runways could have a negative impact on the safety and capacity of air traffic at the airport. The list of potential locations soon expanded to nine candidates, including the sites of the Wild Wild West casino, the Wynn golf course, the Riviera casino, the Las Vegas Festival Grounds, and Cashman Center. By September, the list was narrowed to two possibilities: the Bali Hai Golf Club, south of Mandalay Bay, and a vacant lot on Russell Road, just west of Interstate 15.
On August 25, 2016, the Raiders filed a trademark application for "Las Vegas Raiders '' on the same day renderings of a proposed stadium design were released. On September 15, 2016, the Southern Nevada Tourism Infrastructure Committee unanimously voted to recommend and approve $750 million for the Las Vegas stadium plan.
Majestic Realty revealed in October 2016 that it had withdrawn from the stadium project.
Sandoval called a special session of the Nevada Legislature to consider the stadium and other tourism - related proposals in October 2016. The funding bill for the stadium was approved by a 16 -- 5 vote in the Senate and by 28 -- 13 in the Assembly, and was signed into law by Sandoval on October 17. The bill increased a hotel tax to provide the $750 million in funding.
The Raiders filed relocation papers on January 19 to move from Oakland to Las Vegas. On January 26, 2017, the Raiders submitted a proposed lease agreement for the stadium. It was reported that the Raiders had selected the Russell Road site as the stadium location, the team would pay one dollar in rent, and that they could control the naming rights for both the stadium and plaza and in addition keep signage sponsorship revenue.
Days after the Raiders ' announced proposal, Adelson dropped out of the stadium project, pulling his proposed $650 million contribution, and shortly after this announcement Goldman Sachs (one of the backers of stadium proposal) withdrew as well. ESPN reported on January 30, 2017, that the Raiders were expected to increase their contribution from $500 million to $1.15 billion.
On March 6, the Raiders revealed Bank of America would be replacing the Adelson portion of the funding.
NFL owners voted to approve the move by a near unanimous margin of 31 to 1 on March 27. Only Stephen M. Ross, owner of the Miami Dolphins, voted against the relocation. The next day, the Raiders and the Las Vegas Stadium Authority began accepting deposits for season tickets for the new stadium.
The Raiders closed the purchase of the land for the stadium at the Russell Road site on May 1. The purchase price was reported at $77.5 million. In a Las Vegas Stadium Authority meeting on May 11, it was announced that in a joint venture Mortenson Construction and McCarthy Construction will be the developers for the stadium. Mortenson Construction previously worked on U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis for the Minnesota Vikings. The stadium authority approved a stadium lease with the Raiders on May 18. The lease is for 30 years with four successive extension options of five years each.
On September 18, construction activity began on the stadium site with site preparation. The Raiders officially broke ground for the new stadium on November 13. The ceremony featured NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell, Raiders owner Mark Davis, his mother Carol Davis, various Raiders legends including Howie Long, Jim Plunkett, Tom Flores, and Ray Guy, Las Vegas and Nevada politicians such as Governor Brian Sandoval, Las Vegas Mayor Carolyn Goodman, Clark County Commissioner Steve Sisolak and stadium authority head Steve Hill. The event was hosted by George Lopez and included other celebrities like Carlos Santana, longtime Vegas icon Wayne Newton, and Howie D and Nick Carter of the Backstreet Boys. There was also a tribute to the victims of the 2017 Las Vegas shooting that happened nearby by with Judith Hill and the Las Vegas House of Blues Gospel Choir performing ' Rise up ' while 58 beams of light for the 58 people shot and killed lit up.
The budget for development of the stadium is estimated at $1.9 billion. Of this, an estimated $375 million is to be spent on land and infrastructure costs, $1.35 billion on construction, and $100 million on a Raiders practice facility, with the remaining $100 million as a contingency allowance for unexpected costs.
The financing for the project is expected to come in the form of $750 million in public funding, $500 million from the Raiders, and $650 million lent by Bank of America. The public portion of the funding will come from municipal bonds issued by Clark County, backed by the proceeds of a special tax on hotel rooms in the Las Vegas area, which was initiated in March 2017. The Raiders ' contribution is expected to include a $200 million loan from the NFL 's stadium upgrade program, $250 million from sales of personal seat licenses at the stadium, and $50 million from cash reserves.
Local government can not receive any rent or revenue sharing from the stadium, because such an arrangement would not be compatible with the tax - exempt status of the bonds. Proponents instead argued that the public financing would be justified by increased economic activity and tax revenue related to the stadium. Critics have argued that the economic projections were based on overly optimistic assumptions.
For Las Vegas Stadium, Mark Davis retained the same architecture firm, MANICA Architecture, that had designed the previously proposed Carson Stadium near Los Angeles. The stadium as proposed is a 10 level domed stadium with a clear ETFE roof, silver and black exterior and large retractable curtain - like side windows facing the Las Vegas Strip. There is a large torch in one end that would house a flame in honor of Al Davis, the late long - time owner of the Raiders.
Updated renderings released after the relocation vote passed show the stadium with a roll - in natural grass field similar to the one at University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale, Arizona. In an August 17, 2017 Las Vegas Stadium Authority meeting it was revealed that the stadium will have a designated pickup / drop off loop for ride sharing services such as Uber and Lyft, a first for a stadium in the NFL.
The stadium will replace Sam Boyd Stadium and will serve as the home of both the Raiders and the UNLV Rebels football program. In addition, it will host various events now held at Sam Boyd, such as the Las Vegas Bowl.
Stadium backers project 20 to 25 additional events per year, with plausible possibilities including the Super Bowl, the Pro Bowl, the NFL Draft, the NCAA Final Four, the USA Sevens rugby tournament, the Monster Jam World Finals, boxing matches, Ultimate Fighting Championship events, neutral - site college football games, international soccer matches, concerts, and corporate shows.
The stadium has also been cited as the possible home for a Major League Soccer expansion team owned by David Beckham.
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pontifical university of saint thomas aquinas angelicum notable alumni | Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas - wikipedia
Collegium Divi Thomae (1577 -- 1580)
Collegium Divi Thomae de Urbe (1580 -- 1906)
Pontificium Collegium Divi Thomae de Urbe (1906 -- 1908)
Pontificium Collegium Internationale Angelicum (1908 -- 1926)
Pontificium Institutum Internationale Angelicum (1926 -- 1942)
The Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas (PUST), also known as the Angelicum in honor of its patron the Doctor Angelicus Thomas Aquinas, is located in the historic center of Rome, Italy. It is directly dependent on the Pope for its status as a pontifical university as outlined in the apostolic constitution Sapientia Christiana, which also clarifies the parameters of Church authority and academic freedom. The Angelicum is administered by the Catholic Order of Preachers, also known as the Dominican Order, and is a central locus of traditional Dominican Thomist theology and philosophy.
The Angelicum is coeducational and offers both undergraduate and graduate degrees in theology, philosophy, canon law, and social sciences, as well as certificates and diplomas in related areas. Courses are offered in Italian and for some programs in English. The Angelicum is staffed by clergy and laity and serves both religious and lay students from around the world.
The Angelicum has its roots in the Dominican mission to study and to teach truth, as reflected in the Order 's motto, "Veritas ''. The distinctively pedagogical character of the Dominican apostolate as intended by Saint Dominic de Guzman in 1214 at the birth of the Order, "the first order instituted by the Church with an academic mission, '' is succinctly expressed by another of the Order 's mottos, contemplare et contemplata aliis tradere, (to contemplate and to bear the fruits of contemplation to others). Pope Honorius III approved the Order of Preachers in December 1216 and January 1217. On 21 January 1217 the papal bull Gratiarum omnium confirmed the Order 's pedagogical mission by granting its members the right to preach universally, a power formerly dependent on local episcopal authorization.
Saint Dominic established priories focused on study and preaching that became the Order 's first studia generalia, at the Parisian convent of St. Jacques in 1217, at Bologna in 1218, at Palencia and Montpellier in 1220, and at Oxford before his death in 1221. By 1219 Pope Honorius III had invited Dominic and companions to take up residence at the ancient Roman basilica of Santa Sabina, which they did by early 1220. In May 1220 at Bologna the Order 's first General Chapter mandated each convent of the Order maintain a studium. The official foundation of the Dominican studium conventuale at Rome, which would grow into the Angelicum, occurred with the legal transfer of the Santa Sabina complex from Pope Honorius III to the Order of Preachers on June 5, 1222.
St. Hyacinth of Poland and companions Bl. Ceslaus, Herman of Germany, and Henry of Moravia were among the first to study at the studium of Santa Sabina where "sacred studies flourished ''.
From its beginning the Santa Sabina studium played the special role of frequently providing papal theologians from among its members. The office of Master of the Sacred Palace has always been entrusted to a Friar of the Order of Preachers since its institution with Saint Dominic by Pope Honorius III in 1218. In 1246 Pope Innocent IV appointed Annibaldo degli Annibaldi (c. 1220 -- 1272) third Master of the Sacred Palace after Saint Dominic and Bartolomeo di Breganze. Annibaldi had completed his initial studies at the Santa Sabina studium conventuale and was later sent to the studium generale at Paris. Aquinas dedicated to Annibaldi the Catena aurea, written a decade later during his regency at the Santa Sabina studium.
At the general chapter of Valenciennes in 1259 Thomas Aquinas together with masters Bonushomo Britto, Florentius, Albert, and Peter took part in establishing a program of studies for novices and lectors including two years of philosophy, two years of fundamental theology, church history and canon law, and four years of theology. Those who showed capacity were sent on to a studium generale to complete this course becoming lector, magister studentium, baccalaureus, and magister theologiae.
The new formation program outlined at Valenciennes featured the study of philosophy as an innovation. "In the early days there was no need to study philosophy or the arts in the Order; young men entered already trained in the humanities at the university. St. Albert received his arts training at Padua, St. Thomas at Naples; they were prepared to study theology. By 1259, however, it became evident that youths entering the Order were not sufficiently trained; the new ratio studiorum of 1259 established studia philosophiae in certain provinces corresponding to the university faculty of arts. ''
In February 1265 newly elected Pope Clement IV summoned Aquinas to Rome as papal theologian. That same year in accord with the injunction of the Chapter of the Roman province at Anagni, Aquinas was assigned as regent master at the studium at Santa Sabina:
We assign Friar Thomas of Aquino to Rome, for the remission of his sins, there to take over the direction of studies.
With this assignment the studium at Santa Sabina, which had been founded in 1222, was transformed into the Order 's first studium provinciale with courses under Aquinas ' direction beginning September 8, 1265 and featuring studia philosophiae as prescribed by Aquinas and others at the 1259 chapter of Valenciennes.
This studium was an intermediate school between the studium conventuale and the studium generale. "Prior to this time the Roman Province had offered no specialized education of any sort, no arts, no philosophy; only simple convent schools, with their basic courses in theology for resident friars, were functioning in Tuscany and the meridionale during the first several decades of the order 's life. But the new studium at Santa Sabina was to be a school for the province, '' a studium provinciale. Tolomeo da Lucca, associate and early biographer of Aquinas, tells us that at Santa Sabina Aquinas taught the full range of philosophical subjects, "teaching in a new and special way almost the whole of philosophy, both moral and natural, but especially ethical and mathematical, as well as in writing and commentary. ''
While Regent master at the Santa Sabina studium provinciale Aquinas began to compose his monumental work, the Summa theologiae, conceived of as a work suited to beginning students:
Because a doctor of catholic truth ought not only to teach the proficient, but to him pertains also to instruct beginners. as the Apostle says in 1 Corinthians 3: 1 - 2, as to infants in Christ, I gave you milk to drink, not meat, our proposed intention in this work is to convey those things that pertain to the Christian religion, in a way that is fitting to the instruction of beginners.
At Santa Sabina Thomas composed the entire Prima Pars circulating it in Italy before departing for his second regency at Paris (1269 -- 1272).
Other works composed by Aquinas during this period at Santa Sabina include the Catena aurea in Marcum, the De rationibus fidei, the Catena aurea in Lucam, the Quaestiones disputate de potentia Dei, which report the disputations Aquinas held at Santa Sabina, the Quaestiones disputate de anima, which were held during the academic year 1265 - 66, Expositio et lectura super epistolas Pauli Apostoli, the Compendium theologiae, the Responsio de 108 articulis, part of the Quaestiones disputatae de malo, the Catena aurea in Ioannem, the De regno ad regem Cypri, the Quaestiones disputatae de spiritualibus creaturis, and at least the first book of the Sententia Libri De anima, a commentary on Aristotle 's De anima which was contemporaneously being translated from the Greek by Aquinas ' Dominican associate at Viterbo William of Moerbeke in 1267.
The so - called "lectura romana '' or "alia lectura fratris Thome '', a reportatio of the second commentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard dictated by Aquinas at the Santa Sabina studium provinciale, may have been taken down by Jacob of Ranuccio while a student of Aquinas there from 1265 to 1268. Jacob later was lector at Santa Sabina and served in the Roman Curia being made bishop in 1286, the year of his death.
Nicholas Brunacci (1240 -- 1322) was among Aquinas ' students at the Santa Sabina studium provinciale and later at Paris. In November 1268 he accompanied Aquinas and his associate and secretary Reginald of Piperno from Viterbo to Paris to begin the academic year. Albert the Great, Brunacci 's teacher at Cologne after 1272, called him "the second Thomas Aquinas. '' Brunacci became lector at the Santa Sabina studium and later served in the papal curia. He was a correspondent by letter with Dante Alighieri during the latter 's exile from Florence.
After the departure of Aquinas for Paris in 1268 other lectors at the Santa Sabina studium include Hugh Aycelin.. Eventually some of the pedagogical activities of the Santa Sabina studium were transferred to a new convent of the Order more centrally located at the Church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva. This convent had a modest beginning in 1255 as a community for women converts, but grew rapidly in size and importance during its transfer to the Dominicans from 1265 to 1275. In 1288 the theology component of the provincial curriculum was relocated from the Santa Sabina studium provinciale to the studium conventuale at Santa Maria sopra Minerva which was redesignated as a studium particularis theologiae. During this period lectors at the Santa Maria sopra Minerva studium included Niccolò da Prato, Bartolomeo da San Concordio, and Matteo Orsini.
Following the curriculum of studies laid out in the capitular acts of 1291 the Santa Sabina studium was redesignated as one of three studia nove logice intended to offer courses of advanced logic covering the logica nova, the Aristotelian texts recovered in the West only in the second half of the 12th century, the Topics, Sophistical Refutations, and the First and Second Analytics of Aristotle. This was an advance over the logica antiqua, which treated the Isagoge of Porphyry, Divisions and Topics of Boethius, the Categories and On Interpretation of Aristotle, and the Summule logicales of Peter of Spain. In 1305 the Minerva studium became one of four studia naturarum established in the Roman province. Iacopo Passavanti, famed preacher and author of the Specchio di vera penitenza, was lector at the studium at Santa Maria sopra Minerva after finishing his studies in Paris c. 1333.
The General Chapter of 1304 mandated each of the Order 's provinces establish a studium generale to meet the demand of the Order 's rapidly growing membership. The studium at Santa Maria sopra Minerva was raised to the level of studium generale for the Roman province of the Order by the year 1426 and continued in this roll until 1539. It would again be affirmed as a studium generale in 1694 (see below).
On March 7, 1457, the feast of St. Thomas, humanist Lorenzo Valla delivered the annual encomium in honor of the "angelic doctor. '' The Dominicans of the Minerva studium generale pressed Valla not only to praise Aquinas but to voice his humanist criticism of scholastic thomism.
Sisto Fabri served as professor of theology at the Santa Maria sopra Minerva studium in the mid 1550s. In 1585 Fabri, who was Master of the Order of Preachers from 1583 - 1598 would undertake a reformation of the program of studies for the Order and for the studium which had been transformed into the College of St. Thomas in 1577. Fabri 's reform included a nine - year formation program consisting of two years of logic using the Summulae logicales of Peter of Spain alongside Aristotle 's logic, three years of philosophy including the study of Aristotle 's De anima, Physica, and Metaphysica, and four years of theology using the third part of Aquinas ' Summa for speculative theology, and the second part for moral theology. Fabri also established a professorship for the study of Hebrew at the College.
In 1570 the first edition of Aquinas ' opera omnia, the so - called editio piana from Pius V the Dominican Pope who commissioned it, was produced there.
The late sixteenth century saw the studium at Santa Maria sopra Minerva undergo further transformation during the pontificate of Pope Gregory XIII. Aquinas, who had been canonized in 1323 by Pope John XXII, was proclaimed fifth Latin Doctor of the Church by Pius V in 1567. To honor this great doctor, in 1577 Juan Solano, former bishop of Cusco, Peru, generously funded the reorganization of the studium at the convent of the Minerva on the model of the College of St. Gregory at Valladolid in his native Spain. The features of this Spanish model included a fixed number of Dominican students admitted on the basis of intellectual merit, dedicated exclusively to study in virtue of numerous dispensations from other duties, and governed by an elected Rector.
The result of Solano 's initiative, which underwent further structural change shortly before Solano 's death in 1580, was the Collegium Divi Thomae or College of St. Thomas. At the Minerva the College occupied several existing convent structures as well as new constructions. A detail from the Nolli Map of 1748 gives some idea of the disposition of buildings when the Minerva convent housed the College.
The College cultivated the doctrines of St. Thomas Aquinas as a means of carrying out the Church 's mission in the New World, where Solano had shown "much zeal in defending the rights of the Indians '', and where Dominicans like Bartolomé de las Casas, "Protector of the Indians '', Pedro de Cordova, critic of the Encomienda system, and Francisco de Vitoria, theorist of international law, were already engaged.
At the beginning of the seventeenth century several regents of the College of St. Thomas were involved in controversies over the nature of divine grace. Diego Alvarez (1550 c. - 1635), author of the De auxiliis divinae gratiae et humani arbitrii viribus and famous apologist for the Thomistic doctrines of grace and predestination, was professor of theology at the College from 1596 to 1606. Tomas de Lemos (Ribadavia 1540 - Rome 1629). was professor of theology at the College in 1610. In the Molinist controversy between Dominicans and Jesuits the papal commission or Congregatio de Auxiliis summoned Lemos and Diego Alvarez to represent the Dominican Order in debates before Pope Clement VIII and Pope Paul V. Lemos was editor of the Acta omnium congregationum ac disputationum, etc. and author of the much discussed Panoplia gratiae (1676). In 1608 Juan Gonzalez de Albelda, author of the Commentariorum & disputationum in primam partem Summa S. Thome de Aquino (1621) was regent of studies at the College. In the 1620s Juan Gonzales de Leon was regent Concerning the dispute on the nature of divine grace he took up an alternative doctrine within the Thomist school, that of Juan Gonzalez d'Albeda regent at the College in 1608, that "sufficient grace not only prepares the will for a perfect act (of contrition), but also gives the will an impulse towards that act. Yet due to man 's defectability that impulse is always resisted. ''
The College maintained the Dominican tradition of textual and linguistic activities as part of the Order 's missionary dimension. Like Moerbeke 's translations of Aristotle in the 1260s and the editio piana of 1570 (see above), editorial and translation projects were undertaken by the college 's professors, the most notable of which would be the leonine edition of Aquinas ' works (see below). Vincenzo Candido (1573 - 1654) presided over the translation of the Bible into Arabic. Candido had entered the Order at the convent of Santa Maria sopra Minerva completing there his novitiate and studies and becoming a doctor of theology, and later rector of the College in 1630. Candido also was part of the commission that concemned Jansenism. His own Disquisitionibus moralibus (1643) was later accused of laxims. Giuseppe Ciante (d. 1670), a leading Hebrew expert of his day and author of works such as the De sanctissima trinitate ex antiquorum Hebraeorum testimonijs euidenter comprobata (1667) and De Sanctissima incarnatione clarissimis Hebraeorum doctrinis... defensa (1667), completed his studies at the college was professor of theology and philosophy there before 1640. "In 1640 Ciantes was appointed by Pope Urban VIII to the mission of preaching to the Jews of Rome (Predicatore degli Ebrei) in order to promote their conversion. '' In the mid-1650s Ciantes wrote a "monumental bilingual edition of the first three Parts of Thomas Aquinas ' Summa contra Gentiles, which includes the original Latin text and a Hebrew translation prepared by Ciantes, assisted by Jewish apostates, the Summa divi Thomae Aquinatis ordinis praedicatorum Contra Gentiles quam Hebraicè eloquitur.... Until the present this remains the only significant translation of a major Latin scholastic work in modern Hebrew. ''
Tommaso Caccini (1574 -- 1648), one of the principal critics of Galileo Galilei, was baccalaureaus at the College in 1615.
Several figures associated with the College during this period were involved in the defense of the doctrine of Papal infallibility. Dominic Gravina, the most celebrated theologian of his day in Italy, was professor of theology at the College in 1610. Gravina was made master of sacred theology by the General Chapter of the Order at Rome in 1608. He wrote Vox turturis seu de florenti usque ad nostra tempora... sacrarum Religionum statu (1625) in polemic with Robert Bellarmine whose De gemitu columbae (1620) criticized the decadence of religious orders. Gravina, wrote concerning Papal infallibility: "To the Pontiff, as one (person) and alone, it was given to be the head; '' and again, "The Roman Pontiff for the time beingis one, therefore he alone has infallibility. ''
In 1630 Abraham Bzovius funded a scholarship for Polish students at the College.
Vicente Ferre (+ 1682), author of the Commentaria scholastica in Div. Thomam (1691) as well as of several commentaries on the Summa Theologica was Regent of College from 1654 to 1672. Ferre was recognized by his contemporaries as one of the leading Thomists of his day. In his De Fide Ferre writes in defense of Papal infallibility that Christ said "I have prayed for thee, Peter; sufficiently showing that the infallibility was not promised to the Church as apart from (seorsum) the head, but promised to the head, that from him it should be derived to the Church. ''
In the late seventeenth century figures such as Gregorio Selleri who taught at the college were instrumental in fostering the condemnation of Jansenism
At the general chapter of Rome in 1694 Antonin Cloche, Master General of the Dominican Order, reaffirmed the College of St. Thomas as the studium generale of the Roman province of the Order.
We institute as a studium generale of this province... the Roman College of St. Thomas at our convent of Santa Maria sopra Minerva
At this time the College became an international centre of Thomistic specialization open to members of various provinces of the Dominican Order and to other ecclesiastical students, local and foreign.
In 1698, Cardinal Girolamo Casanata, Librarian of the Holy Roman Church, established the Biblioteca Casanatense at the Convent of Santa Maria sopra Minerva. This library was independent of the College of St. Thomas, sponsoring its own Librarians. Casanate also endowed 4 chairs of learning at the College to foster the study of Greek, Hebrew and Dogmatic Theology.
With the papal bull Pretiosus dated May 26, 1727 Domenican Pope Benedict XIII granted to all Dominicans major houses of study the right of conferring academic degrees in theology to students outside the Order.
In the 1748 General Chapter or the Order at Bologna it was stated that the Thomistic philosophical and theological tradition needed to be revived. In 1757 Master General Juan Tomás de Boxadors composed a letter to all members of the Order lamenting deviations from Thomistic doctrine, and demanded a return to the teachings of Aquinas. This letter was also published in the General Chapter Acts in Rome 1777. Responding to Boxadors and to the prevailing philosophical rationalism of the Enlightenment, Salvatore Roselli, professor of theology at the Roman College of St. Thomas, published a six volume Summa philosophica (1777) giving an Aristotelian interpretation of Aquinas validating the senses as a source of knowledge. While teaching at the college Roselli is considered to have laid the foundation for Neothomism in the nineteenth century. According to historian J.A. Weisheipl in the late 18th and early 19th centuries "everyone who had anything to do with the revival of Thomism in Italy, Spain and France was directly influenced by Roselli 's monumental work.
After the Church 's loss of the temporal power in 1870 the Italian government declared the college 's vast library national property leavning the Dominicans in charge only until 1884.
Vincenzo Nardini (d. 1913) completed his theological and philosophical studies at the College and became lector there in 1855 teaching mathematics, experimental physics, chemistry and astronomy. Nardini reorganized the institute of science founded at the College in 1840 by Albert Gugliemotti. He believed the doctrines of Aquinas to be the only means to reconcile science and faith. Nardini was a founding member of the Accademia Romana di San Tommaso in 1879. Between 1901 and 1902 he also founded an astronomical observatory on via di Pie ' di Marmo in Rome. In 1904 as Provincial of the Order 's Roman province he proposed that the College be transformed into an international university. This was accomplished in 1908 by his successors.
Gian Battista Embriaco (Ceriana 1829 -- Rome 1903) taught at the college. Embriaco was the inventor in 1867 of the hydrochronometer, examples of which were built in Rome, first in the College 's courtyard at the Minerva, and later on the Pincian Hill and in the Villa Borghese gardens. Embriaco had presented two prototypes of his invention at the Paris Universal Exposition in 1867 winning prizes and acclaim.
The suppression of religious orders soon hampered the mission of the College. During the French occupation of Rome from 1797 to 1814 the College was in declined and briefly closed its doors from 1810 to 1815. The Order gained control of the convent once again in 1815.
By the late eighteenth century professors of the College had begun to follow the Wolffianism and Eclecticism of Austrian Jesuit, Sigismund von Storchenau and Jaime Balmes with the aim of engaging modern thought. In response to this trend the General Chapter of 1838 again ordered the revival of Thomism and the use of the Summa Theologica at the College of St. Thomas.
At the Minerva the Master of the Order issued a directive to re-establish the plan of study that had been in force before the French Revolution following the manual of Salvatore Roselli (1777 -- 83) and prescribing a 5 - year study of the Summa theologica for all degree candidates. The Minerva studium generale was refurbished, and a new era of Thomism was initiated led by luminaries such as Tommaso Maria Zigliara.
After the Capture of Rome, the final act of the Risorgimento, the Dominicans were expropriated by the Italian government in virtue of law 1402 of 19 June 1873 and the Collegium Divi Thomae de Urbe was forced to leave the Minerva. The College continued its work at various locations in Rome. Rector Zigliara, who taught at the College from 1870 to 1879, with his professors and students took refuge with the Fathers of the Holy Ghost at the French College in Rome, where lectures continued. In 1899 the College was functioning in the Palazzo Sinibaldi, adjacent to the French College and near the Convent of the Minerva.
Zigliara was a member of seven Roman congregations, including the Congregation of Studies and was a founding member of the Accademia Romana di San Tommaso in 1879. Zigliara 's fame as a scholar at the forefront of the Neo-Thomist revival was widespread in Rome and abroad. "French, Italian, German, English, and American bishops were eager to put some of their most promising students and young professors under his tuition. ''
The mid-19th - century revival of Thomism, sometimes called "Neo-Scholasticism '' or "Neo-Thomism, '' had its origins in Italy. "The direct initiator of the neo-Scholastic movement in Italy was Gaetano Sanseverino, (1811 -- 1865), a canon at Naples. '' Other prominent figures include Zigliara, Josef Kleutgen, and Giovanni Cornoldi. The revival emphasizes the interpretative tradition of Aquinas ' great commentators such as Capréolus, Cajetan, and John of St. Thomas. Its focus, however, is less exegetical and more concerned with carrying out the program of deploying a rigorously worked out system of Thomistic metaphysics in a wholesale critique of modern philosophy. Zigliara was instrumental in recovering the authentic tradition of Thomism from the influence of a tradition of the Jesuits ' that was "strongly colored by the interpretation of their own great master Francisco Suárez (d. 1617), who had attempted to reconcile the Aristotelianism of Thomas with the Platonism of Scotus ''
In response to the disarray of religious educational institutions Pope Leo XIII in his encyclical Aeterni Patris of 4 August 1879 called for the renewal of Christian philosophy and particularly the doctrines of Aquinas:
We exhort you, venerable brethren, in all earnestness to restore the golden wisdom of St. Thomas, and to spread it far and wide for the defense and beauty of the Catholic faith, for the good of society, and for the advantage of all the sciences.
Pope Leo XIII 's encyclical Aeterni Patris of 1879 was a great impetus to the revival of neo scholastic Thomism. On October 15, 1879 Leo created the Pontifical Academy of St. Thomas Aquinas and ordered publication of a critical edition of the complete works of the doctor angelicus. Superintendence of the "leonine edition '' was entrusted to Zigliara. Leo also founded the Angelicum 's Faculty of Philosophy in 1882 and its Faculty of Canon Law in 1896. The College began once again to gain status and influence. Under Pope Leo XIII Zigliara contributed to the encyclicals Aeterni Patris and Rerum novarum.
In response to the call for a renewal of Thomism sounded by Aeterni Patris rectors Tommaso Maria Zigliara (1833 -- 1893), Alberto Lepidi (1838 -- 1922), and Sadoc Szabó had brought the college to a high degree of excellence. Under the leadership of Szabó the number of subjects taught at the Angelicum included archeology, geology, paleography, Christian art, biology, mathematics, physics, and astronomy.
At the dawn of the twentieth century the Dominican conception of intellectual formation at Rome was again transformed. The general chapters of 1895 (Avila) and 1901 (Ghent) had called for the expansion of the College of St. Thomas to meet the growing educational needs in the modern world. The Chapter of 1904 (Viterbo) directed Hyacinthe - Marie Cormier (1832 -- 1916), newly elected Master General of the Order of Preachers, to develop the College into a studium generalissimum directly under his authority for the entire Dominican Order:
Romae erigatur collegium studiorum Ordinis generalissimum, auctoritate magistri generalis immediate subjectum, in quo floreat vita regularis, et ad quod mittantur fratres ex omnibus provinciis.
Building on the legacy of the Order 's first Roman studium at the priory of Santa Sabina founded in 1222 and the studium general that had sprung from it by 1426 at Santa Maria sopra Minerva and that in 1577 became the College of Saint Thomas, Cormier stated his intention to establish this new studium generalissimum as the principal vehicle of dissemination of orthodox Thomistic thought for both Dominicans and secular clergy.
In 1904 Pope Pius X allowed diocesan seminarians to attend the college. He elevated the College to the status of Pontificium on May 2, 1906, making its degrees equivalent to those of the world 's other pontifical universities. By Apostolic Letter of November 8, 1908, signed on November 17, the Pope transformed the College into the Collegium Pontificium Internationale Angelicum, located on Via San Vitale 15. Cormier developed the Angelicum until his death in 1916, establishing it principal guidelines, giving it his motto as Master General, caritas veritatis, "the charity of truth. '' Cormier, also noted for the spiritual quality of his retreats and powerful preaching, was declared Blessed by Pope John Paul II on November 20, 1994.
In the first half of the twentieth century Angelicum professors Edouard Hugon, Réginald Garrigou - Lagrange and others carried on Leo 's call for a Thomist revival. The core philosophical commitments of the revival, which after Zigliara traditionally are those of the Angelicum, were later summarized in "Twenty - Four Thomistic Theses '' approved by Pope Pius X. Due to its rejection of attempts to synthesize Thomism with non-Thomistic categories and assumptions neo-scholastic Thomism has sometimes been called "Strict Observance Thomism. ''
In 1909 there were 26 professors. Beyond philosophy and theology subject included archeology, geology, paleography, Christian art, biology, mathematics, physics, and astronomy. In 1918 Garrigou - Lagrange initiated courses in sacred art, mysticism, and aesthetics. Marie Alain Couturier studied with Garrigou at the Angelicum from 1930 to 1932 before going on to have an instrumental role in liturgical art ventures such as Henri Matisse 's Vence Chapel and Le Corbusier 's Chapel of Notre Dame du Haut, and the Dominican priory of Sainte Marie de La Tourette.
Garrigou - Lagrange has been called "torchbearer of orthodox Thomism '' against Modernism in the period between World War II and the Cold War. He is commonly held to have influenced the decision in 1942 to place the privately circulated book Une école de théologie: le Saulchoir (Étiolles 1937) by Marie - Dominique Chenu on the Vatican 's "Index of Forbidden Books '' as the culmination of a polemic within the Dominican Order between the Angelicum supporters of a speculative scholasticism and the French revival Thomists who were more attentive to historical hermeneutics, such as Yves Congar. Congar 's Chrétiens désunis was also suspected of modernism because its methodology derived more from religious experience than from syllogistic analysis.
Noted philosopher and theologian Santiago Maria Ramirez y Ruiz de Dulanto (1891 - 1967) completed his licentiate and doctorate in philosophy at the Angelicum from 1913 to 1917 with a dissertation entitled De quidditate Incarnationis, becoming lector on 27 June 1917 and teaching there from 1917 to 1920. Ramirez relates that he was fortunate during his student years to hear Pope Pius X deliver a talk to the professors and students at the Angelicum on 28 June 1914 in which the Pontiff extolled Aquinas ' doctrines above those of all others, and another talk delivered by Pope Pius XI at the Angelicum on 12 December 1924 in which he reaffirmed the doctrinal authority of St. Thomas Aquinas.
June 29, 1923 on the occasion of the sixth centenary of the canonization of Thomas Aquinas Pius XI 's encyclical Studiorum ducem singled out the Pontifical Angelicum College as the official sedes Thomae:
It will be fitting... that the institutes where sacred studies are cultivated express their holy joy, before all the Pontifical Angelicum College where Thomas could be said to dwell in his own house, and then all the other ecclesiastial schools that are in Rome.
The reputation of the College during this period was summed up by one of the Angelicum 's most illustrious alumni and faculty members in the mid-twentieth century, Cornelio Fabro, who called the Angelicum the "avant - garde of the doctrinal mission of the Dominican Order in Rome, and of traditional Thomism whose distinguished exponents included T. Zigliara, A. Lepidi, T. Pègues, E. Hugon, A. Zacchi, R. Garrigou - Lagrange, and M. Cordovani. '' The notoriety of the College was further fostered by annual celebrations of the Feast of its patron St. Thomas Aquinas including a "preaching tridiuum '', a pontifical Mass and an academic symposium at the Angelicum June 8, 1923 Szabó founded Unio thomistica, an association of Angelicum students and alumni dedicated to defense of Thomistic doctrine. Its publication originally entitled Unio thomistica would continue under the title Angelicum, a trimesterly journal with articles in Italian, French, English, German, and Spanish treating theology, philosophy, canon law, and social sciences.
The year 1926 saw the Angelicum become an institute with its change of name to Pontificium Institutum Internationale Angelicum. During the academic year 1927 - 28 Angelicum professor Mariano Cordovani began a Philosophy Circle that continued into the 1960s as a forum for laity to explore contemporary philosophical issues.
In 1927 the Italian government decided to sell the former convent of Santi Domenico e Sisto. The convent, which had been established by Pope Pius V for Dominican nuns in 1575, was expropriated by the Italian government on September 9, 1871 in virtue of the law of suppression of religious orders. Blessed Buenaventura García de Paredes, Master General of the Order, seeing the opportunity to recuperate the Dominican patrimony, suggested to Benito Mussolini that selling the convent to the Order would return the property to its original owners, and that it could be used to house the Angelicum
By decree of 2 June 1928 the Italian Minister of Justice authorized the College of St. Thomas to purchase from the Italian State for the agreed price of nine million lire (L. 9,000,000) the complex of buildings constituting the former convent of Saints Dominic and Sixtus In this way Paredes activated Cormier 's plan for the Angelicum to be established at a site whose amplitude was more fitting to its new status.
In 1930 Étienne Gilson and Jacques Maritain were the first two philosophers to receive honorary doctorates from the Angelicum.
For the academic year 1928 - 1929 Paredes celebrated the inaugural Mass in the Church of Saints Dominic and Sixtus and Reginald Garrigou - Lagrange gave the solemn inaugural lecture. Because the convent buildings required extensive renovation classes were not held there until 1932.
From 1928 to 1932 the convent was renovated to house classrooms, an aula magna and an aula minor, amphitheaters with seating capacities of 1,100 and 350 respectively. In November 1932 the Angelicum opened its doors at the appropriately more extensive complex of buildings comprising the ancient Dominican convent of Saints Dominic and Sixtus.
Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli the future Pope Pius XII gave a lecture at the college entitled "La Presse et L'Apostolat '' on April 17, 1936.
The Angelicum changed names once again in 1942 becoming the Pontificium Athenaeum Internationale Angelicum.
In 1951 the Institute of Social Sciences was founded within the Faculty of Philosophy by Raimondo Spiazzi (1918 -- 2002). Spiazzi, a prolific author and editor of the works of Aquinas, completed his doctorate in Sacred Theology at the Angelicum in 1947 with a dissertation entitled "Il cristianesimo perfezione dell'uomo. Spiazzi directed the Institute of Social Sciences until 1957 and continued teaching there until 1972. This Institute was established as the Faculty Faculty of Social Sciences (FASS) in 1974. Mieczysław Albert Krąpiec, leading exponent of the Lublin School of Philosophy in Poland, received a doctorate in theology from the Angelicum in 1948.
In 1950 the Angelicum 's Institute of Spirituality was founded by Paul - Pierre Philippe within the Faculty of Theology to promote scientific and systematic study of ascetical and mystical theology, and to offer preparation for spiritual directors. The Institute was approved by the Congregation for Catholic Education on 1 May 1958. Today the Institute is presided over by Paul Murray, lecturer in Spiritual Theology at the Angelicum. Murry was awarded the Magister Sacrae Theologiae by the Master General of the Order on September 20, 2011.
During the tenure of Michael Browne as Master of the Order of Preachers and Chancellor of the Angelicum, Pope Pius XII addressed the academic community of the Angelicum in a radio message on 14 January 1957. The pontiff encouraged the Angelicum 's diligent pursuit of Thomistic doctrine and imparted his apostolic blessing on its future projects.
Benedict Augustine Blank, former Provincial of the Western Province of the Dominican Order was rector of the Angelicum from 1952 to 1955.
Enrollment climbed from 120 in 1909 to over 1,000 during the 1960s. During the tenure of Aniceto Fernández as Master of the Order of Preachers (1962 -- 1974) and the rectorate of Raymond Sigmond (1961 -- 1964) Pope John XXIII visited the Angelicum on March 7, 1963, the feast of the University 's patron Saint Thomas Aquinas and with the motu proprio Dominicanus Ordo, raised the Angelicum to the rank of pontifical university. Thereafter it would be known as the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas in the City (Latin: Pontificia Studiorum Universitas a Sancto Thoma Aquinate in Urbe).
On November 29, 1963, Egyptian scholar and peritus at Vatican II for Christian -- Islamic relations Georges Anawati delivered a lecture entitled at the Angelicum "L'Islam a l'heure du Concile: prolegomenes a un dialogue islamo - chretien. ''
On the 19th of April, 1974 Pope Paul VI delivered an allocution in the Angelicum 's Aula Magna as part of the International Congress of the International Society of St. Thomas Aquinas celebrated on the occasion of the 7th Centenary of the death of the Doctor Angelicus. The Pontif described Aquinas as a teacher of the art of thinking well and expounded his doctrine proposing Aquinas as an unsurpassed master.
On 17 November 1979, one year into his papacy, Pope John Paul II visited his alma mater to deliver an address marking the first centenary of the encyclical Aeterni Patris. The Pontiff reaffirmed the centrality of Aquinas ' thought for the Church and the unique role of the Angelicum, where Aquinas is "as in his own home (tamquam in domo sua), '' in carrying on the Thomist philosophical and theological tradition.
On 24 November 1994, four days after beatifying Hyacinthe - Marie Cormier, Pope John Paul II visited the Angelicum and gave an address to faculty and students on the occasion of the dedication of the university 's Aula Magna in his honor.
Today the faculty and students of the Angelicum strive to be "modern disciples of Thomas Aquinas '', "accepting all the radical changes '' of the modern world "but without compromise '' to the ideals of their patron Thomas Aquinas. Angelicum alumnus and famed historian and philosopher James A. Weisheipl notes that since the time of Aquinas "Thomism was always alive in the Dominican Order, small as it was after the ravages of the Reformation, the French Revolution, and the Napoleonic occupation. While outside the order Thomism has had varying fortunes, the Angelicum has played a central role throughout its history in preserving Thomism since the time of Aquinas ' own activity at the Santa Sabina studium provinciale. Today the sedes Thomae continues to provide students and scholars with the opportunity to immerse themselves in the authentic Dominican Thomistic philosophical and theological tradition.
As of August 2014 the student body comprised approximately 1010 students coming from 95 countries. About one half of the Angelicum 's students are enrolled in the faculty of theology.
As of August 2014 the student body consisted of approximately 29 % women, 71 % men. Of these, approximately 24 % were lay, 27 % were diocesan clerical, and 49 % were members of religious orders. Moreover, 30 % of the student body hailed from North America, 25 % from Europe, 21 % from Asia, 12 % from Africa, 11 % from Latin America, and 1 % from Oceania.
Some comparatively recent notable figures associated with the Angelicum include Cornelio Fabro, Jordan Aumann, Cardinal Christoph Schönborn, Aidan Nichols, Wojciech Giertych, Theologian of the Pontifical Household under Pope Benedict XVI and Pope Francis, and Bishop Charles Morerod, past Rector Magnificus of the Angelicum and former Secretary of the International Theological Commission, Alejandro Crosthwaite, OP, Dean of the Angelicum Faculty of Social Sciences, and Consultant to the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, and Robert Christian, Vice-Dean of the faculty of theology, professor of sacramental theology and ecclesiology, and Consultant to the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity. Dr. Donna Orsuto, professor of spirituality, is rector of the Lay Centre at Foyer Unitas and was recently created a Dame of the Order of St. Gregory the Great by Pope Benedict.
Recent lectures and events of note related to the University 's mission include:
The Angelicum is one of the world 's Pontifical universities. Specifically, a pontifical university addresses "Christian revelation and disciplines correlative to the evangelical mission of the Church as set out in the apostolic constitution, Sapientia christiana ''.
In distinction to secular or other Catholic universities, which address a broad range of disciplines, Ecclesiastical or Pontifical universities are "usually composed of three principal ecclesiastical faculties, theology, philosophy, and canon law, and at least one other faculty ''. Current international quality ranking services do not have rankings for pontifical universities that are specific to their curricula.
Since 19 September 2003 the Holy See has taken part in the Bologna Process, a series of meetings and agreements between European states designed to foster comparable quality standards in higher education, and in the "Bologna Follow - up Group ''.
The Holy See 's Agency for the Evaluation and Promotion of Quality in Ecclesiastical Universities and Faculties (AVEPRO) was established on 19 September 2007 by the Pope Benedict XVI "to promote and develop a culture of quality within the academic institutions that depend directly on the Holy See and ensure they possess internationally valid quality criteria. ''
In addition to the programs listed, which are in the Italian language, the Angelicum offers English programs in Philosophy and Theology for the first cycle, and part of the second and third cycles.
Theology
Sections:
Chairs of Learning:
Canon Law
Philosophy
Social Sciences
Chairs of Learning:
The Russell Berrie Fellowship in Interreligious Studies targets members of the laity and clergy for the purpose of studying at the Angelicum to obtain License or Doctoral Degrees in Theology with a concentration in Inter-religious Studies. The goal of the Fellowship Program is to build bridges between Christian, Jewish, and other religious traditions by providing the next generation of religious leaders with a comprehensive understanding of and dedication to interfaith issues. The award will provide one year of financial support the Russell Berrie Foundation, which carries on the values and passions of the late Russell Berrie, by promoting the continuity of the Jewish tradition, and fostering religious understanding and pluralism. Financial support is intended to cover tuition, a living stipend, examination fees, a book allowance, and travel expenses to and from the recipient 's home country once a year.
The William E. Simon Scholarship Fund provides financial assistance for academically qualified students who live in Rome and who would otherwise lack the resources to cover their educational expenses at the Angelicum. Each scholarship award provides no more than 40 % of the total annual expense of tuition, room, board, and related fees and expenses. Annually the fund allocates 50 % of its scholarships for lay students.
International Dominican Foundation (IDF) is a non-profit organization that provides monetary support to Dominican educational programs at the Jerusalem École Biblique, the Angelicum in Rome, and the Dominican Institute for Oriental Studies (IDEO) in Cairo. The IDF made grants of approximately $270,000.00 for the academic year 2011 - 2012, the major part of which went the Angelicum in accord with the William E. Simon Scholarship, the McCadden - McQuirk Foundation, and the Réginald de Rocquois Foundation.
The Angelicum is listed under schools in Rome that can participate in the US Federal Loan Program.
The regular academic year at the Angelicum runs from early October until the end of May. Some of the University 's important annual events are as follows:
October Solemn Inauguration of the Academic Year and Mass of the Holy Spirit
October 22 Solemnity of the Dedication of the Church of Saints Dominic and Sixtus
November 15 Feast of Saint Albert the Great.
March 7 Feast of the University 's patron Saint Thomas Aquinas
May 21 Solemn Mass for the Ending of the Academic Year and Conferral of academic degrees. Dominican feast of Bl. Hyacinthe - Marie Cormier
June A summer session runs for the month of June.
Generally administration offices remain open until the end of July, are closed for the month of August, and reopen in early September.
The Angelicum campus is located in the historic center of Rome, Italy on the Quirinal hill in the section or rione of the eternal city known as Monti. It is situated near the beginning of via Nazionale just above the ruins of Trajan 's Market, the via dei Fori Imperiali, and Piazza Venezia.
The site of the Angelicum is recorded in history sometime before the year 1000 bearing the name Magnanapoli with a church dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary. The nature of the site before the 9th century is uncertain. One theory holds that its name Magnanapoli derives from the expression Bannum Nea Polis or "fort of the new city '' from the adjacent Byzantine military citadel which included the Torre delle Milizie Rome 's oldest extant tower.
In 1569 Dominican Pope Pius V ordered the construction of the Church of Saints Dominic and Sixtus. This was followed in 1575 by a convent for Dominican nuns. Among the architects who worked on the complex are Vignola; Giacomo della Porta; Nicola and Orazio Torriani; and Vincenzo della Greca. The church 's double staircase was added in 1654 by sculptor architect Orazio Torriani.
In 1870 the religious community was expropriated by the Italian government. The Order was able to reacquire the complex in 1927 from the Italian government. After extensive renovation and additions the Angelicum and a convent of Dominican Friars was installed there. Today the University occupies approximately the entire ground level of the complex. The remaining portion, approximately the second and third levels around the cloister together with subterranean spaces, constitutes a convent for the community of Dominican Friars that serves the University.
The main entrance of the Angelicum immediately to the right of the Church of Saints Dominic and Sixtus was built into the existing structure in the early 1930s as part of the renovations undertaken to accommodate the Angelicum at its new site. A wide flight of stairs leads to a Palladian motif portico above which are mounted a Dominican shield bearing one of the Order 's mottos "laudare, benedicere, praedicare '' (to praise, bless, and preach) on the right, and the escutcheons of Pope Pius XI who was reigning when the Pontificium Institutum Internationale Angelicum opened its doors in 1932, on the left. The main entrance of the Angelicum was used in 2010 as a location in the film "Manuale d'amore 3 ''. part of a 4 movie romantic comedy, directed by Giovanni Veronesi and starring Robert De Niro, and Monica Bellucci who were on campus shooting the film, as well as Riccardo Scamarcio, Laura Chiatti, Michele Placido, Carlo Verdone, Valeria Solarino, Daniele Pecci, and Donatella Finocchiaro.
Under the entrance portico are two statues c. 1910 by sculptor Cesare Aureli (1843 - 1923) of St Albert the Great on the left and St. Thomas Aquinas on the right. The base of the statue of Aquinas bears an inscription attributed to Pope Pius XI, "Sanctus Thomas Doctor angelicus hic tamquam domi suae habitat, '' (Saint Thomas the Angelic Doctor dwells here as in his own house), a paraphrase of the papal encyclical Studiorum ducem that singles out the Angelicum as the preeminent Thomistic center of learning: "ante omnia Pontificium Collegium Angelicum, ubi Thomam tamquam domi suae habitare dixeris ''.
The Angelicum 's statue of Aquinas is Aureli 's second version of this work. The first version of 1889 looms majestically over the Sala di Consultazione or main reference room of the Vatican Library. At the instigation of the Pontifical Roman Seminary the Vatican version of the statue was commissioned in the name of all seminaries of the world as a gift to Pope Leo XIII in celebration of his episcopal jubilee in 1893. The statue has been described in the following terms:
St. Thomas seated, in his left arm holds the Summa theologica while extending his right arm in the act of protecting Christian science. Thus, he does not sit on the cathedra of a doctor but on the throne of a sovereign protector; he extends his arm to reassure, not to demonstrate. He wears on his head the doctoral birettum of the traditional type which reveals the face and expression of a profoundly educated person... The immortal book that he clutches, the powerful arm that extends to affirm sacred science and to halt the audacity of error, are truly grand, and in the words of Leo XIII, have equaled the genius of all other great teachers.
On the occasion of the blessing of this statue in 1914 Hyacinthe - Marie Cormier delivered his "Sed Contra: Allocution aux novices étudiants du Collège Angélique pour la bénédiction d'une statue de S. Thomas d'Aquin dans leur oratoire. ''
A central cloister with garden and fountain forms the heart of campus. The two basins of the ancient fountain are fed by the Acqua Felice aqueduct, one of the aqueducts of Rome, and the first new aqueduct of early modern Rome, completed in 1585 by Pope Sixtus V whose birth name was Felice Peretti. It also feeds the fountain by Giovanni Battista Soria (c. 1630) at the entrance to the Angelicum 's walled garden, and the fountain under the stair below the University 's portineria or porter 's lodge before coursing across the Quirinal hill to its terminus at the Moses fountain or Fontana dell'Acqua Felice on the Via del Quirinale.
Arched porticos designed by Vignola but completed after his death flank the cloister. Ten arches on the long sides and seven on the short are sustained by pilasters in the Tuscan style rising from high plinths. A simple frieze with smooth triglyphs and metopes separates lower from upper levels.
Eleven classrooms encircle the cloister, the last of which, the Aula della Sapienza (Hall of Wisdom) is the site of the University 's doctoral defenses. Also located off the cloister are the administration offices and the Sala delle Colonne, a reception room with antique marble columns and arched ceilings bearing traces of late Renaissance style frescos, which initially housed a library.
On the second level encircling the cloister are the living quarters of Dominican professors and the Sala del Senato (Academic Senate Room). The latter was the Chapter room of the convent and is appointed with a 14th - century triptych of Saint Andrew by Lippo Vanni, a 13th - century crucifix, and a full - body relic of an unidentified saint encased in Imperial Roman armor.
To the east of the Sala delle Colonne is the Aula Magna Giovanni Paolo II, a raked semicircular auditorium with seating for 1100 people that was constructed during 1930s renovations by Roman engineer Vincenzo Passarelli (1904 -- 1985). The Aula Magna was recently renamed after one of the Angelicum 's most illustrious alumni, Pope John Paul II. The adjacent Aula Minor San Raimondo seats 350 people. Beyond these auditoria are the university 's cafe, the Angelicum Bookshop, and the university 's library.
The Palazzo dei Decanati (Deans ' Building) is located at the West edge of campus just inside the main gates. The West boundary of the Angelicum is formed by the Salita del Grillo.
The main part of the Angelicum library consists of that part of the textual patrimony of the Angelicum not expropriated by the Italian government with the Biblioteca Casanatense in 1870. At the convent of Saints Sixtus and Dominic the library originally housed 40,000 volumes in the Sala delle Colonne. As the library grew space was found under the Aula Magna for a library whose large windows face out to the palm trees of the Angelicum walled garden. The collection that remains at the college today consists of approximately 400 000 volumes, about 6 000 manuscripts, 2 200 incunabula including 64 Greek codices, and 230 Hebrew texts including 5 Samaritan codices is open to the scholarly community.
Among the library 's treasures is included the original copy of the doctoral thesis Doctrina de fide apud S. Ioannem a Cruce (The Doctrine of Faith in St. John of the Cross) written by the future Pope John Paul II, Karol Józef Wojtyła, under the direction of Reginald Garrigou - Lagrange and defended on 19 June 1948
On the south side of campus the walled garden is bordered by private properties. At the garden entrance stands a fountain by Giovanni Battista Soria built circa 1630. The garden is planted with trees of many kinds: orange, lemon, pistachio, olive, fig, palm and laurel, as well as with grape vines, and is an oasis of calm and silence, a figure of paradise in the midst of the bustling eternal city. In 1946 in this garden the young student Karol Wojtyla, future Pope John Paul II, would stroll and visit daily what he called the "miraculous tree '', an ancient olive from which springs incredibly the branches of a palm, a fig, and a laurel.
Along the north side of campus are found the University 's Church of Saints Dominic and Sixtus, the Blessed Sacrament Chapel, and the Choir. The church has been the subject of numerous works of art. In the 18th century Antonio Canaletto made a pen and ink study with grey wash and black chalk, today in the collection of the British Museum, described as depicting "the Church of SS Domenico e Sisto, Rome; with a sweeping double staircase to the entrance, in the foreground a man bowing to two approaching ladies ''. Italian born American painter John Singer Sargent during his extensive travels in Italy made an oil painting of the exterior staircase and balustrade of the campus 's Church of Saints Dominic and Sixtus in 1906. Sargent described the ensemble as "a magnificent curved staircase and balustrade, leading to a grand façade that would reduce a millionaire to a worm ''. The painting now hangs at the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University. Sargent used the architectural features from this painting later in a portrait of Charles William Eliot, President of Harvard University from 1869 to 1909. Sargent made several preliminary pencil sketches of the balustrade and staircase, which are in the collection of the Harvard University art collection of the Fogg Museum. The Church as also been depicted by Ettore Roesler Franz and Eero Saarinen. The Church and stair also feature in the 1950 film Prima comunione by director Alessandro Blasetti, which is on the list of the 100 Italian films to save.
The northern flank of campus borders via Panisperna across from the perimeter wall of the Roman Villa Aldobrandini, a 17th - century princely villa whose gardens were truncated by the construction of Via Nazionale in the 19th century, and which today houses the headquarters of the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT). Behind the campus intersecting with Via Nazionale is the "Via Mazzarino '', named after Michele Mazzarino professor of theology at the College after 1628 who was appointed Master of the Sacred Palace under Pope Urban VIII in 1642, and Archbishop of Aix - en - Provence in 1645 by Pope Innocent X. Mazzarino 's brother Giulio Mazzarino, known as "Jules Mazarin '' was chief minister under Louis XIV of France. The East edge of campus is bound by Salita del Grillo beyond which is the Markets and Forum of Trajan.
In 1908 when the College was transformed it into the Collegium Pontificium Internationale Angelicum Blessed Hyacinthe - Marie Cormier bestowed upon it his personal motto as Master General of the Order of Preachers, caritas veritatis. This Latin phrase literally translated as the charity of truth appears in The City of God by St. Augustine of Hippo, and is quoted by St. Thomas Aquinas in comparing the active and the contemplative life: "Unde Augustinus dicit XIX De civ. Dei, Otium sanctum quaerit caritas veritatis; negotium justum, scilicet vitae activae, suscipit necessitas caritatis, '' which Aldous Huxley translates in The Perennial Philosophy as: "The love of Truth seeks holy leisure; the necessity of love undertakes righteous action. '' Augustine 's phrase also appears in the writings of William of St - Thierry
The Angelicum does not currently have a school song.
Academic dress for Angelicum graduates consists of a black toga or academic gown with trim to follow the color of the faculty, and an academic ring. In addition, for the Doctorate degree a four corned biretta is to be worn, and for the Licentiate degree a three corned biretta is to be worn. Traditionally the ceremony at which the biretum is imposed is called the "birretatio ''.
For those holding doctoral degrees from a pontifical university or faculty "the principal mark of a Doctor 's dignity is the four horned biretta. '' The 1917 Code of Canon Law canon 1378 and 1922 commentary prescribe the four corned biretum doctorale and doctoral ring or annulum doctorale for doctorates in philosophy, theology, canon law, specifying that the biretum should decorated according to the color of the faculty ("diverso colore ornatum pro Facultate ''). The ' traditional ' Angelicum biretta is white to correspond to the white Dominican habit. However, the Academic Senate of the Angelicum in its May 2011 meeting indicated that for the Licentiate and Doctorate a black biretta may be used with colored piping and pom to follow the color of the faculty.
The biretta is lay in origin and was adopted by the Church in the 14th century: "Many synods ordered the use of this cap (the pileus or skull cap) as a substitute for the hood, and in one instance the synod of Bergamo, 1311, ordered the clergy to wear the ' bireta on their heads after the manner of laymen '. '' Herbert Norris, Church Vestments: Their Origin and Development, 1950, 161).
The Olympic motto Citius, Altius, Fortius (Faster, Higher, Sronger) was coined by Henri Didon for a Paris youth gathering in 1891, and later proposed as the official Olympic motto by his friend Pierre de Coubertin in 1894 and made official in 1924. Didon completed his theological studies at the College of Saint Thomas in 1862.
The Clericus Cup is a soccer tournament that takes place annually between the various pontifical universities of Rome. The teams are composed of seminarians, priests, and lay students studying in each of the pontifical universities. The league was started by Cardinal Secretary of State, Tarcisio Bertone who is an unapologetic football fan. The Angelicum first participated in 2011, and came in 2nd place in 2012. During the history of the Clericus Cup, players have come from 65 countries, with the majority coming from Brazil, Italy, Mexico, and the United States. The annual tournament is organized by the Centro Sportivo Italiano. Officially, the goal of the league is to "reinvigorate the tradition of sport in the Christian community. '' In other words, to provide a venue for friendly athletic competition among the thousands of seminarians and lay students, representing nearly a hundred countries, who study in Rome.
In November 2011 Minerva the Owl was voted in as the Angelicum mascot.
The Angelicum does not provide housing primarily intended for lay students. However, assistance finding local student housing is offered by the Angelicum Office of Student Affairs (ASPUST). The office is located in the Palazzo dei Decanati or Deans ' Building at the West end of campus, just inside the gates to the right.
The Lay Centre at Foyer Unitas is an international college for lay students within walking distance of the Angelicum.
The Convitto San Tommaso was established by the Dominican Order in 1963 as a place of residence in Rome for secular priests who come to the Rome in order to pursue higher studies at one or other of the Roman Universities. There are approximately 55 student priests. They come from five continents of the world. Three Dominicans live in the house to serve the practical and spiritual needs of the house: the Rector, the Spiritual Director, and the Bursar. The life of the house focuses on daily celebration of the Eucharist.
The following is a sample of student activities:
ASPUST holds elections for its offers in mid November each year. ASPUST offers services to students and prospective students of the Angelicum such as information about health services and insurance, information about apartment hunting, other services relating to public transportation, computers, cafeterias, and a blog that reports on student activities.
The Angelicum Bookshop is run by Libreria Leoniana of Rome. Located on near the University Library, it specializes in ecclesiastical literature, Italian and foreign language literature, and provides stationary, photo - reproduction, computer, and bindery services. Hours during the academic year are 9: 00am to 1: 00pm and 3: 00pm to 6: 00pm. It is closed Saturdays and the month of August.
The following are some Angeliocum notables from the relatively recent past.
For a more complete list of notable Angelicum faculty throughout its history see List of people associated with the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas
Coordinates: 41 ° 53 ′ 45 '' N 12 ° 29 ′ 15 '' E / 41.89583 ° N 12.48750 ° E / 41.89583; 12.48750
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wrapped up like a deuce what does it mean | Blinded by the Light - wikipedia
Side one
Side two
"Blinded by the Light '' is a song written and recorded by Bruce Springsteen which first appeared on his 1973 debut album Greetings from Asbury Park, N.J.. A cover by British rock band Manfred Mann 's Earth Band reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States in February 1977 and was also a top ten hit in the United Kingdom, New Zealand and Canada.
The song came about when Columbia president Clive Davis, upon listening to an early version of Greetings from Asbury Park N.J., felt the album lacked a potential single. Springsteen wrote this and "Spirit in the Night '' in response.
According to Springsteen, the song came about from going through a rhyming dictionary in search of appropriate words. The first line of the song, "Madman drummers, bummers, and Indians in the summers with a teenage diplomat '' is autobiographical -- "Madman drummers '' is a reference to drummer Vini Lopez, known as "Mad Man '' (later changed to "Mad Dog ''); "Indians in the summer '' refers to the name of Springsteen 's old Little League team; "teenage diplomat '' refers to himself. The remainder of the song tells of many unrelated events, with the refrain of "Blinded by the light, cut loose like a deuce, another runner in the night ''.
"Blinded by the Light '' was the first song on, and first single from Greetings from Asbury Park, N.J. Springsteen 's version was commercially unsuccessful and did not appear on the music charts.
Manfred Mann 's Earth Band released a version of the song on their 1976 album The Roaring Silence. Their version includes the "Chopsticks '' melody played on piano near the end of the bridge of the song. The track reached # 1 on both the Billboard Hot 100 and the Canadian RPM charts. Manfred Mann 's Earth Band 's recording of "Blinded by the Light '' is Springsteen 's only Number 1 single as a songwriter on the Hot 100.
In 2002, Danish act Funkstar De Luxe released its disco version of this song. A "jazzified '' version can be found on Springsteen 's 2007 video and audio release Live in Dublin, recorded with The Sessions Band.
The song is used in the films Blow and Running with Scissors.
Manfred Mann 's Earth Band 's recording of the song changes the lyrics. The most prominent change is in the chorus, where Springsteen 's "cut loose like a deuce '' is replaced with "revved up like a deuce. '' This is commonly misheard as "wrapped up like a douche '' (the V sound in "revved '' is almost unpronounced, and the S sound in "deuce '' comes across as "SH '' due to a significant lisp). The lyric is actually a reference to a hot rod "deuce coupe ''. Springsteen was fond of classic hot rods in his youth, hence the line "revved up like a deuce, another runner in the night ''. Springsteen himself has joked about the controversy, claiming that it was not until Manfred Mann rewrote the song to be about a feminine hygiene product that it became popular.
Original version
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Manfred Mann 's Earth Band cover
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time magazine list of person of the year | Time Person of the Year - Wikipedia
Person of the Year (called Man of the Year or Woman of the Year until 1999) is an annual issue of the United States news magazine Time that features and profiles a person, a group, an idea, or an object that "for better or for worse... has done the most to influence the events of the year ''.
The tradition of selecting a "Man of the Year '' began in 1927, with Time editors contemplating the news makers of the years. The idea was also an attempt to remedy the editorial embarrassment earlier that year of not having aviator Charles Lindbergh on its cover following his historic trans - Atlantic flight. By the end of the year, it was decided that a cover story featuring Lindbergh as the Man of the Year would serve both purposes.
Since the list began, every serving President of the United States has been a Man or Person of the Year at least once with the exceptions of Calvin Coolidge, in office at time of the first issue, Herbert Hoover, the next U.S. president, and Gerald Ford. Most were named Man or Person of the Year either the year they were elected or while they were in office; the only one to be given the title before being elected is Dwight D. Eisenhower, in 1944 as Supreme Commander of the Allied Invasion Force, eight years before his election. He subsequently received the title again in 1959, while in office. Franklin D. Roosevelt is the only person to have received the title three times, first as president - elect (1932) and later as the incumbent president (1934 and 1941).
In 1999, the title was changed to Person of the Year. Women who have been selected for recognition after the renaming include "The Whistleblowers '' (Cynthia Cooper, Coleen Rowley, and Sherron Watkins in 2002), Melinda Gates (jointly with Bill Gates and Bono, in 2005), Angela Merkel in 2015 and "The Silence Breakers '' (Isabel Pascual, Adama Iwu, Ashley Judd, Susan Fowler and Taylor Swift in 2017). Prior to 1999, four women were granted the title as individuals: three as "Woman of the Year '' -- Wallis Simpson (1936), Queen Elizabeth II (1952), and Corazon Aquino (1986) -- and one as half of the "Man and Wife of the Year '', Soong Mei - ling (1937). "American Women '' were recognized as a group in 1975. Other classes of people recognized comprise both men and women, such as "Hungarian Freedom Fighters '' (1956), "U.S. Scientists '' (1960), "The Inheritors '' (1966), "The Middle Americans '' (1969), "The American Soldier '' (2003), "You '' (2006), "The Protester '' (2011) represented on the cover by a woman, and "Ebola fighters '' (2014). Although the title on the magazine remained "Man of The Year '' for both the 1956 "Hungarian Freedom Fighter '' and the 1966 "Twenty - five and Under '' editions which both featured a woman standing behind a man, and "Men of the Year '' on the 1960 "U.S. Scientists '' edition which exclusively featured men on its cover. It was n't until the 1969 edition on "The Middle Americans '' did the title embrace "Man and Woman of the Year ''.
Despite the name, the title is not just granted to individuals. Pairs of people such as married couples and political opponents, classes of people, and inanimate objects have all been selected for the special year - end issue.
In 1949, Winston Churchill was named "Man of the Half - Century '', and the last issue of 1989 named Mikhail Gorbachev as "Man of the Decade ''. The December 31, 1999 issue of Time named Albert Einstein the "Person of the Century ''. Franklin D. Roosevelt and Mahatma Gandhi were chosen as runners - up.
Despite the magazine 's frequent statements to the contrary, the designation is often regarded as an honor, and spoken of as an award or prize, simply based on many previous selections of admirable people. However, Time magazine points out that controversial figures such as Adolf Hitler (1938), Joseph Stalin (1939 and 1942), Nikita Khrushchev (1957), and Ayatollah Khomeini (1979) have also been granted the title for their impacts.
As a result of the public backlash it received from the United States for naming Khomeini as Man of the Year in 1979, Time has since shied away from using figures who are controversial in the United States for commercial reasons, fearing reductions in sales or advertising revenue.
Time 's Person of the Year 2001, immediately following the September 11, 2001 attacks, was New York City mayor Rudolph Giuliani. The stated rules of selection, the individual or group of individuals who have had the biggest effect on the year 's news, made Osama bin Laden a more likely choice that year. The issue that declared Giuliani the Person of the Year included an article that mentioned Time 's earlier decision to select the Ayatollah Khomeini and the 1999 rejection of Hitler as "Person of the Century ''. The article seemed to imply that Osama bin Laden was a stronger candidate than Giuliani, as Adolf Hitler was a stronger candidate than Albert Einstein. The selections were ultimately based on what the magazine describes as who they believed had a stronger influence on history and who represented either the year or the century the most. According to Time, Rudolph Giuliani was selected for symbolizing the American response to the September 11th attacks, and Albert Einstein selected for representing a century of scientific exploration and wonder.
Another controversial choice was the 2006 selection of "You '', representing most if not all people for advancing the information age by using the Internet (via e.g. blogs, MySpace YouTube, and Wikipedia).
In 1941, the fictional elephant Dumbo from the Disney movie of the same name was selected to be "Mammal of the Year '', and a cover was created showing Dumbo in a formal portrait style. However, the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 pre-empted the cover. The U.S. president Franklin Delano Roosevelt was named Man of the Year for a record third time, although Dumbo 's Mammal of the Year profile still appeared on the inside pages of the magazine.
Film - maker Michael Moore claims that director Mel Gibson cost him the opportunity to be Person of the Year alongside Gibson in 2004. Moore 's controversial political documentary Fahrenheit 9 / 11 became the highest - grossing documentary of all time the same year Gibson 's The Passion of the Christ became a box - office success and also caused significant controversy. Moore said in an interview "I got a call right after the ' 04 election from an editor from Time Magazine. He said, ' Time Magazine has picked you and Mel Gibson to be Time 's Person of the Year to put on the cover, Right and Left, Mel and Mike. The only thing you have to do is pose for a picture with each other. And do an interview together. ' I said ' OK. ' They call Mel up, he agrees. They set the date and time in LA. I 'm to fly there. He 's flying from Australia. Something happens when he gets home... Next thing, Mel calls up and says, ' I 'm not doing it. I 've thought it over and it is not the right thing to do. ' So they put Bush on the cover. ''
On November 24, 2017, U.S. president Donald Trump posted on the social media network Twitter that Time editors had told him he would "probably '' be named Person of the Year for a second time, conditional on an interview and photo shoot which he had refused. Time denied that that they had made any such promises or conditions to Trump, who was named a runner - up.
Time magazine also holds an online poll for the readers to vote for who they believe to be the Person of the Year. While many mistakenly believe the winner of the poll to be the Person of the Year, the title, as mentioned above, is decided by the editors of Time. In the first online poll held in 1998, wrestler and activist Mick Foley won with over 50 % of the votes. Foley was removed from the poll, and the title was given to Bill Clinton and Ken Starr, which led to outrage from the fans of Foley who mistakenly believed the winner of the poll would be the winner of the title. In 2006, the poll winner by a wide margin was Hugo Chávez, with 35 % of the votes. The president of Iran, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, came in second. Time again ignored those results, not mentioning them in the announcement of the Person of the Year. Time continues to annually run an online poll for the "People 's Choice '', but stresses the decision on who the magazine recognizes is not made by the poll, but by the magazine 's editors.
Represented on the covers by Dr. Jerry Brown, the medical director at the Eternal Love Winning Africa Hospital in Monrovia, Liberia, Dr. Kent Brantly, a physician with Samaritan 's Purse and the first American to be infected in the 2014 outbreak, Ella Watson - Stryker, a health promoter for Doctors Without Borders who is originally from the United States, Foday Gallah, an ambulance supervisor and Ebola survivor from Monrovia, Liberia, and Salome Karwah, a trainee nurse and counselor from Liberia whose parents died of Ebola, as well as others mentioned in the article itself, such as Dr. Pardis Sabeti from the Broad Institute.
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difference between full can and empty can test | Empty can / Full can tests - wikipedia
The Empty can test (Jobe 's test) and Full can test (Neer test) are used to diagnose shoulder injuries. Specifically, these physical examination maneuvers examine the integrity of the supraspinatus muscle and tendon.
In both tests, the patient is placed in a standing or sitting position, and the arms are raised parallel to the ground in the scapular plane. The tests differ in the rotation of the arm; in the Empty can test, the arm is rotated to full internal rotation (thumb down) and in the Full can test, the arm is rotated to 45 ° external rotation. Once rotated, the clinician pushes down on either the wrists or the elbow, and the patient is instructed to resist the downward pressure.
The test is considered positive if weakness, pain or both are present during resistance. A positive test result suggests a tear to the supraspinatus tendon or muscle, or neuropathy of the suprascapular nerve.
In Orthopedic Physical Assessment Atlas and Video (2011), Magee and Sueki provide the following data on the interrater reliability, specificity, and sensitivity data regarding the Empty can test.
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who has been appointed as the new chief board of control for cricket in india (bcci) | Presidents of the Board of Control for Cricket in India - Wikipedia
The President of the Board of Control for Cricket in India is the highest post at the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI), which runs Cricket in India. Though the post is an honorary one, it is considered a highly prestigious post due popularity of the game in the India and the financial clout of the organisation. Over the years influential politicians, royalty and businessmen have occupied the post of President. The president is elected at the BCCI 's Annual General Meeting with each of the 30 affiliates of the BCCI getting a vote. The outgoing president also has a vote as chairman of the meeting. The post is rotated zone-wise across India and a person can hold the post of BCCI president for a maximum of three years. Supreme court of India said that the most senior BCCI vice-president and the joint secretary would take over the interim roles of president and secretary respectively. In April 2016, Rahul Johri was appointed first ever Chief Executive Officer of BCCI. The creation of the post of the CEO was a change recommended by the three - member Lodha panel in its report in January 2016, with panel stressing the need for the BCCI to separate its governance and management duties, with the CEO taking charge of the management side and also made recommendations for a clear segregation of operational duties from the governance and policy - makers in the board.
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who wrote the stage play the grass widow | Harold Pinter - wikipedia
Harold Pinter CH CBE (/ ˈpɪntər /; 10 October 1930 -- 24 December 2008) was a Nobel Prize - winning British playwright, screenwriter, director and actor. One of the most influential modern British dramatists, his writing career spanned more than 50 years. His best - known plays include The Birthday Party (1957), The Homecoming (1964), and Betrayal (1978), each of which he adapted for the screen. His screenplay adaptations of others ' works include The Servant (1963), The Go - Between (1971), The French Lieutenant 's Woman (1981), The Trial (1993), and Sleuth (2007). He also directed or acted in radio, stage, television, and film productions of his own and others ' works.
Pinter was born and raised in Hackney, east London, and educated at Hackney Downs School. He was a sprinter and a keen cricket player, acting in school plays and writing poetry. He attended the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art but did not complete the course. He was fined for refusing National service as a conscientious objector. Subsequently, he continued training at the Central School of Speech and Drama and worked in repertory theatre in Ireland and England. In 1956 he married actress Vivien Merchant and had a son, Daniel, born in 1958. He left Merchant in 1975 and married author Lady Antonia Fraser in 1980.
Pinter 's career as a playwright began with a production of The Room in 1957. His second play, The Birthday Party, closed after eight performances, but was enthusiastically reviewed by critic Harold Hobson. His early works were described by critics as "comedy of menace ''. Later plays such as No Man 's Land (1975) and Betrayal (1978) became known as "memory plays ''. He appeared as an actor in productions of his own work on radio and film. He also undertook a number of roles in works by other writers. He directed nearly 50 productions for stage, theatre and screen. Pinter received over 50 awards, prizes, and other honours, including the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2005 and the French Légion d'honneur in 2007.
Despite frail health after being diagnosed with oesophageal cancer in December 2001, Pinter continued to act on stage and screen, last performing the title role of Samuel Beckett 's one - act monologue Krapp 's Last Tape, for the 50th anniversary season of the Royal Court Theatre, in October 2006. He died from liver cancer on 24 December 2008.
Pinter was born on 10 October 1930, in Hackney, east London, the only child of British parents of Jewish Eastern European descent: his father, Hyman "Jack '' Pinter (1902 -- 1997) was a ladies ' tailor; his mother, Frances (née Moskowitz; 1904 -- 1992), a housewife. Pinter believed an aunt 's erroneous view that the family was Sephardic and had fled the Spanish Inquisition; thus, for his early poems, Pinter used the pseudonym Pinta and at other times used variations such as da Pinto. Later research by Lady Antonia Fraser, Pinter 's second wife, revealed the legend to be apocryphal; three of Pinter 's grandparents came from Poland and the fourth from Odessa, so the family was Ashkenazic.
Pinter 's family home in London is described by his official biographer Michael Billington as "a solid, red - brick, three - storey villa just off the noisy, bustling, traffic - ridden thoroughfare of the Lower Clapton Road ''. In 1940 and 1941, after the Blitz, Pinter was evacuated from their house in London to Cornwall and Reading. Billington states that the "life - and - death intensity of daily experience '' before and during the Blitz left Pinter with profound memories "of loneliness, bewilderment, separation and loss: themes that are in all his works. ''
Pinter discovered his social potential as a student at Hackney Downs School, a London grammar school, between 1944 and 1948. "Partly through the school and partly through the social life of Hackney Boys ' Club... he formed an almost sacerdotal belief in the power of male friendship. The friends he made in those days -- most particularly Henry Woolf, Michael (Mick) Goldstein and Morris (Moishe) Wernick -- have always been a vital part of the emotional texture of his life. '' A major influence on Pinter was his inspirational English teacher Joseph Brearley, who directed him in school plays and with whom he took long walks, talking about literature. According to Billington, under Brearley 's instruction, "Pinter shone at English, wrote for the school magazine and discovered a gift for acting. '' In 1947 and 1948, he played Romeo and Macbeth in productions directed by Brearley.
At the age of 12, Pinter began writing poetry, and in spring 1947, his poetry was first published in the Hackney Downs School Magazine. In 1950 his poetry was first published outside the school magazine, in Poetry London, some of it under the pseudonym "Harold Pinta ''.
Pinter was an atheist.
Pinter enjoyed running and broke the Hackney Downs School sprinting record. He was a cricket enthusiast, taking his bat with him when evacuated during the Blitz. In 1971, he told Mel Gussow: "one of my main obsessions in life is the game of cricket -- I play and watch and read about it all the time. '' He was chairman of the Gaieties Cricket Club, a supporter of Yorkshire Cricket Club, and devoted a section of his official website to the sport. One wall of his study was dominated by a portrait of himself as a young man playing cricket, which was described by Sarah Lyall, writing in The New York Times: "The painted Mr. Pinter, poised to swing his bat, has a wicked glint in his eye; testosterone all but flies off the canvas. '' Pinter approved of the "urban and exacting idea of cricket as a bold theatre of aggression. '' After his death, several of his school contemporaries recalled his achievements in sports, especially cricket and running. The BBC Radio 4 memorial tribute included an essay on Pinter and cricket.
Other interests that Pinter mentioned to interviewers are family, love and sex, drinking, writing, and reading. According to Billington, "If the notion of male loyalty, competitive rivalry and fear of betrayal forms a constant thread in Pinter 's work from The Dwarfs onwards, its origins can be found in his teenage Hackney years. Pinter adores women, enjoys flirting with them, worships their resilience and strength. But, in his early work especially, they are often seen as disruptive influences on some pure and Platonic ideal of male friendship: one of the most crucial of all Pinter 's lost Edens. ''
Beginning in late 1948, Pinter attended the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art for two terms, but hating the school, missed most of his classes, feigned a nervous breakdown, and dropped out in 1949. In 1948 he was called up for National Service. He was initially refused registration as a conscientious objector, leading to his twice being prosecuted, and fined, for refusing to accept a medical examination, before his CO registration was ultimately agreed. He had a small part in the Christmas pantomime Dick Whittington and His Cat at the Chesterfield Hippodrome in 1949 to 1950. From January to July 1951, he attended the Central School of Speech and Drama.
From 1951 to 1952, he toured Ireland with the Anew McMaster repertory company, playing over a dozen roles. In 1952, he began acting in regional English repertory productions; from 1953 to 1954, he worked for the Donald Wolfit Company, at the King 's Theatre, Hammersmith, performing eight roles. From 1954 until 1959, Pinter acted under the stage name David Baron. In all, Pinter played over 20 roles under that name. To supplement his income from acting, Pinter worked as a waiter, a postman, a bouncer, and a snow - clearer, meanwhile, according to Mark Batty, "harbouring ambitions as a poet and writer. '' In October 1989 Pinter recalled: "I was in English rep as an actor for about 12 years. My favourite roles were undoubtedly the sinister ones. They 're something to get your teeth into. '' During that period, he also performed occasional roles in his own and others ' works for radio, TV, and film, as he continued to do throughout his career.
From 1956 until 1980, Pinter was married to Vivien Merchant, an actress whom he met on tour, perhaps best known for her performance in the 1966 film Alfie. Their son, Daniel, was born in 1958. Through the early 1970s, Merchant appeared in many of Pinter 's works, including The Homecoming on stage (1965) and screen (1973), but the marriage was turbulent. For seven years, from 1962 to 1969, Pinter was engaged in a clandestine affair with BBC - TV presenter and journalist Joan Bakewell, which inspired his 1978 play Betrayal, and also throughout that period and beyond he had an affair with an American socialite, whom he nicknamed "Cleopatra ''. This relationship was another secret he kept from both his wife and Bakewell. Initially, Betrayal was thought to be a response to his later affair with historian Antonia Fraser, the wife of Hugh Fraser, and Pinter 's "marital crack - up ''.
Pinter and Merchant had both met Fraser in 1969, when all three worked together on a National Gallery programme about Mary, Queen of Scots; several years later, on 8 -- 9 January 1975, Pinter and Fraser became romantically involved. That meeting initiated their five - year extramarital love affair. After hiding the relationship from Merchant for two and a half months, on 21 March 1975, Pinter finally told her "I 've met somebody ''. After that, "Life in Hanover Terrace gradually became impossible '', and Pinter moved out of their house on 28 April 1975, five days after the première of No Man 's Land.
In mid-August 1977, after Pinter and Fraser had spent two years living in borrowed and rented quarters, they moved into her former family home in Holland Park, where Pinter began writing Betrayal. He reworked it later, while on holiday at the Grand Hotel, in Eastbourne, in early January 1978. After the Frasers ' divorce had become final in 1977 and the Pinters ' in 1980, Pinter married Fraser on 27 November 1980. Because of a two - week delay in Merchant 's signing the divorce papers, however, the reception had to precede the actual ceremony, originally scheduled to occur on his 50th birthday. Vivien Merchant died of acute alcoholism in the first week of October 1982, at the age of 53. Billington writes that Pinter "did everything possible to support '' her and regretted that he ultimately became estranged from their son, Daniel, after their separation, Pinter 's remarriage, and Merchant 's death.
A reclusive gifted musician and writer, Daniel changed his surname from Pinter to Brand, the maiden name of his maternal grandmother, before Pinter and Fraser became romantically involved; while according to Fraser, his father could n't understand it, she says that she could: "Pinter is such a distinctive name that he must have got tired of being asked, ' Any relation? ' '' Michael Billington wrote that Pinter saw Daniel 's name change as "a largely pragmatic move on Daniel 's part designed to keep the press... at bay. '' Fraser told Billington that Daniel "was very nice to me at a time when it would have been only too easy for him to have turned on me... simply because he had been the sole focus of his father 's love and now manifestly was n't. '' Still unreconciled at the time of his father 's death, Daniel Brand did not attend Pinter 's funeral.
Billington observes that "The break - up with Vivien and the new life with Antonia was to have a profound effect on Pinter 's personality and his work, '' though he adds that Fraser herself did not claim to have influence over Pinter or his writing. In her own contemporaneous diary entry dated 15 January 1993, Fraser described herself more as Pinter 's literary midwife. Indeed, she told Billington that "other people (such as Peggy Ashcroft, among others) had a shaping influence on (Pinter 's) politics '' and attributed changes in his writing and political views to a change from "an unhappy, complicated personal life... to a happy, uncomplicated personal life '', so that "a side of Harold which had always been there was somehow released. I think you can see that in his work after No Man 's Land (1975), which was a very bleak play. ''
Pinter was content in his second marriage and enjoyed family life with his six adult stepchildren and 17 step - grandchildren. Even after battling cancer for several years, he considered himself "a very lucky man in every respect ''. Sarah Lyall notes in her 2007 interview with Pinter in The New York Times that his "latest work, a slim pamphlet called "Six Poems for A., '' comprises poems written over 32 years, with "A '' of course being Lady Antonia. The first of the poems was written in Paris, where she and Mr. Pinter traveled soon after they met. More than three decades later the two are rarely apart, and Mr. Pinter turns soft, even cozy, when he talks about his wife. '' In that interview Pinter "acknowledged that his plays -- full of infidelity, cruelty, inhumanity, the lot -- seem at odds with his domestic contentment. ' How can you write a happy play? ' he said. ' Drama is about conflict and degrees of perturbation, disarray. I 've never been able to write a happy play, but I 've been able to enjoy a happy life. ' '' After his death, Fraser told The Guardian: "He was a great man, and it was a privilege to live with him for over 33 years. He will never be forgotten. ''
In 1948 -- 49, when he was 18, Pinter opposed the politics of the Cold War, leading to his decision to become a conscientious objector and to refuse to comply with National Service in the British military. However, he told interviewers that, if he had been old enough at the time, he would have fought against the Nazis in World War II. He seemed to express ambivalence, both indifference and hostility, towards political structures and politicians in his Fall 1966 Paris Review interview conducted by Lawrence M. Bensky. Yet, he had been an early member of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament and also had supported the British Anti-Apartheid Movement (1959 -- 1994), participating in British artists ' refusal to permit professional productions of their work in South Africa in 1963 and in subsequent related campaigns. In "A Play and Its Politics '', a 1985 interview with Nicholas Hern, Pinter described his earlier plays retrospectively from the perspective of the politics of power and the dynamics of oppression.
In his last 25 years, Pinter increasingly focused his essays, interviews and public appearances directly on political issues. He was an officer in International PEN, travelling with American playwright Arthur Miller to Turkey in 1985 on a mission co-sponsored with a Helsinki Watch committee to investigate and protest against the torture of imprisoned writers. There he met victims of political oppression and their families. Pinter 's experiences in Turkey and his knowledge of the Turkish suppression of the Kurdish language inspired his 1988 play Mountain Language. He was also an active member of the Cuba Solidarity Campaign, an organisation that "campaigns in the UK against the US blockade of Cuba ''. In 2001 Pinter joined the International Committee to Defend Slobodan Milošević (ICDSM), which appealed for a fair trial and for the freedom of Slobodan Milošević, signing a related "Artists ' Appeal for Milošević '' in 2004.
Pinter strongly opposed the 1991 Gulf War, the 1999 NATO bombing campaign in Yugoslavia during the Kosovo War, the United States ' 2001 War in Afghanistan, and the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. Among his provocative political statements, Pinter called Prime Minister Tony Blair a "deluded idiot '' and compared the administration of President George W. Bush to Nazi Germany. He stated that the United States "was charging towards world domination while the American public and Britain 's ' mass - murdering ' prime minister sat back and watched. '' He was very active in the antiwar movement in the United Kingdom, speaking at rallies held by the Stop the War Coalition and frequently criticising American aggression, as when he asked rhetorically, in his acceptance speech for the Wilfred Owen Award for Poetry on 18 March 2007: "What would Wilfred Owen make of the invasion of Iraq? A bandit act, an act of blatant state terrorism, demonstrating absolute contempt for the conception of international law. ''
Harold Pinter earned a reputation for being notoriously pugnacious, enigmatic, taciturn, terse, prickly, explosive and forbidding. Pinter 's blunt political statements, and the award of the Nobel Prize in Literature, elicited strong criticism and even, at times, provoked ridicule and personal attacks. The historian Geoffrey Alderman, author of the official history of Hackney Downs School, expressed his own "Jewish View '' of Harold Pinter: "Whatever his merit as a writer, actor and director, on an ethical plane Harold Pinter seems to me to have been intensely flawed, and his moral compass deeply fractured. '' David Edgar, writing in The Guardian, defended Pinter against what he termed Pinter 's "being berated by the belligerati '' like Johann Hari, who felt that he did not "deserve '' to win the Nobel Prize. Later Pinter continued to campaign against the Iraq War and on behalf of other political causes that he supported. As Alderman points out, for example, Pinter signed the mission statement of Jews for Justice for Palestinians in 2005 and its full - page advertisement, "What Is Israel Doing? A Call by Jews in Britain '', published in The Times on 6 July 2006, and he was a patron of the Palestine Festival of Literature.
Pinter 's acting career spanned over 50 years and, although he often played villains, included a wide range of roles on stage and in radio, film, and television. In addition to roles in radio and television adaptations of his own plays and dramatic sketches, early in his screenwriting career he made several cameo appearances in films based on his own screenplays; for example, as a society man in The Servant (1963) and as Mr. Bell in Accident (1967), both directed by Joseph Losey; and as a bookshop customer in his later film Turtle Diary (1985), starring Michael Gambon, Glenda Jackson, and Ben Kingsley.
Pinter 's notable film and television roles included the corrupt lawyer Saul Abrahams, opposite Peter O'Toole, in BBC TV 's Rogue Male (1976), a remake of the 1941 film noir Man Hunt, released on DVD in 2002; and a drunk Irish journalist in Langrishe, Go Down (starring Judi Dench and Jeremy Irons) distributed on BBC Two in 1978 and released in movie theatres in 2002. Pinter 's later film roles included the criminal Sam Ross in Mojo (1997), written and directed by Jez Butterworth, based on Butterworth 's play of the same name; Sir Thomas Bertram (his most substantial feature - film role) in Mansfield Park (1998), a character that Pinter described as "a very civilised man... a man of great sensibility but in fact, he 's upholding and sustaining a totally brutal system (the slave trade) from which he derives his money ''; and Uncle Benny, opposite Pierce Brosnan and Geoffrey Rush, in The Tailor of Panama (2001). In television films, he played Mr. Bearing, the father of ovarian cancer patient Vivian Bearing, played by Emma Thompson in Mike Nichols 's HBO film of the Pulitzer Prize - winning play Wit (2001); and the Director opposite John Gielgud (Gielgud 's last role) and Rebecca Pidgeon in Catastrophe, by Samuel Beckett, directed by David Mamet as part of Beckett on Film (2001).
Pinter began to direct more frequently during the 1970s, becoming an associate director of the National Theatre (NT) in 1973. He directed almost 50 productions of his own and others ' plays for stage, film, and television, including 10 productions of works by Simon Gray: the stage and / or film premières of Butley (stage, 1971; film, 1974), Otherwise Engaged (1975), The Rear Column (stage, 1978; TV, 1980), Close of Play (NT, 1979), Quartermaine 's Terms (1981), Life Support (1997), The Late Middle Classes (1999), and The Old Masters (2004). Several of those productions starred Alan Bates (1934 -- 2003), who originated the stage and screen roles of not only Butley but also Mick in Pinter 's first major commercial success, The Caretaker (stage, 1960; film, 1964); and in Pinter 's double - bill produced at the Lyric Hammersmith in 1984, he played Nicolas in One for the Road and the cab driver in Victoria Station. Among over 35 plays that Pinter directed were Next of Kin (1974), by John Hopkins; Blithe Spirit (1976), by Noël Coward; The Innocents (1976), by William Archibald; Circe and Bravo (1986), by Donald Freed; Taking Sides (1995), by Ronald Harwood; and Twelve Angry Men (1996), by Reginald Rose.
Pinter was the author of 29 plays and 15 dramatic sketches and the co-author of two works for stage and radio. He was considered to have been one of the most influential modern British dramatists, Along with the 1967 Tony Award for Best Play for The Homecoming and several other American awards and award nominations, he and his plays received many awards in the UK and elsewhere throughout the world. His style has entered the English language as an adjective, "Pinteresque '', although Pinter himself disliked the term and found it meaningless.
Pinter 's first play, The Room, written and first performed in 1957, was a student production at the University of Bristol, directed by his good friend, actor Henry Woolf, who also originated the role of Mr. Kidd (which he reprised in 2001 and 2007). After Pinter mentioned that he had an idea for a play, Woolf asked him to write it so that he could direct it to fulfill a requirement for his postgraduate work. Pinter wrote it in three days. The production was described by Billington as "a staggeringly confident debut which attracted the attention of a young producer, Michael Codron, who decided to present Pinter 's next play, The Birthday Party, at the Lyric Hammersmith, in 1958. ''
Written in 1957 and produced in 1958, Pinter 's second play, The Birthday Party, one of his best - known works, was initially both a commercial and critical disaster, despite an enthusiastic review in The Sunday Times by its influential drama critic Harold Hobson, which appeared only after the production had closed and could not be reprieved. Critical accounts often quote Hobson:
I am well aware that Mr Pinter (') s play received extremely bad notices last Tuesday morning. At the moment I write these (words) it is uncertain even whether the play will still be in the bill by the time they appear, though it is probable it will soon be seen elsewhere. Deliberately, I am willing to risk whatever reputation I have as a judge of plays by saying that The Birthday Party is not a Fourth, not even a Second, but a First (as in Class Honours); and that Pinter, on the evidence of his work, possesses the most original, disturbing and arresting talent in theatrical London... Mr Pinter and The Birthday Party, despite their experiences last week, will be heard of again. Make a note of their names.
Pinter himself and later critics generally credited Hobson as bolstering him and perhaps even rescuing his career.
In a review published in 1958, borrowing from the subtitle of The Lunatic View: A Comedy of Menace, a play by David Campton, critic Irving Wardle called Pinter 's early plays "comedy of menace '' -- a label that people have applied repeatedly to his work. Such plays begin with an apparently innocent situation that becomes both threatening and "absurd '' as Pinter 's characters behave in ways often perceived as inexplicable by his audiences and one another. Pinter acknowledges the influence of Samuel Beckett, particularly on his early work; they became friends, sending each other drafts of their works in progress for comments.
Pinter wrote The Hothouse in 1958, which he shelved for over 20 years (See "Overtly political plays and sketches '' below). Next he wrote The Dumb Waiter (1959), which premièred in Germany and was then produced in a double bill with The Room at the Hampstead Theatre Club, in London, in 1960. It was then not produced often until the 1980s, and it has been revived more frequently since 2000, including the West End Trafalgar Studios production in 2007. The first production of The Caretaker, at the Arts Theatre Club, in London, in 1960, established Pinter 's theatrical reputation. The play transferred to the Duchess Theatre in May 1960 and ran for 444 performances, receiving an Evening Standard Award for best play of 1960. Large radio and television audiences for his one - act play A Night Out, along with the popularity of his revue sketches, propelled him to further critical attention. In 1964, The Birthday Party was revived both on television (with Pinter himself in the role of Goldberg) and on stage (directed by Pinter at the Aldwych Theatre) and was well received.
By the time Peter Hall 's London production of The Homecoming (1964) reached Broadway in 1967, Pinter had become a celebrity playwright, and the play garnered four Tony Awards, among other awards. During this period, Pinter also wrote the radio play A Slight Ache, first broadcast on the BBC Third Programme in 1959 and then adapted to the stage and performed at the Arts Theatre Club in 1961. A Night Out (1960) was broadcast to a large audience on Associated British Corporation 's television show Armchair Theatre, after being transmitted on BBC Radio 3, also in 1960. His play Night School was first televised in 1960 on Associated Rediffusion. The Collection premièred at the Aldwych Theatre in 1962, and The Dwarfs, adapted from Pinter 's then unpublished novel of the same title, was first broadcast on radio in 1960, then adapted for the stage (also at the Arts Theatre Club) in a double bill with The Lover, which was then televised on Associated Rediffusion in 1963; and Tea Party, a play that Pinter developed from his 1963 short story, first broadcast on BBC TV in 1965.
Working as both a screenwriter and as a playwright, Pinter composed a script called The Compartment (1966), for a trilogy of films to be contributed by Samuel Beckett, Eugène Ionesco, and Pinter, of which only Beckett 's film, titled Film, was actually produced. Then Pinter turned his unfilmed script into a television play, which was produced as The Basement, both on BBC 2 and also on stage in 1968.
From the late 1960s through the early 1980s, Pinter wrote a series of plays and sketches that explore complex ambiguities, elegiac mysteries, comic vagaries, and other "quicksand - like '' characteristics of memory and which critics sometimes classify as Pinter 's "memory plays ''. These include Landscape (1968), Silence (1969), Night (1969), Old Times (1971), No Man 's Land (1975), The Proust Screenplay (1977), Betrayal (1978), Family Voices (1981), Victoria Station (1982), and A Kind of Alaska (1982). Some of Pinter 's later plays, including Party Time (1991), Moonlight (1993), Ashes to Ashes (1996), and Celebration (2000), draw upon some features of his "memory '' dramaturgy in their focus on the past in the present, but they have personal and political resonances and other tonal differences from these earlier memory plays.
Following a three - year period of creative drought in the early 1980s after his marriage to Antonia Fraser and the death of Vivien Merchant, Pinter 's plays tended to become shorter and more overtly political, serving as critiques of oppression, torture, and other abuses of human rights, linked by the apparent "invulnerability of power. '' Just before this hiatus, in 1979, Pinter re-discovered his manuscript of The Hothouse, which he had written in 1958 but had set aside; he revised it and then directed its first production himself at Hampstead Theatre in London, in 1980. Like his plays of the 1980s, The Hothouse concerns authoritarianism and the abuses of power politics, but it is also a comedy, like his earlier comedies of menace. Pinter played the major role of Roote in a 1995 revival at the Minerva Theatre, Chichester.
Pinter 's brief dramatic sketch Precisely (1983) is a duologue between two bureaucrats exploring the absurd power politics of mutual nuclear annihilation and deterrence. His first overtly political one - act play is One for the Road (1984). In 1985 Pinter stated that whereas his earlier plays presented metaphors for power and powerlessness, the later ones present literal realities of power and its abuse. Pinter 's "political theater dramatizes the interplay and conflict of the opposing poles of involvement and disengagement. '' Mountain Language (1988) is about the Turkish suppression of the Kurdish language. The dramatic sketch The New World Order (1991) provides what Robert Cushman, writing in The Independent described as "10 nerve wracking minutes '' of two men threatening to torture a third man who is blindfolded, gagged and bound in a chair; Pinter directed the British première at the Royal Court Theatre Upstairs, where it opened on 9 July 1991, and the production then transferred to Washington, D.C., where it was revived in 1994. Pinter 's longer political satire Party Time (1991) premièred at the Almeida Theatre in London, in a double - bill with Mountain Language. Pinter adapted it as a screenplay for television in 1992, directing that production, first broadcast in the UK on Channel 4 on 17 November 1992.
Intertwining political and personal concerns, his next full - length plays, Moonlight (1993) and Ashes to Ashes (1996) are set in domestic households and focus on dying and death; in their personal conversations in Ashes to Ashes, Devlin and Rebecca allude to unspecified atrocities relating to the Holocaust. After experiencing the deaths of first his mother (1992) and then his father (1997), again merging the personal and the political, Pinter wrote the poems "Death '' (1997) and "The Disappeared '' (1998).
Pinter 's last stage play, Celebration (2000), is a social satire set in an opulent restaurant, which lampoons The Ivy, a fashionable venue in London 's West End theatre district, and its patrons who "have just come from performances of either the ballet or the opera. Not that they can remember a darn thing about what they saw, including the titles. (These) gilded, foul - mouthed souls are just as myopic when it comes to their own table mates (and for that matter, their food), with conversations that usually connect only on the surface, if there. '' On its surface the play may appear to have fewer overtly political resonances than some of the plays from the 1980s and 1990s; but its central male characters, brothers named Lambert and Matt, are members of the elite (like the men in charge in Party Time), who describe themselves as "peaceful strategy consultants (because) we do n't carry guns. '' At the next table, Russell, a banker, describes himself as a "totally disordered personality... a psychopath, '' while Lambert "vows to be reincarnated as ' (a) more civilised, (a) gentler person, (a) nicer person '. '' These characters ' deceptively smooth exteriors mask their extreme viciousness. Celebration evokes familiar Pinteresque political contexts: "The ritzy loudmouths in ' Celebration '... and the quieter working - class mumblers of ' The Room '... have everything in common beneath the surface ''. "Money remains in the service of entrenched power, and the brothers in the play are ' strategy consultants ' whose jobs involve force and violence... It is tempting but inaccurate to equate the comic power inversions of the social behavior in Celebration with lasting change in larger political structures '', according to Grimes, for whom the play indicates Pinter 's pessimism about the possibility of changing the status quo. Yet, as the Waiter 's often comically unbelievable reminiscences about his grandfather demonstrate in Celebration, Pinter 's final stage plays also extend some expressionistic aspects of his earlier "memory plays '', while harking back to his "comedies of menace '', as illustrated in the characters and in the Waiter 's final speech:
My grandfather introduced me to the mystery of life and I 'm still in the middle of it. I ca n't find the door to get out. My grandfather got out of it. He got right out of it. He left it behind him and he did n't look back. He got that absolutely right. And I 'd like to make one further interjection. He stands still. Slow fade.
During 2000 -- 2001, there were also simultaneous productions of Remembrance of Things Past, Pinter 's stage adaptation of his unpublished Proust Screenplay, written in collaboration with and directed by Di Trevis, at the Royal National Theatre, and a revival of The Caretaker directed by Patrick Marber and starring Michael Gambon, Rupert Graves, and Douglas Hodge, at the Comedy Theatre.
Like Celebration, Pinter 's penultimate sketch, Press Conference (2002), "invokes both torture and the fragile, circumscribed existence of dissent ''. In its première in the National Theatre 's two - part production of Sketches, despite undergoing chemotherapy at the time, Pinter played the ruthless Minister willing to murder little children for the benefit of "The State ''.
Pinter composed 27 screenplays and film scripts for cinema and television, many of which were filmed, or adapted as stage plays. His fame as a screenwriter began with his three screenplays written for films directed by Joseph Losey, leading to their close friendship: The Servant (1963), based on the novel by Robin Maugham; Accident (1967), adapted from the novel by Nicholas Mosley; and The Go - Between (1971), based on the novel by L.P. Hartley. Films based on Pinter 's adaptations of his own stage plays are: The Caretaker (1963), directed by Clive Donner; The Birthday Party (1968), directed by William Friedkin; The Homecoming (1973), directed by Peter Hall; and Betrayal (1983), directed by David Jones.
Pinter also adapted other writers ' novels to screenplays, including The Pumpkin Eater (1964), based on the novel by Penelope Mortimer, directed by Jack Clayton; The Quiller Memorandum (1966), from the 1965 spy novel The Berlin Memorandum, by Elleston Trevor, directed by Michael Anderson; The Last Tycoon (1976), from the unfinished novel by F. Scott Fitzgerald, directed by Elia Kazan; The French Lieutenant 's Woman (1981), from the novel by John Fowles, directed by Karel Reisz; Turtle Diary (1985), based on the novel by Russell Hoban; The Heat of the Day (1988), a television film, from the 1949 novel by Elizabeth Bowen; The Comfort of Strangers (1990), from the novel by Ian McEwan, directed by Paul Schrader; and The Trial (1993), from the novel by Franz Kafka, directed by David Jones.
His commissioned screenplays of others ' works for the films The Handmaid 's Tale (1990), The Remains of the Day (1990), and Lolita (1997), remain unpublished and in the case of the latter two films, uncredited, though several scenes from or aspects of his scripts were used in these finished films. His screenplays The Proust Screenplay (1972), Victory (1982), and The Dreaming Child (1997) and his unpublished screenplay The Tragedy of King Lear (2000) have not been filmed. A section of Pinter 's Proust Screenplay was, however, released as the 1984 film Swann in Love (Un amour de Swann), directed by Volker Schlöndorff, and it was also adapted by Michael Bakewell as a two - hour radio drama broadcast on BBC Radio 3 in 1995, before Pinter and director Di Trevis collaborated to adapt it for the 2000 National Theatre production.
Pinter 's last filmed screenplay was an adaptation of the 1970 Tony Award - winning play Sleuth, by Anthony Shaffer, which was commissioned by Jude Law, one of the film 's producers. It is the basis for the 2007 film Sleuth, directed by Kenneth Branagh. Pinter 's screenplays for The French Lieutenant 's Woman and Betrayal were nominated for Academy Awards in 1981 and 1983, respectively.
From 16 to 31 July 2001, a Harold Pinter Festival celebrating his work, curated by Michael Colgan, artistic director of the Gate Theatre, Dublin, was held as part of the annual Lincoln Center Festival at Lincoln Center in New York City. Pinter participated both as an actor, as Nicolas in One for the Road, and as a director of a double bill pairing his last play, Celebration, with his first play, The Room. As part of a two - week "Harold Pinter Homage '' at the World Leaders Festival of Creative Genius, held from 24 September to 30 October 2001, at the Harbourfront Centre, in Toronto, Canada, Pinter presented a dramatic reading of Celebration (2000) and also participated in a public interview as part of the International Festival of Authors.
In December 2001, Pinter was diagnosed with oesophageal cancer, for which, in 2002, he underwent an operation and chemotherapy. During the course of his treatment, he directed a production of his play No Man 's Land, and wrote and performed in a new sketch, "Press Conference '', for a production of his dramatic sketches at the National Theatre, and from 2002 on he was increasingly active in political causes, writing and presenting politically charged poetry, essays, speeches, as well as involved in developing his final two screenplay adaptations, The Tragedy of King Lear and Sleuth, whose drafts are in the British Library 's Harold Pinter Archive (Add MS 88880 / 2).
From 9 to 25 January 2003, the Manitoba Theatre Centre, in Manitoba, Canada, held a nearly month - long PinterFest, in which over 130 performances of twelve of Pinter 's plays were performed by a dozen different theatre companies. Productions during the Festival included: The Hothouse, Night School, The Lover, The Dumb Waiter, The Homecoming, The Birthday Party, Monologue, One for the Road, The Caretaker, Ashes to Ashes, Celebration, and No Man 's Land.
In 2005, Pinter stated that he had stopped writing plays and that he would be devoting his efforts more to his political activism and writing poetry: "I think I 've written 29 plays. I think it 's enough for me... My energies are going in different directions -- over the last few years I 've made a number of political speeches at various locations and ceremonies... I 'm using a lot of energy more specifically about political states of affairs, which I think are very, very worrying as things stand. '' Some of this later poetry included "The ' Special Relationship ' '', "Laughter '', and "The Watcher ''.
From 2005, Pinter suffered ill health, including a rare skin disease called pemphigus and "a form of septicaemia that afflict (ed) his feet and made it difficult for him to walk. '' Yet, he completed his screenplay for the film of Sleuth in 2005. His last dramatic work for radio, Voices (2005), a collaboration with composer James Clarke, adapting selected works by Pinter to music, premièred on BBC Radio 3 on his 75th birthday on 10 October 2005. Three days later, it was announced that he had won the 2005 Nobel Prize in Literature.
In an interview with Pinter in 2006, conducted by critic Michael Billington as part of the cultural programme of the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy, Pinter confirmed that he would continue to write poetry but not plays. In response, the audience shouted No in unison, urging him to keep writing. Along with the international symposium on Pinter: Passion, Poetry, Politics, curated by Billington, the 2006 Europe Theatre Prize theatrical events celebrating Pinter included new productions (in French) of Precisely (1983), One for the Road (1984), Mountain Language (1988), The New World Order (1991), Party Time (1991), and Press Conference (2002) (French versions by Jean Pavans); and Pinter Plays, Poetry & Prose, an evening of dramatic readings, directed by Alan Stanford, of the Gate Theatre, Dublin. In June 2006, the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) hosted a celebration of Pinter 's films curated by his friend, the playwright David Hare. Hare introduced the selection of film clips by saying: "To jump back into the world of Pinter 's movies... is to remind yourself of a literate mainstream cinema, focused as much as Bergman 's is on the human face, in which tension is maintained by a carefully crafted mix of image and dialogue. ''
After returning to London from the Edinburgh International Book Festival, in September 2006, Pinter began rehearsing for his performance of the role of Krapp in Samuel Beckett 's one - act monologue Krapp 's Last Tape, which he performed from a motorised wheelchair in a limited run the following month at the Royal Court Theatre to sold - out audiences and "ecstatic '' critical reviews. The production ran for only nine performances, as part of the 50th - anniversary celebration season of the Royal Court Theatre; it sold out within minutes of the opening of the box office and tickets commanded large sums from ticket resellers. One performance was filmed and broadcast on BBC Four on 21 June 2007, and also screened later, as part of the memorial PEN Tribute to Pinter, in New York, on 2 May 2009.
In October and November 2006, Sheffield Theatres hosted Pinter: A Celebration. It featured productions of seven of Pinter 's plays: The Caretaker, Voices, No Man 's Land, Family Voices, Tea Party, The Room, One for the Road, and The Dumb Waiter; and films (most his screenplays; some in which Pinter appears as an actor).
In February and March 2007, a 50th anniversary of The Dumb Waiter, was produced at the Trafalgar Studios. Later in February 2007, John Crowley 's film version of Pinter 's play Celebration (2000) was shown on More4 (Channel 4, UK). On 18 March 2007, BBC Radio 3 broadcast a new radio production of The Homecoming, directed by Thea Sharrock and produced by Martin J. Smith, with Pinter performing the role of Max (for the first time; he had previously played Lenny on stage in 1964). A revival of The Hothouse opened at the National Theatre, in London, in July 2007, concurrently with a revival of Betrayal at the Donmar Warehouse, directed by Roger Michell.
Revivals in 2008 included the 40th - anniversary production of the American première of The Homecoming on Broadway, directed by Daniel J. Sullivan. From 8 to 24 May 2008, the Lyric Hammersmith celebrated the 50th anniversary of The Birthday Party with a revival and related events, including a gala performance and reception hosted by Harold Pinter on 19 May 2008, exactly 50 years after its London première there.
The final revival during Pinter 's lifetime was a production of No Man 's Land, directed by Rupert Goold, opening at the Gate Theatre, Dublin, in August 2008, and then transferring to the Duke of York 's Theatre, London, where it played until 3 January 2009. On the Monday before Christmas 2008, Pinter was admitted to Hammersmith Hospital, where he died on Christmas Eve from liver cancer. On 26 December 2008, when No Man 's Land reopened at the Duke of York 's, the actors paid tribute to Pinter from the stage, with Michael Gambon reading Hirst 's monologue about his "photograph album '' from Act Two that Pinter had asked him to read at his funeral, ending with a standing ovation from the audience, many of whom were in tears:
I might even show you my photograph album. You might even see a face in it which might remind you of your own, of what you once were. You might see faces of others, in shadow, or cheeks of others, turning, or jaws, or backs of necks, or eyes, dark under hats, which might remind you of others, whom once you knew, whom you thought long dead, but from whom you will still receive a sidelong glance, if you can face the good ghost. Allow the love of the good ghost. They possess all that emotion... trapped. Bow to it. It will assuredly never release them, but who knows... what relief... it may give them... who knows how they may quicken... in their chains, in their glass jars. You think it cruel... to quicken them, when they are fixed, imprisoned? No... no. Deeply, deeply, they wish to respond to your touch, to your look, and when you smile, their joy... is unbounded. And so I say to you, tender the dead, as you would yourself be tendered, now, in what you would describe as your life.
Pinter 's funeral was a private, half - hour secular ceremony conducted at the graveside at Kensal Green Cemetery, 31 December 2008. The eight readings selected in advance by Pinter included passages from seven of his own writings and from the story "The Dead '', by James Joyce, which was read by actress Penelope Wilton. Michael Gambon read the "photo album '' speech from No Man 's Land and three other readings, including Pinter 's poem "Death '' (1997). Other readings honoured Pinter 's widow and his love of cricket. The ceremony was attended by many notable theatre people, including Tom Stoppard, but not by Pinter 's son, Daniel Brand. At its end, Pinter 's widow, Antonia Fraser, stepped forward to his grave and quoted from Horatio 's speech after the death of Hamlet: "Goodnight, sweet prince, / And flights of angels sing thee to thy rest. ''
The night before Pinter 's burial, theatre marquees on Broadway dimmed their lights for a minute in tribute, and on the final night of No Man 's Land at the Duke of York 's Theatre on 3 January 2009, all of the Ambassador Theatre Group in the West End dimmed their lights for an hour to honour the playwright.
Diane Abbott, the Member of Parliament for Hackney North & Stoke Newington proposed an early day motion in the House of Commons to support a residents ' campaign to restore the Clapton Cinematograph Theatre, established in Lower Clapton Road in 1910, and to turn it into a memorial to Pinter "to honour this Hackney boy turned literary great. '' On 2 May 2009, a free public memorial tribute was held at The Graduate Center of The City University of New York. It was part of the 5th Annual PEN World Voices Festival of International Literature, taking place in New York City. Another memorial celebration, held in the Olivier Theatre, at the Royal National Theatre, in London, on the evening of 7 June 2009, consisted of excerpts and readings from Pinter 's writings by nearly three dozen actors, many of whom were his friends and associates, including: Eileen Atkins, David Bradley, Colin Firth, Henry Goodman, Sheila Hancock, Alan Rickman, Penelope Wilton, Susan Wooldridge, and Henry Woolf; and a troupe of students from the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art, directed by Ian Rickson.
On 16 June 2009, Antonia Fraser officially opened a commemorative room at the Hackney Empire. The theatre also established a writer 's residency in Pinter 's name. Most of issue number 28 of Craig Raine 's Arts Tri-Quarterly Areté was devoted to pieces remembering Pinter, beginning with Pinter 's 1987 unpublished love poem dedicated "To Antonia '' and his poem "Paris '', written in 1975 (the year in which he and Fraser began living together), followed by brief memoirs by some of Pinter 's associates and friends, including Patrick Marber, Nina Raine, Tom Stoppard, Peter Nichols, Susanna Gross, Richard Eyre, and David Hare.
A memorial cricket match at Lord 's Cricket Ground between the Gaieties Cricket Club and the Lord 's Taverners, followed by performances of Pinter 's poems and excerpts from his plays, took place on 27 September 2009.
In 2009, English PEN established the PEN Pinter Prize, which is awarded annually to a British writer or a writer resident in Britain who, in the words of Pinter 's Nobel speech, casts an ' unflinching, unswerving ' gaze upon the world, and shows a ' fierce intellectual determination... to define the real truth of our lives and our societies '. The prize is shared with an international writer of courage. The inaugural winners of the prize were Tony Harrison and the Burmese poet and comedian Maung Thura (a.k.a. Zarganar).
In January 2011 Being Harold Pinter, a theatrical collage of excerpts from Pinter 's dramatic works, his Nobel Lecture, and letters of Belarusian prisoners, created and performed by the Belarus Free Theatre, evoked a great deal of attention in the public media. The Free Theatre 's members had to be smuggled out of Minsk, owing to a government crackdown on dissident artists, to perform their production in a two - week sold - out engagement at La MaMa in New York as part of the 2011 Under the Radar Festival. In an additional sold - out benefit performance at the Public Theater, co-hosted by playwrights Tony Kushner and Tom Stoppard, the prisoner 's letters were read by ten guest performers: Mandy Patinkin, Kevin Kline, Olympia Dukakis, Lily Rabe, Linda Emond, Josh Hamilton, Stephen Spinella, Lou Reed, Laurie Anderson, and Philip Seymour Hoffman. In solidarity with the Belarus Free Theatre, collaborations of actors and theatre companies joined in offering additional benefit readings of Being Harold Pinter across the United States.
In September 2011, British Theatre owners, Ambassador Theatre Group (ATG) announced it was renaming its Comedy Theatre, Panton Street, London to become The Harold Pinter Theatre. Howard Panter, Joint CEO and Creative Director of ATG told the BBC, "The work of Pinter has become an integral part of the history of the Comedy Theatre. The re-naming of one of our most successful West End theatres is a fitting tribute to a man who made such a mark on British theatre who, over his 50 year career, became recognised as one of the most influential modern British dramatists. ''
An Honorary Associate of the National Secular Society, a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature, and an Honorary Fellow of the Modern Language Association of America (1970), Pinter was appointed CBE in 1966 and became a Companion of Honour in 2002, having declined a knighthood in 1996. In 1995, he accepted the David Cohen Prize, in recognition of a lifetime of literary achievement. In 1996, he received a Laurence Olivier Special Award for lifetime achievement in the theatre. In 1997 he became a BAFTA Fellow. He received the World Leaders Award for "Creative Genius '' as the subject of a week - long "Homage '' in Toronto, in October 2001. In 2004, he received the Wilfred Owen Award for Poetry for his "lifelong contribution to literature, ' and specifically for his collection of poetry entitled War, published in 2003 ' ''. In March 2006, he was awarded the Europe Theatre Prize in recognition of lifetime achievements pertaining to drama and theatre. In conjunction with that award, the critic Michael Billington coordinated an international conference on Pinter: Passion, Poetry, Politics, including scholars and critics from Europe and the Americas, held in Turin, Italy, from 10 to 14 March 2006.
In October 2008, the Central School of Speech and Drama announced that Pinter had agreed to become its president and awarded him an honorary fellowship at its graduation ceremony. On his appointment, Pinter commented: "I was a student at Central in 1950 -- 51. I enjoyed my time there very much and I am delighted to become president of a remarkable institution. '' But he had to receive that honorary degree, his 20th, in absentia owing to ill health. His presidency of the school was brief; he died just two weeks after the graduation ceremony, on 24 December 2008.
On 13 October 2005, the Swedish Academy announced that it had decided to award the Nobel Prize in Literature for that year to Pinter, who "in his plays uncovers the precipice under everyday prattle and forces entry into oppression 's closed rooms ''. Its selection instigated some public controversy and criticism relating both to characteristics of Pinter 's work and to his politics. When interviewed that day about his reaction to the announcement, Pinter said: "I was told today that one of the Sky channels said this morning that ' Harold Pinter is dead. ' Then they changed their mind and said, ' No, he 's won the Nobel prize. ' So I 've risen from the dead. '' The Nobel Prize Awards Ceremony and related events throughout Scandinavia took place in December 2005. After the Academy notified Pinter of his award, he had planned to travel to Stockholm to present his Nobel Lecture in person. In November, however, his doctor sent him to hospital and barred such travel, after a serious infection was diagnosed. Pinter 's publisher, Stephen Page of Faber and Faber, accepted the Nobel Diploma and Nobel Medal at the Awards Ceremony in his place.
Although still being treated in hospital, Pinter videotaped his Nobel Lecture, "Art, Truth and Politics '', at a Channel 4 studio. It was projected on three large screens at the Swedish Academy on the evening of 7 December 2005, and transmitted on More 4 that same evening in the UK. The 46 - minute lecture was introduced on television by David Hare. Later, the text and streaming video formats (without Hare 's introduction) were posted on the Nobel Prize and Swedish Academy official websites. It has since been released as a DVD.
Pinter quoted Father John Metcalf speaking to Raymond Seitz, then Minister at the US Embassy in London, "My parishioners (in Nicaragua) built a school, a health centre, a cultural centre. We have lived in peace. A few months ago a Contra force attacked the parish. They destroyed everything: the school, the health centre, the cultural centre. They raped nurses and teachers, slaughtered doctors, in the most brutal manner. They behaved like savages. Please demand that the US government withdraw its support from this shocking terrorist activity. '' Seitz responded, "Let me tell you something. In war, innocent people always suffer. '' Pinter called the US invasion of Iraq "an arbitrary military action inspired by a series of lies upon lies and gross manipulation of the media and therefore of the public '', and condemned the British government for its cooperation.
Pinter 's lecture has been widely distributed by print and online media and has provoked much commentary and debate, with some commentators accusing Pinter of "anti-Americanism ''. In his Nobel Lecture, however, Pinter emphasises that he criticises policies and practices of American administrations (and those who voted for them), not all American citizens, many of whom he recognises as "demonstrably sickened, shamed and angered by their government 's actions ''.
On 18 January 2007, French Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin presented Pinter with France 's highest civil honour, the Légion d'honneur, at a ceremony at the French embassy in London. De Villepin praised Pinter 's poem "American Football '' (1991) stating: "With its violence and its cruelty, it is for me one of the most accurate images of war, one of the most telling metaphors of the temptation of imperialism and violence. '' In response, Pinter praised France 's opposition to the war in Iraq. M. de Villepin concluded: "The poet stands still and observes what does n't deserve other men 's attention. Poetry teaches us how to live and you, Harold Pinter, teach us how to live. '' He said that Pinter received the award particularly "because in seeking to capture all the facets of the human spirit, (Pinter 's) works respond to the aspirations of the French public, and its taste for an understanding of man and of what is truly universal ''. Lawrence Pollard observed that "the award for the great playwright underlines how much Mr Pinter is admired in countries like France as a model of the uncompromising radical intellectual ''.
Some scholars and critics challenge the validity of Pinter 's critiques of what he terms "the modes of thinking of those in power '' or dissent from his retrospective viewpoints on his own work. In 1985, Pinter recalled that his early act of conscientious objection resulted from being "terribly disturbed as a young man by the Cold War. And McCarthyism... A profound hypocrisy. ' They ' the monsters, ' we ' the good. In 1948, the Russian suppression of Eastern Europe was an obvious and brutal fact, but I felt very strongly then and feel as strongly now that we have an obligation to subject our own actions and attitudes to an equivalent critical and moral scrutiny. '' Scholars agree that Pinter 's dramatic rendering of power relations results from this scrutiny.
Pinter 's aversion to any censorship by "the authorities '' is epitomised in Petey 's line at the end of The Birthday Party. As the broken - down and reconstituted Stanley is being carted off by the figures of authority Goldberg and McCann, Petey calls after him, "Stan, do n't let them tell you what to do! '' Pinter told Gussow in 1988, "I 've lived that line all my damn life. Never more than now. '' The example of Pinter 's stalwart opposition to what he termed "the modes of thinking of those in power '' -- the "brick wall '' of the "minds '' perpetuating the "status quo '' -- infused the "vast political pessimism '' that some academic critics may perceive in his artistic work, its "drowning landscape '' of harsh contemporary realities, with some residual "hope for restoring the dignity of man. ''
As Pinter 's long - time friend David Jones reminded analytically inclined scholars and dramatic critics, Pinter was one of the "great comic writers '':
The trap with Harold 's work, for performers and audiences, is to approach it too earnestly or portentously. I have always tried to interpret his plays with as much humor and humanity as possible. There is always mischief lurking in the darkest corners. The world of The Caretaker is a bleak one, its characters damaged and lonely. But they are all going to survive. And in their dance to that end they show a frenetic vitality and a wry sense of the ridiculous that balance heartache and laughter. Funny, but not too funny. As Pinter wrote, back in 1960: "As far as I am concerned The Caretaker IS funny, up to a point. Beyond that point, it ceases to be funny, and it is because of that point that I wrote it. ''
His dramatic conflicts present serious implications for his characters and his audiences, leading to sustained inquiry about "the point '' of his work and multiple "critical strategies '' for developing interpretations and stylistic analyses of it.
Pinter 's unpublished manuscripts and letters to and from him are held in the Harold Pinter Archive in the Modern Literary Manuscripts division of the British Library. Smaller collections of Pinter manuscripts are in the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center, the University of Texas at Austin; The Lilly Library, Indiana University at Bloomington; the Mandeville Special Collections Library, Geisel Library, at the University of California, San Diego; the British Film Institute, in London; and the Margaret Herrick Library, Pickford Center for Motion Picture Study, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, Beverly Hills, California.
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is chloe from dance moms in a movie | Chloe Lukasiak - wikipedia
Chloe Elizabeth Lukasiak (born May 25, 2001) is an American dancer, television personality, actress and model. She is best known for being an original cast member of Lifetime 's reality television series Dance Moms during Season 1 through Season 4.
Chloe Lukasiak was born on May 25, 2001 in Churchill, Pennsylvania to Christi Zook Lukasiak and Marc Lukasiak. She is the older sister of Clara Lukasiak. The family resides in Mars, Pennsylvania.
Lukasiak began dance classes at Abby Lee Dance Company at age two. At first, she did "the basics '' such as jazz and ballet. But as she got older she started to do more styles and has trained in everything except ballroom. From the ages of four to thirteen, Lukasiak competed throughout the United States as part of ALDC, winning numerous titles at the regional, state, and national levels at the few small competitions that would allow filming for Dance Moms, including Junior Miss Dance Masters of America 2011. Lukasiak competed on Dance Moms in many dance genres: lyrical, contemporary, musical theatre, ballet, jazz, hip - hop, acro, and Bollywood.
In 2011, Lukasiak and her mother, alongside Abby Lee Dance Company owner Abby Lee Miller, other young dancers, and their mothers, were cast on Lifetime 's Dance Moms. Together they made up Miller 's Junior Elite Competition Team.
After the Los Angeles national competition in July 2014 (filmed for an episode aired October 7, 2014), Lukasiak 's mother decided that the environment of the TV show along with her own negative relationship with Miller was detrimental to her daughter and they decided to leave ALDC. The finale episode of Season 4 was their last appearance on Dance Moms because of a comment made by Miller about Lukasiak 's eye.
After leaving "Dance Moms '', Lukasiak became active on her YouTube channel, gaining over 100 million views and over 1 million subscribers as of May 2016. On September 17, 2016, Chloe started a vlogging YouTube channel called "MoreChloeLukasiak ''.
Lukasiak 's competition team from Studio 19 Dance Complex went on to win nationals in July 2015. She won "Choice Dancer '' at the 2015 Teen Choice Awards and the "Dancers Choice Award '' for "Favorite Dancer 17 & Under '' at the 2015 Industry Dance Awards. She was nominated for a Shorty Award but lost to Misty Copeland. She was once again nominated for the 2016 Teen Choice Awards "Choice Dancer '', but lost to Maddie Ziegler.
Lukasiak became a spokesmodel for Just For Kix, an American dancewear company, in October 2014. With the company 's partnership, she created an anti-bullying campaign called # NobodyisYOU. She was featured in several music videos relating to the cause alongside dancers such as Averee Jade.
Lukasiak has appeared in numerous music videos, as during the filming of Dance Moms she appeared in videos for artists Brooke Hyland and LUX (daughter of actor Ted Danson). On February 25, 2015, she appeared as the lead for Jess Godwin 's song "Fool Me Once ''. She also has appeared in videos for Solveig Romero 's "Turn It Up '' and Bianca Ryan 's "Alice ''. On July 6, 2016, Lukasiak revealed via Twitter that she will be featured in AJ Lehrman 's music video for his new single "Tongue ''.
Lukasiak began modeling for such fashion lines as Glitzy Girl, 90 Degree by Reflex, and Sally Miller in 2015. In 2016, Chloe became the new face of StyleHaul.
Lukasiak was cast as Gwen Murphy in the Lifetime TV movie Center Stage: On Pointe. The movie aired on June 25, 2016. The film was shot in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, and filming concluded in November 2015. She was later cast as Savannah Stocker in Cowgirl 's Story alongside former Bridge to Terabithia (2007 film) star Bailee Madison. In 2016, Lukasiak partnered with Ownzones.com to launch her web series called Chloe On Pointe. On June 13, 2016, Lukasiak partnered with Playtex Sport and starred in their "Ready, Set, Play On! '' campaign commercial. Chloe will also be apart of the miniseries "Welcome to My World '' and will play Flynn Harrington.
On January 27, 2017, Lukasiak announced that she would return to guest star on Dance Moms for the Season 7 finale and Season 7B. She is also designing her own clothing line, as she revealed in an interview with Teen Vogue. In April 2017, Lukasiak announced that she was coming out with a web series through LifeTime called "Chloe Does It ''. In an interview with AOL Chloe explained that her family decided to guest star on "Dance Moms '' for the Season 7 finale and Season 7 B so that she could give everyone on the show a finale goodbye. On April 11, 2017 Chloe announced that her debut book "Girl on Pointe: Chloe 's Guide to Taking on the World '' will be released on January 23, 2018.
In an interview, Lukasiak said she practices dancing four days a week except when she is traveling. She stopped competing in dance competitions in 2016 due to her growing list of commitments. Outside of dance Lukasiak makes time for friends including her former ALDC teammates Paige Hyland, Nia Frazier, and Brooke Hyland.
In 2015 Lukasiak dated "Best Friends Whenever '' star Ricky Garcia. They broke up in 2016 due to their busy schedules.
In an interview released on June 15, 2016, Lukasiak said she was grateful to Dance Moms because it showed her how much she loves acting and that she has a passion for it. In 2015 Lukasiak was diagnosed with silent sinus syndrome. She underwent eye surgery to correct the condition.
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when does summer break start for elementary schools | Summer vacation - wikipedia
Summer vacation (also called summer holiday or summer break) is a school holiday in summer between school years and the longest break in the school year. Students and instructors are off school typically between 8 and 14 weeks, depending on the country and district. In the United States, summer break is approximately 2.5 months, with students typically getting out of school between late May and mid-June and starting the new school year between mid-August and early September. In Republic of Ireland, Italy, Greece, Lithuania, Latvia, Lebanon, Romania and Russia, the summer break is normally three months, compared to six to eight weeks in Australia, Britain, Canada, India, Denmark, The Netherlands, and Germany.
In some countries, school summer vacation is only six weeks or two months supposedly so students do n't forget large amounts of information learned in the past year (See: Summer learning loss). Other education reformers believed that children were overstimulated in a system which required 48 weeks of schooling. They believe that over-schooling could lead to nervous disorders, depression, insanity, and separation anxiety towards families. They believe that children need the 2 -- 3 months off to relax and also to take a break from other childhood stresses associated with school such as peer pressure, cliques, bullying, and the pressure of heavy loads of homework.
Some critics of summer vacation point out that American students spend approximately 180 days (26 weeks) per year in school, but Asian students are "in school for 240 to 250 days ''. This is consistent with the conclusions of researchers who suggest that advanced abilities are in proportion to the time spent learning. Summer holidays in Japan start from late July until early September.
In Argentina, the school year ends in early - or mid-December and starts late February or early March. Also the majority of students get two weeks of holidays during winter, which varies depending on the region of the country from early June to late July or mid-July to early August.
In Australia, summer officially lasts from December to February, and therefore includes Christmas and New Year holidays. The dates of Australian school holidays (the term used, rather than "vacation '') are determined by each state 's Department of Education, the Christmas summer holiday being the longest in duration. Typically Christmas summer holiday in Australia last approximately six weeks, usually from late December (depending on school level) to late January. This is significantly shorter than North American summer holiday, but Australian schools also break for 2 weeks at Easter, and in June and September, giving students and teachers a total of twelve weeks of annual holidays. In many public schools, years 10 through 12 will finish before December 15, allowing time to complete exam marking and results. Year 10 commonly finishes at the end of November, Year 11 at the end of October, and year 12 (Senior Year) also at mid or the end of October after 3 weeks of end - of - year exams. This can bring the normal 12 weeks of vacation to 20 weeks of vacation. The intervening periods of school operation without holidays are called "School Terms '', each term lasting approximately ten weeks. All Australian states have relatively similar holiday periods between each term, but there is the ability for this to change, as it did in the Melbourne 2006 Commonwealth Games, when the first term in Victorian schools was shortened to 6 weeks and the other subsequently extended to 12 weeks due to severe disruptions to the public and private bus networks used by school students. Most private schools in Australia have up to four weeks of additional holidays, due to their longer teaching hours during term.
In Austria, summer vacation dates vary by region, however the break lasts nine weeks throughout the whole country. School usually ends in early July and starts in early September. In the regions of Vienna, Lower Austria and the Burgenland summer break starts on the first Saturday in July and one week later in Carinthia, Styria, the Tyrol, Vorarlberg, Salzburg and Upper Austria. School recommences on the first Monday in September in Vienna, Lower Austria and the Burgenland and on the second Monday of September in the other regions.
In Bangladesh, summer vacation begins in mid-May and ends in mid June (4 weeks). According to Bengali calendar summer vacation related with availability of different kinds of summer fruits in the month of Joishtho (mid May to mid June). This is slightly odd for schools to open before the summer solstice begins. Also, it is becoming difficult for children to attend school in high temperatures.
In Barbados, summer holiday dates have varied throughout the years due to the beginning of the hurricane season on June 1st. Because of this, major storms affecting the island can cause school to remain closed for days resulting in a pushback of vacation dates. For example, in 2010 with Hurricane Tomas. Recently, summer holiday begins in late - June or early - July and ends in the second week on September.
In Belgium, summer vacation lasts from July 1 until September 1 (2 months).
In Bolivia, summer vacation runs from early December to early February (2 months).
In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the start of summer break varies by school, but usually starts at the beginning or mid-June. School starts on the first Monday of September. There is also a three - to - four weeks long break during winter (typically starting on 31 December). School is not out on Christmas or Easter, but students who celebrate those holidays are allowed to miss that day of school.
In Brazil, summer break lasts between 50 and 60 days; from late November - early December, to early February, typically February 14 -- 25. In addition, for the majority of Brazilian students there are two to three weeks off for Winter in July.
In Bulgaria, the time of the break differs according to the grade of the students. The following periods are applied:
1st grade: May 24 -- September 15
2nd - 4th grade: May 31 -- September 15
5th - 7th grade: June 15 -- September 15
8th - 11th grade: June 30 -- September 15
12th grade: School year ends in mid-May.
Note that 8th grade classes that focus on intensive language learning 's summer vacation also starts on the 30th of June, rather than the 15th.
In Canada, the first day of summer vacation for public schools is the last Saturday in June. However, in some provinces students get a Professional Activity day on the final Friday of that school week, and their last day would be on the Thursday. Depending on the province, students can get 2 -- 3 months of summer vacation. This may vary in Quebec (earlier due to provincial June 24 holiday). The last day of summer vacation is Labour Day. This can vary in Private schools. School generally resumes the day after Labour Day (in September). Most have two weeks off for Christmas and New Year, and a week off in March or April for Spring Break (sometimes called March Break or Easter Break).
In Chile, summer vacation lasts from early or mid-December until late February or early March (10, 11 or 12 weeks). In addition, schools have two or three weeks off for Winter in July, and one - week - long break for National Holidays in mid-September.
In the People 's Republic of China, summer holidays start in early July and often end in early September (2 months).
In Colombia, summer vacation varies. Because of Colombia 's equatorial climate (see Climate of Colombia for more information), schools run two different calendars. Public schools and some private schools run "Calendar A '' which has a break between June and July. Only some private schools run "Calendar B '' in which there is a long vacation in July and August. On the other hand, "Calendar A '' has a long vacation around Christmas.
In Costa Rica, summer vacation lasts 2 months. Usually begin in late December and end in early February. There are a few schools using the "american '' style, those school usually take vacations in late May and then resume again in early August.
In Croatia, school year is over around 10th June and it usually starts on the first Monday of September, but if the first Monday is on 1st or 2nd September school year is more likely to start on the second Monday. Winter break usually begins a few days before Christmas and it lasts until mid January. Eastern break lasts 10 days.
In the Czech Republic, summer holiday begins on July 1 and ends on August 31 (2 months).
In Denmark, summer break lasts from the end of June to early or mid-August (6 weeks). High schools (colleges) usually return to school in early August, but for younger students it can be in the middle.
In Ecuador, summer vacation varies. Because of Ecuador 's equatorial climate (see Climate of Ecuador for more information), schools run two different calendars. The Coastal region runs vacation January or February, but in the Sierra region, summer vacation follows the pattern in July and August.
In Egypt, summer break lasts from the beginning or the middle of June until the middle of September (3 Months -- 14 Weeks) in public schools, though length slightly differs according to age. In most private schools, summer break lasts from the middle or end of June to the beginning of September (2.5 Months -- 10 Weeks)
In Estonia, summer holidays start in the beginning of June, the date ranging for different grades. School begins every year on September 1, with a week off in autumn, 2 weeks off at Christmas and a week in spring.
In Ethiopia, the school year usually ends in late May to mid-June and begins in mid-September (8 to 12 weeks).
In Finland, summer vacation starts on Saturday in late May, or in the beginning of June. The vacation lasts for 2 ⁄ to 3 months. Usually, school starts again on August 7 to 18.
In France, summer vacation usually consist of July and August (2 months). But in secondary school, students finish mid-June because of the senior 's exams. This may vary for private schools.
In Germany, summer vacation lasts six and a half weeks. The exact dates vary by state as well as from one to the next year, from the earliest (mid-June to late July) to the latest (late July to early September). In Germany the annual holidays are split into winter holidays (about one week), Easter holidays (mostly about two weeks), summer holiday (about six and a half weeks), autumn holidays (about one to two weeks) and Christmas holidays (about one to two weeks). Some states like Bavaria also have holidays for Pentecost. Summed up over the whole year the holidays are about thirteen weeks.
In Greece, the summer vacation lasts for 3 months. Schools close June 15 and reopen on September 11. Universities generally close mid-July but with great differences between faculties.
In Guatemala, the summer holidays start in middle October and end in early January (approx 12 weeks).
In Guyana, the summer holidays start in early July and end in early September (2 months).
In Hungary, summer vacation usually lasts from mid-June to early September (11 or 12 weeks).
In Hong Kong, summer vacation normally begins in mid-July and ends on the beginning of September (6 -- 7 weeks) for most public schools. However, the starting and ending times of international schools are variable. For example, most ESF - based schools start in late June and finish mid-August (7 weeks).
In Iceland, the duration of the summer vacation can vary from one school to another. Typically students go on a summer vacation during the first week of June and return to school in the 4th week of August.
India covers a wide spectrum of climates, resulting in a large variation in times and durations of summer vacation. Different parts of the country face different climatic conditions at the same time.
In northern India, Summer Vacation typically begins in the second week of May and ends by the last week of June, except in Kashmir Valley, where summer vacation is only for ten days, with a long winter break from mid-December to the end of February instead.
In central India, summer vacation begins in mid-April and school re-opens in mid-June.
In the south, school ends in the last week of March and begins again in beginning of June.
In the north - eastern states, a new school year commences before the holidays, on April. A few weeks later, schools break for summer vacation between May and June, during the hottest months of the year.
Moreover, in most schools, summer vacation lasts for no more than six weeks in most schools. The duration may decrease to as little as three weeks for older students, with the exception of two month breaks being scheduled to allow some high school and university students to participate in internship and summer school programmes.
In Iran, summer vacation lasts 3 months. Schools close in late June and reopen in late September
In Iraq, summer vacation begins in late May and ends in late September, but the 12th grade vacation begins in late June and ends in mid-October.
In the Republic of Ireland, most secondary schools start summer holidays the first week of June, or at the end of the Junior Certificate and Leaving Certificate exams (approximately 20th June), and do n't return until 20 - 26th August. Other holidays include two weeks for Easter and another two for Christmas and New Year, as well as two midterms with one in October / November during the week of Halloween and one usually in the month of February. Primary schools in the Republic of Ireland work sixteen days longer, so they start their summer holiday at the end of June but do not return until the first week of September. Private schools in the Republic of Ireland follow the same pattern.
The start of the summer vacation for middle schools and high schools is on June 20 and the end is August 31 (two months and 10 days) and the summer vacation for primary schools and kindergartens start on July 1 and ends on August 31 (two months).
In Italy, summer vacation for elementary, middle and high schools normally starts on the second week of June and lasts until the first week of September included, for a total of three months. For kindergartens, summer vacation starts at the end of May and lasts until the first week of September. Final term examinations for middle school and high school are held until the end of June.
In Jamaica, summer holidays for primary and secondary schools starts in the first week of July and ends in the first week of September which gives a duration of about eight weeks.
These schools also have term breaks at Christmas (typically two weeks) and Easter (typically one and a half weeks), as well as mid-term breaks of a few days each usually around National Heroes Day in the Christmas (First) Term, Ash Wednesday in the Easter (Second) Term and Labour Day in the Summer (Third) term.
At the start of each year The Ministry of Education provides dates for each term and suggested dates for mid-term breaks for primary and secondary schools. These dates might be adjusted based on circumstance such as the loss of teaching time caused by the passage of a hurricane.
Tertiary institutions using the semester system typically have summer holidays starting in May (at the end of examinations) and ending in early September. This can, however, vary among institutions.
In Japan, the summer vacation generally lasts from late July to early September, and due to the way education in Japan is structured, it takes place within a school year.
In Jordan, summer vacation lasts almost 3 months and most schools take summer vacation from mid-June to mid-September.
In Kuwait, summer vacation for elementary and middle school, (1st to 9th grade) starts at the end of May or at the beginning of June and ends at mid to late September, sometimes as far as early October. For high school students, (10th to 12th grade) it starts on June 19 -- 20 and ends at the same time as elementary and middle school.
In Lebanon, summer vacation lasts almost 3 months and most schools take summer vacation from mid-June to mid-September.
In Libya, summer break lasts from the beginning or the middle of June until the middle of September (3 Months -- 14 Weeks). There are 5 other smaller vacations: Mid-year two - week break around February and two Hijri Lunar calendar 3 - Day religious breaks for Eid Fitr (25 June in 217) and Eid Adha (1 Sept in 2017).
In Lithuania, summer vacation starts in June 1 and ends on September 1 with the start of a new school year (3 months).
In Luxembourg, summer vacation starts on July 16 and ends on September 15, lasting a total of two months. There are 5 other smaller vacations: All Saints (1 week), Christmas (2 weeks), Carnival (1 week), Easter (2 weeks), Pentecost (1 week).
In Macedonia, the summer vacation starts on June 10 and ends on September 1 in every school.
In Malta, the summer holidays usually last from the end of June until the end of September (3 months).
In Moldova, summer vacation begins on 1 June and ends in 1 September (3 months).
In Morocco, summer vacation lasts from June 20 until the beginning of September (2 months).
In Mexico, summer vacation starts in early July and finishes in mid-August since 2000. In addition, Mexican children get two or three weeks off for Christmas and New Year (from the third Thursday in December to January 7), and two weeks off in March or April for Spring Break (from the Friday before lazarus Saturday to the Monday after Easter Monday).
However, high school students (from tenth to twelfth grade) and college students have mostly three months of vacation - from late May or early June to early August. Like elementary and middle school students, high school students have in addition two weeks off for Christmas and New Year, and two weeks off in March or April for Spring Break. Moreover, college students get four weeks off for Christmas and New Year (from mid-December to mid-January) but only one week of Spring Break.
In Mongolia, summer vacation usually starts from late May or early June (varies between schools) to the end of August. The school year is divided into 4 terms lasting 8 to 9 weeks each and students take 1 week off after the first and second terms and 2 weeks after the third term.
In Nepal, summer vacation runs from the end of May to the end of July.
In the Netherlands, summer vacation is about 6 weeks for primary school and High school, usually from mid-July to late August. School students officially get the same time off but there often is a one - week period before the vacation during which the student will only have to go to school for 2 days to receive their grade lists and bring back their books making the holiday 7 weeks unofficially for high school students. However, this does not apply to every school.
In New Zealand, the school holidays (the term used, rather than "vacation '') typically start in mid-December, and end in late January, which is usually 6 weeks. Senior secondary school students in Year 11, 12 and 13 finish in late - October for study leave. But the summer holidays still do not start until mid-December. And university students do n't start until early March and finish in late - October. Throughout the year there are 2 week breaks at Easter, in July and in September.
In Nigeria, primary and secondary Schools usually start Summer vacation in mid-July and resume in the early weeks of September. The vacation is also known as the "3rd - term holiday '' and it is the longest break in a school year (typically up to two months). The "first - term break '' starts between one and two weeks prior to Christmas and ends the first or second week in January, lasting for about three weeks. The "first - term break '' is usually the shortest break in a school year. The "second - term break '' usually starts a week before Easter and lasts for another three weeks. This gives a total of about 14 weeks of holiday in a year. The geographical location of the school is also a factor.
Tertiary institutions follow a different pattern, as the holiday in each school depends on various factors which include, the Course of study and the academic calendar of the school. Some tertiary institutions observe their Summer breaks in the normal summer period when elementary and high schools observe theirs, while others do n't. Some courses of study also do n't observe any significant holidays, such programmes include Engineering, Nursing, Medicine and a few others. This is usually as a result of students doing their laboratory work, workshop practice, Practicals, Internship etc. (as the case may be), while the other students in other programmes are on holiday. Tertiary schools observe two semesters; while some schools observe a break after the first semester, many others have their breaks combined to just the summer holidays. This long break helps the students get good jobs during the holiday. The total length of break observed in tertiary institutions in a year is 12 to 14 weeks.
In Norway, summer vacation typically lasts from mid June to mid August, for a minimum of 8 weeks. In the upper secondary schools, the exam period starts in late May and ends the last or second last day before summer break. Norwegian students also have about two weeks of vacation from late December until early January, as well as a "winter break '', an "easter break '' and days off associated with the feast of ascension (typically in late May), 1 May and 17 May (the Norwegian Constitution Day).
In Oman, summer vacation starts in late May and ends in early September (3 months).
In Pakistan, Summer vacation lasts for two to three months depending on the type of school (public or private). Typical summer vacation is from the end of May to mid-August. Many private schools are also open in June and July for 8th to 10th grades under the programmes called "summer camps ''.
In Panama, summer vacation starts in early December on both types of school (public or private), and ends in late February. (3 months)
In Paraguay, summer holidays start in December and end in late February (2 months).
In the Philippines, summer holidays for kindergarten, elementary, and high schools typically start on the third week of March and end in the first to third week of June. This coincides with the country 's tropical dry season months from March to June. Colleges and universities, however, offer summer classes for students who wants to take advanced subjects or those who fail to pass the prerequisites for the next school year. School year begins in the first week of June, the start of Philippines ' wet season.
Select universities have adapted the school year schedule of other countries, starting the school year in September and having the summer holidays from June to August. Some of the schools who complied are still in transition, their academic calendars still beginning in July, others in August, with their summer vacations adjusted accordingly.
In Poland, summer vacation starts on the first Saturday after June 20 and ends on the first weekday of September except Friday or Saturday. Students usually spend 1 -- 1.5 hours at school to pick up their report cards on their last day of school.
In Portugal, summer vacation starts in mid-June, and finishes in the middle of September.
In Russia, summer vacation starts on May 25 with the end of an old school year (for 1st -- 8th and 10th grades) and ends on September 1 with the beginning of a new school year. For 9th and 11th grades, due to exams (EGE), the vacation starts in the middle (9th grade) or in the end (11th grade) of June.
In Romania, summer vacation starts in the second and third week of June and ends September 9 - 16 (3 months). (2)
In Saint Lucia, summer vacation starts in early July and ends on the first Monday of September (6 weeks).
In the school year 2016 -- 2017 the summer break for Saudi Arabian students started from 24th of May till the 17th of September. This means it will be 110 days, 3 Months and a half. In 2018 - 2019, schools will end in May 13th and start early September, this is because the Ministry of Education wants students to finish school before Ramadan begins.
In Serbia, the summer vacation starts around the ending of June, more precisely by the end of 2nd or 3rd week of June. Summer holiday ends on August 31. School officially starts on first working day of September (if September 1 is on Saturday or Sunday, starting of school is delayed until Monday). There are also several other holidays. Two day holiday in the first week of November, Three week holiday from December 31st to the third week of January and finally a two - week break during Easter.
For primary school and secondary school students: Mid-November to early January (1 1⁄2 months). New school year will start at early January. Also, there will be a 1 - month holiday in June and 1 week holiday in March and September. Most secondary students are released mid or late October due to the annual national examinations for Secondary 4 / 5 students.
In Slovakia, summer break lasts from July 1 until September 1 (2 months and Constitution Day).
In Slovenia, the final exams are usually taken from mid-May to mid-June (high schools) or in June (primary schools). Last day of school is June 24 and school − begins on September 1.
In South Africa, summer holidays usually begin in early December and end in mid-January. Winter Break lasts from late June to early July, and there are 10 days of Easter holidays.
In South Korea, summer vacation starts in late July and ends in mid-August. The South Korean summer vacation takes place within a school year. The winter vacation takes place from the last week of December or early January to the first week of February.
In South Sudan, summer vacation starts on December 21 and ends on March 19.
In Spain, the school year finishes in mid or late June and begins in mid-September. Vacation varies by region but often includes a family vacation within Spain to cooler temperatures in the north of Spain or south or east to the Mediterranean beaches.
In Suriname, summer vacation usually starts in mid-August and ends in early - October. In 2012, a change of summer vacation was proposed by several legislators having summer vacation the same time as the Caribbean Community. The proposed plan is summer vacation starts from mid-August and ends in early - October.
In Sweden, summer vacation is between the spring and autumn term. Normally it lasts from mid-June to late August (a minimum of 9 -- 10 weeks, differs for each county). In Sweden, students end their term, either at a church or in their school, singing traditional summer songs like Den blomstertid nu kommer (normally only the first 2 verses).
The winter vacation is between the winter and late winter term. It normally lasts from late December until early January. It is normally 3 weeks long.
Children in elementary school until high school have a week of vacation in the autumn / winter term and also two weeks in the spring / summer term. The one in the autumn is called "Novemberlov '' which means "November vacation / break '' or "Höstlov '' which means "Autumn vacation / break ''. The two in the spring / summer term is called "Sportlov '' which means "Sport break / vacation '' and "Påsklov '' which means "Easter break / vacation ''.
Then on 1 May everyone is on vacation in whole Sweden. Also on 6 June, which is the Swedish National Day.
In Switzerland, summer vacation varies in each canton. As an example in Zürich, it lasts five weeks and between mid-July and mid-August. In Ticino, it last about ten weeks between late June and early September.
In Syria, summer vacation lasts 3 months. It starts mid June (for primary and secondary schools) and ends mid September. University students have a vacation from early July to early October. This varies 2 or 3 days by school or year. The mid-term holiday is usually a week long.
In Taiwan, summer vacation starts in early July (late June for University students) and ends in late August (mid-September for University students).
In Thailand, summer vacation begins in late February to early March and ends in mid-May.
Primary and Secondary Schools close the first Friday of July and open on the first Monday of September (giving students two months). This can vary a day or two by school or year. International schools are in link with the British, Canadian, or American systems.
In Turkey, summer vacation starts in mid-June and ends in mid-September (3 months).
In Tunisia, summer vacation for the middle school (7th -- 9th grade) and high school starts on May 30 and ends on September 15. Primary schools are off to vacation on June 1 and end on September 15.
In England and Wales, summer holidays for state schools usually last from the second half of July through to early September which gives a duration of six or seven weeks. In addition, all schools in England and Wales have three one - week - long half - term breaks for each of the three terms, one in the autumn term, one in the spring term and one in the summer term. State schools have two weeks off for Christmas and Easter, which brings the total number of weeks off for state school students per year to 13.
In Scotland, school summer holidays start in late June and last for about six or seven weeks, with most schools returning around August 17. In addition to summer holidays, Scottish schools have one week in October, two weeks at Christmas and two weeks at Easter. They also have a week off in Mid-February. They have two bank holidays in May / June, and one in September.
In Northern Ireland, most schools ' summer vacation starts in late June and runs through to the beginning of September. Students doing exams (GCSE and A-Levels) often get "Study - Leave '' from May and do the exams sometime in that month, or early June. Schools also have a two - week break for Christmas and Easter as well as several Bank Holidays as well as a week off for Mid Term in Mid February. Some schools, generally integrated, or Catholic, also get time off for St. Patrick 's Day in March. Protestant schools do n't usually get this day off.
In the United Kingdom, holiday dates for schools in the independent sector mostly differ from those of schools in the state sector and these differences typically take the form of an extra week 's holiday at the beginning and end of each of the long vacations meaning four weeks for the Christmas and Easter breaks and eight to ten weeks for the summer break but variations in summer vacation length exist between the independent schools themselves. In addition, all schools in the United Kingdom have three week - long half - term breaks for each of the three terms including one in the autumn term at the end of October, one in the spring term in mid-February and one in the summer term in late May although these breaks do not always coincide with the state school breaks in Autumn ans Spring terms. The summer half term break is determined by the break in public exams at the end of May. Some universities grant an extended "Exam - Leave '' to students which typically commences in early April, so as to give students a good number of weeks to prepare for the summer exam season which usually starts in mid to late May and finishes at the end of their final exam which usually takes place in early or mid-June. Final - year students at independent schools typically finish their time at their school the moment their final exam in the summer exam season finishes and as an encore a special event is usually arranged for late June by the school for the leavers and staff as a way of providing an opportunity for final farewells to be bid. The universities they go on to typically schedule their first term to commence in early October giving school leavers an extended summer break between their time of leaving school and starting at university.
In the United States, summer vacation lasts two to three months. The dates vary depending on the location of the school district, with two major formats. One is from mid June to early September (in most northern states), the other major format lasting from late May to mid August (in most southern and western states). (Excluding some districts, as some schools may end late June and begin early September).
Summer vacation or break lasts for about 12 weeks, starting anywhere from late May to mid June, and ending anywhere from late August to Labor Day, the first Monday in September. This often depends on the region -- for example, most schools in the Northeastern United States end in June and start the Wednesday after Labor Day (Teachers report back on Tuesday), while the majority of schools in the Southern United States have schools end in May and start again in August.
The origins of the summer holiday break are often believed to be rooted in agriculture. It is widely believed that the school calendar follows the agrarian farming calendar because during the settlement of the United States, the nation primarily consisted of a farming population. This belief maintains that the current school calendar has a two to three - month break so that children could assume the necessary tasks of planting and harvesting crops. However, planting of most crops occurred in the spring and harvest occurred in the fall. Rural schools would often break for spring and fall seasons, but continue schooling throughout the summer.
The modern school calendar has roots not on rural farms, but instead in urban cities. Multiple causes lead to the summer break known by modern American students. In fact, schools in the early 1800s held school throughout the summer. As schooling progressed through bureaucracy, society 's population growth and change, as well as improvements in technology, such as better transportation for students and air conditioned buildings, school calendars also changed.
Many citizens of upper and middle classes would vacation outside of the sweltering cities during the hot summers. If school continued into the summer months, families would no longer have time together for summer vacations.
As school systems grew throughout the United States they became more aligned with college and university schedules, which already observed a break during summer. Breaks became more frequent as well. Original schools observed New Year 's Day, Easter, Fourth of July, Thanksgiving, and Christmas. The duration of breaks at these observances varied from school to school. More observances have been honored as time has passed, continually changing the school calendar.
As the nation expanded and grew, the nation saw the need for an educated populace and more public schools were built. But the need for academic breaks from learning was always seen as necessary. Nineteenth century and early twentieth century belief regarded the brain as a muscle, and thought that too much work and strain on the brain could result in injury. Therefore, they believed that students should not receive too much education. This was particularly true of younger children whose minds were still developing. As industrialism led to automation and wealth, and the nation recovered and expanded following the Civil War, leisure activity became more important to Americans. Leading advocates for play such as Henry Curtis believed strongly that children were not having enough time for play. In addition to advocating playground equipment, Curtis also advocated that summer should be spent working with families in gardens, and going camping. Curtis was a large supporter of boy and girl scouts and encouraged children to engage in scouting during the summer. If children lived in the cities and were unable to go camping or tend to gardens, schools were a premier place for children to be, but the emphasis should be on learning lifelong skills; sewing, woodworking, crafts, and manual labor.
In Uruguay, summer holidays usually begin in early December, and finish in early March (3 months). Students have one week for Easter Holidays, another week for Spring Holidays, and two weeks for the Holiday season.
In Venezuela, summer holidays begin in late June or early July and end in late September or early October.
In Vietnam, summer holidays usually begins in early June or late May and lasts for two months. It 's usually from June to August or late May to late July. Vietnamese students also have a week or two weeks off for Lunar New Year which is in late January or mid-February. Along with other holidays including but not limited to Independence Day on September 2, International Labour Day on May 1 and Reunification Day on April 30.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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when did the us help england in ww2 | Lend - Lease - wikipedia
The lend - lease policy, formally titled "An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States '', (Pub. L. 77 -- 11, H.R. 1776, 55 Stat. 31, enacted March 11, 1941) was an American program to defeat Germany, Japan and Italy by distributing food, oil, and materiel between 1941 and August 1945. The aid went to the United Kingdom, the Republic of China, and later the Soviet Union, Free France, and other Allied nations. It included warships and warplanes, along with other weaponry. The policy was signed into law on March 11, 1941 and ended overnight without prior warning when the war against Japan ended. The aid was free for all countries, although goods in transit when the program ended were charged for. Some transport ships were returned to the US after the war, but practically all the items sent out were used up or worthless in peacetime. In Reverse Lend Lease, the U.S. was given no - cost leases on army and naval bases in Allied territory during the war, as well as local supplies
The program was under the direct control of the White House, with Roosevelt paying close attention, assisted by Harry Hopkins, W. Averell Harriman, and Edward Stettinius Jr... Roosevelt often sent them on special missions to London and Moscow, where their control over Lend Lease gave them importance. The budget was hidden away in the overall military budget, and details were not released until after the war.
A total of $ 50.1 billion (equivalent to $681 billion presently) was involved, or 11 % of the total war expenditures of the U.S. In all, $31.4 billion (equivalent to $427 billion today) went to Britain and its Empire, $11.3 billion (equivalent to $154 billion today) to the Soviet Union, $3.2 billion (equivalent to $43.5 billion today) to France, $1.6 billion (equivalent to $21.7 billion today) to China, and the remaining $2.6 billion to the other Allies. Reverse lend - lease policies comprised services such as rent on bases used by the U.S., and totaled $7.8 billion; of this, $6.8 billion came from the British and the Commonwealth, mostly Australia and India. The terms of the agreement provided that the materiel was to be used until returned or destroyed. In practice very little equipment was in usable shape for peacetime uses. Supplies that arrived after the termination date were sold to Britain at a large discount for £ 1.075 billion, using long - term loans from the United States. Canada was not part of Lend Lease. However it operated a similar program called Mutual Aid that sent a loan of $1 billion and $3.4 billion in supplies and services to Britain and other Allies.
This program effectively ended the United States ' pretense of neutrality and was a decisive change from non-interventionist policy, which had dominated United States foreign relations since 1931. (See Neutrality Acts of 1930s.)
After the defeat of France during June 1940, the British Commonwealth and Empire were the only forces engaged in war against Germany and Italy, until the Italian invasion of Greece. Britain had been paying for its material with gold as part of the "cash and carry '' program, as required by the US Neutrality Acts of the 1930s, but by 1941 it had liquidated so many assets that its cash was becoming depleted.
During this same period, the U.S. government began to mobilize for total war, instituting the first - ever peacetime draft and a fivefold increase in the defense budget (from $2 billion to $10 billion). In the meantime, as the British began becoming short of money, arms, and other supplies, Prime Minister Winston Churchill pressed President Franklin D. Roosevelt for American help. Sympathetic to the British plight but hampered by public opinion and the Neutrality Acts, which forbade arms sales on credit or the loaning of money to belligerent nations, Roosevelt eventually came up with the idea of "lend -- lease ''. As one Roosevelt biographer has characterized it: "If there was no practical alternative, there was certainly no moral one either. Britain and the Commonwealth were carrying the battle for all civilization, and the overwhelming majority of Americans, led in the late election by their president, wished to help them. '' As the President himself put it, "There can be no reasoning with incendiary bombs. ''
In September 1940, during the Battle of Britain the British government sent the Tizard Mission to the United States. The aim of the British Technical and Scientific Mission was to obtain the industrial resources to exploit the military potential of the research and development work completed by the UK up to the beginning of World War II, but that Britain itself could not exploit due to the immediate requirements of war - related production. The shared technology included the cavity magnetron (key technology at the time for highly effective radar; the American historian James Phinney Baxter III later called "the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores ''), the design for the VT fuze, details of Frank Whittle 's jet engine and the Frisch -- Peierls memorandum describing the feasibility of an atomic bomb. Though these may be considered the most significant, many other items were also transported, including designs for rockets, superchargers, gyroscopic gunsights, submarine detection devices, self - sealing fuel tanks and plastic explosives.
During December 1940, President Roosevelt proclaimed the U.S.A. would be the "Arsenal of Democracy '' and proposed selling munitions to Britain and Canada. Isolationists were strongly opposed, warning it would result in American involvement with what was considered by most Americans as an essentially European conflict. In time, opinion shifted as increasing numbers of Americans began to consider the advantage of funding the British war against Germany, while staying free of the hostilities themselves. Propaganda showing the devastation of British cities during The Blitz, as well as popular depictions of Germans as savage also rallied public opinion to the Allies, especially after the defeat of France.
After a decade of neutrality, Roosevelt knew that the change to Allied support must be gradual, especially since German Americans were the largest ethnicity in America at the time. Originally, the American policy was to help the British but not join the war. During early February 1941, a Gallup poll revealed that 54 percent of Americans were in favor of giving aid to the British without qualifications of Lend - Lease. A further 15 percent were in favor with qualifications such as: "If it does n't get us into war, '' or "If the British can give us some security for what we give them. '' Only 22 percent were unequivocally against the President 's proposal. When poll participants were asked their party affiliation, the poll revealed a political divide: 69 percent of Democrats were unequivocally in favor of Lend - Lease, whereas only 38 percent of Republicans favored the bill without qualification. At least one poll spokesperson also noted that, "approximately twice as many Republicans '' gave "qualified answers as... Democrats. ''
Opposition to the Lend - Lease bill was strongest among isolationist Republicans in Congress, who feared the measure would be "the longest single step this nation has yet taken toward direct involvement in the war abroad ''. When the House of Representatives finally took a roll call vote on February 9, 1941, the 260 to 165 vote was largely along party lines. Democrats voted 238 to 25 in favor and Republicans 24 in favor and 135 against.
The vote in the Senate, which occurred a month later, revealed a similar partisan difference. 49 Democrats (79 percent) voted "aye '' with only 13 Democrats (21 percent) voting "nay. '' In contrast, 17 Republicans (63 percent) voted "nay '' while 10 Senate Republicans (37 percent) sided with the Democrats to pass the bill.
President Roosevelt signed the Lend - Lease bill into law on 11 March 1941. It permitted him to "sell, transfer title to, exchange, lease, lend, or otherwise dispose of, to any such government (whose defense the President deems vital to the defense of the United States) any defense article. '' In April, this policy was extended to China, and in October to the Soviet Union. Roosevelt approved US $1 billion in Lend - Lease aid to Britain at the end of October 1941.
This followed the 1940 Destroyers for Bases Agreement, whereby 50 US Navy destroyers were transferred to the Royal Navy and the Royal Canadian Navy in exchange for basing rights in the Caribbean. Churchill also granted the US base rights in Bermuda and Newfoundland for free, allowing British military assets to be redeployed.
After the United States entered the war in December 1941, foreign policy was rarely discussed by Congress, and there was very little demand to cut Lend - Lease spending. In spring 1944, the House passed a bill to renew the Lend - Lease program by a vote of 334 to 21. The Senate passed it by a vote of 63 to 1.
President Roosevelt established the Office of Lend - Lease Administration during 1941, appointing steel executive Edward R. Stettinius as head. During September 1943, he was promoted to Undersecretary of State, and Leo Crowley became director of the Foreign Economic Administration which was given responsibility for Lend - Lease.
Lend - lease aid to the USSR was nominally managed by Stettinius. Roosevelt 's Soviet Protocol Committee was dominated by Harry Hopkins and General John York, who were totally sympathetic to the provision of "unconditional aid ''. Few Americans objected to Soviet aid until 1943.
The program began to be ended after VE Day. During April 1945, Congress voted that it should not be used for post-conflict purposes, and during August 1945, after Japanese surrender, the program was ended.
Value of materials supplied by the USA to other allied nations
Lend - Lease helped the British and other Allied forces win the war. Even after the United States forces in Europe and the Pacific began to attain full strength during 1943 -- 1944, Lend - Lease continued. Most remaining allies were largely self - sufficient in front line equipment (such as tanks and fighter aircraft) by this time, but Lend - Lease provided a useful supplement in this category even so, and Lend - Lease logistical supplies (including motor vehicles and railroad equipment) were of enormous assistance.
Much of the aid can be better understood when considering the economic distortions caused by the war. Most belligerent powers decreased severely production of non-essentials, concentrating on producing weapons. This inevitably produced shortages of related products needed by the military or as part of the military - industrial complex. For example, the USSR was very dependent on rail transportation, but the war practically ended rail equipment production. Just 446 locomotives were produced during the war, with only 92 of those being built between 1942 and 1945. In total, 92.7 % of the wartime production of railroad equipment by the USSR was supplied by Lend - Lease, including 1,911 locomotives and 11,225 railcars which augmented the existing prewar stocks of at least 20,000 locomotives and half a million railcars.
Furthermore, much of the logistical assistance of the Soviet military was provided by hundreds of thousands of U.S. - made trucks. Indeed, by 1945, nearly a third of the truck strength of the Red Army was U.S. - built. Trucks such as the Dodge 3⁄4 ton and Studebaker 21⁄2 ton were easily the best trucks available in their class on either side on the Eastern Front. American shipments of telephone cable, aluminum, canned rations, and clothing were also critical.
Lend - Lease also supplied significant amounts of weapons and ammunition. The Soviet air force received 18,200 aircraft, which amounted to about 13 % of Soviet wartime aircraft production. And while most tank units were Soviet - built models, some 7,000 Lend - Lease tanks were deployed by the Red Army, or 8 % of war - time production.
According to the Russian historian Boris Vadimovich Sokolov, Lend - Lease had a crucial role in winning the war:
On the whole the following conclusion can be drawn: that without these Western shipments under Lend - Lease the Soviet Union not only would not have been able to win the Great Patriotic War, it would not have been able even to oppose the German invaders, since it could not itself produce sufficient quantities of arms and military equipment or adequate supplies of fuel and ammunition. The Soviet authorities were well aware of this dependency on Lend - Lease. Thus, Stalin told Harry Hopkins (FDR 's emissary to Moscow in July 1941) that the U.S.S.R. could not match Germany 's might as an occupier of Europe and its resources.
Nikita Khrushchev, having served as a military commissar and intermediary between Stalin and his generals during the war, addressed directly the significance of Lend - lease aid in his memoirs:
I would like to express my candid opinion about Stalin 's views on whether the Red Army and the Soviet Union could have coped with Nazi Germany and survived the war without aid from the United States and Britain. First, I would like to tell about some remarks Stalin made and repeated several times when we were "discussing freely '' among ourselves. He stated bluntly that if the United States had not helped us, we would not have won the war. If we had had to fight Nazi Germany one on one, we could not have stood up against Germany 's pressure, and we would have lost the war. No one ever discussed this subject officially, and I do n't think Stalin left any written evidence of his opinion, but I will state here that several times in conversations with me he noted that these were the actual circumstances. He never made a special point of holding a conversation on the subject, but when we were engaged in some kind of relaxed conversation, going over international questions of the past and present, and when we would return to the subject of the path we had traveled during the war, that is what he said. When I listened to his remarks, I was fully in agreement with him, and today I am even more so.
Joseph Stalin, during the Tehran Conference during 1943, acknowledged publicly the importance of American efforts during a dinner at the conference: "Without American production the United Nations (the Allies) could never have won the war. ''
In a confidential interview with the wartime correspondent Konstantin Simonov, the Soviet Marshal Georgy Zhukov is quoted as saying:
Today (1963) some say the Allies did n't really help us... But listen, one can not deny that the Americans shipped over to us material without which we could not have equipped our armies held in reserve or been able to continue the war.
Roosevelt, eager to ensure public consent for this controversial plan, explained to the public and the press that his plan was comparable to one neighbor 's lending another a garden hose to put out a fire in his home. "What do I do in such a crisis? '' the president asked at a press conference. "I do n't say... ' Neighbor, my garden hose cost me $15; you have to pay me $15 for it '... I do n't want $15 -- I want my garden hose back after the fire is over. '' To which Senator Robert Taft (R - Ohio), responded: "Lending war equipment is a good deal like lending chewing gum -- you certainly do n't want the same gum back. ''
In practice, very little was returned except for a few unarmed transport ships. Surplus military equipment was of no value in peacetime. The Lend - Lease agreements with 30 countries provided for repayment not in terms of money or returned goods, but in "joint action directed towards the creation of a liberalized international economic order in the postwar world. '' That is the U.S, would be "repaid '' when the recipient fought the common enemy and joined the world trade and diplomatic agencies, such as the United Nations.
American deliveries to the Soviet Union can be divided into the following phases:
Delivery was via the Arctic Convoys, the Persian Corridor, and the Pacific Route.
The Arctic route was the shortest and most direct route for lend - lease aid to the USSR, though it was also the most dangerous as it involved sailing past German - occupied Norway. Some 3,964,000 tons of goods were shipped by the Arctic route; 7 % was lost, while 93 % arrived safely. This constituted some 23 % of the total aid to the USSR during the war.
The Persian Corridor was the longest route, and was not fully operational until mid-1942. Thereafter it saw the passage of 4,160,000 tons of goods, 27 % of the total.
The Pacific Route opened in August 1941, but was affected by the start of hostilities between Japan and the US; after December 1941, only Soviet ships could be used, and, as Japan and the USSR observed a strict neutrality towards each other, only non-military goods could be transported. Nevertheless, some 8,244,000 tons of goods went by this route, 50 % of the total.
In total, the U.S. deliveries through Lend - Lease amounted to $11 billion in materials: over 400,000 jeeps and trucks; 12,000 armored vehicles (including 7,000 tanks, about 1,386 of which were M3 Lees and 4,102 M4 Shermans); 11,400 aircraft (4,719 of which were Bell P - 39 Airacobras) and 1.75 million tons of food.
Roughly 17.5 million tons of military equipment, vehicles, industrial supplies, and food were shipped from the Western Hemisphere to the USSR, 94 % coming from the US. For comparison, a total of 22 million tons landed in Europe to supply American forces from January 1942 to May 1945. It has been estimated that American deliveries to the USSR through the Persian Corridor alone were sufficient, by US Army standards, to maintain sixty combat divisions in the line.
The United States delivered to the Soviet Union from October 1, 1941 to May 31, 1945 the following: 427,284 trucks, 13,303 combat vehicles, 35,170 motorcycles, 2,328 ordnance service vehicles, 2,670,371 tons of petroleum products (gasoline and oil) or 57.8 percent of the High - octane aviation fuel, 4,478,116 tons of foodstuffs (canned meats, sugar, flour, salt, etc.), 1,911 steam locomotives, 66 Diesel locomotives, 9,920 flat cars, 1,000 dump cars, 120 tank cars, and 35 heavy machinery cars. Provided ordnance goods (ammunition, artillery shells, mines, assorted explosives) amounted to 53 percent of total domestic production. One item typical of many was a tire plant that was lifted bodily from the Ford Company 's River Rouge Plant and transferred to the USSR. The 1947 money value of the supplies and services amounted to about eleven billion dollars.
In June 1941, within weeks of the German invasion of the USSR, the first British aid convoy set off along the dangerous Arctic sea route to Murmansk, arriving in September. It carried 40 Hawker Hurricanes along with 550 mechanics and pilots of No. 151 Wing to provide immediate air defence of the port and to train Soviet pilots. The convoy was the first of many convoys to Murmansk and Archangelsk in what became known as the Arctic convoys, the returning ships carried the gold that the USSR was using to pay the US.
By the end of 1941, early shipments of Matilda, Valentine and Tetrarch tanks represented only 6.5 % of total Soviet tank production but over 25 % of medium and heavy tanks produced for the Red Army. The British tanks first saw action with the 138 Independent Tank Battalion in the Volga Reservoir on 20 November 1941. Lend - Lease tanks constituted 30 to 40 percent of heavy and medium tank strength before Moscow at the beginning of December 1941.
Significant numbers of British Churchill, Matilda and Valentine tanks were shipped to the USSR.
Between June 1941 and May 1945, Britain delivered to the USSR:
In total 4 million tonnes of war material including food and medical supplies were delivered. The munitions totaled £ 308m (not including naval munitions supplied), the food and raw materials totaled £ 120m in 1946 index. In accordance with the Anglo - Soviet Military Supplies Agreement of 27 June 1942, military aid sent from Britain to the Soviet Union during the war was entirely free of charge.
Reverse Lend - lease was the supply of equipment and services to the United States. Nearly $8 billion (equivalent to $124 billion today) worth of war material was provided to U.S. forces by her allies, 90 % of this sum coming from the British Empire. Reciprocal contributions included the Austin K2 / Y military ambulance, British aviation spark plugs used in B - 17 Flying Fortresses, Canadian - made Fairmile launches used in anti-submarine warfare, Mosquito photo - reconnaissance aircraft, and Indian petroleum products. Australia and New Zealand supplied the bulk of foodstuffs to United States forces in the South Pacific. Though diminutive in comparison, Soviet - supplied reverse lend - lease included 300,000 tonnes of chromium and 32,000 tonnes of manganese ore, as well as wood, gold and platinum.
In a November 1943 report to Congress, President Roosevelt said of Allied participation in reverse Lend - lease:
... the expenditures made by the British Commonwealth of Nations for reverse lend - lease aid furnished to the United States, and of the expansion of this program so as to include exports of materials and foodstuffs for the account of United States agencies from the United Kingdom and the British colonies, emphasizes the contribution which the British Commonwealth has made to the defense of the United States while taking its place on the battle fronts. It is an indication of the extent to which the British have been able to pool their resources with ours so that the needed weapon may be in the hands of that soldier -- whatever may be his nationality - who can at the proper moment use it most effectively to defeat our common enemies.
While in April 1944 Congress were briefed by the Foreign Economic Administrator, Leo T Crowley;
Just as the RAF 's operations against Germany and the invasion coasts would not have been possible on their present scale without lend - lease so the United States Eighth and Ninth air forces daylight missions from Britain would not have been possible without reverse lend - lease. Our Fortresses and Liberators take off from huge air bases built, equipped and serviced under reverse lend - lease at a cost to them of hundreds of millions of dollars. Many of our pilots fly Spitfires built in England, many more are flying American fighter planes powered by British Rolls Royce Merlin engines, turned over to us by the British. And many of the supplies needed by our Air Force are procured for us without cost by reverse lend - lease. In fact our armed forces in Britain, ground as well as air, receive as reverse lend - lease, with no payment by us, one third of all the supplies and equipment they currently require, Britain furnishes 90 % of their medical supplies and in spite of her food shortage, 20 % of their food.
In 1945 -- 46, the value of Reciprocal Aid from New Zealand exceeded that of Lend - Lease, though in 1942 -- 43, the value of Lend - Lease to New Zealand was much more than that of Reciprocal Aid. Britain also supplied extensive material assistance to American forces stationed in Europe, for example the USAAF was supplied with hundreds of Spitfire Mk V and Mk VIII fighter aircraft.
The cooperation that was built up with Canada during the war was an amalgam compounded of diverse elements of which the air and land routes to Alaska, the Canol project, and the CRYSTAL and CRIMSON activities were the most costly in point of effort and funds expended.
... The total of defense materials and services that Canada received through lend - lease channels amounted in value to approximately $419,500,000.
... Some idea of the scope of economic collaboration can be had from the fact that from the beginning of 1942 through 1945 Canada, on her part, furnished the United States with $1,000,000,000 to $1,250,000,000 in defense materials and services.
... Although most of the actual construction of joint defense facilities, except the Alaska Highway and the Canol project, had been carried out by Canada, most of the original cost was borne by the United States. The agreement was that all temporary construction for the use of American forces and all permanent construction required by the United States forces beyond Canadian requirements would be paid for by the United States, and that the cost of all other construction of permanent value would be met by Canada. Although it was not entirely reasonable that Canada should pay for any construction that the Canadian Government considered unnecessary or that did not conform to Canadian requirements, nevertheless considerations of self - respect and national sovereignty led the Canadian Government to suggest a new financial agreement.
... The total amount that Canada agreed to pay under the new arrangement came to about $76,800,000, which was some $13,870,000 less than the United States had spent on the facilities.
Canada had its own version of lend - lease for Britain. Canada gave Britain gifts totaling $3.5 billion during the war, plus a zero - interest loan of $1 billion; Britain used the money to buy Canadian food and war supplies. Canada also loaned $1.2 billion on a long - term basis to Britain immediately after the war; these loans were fully repaid in late 2006.
(RCAF Station Gander) located at Gander International Airport, built in 1936 in Newfoundland, was leased by Britain to Canada for 99 years because of its urgent need for the movement of fighter and bomber aircraft to Britain. The lease became redundant when Newfoundland became Canada 's tenth province in 1949.
Most American Lend - Lease aid comprised supplies purchased in the U.S., but Roosevelt allowed Lend - Lease to purchase supplies from Canada, for shipment to Britain, China and the Soviet Union.
Congress had not authorized the gift of supplies delivered after the cutoff date, so the U.S. charged for them, usually at a 90 % discount. Large quantities of undelivered goods were in Britain or in transit when Lend - Lease terminated on 2 September 1945. Britain wished to retain some of this equipment in the immediate post war period. In 1946, the post-war Anglo - American loan further indebted Britain to the U.S. Lend - Lease items retained were sold to Britain at 10 % of nominal value, giving an initial loan value of £ 1.075 billion for the Lend - Lease portion of the post-war loans. Payment was to be stretched out over 50 annual payments, starting in 1951 and with five years of deferred payments, at 2 % interest. The final payment of $83.3 million (£ 42.5 million), due on 31 December 2006 (repayment having been deferred in the allowed five years and during a sixth year not allowed), was made on 29 December 2006 (the last working day of the year). After this final payment Britain 's Economic Secretary to the Treasury formally thanked the U.S. for its wartime support.
Tacit repayment of Lend - Lease by the British was made in the form of several valuable technologies, including those related to radar, sonar, jet engines, antitank weaponry, rockets, superchargers, gyroscopic gunsights, submarine detection, self - sealing fuel tanks, and plastic explosives as well as the British contribution to the Manhattan Project. Many of these were transferred by the Tizard Mission. The official historian of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, James Phinney Baxter III, wrote: "When the members of the Tizard Mission brought the cavity magnetron to America in 1940, they carried the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores. ''
While repayment of the interest - free loans was required after the end of the war under the act, in practice the U.S. did not expect to be repaid by the USSR after the war. The U.S. received $2 M in reverse Lend - Lease from the USSR. This was mostly in the form of landing, servicing, and refueling of transport aircraft; some industrial machinery and rare minerals were sent to the U.S. The U.S. asked for $1.3 B at the cessation of hostilities to settle the debt, but was only offered $170 M by the USSR. The dispute remained unresolved until 1972, when the U.S. accepted an offer from the USSR to repay $722 M linked to grain shipments from the U.S., with the remainder being written off. During the war the USSR provided an unknown number of shipments of rare minerals to the US Treasury as a form of cashless repayment of Lend - Lease. This was agreed upon before the signing of the first protocol on 1 October 1941 and extension of credit. Some of these shipments were intercepted by the Germans. In May 1942, the HMS Edinburgh was sunk while carrying 4.5 tonnes of Soviet gold intended for the U.S. Treasury. This gold was salvaged in 1981 and 1986. In June 1942, the SS Port Nicholson was sunk en route from Halifax, Canada to New York, allegedly with Soviet platinum, gold, and industrial diamonds aboard; the wreck was discovered in 2008. However, none of this cargo has been salvaged, and no documentation of its treasures has been produced.
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how do you get paid as a bounty hunter | Bounty hunter - wikipedia
A bounty hunter is a person who captures fugitives and criminals for a monetary reward (bounty). The occupation, also known as bail enforcement agent, bail agent, recovery agent, bail recovery agent, or fugitive recovery agent, has historically existed in many parts of the world. However, today, it is found almost exclusively in parts of the United States, the Philippines, and its former commonwealth, as the practice is illegal under the laws of most other countries.
In 1873, the Supreme Court ruled that bounty hunters were a part of the U.S. law enforcement system with a decision in Taylor v. Taintor:
When the bail is given, the principal is regarded as delivered to the custody of his sureties. Their domain is a continuance of the original imprisonment. Whenever they choose to do so, they may seize him and deliver him up to his discharge; and if it can not be done at once, they may imprison him until it can be done. They may exercise their rights in person or by agent. They may pursue him into another state; may arrest him on the Sabbath; and if necessary, may break and enter his house for that purpose. The seizure is not made by virtue of due process. None is needed. It is likened to the arrest by the sheriff of an escaped prisoner.
In modern times, bounty hunters are known as bail enforcement agents (bail bondsmen) and carry out arrests mostly for those who have skipped bail. The term "bounty hunting '' is no longer often used or liked by many in the profession due to its historical associations.
Bounty hunters are sometimes misleadingly called skiptracers, where skiptracing is searching for an individual through less direct methods than active pursuit and apprehension.
When undertaking arrest warrants, agents may wear bullet - resistant vests, badges, and other clothing bearing the inscription "bail enforcement agent '' or similar titles. Many agents also use two way radios to communicate with each other. Many agents arm themselves with firearms; or sometimes with less lethal weapons, such as tasers, batons, tear gas (CS gas, pepper spray) or pepper spray projectiles.
In the United States, the National Association of Fugitive Recovery Agents is the professional association representing this industry.
Most bounty hunters are employed by bail bondsmen: the bounty hunter is usually paid about 10 % of the total bail amount, but this commission can vary on an individual, case - by - case basis; usually depending upon the difficulty level of the assignment and the approach used to exonerate the bail bond. If the fugitive eludes bail, the bondsman, not the bounty hunter, is responsible for 100 % of the total bail amount. This is a way of ensuring clients arrive at trial. As of 2003, bounty hunters claimed to catch 31,500 bail jumpers per year, about 90 % of people who jump bail.
Bounty hunters have varying levels of authority in their duties with regard to their targets depending on which states they operate in. Barring restrictions applicable state by state, a bounty hunter may enter the fugitive 's private property without a warrant in order to execute a re-arrest. A bounty hunter can not, however, enter the property of anyone other than the fugitive without a warrant or the owner 's permission.
In some states, bounty hunters do not undergo any formal training, and are generally unlicensed, only requiring sanction from a bail bondsman to operate. In other states, however, they are held to varying standards of training and license. State legal requirements are often imposed on out - of - state bounty hunters, so a fugitive could temporarily escape rearrest by entering a state in which the bail agent has limited or no jurisdiction.
In the United States legal system, the 1873 U.S. Supreme Court case Taylor v. Taintor, 16 Wall (83 U.S. 366, 21 L. Ed. 287), is cited as having established that the person into whose custody an accused is remanded as part of the accuser 's bail has sweeping rights to that person. Though this may have been accurate at the time the decision was reached, the portion cited was obiter dictum and has no binding precedential value.
As of 2008, four states, Illinois, Kentucky, Oregon, and Wisconsin prohibited the practice, as they have abolished commercial bail bonds and banned the commercial bail bonds industry within their borders. As of 2012 Nebraska and Maine similarly prohibit surety bail bonds. Some states require a license to engage in bounty hunting while others may have no restrictions.
The State of Connecticut has a detailed licensing process which requires any person who wants to engage in the business as a bail enforcement agent (bounty hunter) to first obtain a professional license from the Commissioner of Public Safety; specifically detailing that "No person shall, as surety on a bond in a criminal proceeding or as an agent of such surety, engage in the business of taking or attempting to take into custody the principal on the bond who has failed to appear in court and for whom a re-arrest warrant or capias has been issued unless such person is licensed as a bail enforcement agent ''. Connecticut has strict standards which require Bail Enforcement Agents to pass an extensive background check and, while engaging in fugitive recovery operations, be uniformed, notify the local police barrack, wear a badge, and only carry licensed and approved firearms, including handguns and long guns which are permitted. Recently Connecticut State Police converted its Bail Enforcement Agent licensing unit to reflect the important role Bail Enforcement Agents play in the Connecticut criminal justice system; placing them in the newly defined Department of Emergency Services and Public Protection.
Several schools in Connecticut have obtained certification by the Connecticut State Police to pre-license Bail Enforcement Agents in a minimum of 20 hours of criminal justice training and a minimum of eight hours of firearms training. Some of the more advanced schools offer specialized training in the area of tactical firearms to prepare BEAs for conducting dangerous recovery operations.
In Florida, a bounty hunter must obtain a "limited surety agent '' license from the Florida Department of Financial Services, Bureau of Agent and Agency Licensing, in order to legally apprehend bail fugitives.
Louisiana requires bounty hunters to wear clothing identifying them as such.
A Nevada bounty hunter is referred to as a bail enforcement agent or bail enforcement solicitor. It requires a minimum 20 hours of training, passing examinations and obtaining a bail enforcement agent license by the Nevada Division of Insurance within nine months of employment as a bail agent. To acquire such license one must be at least 21 years old, a United States citizen, have a high school diploma or equivalent, undergo the extensive training and pass a state examination.
A Texas bounty hunter is required to be a peace officer, Level III (armed) security officer, or a private investigator.
Bounty hunters may run into serious legal problems if they try to apprehend fugitives outside the United States, where laws treat the re-arrest of any fugitive by private persons as kidnapping, or the bail agent may incur the punishments of some other serious crime if local and international laws are broken by them. While the United States government generally allows the activities of bounty hunters within the United States, the governments in other sovereign nations consider them a felony.
Bounty hunter Duane "Dog '' Chapman, star of the TV series Dog the Bounty Hunter, was arrested in Mexico after he apprehended the multi-millionaire rapist and fugitive Andrew Luster. Chapman was subsequently released and returned to the U.S. but was later declared a fugitive by a Mexican prosecutor and was subsequently arrested in the United States to be extradited back to Mexico. Chapman has maintained that under Mexico 's citizen arrest law, he and his crew acted under proper policy.
Daniel Kear of Fairfax, Virginia pursued and apprehended Sidney Jaffe at a residence in Canada and returned him to Florida to face trial. Kear was extradited to Canada in 1983, and convicted of kidnapping.
Several bounty hunters have been arrested for killing the fugitive or apprehending the wrong individuals, mistaking innocent people for fugitives.
Unlike police officers, they have no legal protections against injuries to non-fugitives and few legal protections against injuries to their targets.
In a Texas case, bounty hunters Richard James and his partner DG Pearson were arrested in 2001 for felony charges during an arrest. The charges were levied by the fugitive and his family, but were later dismissed against the hunters after the fugitive 's wife shot a deputy sheriff in another arrest attempt of the fugitive by the county sheriff 's department. The hunters sued the fugitive and family, winning the civil suit for malicious prosecution with a judgment amount of $1.5 million.
During the Rhodesian Bush War, cattle rustling reached epidemic proportions in the late 1970s. This was part of a twofold strategy of the guerrillas against the white minority government in Salisbury. First, it led to starvation in the Tribal Trust Lands; second, it negatively affected the economy of Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). Because the army and the British South Africa Police were overstretched on three fronts, mercenaries were hired to confront the rustlers. They were called "Range Detectives '', and most of them were Vietnam veterans, some of them members of The Crippled Eagles. Payment was roughly seven Rhodesian dollars a day, and a 750 Rhodesian dollar bonus for each rustler caught.
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when did man city last lose at home | 2016 -- 17 Manchester City FC Season - wikipedia
The 2016 -- 17 season was Manchester City 's 115th season of competitive football, 88th season in the top division of English football and 20th season in the Premier League since the league was first created with City as one of the original 22 founder - members. They competed in all three domestic competitions, as well as the UEFA Champions League for the sixth year in a row.
In conjunction with the recruitment of Pep Guardiola, the manager whom City 's executives had sought to hire since they joined the club four years hence and the man synonymous with the style of football they wanted the club to espouse, Manchester City announced a series of adjustments to the club 's "brand '' as of the start of the season.
On 15 October 2015, the club announced that they intended to enter into a consultation with their fans over the designing of a new badge to replace the design that had been brought in 1997 and which had largely been unpopular since. The result of the online - based consultation was a design bearing many of the hallmarks of the crest replaced in 1997, plus some elements of the style established by the other club badges of fellow City Football Group teams Melbourne City FC and New York City FC. While many praised the logo for its simplicity and similarity to the beloved previous design, it was criticised from other corners for its slightly amateurish appearance, its removal of the words "Football Club '' and for its failure to more closely replicate the earlier badge.
On 30 June 2016, the day before Guardiola officially started his new role as well as the day on which the new badge was made official, the club unexpectedly announced the renaming of their Twitter accounts and website. Replacing the old "branding '' of MCFC (the initials of the club), both social media outlets were rechristened "ManCity ''. While the move was popular among many, especially the club 's more recent foreign fans for whom the styling was already their preferred abbreviation of the club 's name, the change provoked another mixed reaction from the Manchester - based core supporter base, with many criticising the decision to use a wording often used by the club 's rivals, as well as highlighting the decision to again remove the "Football Club '' wording.
On 20 July 2016, Manchester City began their pre-season with a 0 -- 1 defeat against Bayern Munich. Due to weather during the International Champions Cup, the derby against Manchester United was cancelled, and City went on to play Borussia Dortmund in their next cup match, which they would go on to win 6 -- 5 on penalties after drawing 1 -- 1 at the end of regular time. A match was played on 7 August against Arsenal in the 2016 Supermatchen, which ended 3 - 2 to Arsenal. To replace the game against Manchester United, which was cancelled, City arranged a friendly against St Johnstone, which was played behind closed doors.
Last updated: 21 May 2017 Source: Competitions
Last updated: 21 May 2017. Source: Premier League
Ground: A = Away; H = Home. Result: D = Draw; L = Loss; W = Win; P = Postponed.
38 matches are played, 2 against each other team in the league; one at home and one away.
As a Premier League club, Manchester City entered the competition in the third round, drawing West Ham United away from home.
As a European club, Manchester City entered the competition in the third round, drawing Swansea City away from home.
The draw for the Champions League play - off round took place on 5 August 2016. Manchester City were a seeded team in the league route. They were drawn against Steaua București of Romania.
The group stage draw was made on 25 August 2016 in Monaco. Manchester City were drawn with Barcelona (pot 1), Borussia Mönchengladbach (pot 3), and Celtic (pot 4).
Last updated: 21 May 2017 Source: mancity.com Ordered by squad number. Appearances include league and cup appearances, including as substitute.
Appearances (Apps.) numbers are for appearances in competitive games only including sub appearances Red card numbers denote: Numbers in parentheses represent red cards overturned for wrongful dismissal.
Source: (for players and positions) First Team Squad 00 (for squad numbers) Squad Profiles 00 (for actual stats.)
Includes all competitive matches. The list is sorted alphabetically by surname when total goals are equal.
Awarded monthly to the player who was chosen by a panel assembled by the Premier League 's sponsor
Awarded monthly to the manager who was chosen by a panel assembled by the Premier League 's sponsor
Awarded to the player that receives the most votes in a poll conducted each month on the club 's official website
In association with the Official Manchester City Supporters Club
David Silva
Total spending: £ 171,500,000
Total earnings: £ 28,000,000
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where did ferris bueller go on his day off | Ferris Bueller 's Day Off - wikipedia
Ferris Bueller 's Day Off is a 1986 American coming - of - age comedy film written, co-produced, and directed by John Hughes, and co-produced by Tom Jacobson. The film stars Matthew Broderick as Ferris Bueller, a high - school slacker who spends a day off from school, with Mia Sara and Alan Ruck. Ferris regularly "breaks the fourth wall '' to explain techniques and inner thoughts.
Hughes wrote the screenplay in less than a week. Filming began in September 1985 and finished in November. Featuring many landmarks, including the then Sears Tower and the Art Institute of Chicago, the film was Hughes ' love letter to Chicago: "I really wanted to capture as much of Chicago as I could. Not just in the architecture and landscape, but the spirit. ''
Released by Paramount Pictures on June 11, 1986, the film became one of the top - grossing films of the year, receiving $70.1 million over a $5.8 million budget, and was enthusiastically acclaimed by critics and audiences alike. In 2014, the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress, being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. '' In 2016, Paramount, Turner Classic Movies, and Fathom Events re-released the film and Pretty in Pink to celebrate their 30th anniversary.
In suburban Chicago, Illinois, near the end of the school year, high school senior Ferris Bueller fakes being sick to stay home. Throughout the film, Ferris frequently breaks the fourth wall to talk about his friends and give the audience advice on how to skip school. His parents believe him, though his sister Jeanie is not convinced. Dean of Students Edward R. Rooney suspects Ferris is being truant again and commits to catching him. Ferris convinces his friend Cameron Frye, who really is absent due to illness, to help get Ferris ' girlfriend Sloane Peterson out of school by reporting that her grandmother has died. To trick Rooney, Ferris sways Cameron to let them use his father 's prized 1961 Ferrari 250 GT California Spyder to collect Sloane. Cameron is dismayed when Ferris continues to use the car to drive them into downtown Chicago to spend the day, but Ferris promises they will return it as it was.
The trio leave the car with parking garage attendants who immediately take the car for a joy ride after they leave. Ferris, Cameron, and Sloane sightsee around the city, including the Art Institute of Chicago, Sears Tower, Chicago Mercantile Exchange, and Wrigley Field, while narrowly dodging Mr. Bueller. Cameron remains disinterested, and Ferris attempts to cheer him up by impromptu joining a parade float during the Von Steuben Day parade and lip - syncing Wayne Newton 's cover of "Danke Schoen '', as well as a rendition of The Beatles ' "Twist and Shout '' that excites the gathered crowds.
Meanwhile, Rooney investigates the Bueller home to try to prove Ferris ' truancy, getting into several pratfalls. At the same time, Jeanie, frustrated that the entire school believes Ferris has come down with a deadly illness, skips class and returns home to confront him, only to hear someone outside trying to break in. Rooney flees while she calls the police; when they arrive they arrest her for filing a false report and contact her mother to collect her. While waiting, she meets a juvenile delinquent who advises her not to worry so much about Ferris. Mrs. Bueller arrives at the station, upset about having to forgo a house sale, only to find Jeanie kissing the delinquent, infuriating her more.
Ferris and his friends collect the Ferrari and depart for home, but shortly discover many miles have been added to the odometer and Cameron becomes catatonic. Back at Cameron 's garage, Ferris sets the car on blocks and runs it in reverse to try to take miles off the odometer without success. Cameron finally snaps, and lets out his anger against his controlling father by repeatedly kicking the car. This causes it to fall off the blocks and race in reverse through the back of the garage and into the ravine below. Ferris offers to take the blame, but Cameron asserts he will stand up against his father.
Ferris returns Sloane home and realizes his parents are due home soon. As he races on foot through the neighborhood he is nearly hit by Jeanie, who is driving their mother home. She speeds off trying to beat Ferris home. Ferris makes it home first to find Rooney waiting for him outside. Jeanie races into the house as their mother talks to their father about her behavior that day. Jeanie discovers Rooney threatening Ferris and tells Rooney that she was just helping to return Ferris from the hospital and shows Rooney his wallet that she had found from his earlier break - in. Rooney flees from the family dog while Ferris rushes back to his bedroom to greet his parents while feigning his waning illness. As they leave, Ferris reminds the audience, "Life moves pretty fast. If you do n't stop and look around once in a while, you could miss it. ''
A defeated Rooney heads home and is picked up by a school bus, further humiliated by the students.
As he was writing the film in 1985, John Hughes kept track of his progress in a spiral - bound logbook. He noted that the basic storyline was developed on February 25. It was successfully pitched the following day to Paramount Studios chief Ned Tanen. Tanen was intrigued by the concept, but wary that the Writers Guild of America was hours away from picketing the studio. Hughes wrote the screenplay in less than a week. Editor Paul Hirsch explained that Hughes had a trance - like concentration to his script - writing process, working for hours on end, and would later shoot the film on essentially what was his first draft of the script. "The first cut of Ferris Bueller 's Day Off ended up at two hours, 45 minutes. The shortening of the script had to come in the cutting room '', said Hirsch. "Having the story episodic and taking place in one day... meant the characters were wearing the same clothes. I suspect that Hughes writes his scripts with few, if any costume changes just so he can have that kind of freedom in the editing. ''
Hughes intended the movie to be more focused on the characters rather than the plot. "I know how the movie begins, I know how it ends '', said Hughes. "I do n't ever know the rest, but that does n't seem to matter. It 's not the events that are important, it 's the characters going through the event. Therefore, I make them as full and real as I can. This time around, I wanted to create a character who could handle everyone and everything. ''
Hughes said that he had Broderick in mind when he wrote the screenplay, saying Broderick was the only actor he could think of who could pull off the role, calling him clever and charming. "Certain guys would have played Ferris and you would have thought, ' Where 's my wallet? ' '' Hughes said. "I had to have that look; that charm had to come through. Jimmy Stewart could have played Ferris at 15... I needed Matthew. '' Other actors who were considered for the role included Jim Carrey, John Cusack, Tom Cruise and Michael J. Fox.
Sara surprised Hughes when she auditioned for the role of Sloane Peterson. "It was funny. He did n't know how old I was and said he wanted an older girl to play the 17 - year - old. He said it would take someone older to give her the kind of dignity she needed. He almost fell out of his chair when I told him I was only 18. '' Molly Ringwald had also wanted to play Sloane, but according to Ringwald, "John would n't let me do it: he said that the part was n't big enough for me. ''
Ruck had previously auditioned for the Bender role in The Breakfast Club which went to Judd Nelson, but Hughes remembered Ruck and cast him as the 17 - year - old Cameron Frye. According to Hughes, the character of Cameron was largely based on a friend of his in high school. "He was sort of a lost person. His family neglected him, so he took that as license to really pamper himself. When he was legitimately sick, he actually felt good, because it was difficult and tiring to have to invent diseases but when he actually had something, he was relaxed. '' Ruck said the role of Cameron had originally been offered to Emilio Estevez who turned it down. "Every time I see Emilio, I want to kiss him '', said Ruck. "Thank you! '' Ruck, then 29, worried about the age difference. "I was worried that I 'd be 10 years out of step, and I would n't know anything about what was cool, what was hip, all that junk. But when I was going to high school, I did n't know any of that stuff then, either. So I just thought, well, hell -- I 'll just be me. The character, he 's such a loner that he really would n't give a damn about that stuff anyway. He 'd feel guilty that he did n't know it, but that 's it. '' Ruck was not surprised to find himself cast young. "No, because, really, when I was 18, I sort of looked 12 '', he said. "Maybe it 's a genetic imbalance. ''
Ruck and Broderick had previously acted together in the Broadway production of Biloxi Blues. Cameron 's Mr. Peterson voice was an in - joke imitation of their former director Gene Saks. Ruck felt at ease working with Broderick, often crashing in his trailer. "We did n't have to invent an instant friendship like you often have to do in a movie '', said Ruck. "We were friends. ''
Jones was cast as Rooney based on his role in Amadeus, where he played the emperor; Hughes thought that character 's modern equivalent was Rooney. "My part was actually quite small in the script, but what seemed to be the important part to me was that I was the only one who was n't swept along by Ferris '', recalls Jones. "So I was the only one in opposition, which presented a lot of opportunities, some of which were n't even in the script or were expanded on. John was receptive to anything I had to offer, and indeed got ideas along the way himself. So that was fun, working with him. '' "Hughes told me at the time -- and I thought he was just blowing his own horn -- he said, ' You are going to be known for this for the rest of your life. ' And I thought, ' Sure '... but he was right. '' To help Jones study for the part, Hughes took him to meet his old vice principal. "This is the guy I want you to pay close attention to, '' Jones explained to Hughes ' biographer Kirk Honeycutt. While meeting him, the VP 's coat momentarily flew open revealing a holster and gun attached to the man 's belt. This made Jones realize what Hughes had envisioned. "The guy was ' Sign up for the Army quick before I kill you! ' '' Jones exclaimed.
Stein says he got the role of Bueller 's Economics teacher through six degrees of separation. "Richard Nixon introduced me to a man named Bill Safire, who 's a New York Times columnist. He introduced me to a guy who 's an executive at Warner Brothers. He introduced me to a guy who 's a casting director. He introduced me to John Hughes. John Hughes and I are among the only Republicans in the picture business, and John Hughes put me in the movie '', Stein said. Hughes said that Stein was an easy and early choice for the role of the teacher: "He was n't a professional actor. He had a flat voice, he looked like a teacher. ''
"Chicago is what I am, '' said Hughes. "A lot of Ferris is sort of my love letter to the city. And the more people who get upset with the fact that I film there, the more I 'll make sure that 's exactly where I film. It 's funny -- nobody ever says anything to Woody Allen about always filming in New York. America has this great reverence for New York. I look at it as this decaying horror pit. So let the people in Chicago enjoy Ferris Bueller. ''
For the film, Hughes got the chance to take a more expansive look at the city he grew up in. "We took a helicopter up the Chicago River. This is the first chance I 'd really had to get outside while making a movie. Up to this point, the pictures had been pretty small. I really wanted to capture as much of Chicago as I could, not just the architecture and the landscape, but the spirit. '' Shooting began in Chicago on September 9, 1985. In late October 1985, the production moved to Los Angeles, and shooting ended on November 22. The Von Steuben Day Parade scene was filmed on September 28. Scenes were filmed at several locations in downtown Chicago and Winnetka (Ferris 's home, his mother 's real estate office, etc.). Many of the other scenes were filmed in Northbrook, Illinois, including at Glenbrook North High School, on School Drive, the long, curvy street on which Glenbrook North and neighboring Maple Middle School are situated. The exterior of Ferris 's house is located at 4160 Country Club Drive, Long Beach, California.
The modernist house of Cameron Frye is located in Highland Park, Illinois. Known as the Ben Rose House, it was designed by architects A. James Speyer, who designed the main building in 1954, and David Haid, who designed the pavilion in 1974. It was once owned by photographer Ben Rose, who had a car collection in the pavilion. In the film Cameron 's father is portrayed as owning a Ferrari 250 GT California in the same pavilion. According to Lake Forest College art professor Franz Shulze, during the filming of the scene where the Ferrari crashes out of the window, Haid explained to Hughes that he could prevent the car from damaging the rest of the pavilion. Haid fixed connections in the wall and the building remained intact. Haid said to Hughes afterward, "You owe me $25,000 '', which Hughes paid. Other scenes were shot in Chicago, River Forest, Oak Park, Northbrook, Highland Park, Glencoe and Winnetka, Lake Forest and Long Beach, California. After Ben Rose 's death in 2009 the house was offered for sale and was sold in 2014.
According to Hughes, the scene at the Art Institute of Chicago was "a self - indulgent scene of mine -- which was a place of refuge for me, I went there quite a bit, I loved it. I knew all the paintings, the building. This was a chance for me to go back into this building and show the paintings that were my favorite. '' The museum had not been shot in, until the producers of the film approached them. "I remember Hughes saying, ' There are going to be more works of art in this movie than there have ever been before, ' '' recalled Jennifer Grey.
According to editor Paul Hirsch, in the original cut, the museum scene fared poorly at test screenings until he switched sequences around and Hughes changed the soundtrack.
The piece of music I originally chose was a classical guitar solo played on acoustic guitar. It was nonmetrical with a lot of rubato. I cut the sequence to that music and it also became nonmetrical and irregular. I thought it was great and so did Hughes. He loved it so much that he showed it to the studio but they just went "Ehhh. '' Then after many screenings where the audience said "The museum scene is the scene we like least '', he decided to replace the music. We had all loved it, but the audience hated it. I said, ' I think I know why they hate the museum scene. It 's in the wrong place. ' Originally, the parade sequence came before the museum sequence, but I realized that the parade was the highlight of the day, there was no way we could top it, so it had to be the last thing before the three kids go home. So that was agreed upon, we reshuffled the events of the day, and moved the museum sequence before the parade. Then we screened it and everybody loved the museum scene! My feeling was that they loved it because it came in at the right point in the sequence of events. John felt they loved it because of the music. Basically, the bottom line is, it worked.
The music used for the final version of the museum sequence is an instrumental cover version of The Smiths ' "Please, Please, Please, Let Me Get What I Want '', performed by The Dream Academy. A passionate Beatles fan, Hughes makes multiple references to them and John Lennon in the script. During filming, Hughes "listened to The White Album every single day for fifty - six days ''. Hughes also pays tribute to his childhood hero Gordie Howe with Cameron 's Detroit Red Wings jersey. "I sent them the jersey '', said Howe. "It was nice seeing the No. 9 on the big screen. ''
In the film, Ferris convinces Cameron to borrow his father 's rare 1961 Ferrari GT California. "The insert shots of the Ferrari were of the real 250 GT California '', Hughes explains in the DVD commentary. "The cars we used in the wide shots were obviously reproductions. There were only 100 of these cars, so it was way too expensive to destroy. We had a number of replicas made. They were pretty good, but for the tight shots I needed a real one, so we brought one in to the stage and shot the inserts with it. ''
Prior to filming, Hughes learned about Modena Design and Development who produced the Modena Spyder California, a replica of the Ferrari 250 GT. Hughes saw a mention of the company in a car magazine and decided to research them. Neil Glassmoyer recalls the day Hughes contacted him to ask about seeing the Modena Spyder:
The first time he called I hung up on him because I thought it was a friend of mine who was given to practical jokes. Then he called back and convinced me it really was him, so Mark and I took the car to his office. While we were waiting outside to meet Hughes this scruffy - looking fellow came out of the building and began looking the car over; we thought from his appearance he must have been a janitor or something. Then he looked up at a window and shouted, ' This is it! ' and several heads poked out to have a look. That scruffy - looking fellow was John Hughes, and the people in the window were his staff. Turned out it was between the Modena Spyder and a Porsche Turbo, and Hughes chose the Modena.
Automobile restorationist Mark Goyette designed the kits for three reproductions used in the film and chronicled the whereabouts of the cars today:
One of the "replicars '' was sold by Bonhams on April 19, 2010, at the Royal Air Force Museum at Hendon, United Kingdom for £ 79,600.
The "replicar '' was "universally hated by the crew '', said Ruck. "It did n't work right. '' The scene in which Ferris turns off the car to leave it with the garage attendant had to be shot a dozen times because it would not start. The car was built with a real wheel base, but used a Ford V8 engine instead of a V12. At the time of filming, the original 250 GT California model was worth $350,000. Since the release of the film, it has become one of the most expensive cars ever sold, going at auction in 2008 for $10,976,000 and more recently in 2015 for $16,830,000. The vanity plate of Cameron 's dad 's Ferrari spells NRVOUS and the other plates seen in the film are homages to Hughes 's earlier works, VCTN (National Lampoon 's Vacation), TBC (The Breakfast Club), MMOM (Mr. Mom), as well as 4FBDO (Ferris Bueller 's Day Off).
Ben Stein 's famous monotonous lecture about the Smoot - Hawley Tariff Act was not originally in Hughes 's script. Stein, by happenstance, was lecturing off - camera to the amusement of the student cast. "I was just going to do it off camera, but the student extras laughed so hard when they heard my voice that (Hughes) said do it on camera, improvise, something you know a lot about. When I gave the lecture about supply - side economics, I thought they were applauding. Everybody on the set applauded. I thought they were applauding because they had learned something about supply - side economics. But they were applauding because they thought I was boring... It was the best day of my life '', Stein said.
The parade scene took multiple days of filming; Broderick spent some time practicing the dance moves. "I was very scared '', Broderick said. "Fortunately, the sequence was carefully choreographed beforehand. We worked out all the moves by rehearsing in a little studio. It was shot on two Saturdays in the heart of downtown Chicago. The first day was during a real parade, and John got some very long shots. Then radio stations carried announcements inviting people to take part in ' a John Hughes movie '. The word got around fast and 10,000 people showed up! For the final shot, I turned around and saw a river of people. I put my hands up at the end of the number and heard this huge roar. I can understand how rock stars feel. That kind of reaction feeds you. ''
Broderick 's moves were choreographed by Kenny Ortega (who later choreographed Dirty Dancing). Much of it had to be scrapped though as Broderick had injured his knee badly during the scenes of running through neighbors ' backyards. "I was pretty sore '', Broderick said. "I got well enough to do what you see in the parade there, but I could n't do most of Kenny Ortega 's knee spins and things like that that we had worked on. When we did shoot it, we had all this choreography and I remember John would yell with a megaphone, ' Okay, do it again, but do n't do any of the choreography, ' because he wanted it to be a total mess. '' "Danke Schoen '' was somewhat choreographed but for "Twist and Shout '', Broderick said, "we were just making everything up ''. Hughes explained that much of the scene was spontaneously filmed. "It just happened that this was an actual parade, which we put our float into -- unbeknownst to anybody, all the people on the reviewing stand. Nobody knew what it was, including the governor. ''
Wrigley Field is featured in two interwoven and consecutive scenes. In the first scene, Rooney is looking for Ferris at a pizza joint while the voice of Harry Caray announces the action of a ballgame that is being shown on TV. From the play - by - play descriptions, the uniforms, and the player numbers, this game has been identified as the June 5, 1985, game between the Atlanta Braves and the Chicago Cubs. The batter rips a foul ball into the left field stands, and as Rooney looks away from the TV briefly, the TV cameras show a close up of Ferris a moment after catching it. The scene in the pizza joint continues as Rooney tries to banter about the game with the guy behind the counter.
In the next scene, Sloane, Cameron, and Ferris are in the left field stands inside Wrigley. Ferris flexes his hand in pain after supposedly catching the foul ball. During this scene, the characters enjoy the game and joke about what they would be doing if they had played by the rules. All these "in the park '' shots, including the one from the previous scene where Ferris catches the foul ball on TV, were filmed on September 24, 1985, at a game between the Montreal Expos and the Cubs. During the 1985 season, the Braves and the Expos both wore powder blue uniforms during their road games. And so, with seamless editing by Hughes, it is difficult to distinguish that the game being seen and described in the pizza joint is not only a different game but also a different Cubs ' opponent than the one filmed inside the stadium.
John Hughes had originally wanted to film the scene at the baseball game at Comiskey Park, as Hughes was a Chicago White Sox fan. However, due to time constraints, the location was moved to Wrigley Field at the last minute.
On October 1, 2011, Wrigley Field celebrated the 25th anniversary of the film by showing it on three giant screens on the infield.
Several scenes were cut from the final film; one lost scene entitled "The Isles of Langerhans '' has the three teenagers trying to order in the French restaurant, shocked to discover pancreas on the menu (although in the finished film, Ferris still says, "We ate pancreas '', while recapping the day). This is featured on the Bueller, Bueller Edition DVD. Other scenes were never made available on any DVD version. These scenes included additional screen time with Jeanie in a locker room, Ferris ' younger brother and sister (both of whom were completely removed from the film), and additional / alternate lines of dialogue throughout the film, all of which can be seen in the original theatrical trailer. Hughes had also wanted to film a scene where Ferris, Sloane, and Cameron go to a strip club. Paramount executives told him there were only so many shooting days left, so the scene was scrapped.
An official soundtrack was not originally released for the film, as director John Hughes felt the songs would not work well together as a continuous album. However, according to an interview with Lollipop Magazine, Hughes noted that he had sent 100,000 7 '' vinyl singles containing two songs featured in the film to members of his fan mailing list.
Hughes gave further details about his refusal to release a soundtrack in the Lollipop interview:
The only official soundtrack that Ferris Bueller 's Day Off ever had was for the mailing list. A&M was very angry with me over that; they begged me to put one out, but I thought "who 'd want all of these songs? '' I mean, would kids want "Danke Schoen '' and "Oh Yeah '' on the same record? They probably already had "Twist and Shout '', or their parents did, and to put all of those together with the more contemporary stuff, like the (English) Beat -- I just did n't think anybody would like it. But I did put together a seven - inch of the two songs I owned the rights to -- "Beat City '' on one side, and... I forget, one of the other English bands on the soundtrack... and sent that to the mailing list. By ' 86, ' 87, it was costing us $30 a piece to mail out 100,000 packages. But it was a labor of love.
"Danke Schoen '' is one of the recurring motifs in the film and is sung by Ferris, Ed Rooney, and Jeanie. Hughes called it the "most awful song of my youth. Every time it came on, I just wanted to scream, claw my face. I was taking German in high school -- which meant that we listened to it in school. I could n't get away from it. '' According to Broderick, Ferris 's singing "Danke Schoen '' in the shower was his idea. "Although it 's only because of the brilliance of John 's deciding that I should sing "Danke Schoen '' on the float in the parade. I had never heard the song before. I was learning it for the parade scene. So we 're doing the shower scene and I thought, ' Well, I can do a little rehearsal. ' And I did something with my hair to make that Mohawk. And you know what good directors do: they say, ' Stop! Wait till we roll. ' And John put that stuff in. ''
The soundtrack for the film, limited to 5,000 copies, was released on September 13, 2016 by La - La Land Records. The album includes new wave and pop songs featured in the film, as well as Ira Newborn 's complete score, including unused cues. Due to licensing restrictions, "Twist and Shout, '' "Taking The Day Off, '' and "March of the Swivelheads '' were not included, but are available elsewhere. The Flowerpot Men 's "Beat City '' makes its first official release on CD with a new mix done by The Flowerpot Men 's Ben Watkins and Adam Peters that differs from the original 7 '' fan club release.
The film largely received positive reviews from critics. Roger Ebert gave it three out of four stars, calling it "one of the most innocent movies in a long time, '' and "a sweet, warm - hearted comedy. '' Richard Roeper called the film "one of my favorite movies of all time. It has one of the highest ' repeatability ' factors of any film I 've ever seen... I can watch it again and again. There 's also this, and I say it in all sincerity: Ferris Bueller 's Day Off is something of a suicide prevention film, or at the very least a story about a young man trying to help his friend gain some measure of self - worth... Ferris has made it his mission to show Cameron that the whole world in front of him is passing him by, and that life can be pretty sweet if you wake up and embrace it. That 's the lasting message of Ferris Bueller 's Day Off. '' Roeper pays homage to the film with a license plate that reads "SVFRRIS ''. Conservative columnist George Will hailed Ferris as "the moviest movie, '' a film "most true to the general spirit of the movies, the spirit of effortless escapism. ''
Essayist Steve Almond called Ferris "the most sophisticated teen movie (he) had ever seen, '' adding that while Hughes had made a lot of good movies, Ferris was the "one film (he) would consider true art, (the) only one that reaches toward the ecstatic power of teendom (sic) and, at the same time, exposes the true, piercing woe of that age. '' Almond also applauded Ruck 's performance, going so far as saying he deserved the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor of 1986: "His performance is what elevates the film, allows it to assume the power of a modern parable. '' The New York Times reviewer Nina Darnton criticized Mia Sara 's portrayal of Sloane for lacking "the specific detail that characterized the adolescent characters in Hughes 's other films '', asserting she "created a basically stable but forgettable character. '' Conversely, Darnton praised Ruck and Grey 's performances: "The two people who grow in the movie -- Cameron, played with humor and sensitivity by Alan Ruck, and Ferris 's sister Jeanie, played with appropriate self - pity by Jennifer Grey -- are the most authentic. Grey manages to play an insufferably sulky teen - ager who is still attractive and likable. ''
National Review writer Mark Hemingway lauded the film 's celebration of liberty. "If there 's a better celluloid expression of ordinary American freedom than Ferris Bueller 's Day Off, I have yet to see it. If you could take one day and do absolutely anything, piling into a convertible with your best girl and your best friend and taking in a baseball game, an art museum, and a fine meal seems about as good as it gets, '' wrote Hemingway.
Others were less enamored with Ferris, many taking issue with the film 's "rebel without a cause '' hedonism. David Denby of New York Magazine, called the film "a nauseating distillation of the slack, greedy side of Reaganism. '' Author Christina Lee agreed, adding it was a "splendidly ridiculous exercise in unadulterated indulgence, '' and the film "encapsulated the Reagan era 's near solipsist worldview and insatiable appetite for immediate gratification -- of living in and for the moment... '' Gene Siskel panned the film from a Chicago - centric perspective saying "Ferris Bueller does n't do anything much fun... (t) hey do n't even sit in the bleachers where all the kids like to sit when they go to Cubs games. '' Siskel did enjoy the chemistry between Jennifer Grey and Charlie Sheen. Ebert thought Siskel was too eager to find flaws in the film 's view of Chicago.
It has an aggregate score of 79 % (based on 63 critics ' reviews) on Rotten Tomatoes, and an average rating of 7.7 / 10.
Broderick was nominated for a Golden Globe Award in 1986 for Best Actor -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy.
The film opened in 1,330 theaters in the United States and had a total weekend gross of $6,275,647, opening at # 2. Ferris Bueller 's Day Off 's total gross in the United States was approximately $70,136,369, making it a box office success. It subsequently became the 10th - highest - grossing film of 1986.
As an influential and popular film, Ferris Bueller 's Day Off has been included in many film rating lists. The film is number 54 on Bravo 's "100 Funniest Movies '', came 26th in the British 50 Greatest Comedy Films and ranked number 10 on Entertainment Weekly 's list of the "50 Best High School Movies ''.
First Lady Barbara Bush paraphrased the film in her 1990 commencement address at Wellesley College: "Find the joy in life, because as Ferris Bueller said on his day off, ' Life moves pretty fast; if you do n't stop and look around once in a while, you could miss it! ' '' Responding to the audience 's enthusiastic applause, she added "I 'm not going to tell George ya clapped more for Ferris than ya clapped for George. ''
Other phrases from Ferris Bueller 's Day Off such as Stein 's nasally - voiced "Bueller?... Bueller?... Bueller? '' (while taking roll call in class), and "Anyone? Anyone? '' (trying to probe the students for answers) as well as Kristy Swanson 's cheerful "No problem whatsoever! '' also permeated popular culture. In fact, Stein 's monotone performance launched his acting career. In 2016, Stein reprised the attendance scene in a campaign ad for Iowa Senator Charles Grassley; Stein intoned the last name of Grassley 's opponent (Patty Judge), to silence, while facts about her missed votes and absences from state board meetings were listed. Stein then calls out "Grassley, '' which gets a response; Stein mutters, "He 's always here. ''
Broderick said of the Ferris Bueller role, "It eclipsed everything, I should admit, and to some degree it still does. '' Later at the 2010 Oscar tribute to Hughes, he said, "For the past 25 years, nearly every day someone comes up to me, taps me on the shoulder and says, ' Hey, Ferris, is this your day off? ' ''
Ruck says that with Cameron Frye, Hughes gave him "the best part I ever had in a movie, and any success that I 've had since 1985 is because he took a big chance on me. I 'll be forever grateful. '' "While we were making the movie, I just knew I had a really good part '', Ruck says. "My realization of John 's impact on the teen - comedy genre crept in sometime later. Teen comedies tend to dwell on the ridiculous, as a rule. It 's always the preoccupation with sex and the self - involvement, and we kind of hold the kids up for ridicule in a way. Hughes added this element of dignity. He was an advocate for teenagers as complete human beings, and he honored their hopes and their dreams. That 's what you see in his movies. ''
Broderick starred in a television advertisement prepared by Honda promoting its CR - V for the 2012 Super Bowl XLVI. The ad pays homage to Ferris Bueller, featuring Broderick (as himself) faking illness to skip out of work to enjoy sightseeing around Los Angeles. Several elements, such as the use of the song "Oh Yeah '', and a valet monotonously calling for "Broderick... Broderick... '', appear in the ad. A teaser for the ad had appeared two weeks prior to the Super Bowl, which had created rumors of a possible film sequel. It was produced by Santa Monica - based RPA and directed by Todd Phillips. AdWeek 's Tim Nudd called the ad "a great homage to the original 1986 film, with Broderick this time calling in sick to a film shoot and enjoying another day of slacking. '' On the other hand, Jalopnik 's Matt Hardigree called the spot "sacrilegious ''.
In March 2017, Domino 's Pizza began an advertising campaign parodying the film, featuring actor Joe Keery in the lead role.
The film 's influence in popular culture extends beyond the film itself to how musical elements of the film have been received as well, for example, Yello 's song "Oh Yeah ''. As Jonathan Bernstein explains, "Never a hit, this slice of Swiss - made tomfoolery with its varispeed vocal effects and driving percussion was first used by John Hughes to illustrate the mouthwatering must - haveness of Cameron 's dad 's Ferrari. Since then, it has become synonymous with avarice. Every time a movie, TV show or commercial wants to underline the jaw - dropping impact of a hot babe or sleek auto, that synth - drum starts popping and that deep voice rumbles, ' Oh yeah... ' '' Concerning the influence of another song used in the film, Roz Kaveney writes that some "of the finest moments in later teen film draw on Ferris 's blithe Dionysian fervour -- the elaborate courtship by song in 10 Things I Hate About You (1999) draws usefully on the "Twist and Shout '' sequence in Ferris Bueller 's Day Off ".
The bands Save Ferris and Rooney were named in allusion to Ferris Bueller 's Day Off.
"Twist and Shout '' charted again, 16 years after the Beatles broke up, as a result of its prominent appearance in both this film and Back To School (where Rodney Dangerfield performs a cover version) which was released the same weekend as Ferris Bueller 's Day Off. The re-released single reached # 23 in the U.S; a US - only compilation album containing the track The Early Beatles, re-entered the album charts at # 197. The version heard in the film includes brass overdubbed onto the Beatles ' original recording, which did not go down well with Paul McCartney. "I liked (the) film but they overdubbed some lousy brass on the stuff! If it had needed brass, we 'd had stuck it on ourselves! '' Upon hearing McCartney 's reaction, Hughes felt bad for "offend (ing) a Beatle. But it was n't really part of the song. We saw a band (onscreen) and we needed to hear the instruments. ''
Broderick and Hughes stayed in touch for a while after production. "We thought about a sequel to Ferris Bueller, where he 'd be in college or at his first job, and the same kind of things would happen again. But neither of us found a very exciting hook to that. The movie is about a singular time in your life. '' "Ferris Bueller is about the week before you leave school, it 's about the end of school -- in some way, it does n't have a sequel. It 's a little moment and it 's a lightning flash in your life. I mean, you could try to repeat it in college or something but it 's a time that you do n't keep. So that 's partly why I think we could n't think of another '', Broderick added. "But just for fun '', said Ruck, "I used to think why do n't they wait until Matthew and I are in our seventies and do Ferris Bueller Returns and have Cameron be in a nursing home. He does n't really need to be there, but he just decided his life is over, so he committed himself to a nursing home. And Ferris comes and breaks him out. And they go to, like, a titty bar and all this ridiculous stuff happens. And then, at the end of the movie, Cameron dies. ''
Many scholars have discussed at length the film 's depiction of academia and youth culture. For Martin Morse Wooster, the film "portrayed teachers as humorless buffoons whose only function was to prevent teenagers from having a good time ''. Regarding not specifically teachers, but rather a type of adult characterization in general, Art Silverblatt asserts that the "adults in Ferris Bueller 's Day Off are irrelevant and impotent. Ferris 's nemesis, the school disciplinarian, Mr. Rooney, is obsessed with ' getting Bueller. ' His obsession emerges from envy. Strangely, Ferris serves as Rooney 's role model, as he clearly possesses the imagination and power that Rooney lacks... By capturing and disempowering Ferris, Rooney hopes to... reduce Ferris 's influence over other students, which would reestablish adults, that is, Rooney, as traditional authority figures. '' Nevertheless, Silverblatt concludes that "Rooney is essentially a comedic figure, whose bumbling attempts to discipline Ferris are a primary source of humor in the film ''. Thomas Patrick Doherty writes that "the adult villains in teenpics such as... Ferris Bueller 's Day Off (1986) are overdrawn caricatures, no real threat; they 're played for laughs ''. Yet Silverblatt also remarks that casting "the principal as a comic figure questions the competence of adults to provide young people with effective direction -- indeed, the value of adulthood itself ''.
Adults are not the stars or main characters of the film, and Roz Kaveney notes that what "Ferris Bueller brings to the teen genre, ultimately, is a sense of how it is possible to be cool and popular without being rich or a sports hero. Unlike the heroes of Weird Science, Ferris is computer savvy without being a nerd or a geek -- it is a skill he has taken the trouble to learn. ''
In 2010, English comedian Dan Willis performed his show "Ferris Bueller 's Way Of... '' at the Edinburgh Festival, delving into the philosophy of the movie and looking for life answers within.
The film was first released on VHS and Laserdisc in 1987, and then re-released on VHS in 1996. The film has been released on DVD three times; including the original DVD release October 19, 1999, the Bueller... Bueller edition January 2006, and the I Love the ' 80s edition August 19, 2008. The original DVD, like most Paramount Pictures films released on DVD for the first time, has very few bonus features, but it does feature a commentary by Hughes. Though this is no longer available for sale, the director 's commentary is available here. The Bueller... Bueller re-release has several more bonus features, but does not contain the commentary track of the original DVD release. The I Love the ' 80s edition is identical to the first DVD release (no features aside from commentary), but includes a bonus CD with songs from the 1980s. The songs are not featured in the film. The Bueller... Bueller edition has multiple bonus features such as interviews with the cast and crew, along with a clip of Stein 's commentaries on the film 's philosophy and impact. The Blu - ray Disc release (which is a part of the Bueller... Bueller edition, with the same bonus material) was first released on May 5, 2009. A 25th anniversary edition for DVD and Blu - ray were both released on August 2, 2011.
In 1990, a series called Ferris Bueller started for NBC, starring Charlie Schlatter as Ferris Bueller, Jennifer Aniston as Jeanie Bueller, and Ami Dolenz as Sloane Peterson. The series served as a prequel to the film. In the pilot episode, the audience sees Schlatter cutting up a cardboard cutout of Matthew Broderick, saying that he hated Broderick 's performance as him. It was produced by Maysh, Ltd. Productions in association with Paramount Television. In part because of competition of the similar series on the Fox Television Network, Parker Lewis Ca n't Lose, the series was canceled after the first thirteen episodes aired. Both Schlatter and Aniston later had success on other TV shows, Schlatter on Diagnosis: Murder and Aniston on Friends.
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who is appointed as the railway minster of india recently | Minister of Railways (India) - Wikipedia
The Minister of Railways is the head of the Ministry of Railways of the Government of India. The railway minister is usually accorded a cabinet rank, and is responsible for Indian Railways, the largest employer in the world. An important responsibility of the railway minister is to present in Parliament the Railway Budget, the Annual Financial Statement of Indian Railways. Piyush Goyal of the Bharatiya Janata Party is the current Minister of Railways, serving since 3 September 2017. Railways Minister (India)
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who played jed clampett on the beverly hillbillies movie | The Beverly Hillbillies - wikipedia
Coordinates: 34 ° 05 ′ 13 '' N 118 ° 26 ′ 32 '' W / 34.0870638 ° N 118.4421671 ° W / 34.0870638; - 118.4421671
The Beverly Hillbillies is an American sitcom originally broadcast on CBS from 1962 to 1971. The show had an ensemble cast featuring Buddy Ebsen, Irene Ryan, Donna Douglas, and Max Baer Jr. as the Clampetts, a poor backwoods family who move to posh Beverly Hills, California, after striking oil on their land. The show was produced by Filmways and was created by writer Paul Henning. It was followed by two other Henning - inspired "country cousin '' series on CBS: Petticoat Junction, and its spin - off Green Acres, which reversed the rags - to - riches, country - to - city model of The Beverly Hillbillies.
The Beverly Hillbillies ranked among the top 20 most - watched programs on television for eight of its nine seasons, twice ranking as the number one series of the year, with a number of episodes that remain among the most - watched television episodes in history. It accumulated seven Emmy nominations during its run. The series remains in syndicated reruns, and its ongoing popularity spawned a 1993 film remake by 20th Century Fox.
The series starts as Jed Clampett, an impoverished and widowed mountaineer, is living alongside an oil - rich swamp with his daughter and mother - in - law. A surveyor for the OK Oil Company realizes the size of the oil field, and the company pays him a fortune for the right to drill on his land. Patriarch Jed 's cousin Pearl Bodine prods him to move to California after being told his modest property could yield $25 million, and pressures him into taking her son Jethro along. The family moves into a mansion in wealthy Beverly Hills, California, next door to Jed 's banker, Milburn Drysdale. The Clampetts bring a moral, unsophisticated, and minimalistic lifestyle to the swanky, sometimes self - obsessed and superficial community. Double entendres and cultural misconceptions are the core of the sitcom 's humor. Plots often involve the outlandish efforts Drysdale makes to keep the Clampetts ' money in his bank. The family 's periodic attempts to return to the mountains are often prompted by Granny 's perceiving a slight from one of the "city folk ''.
Although he has little formal education, Jed Clampett (Buddy Ebsen) has a good deal of common sense. He is the son of Luke Clampett and his wife, and has a sister called Myrtle. Jed is a good - natured man and the head of the family. The huge oil pool in the swamp he owned was the beginning of his rags - to - riches journey to Beverly Hills. He is usually the straight man to Granny and Jethro 's antics. His catchphrase is, "Welllllll, doggies! '' Jed was one of the three characters to appear in all 274 episodes of the series.
Daisy May Moses (Irene Ryan), called "Granny '' by all, is Jed 's mother - in - law. Paul Henning, the show 's creator / producer, quickly discarded the idea of making Granny Jed 's mother, which would have changed the show 's dynamics, making Granny the matriarch and Jed subordinate to her. Granny can be aggressive, but is often overruled by Jed. She is a Confederate to the core, defending President Jefferson Davis, the Stars and Bars, and the simple life. Short - fused and easily angered, Granny fancies herself a Baptist ("dunked, not sprinkled '') Christian with forgiveness in her heart. A self - styled "M.D. '' -- "mountain doctor '' -- she claims to be better than expensive trained physicians. In lieu of conventional anesthesia, Granny uses her "white lightning '' brew before commencing painful treatments such as leech bleeding and yanking teeth with pliers.
Granny 's full name, Daisy Moses, is allegedly an homage to the popular and dearly loved folk artist Anna Mary Robertson, known to the world as Grandma Moses, who died in 1961, a year before The Beverly Hillbillies made its television debut. Granny is frequently referred to as "Granny Clampett '' in a number of episodes, but technically she is a Moses. Granny appears in all 274 episodes.
Elly May (Donna Douglas in all 274 episodes), the only child of Jed and Rose Ellen Clampett, is a mountain beauty with the body of a pinup girl and the soul of a tomboy. She can throw a fastball as well as "rassle '' most men to a fall, and she can be as tender with her friends, animals, and family as she is tough with anyone she rassles. She says once that animals can be better companions than people, but as she grows older, she allows that, "fellas kin be more fun than critters. "In addition to the family dog, Duke (an old Bloodhound), a number of pets live on the Clampett estate thanks to animal - lover Elly. In the 1981 TV movie, Elly May is the head of a zoo.
Elly is a terrible cook. Family members cringe whenever, for plot reasons, Elly takes over the kitchen.
Jethro (Max Baer Jr. in 272 episodes) is the son of Jed 's cousin, Pearl Bodine (though he addresses Jed as "Uncle Jed ''). He drives the Clampett family to their new home in California and stays on with them to further his education. The others boast of Jethro 's "sixth - grade education '', but he is ignorant about nearly every aspect of modern California life. In one episode, he decides to go to college. He enrolls late in the semester at a local secretarial school and "earns '' his diploma by the end of the day because he is so disruptive. This was an ironic in - joke -- in real life, Max Baer Jr. has a bachelor 's degree in business administration, minoring in philosophy, from Santa Clara University.
Many story lines involve Jethro 's endless career search, which include such diverse vocations as a millwright, a brain surgeon, street car conductor, "double - naught '' spy, telephone lineman, soda jerk, chauffeur, short - order cook, sculptor, restaurant owner (with Granny 's cooking), psychiatrist, and once as a bookkeeper for Milburn Drysdale 's bank; a Hollywood agent for "cousin '' Bessie and "Cousin Roy '' (see below); Hollywood producer (a studio flunky remarks Jethro has the "right qualifications '' for being a producer: a sixth - grade education and an uncle who owns the studio; this in - joke gag as a movie producer was replayed in the 1981 movie). More often than not, his overall goal in these endeavors is to meet pretty girls. He only manages to gain (but is oblivious to) the affections of the plain Miss Jane Hathaway. Of all the Clampett clan, he is the most eager to embrace city life. A running gag is that Jethro is known as the "six - foot stomach '' for his huge appetite: in one episode, he eats a jetliner 's entire supply of steaks; in another, Jethro tries to set himself up as a Hollywood agent for cousin "Bessie '' the chimpanzee -- with a fee of 10,000 bananas for Bessie and 1,000 for him. Jethro does not appear in the third - or second - to - last episodes, but Baer remains billed in the title credits.
With the January 2015 death of Donna Douglas, Baer is the only surviving main cast member.
Milburn (Raymond Bailey in 247 episodes) is the Clampetts ' banker, confidant and next - door neighbor. He is obsessed with money, and to keep the Clampetts ' $96,000,000 (in 1969, equal to $640,638,838 today) in his Commerce Bank, Mr. Drysdale will do everything he can to cater to their every wish. He often forces others, especially his long - suffering secretary, to help fulfill their outlandish requests.
Jane Hathaway (Nancy Kulp in 246 episodes), whom the Clampetts address as "Miss Jane '', is Drysdale 's loyal and efficient secretary. Though she reluctantly carries out his wishes, she is genuinely fond of the family and tries to shield them from her boss 's greed. Miss Hathaway frequently has to "rescue '' Drysdale from his schemes, receiving little or no thanks for her efforts. The Clampetts consider her family; even Granny, the one most dead - set against living in California, likes her very much. Jane harbors something of a crush on Jethro for most of the series ' run. In 1999, TV Guide ranked Jane Hathaway number 38 on its "50 Greatest TV Characters of All Time '' list.
The show 's theme song, "The Ballad of Jed Clampett '', was written by producer and writer Paul Henning and originally performed by bluegrass artists Flatt and Scruggs. The song is sung by Jerry Scoggins (backed by Flatt and Scruggs) over the opening and end credits of each episode. Flatt and Scruggs subsequently cut their own version of the theme (with Flatt singing) for Columbia Records; released as a single, it reached number 44 on Billboard Hot 100 pop music chart and number one on the Billboard Hot Country chart (the lone country chart - topper for the duo).
The six main cast members participated on a 1963 Columbia soundtrack album, which featured original song numbers in character. Additionally, Ebsen, Ryan, and Douglas each made a few solo recordings following the show 's success, including Ryan 's 1966 novelty single, "Granny 's Miniskirt ''.
The series generally features no country music beyond the bluegrass banjo theme song, although country star Roy Clark and the team of Flatt and Scruggs occasionally play on the program. Pop singer Pat Boone appears in one episode as himself, under the premise that he hails from the same area of the country as the Clampetts, although Boone is a native of Jacksonville, Florida.
The 1989 film UHF featured a "Weird Al '' Yankovic parody music video, "Money for Nothing / Beverly Hillbillies * '', combining "The Ballad of Jed Clampett '' and English rock band Dire Straits ' 1985 hit song "Money for Nothing ''.
Season seven (1968 -- 69) was packed with strategically placed, multi-episode crossover stories in which the fictional worlds of all three Paul Henning series overlap. The Clampett family makes several trips to Hooterville, Sam Drucker visits Beverly Hills, and Granny (Irene Ryan) does two guest appearances on Petticoat Junction. In season eight (1969 -- 70), the Clampett family visits Hooterville one last time for a two - part episode.
The Beverly Hillbillies received poor reviews from some contemporary critics. The New York Times called the show "strained and unfunny ''; Variety called it "painful to sit through ''. Film professor Janet Staiger writes that "the problem for these reviewers was that the show confronted the cultural elite 's notions of quality entertainment. '' The show did receive a somewhat favorable review from noted critic Gilbert Seldes in the December 15, 1962 TV Guide: "The whole notion on which The Beverly Hillbillies is founded is an encouragement to ignorance... But it is funny. What can I do? ''
Regardless of the poor reviews, the show shot to the top of the Nielsen ratings shortly after its premiere and stayed there for several seasons. During its first two seasons, it was the number one program in the U.S. During its second season, it earned some of the highest ratings ever recorded for a half - hour sitcom. The season - two episode "The Giant Jackrabbit '' also became the most watched telecast up to the time of its airing, and remains the most - watched half - hour episode of a sitcom, as well. The series enjoyed excellent ratings throughout its run, although it had fallen out of the top 20 most - watched shows during its final season.
In 1997, the season 3 episode "Hedda Hopper 's Hollywood '' was ranked Number 62 on "TV Guide 's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time ''.
Season nine, during the 1970 -- 71 TV season placed 33rd out of 96 shows. Despite the respectable ratings, the show was canceled in the spring of 1971 after 274 episodes. The CBS network, prompted by pressure from advertisers seeking a more sophisticated urban audience, decided to refocus its schedule on several "hip '' new urban - themed shows and, to make room for them, the two remaining series of CBS 's rural - themed comedies were simultaneously cancelled. This action came to be known as "the Rural Purge ''. Pat Buttram, who played Mr. Haney on Green Acres, famously remarked, "It was the year CBS cancelled everything with a tree - including Lassie. ''
In 1981, Return of the Beverly Hillbillies television movie, written and produced by series creator Henning, was aired on the CBS network. Irene Ryan had died in 1973, and Raymond Bailey had died in 1980. The script acknowledged Granny 's passing, but featured Imogene Coca as Granny 's mother. Max Baer decided against reprising the role that both started and stymied his career, so the character of Jethro Bodine was given to another actor, Ray Young.
The film 's plot had Jed back in his old homestead in Bug Tussle, having divided his massive fortune among Elly May and Jethro, both of whom stayed on the West Coast. Jane Hathaway had become a Department of Energy agent and was seeking Granny 's "White Lightnin ' '' recipe to combat the energy crisis. Since Granny had gone on to "her re-ward '', it was up to Granny 's centenarian "Maw '' (Imogene Coca) to divulge the secret brew 's ingredients. Subplots included Jethro playing an egocentric, starlet - starved Hollywood producer, Jane and her boss (Werner Klemperer) having a romance, and Elly May owning a large petting zoo. The four main characters finally got together by the end of the story.
Having been filmed a mere decade after the final episode of the original series, viewer consensus was that the series ' original spirit was lost to the film on many fronts, chief of which being the deaths of Ryan and Bailey and Baer 's absence, which left only three of the six original cast members available to reprise their respective roles. Further subtracting from the familiarity was the fact that the legendary Clampett mansion was unavailable for a location shoot as the owners ' lease was too expensive. Henning himself admitted sheer embarrassment when the finished product aired, blaming his inability to rewrite the script due to the 1981 Writers Guild strike.
In 1993, Ebsen, Douglas, and Baer reunited onscreen for the only time in the CBS - TV retrospective television special, The Legend of the Beverly Hillbillies, which ranked as the fourth-most watched television program of the week -- a major surprise given the mediocre rating for the 1981 TV movie. It was a rare tribute from the "Tiffany network '', which owed much of its success in the 1960s to the series, but has often seemed embarrassed by it in hindsight, often down - playing the show in retrospective television specials on the network 's history and rarely inviting cast members to participate in such all - star broadcasts.
The Legend of The Beverly Hillbillies special ignored several plot twists of the TV movie, notably Jethro was now not a film director, but a leading Los Angeles physician. Critter - loving Elly May was still in California with her animals, but Jed was back home in the Hills, having lost his fortune, stolen by the now - imprisoned banker Drysdale. Nancy Kulp had died in 1991 and was little referred to beyond the multitude of film clips that dotted the special. The special was released on VHS tape by CBS / Fox Video in 1995 and as a bonus feature on the Official Third Season DVD Set in 2009.
The Beverly Hillbillies is still televised daily around the world in syndication. In the United States, the show is broadcast currently on MeTV, Retro TV, MyFamily TV, and was previously on Nick at Nite, The Hallmark Channel, and WGN America. A limited number of episodes from the earlier portions of the series run have turned up in the public domain and as such are seen occasionally on many smaller networks.
MeTV Network airs The Beverly Hillbillies Monday - Saturday at 7 A.M.
The show is distributed by CBS Television Distribution, the syndication arm of CBS Television Studios and the CBS network. It was previously distributed by CBS Films, Viacom Enterprises, Paramount Domestic Television, and CBS Paramount Domestic Television (all through corporate changes involving TV distribution rights to the early CBS library). The repeats of the show that debuted on CBS Daytime on September 5 -- 9, 1966, as "Mornin ' Beverly Hillbillies '' through September 10, 1971 and on September 13 -- 17, 1971 as "The Beverly Hillbillies '' lasted up to winter 1971 -- 72. It aired at 11: 00 -- 11: 30 am Eastern / 10: 00 - 10: 30 am Central through September 3, 1971, then moved to 10: 30 -- 11: 00 am Eastern / 9: 30 -- 10: 00 am Central for the last season on CBS Daytime.
Fifty - five episodes of the series are in the public domain (all 36 season - one episodes and 19 season - two episodes), because Orion Television, successor to Filmways, neglected to renew their copyrights. As a result, these episodes have been released on home video and DVD on many low - budget labels and shown on low - power television stations and low - budget networks in 16 - mm prints. In many video prints of the public domain episodes, the original theme music has been replaced by generic music due to copyright issues.
Before his death, Paul Henning, whose estate now holds the original film elements to the public domain episodes, authorized MPI Home Video to release the best of the first two seasons on DVD, the first "ultimate collection '' of which was released in the fall of 2005. These collections include the original, uncut versions of the first season 's episodes, complete with their original theme music and opening sponsor plugs. Volume 1 has, among its bonus features, the alternate, unaired version of the pilot film, The Hillbillies Of Beverly Hills (the version of the episode that sold the series to CBS), and the "cast commercials '' (cast members pitching the products of the show 's sponsors) originally shown at the end of each episode.
With the exception of the public domain episodes, the copyrights to the series were renewed by Orion Television. However, any new compilation of Hillbillies material will be copyrighted by either MPI Media Group or CBS, depending on the content of the material used.
For many years, 20th Century Fox, through a joint venture with CBS called CBS / Fox Video, released select episodes of Hillbillies on videocassette. After Viacom merged with CBS, Paramount Home Entertainment (the video division of Paramount Pictures, which was acquired by Viacom in 1994) took over the video rights.
In 2006, Paramount announced plans to release the copyrighted episodes in boxed sets through CBS DVD later that year. The show 's second season (consisting of the public domain episodes from that season) was released on DVD in Region 1 on October 7, 2008 as "... The Official Second Season ''. The third season was released on February 17, 2009. Both seasons are available to be purchased together from major online retailers. On October 1, 2013, season four was released on DVD as a Walmart exclusive. It was released as a full retail release on April 15, 2014. On April 26, 2016, CBS / Paramount released the complete first season on DVD for the very first time.
A three - act stage play based on the pilot was written by David Rogers in 1968.
"The Deadly Hillbillies, '' an interactive murder mystery, was written by John R. Logue using the core "Beverly Hillbillies '' cast of characters as inspiration. This Gypsy Productions Murder Mystery Parody features characters such as "Jed Clumpett, '' "Daisy May Mostes, '' and "Jane Hatchaway. ''
Dell Comics adapted the series into a comic book series in 1962. The art work was provided by Henry Scarpelli.
In 1993, a movie version of The Beverly Hillbillies was released starring Jim Varney as Jed Clampett and featuring Buddy Ebsen in a cameo as Barnaby Jones, the lead character in his long - running post-Hillbillies television series.
Based on The Beverly Hillbillies movie, a PC computer adventure game for operating system MS - DOS was developed by Synergistic Software, Inc. and published in 1993 by Capstone Software.
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how many 11 seeds have made it to the elite eight | Elite Eight - wikipedia
In the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship or the NCAA Women 's Division I Basketball Championship, the "Elite Eight '' (also called the "Great Eight '') are the final eight teams and, thus represent the regional finals, or national quarterfinals. In Division I and Division III, the Elite Eight consists of the two teams in each of the four regional championship games. The winners advance to the Final Four. Since 1997, when the NCAA trademarked the phrase, in Division II the Elite Eight consists of the eight winners of the eight Division II regions. Like the Division I Final Four, the Division II Elite Eight games are all held in one predetermined location.
In the men 's Division I, the lowest - seeded team ever to reach this round in the modern 64 team tournament era was # 12 Missouri in 2002, who upset # 5 - seed Miami (Florida), # 4 - seed Ohio State, and # 8 - seed UCLA before losing to # 2 - seed Oklahoma in the West regional that year. Eight # 11 seeds have advanced to the Elite Eight: LSU in 1986, Loyola Marymount in 1990, Temple in 2001, George Mason in 2006, Virginia Commonwealth in 2011, Dayton in 2014, Xavier in 2017, and Loyola Chicago in 2018.
On average, three of the four # 1 seeds make it to the Elite Eight each year. In men 's play, the Elite Eight exists intact for less than 24 hours between the second Friday evening and the following Saturday afternoon of the tournament. The Elite Eight also represents the halfway mark of the men 's tournament since each qualifying team must win three rounds (games) to reach the national quarterfinals, with three rounds remaining to reach and win the national championship game.
Like "March Madness, '' the phrase "Elite Eight '' originally referred to the Illinois High School Boys Basketball Championship, the single - elimination high school basketball tournament run by the Illinois High School Association. When the IHSA finals were reduced from sixteen to eight teams in 1956, a replacement nickname for Sweet Sixteen was needed, and Elite Eight won popular favor. The IHSA trademarked the term in 1995; the trademark rights are now held by the March Madness Athletic Association, a joint venture between the NCAA and IHSA formed after a 1996 court case allowed both organizations to use "March Madness '' for their own tournaments.
Elite Eight can also refer to the eight NCAA Division I baseball teams that reach the College World Series.
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longitude and latitude of andaman and nicobar islands | Andaman and Nicobar Islands - Wikipedia
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, one of the seven union territories of India, are a group of islands at the juncture of the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea.
The territory is 150 km (93 mi) north of Aceh in Indonesia and separated from Thailand and Myanmar (Burma) by the Andaman Sea. It comprises two island groups, the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands, separated by the 10 ° N parallel, with the Andamans to the north of this latitude, and the Nicobars to the south (or by 179 km). The Andaman Sea lies to the east and the Bay of Bengal to the west.
The territory 's capital is the city of Port Blair. The total land area of these islands is approximately 8,249 km (3,185 sq mi). The capital of Nicobar Islands is Car Nicobar. The islands host the Andaman and Nicobar Command, the only tri-service geographical command of the Indian Armed Forces.
The Andaman Islands are home to the Sentinelese people, an uncontacted people. The Sentinelese are the only people currently known to not have reached further than a Paleolithic level of technology.
The earliest archaeological evidence documents some 2,200 years. However, genetic and cultural studies suggest that the indigenous Andamanese people may have been isolated from other populations during the Middle Paleolithic, which ended 30,000 years ago. Since that time, the Andamanese have diversified into linguistically and culturally distinct, territorial groups.
The Nicobar Islands appear to have been populated by people of various backgrounds. By the time of European contact, the indigenous inhabitants had coalesced into the Nicobarese people, speaking a Mon - Khmer language; and the Shompen, whose language is of uncertain affiliation. Both are unrelated to the Andamanese, but being closely related to the Austroasiatic languages in mainland Southeast Asia.
Rajendra Chola I (1014 to 1042 AD), used the Andaman and Nicobar Islands as a strategic naval base to launch an expedition against the Sriwijaya Empire (Indonesia). The Cholas called the island Ma - Nakkavaram ("great open / naked land ''), found in the Thanjavur inscription of 1050 AD. European traveller Marco Polo (12th -- 13th century) also referred to this island as ' Necuverann ' and a corrupted form of the Tamil name Nakkavaram would have led to the modern name Nicobar during the British colonial period.
The history of organized European colonization on the islands began when settlers from the Danish East India Company arrived in the Nicobar Islands on 12 December 1755. On 1 January 1756, the Nicobar Islands were made a Danish colony, first named New Denmark, and later (December 1756) Frederick 's Islands (Frederiksøerne). During 1754 -- 1756 they were administrated from Tranquebar (in continental Danish India). The islands were repeatedly abandoned due to outbreaks of malaria between 14 April 1759 and 19 August 1768, from 1787 to 1807 / 05, 1814 to 1831, 1830 to 1834 and gradually from 1848 for good.
From 1 June 1778 to 1784, Austria mistakenly assumed that Denmark had abandoned its claims to the Nicobar Islands and attempted to establish a colony on them, renaming them Theresia Islands.
In 1789 the British set up a naval base and penal colony on Chatham Island next to Great Andaman, where now lies the town of Port Blair. Two years later the colony was moved to Port Cornwallis on Great Andaman, but it was abandoned in 1796 due to disease.
Denmark 's presence in the territory ended formally on 16 October 1868 when it sold the rights to the Nicobar Islands to Britain, which made them part of British India in 1869.
In 1858 the British again established a colony at Port Blair, which proved to be more permanent. The primary purpose was to set up a penal colony for criminal convicts from the Indian subcontinent. The colony came to include the infamous Cellular Jail.
In 1872 the Andaman and Nicobar islands were united under a single chief commissioner at Port Blair.
During World War II, the islands were practically under Japanese control, only nominally under the authority of the Arzi Hukumate Azad Hind of Subhash Chandra Bose. Bose visited the islands during the war, and renamed them as "Shaheed - dweep '' (Martyr Island) and "Swaraj - dweep '' (Self - rule Island).
General Loganathan, of the Indian National Army was made the Governor of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. On 22 February 1944 he along with four INA officers -- Major Mansoor Ali Alvi, Sub. Lt. Md. Iqbal, Lt. Suba Singh and stenographer Srinivasan -- arrived at Lambaline Airport in Port Blair. On 21 March 1944 the Headquarters of the Civil Administration was established near the Gurudwara at Aberdeen Bazaar. On 2 October 1944, Col. Loganathan handed over the charge to Maj. Alvi and left Port Blair, never to return. The islands were reoccupied by British and Indian troops of the 116th Indian Infantry Brigade on 7 October 1945, to whom the remaining Japanese garrison surrendered.
During the independence of both India (1947) and Burma (1948), the departing British announced their intention to resettle all Anglo - Indians and Anglo - Burmese on these islands to form their own nation, although this never materialised. It became part of India in 1950 and was declared as a union territory of the nation in 1956.
India has been developing defence facilities on the islands since the 1980s. The islands now have a key position in India 's strategic role in the Bay of Bengal and the Malacca Strait.
On 26 December 2004 the coasts of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands were devastated by a 10 m (33 ft) high tsunami following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. More than 2,000 people lost their lives, more than 4,000 children were orphaned or suffered the loss of one parent, and a minimum of 40,000 people were rendered homeless. More than 46,000 people were injured. The worst affected Nicobar islands were Katchal and Indira Point; the latter subsided 4.25 metres (13.9 feet) and was partially submerged in the ocean. The lighthouse at Indira Point was damaged but has been repaired since then. The territory lost a large amount of area which is now submerged. The territory which was at 8,073 km (3,117 sq mi) is now at 7,950 km (3,070 sq mi).
While locals and tourist of the islands suffered the greatest casualties from the tsunami, most of the aboriginal people survived because oral traditions passed down from generations ago warned them to evacuate from large waves that follow large earthquakes.
There are 572 islands in the territory having an area of 8,249 km (3,185 sq mi). Of these, about 38 are permanently inhabited. The islands extend from 6 ° to 14 ° North latitudes and from 92 ° to 94 ° East longitudes. The Andamans are separated from the Nicobar group by a channel (the Ten Degree Channel) some 150 km (93 mi) wide. The highest point is located in North Andaman Island (Saddle Peak at 732 m (2,402 ft)). The Andaman group has 325 islands which cover an area of 6,170 km (2,382 sq mi) while the Nicobar group has only 247 islands with an area of 1,765 km (681 sq mi).
The capital of the union territory, Port Blair, is located 1,255 km (780 mi) from Kolkata, 1,200 km (750 mi) from Visakhapatnam and 1,190 km (740 mi) from Chennai. The northernmost point of the Andaman and Nicobars group is 901 km (560 mi) away from the mouth of the Hooghly River and 190 km (120 mi) from Myanmar. Indira Point at 6 ° 45'10 '' N and 93 ° 49'36 '' E at the southern tip of the southernmost island, Great Nicobar, is the southernmost point of India and lies only 150 km (93 mi) from Sumatra in Indonesia. The only volcano in India, Barren Island, is located in Andaman and Nicobar. It is an active volcano and erupted in 2017.
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands have a tropical rainforest canopy, made of a mixed flora with elements from Indian, Myanmar, Malaysian and endemic floral strains. So far, about 2,200 varieties of plants have been recorded, out of which 200 are endemic and 1,300 do not occur in mainland India.
The South Andaman forests have a profuse growth of epiphytic vegetation, mostly ferns and orchids. The Middle Andamans harbours mostly moist deciduous forests. North Andamans is characterised by the wet evergreen type, with plenty of woody climbers. The North Nicobar Islands (including Car Nicobar and Battimalv) are marked by the complete absence of evergreen forests, while such forests form the dominant vegetation in the central and southern islands of the Nicobar group. Grasslands occur only in the Nicobars, and while deciduous forests are common in the Andamans, they are almost absent in the Nicobars. The present forest coverage is claimed to be 86.2 % of the total land area.
This atypical forest coverage is made up of twelve types, namely:
This tropical rain forest, despite its isolation from adjacent land masses, is surprisingly rich with a diversity of animal life.
About 50 varieties of forest mammals are found to occur in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Some are endemic, including the Andaman wild boar. Rodents are the largest group with 26 species, followed by 14 species of bat. Among the larger mammals there are two endemic varieties of wild boar, Sus scrofa andamanensis from Andaman and Sus scrofa nicobaricus from Nicobar, which are protected by the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 (Sch I). Saltwater crocodile is also found in abundance. The State Animal of Andaman is the dugong, also known as the sea cow, which can be found in Little Andaman. Around 1962 there was an attempt to introduce the leopard, which was unsuccessful because of unsuitable habitat. These were ill - considered moves as exotic introductions can cause havoc to island flora and fauna.
About 270 species of birds are found in the territory; 14 of them are endemic, the majority to the Nicobar island group. The islands ' many caves are nesting grounds for the edible - nest swiftlet, whose nests are prized in China for bird 's nest soup.
The territory is home to about 225 species of butterflies and moths. Ten species are endemic to these Islands. Mount Harriet National Park is one of the richest areas of butterfly and moth diversity on these islands.
The islands are well known for prized shellfish, especially from the genera Turbo, Trochus, Murex and Nautilus. Earliest recorded commercial exploitation began during 1929. Many cottage industries produce a range of decorative shell items. Giant clams, green mussels and oysters support edible shellfishery. The shells of scallops, clams, and cockle are burnt in kilns to produce edible lime.
There are 96 wildlife sanctuaries, nine national parks and one biosphere reserve in these islands.
As of 2011 Census of India, the population of the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands was 379,944, of which 202,330 (53.25 %) were male and 177,614 (46.75 %) were female. The sex ratio was 878 females per 1,000 males. Only 10 % of the population lived in Nicobar islands.
The areas and populations (at the 2001 and 2011 Censuses) of the three districts are:
There remain approximately 400 -- 450 indigenous Andamanese in the Andaman islands, the Jarawa and Sentinelese in particular maintaining a steadfast independence and refusing most attempts at contact. In the Nicobar Islands, the indigenous people are the Nicobarese, or Nicobari, living throughout many of the islands, and the Shompen, restricted to the hinterland of Great Nicobar. More than 2,000 people belonging to the Karen tribe live in the Mayabunder tehsil of North Andaman district, almost all of whom are Christians. Despite their tribal origins, the Karen of Andamans have Other Backward Class (OBC) status in the Andamans.
Religion in Andaman and Nicobar (2011)
The majority of people of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are Hindus (69.44 %), with Christians forming a large minority of 21.7 % of the population, according to the 2011 census of India. There is a small but significant Muslim (8.51 %) minority.
In 1874, the British had placed the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in one administrative territory headed by a Chief Commissioner as its judicial administrator. On 1 August 1974, the Nicobar islands were hived off into another revenue district with district headquarters at Car Nicobar under a Deputy Commissioner. In 1982, the post of Lieutenant Governor was created who replaced the Chief Commissioner as the head of administration. Subsequently, a "Pradesh council '' with Counselors as representatives of the people was constituted to advise the Lieutenant Governor. The Islands sends one representative to Lok Sabha from its Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Lok Sabha constituency).
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands is divided into three districts. Each district is further divided into sub-divisions and taluks:
North and Middle Andaman
South Andaman
Nicobar
A total of 48,675 hectares (120,280 acres) of land is used for agriculture purposes. Paddy, the main food crop, is mostly cultivated in Andaman group of islands, whereas coconut and arecanut are the cash crops of Nicobar group of islands. Field crops, namely pulses, oilseeds and vegetables are grown, followed by paddy during Rabi season. Different kinds of fruits such as mango, sapota, orange, banana, papaya, pineapple and root crops are grown on hilly land owned by farmers. Spices such as pepper, clove, nutmeg, and cinnamon are grown under a multi-tier cropping system. Rubber, red oil, palm, noni and cashew are grown on a limited scale in these islands.
There are 1,374 registered small - scale, village and handicraft units. Two units are export - oriented in the line of fish processing activity. Apart from this, there are shell and wood based handicraft units. There are also four medium - sized industrial units. SSI units are engaged in the production of polythene bags, PVC conduit pipes and fittings, paints and varnished, fibre glass and mini flour mills, soft drinks and beverages, etc. Small scale and handicraft units are also engaged in shell crafts, bakery products, rice milling, furniture making, etc.
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands Integrated Development Corporation has spread its wings in the field of tourism, fisheries, industries and industrial financing and functions as authorised agents for Alliance Air / Jet Airways. The Islands have become a tourist destination, due to the draw of their largely unspoiled virgin beaches and waters.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands are developing into a major tourism hub with exotic - looking beaches and pristine islands having equally exotic names, wonderful opportunities for adventure sports like snorkelling and sea - walking.
In Port Blair, the main places to visit are the Cellular Jail, Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park, Andaman Water sports complex, Chatham Saw Mill, Mini Zoo, Corbyn 's cove, Chidiya Tapu, Wandoor Beach, Forest Museum, Anthropological Museum, Fisheries Museum, Naval Museum (Samudrika), Ross Island and Viper Island. Other places include Havelock island famous for Radhanagar Beach, Neil Island for Scuba diving / snorkelling, Cinque island, Saddle peak, Mt Harriet and Mud Volcano. The southern group (Nicobar islands) is mostly inaccessible to tourists.
Indian tourists do not require a permit to visit the Andaman islands but if they wish to visit any tribal areas they need a special permit from the Deputy Commissioner, Port Blair. Permits are required for foreign nationals. For foreign nationals arriving by air, these are granted upon arrival at Port Blair.
According to official estimates, the flow of tourists doubled to nearly 300,000 in 2012 from 130,000 in 2008 -- 09. The Radha Nagar beach of Andamans was chosen as Asia 's best Beach in 2004.
This is a chart of trend of gross state domestic product (GSDP) of Andaman and Nicobar Islands at market prices, estimated by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, with figures in millions of Indian rupees.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands ' gross state domestic product for 2004 was estimated at $354 million in current prices.
With Japanese assistance, Southern Andaman Island will now have a 15 - Megawatt Diesel power plant. This would be the first foreign investment of any kind allowed at this strategically significant island chain. This is believed to be an Indo - Japanese strategic initiative to strengthen civilian infrastructure in the vicinity of the Strait of Malacca -- a strategically important choke - point for the Chinese oil supply.
The Sisters are small uninhabited islands in the Andaman Archipelago, at the northern side of the Duncan Passage, about 6 km (3.2 nmi) southeast of Passage Island and 18 km (9.7 nmi) north of North Brother: East Sister Island and West Sister Island. The islands are about 250 metres (820 feet) apart, connected by a coral reef. They are covered by forests, and have rocky shores except for a beach on the northwest side of East Sister.
Before the British established a colony on the Andaman, the Sister islands were visited occasionally by the Onge people of Little Andaman Island for fishing. They may have been a waystation for their temporary settlement of Rutland Island between 1890 and 1930.
The islands have been a wildlife refuge since 1987, with an area of 0.36 square kilometres (0.14 sq mi).
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who did janet jackson play on good times | Good Times - wikipedia
Tandem Productions
Good Times is an American sitcom that aired on CBS from February 8, 1974, to August 1, 1979. Created by Eric Monte and Mike Evans, and developed by Norman Lear, the series ' primary executive producer, it was television 's first African American family sitcom. Good Times was billed as a spin - off of Maude, which was itself a spin - off of All in the Family.
Florida and James Evans and their three children live at 921 N. Gilbert Ave., apartment 17C, in a housing project in a poor, black neighborhood in inner - city Chicago. The project is unnamed on the show, but is implicitly the infamous Cabrini -- Green projects, shown in the opening and closing credits. Florida and James have three children: James Jr., also known as "J.J. ''; Thelma; and Michael, called "the militant midget '' by his father due to his passionate activism. When the series begins, J.J. is seventeen years old, Thelma is sixteen, and Michael is eleven. Their exuberant neighbor, and Florida 's best friend, is Willona Woods, a recent divorcée who works at a boutique. Their building superintendent is Nathan Bookman (seasons 2 -- 6), who James, Willona and later J.J. refer to as "Buffalo Butt '', or, even more derisively, "Booger ''.
The characters originated on the sitcom Maude as Florida and Henry Evans, with Florida employed as Maude Findlay 's housekeeper in Tuckahoe, New York, and Henry employed as a New York City firefighter. When producers decided to feature the Florida character in her own show, they changed the characters ' history to fit a new series that was well into development rather than start from scratch to create a consistent starring vehicle. Henry 's name became James, he worked various odd jobs, there was no mention of Maude, and the couple lived in Chicago.
Episodes of Good Times deal with the characters ' attempts to overcome poverty living in a high rise project building in Chicago. James Evans often works at least two jobs, mostly manual labor such as dishwasher, construction laborer, etc. Often he is unemployed, but he is a proud man who will not accept charity. When he has to, he hustles money playing pool, although Florida disapproves of this.
Good Times was intended to be a good show for Esther Rolle and John Amos. Both expected the show to deal with serious topics in a comedic way while providing positive characters for viewers to identify with.
However, Jimmie Walker 's character of J.J. was an immediate hit with audiences and became the breakout character of the series. J.J. 's frequent use of the expression "Dy - no - mite! '' (often in the phrase "Kid Dy - no - mite! ''), credited to director John Rich, became a popular catchphrase (later included in TV Land 's The 100 Greatest TV Quotes and Catch Phrases special). Rich insisted Walker say it in every episode. Walker and executive producer Norman Lear were skeptical of the idea, but the phrase and the J.J. Evans character caught on with the audience. As a result of the character 's popularity, the writers focused more on J.J. 's comedic antics instead of serious issues.
Through seasons two and three, Rolle and Amos grew increasingly disillusioned with the direction of the show and especially with J.J. 's antics and stereotypically buffoonish behavior. Rolle was vocal about her hate of his character. In a 1975 interview with Ebony magazine she stated:
He 's 18 and he does n't work. He ca n't read or write. He does n't think. The show did n't start out to be that... Little by little -- with the help of the artist, I suppose, because they could n't do that to me -- they have made J.J. more stupid and enlarged the role. Negative images have been slipped in on us through the character of the oldest child.
Although doing so less publicly, Amos also was outspoken about his dissatisfaction with the J.J. character. Amos stated:
The writers would prefer to put a chicken hat on J.J. and have him prance around saying "DY - NO - MITE '', and that way they could waste a few minutes and not have to write meaningful dialogue.
While Amos was less public with his dissatisfaction, he was ultimately fired after season three due to disagreements with Norman Lear. Amos ' departure was initially attributed to his desire to focus on a film career, but he admitted in a 1976 interview that Lear called him and told him that his contract option with the show was not being renewed. Amos stated, "That 's the same thing as being fired. '' The producers decided not to recast the character of James Evans, instead opting to kill off the character in the two - part season four episode, "The Big Move ''.
By the end of season four, Esther Rolle had also become dissatisfied with the show 's direction and decided to leave the series. In the final two episodes of the season, "Love Has a Spot On His Lung '', Rolle 's character gets engaged to Carl Dixon (Moses Gunn), a man she began dating toward the end of season four. In the season five premiere episode, it is revealed that Florida and Carl married off screen and moved to Arizona for the sake of Carl 's health.
With Amos and Rolle gone, Ja'net Dubois took over as the lead character, as Willona checked in on the Evans children since they were now living alone. In season five Janet Jackson joined the cast, playing Penny Gordon Woods, an abused girl who is abandoned by her mother and eventually adopted by Willona.
Before taping of season six began, CBS and the show 's producers decided that they had to do "something drastic '' to increase viewership. According to then - vice president of CBS programming Steve Mills, "We had lost the essence of the show. Without parental guidance the show slipped. Everything told us that: our mail, our phone calls, our research. We felt we had to go back to basics. ''
Producers approached Esther Rolle with an offer to appear in a guest role on the series. Rolle was initially hesitant but when producers agreed to a number of her demands (including an increased salary and higher quality scripts), she agreed to return to the series on a full - time basis. Rolle also wanted producers to make the character of J.J. more responsible, as she felt the character was a poor role model for black American youths. She also requested that producers write out the character of Carl Dixon; Rolle reportedly disliked the storyline surrounding the Carl Dixon character, as she believed Florida would not have moved on so quickly after James ' death or leave her children. Rolle also thought the writers had disregarded Florida 's devout Christian beliefs by having her fall for and marry Carl, who was an atheist.
In the season six premiere episode "Florida 's Homecoming: Part 1 '', Florida returns from Arizona without Carl to attend Thelma 's upcoming wedding to professional football player Keith Anderson (Ben Powers, who joined the cast for the final season). In a rare uncut version of "Florida 's Homecoming: Part 2 '', after Florida arrives home from Arizona, Willona briefly pulls her aside and mentions Carl, to which Florida sadly smiles and shakes her head implying that Carl had died from cancer. Florida later mentions Carl one last time when she tells Michael about a book they 'd both bought him. Despite changes in the series at Esther Rolle 's request and her return, ratings did not improve and CBS canceled the series during the 1978 -- 79 season.
In the series finale, "The End of the Rainbow '', each character finally gets a "happy ending. '' J.J. gets his big break as an artist for a comic book company with his newly created character, DynoWoman, which is based on Thelma (much to her surprise and delight), and is moving into an apartment with some lady friends. Michael attends college and moves into an on - campus dorm. Keith 's bad knee heals due to his exercise and own physical therapy, leading to the Chicago Bears offering him a contract to play football. Keith announces that he and Thelma are moving into a luxury apartment in the city 's upscale Gold Coast district. Thelma also announces that she is pregnant with the couple 's first child. Keith offers Florida the chance to move in with them so she can help Thelma with the new baby. Willona becomes the head buyer of the boutique she works in and announces that she and Penny are also moving out of the projects. Willona then reveals that her new apartment is in the same apartment building that Keith, Thelma and Florida are moving to; once again, she and Penny become the Evans ' downstairs neighbors.
Good Times was created by Eric Monte and actor Mike Evans. The series also features a character named "Michael Evans '', after co-creator Mike Evans who portrayed Lionel Jefferson on the Norman Lear - produced series All in the Family and The Jeffersons.
The gospel - styled theme song was composed by Dave Grusin with lyrics written by Alan and Marilyn Bergman. It was sung by Jim Gilstrap and Motown singer Blinky Williams with a gospel choir providing background vocals.
The lyrics to the theme song are notorious for being hard to discern, notably the line "Hangin ' in a chow line '' / "Hangin ' in and jivin ' '' (depending on the source used). Dave Chappelle used this part of the lyrics as a quiz in his "I Know Black People '' skit on Chappelle 's Show in which the former was claimed as the answer. The insert for the Season One DVD box set has the lyric as "Hangin ' in a chow line ''. However, the Bergmans confirmed that the lyric is actually "Hangin ' in and jivin '. '' Slightly different lyrics were used for the closing credits, with the song beginning on a verse instead of the chorus.
The program premiered in February 1974; high ratings led CBS to renew the program for the 1974 -- 75 season, as it was the seventeenth - highest - rated program that year. During its first full season on the air, 1974 -- 75, the show was the seventh - highest - rated program in the Nielsen ratings, with more than 25 % of all American households tuning into an episode each week. Three of the top ten highest - rated programs on American TV that season centered on the lives of African - Americans: Sanford and Son, The Jeffersons, and Good Times.
The Nielsen ratings for the series declined over time, partly because of its many time slot changes and the departure of John Amos. The ratings went down considerably when the show entered its final two seasons:
The cable network TV One aired reruns of the show since its launch on January 19, 2004 until 2012. The network began airing the series again in June 2013. Good Times has also aired at various times on TV Land, Antenna TV and on the Canadian specialty cable channel DejaView. Minisodes of the show are available for free on Crackle.
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the entire series on DVD in Region 1 between February 2003 and August 2006, with a complete box set following the separate seasons on October 28, 2008. Season 1 was released on DVD in Region 4 on December 27, 2006.
On August 27, 2013, it was announced that Mill Creek Entertainment had acquired the rights to various television series from the Sony Pictures library including Good Times. They have subsequently re-released the first four seasons on DVD.
On September 1, 2015, Mill Creek Entertainment re-release Good Times - The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1.
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who played israel on the daniel boone show | Darby Hinton - wikipedia
Edgar Raymond Darby Hinton (born August 19, 1957) is an American actor and filmmaker initially cast in commercials when he was six months old. From 1964 -- 1970, he portrayed Israel Boone, a son of American pioneer Daniel Boone, on the NBC adventure series Daniel Boone, with Fess Parker in the title role. He also co-starred as Simon Graham in the two - part 1968 episode, "Boomerang, Dog of Many Talents '' of NBC 's Walt Disney 's Wonderful World of Color, with Darren McGavin, Patricia Crowley, and Russ Conway.
Hinton was born in Santa Monica, California. His father, actor Edgar Latimer "Ed '' Hinton, Jr. (1927 -- 1958), was a native of Wilmington, North Carolina. Ed Hinton 's father, Edgar Latimer Hinton II, Sr. (1868 - 1934), owned the Seashore Hotel which had one of the first steel piers for entertaining over the ocean in nearby Wrightsville Beach. He operated the only laundry business in Wilmington and was a community actor there.
Ed Hinton appeared in the role of Special Agent Henderson in the 1950s syndicated television series I Led Three Lives, starring Richard Carlson and based on the espionage activities of Herbert Philbrick. Ed Hinton, particularly active in television Westerns, perished in an airplane crash on Catalina Island, when Darby was 14 months old. His mother, Marilynn Hinton, of German extraction, never remarried. Darby, therefore, became personally close to Fess Parker, his Daniel Boone "father '' and subsequently a Los Angeles, Santa Barbara area businessman. Hinton has two sisters who were child actors, Daryn Hinton and Darcy Hinton Cook. Darby Hinton was also a godson of actor Charlton Heston and former Arkansas Lieutenant Governor Winthrop Paul Rockefeller, son of former Arkansas Governor Winthrop Rockefeller. Hinton was a Bel Air Road friend and neighbor of Zsa Zsa Gabor and former president Ronald Reagan, and childhood friend of Jon Provost of the Lassie series.
Hinton attended high school at the American School in Switzerland (TASIS) in Lugano, Switzerland after attending Emerson Junior High School in West Los Angeles for the ninth grade. He began college on a cruise ship, the World Campus Afloat Institute for Shipboard Education, which travels around the world to study different cultures. Hinton returned to California to continue his studies at the Church of Christ - affiliated Pepperdine University near Malibu.
Hinton 's acting debut at the age of six months old was in the arms of Jayne Mansfield in the TV show "Playhouse 90 ''. In 1962, he played Jafar Mainwaring, a child character in the 1962 film Hero 's Island. In 1963, he was cast in an uncredited role in Walt Disney 's Son of Flubber and as Rocky in the episode "Getting Ed 's Goat '' of CBS 's sitcom, Mr. Ed, starring Alan Young and Connie Hines. Shortly before he was cast as Israel Boone, Hinton appeared as Benjie Diel in the 90 - minute episode "The Ben Engel Story '' of ABC 's Western series Wagon Train. He went on to appear in numerous features and television shows. One day his mother dropped him off at Twentieth Century Fox (dressed in knee high socks and lederhosen) to audition for a role in The Sound of Music, and the boy unintentionally got lost. He wandered into the wrong line of kids; by the time his mother found him, Darby had turned in his lederhosen for a coonskin cap to play Fess Parker 's son Israel, on Daniel Boone, for the next six years.
He appeared in 51 Daniel Boone episodes beginning with the September 24, 1964, premiere, "Ken - Tuck - E '', a reference to Kentucky, the setting of the series. Patricia Blair played his mother, Rebecca Boone, and Veronica Cartwright played his sister, Jemima Boone. Ed Ames and Dallas McKennon co-starred as the Cherokee tribesman Mingo and innkeeper Cincinnatus, respectively. Hinton 's last Daniel Boone roles, filmed when he was 12, were in the 1969 -- 70 season: "A Very Small Rifle '', "The Road to Freedom '', "The Printing Press '', "Target Boone '', "Hannah Comes Home '', and "Sunshine Patriots ''.
After Daniel Boone, Hinton acted only occasionally, with appearances as Hal Parker in "This Will Really Kill You '' (1970), of NBC 's The Bold Ones: The New Doctors and as Tom Woods in "Legacy of Fear '' (1971) of ABC 's Owen Marshall: Counselor at Law. He appeared in an episode of The Big Valley which also included a young Richard Dreyfus, as James Scott in "How to Steal a Submarine '' (1975) of CBS 's Hawaii Five - O, starring Jack Lord, and as Buddy Moran in "Beauty Knows No Pain '' (1981) of CBS 's Magnum, P.I., starring Tom Selleck. In 1982 and 1983, he appeared in two episodes of ABC 's The Fall Guy starring Lee Majors. From 1985 - 86, Hinton was cast as the second "Ian Griffith '' on NBC 's daytime soap opera Days of Our Lives. He was named in the starring role of Cody Abilene in the 1985 Andy Sidaris film, Malibu Express.
In 1988, Hinton appeared in the first episode, "Road Ranger '', of the short - lived NBC series The Highwayman, starring Sam J. Jones. Hinton 's later appearances were on NBC 's Hunter, starring Fred Dryer, and CBS 's Knots Landing. He also appeared in the 1991 - 92 series P.S. I Luv U starring Greg Evigan and Connie Sellecca. He guest - starred, too, on Fox Television 's Beverly Hills, 90210 in the role of a physician. His last screen appearances were on March 16, 1999, in the episode "Career Day '' of the Warner Bros. series Rescue 77 and as Mikey 's father in the 2003 film Just for Kicks.
Hinton is working on a proposed television series tentatively titled Hinton 's Living History. The pilot episodes follows him, his wife, and four children as they travel around the United States to experience history in different ways. Among other locations, he expects to cover Fort Fisher near Wilmington, North Carolina, Fort Boonesborough near Lexington, Kentucky, Jamestown, Virginia, and a ghost town in California. Hinton is also working with producer Gail Calloway on a documentary which traces Boone 's journeys.
Hinton has also been starring as the patriarch of Greystone Mansion in the Theater 40 production of The Manor in Beverly Hills, inspired by the true and tragic events that took place in this historic Doheny Mansion where they perform. In February 2011, Hinton starred in the theater production The Last Laugh by playwright Bill Svanoe and directed by Emmy - winner Blake Bradford and starring Joan Darling.
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how many episodes in season 2 of aquarius | List of Aquarius (US TV series) episodes - wikipedia
Aquarius is an American period crime drama television series created by John McNamara for NBC. The show aired on NBC from May 28, 2015, to September 10, 2016.
Set in late - 1960s Los Angeles, the series ' story line is inspired by actual persons and events but also consists of fictional characters and story arcs. David Duchovny stars as Sam Hodiak, a fictional LAPD detective investigating the case of a missing teenage girl. Along with undercover narcotics officer Brian Shafe (Grey Damon), Hodiak finds himself coming up against Charles Manson (Gethin Anthony) and his "family '', a mostly ragtag group of hippies who follow Manson in drugs, sex, and rock - and - roll. Hodiak discovers that the girl they are looking for, Emma Karn (Emma Dumont), is with Manson and The Family.
During the course of the series, 26 episodes of Aquarius aired over two seasons.
Season 2 debuted on June 16, 2016, with a two - hour, commercial - free event that constituted the first three episodes.
The Summer of Love is a series of four short webisodes. They are set in San Francisco in 1967 during the Summer of Love, before the events of season 1, where Charlie gathers his first followers Mary, Katie, and Sadie.
These Nielsen ratings reflect the regular TV broadcast, but do not include the online binge - watching that was made possible by releasing the complete series on demand even before the TV broadcast. Those online view numbers, however, are not publicly available. NBC claims they helped gaining insight into online viewing behavior.
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who is the actress that played velma in scooby doo | Linda Cardellini - wikipedia
Linda Edna Cardellini (born June 25, 1975) is an American actress. She is known for her roles as Lindsay Weir on Freaks and Geeks, Samantha Taggart on ER, Velma Dinkley in the live - action Scooby - Doo feature films, Sylvia Rosen, a neighbor of Don Draper 's on the AMC drama series Mad Men, Meg Rayburn on the Netflix original series Bloodline, Cassie in Brokeback Mountain, and Laura Barton in Avengers: Age of Ultron. She is also known for voicing roles in animated projects such as CJ in Regular Show, Marcy "Hot Dog Water '' Fleach in Scooby - Doo! Mystery Incorporated, Wendy Corduroy in Gravity Falls, and Megan in Sanjay and Craig.
Cardellini was born in Redwood City, California, the daughter of Lorraine (née Hernan), a homemaker, and Wayne David Cardellini, a businessman. She is the youngest of four children. Cardellini was raised Catholic. She made her first public appearance at age 10, when she sang in a school play. Subsequently, she acted in several school productions and started attending drama lessons. She graduated from nearby Mountain View 's Catholic St. Francis High School in 1993, then moved to Los Angeles to seek roles in television and film. Cardellini was a contestant in a 1994 episode of The Price Is Right, winning a fireplace.
Cardellini received her first big break role in 1996 when she landed a starring role as Sarah on ABC 's Saturday morning live - action children 's series, Bone Chillers. Following this, she made guest appearances on prime - time programs such as Step by Step, Clueless, 3rd Rock from the Sun, and Boy Meets World as Lauren, a girl that came between the show 's star couple. Cardellini co-starred in the AMC mini-series The Lot in 1999, and spent the summer in Europe as part of a touring production of Lancelot, a fourteenth - century Dutch tragedy.
Cardellini had her first major success when she landed one of the starring roles in the NBC series Freaks and Geeks, which debuted during the 1999 -- 2000 season. As Lindsay Weir, an honor student in the midst of an identity crisis, Cardellini earned positive response that subsequently catapulted her to fame. Cardellini starred in the live - action adaptation of Scooby - Doo in 2002, in which she played the cartoon character Velma Dinkley. She later reprised the role of Velma in 2004 's Scooby - Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed. She joined the cast of the hospital drama ER in 2003 as Samantha Taggart, a free - spirited nurse. Cardellini acted for six seasons on ER, until the series finale, "And in the End... '', and with the cast won the TV Land ensemble Icon Award in 2009.
Her other film work includes roles in Dead Man on Campus, Strangeland, Good Burger, Legally Blonde, Brokeback Mountain (for which she was nominated for the ensemble Gotham and Screen Actors Guild awards), and a starring role in the Happy Madison film Grandma 's Boy as Samantha. She was the voice of Ursula in the role - playing video game, Gladius, and played the voice of Bliss Goode on the ABC animated series The Goode Family. In 2007, Cardellini was chosen to play lovelorn Clara in the CBS miniseries Comanche Moon, a prequel to 1989 's Lonesome Dove.
In 2010 and 2011, Cardellini returned to the stage with the Dr. God comedy group in Los Angeles and San Francisco, appeared in Kill the Irishman and Super, and starred in the independent film Return. She appeared with cast members and producers of Freaks and Geeks and Undeclared at the Paley Center for Media PaleyFest on March 12, 2011. From June 15, 2012 to February 15, 2016, she has been the voice of Wendy on the Disney Channel show Gravity Falls.
Cardellini voice acts periodically on the podcast and live show The Thrilling Adventure Hour, on the Sparks Nevada: Marshal on Mars segments. In 2013, she was chosen to play Sylvia Rosen, a love interest of Don Draper on Mad Men. For her performance on Mad Men, she received an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series. Starting in 2015, she joined Kyle Chandler on a new Netflix series Bloodline from the creators of Damages. The show was cancelled in 2016, and ended after its third season.
Cardellini attended Loyola Marymount University 's College of Communication and Fine Arts, graduating in 2000 with a degree in theatre arts. In 2007, she was recognized as a "Distinguished Alumnus '' by the university. She dated her Freaks and Geeks co-star Jason Segel for five years following the show 's cancellation. In October 2011, Cardellini and her boyfriend Steven Rodriguez announced her pregnancy. Cardellini gave birth to their daughter Lilah - Rose in February 2012. Cardellini and Rodriguez became engaged in June 2013.
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what was the political goal of the tokugawa shogunate | Tokugawa shogunate - wikipedia
The Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the Tokugawa bakufu (徳川 幕府) and the Edo bakufu (江戸 幕府), was the last feudal Japanese military government, which existed between 1600 and 1868. The head of government was the shogun, and each was a member of the Tokugawa clan. The Tokugawa shogunate ruled from Edo Castle and the years of the shogunate became known as the Edo period. This time is also called the Tokugawa period or pre-modern (Kinsei (近世)).
Following the Sengoku period ("warring states period ''), the central government had been largely re-established by Oda Nobunaga during the Azuchi -- Momoyama period. After the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, central authority fell to Tokugawa Ieyasu.
Society in the Tokugawa period, unlike in previous shogunates, was supposedly based on the strict class hierarchy originally established by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The daimyō (lords) were at the top, followed by the warrior - caste of samurai, with the farmers, artisans, and traders ranking below. In some parts of the country, particularly smaller regions, daimyō and samurai were more or less identical, since daimyō might be trained as samurai, and samurai might act as local rulers. Otherwise, the largely inflexible nature of this social stratification system unleashed disruptive forces over time. Taxes on the peasantry were set at fixed amounts that did not account for inflation or other changes in monetary value. As a result, the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time. This often led to numerous confrontations between noble but impoverished samurai and well - to - do peasants, ranging from simple local disturbances to much larger rebellions. None, however, proved compelling enough to seriously challenge the established order until the arrival of foreign powers.
A 2017 study found that peasant rebellions and collective desertion ("flight '') lowered tax rates and inhibited state growth in the Tokugawa shogunate.
In the mid-19th century, an alliance of several of the more powerful daimyō, along with the titular Emperor, succeeded in overthrowing the shogunate after the Boshin War, culminating in the Meiji Restoration. The Tokugawa Shogunate came to an official end in 1868 with the resignation of the 15th Tokugawa Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu, leading to the "restoration '' (王政 復古, Ōsei fukko) of imperial rule. Notwithstanding its eventual overthrow in favor of the more modernized, less feudal form of governance of the Meiji Restoration, the Tokugawa shogunate oversaw the longest period of peace and stability in Japan 's history, lasting well over 260 years.
The bakuhan taisei (幕 藩 体制) was the feudal political system in the Edo period of Japan. Baku is an abbreviation of bakufu, meaning "military government '' -- that is, the shogunate. The han were the domains headed by daimyō.
Vassals held inherited lands and provided military service and homage to their lords. The bakuhan taisei split feudal power between the shogunate in Edo and provincial domains throughout Japan. Provinces had a degree of sovereignty and were allowed an independent administration of the han in exchange for loyalty to the shogun, who was responsible for foreign relations and national security. The shogun and lords were all daimyō: feudal lords with their own bureaucracies, policies, and territories. The shogun also administered the most powerful han, the hereditary fief of the House of Tokugawa. Each level of government administered its own system of taxation.
The emperor, nominally a religious leader, held no real power; this was invested in the shogun. The shogunate had the power to discard, annex, and transform domains. The sankin kōtai system of alternative residence required each daimyō to reside in alternate years between the han and the court in Edo. During their absences from Edo, it was also required that they leave family as hostages until their return. The huge expenditure sankin - kōtai imposed on each han helped centralize aristocratic alliances and ensured loyalty to the shogun as each representative doubled as a potential hostage.
Tokugawa 's descendants further ensured loyalty by maintaining a dogmatic insistence on loyalty to the Shogun. Fudai daimyō were hereditary vassals of Ieyasu, as well as of his descendants. Tozama ("outsiders '') became vassals of Ieyasu after the Battle of Sekigahara. Shinpan ("relatives '') were collaterals of Tokugawa Hidetada. Early in the Edo period, the shogunate viewed the tozama as the least likely to be loyal; over time, strategic marriages and the entrenchment of the system made the tozama less likely to rebel. In the end, it was the great tozama of Satsuma, Chōshū and Tosa, and to a lesser extent Hizen, that brought down the shogunate. These four states are called the Four Western Clans, or Satchotohi for short.
The number of han (roughly 250) fluctuated throughout the Edo period. They were ranked by size, which was measured as the number of koku that the domain produced each year. One koku was the amount of rice necessary to feed one adult male for one year. The minimum number for a daimyō was ten thousand koku; the largest, apart from the shogun, was a million.
Regardless of the political title of the Emperor, the shoguns of the Tokugawa family controlled Japan. The administration (体制, taisei) of Japan was a task given by the Imperial Court in Kyoto to the Tokugawa family, which returned to the court in the Meiji Restoration. While the Emperor officially had the prerogative of appointing the shogun, he had virtually no say in state affairs. The shogunate appointed a liaison, the Kyoto Shoshidai (Shogun 's Representative in Kyoto), to deal with the Emperor, court and nobility.
Towards the end of the shogunate, however, after centuries of the Emperor having very little say in state affairs and being secluded in his Kyoto palace, and in the wake of the reigning shogun, Tokugawa Iemochi, marrying the sister of Emperor Kōmei (r. 1846 -- 1867), in 1862, the Imperial Court in Kyoto began to enjoy increased political influence. The Emperor would occasionally be consulted on various policies and the shogun even made a visit to Kyoto to visit the Emperor.
Foreign affairs and trade were monopolized by the shogunate, yielding a huge profit. Foreign trade was also permitted to the Satsuma and the Tsushima domains. Rice was the main trading product of Japan during this time. Isolationism was the foreign policy of Japan and trade was strictly controlled. Merchants were outsiders to the social hierarchy of Japan and were thought to be greedy.
The visits of the Nanban ships from Portugal were at first the main vector of trade exchanges, followed by the addition of Dutch, English and sometimes Spanish ships.
From 1603 onward, Japan started to participate actively in foreign trade. In 1615, an embassy and trade mission under Hasekura Tsunenaga was sent across the Pacific to Nueva España (New Spain) on the Japanese - built galleon San Juan Bautista. Until 1635, the Shogun issued numerous permits for the so - called "red seal ships '' destined for the Asian trade.
After 1635 and the introduction of Seclusion laws, inbound ships were only allowed from China, Korea, and the Netherlands.
Followers of Christianity first began appearing in Japan during the 16th century. Oda Nobunaga embraced Christianity and the Western technology that was imported with it, such as the musket. He also saw it as a tool he could use to suppress Buddhist forces.
Though Christianity was allowed to grow until the 1610s, Tokugawa Ieyasu soon began to see it as a growing threat to the stability of the Shogunate. As Ogosho ("Cloistered Shogun ''), he influenced the implementation of laws that banned the practice of Christianity. His successors followed suit, compounding upon Ieyasu 's laws. The ban of Christianity is often linked with the creation of the Seclusion laws, or Sakoku, in the 1630s.
The rōjū (老 中) were the senior members of the shogunate. They supervised the ōmetsuke, machi - bugyō, ongokubugyō (ja: 遠国 奉行) and other officials, oversaw relations with the Imperial Court in Kyoto, kuge (members of the nobility), daimyō, Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines, and attended to matters like divisions of fiefs. Normally, four or five men held the office, and one was on duty for a month at a time on a rotating basis. They conferred on especially important matters. In the administrative reforms of 1867 (Keiō Reforms), the office was eliminated in favor of a bureaucratic system with ministers for the interior, finance, foreign relations, army, and navy.
In principle, the requirements for appointment to the office of rōjū were to be a fudai daimyō and to have a fief assessed at 50 000 koku or more. However, there were exceptions to both criteria. Many appointees came from the offices close to the shogun, such as soba yōnin (ja: 側用人), Kyoto Shoshidai, and Osaka jōdai.
Irregularly, the shoguns appointed a rōjū to the position of tairō (great elder). The office was limited to members of the Ii, Sakai, Doi, and Hotta clans, but Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu was given the status of tairō as well. Among the most famous was Ii Naosuke, who was assassinated in 1860 outside the Sakuradamon Gate of Edo Castle (Sakuradamon incident).
The wakadoshiyori were next in status below the rōjū. An outgrowth of the early six - man rokuninshū (六 人 衆, 1633 -- 1649), the office took its name and final form in 1662, but with four members. Their primary responsibility was management of the affairs of the hatamoto and gokenin, the direct vassals of the shogun.
Some shoguns appointed a soba yōnin. This person acted as a liaison between the shogun and the rōjū. The soba yōnin increased in importance during the time of the fifth shogun Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, when a wakadoshiyori, Inaba Masayasu, assassinated Hotta Masatoshi, the tairō. Fearing for his personal safety, Tsunayoshi moved the rōjū to a more distant part of the castle. Some of the most famous soba yōnin were Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu and Tanuma Okitsugu.
The ōmetsuke and metsuke were officials who reported to the rōjū and wakadoshiyori. The five ōmetsuke were in charge of monitoring the affairs of the daimyō, kuge and imperial court. They were in charge of discovering any threat of rebellion. Early in the Edo period, daimyō such as Yagyū Munefuyu held the office. Soon, however, it fell to hatamoto with rankings of 5,000 koku or more. To give them authority in their dealings with daimyō, they were often ranked at 10,000 koku and given the title of kami (an ancient title, typically signifying the governor of a province) such as Bizen - no - kami.
As time progressed, the function of the ōmetsuke evolved into one of passing orders from the shogunate to the daimyō, and of administering to ceremonies within Edo Castle. They also took on additional responsibilities such as supervising religious affairs and controlling firearms. The metsuke, reporting to the wakadoshiyori, oversaw the affairs of the vassals of the shogun. They were the police force for the thousands of hatamoto and gokenin who were concentrated in Edo. Individual han had their own metsuke who similarly policed their samurai.
The san - bugyō ("three administrators '') were the jisha, kanjō, and machi - bugyō, which oversaw temples and shrines, accounting, and the cities, respectively. The jisha - bugyō had the highest status of the three. They oversaw the administration of Buddhist temples (ji) and Shinto shrines (sha), many of which held fiefs. Also, they heard lawsuits from several land holdings outside the eight Kantō provinces. The appointments normally went to daimyō; Ōoka Tadasuke was an exception, though he later became a daimyō.
The kanjō - bugyō were next in status. The four holders of this office reported to the rōjū. They were responsible for the finances of the shogunate.
The machi - bugyō were the chief city administrators of Edo and other cities. Their roles included mayor, chief of the police (and, later, also of the fire department), and judge in criminal and civil matters not involving samurai. Two (briefly, three) men, normally hatamoto, held the office, and alternated by month.
Three Edo machi bugyō have become famous through jidaigeki (period films): Ōoka Tadasuke and Tōyama Kagemoto (Kinshirō) as heroes, and Torii Yōzō (ja: 鳥居 耀蔵) as a villain.
The san - bugyō together sat on a council called the hyōjōsho. In this capacity, they were responsible for administering the tenryō, supervising the gundai (ja: 郡 代), the daikan (ja: 代官) and the kura bugyō (ja: 蔵 奉行), as well as hearing cases involving samurai.
The shogun directly held lands in various parts of Japan. These were known as shihaisho (支配 所); since the Meiji period, the term tenryō (ja: 天領, "Emperor 's land '') has become synonymous. In addition to the territory that Ieyasu held prior to the Battle of Sekigahara, this included lands he gained in that battle and lands gained as a result of the Summer and Winter Sieges of Osaka. By the end of the seventeenth century, the shogun 's landholdings had reached four million koku. Such major cities as Nagasaki and Osaka, and mines, including the Sado gold mine, also fell into this category.
The gaikoku bugyō were administrators appointed between 1858 and 1868. They were charged with overseeing trade and diplomatic relations with foreign countries, and were based in the treaty ports of Nagasaki and Kanagawa (Yokohama).
The Late Tokugawa Shogunate (Japanese: 幕末 Bakumatsu) was the period between 1853 and 1867, during which Japan ended its isolationist foreign policy called sakoku and modernized from a feudal shogunate to the Meiji government. It is at the end of the Edo period and preceded the Meiji era. The major ideological and political factions during this period were divided into the pro-imperialist Ishin Shishi (nationalist patriots) and the shogunate forces, including the elite shinsengumi (newly selected corps) swordsmen.
Although these two groups were the most visible powers, many other factions attempted to use the chaos of the Bakumatsu era to seize personal power. Furthermore, there were two other main driving forces for dissent; first, growing resentment of tozama daimyō, and second, growing anti-Western sentiment following the arrival of Matthew C. Perry. The first related to those lords who had fought against Tokugawa forces at Sekigahara (in 1600 AD) and had from that point on been exiled permanently from all powerful positions within the shogunate. The second was to be expressed in the phrase sonnō jōi ("revere the Emperor, expel the barbarians ''). The turning points of the Bakumatsu were the Boshin War and the Battle of Toba -- Fushimi, when pro-shogunate forces were defeated.
Over the course of the Edo period, influential relatives of the shogun included:
This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/.
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where was guess whos coming to dinner filmed | Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner - wikipedia
Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner is a 1967 American comedy - drama film produced and directed by Stanley Kramer, and written by William Rose. It stars Spencer Tracy, Sidney Poitier, and Katharine Hepburn, and features Hepburn 's niece Katharine Houghton.
The film was one of the few films of the time to depict an interracial marriage in a positive light, as interracial marriage historically had been illegal in most states of the United States, and still was illegal in 17 states -- mostly Southern states -- until 12 June 1967, six months before the film was released, roughly two weeks after Tracy filmed his final scene (and two days after his death), when anti-miscegenation laws were struck down by the Supreme Court in Loving v. Virginia. The film 's Oscar - nominated score was composed by Frank De Vol.
The film is notable for being the ninth and final on - screen pairing of Tracy and Hepburn, with filming ending just 17 days before Tracy 's death. Hepburn never saw the completed film, saying the memories of Tracy were too painful. The film was released in December 1967, six months after his death. In 2017, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
Joanna Drayton 's (Katharine Houghton) unannounced early return from a Hawaiian vacation causes a stir when she brings her new fiancé to her childhood upper - class home in San Francisco in 1967. He is John Prentice (Sidney Poitier): a widowed, black physician. Joanna 's parents -- newspaper publisher Matt Drayton (Spencer Tracy) and his wife, art gallery owner Christina Drayton (Katharine Hepburn) -- are purported liberals who have instilled in her the idea of racial equality. Although they try to hide it, Joanna 's parents and in particular her father are initially upset that she is planning to marry a black man. The Draytons ' black maid, Tillie (Isabel Sanford), is even more horrified, suspecting that John is trying to "get above himself '' by marrying a white woman.
Joanna is oblivious to the reactions of her parents. They are unsettled by her engagement with John, since they never thought that her choice would be a black man, and further unsettled by John 's decision that if Joanna 's parents do not accept the engagement that day, then he will end it.
Adding to the situation is that Joanna, at first intending to join John in a few weeks in Geneva for their planned marriage ceremony, has changed her mind to leave after dinner on his flight to New York City and then onward to Europe. She has also invited John 's parents (Roy E. Glenn and Beah Richards) to dinner, so they can all become acquainted. Due to this invitation, what was intended to be a sit - down steak dinner for two turns into a meet - the - in - laws dinner party. Furthermore, John is forced to reveal that he had not yet told his parents of his intention to marry a white woman.
Matt 's golf buddy Monsignor Mike Ryan (Cecil Kellaway), a Catholic priest, stops by after Matt earlier cancelled on playing golf. After learning of John, he shares Joanna 's enthusiasm for the pending nuptials and tells her father as much. However, Matt says he can not give the couple his blessing: he fears that Joanna will be hurt by the prejudice that John and she will surely encounter. Meanwhile, one of Christina 's employees at her gallery, Hilary (Virginia Christine), who had briefly met John and Joanna earlier in the day, stops by the Draytons ' home to express her disapproval over the relationship, and though Christina herself is still unsure of her own feelings about the matter, she is so offended at Hilary 's racism that she fires her on the spot. Later, when dressing for dinner, Christina shares with Matt her support for Joanna, even if it should mean having to fight her husband.
Cocktails at the Drayton home resemble a game of musical chairs, as different sets of parental characters share their views about the situation, with the mothers generally expressing more faith in their children than the fathers. Universally, the parents had been expressed that more than a few hours are necessary for a proper decision, but John 's mother brings up her idea of what the men are missing about the situation: passion. When the elder Prentice tells John that he is making a huge mistake, John says that his father thinks of himself as a black man, whereas John thinks of himself as a man. Mrs. Prentice tells Matt that her husband and he, in growing old, have forgotten what it is like to feel romantic passion. If they remembered, they would see that in their children as being more important than any racial problem.
After thinking about the situation, and his conversation with Mrs. Prentice in particular, Matt calls everyone together to make an announcement. He says that it does not matter what everyone else may think about John and Joanna getting married; all that matters is that they love each other. The film ends with the two families and Monsignor Ryan finally sitting down to dinner.
Production list
According to Kramer, Rose and he intentionally structured the film to debunk ethnic stereotypes. The young doctor, a typical role for the young Sidney Poitier, was purposely created idealistically perfect, so that the only possible objection to his marrying Joanna would be his race, or the fact she had only known him for 10 days; the character has thus graduated from a top school, begun innovative medical initiatives in Africa, refused to have premarital sex with his fiancée despite her willingness, and leaves money in an open container on his future father - in - law 's desk in payment for a long - distance phone call he has made. Nothing is made of the 14 - year difference in their ages. Kramer and Rose completed the film script in five weeks.
Kramer stated later that the principal actors believed so strongly in the premise that they agreed to act in the project even before seeing the script. Production had been set for January 1967 and ended on May 24, 1967. Spencer Tracy was in poor health, and insurance companies refused to cover him. Kramer and Hepburn put their salaries in escrow so that if he died, filming could be completed with another actor. According to Kramer, "You 're never examined for insurance until a few weeks before a picture starts. (Even) with all his drinking and ailments, Tracy always qualified for insurance before, so nobody thought it would be a problem in this case. But it was. We could n't get insurance for Spence. The situation looked desperate. So then we figured out a way of handling it. Kate and I put up our own salaries to compensate for the lack of an insurance company for Spence. And we were allowed to proceed. ''
The filming schedule was altered to accommodate Tracy 's failing health. All of Tracy 's scenes and shots were filmed between 9: 00 am and noon of each day to give him adequate time to rest. For example, most of Tracy 's dialogue scenes were filmed in such a way that during close - ups on other characters, a stand - in was substituted for him.
Tracy 's failing health was more serious than most people are aware of. According to Poitier: "The illness of Spencer dominated everything. I knew his health was very poor and many of the people who knew what the situation was did n't believe we 'd finish the film, that is, that Tracy would be able to finish the film. Those of us who were close knew it was worse than they thought. Kate brought him to and from the set. She worked with him on his lines. She made sure with (Stanley) Kramer that his hours were right for what he could do, and what he could n't do was different each day. There were days when he could n't do anything. There were days when he was great, and I got the chance to know what it was like working with Tracy. ''
A bust of Tracy sculpted by Hepburn herself was used as a prop, on the bookshelf behind the desk where Sidney Poitier makes his phone call. Tracy died two weeks after he completed his work on the film.
Hepburn significantly helped cast her niece, Katharine Houghton, for the role of Joey Drayton. Concerning this, Hepburn stated: "There was a lovely part for Kathy (Houghton), my niece (...) She would play Spencer 's and my daughter. I loved that. She 's beautiful and she definitely had a family resemblance. It was my idea. ''
According to Hepburn, the role of Joey Drayton would be one of Houghton 's first major roles as a young actress. "The part of my daughter, '' Kate said, "was a difficult one. A young unknown actress needs more opportunity to win the sympathy of the audience. Otherwise, too much has to depend on her youth, innocence, and beauty. She had one good speech to win the audience, but it was cut. Instead she only talks with her father about the differences between the principles he taught her and the way he 's behaving. ''
Poitier frequently found himself starstruck and as a result, a bit tongue - tied, in the presence of Hepburn and Tracy, whom he considered to be "giants '' as far as acting is concerned. However, Poitier reportedly found a way to overcome his nerves. "When I went to play a scene with Tracy and Hepburn, I could n't remember a word. Finally, Stanley Kramer said to me, ' What are we going to do? ' I said, ' Stanley, send those two people home. I will play the scene against two empty chairs. I do n't want them here because I ca n't handle that kind of company. ' He sent them home. I played the scene in close - up against two empty chairs as the dialogue coach read Mr. Tracy 's and Miss Hepburn 's lines from off camera. ''
Given the tense nature of racism in the United States during the time of the film 's production, Poitier felt he was "under close observation '' by both Tracy and Hepburn during their first dinner meetings prior to production. However, he managed to swiftly win them over. Due to Tracy and Hepburn 's close history with Kramer, Poitier cited that Hepburn and Tracy came to bear on him "the kind of respect they had for Kramer, and they had to say to themselves (and I 'm sure they did), this kid has to be pretty okay, because Stanley is nuts about working with him ''.
The film premiered in theaters on January 1, 1968. The film falls into the genre of comedy drama. The film was released on VHS on December 12, 1987, on the 20th anniversary of the original release. The film was released on DVD on May 22, 2001.
Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner was a box - office hit in 1968 throughout the United States, including in Southern states where it was traditionally assumed that few white filmgoers would want to see any film with black leads. The success of this film challenged that assumption in film marketing. Despite this success, which included numerous film award nominations, Frank Rich of The New York Times wrote in November 2008 that the film was frequently labeled as dated among liberals. Another main point of contention was the fact that Poitier 's character, the golden future son - in - law, had no flaws and a resume of good deeds. Many people felt that the dynamic between the Draytons and Poitier 's character would have inevitably resulted in a happily - ever - after film ending because Poitier 's character was so perfect, respectable, likable, and proper. Some people went as far as saying Prentice was "too white '' not to be accepted by the Draytons.
The release of the film in the U.S. gave Poitier his third box - office success in six months in 1967, all of which placed the race of Poitier 's character at issue. The film grossed a total of $56.7 million.
In a 1986 review of the film by The New York Times, Lawrence Van Gelder wrote: "the suspicion arises that were the film made today its makers would come to grips a good deal more bluntly with the problems of intermarriage. Still, this remains a deft comedy and - most of all - a paean to the power of love. ''
The original version of the film that played in theaters in 1968 contained a moment in which Tillie responds to the question "Guess who 's coming to dinner now? '' with the sarcastic one - liner: "The Reverend Martin Luther King? '' After King 's assassination on April 4, 1968, this line was removed from the film, so by August 1968, almost all theaters ' showings of this film had this line omitted. As early as 1969, the line was restored to many but not all prints, and the line was preserved in the VHS and DVD versions of the film, as well.
The plot explores similar themes to the 1958 play Hot Summer Night by Ted Willis.
The film won two Academy Awards and two British Academy Film Awards:
Stanley Kramer produced and directed an unsold 30 - minute television pilot for ABC - TV with the same title and premise in 1975.
In 2003, comedian Daniele Luttazzi published the screenplay Tabù, an almost verbatim parody of the film. In the variation, the engaged lovers are aged 40 (him) and 12 (her), and are brother and sister.
The 2005 film Guess Who starring Ashton Kutcher and Bernie Mac is a loose remake styled as a comedy rather than a drama, with the racial roles reversed: black parents are caught off - guard when their daughter brings home the young white man she has chosen to marry. Talking about the film, Bernie Mac told USA Today in 2003, "Interracial dating is not that significant anymore. '' In the article, the writer cites that during the time at which the original movie was filmed, "interracial marriage was considered risky. '' Casting for Mac 's remake of the film began in November 2003. Mac said of the script, "They want to make it a comedy, but I wo n't disrespect Spencer, Katharine or Sidney. ''
The Irish writer Roddy Doyle wrote a short story by the same title about an Irish girl who brings home an immigrant from Nigeria, published in 2008 in the collection The Deportees.
The plot is very similar to another film, Crossroads, made by the Canadian director Don Haldane a decade earlier in 1957. In this film, a young white woman in Toronto surprises her mother with her black fiancé.
The film was referenced in a 1988 episode of the sitcom Designing Women by Suzanne, who mistakenly calls it, "There 's Some Black People Comin ' Over for Dinner. ''
In the episode Guess Who 's Coming to Marry (season 2, episode 6) of the black sitcom Fresh Prince of Bel Air, an aunt of the lead character introduces her fiancé, a white man, to the horror of her family.
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what kind of simple machine is a wine opener | Bottle opener - wikipedia
A bottle opener is a device that enables the removal of metal bottle caps from bottles. More generally, it might be thought to include corkscrews used to remove cork or plastic stoppers from wine bottles.
A metal bottle cap is affixed to the rim of the neck of a bottle by being pleated or ruffled around the rim. A bottle opener is a specialized lever inserted beneath the pleated metalwork, which uses a point on the bottle cap as a fulcrum on which to pivot.
There are several distinct designs of such bottle openers. Wall mounted openers are typically found behind bars in pubs, whilst hand - tool bottle openers tend to be found and used in domestic environments. Whereas the functional elements of bottle openers (a tooth or lip to catch the underside of the cap, a fulcrum across which to exert the force that will remove the cap, and usually a lever for mechanical advantage) tend to be consistent (sometimes the lever is the bottle itself), their aesthetic design is subject to very great variety, and a great many decorative types are available.
The following varieties of bottle opener are used around the world used in a professional capacity.
A specific style of bottle opener is known as a churchkey.
Invented at the same time as the crown cork, it is the original "bar blade ''. But as well as being portable it also comes as a fixed device to be attached to vertical surfaces, often with a tray to catch the bottle tops. It does not open wine bottles. It is class 2 fulcrum type.
A simple opener is a piece of metal with a rectangular or rounded opening in one end and a solid handle large enough to be gripped between the thumb and forefingers on the other. The opening contains a lip that is placed under the edge of the bottle top, pulling it off when upward force is applied to the handle end of the opener. This type of opener is small and durable, so it is frequently used as a key fob.
The speed opener is a flat blade of steel approximately 4 cm wide and 16 cm long with a thumb hole at one end and a letterbox cut at the other to remove the crown seals from a bottle. They go under the names ' Speed Opener ', ' Popper ', ' Mamba ', ' Bar Key ', and most popularly ' Bar Blade '. The thumb hole may be used to pull bottles out of ice, by placing the hole over bottle neck, then lifting it. The speed opener is widely used by professional bartenders in Canada, the United States, and the UK. Carried in the pocket or against the body or on a zip string, it is both convenient and fast for the modern bartender. It is advantageous in that it is easy to open several bottles in rapid succession, and with more flair than other types of bottle opener. Consequently, ' bar blading ' is often part of bar flair routines. ⋅
Works the same as the lever variation, except that it is attached to the wall, to allow for simpler bottle - opening, which can be done with one hand. The bottle cap can fall into a bottle cap catcher mounted below the opener, or you can retrieve it after removal from the bottle.
A variant to this are similar types of openers mounted on older vending machines.
This is a bottle opener with a magnet to catch the lids.
Also known as a Beverage Opener, these usually includes a bottle opener of the Simple Bottle Opener Style but includes various other openers such as for plastic bottles or metal beverage cans.
In recent years the bottle opener has taken many forms to appeal to young professionals. A few examples of the designer bottle opener include a surfboard shaped bottle opener, baseball cap with bottle opener in the visor, the inclusion of a bottle opener in the sole of a flip flop, in the form of a ring that can be worn, as part of a belt buckle, or in the different shapes for sports, a guitar, cowboy boot or car key. Recent improvements come with the invent of High Definition graphics with epoxy dome on chrome plated versions of the bottle opener. Novelty bottle openers became a popular promotional product for many beer brands with the advent of the surfboard bottle opener by Jim Wysopal from Openers Plus in California 1990.
Under most use, a bottle opener functions as a second - class lever: the fulcrum is the far end of the bottle opener, placed on the top of the crown, with the output at the near end of the bottle opener, on the crown edge, between the fulcrum and the hand: in these cases, one pushes up on the lever.
However, one may instead use it as a first - class lever, by placing the near end on the top of the crown, and the far end under the crown edge, then pushing down on the lever (thus the output is on the opposite side of the fulcrum from the hand). This is particularly used with bar blades, which form an obtuse angle. Mechanically, this is a marginally less effective lever, as the effort arm is shorter, but the action of pushing down is marginally anatomically easier.
While most lever - type bottle openers can be used in either configuration, the designed use can be determined if one of the edges is curved, in which case this edge is designed to sit in the middle of the crown, as the curve concentrates pressure, deforming the crown, and a curved edge does not connect with as much of the crown edge, hence being suboptimal and slipping more frequently if used to connect with the crown edge. This difference can be seen in comparing the traditional opener and contemporary bar blade at right.
This common wine opener consists of a flat housing (often plastic covered) similar to a Swiss army knife with a corkscrew and lever (which doubles as crown cork opener) with either a knife or auto - foiler to remove the foil top of wine bottles and then the cork. Designed to be screwed in to within 1 full rotation before the end of the screw (more will pierce the bottom of the cork and result in extra flotsam on the surface of your wine) before levering out the cork.
This tool is used by businesses that need to open a large volume of wine efficiently and without waste or breakage. It is a large brass tubular device, fixed at a 45 ° angle to the bar, with a lever pivoted halfway and extending towards the user. The bottle 's neck is inserted firmly in the lower aperture of the tube and the lever pulled down firmly and steadily to the bottom. This drives a corkscrew into the cork at a regular depth each time. When the lever is returned to its original position it extracts the cork. When the bottle is removed pull the lever to expose the cork at the bottom, it loosens the cork and returns the lever firmly to its starting position, whereupon the cork will then fall out.
The twin prong cork puller, also called the Butler 's Friend, is shaped like a large key with a squared oval handle about 5 cm × 8 cm, and two thin metal strips, approximately 10 cm long, 5 mm wide, and 0.5 mm thick, descending in tandem from the center of the handle. The two strips are spread open and then wiggled into the space between the cork and the bottle on either side. Once fully in place, a turn and pull of the handle causes friction to turn the cork and pull it out of the bottle.
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what is fleetwood mac's song sara about | Sara (Fleetwood Mac song) - wikipedia
"Sara '' is a song written by singer - songwriter Stevie Nicks of the British - American pop / rock band Fleetwood Mac as a single from the 1979 Tusk double LP. The album version is 6: 22 minutes and the edited version is 4: 41 minutes. The song peaked at No. 7 in the US for three weeks, No. 37 in the UK for two weeks, No. 11 in Australia and No. 12 in Canada. Its success has led to it being included in various later best - of albums such as 2002 's The Very Best of Fleetwood Mac.
Canoe.com states that the song is about an aborted child Nicks had with then - boyfriend Don Henley. Henley himself has suggested this to be the meaning of the song. In a 1979 interview Nicks said "If I ever have a little girl, I will name her Sara. It 's a very special name to me. '' Nicks later said in a September 2014 interview with Billboard magazine: "Had I married Don and had that baby, and had she been a girl, I would have named her Sara... It 's accurate, but not the entirety of it. ''
In his 2014 autobiography, Mick Fleetwood suggested that the song referred to an affair which ended his own relationship with Nicks. Fleetwood and Nicks had been involved in a romantic relationship for some time. Although the relationship was not exclusive on either side, Fleetwood states that Nicks became upset when Fleetwood began a relationship with her best friend, Sara. This relationship effectively ended the romance between Nicks and Fleetwood.
The lyrics, "and he was just like a great dark wing / within the wings of a storm '' refer to Fleetwood being an emotional comfort zone for Nicks following her breakup with Lindsey Buckingham.
In 1980, the year after the song was released, Stevie Nicks was sued for plagiarism by a songwriter who had submitted a song called "Sara '', which she had sent to Warner Bros., Fleetwood Mac 's recording label, in 1978. Stevie Nicks defended the lawsuit by proving that she had written and recorded a demo version of the song in July 1978, before the lyrics were sent to Warner. The case was dropped and the complainant accepted that no plagiarism had occurred.
The version of the song featured on the original vinyl release of Tusk was the unedited 6: 22 version, but when Tusk was originally released as a single compact disc in 1987 it featured the edited version which leaves out the middle verse and musical bridge. It was not until the 1988 Fleetwood Mac Greatest Hits compilation was released that the 6: 22 version of the song became available on compact disc.
There is also a version known as "the cleaning lady '' edit, so - called as Nicks is clearly heard to say at the beginning of the demo recording, "I do n't want to be a cleaning lady! '' This version lasts almost nine minutes and was released on the 2 - disc remastered version Tusk in March 2004. It contains an extended vamp, which includes excised lines previously only heard in live performances, such as, "and the wind became crazy, '' "no sorrow for sorrow, you can have no more, '' and "swallow all your pride, do n't you ever change -- never change. ''
On November 5, 2015, a live version was released as part of a remastered Tusk. This recording features a heavier hitting drum beat from Fleetwood.
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explain why some white blood cells are called phagocytes | Phagocyte - wikipedia
Phagocytes are cells that protect the body by ingesting harmful foreign particles, bacteria, and dead or dying cells. Their name comes from the Greek phagein, "to eat '' or "devour '', and "- cyte '', the suffix in biology denoting "cell '', from the Greek kutos, "hollow vessel ''. They are essential for fighting infections and for subsequent immunity. Phagocytes are important throughout the animal kingdom and are highly developed within vertebrates. One litre of human blood contains about six billion phagocytes. They were discovered in 1882 by Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov while he was studying starfish larvae. Mechnikov was awarded the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery. Phagocytes occur in many species; some amoebae behave like macrophage phagocytes, which suggests that phagocytes appeared early in the evolution of life.
Phagocytes of humans and other animals are called "professional '' or "non-professional '' depending on how effective they are at phagocytosis. The professional phagocytes include many types of white blood cells (such as neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, mast cells, and dendritic cells). The main difference between professional and non-professional phagocytes is that the professional phagocytes have molecules called receptors on their surfaces that can detect harmful objects, such as bacteria, that are not normally found in the body. Phagocytes are crucial in fighting infections, as well as in maintaining healthy tissues by removing dead and dying cells that have reached the end of their lifespan.
During an infection, chemical signals attract phagocytes to places where the pathogen has invaded the body. These chemicals may come from bacteria or from other phagocytes already present. The phagocytes move by a method called chemotaxis. When phagocytes come into contact with bacteria, the receptors on the phagocyte 's surface will bind to them. This binding will lead to the engulfing of the bacteria by the phagocyte. Some phagocytes kill the ingested pathogen with oxidants and nitric oxide. After phagocytosis, macrophages and dendritic cells can also participate in antigen presentation, a process in which a phagocyte moves parts of the ingested material back to its surface. This material is then displayed to other cells of the immune system. Some phagocytes then travel to the body 's lymph nodes and display the material to white blood cells called lymphocytes. This process is important in building immunity, and many pathogens have evolved methods to evade attacks by phagocytes.
The Russian zoologist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (1845 -- 1916) first recognized that specialized cells were involved in defense against microbial infections. In 1882, he studied motile (freely moving) cells in the larvae of starfishes, believing they were important to the animals ' immune defenses. To test his idea, he inserted small thorns from a tangerine tree into the larvae. After a few hours he noticed that the motile cells had surrounded the thorns. Mechnikov traveled to Vienna and shared his ideas with Carl Friedrich Claus who suggested the name ' ' phagocyte ' ' (from the Greek words phagein, meaning "to eat or devour '', and kutos, meaning "hollow vessel '') for the cells that Mechnikov had observed.
A year later, Mechnikov studied a fresh water crustacean called Daphnia, a tiny transparent animal that can be examined directly under a microscope. He discovered that fungal spores that attacked the animal were destroyed by phagocytes. He went on to extend his observations to the white blood cells of mammals and discovered that the bacterium Bacillus anthracis could be engulfed and killed by phagocytes, a process that he called phagocytosis. Mechnikov proposed that phagocytes were a primary defense against invading organisms.
In 1903, Almroth Wright discovered that phagocytosis was reinforced by specific antibodies that he called opsonins, from the Greek opson, "a dressing or relish ''. Mechnikov was awarded (jointly with Paul Ehrlich) the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on phagocytes and phagocytosis.
Although the importance of these discoveries slowly gained acceptance during the early twentieth century, the intricate relationships between phagocytes and all the other components of the immune system were not known until the 1980s.
Phagocytosis is the process of taking in particles such as bacteria, parasites, dead host cells, and cellular and foreign debris by a cell. It involves a chain of molecular processes. Phagocytosis occurs after the foreign body, a bacterial cell, for example, has bound to molecules called "receptors '' that are on the surface of the phagocyte. The phagocyte then stretches itself around the bacterium and engulfs it. Phagocytosis of bacteria by human neutrophils takes on average nine minutes. Once inside this phagocyte, the bacterium is trapped in a compartment called a phagosome. Within one minute the phagosome merges with either a lysosome or a granule to form a phagolysosome. The bacterium is then subjected to an overwhelming array of killing mechanisms and is dead a few minutes later. Dendritic cells and macrophages are not so fast, and phagocytosis can take many hours in these cells. Macrophages are slow and untidy eaters; they engulf huge quantities of material and frequently release some undigested back into the tissues. This debris serves as a signal to recruit more phagocytes from the blood. Phagocytes have voracious appetites; scientists have even fed macrophages with iron filings and then used a small magnet to separate them from other cells.
A phagocyte has many types of receptors on its surface that are used to bind material. They include opsonin receptors, scavenger receptors, and Toll - like receptors. Opsonin receptors increase the phagocytosis of bacteria that have been coated with immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies or with complement. "Complement '' is the name given to a complex series of protein molecules found in the blood that destroy cells or mark them for destruction. Scavenger receptors bind to a large range of molecules on the surface of bacterial cells, and Toll - like receptors -- so called because of their similarity to well - studied receptors in fruit flies that are encoded by the Toll gene -- bind to more specific molecules. Binding to Toll - like receptors increases phagocytosis and causes the phagocyte to release a group of hormones that cause inflammation.
The killing of microbes is a critical function of phagocytes that is performed either within the phagocyte (intracellular killing) or outside of the phagocyte (extracellular killing).
When a phagocyte ingests bacteria (or any material), its oxygen consumption increases. The increase in oxygen consumption, called a respiratory burst, produces reactive oxygen - containing molecules that are anti-microbial. The oxygen compounds are toxic to both the invader and the cell itself, so they are kept in compartments inside the cell. This method of killing invading microbes by using the reactive oxygen - containing molecules is referred to as oxygen - dependent intracellular killing, of which there are two types.
The first type is the oxygen - dependent production of a superoxide, which is an oxygen - rich bacteria - killing substance. The superoxide is converted to hydrogen peroxide and singlet oxygen by an enzyme called superoxide dismutase. Superoxides also react with the hydrogen peroxide to produce hydroxyl radicals, which assist in killing the invading microbe.
The second type involves the use of the enzyme myeloperoxidase from neutrophil granules. When granules fuse with a phagosome, myeloperoxidase is released into the phagolysosome, and this enzyme uses hydrogen peroxide and chlorine to create hypochlorite, a substance used in domestic bleach. Hypochlorite is extremely toxic to bacteria. Myeloperoxidase contains a heme pigment, which accounts for the green color of secretions rich in neutrophils, such as pus and infected sputum.
Phagocytes can also kill microbes by oxygen - independent methods, but these are not as effective as the oxygen - dependent ones. There are four main types. The first uses electrically charged proteins that damage the bacterium 's membrane. The second type uses lysozymes; these enzymes break down the bacterial cell wall. The third type uses lactoferrins, which are present in neutrophil granules and remove essential iron from bacteria. The fourth type uses proteases and hydrolytic enzymes; these enzymes are used to digest the proteins of destroyed bacteria.
Interferon - gamma -- which was once called macrophage activating factor -- stimulates macrophages to produce nitric oxide. The source of interferon - gamma can be CD4 T cells, CD8 T cells, natural killer cells, B cells, natural killer T cells, monocytes, macrophages, or dendritic cells. Nitric oxide is then released from the macrophage and, because of its toxicity, kills microbes near the macrophage. Activated macrophages produce and secrete tumor necrosis factor. This cytokine -- a class of signaling molecule -- kills cancer cells and cells infected by viruses, and helps to activate the other cells of the immune system.
In some diseases, e.g., the rare chronic granulomatous disease, the efficiency of phagocytes is impaired, and recurrent bacterial infections are a problem. In this disease there is an abnormality affecting different elements of oxygen - dependent killing. Other rare congenital abnormalities, such as Chédiak -- Higashi syndrome, are also associated with defective killing of ingested microbes.
Viruses can reproduce only inside cells, and they gain entry by using many of the receptors involved in immunity. Once inside the cell, viruses use the cell 's biological machinery to their own advantage, forcing the cell to make hundreds of identical copies of themselves. Although phagocytes and other components of the innate immune system can, to a limited extent, control viruses, once a virus is inside a cell the adaptive immune responses, particularly the lymphocytes, are more important for defense. At the sites of viral infections, lymphocytes often vastly outnumber all the other cells of the immune system; this is common in viral meningitis. Virus - infected cells that have been killed by lymphocytes are cleared from the body by phagocytes.
In an animal, cells are constantly dying. A balance between cell division and cell death keeps the number of cells relatively constant in adults. There are two different ways a cell can die: by necrosis or by apoptosis. In contrast to necrosis, which often results from disease or trauma, apoptosis -- or programmed cell death -- is a normal healthy function of cells. The body has to rid itself of millions of dead or dying cells every day, and phagocytes play a crucial role in this process.
Dying cells that undergo the final stages of apoptosis display molecules, such as phosphatidylserine, on their cell surface to attract phagocytes. Phosphatidylserine is normally found on the cytosolic surface of the plasma membrane, but is redistributed during apoptosis to the extracellular surface by a hypothetical protein known as scramblase. These molecules mark the cell for phagocytosis by cells that possess the appropriate receptors, such as macrophages. The removal of dying cells by phagocytes occurs in an orderly manner without eliciting an inflammatory response and is an important function of phagocytes.
Phagocytes are usually not bound to any particular organ but move through the body interacting with the other phagocytic and non-phagocytic cells of the immune system. They can communicate with other cells by producing chemicals called cytokines, which recruit other phagocytes to the site of infections or stimulate dormant lymphocytes. Phagocytes form part of the innate immune system, which animals, including humans, are born with. Innate immunity is very effective but non-specific in that it does not discriminate between different sorts of invaders. On the other hand, the adaptive immune system of jawed vertebrates -- the basis of acquired immunity -- is highly specialized and can protect against almost any type of invader. The adaptive immune system is not dependent on phagocytes but lymphocytes, which produce protective proteins called antibodies, which tag invaders for destruction and prevent viruses from infecting cells. Phagocytes, in particular dendritic cells and macrophages, stimulate lymphocytes to produce antibodies by an important process called antigen presentation.
Antigen presentation is a process in which some phagocytes move parts of engulfed materials back to the surface of their cells and "present '' them to other cells of the immune system. There are two "professional '' antigen - presenting cells: macrophages and dendritic cells. After engulfment, foreign proteins (the antigens) are broken down into peptides inside dendritic cells and macrophages. These peptides are then bound to the cell 's major histocompatibility complex (MHC) glycoproteins, which carry the peptides back to the phagocyte 's surface where they can be "presented '' to lymphocytes. Mature macrophages do not travel far from the site of infection, but dendritic cells can reach the body 's lymph nodes, where there are millions of lymphocytes. This enhances immunity because the lymphocytes respond to the antigens presented by the dendritic cells just as they would at the site of the original infection. But dendritic cells can also destroy or pacify lymphocytes if they recognize components of the host body; this is necessary to prevent autoimmune reactions. This process is called tolerance.
Dendritic cells also promote immunological tolerance, which stops the body from attacking itself. The first type of tolerance is central tolerance, that occurs in the thymus. T cells that bind (via their T cell receptor) to self antigen (presented by dendritic cells on MHC molecules) too strongly are induced to die. The second type of immunological tolerance is peripheral tolerance. Some self reactive T cells escape the thymus for a number of reasons, mainly due to the lack of expression of some self antigens in the thymus. Another type of T cell T regulatory cells can down regulate self reactive T cells in the periphery. When immunological tolerance fails, autoimmune diseases can follow.
Phagocytes of humans and other jawed vertebrates are divided into "professional '' and "non-professional '' groups based on the efficiency with which they participate in phagocytosis. The professional phagocytes are the monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, tissue dendritic cells and mast cells. One litre of human blood contains about six billion phagocytes.
All phagocytes, and especially macrophages, exist in degrees of readiness. Macrophages are usually relatively dormant in the tissues and proliferate slowly. In this semi-resting state, they clear away dead host cells and other non-infectious debris and rarely take part in antigen presentation. But, during an infection, they receive chemical signals -- usually interferon gamma -- which increases their production of MHC II molecules and which prepares them for presenting antigens. In this state, macrophages are good antigen presenters and killers. However, if they receive a signal directly from an invader, they become "hyperactivated '', stop proliferating, and concentrate on killing. Their size and rate of phagocytosis increases -- some become large enough to engulf invading protozoa.
In the blood, neutrophils are inactive but are swept along at high speed. When they receive signals from macrophages at the sites of inflammation, they slow down and leave the blood. In the tissues, they are activated by cytokines and arrive at the battle scene ready to kill.
When an infection occurs, a chemical "SOS '' signal is given off to attract phagocytes to the site. These chemical signals may include proteins from invading bacteria, clotting system peptides, complement products, and cytokines that have been given off by macrophages located in the tissue near the infection site. Another group of chemical attractants are cytokines that recruit neutrophils and monocytes from the blood.
To reach the site of infection, phagocytes leave the bloodstream and enter the affected tissues. Signals from the infection cause the endothelial cells that line the blood vessels to make a protein called selectin, which neutrophils stick to on passing by. Other signals called vasodilators loosen the junctions connecting endothelial cells, allowing the phagocytes to pass through the wall. Chemotaxis is the process by which phagocytes follow the cytokine "scent '' to the infected spot. Neutrophils travel across epithelial cell - lined organs to sites of infection, and although this is an important component of fighting infection, the migration itself can result in disease - like symptoms. During an infection, millions of neutrophils are recruited from the blood, but they die after a few days.
Monocytes develop in the bone marrow and reach maturity in the blood. Mature monocytes have large, smooth, lobed nuclei and abundant cytoplasm that contains granules. Monocytes ingest foreign or dangerous substances and present antigens to other cells of the immune system. Monocytes form two groups: a circulating group and a marginal group that remain in other tissues (approximately 70 % are in the marginal group). Most monocytes leave the blood stream after 20 -- 40 hours to travel to tissues and organs and in doing so transform into macrophages or dendritic cells depending on the signals they receive. There are about 500 million monocytes in one litre of human blood.
Mature macrophages do not travel far but stand guard over those areas of the body that are exposed to the outside world. There they act as garbage collectors, antigen presenting cells, or ferocious killers, depending on the signals they receive. They derive from monocytes, granulocyte stem cells, or the cell division of pre-existing macrophages. Human macrophages are about 21 micrometers in diameter.
This type of phagocyte does not have granules but contains many lysosomes. Macrophages are found throughout the body in almost all tissues and organs (e.g., microglial cells in the brain and alveolar macrophages in the lungs), where they silently lie in wait. A macrophage 's location can determine its size and appearance. Macrophages cause inflammation through the production of interleukin - 1, interleukin - 6, and TNF - alpha. Macrophages are usually only found in tissue and are rarely seen in blood circulation. The life - span of tissue macrophages has been estimated to range from four to fifteen days.
Macrophages can be activated to perform functions that a resting monocyte can not. T helper cells (also known as effector T cells or T cells), a sub-group of lymphocytes, are responsible for the activation of macrophages. T 1 cells activate macrophages by signaling with IFN - gamma and displaying the protein CD40 ligand. Other signals include TNF - alpha and lipopolysaccharides from bacteria. T 1 cells can recruit other phagocytes to the site of the infection in several ways. They secrete cytokines that act on the bone marrow to stimulate the production of monocytes and neutrophils, and they secrete some of the cytokines that are responsible for the migration of monocytes and neutrophils out of the bloodstream. T 1 cells come from the differentiation of CD4 T cells once they have responded to antigen in the secondary lymphoid tissues. Activated macrophages play a potent role in tumor destruction by producing TNF - alpha, IFN - gamma, nitric oxide, reactive oxygen compounds, cationic proteins, and hydrolytic enzymes.
Neutrophils are normally found in the bloodstream and are the most abundant type of phagocyte, constituting 50 % to 60 % of the total circulating white blood cells. One litre of human blood contains about five billion neutrophils, which are about 10 micrometers in diameter and live for only about five days. Once they have received the appropriate signals, it takes them about thirty minutes to leave the blood and reach the site of an infection. They are ferocious eaters and rapidly engulf invaders coated with antibodies and complement, and damaged cells or cellular debris. Neutrophils do not return to the blood; they turn into pus cells and die. Mature neutrophils are smaller than monocytes and have a segmented nucleus with several sections; each section is connected by chromatin filaments -- neutrophils can have 2 -- 5 segments. Neutrophils do not normally exit the bone marrow until maturity but during an infection neutrophil precursors called myelocytes and promyelocytes are released.
The intra-cellular granules of the human neutrophil have long been recognized for their protein - destroying and bactericidal properties. Neutrophils can secrete products that stimulate monocytes and macrophages. Neutrophil secretions increase phagocytosis and the formation of reactive oxygen compounds involved in intracellular killing. Secretions from the primary granules of neutrophils stimulate the phagocytosis of IgG - antibody - coated bacteria.
Dendritic cells are specialized antigen - presenting cells that have long outgrowths called dendrites, that help to engulf microbes and other invaders. Dendritic cells are present in the tissues that are in contact with the external environment, mainly the skin, the inner lining of the nose, the lungs, the stomach, and the intestines. Once activated, they mature and migrate to the lymphoid tissues where they interact with T cells and B cells to initiate and orchestrate the adaptive immune response. Mature dendritic cells activate T helper cells and cytotoxic T cells. The activated helper T cells interact with macrophages and B cells to activate them in turn. In addition, dendritic cells can influence the type of immune response produced; when they travel to the lymphoid areas where T cells are held they can activate T cells, which then differentiate into cytotoxic T cells or helper T cells.
Mast cells have Toll - like receptors and interact with dendritic cells, B cells, and T cells to help mediate adaptive immune functions. Mast cells express MHC class II molecules and can participate in antigen presentation; however, the mast cell 's role in antigen presentation is not very well understood. Mast cells can consume and kill gram - negative bacteria (e.g., salmonella), and process their antigens. They specialize in processing the fimbrial proteins on the surface of bacteria, which are involved in adhesion to tissues. In addition to these functions, mast cells produce cytokines that induce an inflammatory response. This is a vital part of the destruction of microbes because the cytokines attract more phagocytes to the site of infection.
Dying cells and foreign organisms are consumed by cells other than the "professional '' phagocytes. These cells include epithelial cells, endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and mesenchymal cells. They are called non-professional phagocytes, to emphasize that, in contrast to professional phagocytes, phagocytosis is not their principal function. Fibroblasts, for example, which can phagocytose collagen in the process of remolding scars, will also make some attempt to ingest foreign particles.
Non-professional phagocytes are more limited than professional phagocytes in the type of particles they can take up. This is due to their lack of efficient phagocytic receptors, in particular opsonins -- which are antibodies and complement attached to invaders by the immune system. Additionally, most nonprofessional phagocytes do not produce reactive oxygen - containing molecules in response to phagocytosis.
A pathogen is only successful in infecting an organism if it can get past its defenses. Pathogenic bacteria and protozoa have developed a variety of methods to resist attacks by phagocytes, and many actually survive and replicate within phagocytic cells.
There are several ways bacteria avoid contact with phagocytes. First, they can grow in sites that phagocytes are not capable of traveling to (e.g., the surface of unbroken skin). Second, bacteria can suppress the inflammatory response; without this response to infection phagocytes can not respond adequately. Third, some species of bacteria can inhibit the ability of phagocytes to travel to the site of infection by interfering with chemotaxis. Fourth, some bacteria can avoid contact with phagocytes by tricking the immune system into "thinking '' that the bacteria are "self ''. Treponema pallidum -- the bacterium that causes syphilis -- hides from phagocytes by coating its surface with fibronectin, which is produced naturally by the body and plays a crucial role in wound healing.
Bacteria often produce proteins or sugars that coat their cells and interfere with phagocytosis; these are called capsules. Some examples are the K5 capsule and O75 O antigen found on the surface of Escherichia coli, and the exopolysaccharide capsules of Staphylococcus epidermidis. Streptococcus pneumoniae produces several types of capsule that provide different levels of protection, and group A streptococci produce proteins such as M protein and fimbrial proteins to block engulfment. Some proteins hinder opsonin - related ingestion; Staphylococcus aureus produces Protein A to block antibody receptors, which decreases the effectiveness of opsonins.
Bacteria have developed ways to survive inside phagocytes, where they continue to evade the immune system. To get safely inside the phagocyte they express proteins called invasins. When inside the cell they remain in the cytoplasm and avoid toxic chemicals contained in the phagolysosomes. Some bacteria prevent the fusion of a phagosome and lysosome, to form the phagolysosome. Other pathogens, such as Leishmania, create a highly modified vacuole inside the phagocyte, which helps them persist and replicate. Some bacteria are capable of living inside of the phagolysosome. Staphylococcus aureus, for example, produces the enzymes catalase and superoxide dismutase, which break down chemicals -- such as hydrogen peroxide -- produced by phagocytes to kill bacteria. Bacteria may escape from the phagosome before the formation of the phagolysosome: Listeria monocytogenes can make a hole in the phagosome wall using enzymes called listeriolysin O and phospholipase C.
Bacteria have developed several ways of killing phagocytes. These include cytolysins, which form pores in the phagocyte 's cell membranes, streptolysins and leukocidins, which cause neutrophils ' granules to rupture and release toxic substances, and exotoxins that reduce the supply of a phagocyte 's ATP, needed for phagocytosis. After a bacterium is ingested, it may kill the phagocyte by releasing toxins that travel through the phagosome or phagolysosome membrane to target other parts of the cell.
Some survival strategies often involve disrupting cytokines and other methods of cell signaling to prevent the phagocyte 's responding to invasion. The protozoan parasites Toxoplasma gondii, Trypanosoma cruzi, and Leishmania infect macrophages, and each has a unique way of taming them. Some species of Leishmania alter the infected macrophage 's signalling, repress the production of cytokines and microbicidal molecules -- nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species -- and compromise antigen presentation.
Macrophages and neutrophils, in particular, play a central role in the inflammatory process by releasing proteins and small - molecule inflammatory mediators that control infection but can damage host tissue. In general, phagocytes aim to destroy pathogens by engulfing them and subjecting them to a battery of toxic chemicals inside a phagolysosome. If a phagocyte fails to engulf its target, these toxic agents can be released into the environment (an action referred to as "frustrated phagocytosis ''). As these agents are also toxic to host cells, they can cause extensive damage to healthy cells and tissues.
When neutrophils release their granule contents in the kidney, the contents of the granule (reactive oxygen compounds and proteases) degrade the extracellular matrix of host cells and can cause damage to glomerular cells, affecting their ability to filter blood and causing changes in shape. In addition, phospholipase products (e.g., leukotrienes) intensify the damage. This release of substances promotes chemotaxis of more neutrophils to the site of infection, and glomerular cells can be damaged further by the adhesion molecules during the migration of neutrophils. The injury done to the glomerular cells can cause renal failure.
Neutrophils also play a key role in the development of most forms of acute lung injury. Here, activated neutrophils release the contents of their toxic granules into the lung environment. Experiments have shown that a reduction in the number of neutrophils lessens the effects of acute lung injury, but treatment by inhibiting neutrophils is not clinically realistic, as it would leave the host vulnerable to infection. In the liver, damage by neutrophils can contribute to dysfunction and injury in response to the release of endotoxins produced by bacteria, sepsis, trauma, alcoholic hepatitis, ischemia, and hypovolemic shock resulting from acute hemorrhage.
Chemicals released by macrophages can also damage host tissue. TNF - α is an important chemical that is released by macrophages that causes the blood in small vessels to clot to prevent an infection from spreading. However, if a bacterial infection spreads to the blood, TNF - α is released into vital organs, which can cause vasodilation and a decrease in plasma volume; these in turn can be followed by septic shock. During septic shock, TNF - α release causes a blockage of the small vessels that supply blood to the vital organs, and the organs may fail. Septic shock can lead to death.
Phagocytosis is common and probably appeared early in evolution, evolving first in unicellular eukaryotes. Amoebae are unicellular protists that separated from the tree leading to metazoa shortly after the divergence of plants, and they share many specific functions with mammalian phagocytic cells. Dictyostelium discoideum, for example, is an amoeba that lives in the soil and feeds on bacteria. Like animal phagocytes, it engulfs bacteria by phagocytosis mainly through Toll - like receptors, and it has other biological functions in common with macrophages. Dictyostelium discoideum is social; it aggregates when starved to form a migrating pseudoplasmodium or slug. This multicellular organism eventually will produce a fruiting body with spores that are resistant to environmental dangers. Before the formation of fruiting bodies, the cells will migrate as a slug - like organism for several days. During this time, exposure to toxins or bacterial pathogens has the potential to compromise survival of the species by limiting spore production. Some of the amoebae engulf bacteria and absorb toxins while circulating within the slug, and these amoebae eventually die. They are genetically identical to the other amoebae in the slug; their self - sacrifice to protect the other amoebae from bacteria is similar to the self - sacrifice of phagocytes seen in the immune system of higher vertebrates. This ancient immune function in social amoebae suggests an evolutionarily conserved cellular foraging mechanism that might have been adapted to defense functions well before the diversification of amoebae into higher forms. However, a common ancestry with mammalian phagocytes has not been proven. Phagocytes occur throughout the animal kingdom, from marine sponges to insects and lower and higher vertebrates. The ability of amoebae to distinguish between self and non-self is a pivotal one, and is the root of the immune system of many species of amoeba.
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which of the following is an example of a web 2.0 community or service | Web 2.0 - Wikipedia
Web 2.0, also called Participative (or Participatory) and Social Web, refers to World Wide Web websites that emphasize user - generated content, usability (ease of use, even by non-experts), and interoperability (this means that a website can work well with other products, systems, and devices) for end users. The term was invented by Darcy DiNucci in 1999 and popularized several years later by Tim O'Reilly and Dale Dougherty at the O'Reilly Media Web 2.0 Conference in late 2004. Web 2.0 does not refer to an update to any technical specification, but to changes in the way Web pages are designed and used. The transition was progressive and we can not precisely say when the change occurred.
A Web 2.0 website may allow users to interact and collaborate with each other in a social media dialogue as creators of user - generated content in a virtual community, in contrast to the first generation of Web 1.0 - era websites where people were limited to the passive viewing of content. Examples of Web 2.0 features include social networking sites and social media sites (e.g., Facebook), blogs, wikis, folksonomies ("tagging '' keywords on websites and links), video sharing sites (e.g., YouTube), hosted services, Web applications ("apps ''), collaborative consumption platforms, and mashup applications.
Whether Web 2.0 is substantively different from prior Web technologies has been challenged by World Wide Web inventor Tim Berners - Lee, who describes the term as jargon. His original vision of the Web was "a collaborative medium, a place where we (could) all meet and read and write. '' On the other hand, the term Semantic Web (sometimes referred to as Web 3.0) was coined by Berners - Lee to refer to a web of content where the meaning can be processed by machines.
Web 1.0 is a retronym referring to the first stage of the World Wide Web 's evolution. According to Cormode, G. and, Krishnamurthy, B. (2008): "content creators were few in Web 1.0 with the vast majority of users simply acting as consumers of content. '' Personal web pages were common, consisting mainly of static pages hosted on ISP - run web servers, or on free web hosting services such as GeoCities. With the advent of Web 2.0, it was more common for the average web user to have social networking profiles on sites such as Myspace and Facebook, as well as personal blogs on one of the new low - cost web hosting services or a dedicated blog host like Blogger or LiveJournal. The content for both was generated dynamically from stored content, allowing for readers to comment directly on pages in a way that was not previously common.
Some Web 2.0 capabilities were present in the days of Web 1.0, but they were implemented differently. For example, a Web 1.0 site may have had a guestbook page to publish visitor comments, instead of a comment section at the end of each page. Server performance and bandwidth considerations had to be taken into account, and a long comments thread on each page could potentially slow down the site. Terry Flew, in his 3rd edition of New Media, described the differences between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0:
"move from personal websites to blogs and blog site aggregation, from publishing to participation, from web content as the outcome of large up - front investment to an ongoing and interactive process, and from content management systems to links based on "tagging '' website content using keywords (folksonomy). ''
Flew believed it to be the above factors that form the basic change in trends that resulted in the onset of the Web 2.0 "craze ''.
Some design elements of a Web 1.0 site include:
The term "Web 2.0 '' was first used in January 1999 by Darcy DiNucci, an information architecture consultant. In her article, "Fragmented Future '', DiNucci writes:
The Web we know now, which loads into a browser window in essentially static screenfuls, is only an embryo of the Web to come. The first glimmerings of Web 2.0 are beginning to appear, and we are just starting to see how that embryo might develop. The Web will be understood not as screenfuls of text and graphics but as a transport mechanism, the ether through which interactivity happens. It will (...) appear on your computer screen, (...) on your TV set (...) your car dashboard (...) your cell phone (...) hand - held game machines (...) maybe even your microwave oven.
Writing when Palm Inc. was introducing its first Web - capable personal digital assistant, supporting Web access with WAP, DiNucci saw the Web "fragmenting '' into a future that extended beyond the browser / PC combination it was identified with. She focused on how the basic information structure and hyperlinking mechanism introduced by HTTP would be used by a variety of devices and platforms. As such, her use of the "2.0 '' designation refers to a next version of the Web that does not directly relate to the term 's current use.
The term Web 2.0 did not resurface until 2002. These authors focus on the concepts currently associated with the term where, as Scott Dietzen puts it, "the Web becomes a universal, standards - based integration platform ''. In 2004, the term began its rise in popularity when O'Reilly Media and MediaLive hosted the first Web 2.0 conference. In their opening remarks, John Battelle and Tim O'Reilly outlined their definition of the "Web as Platform '', where software applications are built upon the Web as opposed to upon the desktop. The unique aspect of this migration, they argued, is that "customers are building your business for you ''. They argued that the activities of users generating content (in the form of ideas, text, videos, or pictures) could be "harnessed '' to create value. O'Reilly and Battelle contrasted Web 2.0 with what they called "Web 1.0 ''. They associated this term with the business models of Netscape and the Encyclopædia Britannica Online. For example,
Netscape framed "the web as platform '' in terms of the old software paradigm: their flagship product was the web browser, a desktop application, and their strategy was to use their dominance in the browser market to establish a market for high - priced server products. Control over standards for displaying content and applications in the browser would, in theory, give Netscape the kind of market power enjoyed by Microsoft in the PC market. Much like the "horseless carriage '' framed the automobile as an extension of the familiar, Netscape promoted a "webtop '' to replace the desktop, and planned to populate that webtop with information updates and applets pushed to the webtop by information providers who would purchase Netscape servers.
In short, Netscape focused on creating software, releasing updates and bug fixes, and distributing it to the end users. O'Reilly contrasted this with Google, a company that did not at the time focus on producing end - user software, but instead on providing a service based on data such as the links Web page authors make between sites. Google exploits this user - generated content to offer Web search based on reputation through its "PageRank '' algorithm. Unlike software, which undergoes scheduled releases, such services are constantly updated, a process called "the perpetual beta ''. A similar difference can be seen between the Encyclopædia Britannica Online and Wikipedia: while the Britannica relies upon experts to write articles and releases them periodically in publications, Wikipedia relies on trust in (sometimes anonymous) community members to constantly write and edit content. Wikipedia editors are not required to have educational credentials, such as degrees, in the subjects in which they are editing. Wikipedia is not based on subject - matter expertise, but rather on an adaptation of the open source software adage "given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow ''. This maxim is stating that if enough users are able to look at a software product 's code (or a website), then these users will be able to fix any "bugs '' or other problems. Wikipedia 's volunteer editor community produces, edits and updates articles constantly. O'Reilly's Web 2.0 conferences have been held every year since 2004, attracting entrepreneurs, representatives from large companies, tech experts and technology reporters.
The popularity of Web 2.0 was acknowledged by 2006 TIME magazine Person of The Year (You). That is, TIME selected the masses of users who were participating in content creation on social networks, blogs, wikis, and media sharing sites. In the cover story, Lev Grossman explains:
It 's a story about community and collaboration on a scale never seen before. It 's about the cosmic compendium of knowledge Wikipedia and the million - channel people 's network YouTube and the online metropolis MySpace. It 's about the many wresting power from the few and helping one another for nothing and how that will not only change the world but also change the way the world changes.
Instead of merely reading a Web 2.0 site, a user is invited to contribute to the site 's content by commenting on published articles or creating a user account or profile on the site, which may enable increased participation. By increasing emphasis on these already - extant capabilities, they encourage the user to rely more on their browser for user interface, application software ("apps '') and file storage facilities. This has been called "network as platform '' computing. Major features of Web 2.0 include social networking websites, self - publishing platforms (e.g., WordPress ' easy - to - use blog and website creation tools), "tagging '' (which enables users to label websites, videos or photos in some fashion), "like '' buttons (which enable a user to indicate that they are pleased by online content), and social bookmarking. Users can provide the data that is on a Web 2.0 site and exercise some control over that data. These sites may have an "architecture of participation '' that encourages users to add value to the application as they use it. Users can add value in many ways, such as by commenting on a news story on a news website, by uploading a relevant photo on a travel website, or by adding a link to a video or TED talk which is pertinent to the subject being discussed on a website. Some scholars argue that cloud computing is an example of Web 2.0 because cloud computing is simply an implication of computing on the Internet.
Web 2.0 offers almost all users the same freedom to contribute. While this opens the possibility for serious debate and collaboration, it also increases the incidence of "spamming '', "trolling '', and can even create a venue for racist hate speech, cyberbullying and defamation. The impossibility of excluding group members who do not contribute to the provision of goods (i.e., to the creation of a user - generated website) from sharing the benefits (of using the website) gives rise to the possibility that serious members will prefer to withhold their contribution of effort and "free ride '' on the contributions of others. This requires what is sometimes called radical trust by the management of the Web site.
According to Best, the characteristics of Web 2.0 are: rich user experience, user participation, dynamic content, metadata, Web standards, and scalability. Further characteristics, such as openness, freedom and collective intelligence by way of user participation, can also be viewed as essential attributes of Web 2.0. Some websites require users to contribute user - generated content to have access to the website, to discourage "free riding ''.
The key features of Web 2.0 include:
In 2005, Tim O'Reilly and Dale Dougherty held a brainstorming session to elucidate characteristics and components of the Web 1.0 to Web 2.0 transition and what changed:
The client - side (Web browser) technologies used in Web 2.0 development include Ajax and JavaScript frameworks. Ajax programming uses JavaScript and the Document Object Model to update selected regions of the page area without undergoing a full page reload. To allow users to continue to interact with the page, communications such as data requests going to the server are separated from data coming back to the page (asynchronously). Otherwise, the user would have to routinely wait for the data to come back before they can do anything else on that page, just as a user has to wait for a page to complete the reload. This also increases overall performance of the site, as the sending of requests can complete quicker independent of blocking and queueing required to send data back to the client. The data fetched by an Ajax request is typically formatted in XML or JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) format, two widely used structured data formats. Since both of these formats are natively understood by JavaScript, a programmer can easily use them to transmit structured data in their Web application. When this data is received via Ajax, the JavaScript program then uses the Document Object Model (DOM) to dynamically update the Web page based on the new data, allowing for a rapid and interactive user experience. In short, using these techniques, Web designers can make their pages function like desktop applications. For example, Google Docs uses this technique to create a Web - based word processor.
As a widely available plugin independent of W3C standards (the World Wide Web Consortium is the governing body of Web standards and protocols), Adobe Flash is capable of doing many things that were not possible pre-HTML5. Of Flash 's many capabilities, the most commonly used is its ability to integrate streaming multimedia into HTML pages. With the introduction of HTML5 in 2010 and growing concerns with Flash 's security, the role of Flash is decreasing. In addition to Flash and Ajax, JavaScript / Ajax frameworks have recently become a very popular means of creating Web 2.0 sites. At their core, these frameworks use the same technology as JavaScript, Ajax, and the DOM. However, frameworks smooth over inconsistencies between Web browsers and extend the functionality available to developers. Many of them also come with customizable, prefabricated ' widgets ' that accomplish such common tasks as picking a date from a calendar, displaying a data chart, or making a tabbed panel. On the server - side, Web 2.0 uses many of the same technologies as Web 1.0. Languages such as Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby, as well as Enterprise Java (J2EE) and Microsoft.NET Framework, are used by developers to output data dynamically using information from files and databases. This allows websites and web services to share machine readable formats such as XML (Atom, RSS, etc.) and JSON. When data is available in one of these formats, another website can use it to integrate a portion of that site 's functionality.
Web 2.0 can be described in three parts:
As such, Web 2.0 draws together the capabilities of client - and server - side software, content syndication and the use of network protocols. Standards - oriented Web browsers may use plug - ins and software extensions to handle the content and the user interactions. Web 2.0 sites provide users with information storage, creation, and dissemination capabilities that were not possible in the environment now known as "Web 1.0 ''.
Web 2.0 sites include the following features and techniques, referred to as the acronym SLATES by Andrew McAfee:
While SLATES forms the basic framework of Enterprise 2.0, it does not contradict all of the higher level Web 2.0 design patterns and business models. It includes discussions of self - service IT, the long tail of enterprise IT demand, and many other consequences of the Web 2.0 era in enterprise uses.
A third important part of Web 2.0 is the social web. The social Web consists of a number of online tools and platforms where people share their perspectives, opinions, thoughts and experiences. Web 2.0 applications tend to interact much more with the end user. As such, the end user is not only a user of the application but also a participant by:
The popularity of the term Web 2.0, along with the increasing use of blogs, wikis, and social networking technologies, has led many in academia and business to append a flurry of 2.0 's to existing concepts and fields of study, including Library 2.0, Social Work 2.0, Enterprise 2.0, PR 2.0, Classroom 2.0, Publishing 2.0, Medicine 2.0, Telco 2.0, Travel 2.0, Government 2.0, and even Porn 2.0. Many of these 2.0 s refer to Web 2.0 technologies as the source of the new version in their respective disciplines and areas. For example, in the Talis white paper "Library 2.0: The Challenge of Disruptive Innovation '', Paul Miller argues
Blogs, wikis and RSS are often held up as exemplary manifestations of Web 2.0. A reader of a blog or a wiki is provided with tools to add a comment or even, in the case of the wiki, to edit the content. This is what we call the Read / Write web. Talis believes that Library 2.0 means harnessing this type of participation so that libraries can benefit from increasingly rich collaborative cataloging efforts, such as including contributions from partner libraries as well as adding rich enhancements, such as book jackets or movie files, to records from publishers and others.
Here, Miller links Web 2.0 technologies and the culture of participation that they engender to the field of library science, supporting his claim that there is now a "Library 2.0 ''. Many of the other proponents of new 2.0 s mentioned here use similar methods. The meaning of Web 2.0 is role dependent. For example, some use Web 2.0 to establish and maintain relationships through social networks, while some marketing managers might use this promising technology to "end - run traditionally unresponsive I.T. department (s). '' There is a debate over the use of Web 2.0 technologies in mainstream education. Issues under consideration include the understanding of students ' different learning modes; the conflicts between ideas entrenched in informal on - line communities and educational establishments ' views on the production and authentication of ' formal ' knowledge; and questions about privacy, plagiarism, shared authorship and the ownership of knowledge and information produced and / or published on line.
Web 2.0 is used by companies, non-profit organizations and governments for interactive marketing. A growing number of marketers are using Web 2.0 tools to collaborate with consumers on product development, customer service enhancement, product or service improvement and promotion. Companies can use Web 2.0 tools to improve collaboration with both its business partners and consumers. Among other things, company employees have created wikis -- Web sites that allow users to add, delete, and edit content -- to list answers to frequently asked questions about each product, and consumers have added significant contributions. Another marketing Web 2.0 lure is to make sure consumers can use the online community to network among themselves on topics of their own choosing. Mainstream media usage of Web 2.0 is increasing. Saturating media hubs -- like The New York Times, PC Magazine and Business Week -- with links to popular new Web sites and services, is critical to achieving the threshold for mass adoption of those services. User web content can be used to gauge consumer satisfaction. In a recent article for Bank Technology News, Shane Kite describes how Citigroup 's Global Transaction Services unit monitors social media outlets to address customer issues and improve products. According to Google Timeline, the term Web 2.0 was discussed and indexed most frequently in 2005, 2007 and 2008. Its average use is continuously declining by 2 -- 4 % per quarter since April 2008.
In tourism industries, social media is an effective channel to attract travellers and promote the tourism product and services by engaging with customers. The brand of tourist destinations can be built through the marketing campaigns on social media by engaging with customers. For example, the "Snow at First Sight '' campaign launched by the State of Colorado aimed at a brand awareness of Colorado as a winter destination. The campaign used social media platforms, for examples, Facebook and Twitter, to promote this competition, and requested the participates to share experiences, pictures and videos on social medias. As a result, Colorado enhanced the image of winter destination and a campaign worth was about $2.9 million.
The tourism organisation can earn a brand royalty from interactive marketing campaigns on social media with engaging passive communication tactics. For example, "Moms '' advisors of the Walt Disney World are responsibilities for offer suggestions and reply answers about the family trips at the Walt Disney World. Due to its characteristic of experts in Disney, the "Moms '' was chosen to represent the campaign. The social networking such as Facebook can be used as a platform for providing a detailed information about the marketing campaign, as well as real - time online communication with customers. Korean Airline Tour created and maintained a relationship with customers by using Facebook for individual communication purposes.
Travel 2.0 refers a model of Web 2.0 on tourism industries which provided virtual travel communities. Travel 2.0 model allow user to create their own contents and exchange their words through globally interactive features on websites. The users also can contribute their experiences, images and suggestions regarding their trips on online travel communities. For example, TripAdvisor is an online travel community which enables user to rate and share autonomously their reviews and feedbacks on hotels and tourist destinations. Non pre-associate users can interact socially and discuss through discussion forums on Tripadvior. Social media, especially Travel 2.0 website, plays a crucial role in decision - making behaviours of travellers. The user - generated contents on social media tools have a significant impact on travellers ' choices and organisation preferences. The travel 2.0 emerged a radical change in receiving information methods of travellers from business - to - customer marketing into peer - to - peer reviews. The user - generated contents become a vital tool for helping a number of travellers manage their international travels for the first time visiting. The travellers tend to trust and rely on peer - to - peer reviews and virtual communications on social media rather than the information provided by travel supplier. In addition, An autonomous review feature on social media would help traveller reduce risks and uncertainties before purchasing stages. Social media is also a channel for customer complaints and negative feedbacks which can damage images of organisations and destinations. For example, a majority of UK travellers read customer reviews before booking hotels and the bookings of hotels receiving negative feedbacks would be refrained by half of customers. Therefore, the organisations should develop strategic plans to handle and manage the negative feedbacks on social media. Although the user - generated content and rating system on social media are out of business controls, the businesses can monitor those conversations and participate in communities to enhance a customer loyalty and maintain customer relationships.
Web 2.0 could allow for more collaborative education. For example, blogs give students a public space to interact with one another and the content of the class. Some studies suggest that Web 2.0 can increase the public 's understanding of science, which could improve governments ' policy decisions. A 2012 study by researchers at the University of Wisconsin - Madison notes that "... the internet could be a crucial tool in increasing the general public 's level of science literacy. This increase could then lead to better communication between researchers and the public, more substantive discussion, and more informed policy decision. ''
Ajax has prompted the development of Web sites that mimic desktop applications, such as word processing, the spreadsheet, and slide - show presentation. WYSIWYG wiki and blogging sites replicate many features of PC authoring applications. Several browser - based services have emerged, including EyeOS and YouOS. (No longer active.) Although named operating systems, many of these services are application platforms. They mimic the user experience of desktop operating - systems, offering features and applications similar to a PC environment, and are able to run within any modern browser. However, these so - called "operating systems '' do not directly control the hardware on the client 's computer. Numerous web - based application services appeared during the dot - com bubble of 1997 -- 2001 and then vanished, having failed to gain a critical mass of customers.
Many regard syndication of site content as a Web 2.0 feature. Syndication uses standardized protocols to permit end - users to make use of a site 's data in another context (such as another Web site, a browser plugin, or a separate desktop application). Protocols permitting syndication include RSS (really simple syndication, also known as Web syndication), RDF (as in RSS 1.1), and Atom, all of which are XML - based formats. Observers have started to refer to these technologies as Web feeds. Specialized protocols such as FOAF and XFN (both for social networking) extend the functionality of sites and permit end - users to interact without centralized Web sites.
Web 2.0 often uses machine - based interactions such as REST and SOAP. Servers often expose proprietary Application programming interfaces (API), but standard APIs (for example, for posting to a blog or notifying a blog update) have also come into use. Most communications through APIs involve XML or JSON payloads. REST APIs, through their use of self - descriptive messages and hypermedia as the engine of application state, should be self - describing once an entry URI is known. Web Services Description Language (WSDL) is the standard way of publishing a SOAP Application programming interface and there are a range of Web service specifications.
Critics of the term claim that "Web 2.0 '' does not represent a new version of the World Wide Web at all, but merely continues to use so - called "Web 1.0 '' technologies and concepts. First, techniques such as Ajax do not replace underlying protocols like HTTP, but add an additional layer of abstraction on top of them. Second, many of the ideas of Web 2.0 were already featured in implementations on networked systems well before the term "Web 2.0 '' emerged. Amazon.com, for instance, has allowed users to write reviews and consumer guides since its launch in 1995, in a form of self - publishing. Amazon also opened its API to outside developers in 2002. Previous developments also came from research in computer - supported collaborative learning and computer supported cooperative work (CSCW) and from established products like Lotus Notes and Lotus Domino, all phenomena that preceded Web 2.0. Tim Berners - Lee, who developed the initial technologies of the Web, has been an outspoken critic of the term, while supporting many of the elements associated with it. In the environment where the Web originated, each workstation had a dedicated IP address and always - on connection to the Internet. Sharing a file or publishing a web page was as simple as moving the file into a shared folder.
Perhaps the most common criticism is that the term is unclear or simply a buzzword. For many people who work in software, version numbers like 2.0 and 3.0 are for software versioning or hardware versioning only, and to assign 2.0 arbitrarily to many technologies with a variety of real version numbers has no meaning. The web does not have a version number. For example, in a 2006 interview with IBM developerWorks podcast editor Scott Laningham, Tim Berners - Lee described the term "Web 2.0 '' as a jargon:
"Nobody really knows what it means... If Web 2.0 for you is blogs and wikis, then that is people to people. But that was what the Web was supposed to be all along... Web 2.0, for some people, it means moving some of the thinking (to the) client side, so making it more immediate, but the idea of the Web as interaction between people is really what the Web is. That was what it was designed to be... a collaborative space where people can interact. ''
Other critics labeled Web 2.0 "a second bubble '' (referring to the Dot - com bubble of 1997 -- 2000), suggesting that too many Web 2.0 companies attempt to develop the same product with a lack of business models. For example, The Economist has dubbed the mid - to late - 2000s focus on Web companies as "Bubble 2.0 ''.
In terms of Web 2.0 's social impact, critics such as Andrew Keen argue that Web 2.0 has created a cult of digital narcissism and amateurism, which undermines the notion of expertise by allowing anybody, anywhere to share and place undue value upon their own opinions about any subject and post any kind of content, regardless of their actual talent, knowledge, credentials, biases or possible hidden agendas. Keen 's 2007 book, Cult of the Amateur, argues that the core assumption of Web 2.0, that all opinions and user - generated content are equally valuable and relevant, is misguided. Additionally, Sunday Times reviewer John Flintoff has characterized Web 2.0 as "creating an endless digital forest of mediocrity: uninformed political commentary, unseemly home videos, embarrassingly amateurish music, unreadable poems, essays and novels... (and that Wikipedia is full of) mistakes, half truths and misunderstandings ''. In a 1994 Wired interview, Steve Jobs, forecasting the future development of the web for personal publishing, said "The Web is great because that person ca n't foist anything on you -- you have to go get it. They can make themselves available, but if nobody wants to look at their site, that 's fine. To be honest, most people who have something to say get published now. '' Michael Gorman, former president of the American Library Association has been vocal about his opposition to Web 2.0 due to the lack of expertise that it outwardly claims, though he believes that there is hope for the future.
"The task before us is to extend into the digital world the virtues of authenticity, expertise, and scholarly apparatus that have evolved over the 500 years of print, virtues often absent in the manuscript age that preceded print ''.
There is also a growing body of critique of Web 2.0 from the perspective of political economy. Since, as Tim O'Reilly and John Batelle put it, Web 2.0 is based on the "customers... building your business for you, '' critics have argued that sites such as Google, Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter are exploiting the "free labor '' of user - created content. Web 2.0 sites use Terms of Service agreements to claim perpetual licenses to user - generated content, and they use that content to create profiles of users to sell to marketers. This is part of increased surveillance of user activity happening within Web 2.0 sites. Jonathan Zittrain of Harvard 's Berkman Center for the Internet and Society argues that such data can be used by governments who want to monitor dissident citizens. The rise of AJAX - driven web sites where much of the content must be rendered on the client has meant that users of older hardware are given worse performance versus a site purely composed of HTML, where the processing takes place on the server. Accessibility for disabled or impaired users may also suffer in a Web 2.0 site.
Others have noted that Web 2.0 technologies are tied to particular political ideologies. "Web 2.0 discourse is a conduit for the materialization of neoliberal ideology. '' The technologies of Web 2.0 may also "function as a disciplining technology within the framework of a neoliberal political economy. ''
In November 2004, CMP Media applied to the USPTO for a service mark on the use of the term "WEB 2.0 '' for live events. On the basis of this application, CMP Media sent a cease - and - desist demand to the Irish non-profit organization IT@Cork on May 24, 2006, but retracted it two days later. The "WEB 2.0 '' service mark registration passed final PTO Examining Attorney review on May 10, 2006, and was registered on June 27, 2006. The European Union application (which would confer unambiguous status in Ireland) was declined on May 23, 2007.
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the two components that are needed to process and display video are | Liquid - crystal display - wikipedia
A liquid - crystal display (LCD) is a flat - panel display or other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light - modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, instead using a backlight or reflector to produce images in colour or monochrome. LCDs are available to display arbitrary images (as in a general - purpose computer display) or fixed images with low information content, which can be displayed or hidden, such as preset words, digits, and 7 - segment displays, as in a digital clock. They use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made up of a large number of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements.
LCDs are used in a wide range of applications including computer monitors, televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and indoor and outdoor signage. Small LCD screens are common in portable consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, calculators, and mobile telephones, including smartphones. LCD screens are also used on consumer electronics products such as DVD players, video game devices and clocks. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in nearly all applications. LCD screens are available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, with LCD screens available in sizes ranging from tiny digital watches to huge, big - screen television sets.
Since LCD screens do not use phosphors, they do not suffer image burn - in when a static image is displayed on a screen for a long time (e.g., the table frame for an aircraft schedule on an indoor sign). LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence. The LCD screen is more energy - efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT can. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery - powered electronic equipment more efficiently than CRTs can be. By 2008, annual sales of televisions with LCD screens exceeded sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became obsolete for most purposes.
Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters (parallel and perpendicular), the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other. Without the liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer. Before an electric field is applied, the orientation of the liquid - crystal molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic (TN) device, the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or twist. This induces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device appears gray. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the center of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray. Color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue pixels.
The optical effect of a TN device in the voltage - on state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage - off state. Because of this, TN displays with low information content and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state). As most of 2010 - era LCDs are used in television sets, monitors and smartphones, they have high - resolution matrix arrays of pixels to display arbitrary images using backlighting with a dark background. When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used. For this purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers. In many applications IPS LCDs have replaced TN LCDs, in particular in smartphones such as iPhones. Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field).
Displays for a small number of individual digits or fixed symbols (as in digital watches and pocket calculators) can be implemented with independent electrodes for each segment. In contrast, full alphanumeric or variable graphics displays are usually implemented with pixels arranged as a matrix consisting of electrically connected rows on one side of the LC layer and columns on the other side, which makes it possible to address each pixel at the intersections. The general method of matrix addressing consists of sequentially addressing one side of the matrix, for example by selecting the rows one - by - one and applying the picture information on the other side at the columns row - by - row. For details on the various matrix addressing schemes see passive - matrix and active - matrix addressed LCDs.
The origins and the complex history of liquid - crystal displays from the perspective of an insider during the early days were described by Joseph A. Castellano in Liquid Gold: The Story of Liquid Crystal Displays and the Creation of an Industry. Another report on the origins and history of LCD from a different perspective until 1991 has been published by Hiroshi Kawamoto, available at the IEEE History Center. A description of Swiss contributions to LCD developments, written by Peter J. Wild, can be found at the Engineering and Technology History Wiki.
In 1888, Friedrich Reinitzer (1858 -- 1927) discovered the liquid crystalline nature of cholesterol extracted from carrots (that is, two melting points and generation of colors) and published his findings at a meeting of the Vienna Chemical Society on May 3, 1888 (F. Reinitzer: Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Cholesterins, Monatshefte für Chemie (Wien) 9, 421 -- 441 (1888)). In 1904, Otto Lehmann published his work "Flüssige Kristalle '' (Liquid Crystals). In 1911, Charles Mauguin first experimented with liquid crystals confined between plates in thin layers.
In 1922, Georges Friedel described the structure and properties of liquid crystals and classified them in 3 types (nematics, smectics and cholesterics). In 1927, Vsevolod Frederiks devised the electrically switched light valve, called the Fréedericksz transition, the essential effect of all LCD technology. In 1936, the Marconi Wireless Telegraph company patented the first practical application of the technology, "The Liquid Crystal Light Valve ''. In 1962, the first major English language publication on the subject "Molecular Structure and Properties of Liquid Crystals '', by Dr. George W. Gray. In 1962, Richard Williams of RCA found that liquid crystals had some interesting electro - optic characteristics and he realized an electro - optical effect by generating stripe - patterns in a thin layer of liquid crystal material by the application of a voltage. This effect is based on an electro - hydrodynamic instability forming what are now called "Williams domains '' inside the liquid crystal.
In 1964, George H. Heilmeier, then working at the RCA laboratories on the effect discovered by Williams achieved the switching of colors by field - induced realignment of dichroic dyes in a homeotropically oriented liquid crystal. Practical problems with this new electro - optical effect made Heilmeier continue to work on scattering effects in liquid crystals and finally the achievement of the first operational liquid - crystal display based on what he called the dynamic scattering mode (DSM). Application of a voltage to a DSM display switches the initially clear transparent liquid crystal layer into a milky turbid state. DSM displays could be operated in transmissive and in reflective mode but they required a considerable current to flow for their operation. George H. Heilmeier was inducted in the National Inventors Hall of Fame and credited with the invention of LCDs. Heilmeier 's work is an IEEE Milestone. In the late 1960s, pioneering work on liquid crystals was undertaken by the UK 's Royal Radar Establishment at Malvern, England. The team at RRE supported ongoing work by George William Gray and his team at the University of Hull who ultimately discovered the cyanobiphenyl liquid crystals, which had correct stability and temperature properties for application in LCDs.
On December 4, 1970, the twisted nematic field effect in liquid crystals was filed for patent by Hoffmann - LaRoche in Switzerland, (Swiss patent No. 532 261) with Wolfgang Helfrich and Martin Schadt (then working for the Central Research Laboratories) listed as inventors. Hoffmann - La Roche then licensed the invention to the Swiss manufacturer Brown, Boveri & Cie who produced displays for wristwatches during the 1970s and also to Japanese electronics industry, which soon produced the first digital quartz wrist watches with TN - LCDs and numerous other products. James Fergason, while working with Sardari Arora and Alfred Saupe at Kent State University Liquid Crystal Institute, filed an identical patent in the United States on April 22, 1971. In 1971 the company of Fergason ILIXCO (now LXD Incorporated) produced the first LCDs based on the TN - effect, which soon superseded the poor - quality DSM types due to improvements of lower operating voltages and lower power consumption. In 1972, the first active - matrix liquid - crystal display panel was produced in the United States by T. Peter Brody 's team at Westinghouse, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In 1983, researchers at Brown, Boveri & Cie (BBC), Switzerland, invented the super-twisted nematic (STN) structure for passive matrix addressed LCDs. H. Amstutz et al. were listed as inventors in the corresponding patent applications filed in Switzerland on July 7, 1983, and October 28, 1983. Patents were granted in Switzerland CH 665491, Europe EP 0131216, U.S. Patent 4,634,229 and many more countries. In 1980 Brown Boveri started a 50 / 50 joint venture, Videlec AG, with the Dutch Philips company. Philips had all the required know how to design and build chips for the control of large LCD elements. In addition. Philips had better access to markets for electronic components and intended to use LCDs in new product generations of hi - fi, video equipment and telephones. In 1984 Philips researchers Theodorus Welzen and Adrianus de Vaan invented video speed drive schemes that solved the slow response time of STN - LCDs, enabling high resolution, high quality, and smooth moving video images on STN - LCDs. In 1985 Philips inventors Theodorus Welzen and Adrianus de Vaan solved the problem to drive high - resolution STN - LCDs using low - voltage (CMOS - based) drive electronics; opening the application of high - quality (high resolution and video speed) LCD panels to be used in battery operated portable products like notebook computers and mobile phones. In 1985 Philips acquired 100 % of the in Switzerland located Videlec AG company, after Philips moved the Videlec production lines to the Netherlands. The years after, Philips successfully produced and marketed complete modules (consisting of the LCD screen, microphone, speakers etc.) in high - volume production for the booming mobile phone industry.
In 1990, under different titles, inventors conceived electro optical effects as alternatives to twisted nematic field effect LCDs (TN - and STN - LCDs). One approach was to use interdigital electrodes on one glass substrate only to produce an electric field essentially parallel to the glass substrates. To take full advantage of the properties of this In Plane Switching (IPS) technology further work was needed. After thorough analysis, details of advantageous embodiments are filed in Germany by Guenter Baur et al. and patented in various countries. The Fraunhofer Institute in Freiburg, where the inventors worked, assigns these patents to Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, a supplier of LC substances. In 1992, shortly thereafter, engineers at Hitachi work out various practical details of the IPS technology to interconnect the thin - film transistor array as a matrix and to avoid undesirable stray fields in between pixels. Hitachi also improves the viewing angle dependence further by optimizing the shape of the electrodes (Super IPS). NEC and Hitachi become early manufacturers of active - matrix addressed LCDs based on the IPS technology. This is a milestone for implementing large - screen LCDs having acceptable visual performance for flat - panel computer monitors and television screens. In 1996, Samsung developed the optical patterning technique that enables multi-domain LCD. Multi-domain and In Plane Switching subsequently remain the dominant LCD designs through 2006. In 2007 the image quality of LCD televisions surpassed the image quality of cathode - ray - tube - based (CRT) TVs. In the fourth quarter of 2007, LCD televisions surpassed CRT TVs in worldwide sales for the first time. LCD TVs were projected to account 50 % of the 200 million TVs to be shipped globally in 2006, according to Displaybank. In October 2011, Toshiba announced 2560 × 1600 pixels on a 6.1 - inch (155 mm) LCD panel, suitable for use in a tablet computer, especially for Chinese character display.
Since LCD panels produce no light of their own, they require external light to produce a visible image. In a transmissive type of LCD, this light is provided at the back of the glass stack and is called the backlight. While passive - matrix displays are usually not backlit (e.g. calculators, wristwatches), active - matrix displays almost always are. Over the last years (1990 - 2017), the LCD backlight technologies have strongly been emerged by lighting companies such as Philips, Lumileds (a Philips subsidiary) and more.
The common implementations of LCD backlight technology are:
Today, most LCD screens are being designed with an LED backlight instead of the traditional CCFL backlight, while that backlight is dynamically controlled with the video information (dynamic backlight control). The combination with the dynamic backlight control, invented by Philips researchers Douglas Stanton, Martinus Stroomer and Adrianus de Vaan, simultaneously increases the dynamic range of the display system (also marketed as HDR, high dynamic range television.
The LCD backlight systems are made highly efficient by applying optical films such as prismatic structure to gain the light into the desired viewer directions and reflective polarizing films that recycle the polarized light that was formerly absorbed by the first polarizer of the LCD (invented by Philips researchers Adrianus de Vaan and Paulus Schaareman), generally achieved using so called DBEF films manufactured and supplied by 3M. These polarizers consist of a large stack of uniaxial oriented birefringent films that reflect the former absorbed polarization mode of the light. Such reflective polarizers using uniaxial oriented polymerized liquid crystals (birefringent polymers or birefringent glue) are invented in 1989 by Philips researchers Dirk Broer, Adrianus de Vaan and Joerg Brambring. The combination of such reflective polarizers, and LED dynamic backlight control make today 's LCD televisions far more efficient than the CRT - based sets, leading to a worldwide energy saving of 600 TWh (2017), equal to 10 % of the electricity consumption of all households worldwide or equal to 2 times the energy production of all solar cells in the world.
Due to the LCD layer that generates the desired high resolution images at flashing video speeds using very low power electronics in combination with these excellent LED based backlight technologies, LCD technology has become the domination display technology for products such as televisions, desktop monitors, notebooks, tablets, smartphones and mobile phones. Although competing OLED technology is pushed to the market, such OLED displays does not feature the HDR capabilities like LCDs in combination with 2D LED backlight technologies have, reason why the annual market of such LCD - based products is still growing faster (in volume) than OLED - based products while the efficiency of LCDs (and products like portable computers, mobile phones and televisions) may even be further improved by preventing the light to be absorbed in the colour filters of the LCD. Although until today such reflective colour filter solutions are not yet implemented by the LCD industry and did not made it further than laboratory prototypes, such reflective colour filter solutions still likely will be implemented by the LCD industry to increase the performance gap with OLED technologies).
LCD panels typically use thinly - coated metallic conductive pathways on a glass substrate to form the cell circuitry to operate the panel. It is usually not possible to use soldering techniques to directly connect the panel to a separate copper - etched circuit board. Instead, interfacing is accomplished using either adhesive plastic ribbon with conductive traces glued to the edges of the LCD panel, or with an elastomeric connector, which is a strip of rubber or silicone with alternating layers of conductive and insulating pathways, pressed between contact pads on the LCD and mating contact pads on a circuit board.
Monochrome and later color passive - matrix LCDs were standard in most early laptops (although a few used plasma displays) and the original Nintendo Game Boy until the mid-1990s, when color active - matrix became standard on all laptops. The commercially unsuccessful Macintosh Portable (released in 1989) was one of the first to use an active - matrix display (though still monochrome). Passive - matrix LCDs are still used in the 2010s for applications less demanding than laptop computers and TVs, such as inexpensive calculators. In particular, these are used on portable devices where less information content needs to be displayed, lowest power consumption (no backlight) and low cost are desired or readability in direct sunlight is needed.
Displays having a passive - matrix structure are employing super-twisted nematic STN (invented by Brown Boveri Research Center, Baden, Switzerland, in 1983; scientific details were published) or double - layer STN (DSTN) technology (the latter of which addresses a color - shifting problem with the former), and color - STN (CSTN) in which color is added by using an internal filter. STN LCDs have been optimized for passive - matrix addressing. They exhibit a sharper threshold of the contrast - vs - voltage characteristic than the original TN LCDs. This is important, because pixels are subjected to partial voltages even while not selected. Crosstalk between activated and non-activated pixels has to be handled properly by keeping the RMS voltage of non-activated pixels below the threshold voltage, while activated pixels are subjected to voltages above threshold (the voltages according to the "Alt & Pleshko '' drive scheme) Driving such STN displays according to the Alt & Pleshko drive scheme require very high line addressing voltages. Welzen and de Vaan invented an alternative drive scheme (a non "Alt & Pleshko '' drive scheme) requiring much lower voltages, such that the STN display could be driven using low voltage CMOS technologies. STN LCDs have to be continuously refreshed by alternating pulsed voltages of one polarity during one frame and pulses of opposite polarity during the next frame. Individual pixels are addressed by the corresponding row and column circuits. This type of display is called passive - matrix addressed, because the pixel must retain its state between refreshes without the benefit of a steady electrical charge. As the number of pixels (and, correspondingly, columns and rows) increases, this type of display becomes less feasible. Slow response times and poor contrast are typical of passive - matrix addressed LCDs with too many pixels and driven according to the "Alt & Pleshko '' drive scheme. Welzen and de Vaan also invented a non RMS drive scheme enabling to drive STN displays with video rates and enabling to show smooth moving video images on an STN display. Citizen, amongst others, licensed these patents and successfully introduced several STN based LCD pocket televisions on the market
Bistable LCDs do not require continuous refreshing. Rewriting is only required for picture information changes. In 1984 HA van Sprang and AJSM de Vaan invented an STN type display that could be operated in a bistable mode, enabling extreme high resolution images up to 4000 lines or more using only low voltages. Since a pixel however may be either in an on - state or in an off state at the moment new information needs to be written to that particular pixel, the addressing method of these bistable displays is rather complex, reason why these displays did not made it to the market. That changed when in the 2010 "zero - power '' (bistable) LCDs became available. Potentially, passive - matrix addressing can be used with devices if their write / erase characteristics are suitable, which was the case for ebooks showing still pictures only. After a page is written to the display, the display may be cut from the power while that information remains readable. This has the advantage that such ebooks may be operated long time on just a small battery only. High - resolution color displays, such as modern LCD computer monitors and televisions, use an active - matrix structure. A matrix of thin - film transistors (TFTs) is added to the electrodes in contact with the LC layer. Each pixel has its own dedicated transistor, allowing each column line to access one pixel. When a row line is selected, all of the column lines are connected to a row of pixels and voltages corresponding to the picture information are driven onto all of the column lines. The row line is then deactivated and the next row line is selected. All of the row lines are selected in sequence during a refresh operation. Active - matrix addressed displays look brighter and sharper than passive - matrix addressed displays of the same size, and generally have quicker response times, producing much better images.
Twisted nematic displays contain liquid crystals that twist and untwist at varying degrees to allow light to pass through. When no voltage is applied to a TN liquid crystal cell, polarized light passes through the 90 - degrees twisted LC layer. In proportion to the voltage applied, the liquid crystals untwist changing the polarization and blocking the light 's path. By properly adjusting the level of the voltage almost any gray level or transmission can be achieved.
In - plane switching is an LCD technology that aligns the liquid crystals in a plane parallel to the glass substrates. In this method, the electrical field is applied through opposite electrodes on the same glass substrate, so that the liquid crystals can be reoriented (switched) essentially in the same plane, although fringe fields inhibit a homogeneous reorientation. This requires two transistors for each pixel instead of the single transistor needed for a standard thin - film transistor (TFT) display. Before LG Enhanced IPS was introduced in 2009, the additional transistors resulted in blocking more transmission area, thus requiring a brighter backlight and consuming more power, making this type of display less desirable for notebook computers. Currently Panasonic is using an enhanced version eIPS for their large size LCD - TV products as well as Hewlett - Packard in its WebOS based TouchPad tablet and their Chromebook 11.
In 2011, LG claimed the smartphone LG Optimus Black (IPS LCD (LCD NOVA)) has the brightness up to 700 nits, while the competitor has only IPS LCD with 518 nits and double an active - matrix OLED (AMOLED) display with 305 nits. LG also claimed the NOVA display to be 50 percent more efficient than regular LCDs and to consume only 50 percent of the power of AMOLED displays when producing white on screen. When it comes to contrast ratio, AMOLED display still performs best due to its underlying technology, where the black levels are displayed as pitch black and not as dark gray. On August 24, 2011, Nokia announced the Nokia 701 and also made the claim of the world 's brightest display at 1000 nits. The screen also had Nokia 's Clearblack layer, improving the contrast ratio and bringing it closer to that of the AMOLED screens.
Super-IPS was later introduced after in - plane switching with even better response times and color reproduction.
Known as fringe field switching (FFS) until 2003, advanced fringe field switching is similar to IPS or S - IPS offering superior performance and color gamut with high luminosity. AFFS was developed by Hydis Technologies Co., Ltd, Korea (formally Hyundai Electronics, LCD Task Force). AFFS - applied notebook applications minimize color distortion while maintaining a wider viewing angle for a professional display. Color shift and deviation caused by light leakage is corrected by optimizing the white gamut which also enhances white / gray reproduction. In 2004, Hydis Technologies Co., Ltd licensed AFFS to Japan 's Hitachi Displays. Hitachi is using AFFS to manufacture high - end panels. In 2006, HYDIS licensed AFFS to Sanyo Epson Imaging Devices Corporation. Shortly thereafter, Hydis introduced a high - transmittance evolution of the AFFS display, called HFFS (FFS+). Hydis introduced AFFS+ with improved outdoor readability in 2007. AFFS panels are mostly utilized in the cockpits of latest commercial aircraft displays. But is no longer produced as of February 2015.
Vertical - alignment displays are a form of LCDs in which the liquid crystals naturally align vertically to the glass substrates. When no voltage is applied, the liquid crystals remain perpendicular to the substrate, creating a black display between crossed polarizers. When voltage is applied, the liquid crystals shift to a tilted position, allowing light to pass through and create a gray - scale display depending on the amount of tilt generated by the electric field. It has a deeper - black background, a higher contrast ratio, a wider viewing angle, and better image quality at extreme temperatures than traditional twisted - nematic displays.
Blue phase mode LCDs have been shown as engineering samples early in 2008, but they are not in mass - production. The physics of blue phase mode LCDs suggest that very short switching times (~ 1 ms) can be achieved, so time sequential color control can possibly be realized and expensive color filters would be obsolete.
Some LCD panels have defective transistors, causing permanently lit or unlit pixels which are commonly referred to as stuck pixels or dead pixels respectively. Unlike integrated circuits (ICs), LCD panels with a few defective transistors are usually still usable. Manufacturers ' policies for the acceptable number of defective pixels vary greatly. At one point, Samsung held a zero - tolerance policy for LCD monitors sold in Korea. As of 2005, though, Samsung adheres to the less restrictive ISO 13406 - 2 standard. Other companies have been known to tolerate as many as 11 dead pixels in their policies.
Dead pixel policies are often hotly debated between manufacturers and customers. To regulate the acceptability of defects and to protect the end user, ISO released the ISO 13406 - 2 standard. However, not every LCD manufacturer conforms to the ISO standard and the ISO standard is quite often interpreted in different ways. LCD panels are more likely to have defects than most ICs due to their larger size. For example, a 300 mm SVGA LCD has 8 defects and a 150 mm wafer has only 3 defects. However, 134 of the 137 dies on the wafer will be acceptable, whereas rejection of the whole LCD panel would be a 0 % yield. In recent years, quality control has been improved. An SVGA LCD panel with 4 defective pixels is usually considered defective and customers can request an exchange for a new one. Some manufacturers, notably in South Korea where some of the largest LCD panel manufacturers, such as LG, are located, now have a zero - defective - pixel guarantee, which is an extra screening process which can then determine "A '' - and "B '' - grade panels. Many manufacturers would replace a product even with one defective pixel. Even where such guarantees do not exist, the location of defective pixels is important. A display with only a few defective pixels may be unacceptable if the defective pixels are near each other. LCD panels also have defects known as clouding (or less commonly mura), which describes the uneven patches of changes in luminance. It is most visible in dark or black areas of displayed scenes.
The zenithal bistable device (ZBD), developed by QinetiQ (formerly DERA), can retain an image without power. The crystals may exist in one of two stable orientations ("black '' and "white '') and power is only required to change the image. ZBD Displays is a spin - off company from QinetiQ who manufactured both grayscale and color ZBD devices. Kent Displays has also developed a "no - power '' display that uses polymer stabilized cholesteric liquid crystal (ChLCD). In 2009 Kent demonstrated the use of a ChLCD to cover the entire surface of a mobile phone, allowing it to change colors, and keep that color even when power is cut off. In 2004 researchers at the University of Oxford demonstrated two new types of zero - power bistable LCDs based on Zenithal bistable techniques. Several bistable technologies, like the 360 ° BTN and the bistable cholesteric, depend mainly on the bulk properties of the liquid crystal (LC) and use standard strong anchoring, with alignment films and LC mixtures similar to the traditional monostable materials. Other bistable technologies, e.g. BiNem technology, are based mainly on the surface properties and need specific weak anchoring materials.
Some of these issues relate to full - screen displays, others to small displays as on watches, etc. Many of the comparisons are with CRT displays.
Several different families of liquid crystals are used in liquid crystals. The molecules used have to be anisotropic, and to exhibit mutual attraction. Polarizable rod - shaped molecules (biphenyls, terphenyls, etc.) are common. A common form is a pair of aromatic benzene rings, with a nonpolar moiety (pentyl, heptyl, octyl, or alkyl oxy group) on one end and polar (nitrile, halogen) on the other. Sometimes the benzene rings are separated with an acetylene group, ethylene, CH = N, CH = NO, N = N, N = NO, or ester group. In practice, eutectic mixtures of several chemicals are used, to achieve wider temperature operating range (- 10... + 60 ° C for low - end and - 20... + 100 ° C for high - performance displays). For example, the E7 mixture is composed of three biphenyls and one terphenyl: 39 wt. % of 4 ' - pentyl (1, 1 ' - biphenyl) - 4 - carbonitrile (nematic range 24... 35 ° C), 36 wt. % of 4 ' - heptyl (1, 1 ' - biphenyl) - 4 - carbonitrile (nematic range 30... 43 ° C), 16 wt. % of 4 ' - octoxy (1, 1 ' - biphenyl) - 4 - carbonitrile (nematic range 54... 80 ° C), and 9 wt. % of 4 - pentyl (1, 1 ': 4 ', 1 - terphenyl) - 4 - carbonitrile (nematic range 131... 240 ° C).
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whats the difference between isbn 10 and isbn 13 | International Standard book number - wikipedia
The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. Publishers purchase ISBNs from an affiliate of the International ISBN Agency.
An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation (except reprintings) of a book. For example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, and 10 digits long if assigned before 2007. The method of assigning an ISBN is nation - based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country.
The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9 - digit Standard Book Numbering (SBN) created in 1966. The 10 - digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 2108 (the SBN code can be converted to a ten digit ISBN by prefixing it with a zero).
Privately published books sometimes appear without an ISBN. The International ISBN agency sometimes assigns such books ISBNs on its own initiative.
Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number (ISSN), identifies periodical publications such as magazines; and the International Standard Music Number (ISMN) covers for musical scores.
The Standard Book Numbering (SBN) code is a 9 - digit commercial book identifier system created by Gordon Foster, Emeritus Professor of Statistics at Trinity College, Dublin, for the booksellers and stationers WHSmith and others in 1965. The ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker (regarded as the "Father of the ISBN '') and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay (who later became director of the U.S. ISBN agency R.R. Bowker).
The 10 - digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 2108. The United Kingdom continued to use the 9 - digit SBN code until 1974. ISO has appointed the International ISBN Agency as the registration authority for ISBN worldwide and the ISBN Standard is developed under the control of ISO Technical Committee 46 / Subcommittee 9 TC 46 / SC 9. The ISO on - line facility only refers back to 1978.
An SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit "0 ''. For example, the second edition of Mr. J.G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has "SBN 340 01381 8 '' -- 340 indicating the publisher, 01381 their serial number, and 8 being the check digit. This can be converted to ISBN 0 - 340 - 01381 - 8; the check digit does not need to be re-calculated.
Since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with "Bookland '' European Article Number EAN - 13s.
An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation (except reprintings) of a book. For example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, and 10 digits long if assigned before 2007. An International Standard Book Number consists of 4 parts (if it is a 10 digit ISBN) or 5 parts (for a 13 digit ISBN):
A 13 - digit ISBN can be separated into its parts (prefix element, registration group, registrant, publication and check digit), and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts (registration group, registrant, publication and check digit) of a 10 - digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces. Figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits.
ISBN issuance is country - specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for that country or territory regardless of the publication language. The ranges of ISBNs assigned to any particular country are based on the publishing profile of the country concerned, and so the ranges will vary depending on the number of books and the number, type, and size of publishers that are active. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture and thus may receive direct funding from government to support their services. In other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the stated purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some other countries, where the service is provided by non-government - funded organisations, the issuing of ISBNs requires payment of a fee.
Australia: ISBNs are issued by the commercial library services agency Thorpe - Bowker, and prices range from $42 for a single ISBN (plus a $55 registration fee for new publishers) to $2,890 for a block of 1,000 ISBNs. Access is immediate when requested via their website.
Brazil: National Library of Brazil, a government agency, is responsible for issuing ISBNs, and there is a cost of R $16
Canada: Library and Archives Canada, a government agency, is responsible for issuing ISBNs, and there is no cost. Works in French are issued an ISBN by the Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec.
Colombia: Cámara Colombiana del Libro, a NGO, is responsible for issuing ISBNs. Cost of issuing an ISBN is about USD 20.
Hong Kong: The Books Registration Office (BRO), under the Hong Kong Public Libraries, issues ISBNs in Hong Kong. There is no fee.
India: The Raja Rammohun Roy National Agency for ISBN (Book Promotion and Copyright Division), under Department of Higher Education, a constituent of the Ministry of Human Resource Development, is responsible for registration of Indian publishers, authors, universities, institutions, and government departments that are responsible for publishing books. There is no fee associated in getting ISBN in India.
Italy: The privately held company EDISER srl, owned by Associazione Italiana Editori (Italian Publishers Association) is responsible for issuing ISBNs. The original national prefix 978 - 88 is reserved for publishing companies, starting at € 49 for a ten - codes block while a new prefix 979 - 12 is dedicated to self - publishing authors, at a fixed price of € 25 for a single code.
Maldives: The National Bureau of Classification (NBC) is responsible for ISBN registrations for publishers who are publishing in the Maldives.
Malta: The National Book Council (Maltese: Il - Kunsill Nazzjonali tal - Ktieb) issues ISBN registrations in Malta.
Morocco: The National Library of Morocco is responsible for ISBN registrations for publishing in Morocco and Moroccan - occupied portion of Western Sahara.
New Zealand: The National Library of New Zealand is responsible for ISBN registrations for publishers who are publishing in New Zealand.
Pakistan: The National Library of Pakistan is responsible for ISBN registrations for Pakistani publishers, authors, universities, institutions, and government departments that are responsible for publishing books.
Philippines: The National Library of the Philippines is responsible for ISBN registrations for Philippine publishers, authors, universities, institutions, and government departments that are responsible for publishing books. As of 2017, a fee of ₱ 120.00 per title was charged for the issuance of an ISBN.
South Africa: The National Library of South Africa is responsible for ISBN issuance for South African publishing institutions and authors.
United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland: The privately held company Nielsen Book Services Ltd, part of Nielsen Holdings N.V., is responsible for issuing ISBNs in blocks of 10, 100 or 1000. Prices start from £ 120 (plus VAT) for the smallest block on a standard turnaround of ten days.
United States: In the United States, the privately held company R.R. Bowker issues ISBNs. There is a charge that varies depending upon the number of ISBNs purchased, with prices starting at $125 for a single number. Access is immediate when requested via their website.
Publishers and authors in other countries obtain ISBNs from their respective national ISBN registration agency. A directory of ISBN agencies is available on the International ISBN Agency website.
The registration group identifier is a 1 - to 5 - digit number that is valid within a single prefix element (i.e. one of 978 or 979). Registration group identifiers have primarily been allocated within the 978 prefix element. The single - digit group identifiers within the 978 prefix element are: 0 or 1 for English - speaking countries; 2 for French - speaking countries; 3 for German - speaking countries; 4 for Japan; 5 for Russian - speaking countries; and 7 for People 's Republic of China. An example 5 - digit group identifier is 99936, for Bhutan. The allocated group IDs are: 0 -- 5, 600 -- 621, 7, 80 -- 94, 950 -- 989, 9926 -- 9989, and 99901 -- 99976. Books published in rare languages typically have longer group identifiers.
Within the 979 prefix element, the registration group identifier 0 is reserved for compatibility with International Standard Music Numbers (ISMNs), but such material is not actually assigned an ISBN. The registration group identifiers within prefix element 979 that have been assigned are 10 for France, 11 for the Republic of Korea, and 12 for Italy.
The original 9 - digit standard book number (SBN) had no registration group identifier, but prefixing a zero (0) to a 9 - digit SBN creates a valid 10 - digit ISBN.
The national ISBN agency assigns the registrant element (cf. Category: ISBN agencies) and an accompanying series of ISBNs within that registrant element to the publisher; the publisher then allocates one of the ISBNs to each of its books. In most countries, a book publisher is not required by law to assign an ISBN; however, most bookstores only handle ISBN bearing publications.
A listing of more than 900,000 assigned publisher codes is published, and can be ordered in book form (€ 1399, US $ 1959). The web site of the ISBN agency does not offer any free method of looking up publisher codes. Partial lists have been compiled (from library catalogs) for the English - language groups: identifier 0 and identifier 1.
Publishers receive blocks of ISBNs, with larger blocks allotted to publishers expecting to need them; a small publisher may receive ISBNs of one or more digits for the registration group identifier, several digits for the registrant, and a single digit for the publication element. Once that block of ISBNs is used, the publisher may receive another block of ISBNs, with a different registrant element. Consequently, a publisher may have different allotted registrant elements. There also may be more than one registration group identifier used in a country. This might occur once all the registrant elements from a particular registration group have been allocated to publishers.
By using variable block lengths, registration agencies are able to customise the allocations of ISBNs that they make to publishers. For example, a large publisher may be given a block of ISBNs where fewer digits are allocated for the registrant element and many digits are allocated for the publication element; likewise, countries publishing many titles have few allocated digits for the registration group identifier and many for the registrant and publication elements. Here are some sample ISBN - 10 codes, illustrating block length variations.
English - language registration group elements are 0 and 1 (2 of more than 220 registration group elements). These two registration group elements are divided into registrant elements in a systematic pattern, which allows their length to be determined, as follows:
A check digit is a form of redundancy check used for error detection, the decimal equivalent of a binary check bit. It consists of a single digit computed from the other digits in the number. The method for the ten digit code is an extension of that for SBNs, the two systems are compatible, and SBN prefixed with "0 '' will give the same check - digit as without -- the digit is base eleven, and can be 0 - 9 or X. The system for thirteen digit codes is not compatible and will, in general, give a different check digit from the corresponding 10 digit ISBN, and does not provide the same protection against transposition. This is because the thirteen digit code was required to be compatible with the EAN format, and hence could not contain an "X ''.
The 2001 edition of the official manual of the International ISBN Agency says that the ISBN - 10 check digit -- which is the last digit of the ten - digit ISBN -- must range from 0 to 10 (the symbol X is used for 10), and must be such that the sum of all the ten digits, each multiplied by its (integer) weight, descending from 10 to 1, is a multiple of 11.
For example, for an ISBN - 10 of 0 - 306 - 40615 - 2:
Formally, using modular arithmetic, we can say:
It is also true for ISBN - 10 's that the sum of all the ten digits, each multiplied by its weight in ascending order from 1 to 10, is a multiple of 11. For this example:
Formally, we can say:
The two most common errors in handling an ISBN (e.g., typing or writing it) are a single altered digit or the transposition of adjacent digits. It can be proved that all possible valid ISBN - 10 's have at least two digits different from each other. It can also be proved that there are no pairs of valid ISBN - 10 's with eight identical digits and two transposed digits. (These are true only because the ISBN is less than 11 digits long, and because 11 is a prime number.) The ISBN check digit method therefore ensures that it will always be possible to detect these two most common types of error, i.e. if either of these types of error has occurred, the result will never be a valid ISBN -- the sum of the digits multiplied by their weights will never be a multiple of 11. However, if the error occurs in the publishing house and goes undetected, the book will be issued with an invalid ISBN.
In contrast, it is possible for other types of error, such as two altered non-transposed digits, or three altered digits, to result in a valid ISBN (although it is still unlikely).
Each of the first nine digits of the ten - digit ISBN -- excluding the check digit itself -- is multiplied by its (integer) weight, descending from 10 to 2, and the sum of these nine products found. The value of the check digit is simply the one number between 0 and 10 which, when added to this sum, means the total is a multiple of 11.
For example, the check digit for an ISBN - 10 of 0 - 306 - 40615 -? is calculated as follows:
Adding 2 to 130 gives a multiple of 11 (132 = 12 x 11) − this is the only number between 0 and 10 which does so. Therefore, the check digit has to be 2, and the complete sequence is ISBN 0 - 306 - 40615 - 2. The value x 10 (\ displaystyle x_ (10)) required to satisfy this condition might be 10; if so, an ' X ' should be used.
Alternatively, modular arithmetic is convenient for calculating the check digit using modulus 11. The remainder of this sum when it is divided by 11 (i.e. its value modulo 11), is computed. This remainder plus the check digit must equal either 0 or 11. Therefore, the check digit is (11 minus the remainder of the sum of the products modulo 11) modulo 11. Taking the remainder modulo 11 a second time accounts for the possibility that the first remainder is 0. Without the second modulo operation the calculation could end up with 11 -- 0 = 11 which is invalid. (Strictly speaking the first "modulo 11 '' is unneeded, but it may be considered to simplify the calculation.)
For example, the check digit for the ISBN - 10 of 0 - 306 - 40615 -? is calculated as follows:
Thus the check digit is 2.
It is possible to avoid the multiplications in a software implementation by using two accumulators. Repeatedly adding t into s computes the necessary multiples:
The modular reduction can be done once at the end, as shown above (in which case s could hold a value as large as 496, for the invalid ISBN 99999 - 999 - 9 - X), or s and t could be reduced by a conditional subtract after each addition.
The 2005 edition of the International ISBN Agency 's official manual describes how the 13 - digit ISBN check digit is calculated. The ISBN - 13 check digit, which is the last digit of the ISBN, must range from 0 to 9 and must be such that the sum of all the thirteen digits, each multiplied by its (integer) weight, alternating between 1 and 3, is a multiple of 10.
Formally, using modular arithmetic, we can say:
The calculation of an ISBN - 13 check digit begins with the first 12 digits of the thirteen - digit ISBN (thus excluding the check digit itself). Each digit, from left to right, is alternately multiplied by 1 or 3, then those products are summed modulo 10 to give a value ranging from 0 to 9. Subtracted from 10, that leaves a result from 1 to 10. A zero (0) replaces a ten (10), so, in all cases, a single check digit results.
For example, the ISBN - 13 check digit of 978 - 0 - 306 - 40615 -? is calculated as follows:
Thus, the check digit is 7, and the complete sequence is ISBN 978 - 0 - 306 - 40615 - 7.
In general, the ISBN - 13 check digit is calculated as follows.
Let
Then
This check system -- similar to the UPC check digit formula -- does not catch all errors of adjacent digit transposition. Specifically, if the difference between two adjacent digits is 5, the check digit will not catch their transposition. For instance, the above example allows this situation with the 6 followed by a 1. The correct order contributes 3 × 6 + 1 × 1 = 19 to the sum; while, if the digits are transposed (1 followed by a 6), the contribution of those two digits will be 3 × 1 + 1 × 6 = 9. However, 19 and 9 are congruent modulo 10, and so produce the same, final result: both ISBNs will have a check digit of 7. The ISBN - 10 formula uses the prime modulus 11 which avoids this blind spot, but requires more than the digits 0 - 9 to express the check digit.
Additionally, if the sum of the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th, and 12th digits is tripled then added to the remaining digits (1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th, and 13th), the total will always be divisible by 10 (i.e., end in 0).
The conversion is quite simple as one only needs to prefix "978 '' to the existing number and calculate the new checksum using the ISBN - 13 algorithm.
Publishers and libraries have varied policies about the use of the ISBN check digit. Publishers sometimes fail to check the correspondence of a book title and its ISBN before publishing it; that failure causes book identification problems for libraries, booksellers, and readers. For example, ISBN 0 - 590 - 76484 - 5 is shared by two books -- Ninja gaiden ®: a novel based on the best - selling game by Tecmo (1990) and Wacky laws (1997), both published by Scholastic.
Most libraries and booksellers display the book record for an invalid ISBN issued by the publisher. The Library of Congress catalogue contains books published with invalid ISBNs, which it usually tags with the phrase "Cancelled ISBN ''. However, book - ordering systems such as Amazon.com will not search for a book if an invalid ISBN is entered to its search engine. OCLC often indexes by invalid ISBNs, if the book is indexed in that way by a member library.
Only the term "ISBN '' should be used; the terms "eISBN '' and "e-ISBN '' have historically been sources of confusion and should be avoided. If a book exists in one or more digital (e-book) formats, each of those formats must have its own ISBN. In other words, each of the three separate EPUB, Amazon Kindle, and PDF formats of a particular book will have its own specific ISBN. They should not share the ISBN of the paper version, and there is no generic "eISBN '' which encompasses all the e-book formats for a title.
Currently the barcodes on a book 's back cover (or inside a mass - market paperback book 's front cover) are EAN - 13; they may have a separate barcode encoding five digits for the currency and the recommended retail price. For 10 digit ISBNs, the number "978 '', the Bookland "country code '', is prefixed to the ISBN in the barcode data, and the check digit is recalculated according to the EAN13 formula (modulo 10, 1x and 3x weighting on alternate digits).
Partly because of an expected shortage in certain ISBN categories, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) decided to migrate to a thirteen - digit ISBN (ISBN - 13). The process began 1 January 2005 and was planned to conclude 1 January 2007. As of 2011, all the 13 - digit ISBNs began with 978. As the 978 ISBN supply is exhausted, the 979 prefix was introduced. Part of the 979 prefix is reserved for use with the Musicland code for musical scores with an ISMN. 10 digit ISMN codes differed visually as they began with an "M '' letter; the bar code represents the "M '' as a zero (0), and for checksum purposes it counted as a 3. All ISMNs are now 13 digits commencing 979 - 0; 979 - 1 to 979 - 9 will be used by ISBN.
Publisher identification code numbers are unlikely to be the same in the 978 and 979 ISBNs, likewise, there is no guarantee that language area code numbers will be the same. Moreover, the ten - digit ISBN check digit generally is not the same as the thirteen - digit ISBN check digit. Because the GTIN - 13 is part of the Global Trade Item Number (GTIN) system (that includes the GTIN - 14, the GTIN - 12, and the GTIN - 8), the 13 - digit ISBN falls within the 14 - digit data field range.
Barcode format compatibility is maintained, because (aside from the group breaks) the ISBN - 13 barcode format is identical to the EAN barcode format of existing 10 - digit ISBNs. So, migration to an EAN - based system allows booksellers the use of a single numbering system for both books and non-book products that is compatible with existing ISBN based data, with only minimal changes to information technology systems. Hence, many booksellers (e.g., Barnes & Noble) migrated to EAN barcodes as early as March 2005. Although many American and Canadian booksellers were able to read EAN - 13 barcodes before 2005, most general retailers could not read them. The upgrading of the UPC barcode system to full EAN - 13, in 2005, eased migration to the ISBN - 13 in North America.
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who starred in bill and ted's excellent adventure | Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure - wikipedia
Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure is a 1989 American science - fiction comedy buddy film in which two slackers travel through time to assemble a menagerie of historical figures for their high school history presentation.
The film was written by Chris Matheson and Ed Solomon and directed by Stephen Herek. It stars Alex Winter as Bill S. Preston, Esquire; Keanu Reeves as Ted "Theodore '' Logan; and George Carlin as Rufus. Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure received generally positive reviews upon release and was commercially successful. It is now considered a cult classic. A sequel, Bill & Ted 's Bogus Journey, was released two years later.
In Futuristic City, 2688, humanity exists as a utopian society due to the inspiration of the music and wisdom of the Two Great Ones: Bill S. Preston, Esq. (Alex Winter) and Ted "Theodore '' Logan (Keanu Reeves). Rufus (George Carlin) is tasked by the leaders to travel back to San Dimas, California, in 1988 using a time machine disguised as a telephone booth to ensure that Bill and Ted, who are dimwitted metalhead slacker high school students, get a good grade in their final history oral report and pass the class. Should they fail, Ted 's father, Police Captain John Logan (Hal Langdon), plans to ship Ted to a military academy in Alaska, ending Bill and Ted 's fledgling band, the "Wyld Stallyns '', thus altering the future. Bill, meanwhile, has a crush on his father 's new wife Missy (Amy Stock - Poynton) who 's just a few years older than Bill himself.
Bill and Ted struggle with the report, which asks them to envision how three historical figures would see San Dimas in the present. While they are asking strangers at the local Circle K convenience store for help, Rufus arrives in the time machine. The two are distrustful until the time machine arrives again nearby, out from which step future versions of Bill and Ted. They prove to their younger selves that they are really them and that they should trust Rufus. They privately ask Rufus a question and then depart. The younger versions of Bill and Ted accept Rufus ' offer to take them into the past. Rufus takes them to a battlefield in Austria, 1805 where Napoleon Bonaparte (Terry Camilleri) is commanding the French army against Austria. They return to the present, unaware that the time machine has caught Napoleon in its wake and pulled him along. Landing near Ted 's house, Rufus reminds them that they must still reach the school on time to give their report and then departs, returning the time machine to them. The two discover Napoleon after he falls out of a nearby tree, and come up with the idea of kidnapping other historical figures to bring to the present. They leave Napoleon with Ted 's younger brother, Deacon (Frazier Bain), and start traveling through time.
The two befriend Billy the Kid (Dan Shor) in The Old West, 1879 and Socrates (Tony Steedman) in Ancient Greece, 410 BC before stopping in London, 1461 where they become infatuated with Princesses Elizabeth (Kimberley Kates) and Joanna (Diane Franklin). The teens anger the princesses ' father, Henry VI of England (John Karlsen), who orders their beheading, but they are rescued by Billy and Socrates. They are forced to leave without the princesses and, in the escape, the telephone booth is damaged. Dialing a random number, they land next in the Utopian future, where Bill and Ted are amazed by the music playing and that the citizens worship them. They leave after a brief stay and, believing they have plenty of time before the report, start collecting more historical figures for extra credit, including Sigmund Freud (Rod Loomis) in Vienna, 1901, Ludwig van Beethoven (Clifford David) in Kassel, 1810, Joan of Arc (Jane Wiedlin) in Orléans, 1429, Genghis Khan (Al Leong) in Mongolia, 1209, and Abraham Lincoln (Robert V. Barron) in Washington, D.C. in 1863. Having run out of room in the phone booth, Bill and Ted finally discover the time machine is damaged.
After making ad hoc repairs to the time machine, Bill and Ted try to return to the present but land outside the Circle K, recognizing the situation they previously witnessed. After reassuring their younger selves, they learn from Rufus how to dial the right number to get to their present and that they are running out of time. Once they arrive to the present, Bill 's mother has him, Ted, and the historical figures get their household chores done before taking them to the local mall, where the historical figures are left to experience San Dimas while Bill and Ted look for Napoleon; Ted finds Deacon had ditched Napoleon earlier out of embarrassment, but they later find him at the water slide park "Waterloo '' (the name based on the Napoleon 's famous battle of "Waterloo ''). Meanwhile, the historical figures had caused trouble at the mall and have been arrested by Captain Logan. Upon discovering this, Bill and Ted figure out how they can use the time machine to set up an event at the police station to allow them to free the historical figures without getting caught. After freeing them, Bill 's mother drives them all to the high school and arrive just in time, where they give an impressive presentation with the help of the historical figures that receives a standing ovation. They pass their course and return the historical figures to their proper times.
Later, as Bill and Ted are practicing, Rufus arrives, showing he had rescued the princesses from England and introduced them to the modern world, and that they become part of Wyld Stallyns. Elated, Bill and Ted resume their practice with their usual ineptitude, with Rufus breaking the fourth wall and promising, "They do get better... ''
The film was shot in 1987 in the Phoenix, Arizona, metropolitan area, mostly in and around Scottsdale 's Coronado High School. Coronado 's auditorium was torn down during 2005 - 07 renovations, but its unique roof and intricate exterior mosaic, seen in an opening scene when Bill and Ted leave school in a red Mustang, was saved and moved, piece by piece, to the new auditorium. The interior shots of the auditorium were filmed inside the East High School auditorium, which was in Phoenix on 48th Street just north of Van Buren. East High School was demolished in 2002 as part of a redevelopment project. The production also shot a sequence on the Western Street on the back lot of Southwestern Studio in Carefree, Arizona. Odescalchi castle was used as Henry VI 's castle.
The scenes at Waterloo are a combination of establishing shots at Raging Waters in San Dimas and shots with the actors at Golfland Sunsplash in Mesa, Arizona. The bowling alley was a Fair Lanes - branded alley at that time but is now the AMF Tempe Village Lanes on Rural Road at US 60, three miles south of Arizona State University. The mall was Phoenix Metrocenter, between Peoria and Dunlap Avenues at Interstate 17. It has since been renovated and no longer looks as it did in the film. The Circle K store is at the intersection of Southern and Hardy in Tempe.
The film also employs computer - generated imagery for the scenes where Bill & Ted are travelling through the ' Circuits of Time ', created by the VFX house Perpetual Motion Pictures.
The film 's writers, Ed Solomon and Chris Matheson, appear in the film 's ice cream scene. Solomon is credited as the "stupid '' waiter, and Matheson is credited as the "ugly '' waiter. They are given similar credits in Bill & Ted 's Bogus Journey.
When Rufus plays his guitar solo, the hands in the close - up are those of Stevie Salas, who composed the film 's guitar music.
The film took nearly two years to make. Filming took place from February to May 1987 and it was planned to be released in 1988. However, the film 's original distributor, De Laurentiis Entertainment Group, went bankrupt. Orion Pictures and Nelson Entertainment bought the rights to the movie in 1988, and it was released theatrically on February 17, 1989. As a partial result of the delay, certain dates in the film originally scripted as "1987 '' had to be re-dubbed as "1988 ''. The copyright date of this film is 1989, while 1988 incorrectly appears on the DVD cover (though some copies still note 1989 as its release date) and 1987 appears on the back of the Blu - ray release.
It was followed in 1991 by a sequel, Bill & Ted 's Bogus Journey.
Writing for Wired to mark the 25th anniversary of the film 's release, Angela Watercutter noted:
"There 's a longstanding urban legend that Reeves auditioned for the role of Bill and Winter auditioned for Ted, but that 's not exactly how Winter remembers it. ' The reason that that ended up in lore was because at a certain point Keanu got it in his head that he was playing Bill and I was playing Ted, ' he says. ' To be fair to Reeves, it 's possible that out of the 80 trillion times we had to do the scenes (in auditions) the very, very last time we went in he happened to get the Bill sides and I happened to get the Ted sides. ' After Reeves found out he was playing Ted, though, he was Sad Keanu. ' We 're sitting in the office waiting to meet the producers for the first time and I 'm pretty jazzed and he 's miserable, ' Winters says. ' I 'm like, "Dude, what 's wrong? We finally got it after all this bullshit, '' you know? And he 's like, "Yeah, but I 'm Ted. '' And I was like, "Yeah, you 're Ted. That 's awesome. '' He was like, "I thought I was Bill. '' I was like, "What fucking difference does it make? For god 's sake, they 're completely interchangeable. If you want you can be Bill and I 'll be Ted, I really do n't care. It 's not going to impact the way I play this guy one iota. ' ''
In earlier drafts of the script, Rufus was 28 years old and historical figures Bill and Ted plucked from history included Charlemagne (whom they referred to as "Charlie Mangay ''), Babe Ruth, and a non-famous medieval person called "John the Serf ''. John is listed in the credits.
In a 1991 interview, co-writer Ed Solomon said the characters of Bill and Ted were originally envisaged as "14 - year - old skinny guys, with low - rider bell - bottoms and heavy metal T - shirts '' who were despised by the popular kids at school. Casting Reeves and Winter changed the filmmakers ' images of the characters because "... once you cast Alex and Keanu, who look like pretty cool guys, that was hard to believe ''.
Originally, the time machine was to be a 1969 Chevrolet van, but the idea was abandoned as being too close in concept to the DeLorean used in the Back to the Future trilogy. Instead, despite the similarities to Doctor Who 's time machine, the TARDIS, the film 's time machine was styled after a 1960s American telephone booth, though a newer model Ford van would be used as the rock concert "band wagon '' for the sequel.
In April 2013, Winter commented on Carlin 's casting: "He was a very happy accident. They were going after serious people first. Like Sean Connery. And someone had the idea, way after we started shooting, of George. That whole movie was a happy accident. No one thought it would ever see the light of day. ''
The film 's soundtrack was released in 1989. The tracks are as follows:
These tracks are ordered for the album differently than they are in the movie. In the movie, the songs show up in the following order: "I Ca n't Break Away '', "Dancing with a Gypsy '', "Father Time '', "Dangerous '', "In Time '', "Two Heads Are Better Than One '', "The Boys and Girls Are Doing It '', "Play with Me '', "Walk Away '', "Not So Far Away '' and "Two Heads '' (reprised over the credits).
The following songs appeared in the film but were not included in the soundtrack:
A theatrical sequel, Bill & Ted 's Bogus Journey, was released in 1991.
A third theatrical film in the Bill & Ted franchise was planned, and a screenplay was written, though it never got past the pre-production phase. Although rumors claimed that the script was adapted into the 1996 film Bio-Dome, Alex Winter has said that it was not.
In 2010, Reeves indicated that Matheson and Solomon were working on a script for a third film, confirming in April 2011 that a draft was complete. Winter said in March 2012 that he and Reeves both liked the finished script, which revisits the two characters after the changes of the past twenty years. The current script does not feature the return of the Grim Reaper from Bogus Journey, but since actor William Sadler has expressed interest, the writers are considering ways to include the character. In August 2012, Dean Parisot (director of the sci - fi / comedy film Galaxy Quest) signed on to direct the film, although MGM, which holds the rights to the Bill & Ted franchise, has yet to give the movie an official greenlight. In an April 2014 article on the original film 's 25th anniversary, Alex Winter reported that work on going ahead with the second sequel was still in progress.
Two spin - off television series were produced; both were titled Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventures.
DC Comics produced a tie - in comic following the plot of the first movie timed to coincide with that film 's release on home video. The sequel was adapted by DC 's competitor Marvel Comics, published to coincide with the second film 's release in theaters. Its popularity led to the ongoing Marvel series Bill & Ted 's Excellent Comic Book by Evan Dorkin, which lasted for 12 issues.
There was a weekly 2 / 4 page semi-adaptation of the animated series published for a year by UK 's defunct Look - In Magazine from 1991 to 1992.
There were also Game Boy, NES and Atari Lynx games released, which were very loosely based on the film 's plot. A PC title and nearly identical Amiga and Commodore 64 port were made in 1991 by Off the Wall Productions and IntraCorp, Inc. under contract by Capstone Software and followed the original film very closely.
The annual Halloween Horror Nights events at Universal Studios Orlando and Hollywood have featured since 1992 (Orlando) and 1997 - 1999 / 2007 (Hollywood) Bill & Ted 's Excellent Halloween Adventure, a show satirizing pop culture of the year with Bill & Ted as the protagonists fighting villains who steal their phone booth for their own schemes.
The show differs from year to year, with spoofs of various pop culture icons. The main plot involves Bill and Ted being threatened by an evil villain from a popular film of that year, with appearances by a host of villains, heroes, and celebrities. The show usually includes elaborate dance numbers, stunts, and multiple double - entendres for the late night event crowd. In 2013, the Hollywood version of the show was cancelled in the middle of its run following complaints of homophobic humor.
On August 15, 2017, Universal announced that 2017 will be the final year of Bill and Ted 's Excellent Halloween Adventure in Orlando.
Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure grossed $40.4 million domestically on a budget of about $10 million. The Washington Post gave the film a negative review, finding the script written by Chris Matheson and Ed Solomon as "made only the sketchiest attempts to draw their historical characters. They exist as foils and nothing else, and the gags that are hung on them are far from first - rate '', and that if director "Stephen Herek, has any talent for comedy, it 's not visible here. More than anything, the picture looks paltry and undernourished. '' Variety wrote about each historical figure that Bill & Ted meet, stating that "Each encounter is so brief and utterly cliched that history has little chance to contribute anything to this pic 's two dimensions. '' Vincent Canby of The New York Times referred to the film as a "painfully inept comedy '' and that the "one dimly interesting thing about Bill and Ted 's Excellent Adventure is the way the two teen - age heroes communicate in superlatives. We are about to fail most egregiously, says Ted to Bill, or maybe it 's Bill to Ted. They are also fond of odd words, such as bodacious. '' In the Los Angeles Times, Chris Willman was also unimpressed, concluding: "Make no mistake, Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure (...) is not a satire of mindlessness; it 's unabashed glorification of dumbness for dumbness ' sake. Bill and Ted are heroic in their ability to reduce some of history 's great minds to their level. However, writing for Radio Times, Alan Jones decided: "A nonstop giggle from start to finish, this beguiling grab - bag of time - travel clichés, hard - rock music and Valley - speaking cool dudes is a flawless, purpose - built junk movie ''.
The film has an 78 % "Certified fresh '' rating at Rotten Tomatoes, based on 45 reviews with an average rating of 6.5 / 10, the site 's critical consensus reads: "Keanu Reeves and Alex Winter are just charming, goofy, and silly enough to make this fluffy time - travel Adventure work ''.
The successes of the film and the animated series spawned a short - lived breakfast cereal called Bill & Ted 's Excellent Cereal.
The phone booth used in the film was given away in a contest presented by Nintendo Power magazine, to promote Bill & Ted 's Excellent Video Game Adventure. It was won by Kenneth Grayson of Mississippi.
In 2010, the city of San Dimas celebrated 50 years of incorporation. The celebration 's slogan was San Dimas, 1960 -- 2010 -- An Excellent Adventure.
Bill and Ted 's Excellent Adventure was selected as number 8 in Rolling Stone 's ' 10 Best Stoner Movies of All Time ' in 2013.
Writing in The Guardian on the occasion of the film 's 25th anniversary, Hadley Freeman found: "Of all the delightfully improbable scenarios depicted in Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure -- from Napoleon Bonaparte causing havoc on a waterslide to Billy the Kid and Socrates (aka "So - crayts '', of course) picking up chicks in a California mall to George Carlin acting in a film alongside Keanu Reeves and a member of the Go - Go 's -- none would have seemed more unlikely on its release than the idea that one day, with much media fanfare, the public would be celebrating the film 's 25th anniversary. By the time Bill & Ted was released in 1989, the 80s teen film explosion was starting to taper out. (...) Moreover, there had already been plenty of films about time - travelling teens by the time Bill & Ted rocked up in cinemas, such as Peggy Sue Got Married and Back to the Future. Few who were around then would have bet that a goofy movie about a pair of California metalheads skipping back through time in a phonebox collecting historical characters to bring back to 20th - century California for their history report would still be remembered today. But I am very much among those few ".
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
Writing in British Sunday newspaper The Observer, Tom Holland noted,
"Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure does not tend to be rated as one of cinema 's profounder treatments of the relationship between present and past. The story of two Californian slackers with a time machine who, for complicated reasons, have to assemble assorted celebrities from history in order to pass a high - school project, it is chiefly remembered for bringing Keanu Reeves to the attention of a mass audience. Classicists, however, will always cherish it as the only film ever to combine the music of Van Halen with Greek philosophy. When Bill and Ted embark on their quest, what should be their first destination if not classical Athens, and who should be the very first ' historical dude ' bundled into their time machine if not a bald - headed man in a sheet whom they persist in calling ' Soh - kraytz '? ''
Holland continued:
"Even to metalheads, then, the philosophy of ancient Greece serves as something that is both primal and emblematic of civilisation as a whole. Socrates, in particular, the ' lover of wisdom ' who insisted that the most fundamental presumptions of his countrymen should be subjected to experimental investigation, and who ended up being made to drink hemlock for his pains, has always been admired as the very fountainhead of rationalism. Yet when it comes to identifying what he taught and believed, there is a problem, on which Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure, rather unexpectedly, puts its finger. Socrates, transplanted to 1980s California, can only communicate with his abductors by gesturing and gurning -- since Bill and Ted, it goes without saying, speak not a word of ancient Greek. Even the miracle of time travel, it appears, can not serve to alter what is, for any historian, a most awkward fact: that it is impossible to be certain of what Socrates actually said. ''
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have your cake and eat it too italian version | You ca n't have your cake and eat it - wikipedia
You ca n't have your cake and eat it (too) is a popular English idiomatic proverb or figure of speech. The proverb literally means "you can not simultaneously retain your cake and eat it ''. Once the cake is eaten, it is gone. It can be used to say that one can not or should not have or want more than one deserves or is reasonable, or that one can not or should not try to have two incompatible things. The proverb 's meaning is similar to the phrases "you ca n't have it both ways '' and "you ca n't have the best of both worlds. ''
Many people are confused by the meaning of "have '' and "eat '' in the order as used here, although still understand the proverb and its intent and use it in this form. Some people feel the above form of the proverb is incorrect and illogical and instead prefer: "You ca n't eat your cake and (then still) have it too '', which is in fact closer to the original form of the proverb (see further explanations below) but uncommon today. Another variant uses "keep '' instead of "have ''.
Having to choose whether to have or eat your cake illustrates the concept of trade - offs or opportunity cost.
The order of the clauses in the saying has been the subject of some debate, and was even used in forensic linguistics (contributing to the identification and arrest of the so - called Unabomber).
An early recording of the phrase is in a letter on 14 March 1538 from Thomas, Duke of Norfolk, to Thomas Cromwell, as "a man can not have his cake and eat his cake ''.
The phrase occurs with the clauses reversed in John Heywood 's "A dialogue Conteinyng the Nomber in Effect of All the Prouerbes in the Englishe Tongue '' from 1546, as "wolde you bothe eate your cake, and have your cake? ''. In John Davies ' "Scourge of Folly '' of 1611, the same order is used, as "A man can not eat his cake and haue it stil. '' In Jonathan Swift 's 1738 farce "Polite Conversation '', the character Lady Answerall says "she can not eat her cake and have her cake. ''
The order was reversed again in a posthumous adaptation of "Polite Conversation '' in 1749, "Tittle Tattle; or, Taste A-la - Mode '', as "And she can not have her Cake and eat her Cake. '' From 1812 (R.C. Knopf 's "Document Transcriptions of War of 1812 '' (1959) VI. 204) is a modern - sounding recording of "We can not have our cake and eat it too. ''
According to the Google Ngram Viewer, the eat - first order was more common until about 1935, since which time the have - first order has become much more popular.
Paul Brians, Professor of English at Washington State University, points out that perhaps a more logical or easier to understand version of this saying is, "You ca n't eat your cake and have it too. '' Professor Brians writes that a common source of confusion about this idiom stems from the verb to have which in this case indicates that once eaten, keeping possession of the cake is no longer possible, seeing that it is in your stomach (and no longer exists as a cake).
Alternatively, the two verbs can be understood to represent a sequence of actions, so one can indeed "have '' one 's cake and then "eat '' it. Consequently, the literal meaning of the reversed idiom does n't match the metaphorical meaning. The phrase can also have specialized meaning in academic contexts; Classicist Katharina Volk of Columbia University has used the phrase to describe the development of poetic imagery in Latin didactic poetry, naming the principle behind the imagery 's adoption and application the "have - one 's - cake - and - eat - it - too principle ''.
In English, "have '' can mean "eat '', as in "Let 's have breakfast '' or "I 'm having a sandwich ''. So the saying "You ca n't have your cake and eat it too '' may mean that you ca n't eat the cake and then eat it again; or less metaphorically, that what you want is unreasonable. This interpretation makes sense in both the "have - eat '' and "eat - have '' iterations of the idiom, and might explain why the earliest known iteration is "have - eat ''.
Various expressions are used to convey similar idioms in other languages:
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where can i travel with us passport without visa | Visa requirements for United States Citizens - wikipedia
Visa requirements for United States citizens and non-citizen nationals are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on nationals of the United States.
As of 1 January 2017, holders of a United States passport could travel to 174 countries and territories visa - free or with visa on arrival, and the United States passport was ranked 3rd (tied with the Danish, Finnish, Italian and Spanish passports) in terms of travel freedom according to the Henley visa restrictions index.
General visa requirements of sovereign countries towards United States citizens:
Visa requirements for United States citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognized countries not mentioned in the list above, and restricted zones:
Many countries require passports to be valid for at least 6 months upon arrival.
Countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq (except when arriving at Basra and Erbil or Sulaimaniyah), Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Somaliland, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen and Zimbabwe.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include European Union countries (except Denmark, Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, and except for EU / EEA / Swiss citizens), Albania, Belarus, Georgia, Honduras, Iceland, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Moldova, Monaco, Nauru, Panama, Saint Barthélemy, San Marino, Switzerland and the United Arab Emirates.
Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.
Countries that require a passport validity of at least 1 month on arrival include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Macao, New Zealand and South Africa.
Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay.
Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in traveler 's passport, generally one or two pages.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.
Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area.
Iran, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.
To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan.
Due to a state of war existing between the Republic of Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories, will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''.
Upon request, the Republic of Artsakh authorities may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.
The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10 - year ban on entering Israel.
The United States Passport Card can be used as an alternative to the booklet passport when travelling to and from Canada, Mexico, Bermuda and many Caribbean islands at sea ports - of - entry or land border crossings.
The APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) is meant to facilitate travel for U.S. citizens engaged in verified business in the APEC region.
The U.S. ABTC will enable access to a dedicated fast - track lane for expedited immigration processing at participating foreign some APEC member airports. U.S. APEC Business Travel Card holders may also use the Global Entry kiosks at participating airports upon their U.S. return. But the U.S. APEC Business Travel Card ca n't be used in lieu of a visa to enter an APEC member country. Other countries ' APEC cards can be used in lieu of visas. But the U.S. has decided not to participate in the visa reciprocity part of the program because the government is unwilling to waive visa interviews. Legislation authorizes the Department of Homeland Security to issue U.S. APEC Business Travel Cards only through Sept. 30, 2018, unless the law is amended to extend that date.
The United States has the most diplomatic missions out of any country in the world. See also List of diplomatic missions of the United States.
The Department of State regularly publishes travel warnings or travel alerts.
These are the numbers of visits by U.S. nationals to various countries in 2015 (unless otherwise noted):
5,900 2,000 2,700 1,200
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai peninsula. Partially recognized.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
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