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what do you call a fried egg with a broken yolk | Fried egg - wikipedia
A fried egg is a cooked dish commonly made using a fresh hen 's egg, fried whole with minimal accompaniment. Fried eggs are traditionally eaten for breakfast in English - speaking countries but may also be served at other times of the day.
Fried eggs (Spiegeleier) are a crucial part of such traditional German dishes as Strammer Max (the egg is fried on one side with an unbroken yolk, and served "sunny side up '' atop an open ham sandwich) or Hamburger Schnitzel / Holsteiner Schnitzel / Fernfahrerschnitzel ("trucker 's schnitzel '') -- a similarly prepared fried egg served on a Wiener Schnitzel.
Fried eggs over (or side - by - side with) pan-fried potatoes is another common dish, sometimes served with spinach as a third component of the meal. Some German cooks break the yolk and distribute it across the surface of the white during the frying.
All of the above are typically lunch, rather than breakfast, dishes, although eggs themselves (like boiled or scrambled eggs) are a common part of a German breakfast.
Fried egg prepared sunny side up is known as "volské oko '' or "buličí oko '' (ox 's eye) in Czech cuisine and they are served either alone as part of breakfast, or for lunch with side of spinach and boiled potatoes.
Americans use many different terms to describe fried eggs, including:
In Egypt, fried eggs are a common breakfast food. They are prepared plain, with vegetable oil or native butter or ghee only, or have one or more additions. These typically include tomatoes, various types of cheeses, beef sausage (both the thin fresh type, and the larger dried sucuk type), bastirma, or specially prepared minced meat with onions and spices; they may also be served with ful medames (slow - cooked fava beans). Less frequently encountered are "star eggs '', a dish somewhat similar to a Scotch egg prepared by deep frying a breaded boiled egg in vegetable oil.
In India, fried eggs are most commonly called "poached '', but are sometimes also known as bullseyes, as a reference to "bullseye '' targets, or "half - boil '' in Southern India, indicating that they are partly cooked, even though it 's a fried egg. Some restaurants also refer to them as "egg fry '' (over hard) or "egg half fry '' (sunny side up). Bullseyes are a common street vendor dish in South India.
They are commonly served alone or as an accompaniment to a variety of dishes including dosa, paratha, or roti, with a variety of oils such as mustard oil and vegetable oil. During or after the frying stage, they are sometimes sprinkled lightly with condiments such as black pepper, chili powder, green chilis, and salt.
In central and northern India 's English - speaking middle classes and mid-level restaurants, "single - fried '' refers to sunny side up and "double - fried '' to over hard. Street food parlance uses "half - fry '' as a base term with "half fry bina palti '' (un-flipped) meaning sunny side up and "half fry palti maarke '' or "alti palti '' (flipped) meaning over easy / medium / hard where the customer oversees the flip and says when.
In Indonesia, fried eggs are served either as telur ceplok or telur mata sapi (Indonesian for "bull 's eye egg '') which refer to sunny side up eggs, as telur dadar (omelette) or as telur orak - arik (scrambled eggs). The fried eggs are either setengah matang which is half cooked with still runny yolk or matang which is well done. Fried eggs, especially as bull 's eye egg, is a popular toppings for Indonesian fried rice (nasi goreng) and fried noodle (mie goreng), either freshly prepared noodle or cooked from instant noodle Indomie Mi goreng. A simple dish of fried sunny side up egg, served on top of steamed rice drizzled with kecap manis sweet soy sauce, is a favourite dish among Indonesian children. Other than served with rice, fried eggs might be served with bread as sandwich for breakfast. Seasoning include salt and pepper, sweet soy sauce, sometimes hot and spicy sambal chili paste.
Fried eggs can be served on toast, or in a sandwich, with bacon, sausages, and a variety of condiments. They can also be part of the full breakfast commonly eaten in Britain and Ireland. Fried eggs are often served with ham or gammon steak as a popular pub grub meal. They are usually cooked without turning over. The egg is cooked on a high heat and hot fat, oil or water may be splashed onto the top of the egg to baste it and cook the white. Sometimes people may turn the egg to ensure the white is thoroughly cooked, like the American "over easy ''. Almost always the egg is served with the yolk runny. May also be referred to as runny or hard.
In Portugal and Brazil, a runny egg placed over a steak with a side dish of rice and black beans is called a bife a cavalo, literally "horse - riding steak ''.
A similar dish, with the name bife a caballo in Spanish, is also common in Argentina, Ecuador, and Uruguay (called churrasco); fried potatoes and salad replace the beans and rice.
In Chile and Peru, a fried egg is included in lomo a lo pobre, Chorrillana, Paila de huevo, and several other dishes.
In Ecuador, llapingachos include a sunny side up egg served over pan-seared cheesy mashed potatoes and fried sausage.
In northern Mexico, huevos montados (riding eggs) are served with refried beans and fried potatoes (or french fries). Another common method of serving eggs in Mexico is huevos a la mexicana, which blends fried eggs with diced tomato, onion and green chili pepper; the amount of pepper added is often to order.
There are several other egg dishes in Mexico which combine different ingredients: Huevos motuleños (in Yucatán), aporreados (mixed with refried beans), and huevos rancheros (sunny side up eggs served over a corn tortilla, covered with spicy salsa). Also, in some parts of Mexico, fried eggs are served with a fresh tomato, onions, and cilantro salsa. Red chili is optional, as is a blended sauce.
In Spain fried eggs (huevos fritos) are a common dish. They are eaten alone, with meat, or with sausages. In this country, a fried egg served with boiled rice covered in tomato sauce is called arroz a la cubana in Spanish and the same dish is served in parts of Latin America, Italy (so - called occhio di bue, transl: ox 's eye), the Philippines, and Portugal as well.
Poet Nazım Hikmet says, in an interview, that he stayed with a Spanish friend for a month and ate fried eggs almost every day.
Spanish painter Diego Velázquez painted a portrait of an elderly lady frying eggs in 1618.
Called "medama yaki '' (目玉焼き, lit.: cooked eyeball), fried eggs are usually made sunny side up. They may be served with salt and pepper, or soy sauce.
Called 계란 부침 (gyeranbuchim, ' egg pancake ') or more commonly 계란 후라이 (gyeran hurai, ' egg fry '). Eggs are fried in cooking oil, sometimes with a sprinkle of salt. It is common to put a fried egg on top of bibimbap or Kimchi bokkeumbap. Sometimes, rice dishes, such as bokkeumbap, are simply made by applying a fried egg on a top of a bowl of hot rice, drizzled with a spoonful of gochujang and sesame oil. Occasionally, salt is added to fried eggs, and served as Banchan, which refers to small dishes of food served along with bap. In Busan area, fried eggs are often served with Jjajangmyeon.
In the Netherlands, a fried egg (spiegelei) is normally served on top of a slice of bread (white or whole wheat), often with fried bacon, for breakfast or lunch.
An uitsmijter is a dish consisting of two or three fried eggs, sunny side up. One version is fried together with ham and cheese (uitsmijter ham en kaas), or bacon and cheese (uitsmijter spek en kaas). Another version is placed on buttered bread over a generous slice of cold meat, e.g., cooked beef or ham, and usually garnished with a dill pickle. It is a common lunch dish served in many cafés, canteens, and lunch rooms in the Netherlands. Uitsmijter literally means "out - thrower '', and it is also a Dutch word for a "bouncer ''. The Dutch name of this fried egg dish probably refers more to the fact that it is quickly made ("thrown out of the kitchen '' so to speak) than to the similarly named doorman.
What is known as "scrambled eggs '' in the U.S. and U.K. is called "fried eggs '' in Nigeria, while what is known as "fried eggs '' in the U.S. and U.K. would be known as "half - fried eggs '' in Nigeria. The mai shai stalls cook scrambled eggs to the point of being heavily crisp.
The two most popular fried egg dishes commonly eaten in Russia are yaichnitsa (Russian: яичница), a generic term for pure fried eggs, and omlet (Russian: омлет), an omelet distinguished from simple eggs by addition of milk or other liquids.
Yaichnitsa has two main varieties, a glazoon'ja (Russian: глазунья), usually referring to the sunny - side up but generally meaning any variant with the unbroken yolk, and a scramble called boltunya (Russian: болтунья), which may have various toppings such as fried bacon, ham, salt pork or other cold cuts, fried bread or onion, or other vegetables added. A common way of preparing both types is to have multiple eggs cracked into a saucepan or frying pan and cooked without flipping. The whites flow together and individual portions are divided up after the whole pan-full has cooked.
Nasi goreng, one of the most popular dishes in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore is often served with a fried egg.
In the Philippines, fried eggs are often cooked like a sunny - side egg but the yolk is half cooked by sprinkling it with salt and oil while being fried, giving it a distinctive pink - colored membrane. It is served in the morning with garlic rice and a choice of breakfast meat such as beef tapa, longaniza, fried milkfish, dried fish, tocino (caramelised pork), Spam, or corned beef, such as in tapsilog and its variants. In addition, fried eggs are eaten in a dish called Arroz a la cubana, which is seasoned ground beef with raisins, cubed potatoes, tomato sauce, and olives, along with white rice and fried ripe plantains. Fried eggs are also a main ingredient in the noodle dish Pancit Batil Patong, where a fried egg is topped over stir - fried noodles.
In Thai cuisine, when the words khai dao (lit. "star egg '') are placed after the name of a dish, it means that one wants that dish accompanied by a fried egg. The very popular kaphrao mu rat khao khai dao for instance, translates to "basil fried pork on top of rice with a fried egg ''. Sometimes this is referred to as a "top egg ''. Fried rice is also popularly accompanied with a fried egg, such as with khao phat Amerikan and khao phat (standard Thai style fried rice). Another popular way of eating fried eggs in Thailand is to use it as the main ingredient of the Thai salad called yam khai dao.
In Cambodia, a common dish is called loc lok, is a fried egg served on top of a ring of spinach, onion finely shaven and tomoto with either a portion of deer or beef and gravy topped with a fried egg either duck or chicken.
A fried egg served over white rice, topped with a dab of oyster or hoisin sauce, is also popular in east Asia. Fried eggs are also sometimes used in a Vietnamese breakfast roll.
This American dish is usually made by cutting a circle or other shape out of a slice of bread, often using a drinking glass or biscuit cutter. The bread is fried until brown on one side and then flipped, and an egg is broken into the center and seasoned, usually with salt and pepper, and sometimes herbs. The pan is then covered, and the egg is cooked until the white is just set. The cutout center of the bread is often fried as well, and served alongside or on top of the finished egg.
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where is palm beach florida located on the map | Palm Beach, Florida - Wikipedia
The Town of Palm Beach is an incorporated town in Palm Beach County, Florida, United States. The Intracoastal Waterway separates it from the neighboring cities of West Palm Beach and Lake Worth. In 2000, Palm Beach had a year - round population of 10,468, with an estimated seasonal population of 30,000.
Prior to being established as a resort by Henry Morrison Flagler, who made the Atlantic coast barrier island accessible via his Florida East Coast Railway, Palm Beach was a sparsely populated part of Lake Worth. The nucleus of the community was established by Flagler 's two luxury resort hotels, the Royal Poinciana Hotel and The Breakers Hotel. West Palm Beach was built across Lake Worth as a service town and has become a major city in its own right.
Flagler 's house lots were bought by the beneficiaries of the Gilded Age, and in 1902 Flagler himself built a Beaux - Arts mansion, Whitehall, designed by the New York -- based firm Carrère and Hastings and helped establish the Palm Beach winter "season '' by constantly entertaining. The town was incorporated on 17 April 1911.
An area known as the Styx housed the people who built up the island. Workers rented small houses from the landowners. In the early 1900s the landowners agreed to evict all of the residents of the Styx (who moved to West Palm Beach, Florida) and Edward R. Bradley bought up much of this land. The houses were razed, according to the Palm Beach Daily News.
The wreck of the Providencia is credited with giving Palm Beach its famous name. The Providencia was traveling from Havana to Cádiz, Spain with a cargo of coconuts harvested on the Caribbean island of Trinidad, when the ship wrecked near Palm Beach. Many of the coconut naturalized or were planted along the Palm Beach coast. A lush grove of palm trees soon grew on what was later named Palm Beach. Today the tallest coconut palms in the United States can be found along the Palm Beach coast.
Palm Beach is the easternmost town in Florida, located on a 18 - mile (29 km) long barrier island between Lake Worth Lagoon on the west and the Atlantic Ocean on the east. At no point is the island wider than three - quarters of a mile (1.2 km), and in places it is only 500 feet (150 m).
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 10.4 square miles (27 square kilometres). 3.9 square miles (10 square kilometres) of it is land and 6.5 square miles (17 square kilometres) of it is water. The total area is 62.45 % water.
According to the koppen climate classification Palm Beach has a tropical rainforest climate, having slightly too much rainfall in it 's driest month to meet the tropical savanna criteria.
The wet season is from May to October, when convective thunderstorms and tropical downpours are common, and weak tropical lows pass nearby. Average high temperatures in Palm Beach are 86 to 90 ° F (30 to 32 ° C) with lows of 70 to 75 ° F (21 to 24 ° C). During this period, more than half of the summer days bring occasional afternoon thunderstorms and seabreezes that somewhat cool the rest of the day.
The winter brings drier, sunnier, and much less humid weather. Average high temperatures of 75 to 82 ° F (24 to 28 ° C) and lows of 57 to 66 ° F (14 to 19 ° C), and is considered the main tourist season in the Palm Beach area. Although most winter days have highs in the 75 F range in Palm Beach, occasional cold fronts during this period can result in a few days of cooler weather with high temperatures in the mid 60s F (15 to 20 ° C) and lows in the upper 40s and 50s (8 to 14 ° C) while at other times high temperatures occasionally reach the middle 80s F in mid winter. In some years, the dry season can become quite dry, and water restrictions are imposed.
The annual average precipitation is 61 in (1,500 mm), most of which occurs during the summer season from May through October. In the wet summer season, short - lived heavy afternoon thunderstorms are common. Palm Beach reports more than 2,900 hrs of sunshine annually. Although rare, tropical cyclones can impact Palm Beach, with the last direct hit in 1928.
Palm Beach has a median household income of $124,562 and a median family income of $137,867. The town 's affluence and its "abundance of pleasures '' and "strong community - oriented sensibility '' were cited when it was selected in June 2003 as America 's "Best Place to Live '' by Robb Report magazine.
As of the 2000 census, over half the population (52.7 %) are 65 years of age or older, with a median age of 67 years. 9.4 % are under the age of 18, 1.5 % are from 18 to 24, 11.5 % are from 25 to 44, and 25.0 % from 45 to 64. For every 100 females, there are 79.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 77.0 males.
The household income for the town is $109,219. Males have a median income of $71,685 versus $42,875 for females. 5.3 % of the population and 2.4 % of families are below the poverty line. 4.6 % of those under the age of 18 and 2.9 % of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
The racial makeup of the town is 96 % White (93.8 % were non-Hispanic White), 2.57 % Black, 0.53 % Asian, 0.04 % Native American, 0.02 % Pacific Islander, 0.21 % from other races, and 0.63 % from two or more races. 2.56 % of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race.
The 10,468 people in the town are organized into 5,789 households and 3,021 families. The population density is 2,669.2 inhabitants per square mile (1,031.1 / km). There are 9,948 housing units at an average density of 1,006.5 per square mile (387.7 / km). 7.7 % of the households have children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.1 % are married couples living together, 3.3 % have a female householder with no husband present, and 47.8 % are non-families. 42.6 % of all households are made up of individuals and 27.6 % have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 1.81 and the average family size is 2.38.
In 2000, English was the first language of 87.81 % of all residents, while French comprised 4.48 %, Spanish consisted of 3.65 %, German made up 2.16 %, Italian speakers made up 0.45 %, Yiddish made up 0.36 %, Russian was at 0.30 %, Arabic and Swedish at 0.25 %, and Polish was the mother tongue of 0.24 % of the population.
In 2000, Palm Beach had the 40th highest percentage of Russian residents in the U.S., with 10.30 % of the populace (tied with Pomona, N.Y. and the township of Lower Merion, Pa.). It also had the 26th highest percentage of Austrian residents in the US, at 2.10 % of the town 's population (which tied with 19 other US areas).
The city is served by Amtrak and Tri-Rail, which connect Palm Beach with Miami, as well as Palm Beach International Airport, all located in West Palm Beach. The higher speed Brightline has a stop in West Palm Beach as well. Public transportation is available through Palm Tran, and connects with the rest of the county.
The northern portion of Palm Beach is served by the Route 41 bus which travels from the northernmost portion of Palm Beach at the inlet and then down to Royal Palm Way, across the Royal Park Bridge (State Road 704) into West Palm Beach and up to the government center, and then follows the same route in reverse.
Private vehicles and taxis are the predominant means of transport in Palm Beach. Bicycles are a popular transport on the island, although most areas have no bicycle trails, so safe and comfortable travel is not always assured. The Lake Trail, exclusively for pedestrian and bike traffic, extends from Royal Palm Way (State Road 704) in the south up to the north end of the island. The trail follows the edge of the Lake Worth Lagoon (part of the intercoastal waterway) except for a section between the Flagler Museum and the Biltmore Condominiums, where the trail follows the streets. Another break occurs to pass around the Sailfish Yacht Club in the north end of the island. The Lake Trail is filled daily with bikers, rollerbladers, runners, and dog - walkers.
Traveling by bike along the ocean can be hazardous. Only a short section in the downtown area has sidewalks. The roads along the ocean are narrow and have small or no shoulders, making biking a potentially dangerous activity in those areas.
In the southern end of the island, south of Sloan 's Curve, through South Palm Beach to East Ocean Avenue (linking to Lantana) is a two - mile (3200 m) long, relatively wide pedestrian path that is popular with walkers, runners, and bikers alike.
Palm Beach Public Elementary is located on the island and has kindergarten through fifth grade. It has a school grade of A and 477 students attend the school. Palm Beach Day Academy is a private school in the area. It was formed in 2005 from a merger between Palm Beach Day School and the Academy of the Palm Beaches.
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who has the right of judicial review in india | Judicial review - wikipedia
Judicial review is a process under which executive and (in some countries) legislative actions are subject to review by the judiciary. A court with judicial review power may invalidate laws and decisions that are incompatible with a higher authority; an executive decision may be invalidated for being unlawful or a statute may be invalidated for violating the terms of a written constitution. Judicial review is one of the checks and balances in the separation of powers: the power of the judiciary to supervise the legislative and executive branches when the latter exceed their authority. The doctrine varies between jurisdictions, so the procedure and scope of judicial review may differ between and within countries.
Judicial review can be understood in the context of two distinct -- but parallel -- legal systems, civil law and common law, and also by two distinct theories of democracy regarding the manner in which government should be organized with respect to the principles and doctrines of legislative supremacy and the separation of powers.
First, two distinct legal systems, civil law and common law, have different views about judicial review. Common - law judges are seen as sources of law, capable of creating new legal principles, and also capable of rejecting legal principles that are no longer valid. In the civil - law tradition, judges are seen as those who apply the law, with no power to create (or destroy) legal principles.
Secondly, the idea of separation of powers is another theory about how a democratic society 's government should be organized. In contrast to legislative supremacy, the idea of separation of powers was first introduced by Montesquieu; it was later institutionalized in the United States by the Supreme Court ruling in Marbury v. Madison under the court of John Marshall. Separation of powers is based on the idea that no branch of government should be able to exert power over any other branch without due process of law; each branch of government should have a check on the powers of the other branches of government, thus creating a regulative balance among all branches of government. The key to this idea is checks and balances. In the United States, judicial review is considered a key check on the powers of the other two branches of government by the judiciary.
Differences in organizing "democratic '' societies led to different views regarding judicial review, with societies based on common law and those stressing a separation of powers being the most likely to utilize judicial review. Nevertheless, many countries whose legal systems are based on the idea of legislative supremacy have learned the possible dangers and limitations of entrusting power exclusively to the legislative branch of government. Many countries with civil - law systems have adopted a form of judicial review to stem the tyranny of the majority.
Another reason why judicial review should be understood in the context of both the development of two distinct legal systems (civil law and common law) and two theories of democracy (legislative supremacy and separation of powers) is that some countries with common - law systems do not have judicial review of primary legislation. Though a common - law system is present in the United Kingdom, the country still has a strong attachment to the idea of legislative supremacy; consequently, judges in the United Kingdom do not have the power to strike down primary legislation. However, since the United Kingdom became a member of the European Union there has been tension between its tendency toward legislative supremacy and the EU 's legal system, which specifically gives the Court of Justice of the European Union the power of judicial review.
Most modern legal systems allow the courts to review administrative acts (individual decisions of a public body, such as a decision to grant a subsidy or to withdraw a residence permit). In most systems, this also includes review of secondary legislation (legally enforceable rules of general applicability adopted by administrative bodies). Some countries (notably France and Germany) have implemented a system of administrative courts which are charged with resolving disputes between members of the public and the administration. In other countries (including the United States and United Kingdom), judicial review is carried out by regular civil courts although it may be delegated to specialized panels within these courts (such as the Administrative Court within the High Court of England and Wales). The United States employs a mixed system in which some administrative decisions are reviewed by the United States district courts (which are the general trial courts), some are reviewed directly by the United States courts of appeals and others are reviewed by specialized tribunals such as the United States Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims (which, despite its name, is not technically part of the federal judicial branch). It is quite common that before a request for judicial review of an administrative act is filed with a court, certain preliminary conditions (such as a complaint to the authority itself) must be fulfilled. In most countries, the courts apply special procedures in administrative cases.
There are three broad approaches to judicial review of the constitutionality of primary legislation -- that is, laws passed directly by an elected legislature.
Some countries do not permit a review of the validity of primary legislation. In the United Kingdom, statutes can not be set aside under the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty. Another example is the Netherlands, where the constitution expressly forbids the courts to rule on the question of constitutionality of primary legislation.
In the United States, federal and state courts (at all levels, both appellate and trial) are able to review and declare the "constitutionality '', or agreement with the Constitution (or lack thereof) of legislation by a process of judicial interpretation that is relevant to any case properly within their jurisdiction. In American legal language, "judicial review '' refers primarily to the adjudication of constitutionality of statutes, especially by the Supreme Court of the United States. This is commonly held to have been established in the case of Marbury v. Madison, which was argued before the Supreme Court in 1803. A similar system was also adopted in Australia.
In 1920, Czechoslovakia adopted a system of judicial review by a specialized court, the Constitutional Court as written by Hans Kelsen, a leading jurist of the time. This system was later adopted by Austria and became known as the Austrian System, also under the primary authorship of Hans Kelsen, being emulated by a number of other countries. In these systems, other courts are not competent to question the constitutionality of primary legislation; they often may, however, initiate the process of review by the Constitutional Court.
Russia adopts a mixed model since (as in the US) courts at all levels, both federal and state, are empowered to review primary legislation and declare its constitutionality; as in the Czech Republic, there is a constitutional court in charge of reviewing the constitutionality of primary legislation. The difference is that in the first case, the decision about the law ′ s adequacy to the Russian Constitution only binds the parties to the lawsuit; in the second, the Court 's decision must be followed by judges and government officials at all levels.
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who is the actor that plays tom keen | Ryan Eggold - wikipedia
Ryan James Eggold (born August 10, 1984) is an American actor. He is known for playing Ryan Matthews on the CW teen drama series 90210 and Tom Keen on the NBC crime drama series The Blacklist and its short - lived spin - off series The Blacklist: Redemption.
Eggold was born in Lakewood, California, the son of Karen (née Benik) and James Frederick Eggold. Eggold graduated from Santa Margarita Catholic High School in 2002, where he participated in many school theater performances, and later from the University of Southern California 's theater arts department in 2006.
In 2006, Eggold made his professional television debut by way of a guest appearance on the show Related. He made his film debut the same year in the short film Con: The Corruption of Helm. Besides his success as an actor, Eggold writes music, plays guitar and piano, and sings in the band Eleanor Avenue.
Eggold had recurring roles on CBS 's The Young and the Restless, HBO 's Entourage, Cartoon Network 's Out of Jimmy 's Head, ABC 's Brothers & Sisters, and the UPN / CW series Veronica Mars, before obtaining his first series regular role on the FX 's Dirt.
In addition to his work in television, Eggold made his professional stage debut in the 2006 Ahmanson Theatre / Center Theatre Group production Dead End, directed by Nick Martin, and has since appeared in productions of Leipzig, the LA Weekly Theater Award - winning production of Marat / Sade, and an original production titled Amy and Elliot which he wrote, directed, and starred in at the Stella Adler Theatre with Alexandra Breckenridge.
Eggold portrayed English teacher Ryan Matthews in 90210, the CW spin - off of FOX 's Beverly Hills, 90210, despite the fact that he is less than one year older than several of the other actors who played his students. In January 2012, he played Mischa Barton 's love interest in Mark Edwin Robinson 's supernatural romance thriller Into the Dark. Since the fall of 2013, he has regularly appeared as Tom Keen, a main character on NBC 's hit drama The Blacklist. In January 2015, Eggold appeared on the History Channel 's three - night miniseries Sons of Liberty as Dr. Joseph Warren, a friend of Sam Adams and Paul Revere.
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why does my shower curtain stick to me | Shower - curtain effect - wikipedia
The shower - curtain effect in physics describes the phenomenon of how a shower curtain gets blown inward with a running shower. The problem of identifying the cause of this effect has been featured in Scientific American magazine, with several theories given to explain the phenomenon but no definite conclusion.
The shower - curtain effect may also be used to describe the observation how nearby phase front distortions of an optical wave are more severe than remote distortions of the same amplitude.
Also called Chimney effect or Stack effect, observes that warm air (from the hot shower) rises out over the shower curtain as cooler air (near the floor) pushes in under the curtain to replace the rising air. By pushing the curtain in towards the shower, the (short range) vortex and Coandă effects become more significant. However, the shower - curtain effect persists when cold water is used, implying that this can not be the only mechanism at work.
See also Cooling tower.
The most popular explanation given for the shower - curtain effect is Bernoulli 's principle. Bernoulli 's principle states that an increase in velocity results in a decrease in pressure. This theory presumes that the water flowing out of a shower head causes the air through which the water moves to start flowing in the same direction as the water. This movement would be parallel to the plane of the shower curtain. If air is moving across the inside surface of the shower curtain, Bernoulli 's principle says the air pressure there will drop. This would result in a pressure differential between the inside and outside, causing the curtain to move inward. It would be strongest when the gap between the bather and the curtain is smallest - resulting in the curtain attaching to the bather.
A computer simulation of a typical bathroom found that none of the above theories pan out in their analysis, but instead found that the spray from the shower - head drives a horizontal vortex. This vortex has a low - pressure zone in the centre, which sucks the curtain.
David Schmidt of University of Massachusetts was awarded the 2001 Ig Nobel Prize in Physics for his partial solution to the question of why shower curtains billow inwards. He used a computational fluid dynamics code to achieve the results. Professor Schmidt is adamant that this was done "for fun '' in his own free time without the use of grants.
The Coandă effect, also known as "boundary layer attachment '', is the tendency of a moving fluid to adhere to an adjacent wall.
A hot shower will produce steam that condenses on the shower side of the curtain; lowering the pressure there. In a steady state the steam will be replaced by new steam delivered by the shower but in reality the water temperature will fluctuate and lead to times when the net steam production is negative.
Colder dense air outside and hot less dense air inside causes higher air pressure on the outside to force the shower curtain inwards to equalise the air pressure, this can be observed simply when the bathroom door is open allowing cold air into the bathroom.
Many shower curtains come with features to reduce the shower - curtain effect. They may have adhesive suction cups on the bottom edges of the curtain, which are then pushed onto the sides of the shower when in use. Others may have magnets at the bottom, though these are not effective on acrylic or fiberglass tubs.
It 's possible to use a telescopic shower curtain rod to block the curtain on it 's lower part and to prevent it from sucking inside.
Hanging the curtain rod higher or lower, or especially further away from the shower head, can reduce the effect. A (convex) curved shower rod can also be used to hold the curtain against the inside wall of a tub.
A weight can be attached to a long string and the string attached to the curtain rod in the middle of the curtain (on the inside). Hanging the weight low against the curtain just above the rim of the shower pan or tub makes it an effective billowing deterrent without allowing the weight to hit the pan or tub and damage it.
There are a few alternative solutions that either attach to the shower curtain directly, attach to the shower rod or attach to the wall.
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who sang romeo and juliet in the 90s | Romeo and Juliet (Dire Straits song) - wikipedia
"Romeo and Juliet '' is a song by the British rock band Dire Straits, written by frontman Mark Knopfler. It first appeared on the 1980 album Making Movies and was released as a single in 1981. Reviewer Dan Bolles has called the song a "classic ''. The song subsequently appeared on the Dire Straits live albums Alchemy and On the Night, and later on Knopfler 's live duet album with Emmylou Harris, Real Live Roadrunning (though Harris does not perform on the track). The track was also featured on the greatest hits albums Money for Nothing, Sultans of Swing: The Very Best of Dire Straits, and The Best of Dire Straits & Mark Knopfler: Private Investigations.
The lyrics of the song describe the experience of the two lovers of the title, hinting at a situation that saw the "Juliet '' figure abandon her "Romeo '' after finding fame and moving on from the rough neighborhood where they first encountered each other. In addition to the reference to William Shakespeare 's play of the same title, the song makes playful allusion to other works involving young love, including the songs "Somewhere '' -- from West Side Story, which is itself based on the Shakespeare play -- and "My Boyfriend 's Back ''. The original recording of the song has been featured in several motion pictures, including Hot Fuzz, Empire Records, Ca n't Hardly Wait, and I, Tonya.
The song opens on an arpeggiated resonator guitar part played by Knopfler, who also sings the lead vocal. The introductory arpeggios and melody are played on a National Style "O '' guitar, the same guitar featured on the album artwork for Brothers in Arms and Sultans of Swing: The Very Best of Dire Straits. In the Sky Arts documentary Guitar Stories: Mark Knopfler, "Knopfler picks up the National and demonstrates how he hit on the famous arpeggio lines in "Romeo and Juliet '', from the Making Movies album, while experimenting with an open G tuning. '' The instrumentation remains simple during the verses and moves to a full - on rock arrangement in the chorus sections.
The song itself, written by Knopfler, was inspired by his failed romance with Holly Vincent, lead singer of the short - lived band Holly and The Italians. The song speaks of a Romeo who is still very much in love with his Juliet, but she now treats him like "just another one of (her) deals ''. Knopfler has both stated and implied that he believes Vincent was using him to boost her career. The song 's line "Now you just say, oh Romeo, yeah, you know I used to have a scene with him, '' refers to an interview with Vincent, where she says "What happened was that I had a scene with Mark Knopfler and it got to the point where he could n't handle it and we split up. ''
The song has become a classic love song with a wide range of artists covering the track. Indigo Girls covered the track in a solo rendition by Amy Ray on the duo 's album Rites of Passage.
The song was also covered by Australian musician Lisa Mitchell for Australian radio station Triple J for the Like a Version segment on their breakfast show in 2009. It was also included on the 2009 Like a Version Volume 5 compilation CD and DVD.
It was covered by The Killers in 2007. It was recorded live at Abbey Road Studios for the Channel 4 show Live from Abbey Road and featured as a B - side on "For Reasons Unknown '' and on their compilation album Sawdust.
Matt Nathanson covered the song on his Live at the Point album
Edwin McCain covered the track on The Austin Sessions.
Michael Stanley covered on the song on his 2012 album The Hang. The song was also covered by the British singer - songwriter Passenger in 2014 for the Sounds of the 80 's covers album released in conjunction with the BBC Radio 2 programme of the same name.
American singer / songer Ben Bedford often sings an acoustic version of the song in his performances.
Austin, Tx based guitarist Monte Montgomery also covered this song in 2003 on his live album New and Approved (track 6) which was recorded at the Cactus Cafe and authorized by release on his own label. The track features Montgomery 's faster than light licks on this solo - guitar track.
British folk singer - songwriter Steve Knightley covered the track on his 2007 album Cruel River.
Additional personnel
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insulin is released in response to low blood glucose levels | Blood sugar regulation - wikipedia
Blood sugar regulation is the process by which the levels of blood sugar, primarily glucose, are maintained by the body within a narrow range. This tight regulation is referred to as glucose homeostasis. Insulin, which lowers blood sugar, and glucagon, which raises it, are the most well known of the hormones involved, but more recent discoveries of other glucoregulatory hormones have expanded the understanding of this process.
Blood sugar levels are regulated by negative feedback in order to keep the body in balance. The levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by many tissues, but the cells in the pancreatic islets are among the most well understood and important.
If the blood glucose level falls to dangerous levels (as during very heavy exercise or lack of food for extended periods), the alpha cells of the pancreas release glucagon, a hormone whose effects on liver cells act to increase blood glucose levels. They convert glycogen into glucose (this process is called glycogenolysis). The glucose is released into the bloodstream, increasing blood sugar. Hypoglycemia, the state of having low blood sugar, is treated by restoring the blood glucose level to normal by the ingestion or administration of dextrose or carbohydrate foods. It is often self - diagnosed and self - medicated orally by the ingestion of balanced meals. In more severe circumstances, it is treated by injection or infusion of glucagon.
When levels of blood sugar rise, whether as a result of glycogen conversion, or from digestion of a meal, a different hormone is released from beta cells found in the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. This hormone, insulin, causes the liver to convert more glucose into glycogen (this process is called glycogenesis), and to force about 2 / 3 of body cells (primarily muscle and fat tissue cells) to take up glucose from the blood through the GLUT4 transporter, thus decreasing blood sugar. When insulin binds to the receptors on the cell surface, vesicles containing the GLUT4 transporters come to the plasma membrane and fuse together by the process of endocytosis, thus enabling a facilitated diffusion of glucose into the cell. As soon as the glucose enters the cell, it is phosphorylated into Glucose - 6 - Phosphate in order to preserve the concentration gradient so glucose will continue to enter the cell. Insulin also provides signals to several other body systems, and is the chief regulator of metabolic control in humans.
There are also several other causes for an increase in blood sugar levels. Among them are the ' stress ' hormones such as epinephrine (also known as adrenaline), several of the steroids, infections, trauma, and of course, the ingestion of food.
Diabetes mellitus type 1 is caused by insufficient or non-existent production of insulin, while type 2 is primarily due to a decreased response to insulin in the tissues of the body (insulin resistance). Both types of diabetes, if untreated, result in too much glucose remaining in the blood (hyperglycemia) and many of the same complications. Also, too much insulin and / or exercise without enough corresponding food intake in diabetics can result in low blood sugar (hypoglycemia).
Some edible mushrooms are noted for the ability to lower blood sugar levels including reishi, maitake Agaricus blazei as well as some others.
Some minerals play roles in glucose regulation: see Chromium in glucose metabolism for example.
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who was the declaration of rights of man and citizen designed to protect | Declaration of the rights of Man and of the Citizen - Wikipedia
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (French: Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen de 1789), set by France 's National Constituent Assembly in 1789, is a human civil rights document from the French Revolution.
The Declaration was drafted by the Abbé Sieyès and the Marquis de Lafayette, in consultation with Thomas Jefferson. Influenced by the doctrine of "natural right '', the rights of man are held to be universal: valid at all times and in every place, pertaining to human nature itself. It became the basis for a nation of free individuals protected equally by the law. It is included in the beginning of the constitutions of both the Fourth French Republic (1946) and Fifth Republic (1958) and is still current. Inspired by the Enlightenment philosophers, the Declaration was a core statement of the values of the French Revolution and had a major impact on the development of freedom and democracy in Europe and worldwide.
The Declaration, together with Magna Carta, the English Bill of Rights, the United States Declaration of Independence and the United States Bill of Rights, inspired in large part the 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
The content of the document emerged largely from the ideals of the Enlightenment. The key drafts were prepared by Lafayette, working at times with his close friend Thomas Jefferson. In August 1789, Honoré Mirabeau played a central role in conceptualizing and drafting the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
The last article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen was adopted on the 26 of August 1789 by the National Constituent Assembly, during the period of the French Revolution, as the first step toward writing a constitution for France. Inspired by the Enlightenment, the original version of the Declaration was discussed by the representatives on the basis of a 24 article draft proposed by the sixth bureau, led by Jérôme Champion de Cicé. The draft was later modified during the debates. A second and lengthier declaration, known as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1793, was written in 1793 but never formally adopted.
The concepts in the Declaration come from the philosophical and political duties of the Enlightenment, such as individualism, the social contract as theorized by the Genevan philosopher Rousseau, and the separation of powers espoused by the Baron de Montesquieu. As can be seen in the texts, the French declaration was heavily influenced by the political philosophy of the Enlightenment and principles of human rights as was the U.S. Declaration of Independence which preceded it (4 July 1776).
According to a legal textbook published in 2007, the declaration is in the spirit of "secular natural law '', which does not base itself on religious doctrine or authority, in contrast with traditional natural law theory, which does.
The declaration defines a single set of individual and collective rights for all men. Influenced by the doctrine of natural rights, these rights are held to be universal and valid in all times and places. For example, "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good. '' They have certain natural rights to property, to liberty, and to life. According to this theory, the role of government is to recognize and secure these rights. Furthermore, government should be carried on by elected representatives.
At the time of writing, the rights contained in the declaration were only awarded to men. Furthermore, the declaration was a statement of vision rather than reality. The declaration was not deeply rooted in either the practice of the West or even France at the time. The declaration emerged in the late 18th century out of war and revolution. It encountered opposition as democracy and individual rights were frequently regarded as synonymous with anarchy and subversion. The declaration embodies ideals and aspirations towards which France pledged to struggle in the future.
The Declaration is introduced by a preamble describing the fundamental characteristics of the rights which are qualified as being "natural, unalienable and sacred '' and consisting of "simple and incontestable principles '' on which citizens could base their demands. In the second article, "the natural and imprescriptible rights of man '' are defined as "liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression ''. It called for the destruction of aristocratic privileges by proclaiming an end to feudalism and to exemptions from taxation, freedom and equal rights for all "Men '', and access to public office based on talent. The monarchy was restricted, and all citizens were to have the right to take part in the legislative process. Freedom of speech and press were declared, and arbitrary arrests outlawed.
The Declaration also asserted the principles of popular sovereignty, in contrast to the divine right of kings that characterized the French monarchy, and social equality among citizens, "All the citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents, '' eliminating the special rights of the nobility and clergy.
Article I -- Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions can be founded only on the common good.
Article II -- The goal of any political association is the conservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, safety and resistance against oppression.
Article III -- The principle of any sovereignty resides essentially in the Nation. No body, no individual can exert authority which does not emanate expressly from it.
Article IV -- Liberty consists of doing anything which does not harm others: thus, the exercise of the natural rights of each man has only those borders which assure other members of the society the fruition of these same rights. These borders can be determined only by the law.
Article V -- The law has the right to forbid only actions harmful to society. Anything which is not forbidden by the law can not be impeded, and no one can be constrained to do what it does not order.
Article VI -- The law is the expression of the general will. All the citizens have the right of contributing personally or through their representatives to its formation. It must be the same for all, either that it protects, or that it punishes. All the citizens, being equal in its eyes, are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents.
Article VII -- No man can be accused, arrested nor detained but in the cases determined by the law, and according to the forms which it has prescribed. Those who solicit, dispatch, carry out or cause to be carried out arbitrary orders, must be punished; but any citizen called or seized under the terms of the law must obey at once; he renders himself culpable by resistance.
Article VIII -- The law should establish only penalties that are strictly and evidently necessary, and no one can be punished but under a law established and promulgated before the offense and legally applied.
Article IX -- Any man being presumed innocent until he is declared culpable if it is judged indispensable to arrest him, any rigor which would not be necessary for the securing of his person must be severely reprimanded by the law.
Article X -- No one may be disturbed for his opinions, even religious ones, provided that their manifestation does not trouble the public order established by the law.
Article XI -- The free communication of thoughts and of opinions is one of the most precious rights of man: any citizen thus may speak, write, print freely, except to respond to the abuse of this liberty, in the cases determined by the law.
Article XII -- The guarantee of the rights of man and of the citizen necessitates a public force: this force is thus instituted for the advantage of all and not for the particular utility of those in whom it is trusted.
Article XIII -- For the maintenance of the public force and for the expenditures of administration, a common contribution is indispensable; it must be equally distributed to all the citizens, according to their ability to pay.
Article XIV -- Each citizen has the right to ascertain, by himself or through his representatives, the need for a public tax, to consent to it freely, to know the uses to which it is put, and of determining the proportion, basis, collection, and duration.
Article XV -- The society has the right of requesting an account from any public agent of its administration.
Article XVI -- Any society in which the guarantee of rights is not assured, nor the separation of powers determined, has no Constitution.
Article XVII -- Property being an inviolable and sacred right, no one can be deprived of private usage, if it is not when the public necessity, legally noted, evidently requires it, and under the condition of a just and prior indemnity.
While the French Revolution provided rights to a larger portion of the population, there remained a distinction between those who obtained the political rights in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen and those who did not. Those who were deemed to hold these political rights were called active citizens. Active citizenship was granted to men who were French, at least 25 years old, paid taxes equal to three days work, and could not be defined as servants (Thouret). This meant that at the time of the Declaration only male property owners held these rights. The deputies in the National Assembly believed that only those who held tangible interests in the nation could make informed political decisions. This distinction directly affects articles 6, 12, 14, and 15 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen as each of these rights is related to the right to vote and to participate actively in the government. With the decree of 29 October 1789, the term active citizen became embedded in French politics.
The concept of passive citizens was created to encompass those populations that had been excluded from political rights in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Because of the requirements set down for active citizens, the vote was granted to approximately 4.3 million Frenchmen out of a population of around 29 million. These omitted groups included women, slaves, children, and foreigners. As these measures were voted upon by the General Assembly, they limited the rights of certain groups of citizens while implementing the democratic process of the new French Republic (1792 -- 1804). This legislation, passed in 1789, was amended by the creators of the Constitution of the Year III in order to eliminate the label of active citizen. The power to vote was then, however, to be granted solely to substantial property owners.
Tensions arose between active and passive citizens throughout the Revolution. This happened when passive citizens started to call for more rights, or when they openly refused to listen to the ideals set forth by active citizens. This cartoon clearly demonstrates the difference that existed between the active and passive citizens along with the tensions associated with such differences. In the cartoon, a passive citizen is holding a spade and a wealthy landowning active citizen is ordering the passive citizens to go to work. The act appears condescending to the passive citizen and it revisits the reasons why the French Revolution began in the first place.
Women, in particular, were strong passive citizens who played a significant role in the Revolution. Olympe de Gouges penned her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen in 1791 and drew attention to the need for gender equality. By supporting the ideals of the French Revolution and wishing to expand them to women, she represented herself as a revolutionary citizen. Madame Roland also established herself as an influential figure throughout the Revolution. She saw women of the French Revolution as holding three roles; "inciting revolutionary action, formulating policy, and informing others of revolutionary events. '' By working with men, as opposed to working separate from men, she may have been able to further the fight of revolutionary women. As players in the French Revolution, women occupied a significant role in the civic sphere by forming social movements and participating in popular clubs, allowing them societal influence, despite their lack of direct political influence.
The Declaration recognized many rights as belonging to citizens (who could only be male). This was despite the fact that after The March on Versailles on 5 October 1789, women presented the Women 's Petition to the National Assembly in which they proposed a decree giving women equal rights. In 1790, Nicolas de Condorcet and Etta Palm d'Aelders unsuccessfully called on the National Assembly to extend civil and political rights to women. Condorcet declared that "he who votes against the right of another, whatever the religion, color, or sex of that other, has henceforth abjured his own ''. The French Revolution did not lead to a recognition of women 's rights and this prompted Olympe de Gouges to publish the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen in September 1791.
The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen is modeled on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and is ironic in formulation and exposes the failure of the French Revolution, which had been devoted to equality. It states that:
This revolution will only take effect when all women become fully aware of their deplorable condition, and of the rights, they have lost in society.
The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen follows the seventeen articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen point for point and has been described by Camille Naish as "almost a parody... of the original document ''. The first article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaims that "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be based only on common utility. '' The first article of Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen replied: "Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights. Social distinctions may only be based on common utility ''.
De Gouges also draws attention to the fact that under French law women were fully punishable, yet denied equal rights, declaring "Women have the right to mount the scaffold, they must also have the right to mount the speaker 's rostrum ''.
The declaration did not revoke the institution of slavery, as lobbied for by Jacques - Pierre Brissot 's Les Amis des Noirs and defended by the group of colonial planters called the Club Massiac because they met at the Hôtel Massiac. Despite the lack of explicit mention of slavery in the Declaration, slave uprisings in Saint - Domingue in the Haitian Revolution were inspired by it, as discussed in C.L.R. James ' history of the Haitian Revolution, The Black Jacobins.
Deplorable conditions for the thousands of slaves in Saint - Domingue, the most profitable slave colony in the world, led to the uprisings which would be known as the first successful slave revolt in the New World. Free persons of color were part of the first wave of revolt, but later former slaves took control. In 1794 the Convention dominated by the Jacobins abolished slavery, including in the colonies of Saint - Domingue and Guadeloupe. However, Napoleon reinstated it in 1802 and attempted to regain control of Saint - Domingue by sending in thousands of troops. After suffering the losses of two - thirds of the men, many to yellow fever, the French withdrew from Saint - Domingue in 1803. Napoleon gave up on North America and agreed to the Louisiana Purchase by the United States. In 1804, the leaders of Saint - Domingue declared it as an independent state, the Republic of Haiti, the second republic of the New World.
The Declaration has also influenced and inspired rights - based liberal democracy throughout the world. It was translated as soon as 1793 -- 1794 by Colombian Antonio Nariño, who published it despite the Inquisition. He was sentenced to 10 years in prison for doing so. In 2003, the document was listed on UNESCO 's Memory of the World register.
According to the preamble of the Constitution of the French Fifth Republic (adopted on 4 October 1958, and the current constitution), the principles set forth in the Declaration have constitutional value. Many laws and regulations have been canceled because they did not comply with those principles as interpreted by the Conseil Constitutionnel ("Constitutional Council of France '') or by the Conseil d'État ("Council of State '').
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who plays john in meet me in st louis | Meet Me in St. Louis - wikipedia
Meet Me in St. Louis is a musical film made by Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer and released in 1944. Divided into a series of seasonal vignettes, starting with Summer 1903, it relates the story of a year in the life of the Smith family in St. Louis, leading up to the opening of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (more commonly referred to as the World 's Fair) in the spring of 1904. The picture stars Judy Garland, Margaret O'Brien, Mary Astor, Lucille Bremer, Tom Drake, Leon Ames, Marjorie Main, June Lockhart, and Joan Carroll.
The film was adapted by Irving Brecher and Fred F. Finklehoffe from a series of short stories by Sally Benson, originally published in The New Yorker magazine under the title "5135 Kensington '', and later in novel form as Meet Me in St. Louis. The film was directed by Vincente Minnelli, who met Garland on the set and later married her. It was the second - highest grossing picture of the year, only behind Going My Way.In 1994, the film has been deemed "culturally significant '' by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.
Garland debuted the standards "The Trolley Song '', "The Boy Next Door '', and "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas '', all of which became hits after the film was released. Arthur Freed, the producer of the film, also wrote and performed one of the songs.
The backdrop for Meet Me in St. Louis is St. Louis, Missouri in the year leading up to the 1904 World 's Fair.
It is summer 1903. The Smith family leads a comfortable upper - middle class life. Alonzo Smith (Leon Ames) and his wife Anna (Mary Astor) have four daughters: Rose (Lucille Bremer), Esther (Judy Garland), Agnes (Joan Carroll), and Tootie (Margaret O'Brien); and a son, Lon Jr. (Henry H. Daniels, Jr.). Esther, the second eldest daughter, is in love with the boy next door, John Truett (Tom Drake), although he does not notice her at first. Rose is expecting a phone call in which she hopes to be proposed to by Warren Sheffield (Robert Sully).
Esther finally gets to meet John properly when he is a guest at the Smiths ' house party, although her chances of romancing him do n't go to plan when, after all the guests are gone and he is helping her turn off the gas lamps throughout the house, he tells her she uses the same perfume as his grandmother and that she has "a mighty strong grip for a girl ''.
Esther hopes to meet John again the following Friday on a trolley ride from the city to the construction site of the World Fair. Esther is sad when the trolley sets off without any sign of him, but cheers up when she sees him running to catch the trolley mid journey.
On Halloween, Tootie returns home injured, claiming that John Truett attacked her. Without bothering to investigate, Esther confronts John, physically attacking him and scolding him for being a "bully ''. When Esther returns home, Tootie confesses that what really happened was that John was trying to protect Tootie and Agnes from the police after a dangerous prank they pulled went wrong. Upon learning the truth, Esther immediately dashes to John 's house next door to apologize, and they share their first kiss.
Mr. Smith announces to the family that he is to be sent to New York City on business and eventually they will all move. The family is devastated and upset at the news of the move, especially Rose and Esther whose romances, friendships, and educational plans are threatened. Esther is also aghast because they will miss the World 's Fair.
An elegant ball takes place on Christmas Eve. Esther is devastated when John can not take her as his date, due to his leaving his tuxedo at the tailor 's and being unable to get it back. But she is relieved when her grandfather (Harry Davenport) offers to take her instead. At the ball, Esther fills up a visiting girl 's (Lucille Ballard, played by June Lockhart) dance card with losers because she thinks Lucille is a rival of Rose 's. But when Lucille turns out to be interested in Lon, Esther switches her dance card with Lucille 's and instead dances herself with the clumsy and awkward partners. After being rescued by Grandpa, she is overwhelmed when John unexpectedly turns up after somehow managing to obtain a tuxedo, and the pair dance together for the rest of the evening. Later on, John proposes to Esther and she accepts.
Esther returns home to an upset Tootie. She is soothed by the poignant "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas ''. Tootie, however, becomes more upset at the prospect of the family 's move and runs downstairs, out into the cold to destroy the snowmen they have made. Mr. Smith sees his daughter 's upsetting outburst from an upstairs window.
Mr. Smith later announces that the family will not leave St. Louis after all when he realizes how much the move will affect his family. Warren boldly declares his love for Rose, stating that they will marry at the first possible opportunity.
On or after April 30, 1904, the family take two horse drawn buggies to the World 's Fair. The film ends that night with the entire family (including boyfriends - to - turn - into - presumed - husbands and Lon 's new love interest) overlooking the Grand Lagoon at the center of the World 's Fair just as thousands of lights illuminate the grand pavilions.
The musical score for the film was adapted by Roger Edens, who also served as an uncredited associate producer. Georgie Stoll conducted the orchestrations of Conrad Salinger. Some of the songs in the film are from around the time of the St Louis Exposition. Others were written for the movie.
Judy Garland pre-recording of "Boys and Girls Like You and Me '' for this film survives today, but the film footage has been lost.
Upon its 1944 release, Meet Me in St. Louis was a massive critical and commercial success. During its initial theatrical release, it earned a then - massive $5,016,000 in the US and Canada and $1,550,000 elsewhere resulting in a profit of $2,359,000.
Time called it "one of the year 's prettiest pictures ''; "Technicolor has seldom been more affectionately used than in its registrations of the sober mahoganies and tender muslins and benign gaslights of the period. Now & then, too, the film gets well beyond the charm of mere tableau for short flights in the empyrean of genuine domestic poetry. These triumphs are creditable mainly to the intensity and grace of Margaret O'Brien and to the ability of director Minnelli & Co. to get the best out of her. '' O'Brien drew further praise from Time; "(her) song and her cakewalk done in a nightgown at a grown - up party, are entrancing acts. Her self - terrified Halloween adventures richly set against firelight, dark streets, and the rusty confabulations of fallen leaves, bring this section of the film very near the first - rate. '' The film is a New York Times Critics ' Pick: after seeing it at the Astor Theatre, Bosley Crowther called it "a warm and beguiling picturization based on Sally Benson 's memoirs of her folks. '' Crowther concludes: "As a comparable screen companion to Life With Father, we would confidently predict that Meet Me in St. Louis has a future that is equally bright. In the words of one of the gentlemen, it is a ginger - peachy show. '' Writing in The New Yorker, Wolcott Gibbs praised the film as "extremely attractive '' and called the dialogue "funny in a sense rather rare in the movies, '' although he thought it was too long.
In 2005, Richard Schickel included the film on Time. com 's ALL - TIME 100 best films, saying "It had wonderful songs (and) a sweetly unneurotic performance by Judy Garland... Despite its nostalgic charm, Minnelli infused the piece with a dreamy, occasionally surreal, darkness and it remains, for some of us, the greatest of American movie musicals. ''
Arthur Freed: "Meet Me in St. Louis is my personal favourite. I got along wonderfully with Judy, but the only time we were ever on the outs was when we did this film. She did n't want to do the picture. Even her mother came to me about it. We bumped into some trouble with some opinions -- Eddie Mannix, the studio manager, thought the Halloween sequence was wrong, but it was left in. There was a song that Rodgers and Hammerstein had written, called Boys and Girls Like You and Me, that Judy did wonderfully, but it slowed up the picture and it was cut out. After the preview of the completed film, Judy came over to me and said, "Arthur remind me not to tell you what kind of pictures to make. '' (It) was the biggest grosser Metro had up to that time, except for Gone With the Wind. ''
The film currently holds a 100 % "Fresh '' rating on the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 30 critical reviews with an average score of 8.7 / 10.
The film was nominated for four Academy Awards: Best Writing, Adapted Screenplay, Best Cinematography, Color, Best Music, Scoring of a Musical Picture, and Best Music, Song (Ralph Blane and Hugh Martin for "The Trolley Song ''). Margaret O'Brien received an Academy Juvenile Award for her work that year, in which she appeared in several movies along with Meet Me in St. Louis.
In 1994, the film has been deemed "culturally significant '' by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.
The American Film Institute ranked the film 10th on AFI 's Greatest Movie Musicals; two songs from the film made AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs ("The Trolley Song '' at # 26 and "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas '' at # 76).
Gerald Kaufman wrote a study of the film, with the same title, which was published by the British Film Institute in 1994.
The late - 19th century vintage carousel in this movie could be found at Bob - Lo Amusement Park in Amherstburg, Ontario until the park closed in September 1993. It was dismantled and sold to private collectors.
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local governments that provide a single service or a closely related set of services are | Special district (United States) - wikipedia
Special districts (also known as special service districts, special district governments, limited purpose entities, or special - purpose districts in the United States) are independent, special - purpose governmental units that exist separately from local governments such as county, municipal, and township governments, with substantial administrative and fiscal independence. They are formed to perform a single function or a set of related functions. The term special district governments as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau excludes school districts. In 2007, the U.S. had more than 39,000 special district governments.
The United States Census counts government units across all States. This includes "special districts. '' To count the special districts the Census must define the special districts so as to address all such governmental entities across the broad spectrum of 50 states ' definitions and interpretations. The Census 's full definition is:
Special district governments are independent, special purpose governmental units, other than school district governments, that exist as separate entities with substantial administrative and fiscal independence from general purpose local governments. As defined for Census Bureau statistics on governments, the term ' ' special district governments ' ' excludes school district governments as they are defined as a separate governmental type.
Special district governments provide specific services that are not being supplied by existing general purpose governments. Most perform a single function, but in some instances, their enabling legislation allows them to provide several, usually related, types of services. The services provided by these districts range from such basic social needs as hospitals and fire protection, to the less conspicuous tasks of mosquito abatement and upkeep of cemeteries.
The Census Bureau classification of special district governments covers a wide variety of entities, most of which are officially called districts or authorities. Not all public agencies so termed, however, represent separate governments. Many entities that carry the designation ' ' district ' ' or ' ' authority ' ' are, by law, so closely related to county, municipal, town or township, or state governments that they are classified as subordinate agencies of those governments in Census Bureau statistics on governments, and are not counted as separate special district governments.
In order to be classified as a special district government, rather than as a subordinate agency, an entity must possess three attributes -- existence as an organized entity, governmental character, and substantial autonomy. Each state description also lists various statutory authorities, commissions, corporations, and other forms of organizations that have certain governmental characteristics, but are subject by law to administrative or fiscal control by the state or by independent local governments; therefore, they are classified as subordinate agencies of those governments.
Special districts serve limited areas and have governing boards that accomplish legislatively assigned functions using public funds.
Special districts provide specialized services to persons living within the designated geographic area and may contract to provide services outside the area. Special districts often cross the lines of towns, villages, and hamlets but less frequently cross city or county lines. Increasingly, however, regional special districts are being created that may serve a large portion of a state or portions of more than one state.
Each district is governed by a board of directors, commissioners, board of supervisors, or the like. These boards may be appointed by public officials, appointed by private entities, popularly elected, or elected by benefited citizens (typically, property owners). Sometimes, one or more public officials will serve as an ex officio member on the board.
The board of a special district serves primarily as a managing board and often appoints a chief executive for day - to - day operations and decision making and policy implementation. In the New England states, special districts are often run in the same town meeting fashion as other local governments. Most districts have employees, but some districts exist solely to raise funds by issuing bonds and / or by providing tax increment financing.
Special districts perform many functions including airports, ports, highways, mass transit, parking facilities, fire protection, libraries, parks, cemeteries, hospitals, irrigation, conservation, sewerage, wastewater treatment, solid waste, fiber optic systems, stadiums, water supply, electric power, and natural gas utility.
Originated from English custom, special districts are authorized by state law and must have public foundation, civil office, and public accountability.
Special districts in the United States follow the English custom. The earliest known general law in England authorizing special purpose authorities was the Statute of Sewers of 1532. Single purpose authorities created by individual charters also existed at the time. However, the early authorities were temporary and unconnected to local government structure. The first laws authorizing permanent authorities connected to local governments were the Incorporated Guardians of the Poor, which were created by special acts in the 17th century. Turnpike trusts were an early and popular special purpose authority in England. Internal drainage boards are current examples in parts of England and Wales.
Special districts in the United States are founded by some level of government in accordance with state law (either constitutional amendment, general law, or special acts) and exist in all states. Special districts are legally separate entities with at least some corporate powers. Districts are created by legislative action, court action, or public referendum. The procedures for creating a special district may include procedures such as petitions, hearings, voter or landowner approval, or government approval. Tribal governments may create special districts pursuant to state law and may serve on the boards of special districts.
Special districts, like all public entities, have public foundation. The landmark case of the U.S. Supreme Court addressing public versus private charters was Dartmouth College v. Woodward in 1819. Dartmouth established the fundamental differences between public and private organizations. Critically, a government must be founded by all of the people of a governmental area or by their governmental representatives.
Special districts possess some form of civil office, that is, the board has received a delegation of sovereign power from the state. Some boards may be appointed by only landowners. Private entities may appoint some or all of the members of a special district; however, there must be evidence of civil office. In addition to special districts with privately appointed boards, a special district may have a privately founded board; however, such a board could not be given the power to set a tax.
There is a citizen - government fiscal accountability relationship. To maintain accountability for special districts, states must maintain ultimate control (the power to repeal the authorizing law at any time). Due to public foundation and, thus, ultimate control, the state can freely delegate sovereign power (such as the power to tax) to special districts and can allow them to act autonomously with little supervision.
There is little information available on the earliest special districts in the United States. It is known that park districts existed in the 18th century. Toll road and canal corporations existed in the 19th century. The first general statute authorizing irrigation districts was adopted by California in 1887. The U.S. Census Bureau began identifying and collecting data on special districts in 1942.
The state of Illinois leads the nation in the number of special districts with California close behind. State counts of their special districts may differ from the federal count because the states may have different definitions of a special district than the U.S. Census Bureau.
All of the following examples have been found by the U.S. Census Bureau to be special districts. See the Census of Governments Government Organization publications at a depository library or visit https://www.census.gov and select Governments Division.
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where was popstar never stop never stopping filmed | Popstar: Never Stop Never Stopping - wikipedia
Popstar: Never Stop Never Stopping is a 2016 American mockumentary comedy film directed by Akiva Schaffer and Jorma Taccone and written, produced by and starring Andy Samberg, Schaffer and Taccone. Also produced by Judd Apatow, it co-stars Sarah Silverman, Tim Meadows, Imogen Poots, Joan Cusack, and Maya Rudolph.
The film was released on June 3, 2016 by Universal Pictures and receiving positive reviews from critics. It also grossed $9 million, failing to meet its budget of $20 million.
Told in the form of a musical documentary, Conner Friel (Andy Samberg) is a musical prodigy at an early age, and he forms a rap group, The Style Boyz, with his childhood friends Lawrence (Akiva Schaffer) and Owen (Jorma Taccone). They almost instantly gain fame in the music industry, inspiring many of today 's musicians. However, failing to receive credit for writing Conner 's guest verse on the Poppy - winning single "Turn Up the Beef '', Lawrence leaves.
After the Style Boyz disband, Conner becomes a solo act, taking on the name "Conner4Real '', with Owen as his DJ. Lawrence begins farming in Colorado after a failed attempt at going solo. Conner 's debut album, Thriller, Also, rockets to the top of the charts and Conner 's fame increases. In 2015, Conner releases his sophomore album, Connquest, which receives terrible reviews due to Conner using hundreds of producers rather than Owen 's beats. With sales surprisingly low, Conner 's manager, Harry (Tim Meadows), suggests having Aquaspin, a manufacturer that makes home appliances, sponsor the tour. The company 's appliances begin playing Conner 's songs when in use, causing a nationwide power outage that generates a wave of backlash among Conner 's fans.
Conner begins his album tour, but the shows do not sell as well as he had hoped. Harry suggests they hire hip - hop artist Hunter the Hungry (Chris Redd) as an opening act, and the ticket sales begin to rise. Conner starts to add new gimmicks to his act, including a robotic mask for Owen, publicizing his relationship with actress Ashley Wednesday (Imogen Poots), and a stage trick where he changes costumes in seconds behind a curtain. The trick is seemingly botched in Nashville, when Conner becomes naked mid-concert, thus becoming the subject of mockery.
Conner 's publicist, Paula (Sarah Silverman), suggests he pull another publicity stunt to deflect attention from his humiliation. Conner decides to propose to Ashley on live TV, with a display including a number of trained wolves and a performance by Seal. The music agitates the wolves and they break loose, mauling Seal and the attendees. The backlash against Conner grows, and Ashley breaks up with him and starts dating Seal, who sues Conner for his injuries.
Owen, worried about the declining quality of his friend 's music, sets up a meeting between him, Conner, and Lawrence. The reunion ends poorly when Conner refuses to acknowledge that Lawrence wrote the track that launched his career. Despite Conner 's poor reputation, The Tonight Show agrees to book him on an episode. Jimmy Fallon suddenly invites Conner to perform the Style Boyz ' hit song "Donkey Roll '' along with Owen, which is received well by the crowd despite Conner 's reluctance.
As the tour progresses, Hunter begins to overshadow Conner, selling more records than him and dragging out his act before Conner 's show. At a concert, Hunter announces that he will perform as long as possible, causing Conner to rush the stage. A brawl ensues when Hunter quietly admits that he orchestrated Conner 's wardrobe malfunction. Conner demands that Harry let Hunter go and fires Harry after finding out that he has signed Hunter. Connquest is later knocked off the charts and Aquaspin decides to pull their sponsorship. The remainder of the tour is cancelled, and Owen decides to leave the team when Conner questions his loyalty. After his beloved pet turtle dies, Conner sinks into a depression and moves into his mother 's house. He begins drinking heavily and starts selling crude horse drawings online.
Paula forces Conner to leave the house and takes him to a club featuring Owen. Owen 's music and production are strong, though his singing is subpar. Conner and Owen reconcile and decide to finally make amends with Lawrence. Conner gives Lawrence his Poppy and apologizes, acknowledging Lawrence 's contribution to his music. Conner and Owen discover that Lawrence owns a giant marijuana farm and a music studio in his farmhouse. As the three collaborate in Lawrence 's studio, Conner receives news from Paula that a six - minute slot has opened for Conner to perform at the Poppy Music Awards, and with encouragement from his friends, he decides to reunite The Style Boyz.
At the Poppys, Hunter humiliates himself after arguing with Mariah Carey on stage and Harry quits as his manager after being insulted by him. Conner reconciles with Harry and later finds out that the six - minute slot has been shortened to three minutes, forcing him to perform either a Conner4Real song or a Style Boyz song. Conner decides to perform The Style Boyz 's new song, "Incredible Thoughts '' featuring Michael Bolton. The film ends with Conner reflecting on the lessons he has learned and the value of holding onto relationships after reaching stardom, and introduces a new baby turtle named Maximus II.
Cameos as themselves
Principal photography on the film began on May 14, 2015, announced by Universal Pictures under the working title Conner4real.
The film was released in the United States on June 3, 2016, and in the UK on August 26, 2016 by Universal Pictures. It did not get an international release
The movie was massively advertised on YouTube the month of its release date. On May 10, 2016, Samberg made an appearance on NBC 's The Voice in character as Conner4real to perform "I 'm So Humble '', alongside judge Adam Levine, and give answers to contestants in a humorous Q&A session.
Samberg then made a guest appearance on the season finale of Saturday Night Live, on May 21, 2016. Promoted as a new SNL Digital Short, he appeared in character as Conner4real and debuted a song from the movie ("Finest Girl ''). Taccone and Schaffer received guest writing credits for the episode.
The Popstar: Never Stop Never Stopping soundtrack album, performed by the Lonely Island, was released on June 3, 2016, the day of the film 's release.
In the United States, Popstar: Never Stop Never Stopping opened on June 3, 2016, alongside Me Before You and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Out of the Shadows and was expected to gross around $7 million from 2,311 theaters in its opening weekend. The film grossed $322,000 from its Thursday previews and $1.8 million on its first day. In its opening weekend, the film grossed $4.6 million and finishing 8th at the box office. The film was a box office bomb, grossing just $9.5 million against its $20 million budget.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 78 % based on 154 reviews, with an average rating of 6.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Popstar: Never Stop Never Stopping updates the rock mockumentary for the 21st century mainstream -- and hits many of its low - hanging targets with side - splitting impact. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 68 out of 100, based on 43 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale.
Vince Mancini of Uproxx gave the film a positive review, saying: "It 's as stupid as it is relevant, and that layering of humor styles -- insightful satire, no - holds - barred vulgarity, irresistible juvenilia, surreal pop art, timeless deadpan -- are Popstar 's hallmark. It 's smart, dumb, silly, and gross in all the right ways. I loved it. '' David Palmer of The Reel Deal gave the film 8 / 10, calling it the best comedy of 2016 and praised the songs. Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club wrote: "No music mockumentary has really managed to reproduce This Is Spinal Tap 's comic mojo, but Popstar: Never Stop Never Stopping gets closer than most to that subgenre - defining comedy 's mix of the dead - on and the over-the - top, even if it tends to go for quantity over quality. ''
Popstar: Never Stop Never Stopping was released on Blu - ray and DVD on September 13, 2016. As of June 16, 2017, it has made $1.1 million in home media sales.
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to which destination does bill ultimately drive the party of freudians in ragtime | Ragtime (novel) - wikipedia
Ragtime is a novel by E.L. Doctorow, published in 1975. This work of historical fiction is mainly set in the New York City area from 1902 until 1912, with brief scenes towards the end describing the United States entry into World War I in 1917. A unique adaptation of the historical narrative genre with a subversive 1970s slant, the novel blends fictional and historical figures into a framework that revolves around events, characters and ideas important in American history.
In 1998, the Modern Library ranked Ragtime number 86 on its list of the 100 best English - language novels of the 20th century. Time magazine included the novel in its TIME 100 Best English - Language Novels from 1923 to 2005.
The novel centers on a wealthy family living in New Rochelle, New York, simply named Father, Mother, Mother 's Younger Brother, Grandfather and ' the little boy ', Father and Mother 's young son. The narrator is never identified. The family business is the manufacture of flags and fireworks, an easy source of wealth due to the national enthusiasm for patriotic displays. Father joins the first expedition to the North Pole, and his return sees a change in his relationship with his wife, who has experienced a taste of independence in his absence. Mother 's Younger Brother is a genius at explosives and fireworks, but is an insecure, unhappy character who chases after love and excitement. He becomes obsessed with the notorious socialite Evelyn Nesbit, stalking her through the city and eventually embarking on a brief, unsatisfactory affair with her that leaves him even more isolated.
Into this insecure setup comes first an abandoned black child, then his severely depressed mother, Sarah. Coalhouse Walker, the child 's father, visits regularly to win Sarah 's affections. A professional musician, well dressed and well spoken, he gains the family 's respect and overcomes their prejudice initially by playing ragtime music on their badly - tuned piano. Things go well until he is humiliated by a racist fire crew, led by Will Conklin, who vandalize his Model T Ford. He begins a single - minded pursuit of redress by legal action but discovers he can not hope to win because of the inherent prejudice of the system. Sarah is killed in an attempt to aid him, and Coalhouse uses the money he was saving for their wedding to pay for an extravagant funeral. Having exhausted legal resources, Coalhouse begins killing firemen and bombing firehouses to force the city to meet his demands: that his Model T be restored to its original condition, and Conklin be turned over to him for justice. Mother unofficially adopts Sarah and Coalhouse 's neglected child over Father 's objections, putting strain on their marriage. With a group of angry young men, all of whom come to refer to themselves as ' Coalhouse Walker ', Coalhouse continues his vigilante campaign, and is eventually joined by Younger Brother, who brings with him his knowledge of explosives. Coalhouse and his gang storm the Morgan Library, taking the priceless collection hostage and wiring the building with dynamite. Father is drawn into the escalating conflict as a mediator, as is Booker T. Washington. Coalhouse eventually agrees to exchange Conklin 's life for safe passage for his men, who leave in his restored Model T. Coalhouse is then shot as he surrenders to the authorities.
Interwoven with this story is a depiction of life in the tenement slums of New York city, focused on Eastern European immigrant Tateh, who struggles to support himself and his daughter, after driving her mother off for accepting money for sex with her employer. The girl 's beauty attracts the attention of Evelyn Nesbit, who provides financial support. When Tateh learns her identity, however, it drives him to take his daughter out of the city. Tateh is a talented artist, and earns a living cutting out novelty paper silhouettes on the street. He tries working in a factory, where he experiences a successful workers ' strike, but becomes disillusioned when he see that it changes little about the workers ' lives, although in the final chapter he still describes himself as a socialist. He starts making and selling moving picture books to a novelty toy company, finally becoming a pioneer of animation in the motion picture industry. Tateh subsequently becomes wealthy and styles himself ' the Baron ' in order to move more easily through high society. He meets and falls in love with Mother, who eventually marries him after Father is killed in the sinking of the RMS Lusitania. They adopt each other 's children, as well as Coalhouse 's son, and move to California.
Mixed into the interwoven stories are subplots following prominent figures of the day, including J.P. Morgan, Harry Houdini, Henry Ford, Sigmund Freud and Emma Goldman.
The novel is unusual for the irreverent way that historical figures and fictional characters are woven into the narrative, making for surprising connections and linking different events and trains of thought about fame and success, on the one hand, and poverty and racism on the other. Harry Houdini plays a prominent yet incidental part, reflecting on success and mortality. Arch - capitalist financier J.P. Morgan, pursuing his complex delusions of grandeur, is delivered a plainly spoken comeuppance from down - to - earth Henry Ford. Socialite Evelyn Nesbit becomes involved with the slum family and is aided by the anarchist agitator Emma Goldman. The black moderate politician Booker T. Washington tries to negotiate with Coalhouse Walker, without success.
Other historical characters mentioned include the polar explorer Robert Peary and his black assistant Matthew Henson, the architect Stanford White, Nesbit 's mentally unbalanced husband Harry Kendall Thaw who murdered White for allegedly sexually assaulting Nesbit when she was 15, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, Countess Sophie Chotek, Sigmund Freud, who rides the Tunnel of Love at Coney Island with Carl Jung, Theodore Dreiser, Jacob Riis and the Mexican revolutionary Emiliano Zapata. Several real - life New York City officials also appear in the book - Manhattan District Attorney Charles S. Whitman and Police Commissioner Rhinelander Waldo.
The name Coalhouse Walker is a reference to the German novella Michael Kohlhaas by Heinrich von Kleist, published in 1811. The part of the story involving Coalhouse 's humiliation, and his increasingly unbalanced search for a dignified resolution, closely follow the plot and details of the earlier work by Kleist. The connection was acknowledged by Doctorow, but it is a matter of opinion among critics whether this constitutes literary adaptation or plagiarism.
The novel was a nominee for the Nebula Award for Best Novel and won the National Book Critics Circle Award for fiction in 1975 and the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters Award in 1976.
Fredric Jameson 's Postmodernism, or The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism devotes five pages to Doctorow 's Ragtime to illustrate the crisis of historiography and a resistance to interpretation.
The novel was adapted for a 1981 movie and a 1998 musical.
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you cannot petition the lord with prayer meaning | The Soft Parade (song) - wikipedia
"The Soft Parade '' is the ninth and final track on the album of the same name by the American rock band The Doors, their fourth studio album. At the beginning of the song, Jim Morrison starts out with spoken words reminiscent of a Christian revivalist preacher. This part of the song is referred to as the "Petition the Lord with Prayer '' section. The song then goes into a harpsichord driven semi-introductory piece mainly known as "Sanctuary '', with lyrics such as, "Can you give me sanctuary, I must find a place to hide '' referencing his then - current problems like the Miami and New Haven arrests. Afterwards, the beat picks up and the song progressively gets faster, and features a psychedelic pop section, followed by an upbeat, soft section before going into a wild blues rock part that ends the song. The new, 2006 remastered album reinstates an intro before the ' Petition The Lord With Prayer ' section where Morrison laments that he 's "troubled immeasurably '' by the eyes of an unnamed subject.
A notable, yet rare performance of the song in its entirety was filmed for a PBS Doors television documentary and later included on other Doors compilation DVDs. Keyboardist Ray Manzarek later called the performance "A mother... all four Doors in perfect sympatico ''. The performance also features a rare filmed appearance of a bearded, yet still characteristically charismatic, Jim Morrison, (Morrison usually shaved off his beard for publicity shots and television appearances.) the performance being on the PBS show The Critique.
The song in its entirety was not performed often after the PBS taping, but the ' Petition The Lord With Prayer ' monologue was recited at later shows.
The song draws comparison to William Blake as well as T.S. Eliot 's poem "Ash Wednesday '', much like many other selections of Morrison 's poetry, which are heavily influenced by other poets and authors, notably "Break On Through '', "Not to Touch the Earth '', and numerous others. The song also draws comparison to Jack Kerouac 's "Doctor Sax ''.
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what does london have that other cities don't | City status in the United Kingdom - wikipedia
City status in the United Kingdom is granted by the monarch of the United Kingdom to a select group of communities: as of 2014, there are 69 cities in the United Kingdom -- 51 in England, six in Wales, seven in Scotland and five in Northern Ireland. The holding of city status gives a settlement no special rights. This appellation carries its own prestige and competition for the status is hard - fought.
The status does not apply automatically on the basis of any particular criteria, although in England and Wales it was traditionally given to towns with diocesan cathedrals. This association between having a cathedral and being called a city was established in the early 1540s when King Henry VIII founded dioceses (each having a cathedral in the see city) in six English towns and also granted them city status by issuing letters patent.
City status in Ireland was granted to far fewer communities than in England and Wales, and there are only two pre -- 19th - century cities in present - day Northern Ireland. In Scotland, city status did not explicitly receive any recognition by the state until the 19th century. At that time, a revival of grants of city status took place, first in England, where the grants were accompanied by the establishment of new cathedrals, and later in Scotland and Ireland. In the 20th century, it was explicitly recognised that the status of city in England and Wales would no longer be bound to the presence of a cathedral, and grants made since have been awarded to communities on a variety of criteria, including population size.
The abolition of some corporate bodies as part of successive local government reforms, beginning with the Municipal Corporations (Ireland) Act 1840, has deprived some ancient cities of their status. However, letters patent have been issued for most of the affected cities to ensure the continuation or restoration of their status. At present, Rochester and Elgin are the only former cities in the United Kingdom. The name "City '' does not, in itself, denote city status; it may be appended to place names for historic association (e.g. White City) or for marketing or disambiguation (e.g. Stratford City). A number of large towns (such as with over 200,000 residents) in the UK are bigger than some small cities, but can not legitimately call themselves a city without the royal designation.
The initial cities (Latin: civitas) of Britain were the fortified settlements organised by the Romans as the capitals of the Celtic tribes under Roman rule. The British clerics of the early Middle Ages later preserved a traditional list of the "28 Cities '' (Old Welsh: cair) which was mentioned by Gildas and listed by Nennius.
In the 16th century, a town was recognised as a city by the English Crown if it had a diocesan cathedral within its limits. This association between having a cathedral and being called a city was established when Henry VIII founded dioceses (each having a cathedral in the see city) in six English towns and also granted them city status by issuing letters patent. Some cities today are very small because they were granted city status in or before the 16th century, then were unaffected by population growth during the Industrial Revolution -- notably Wells (population about 10,000) and St Davids (population about 2,000), After the 16th century, no new dioceses (and no new cities) were created until the 19th century.
A long - awaited resumption of creating dioceses began in 1836 with Ripon. Ripon Town Council assumed that this had elevated the town to the rank of a city, and started referring to itself as the City and Borough of Ripon. The next diocese formed was Manchester and its Borough Council began informally to use the title city. When Queen Victoria visited Manchester in 1851, widespread doubts surrounding its status were raised. The pretension was ended when the borough petitioned for city status, which was granted by letters patent in 1853. This eventually forced Ripon to regularise its position; its city status was recognised by Act of Parliament in 1865. From this year Ripon bore city status whilst the rapidly expanding conurbation of Leeds -- in the Ripon diocese -- did not. The Manchester case established a precedent that any municipal borough in which an Anglican see was established was entitled to petition for city status. Accordingly, Truro, St Albans, Liverpool, Newcastle upon Tyne and Wakefield were all officially designated as cities between 1877 and 1888.
This was not without opposition from the Home Office, which dismissed St Albans as "a fourth or fifth rate market town '' and objected to Wakefield 's elevation on grounds of population. In one new diocese, Southwell, a city was not created, because it was a village without a borough corporation and therefore could not petition the Queen. The diocese covered the counties of Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire, and the boroughs of Derby and Nottingham were disappointed that they would not be able to claim the title of city.
The link with Anglican dioceses was broken in 1889 when Birmingham successfully petitioned for city status on the grounds of its large population and history of good local government. At the time of the grant, Birmingham lacked an Anglican cathedral, although the parish church later became a cathedral in 1905. This new precedent was followed by other large municipalities: Leeds and Sheffield became cities in 1893, and Bradford, Kingston upon Hull and Nottingham were honoured on the occasion of Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee in 1897. The last three had been the largest county boroughs outside the London area without city status.
Between 1897 and 1914, applications were received from a number of other boroughs, but only Cardiff was successful in 1905 being designated a city and granted a Lord Mayoralty as "the Metropolis of Wales ''.
The London Government Act 1899 abolished the existing local authorities within the County of London and replaced them with 28 metropolitan boroughs. Among the bodies to be dissolved was the Court of Burgesses of the City of Westminster. William Burdett - Coutts, one of Westminster 's members of parliament, brought forward an amendment to rename the proposed borough of Greater Westminster to City of Westminster. This was intended to give "recognition to the title which the area... had possessed for over three and a half centuries ''. He felt that if the status was not retained for the new borough it "must necessarily disappear altogether ''. The amendment was rejected by the government, however, with the First Lord of the Treasury, Arthur Balfour, believing it would be "an anomaly which, I think, would be not unnaturally resented by other districts which are as large in point of population as Westminster, although doubtless not so rich in historical associations ''. The government eventually relented, with Balfour stating that "as soon as the necessary arrangements under the London Government Act have been completed, there will be conferred on the borough of Westminster, as constituted under the Act, the title of city, originally conferred in the time of Henry VIII ''. Letters patent were duly issued granting the title of "city '' to the newly created Metropolitan Borough of Westminster.
In 1907, the Home Office and King Edward VII agreed on a policy that future applicants would have to meet certain criteria. This policy, which was not at the time made public, had the effect of stemming the number of city creations.
The 1907 policy contained three criteria:
However, well into the 20th century it was often assumed that the presence of a cathedral was sufficient to elevate a town to city status, and that for cathedral cities the city charters were recognising its city status rather than granting it. On this basis, the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica said that Southwell and St Asaph were cities.
The policy laid down by Edward VII was continued by his successor, George V, who ascended the throne in 1910. In 1911, an application for city status by Portsmouth was refused. Explaining the Home Secretary 's reason for not recommending the King to approve the petition, the Lord Advocate stated:
... during the reign of his late Majesty it was found necessary, in order to maintain the value of the distinction, to lay down a rule as to the minimum population which should ordinarily, in connexion with other considerations, be regarded as qualifying a borough for that higher status.
Following the First World War, the King made an official visit to Leicester in 1919 to commemorate its contributions to the military victory. The borough council had made several applications for city status since 1889, and took the opportunity of the visit to renew its request. Leicester had a population of approximately 230,000 at the previous census, but its petition was granted as an exception to the policy, as it was officially a restoration of a dignity lost in the past. When the county borough of Stoke - on - Trent applied for city status in 1925, it was initially refused as it had only 294,000 inhabitants. The decision was overturned, however, as it was felt to have outstanding importance as the centre of the pottery industry. The effective relaxation of the population rule led to applications from Portsmouth and Salford. The civil servants in the Home Office were minded to refuse both applications. In particular, Salford was felt to be "merely a scratch collection of 240,000 people cut off from Manchester by the river ''. Salford 's case, however, was considered favourably by the Home Secretary, William Joynson - Hicks, who had once been MP for a neighbouring constituency of Manchester. Following protests from Portsmouth, which felt it had better credentials as a larger town and as the "first Naval Port of the kingdom '', both applications were approved in 1926.
In 1927, a Royal Commission on Local Government was examining local council areas and functions in England and Wales. The question arose as to which towns were entitled to be called cities, and the chairman, the Earl of Onslow, wrote to the Home Office to seek clarification. The Home Office replied with a memorandum that read:
The title of a city which is borne by certain boroughs is a purely titular distinction. It has no connexion with the status of the borough in respect of local government and confers no powers or privileges. At the present time and for several centuries past the title has been obtained only by an express grant from the Sovereign effected by letters patent; but a certain number of cities possess the title by very ancient prescriptive right. There is no necessary connexion between the title of a city and the seat of a bishopric, and the creation of a new see neither constitutes the town concerned a city nor gives it any claim to the grant of letters patent creating it a city.
In 1928, Plymouth submitted an application for city status. As the borough had more inhabitants than Portsmouth and had absorbed Devonport and East Stonehouse, the King agreed to the request. However, he indicated that he had "come to an end of city making '', and Southampton 's application in the following year was turned down. The next city to be created was Lancaster as part of the celebrations of the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. With a population of a little over 50,000, Lancaster was stated to be an exception due to the town 's "long association with the crown '' and because it was "the county town of the King 's Duchy of Lancaster ''. Following the Second World War, members of Cambridge Borough Council made contact with Lancaster officials for assistance in their application. Cambridge became a city in 1951, again for "exceptional '' reasons, as the only ancient seat of learning in the kingdom not a city or royal burgh and to coincide with the 750th anniversary of the borough 's first charter of incorporation. Croydon also applied in 1951, but failed as it was felt not to have a sufficient identity apart from Greater London, and reports on the conduct of local government in the town were unfavourable.
It was anticipated that the coronation of Elizabeth II in 1953 would lead to the creation of a city, and Wolverhampton, Preston and Southampton made approaches; the only civic honour given was that of a lord mayoralty to Coventry. Derby and Southwark made unsuccessful applications in 1955. The planned reorganisations by the Local Government Commissions for England and Wales from 1958 effectively blocked new city grants. Southampton lodged a petition in 1958. Initially refused in 1959, pending the decision of the Commission, it was eventually allowed in 1964. In the meantime, the administration of London was reformed under the London Government Act 1963. While the City of London was permitted to continue in existence largely unchanged, Westminster was merged with two neighbouring authorities to form a new London borough from 1 April 1965. In December 1963 it was announced that a charter was to be granted incorporating the new authority as "Westminster '', and that the Queen had accepted the advice of the Home Secretary to raise the London borough to the title and dignity of city. This example, of a successor local authority to a merged local government entity taking on that former entity 's city status, was to be replicated in many instances as a result of the 1972 / 74 local government reforms across England and Wales (see below).
With the establishment of the Royal Commission on Local Government in England in 1966, city grants were again in abeyance in England. Attempts by Derby, Teesside and Wolverhampton to become cities were not proceeded with. In Wales, Swansea campaigned for city status throughout the 1960s. The campaign came to a successful conclusion in 1969, in conjunction with the investiture of Charles, Prince of Wales.
The Local Government Act 1972 abolished all existing local authorities outside London (other than parish councils) in England and Wales. This meant that the various local authorities that held city status ceased to exist on 1 April 1974. To preserve city status new letters patent were issued to the most relevant metropolitan borough, non-metropolitan district or successor parish councils created by the Act. Some of these came to cover local government districts many times wider than the previous city, even taking in many square miles of rural land outside the urban areas, for example the cities of Bradford, Leeds and Winchester. Three non-local authority preservations arose: here charter trustees were established for the cities of Lichfield and Salisbury (or New Sarum) being neither districts nor civil parishes, and special letters patent for a time preserved the city of Rochester.
In 1977, as part of the celebrations of the Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II, the Home Office identified nine candidates for city status: Blackburn, Brighton, Croydon, Derby, Dudley, Newport, Sandwell, Sunderland and Wolverhampton. Ultimately, Derby received the award as the largest non-metropolitan district not already designated a city. In April 1980 a parish council was created for Lichfield, and the charter trustees established six years earlier were dissolved. City status was temporarily lost until new letters patent were issued in November of the same year. In 1992, on the fortieth anniversary of the monarch 's accession, it was announced that another town would be elevated to a city. An innovation on this occasion was that a competition was to be held, and communities would be required to submit applications. Sunderland was the successful applicant. This was followed in 1994 by the restoration of the dignity to St David 's, historic see of a bishop. Since 2000, city status has been awarded to towns or local government districts by competition on special occasions. A large number of towns have applied for the honour in recent decades including Blackpool, Colchester, Gateshead, Ipswich, Swindon, Middlesbrough and Croydon. Four successful applicants in England have become cities, as well as two in Wales; in 2000 for the Millennium Celebrations, the new cities were Brighton and Hove and Wolverhampton; in 2002 for the Queen 's Golden Jubilee it was Preston and Newport, and in 2012 for the Queen 's Diamond Jubilee it was Chelmsford and St Asaph.
Other than the cities of London and Westminster, no local authorities in the Greater London area have been granted city status. The Home Office had a policy of resisting any attempt by metropolitan boroughs to become cities even when their populations, and other proposed claims as qualifying criteria, might otherwise have made them eligible. It was felt that such a grant would undermine the status of the two existing cities in the capital. The Metropolitan Borough of Southwark made a number of applications, but in 1955 the borough 's town clerk was told not to pursue the matter any further. Outside the boundaries of the county, the County Borough of Croydon made three applications, all of which were dismissed as it was not seen as being sufficiently separate from London. When the successor London Borough of Croydon applied in 1965 the Assistant Under Secretary of State summarised the case against Croydon: "... whatever its past history, it is now just part of the London conurbation and almost indistinguishable from many of the other Greater London boroughs ''.
The same objections were made when the London Boroughs of Croydon and Southwark unsuccessfully entered the competition for city status to mark the millennium: Croydon was said to have "no particular identity of its own '' while Southwark was "part of London with little individual identity ''. When the most recent competition was held to mark the Golden Jubilee of 2002, Croydon made a sixth application, again unsuccessful. It was joined by the London Borough of Greenwich, which emphasised its royal and maritime connections, while claiming to be "to London what Versailles is to Paris ''. In this vein Greenwich joined Kingston - upon - Thames and Kensington and Chelsea in London in having the title of Royal Borough in 2012.
Rochester was recognised as a city from 1211 to 1998. On 1 April 1974, the city council was abolished, becoming part of the Borough of Medway, a local government district in the county of Kent. However, under letters patent the former city council area was to continue to be styled the "City of Rochester '' to "perpetuate the ancient name '' and to recall "the long history and proud heritage of the said city ''. The city was unique, as it had no council or charter trustees and no mayor or civic head. In 1979, the Borough of Medway was renamed as Rochester - upon - Medway, and in 1982 further letters patent transferred the city status to the entire borough. On 1 April 1998, the existing local government districts of Rochester - upon - Medway and Gillingham were abolished and became the new unitary authority of Medway. Since it was the local government district that officially held city status under the 1982 letters patent, when it was abolished, it also ceased to be a city. Whilst the two other local government districts with city status (Bath and Hereford) that were abolished around this time decided to appoint charter trustees to maintain the existence of the city and the mayoralty, Rochester - upon - Medway City Council did not do so. Medway Council apparently only became aware of this when, in 2002, they discovered that Rochester was not on the Lord Chancellor 's Office 's list of cities. In 2010, it started to refer to the "City of Medway '' in promotional material, but it was rebuked and instructed not to do so in future by the Advertising Standards Authority.
Scotland had no cities by royal charter or letters patent before 1889. The nearest equivalent in pre-Union Scotland was the royal burgh. The term city was not always consistently applied, and there were doubts over the number of officially designated cities. The royal burghs of Edinburgh and Perth anciently used the title civitas, but the term city does not seem to have been used before the 15th century. Unlike the situation in England, in Scotland there was no link between the presence of a cathedral and the title of city. Aberdeen, Glasgow and Edinburgh were accepted as cities by ancient usage by the 18th century, while Perth and Elgin also used the title. In 1856, the burgh of Dunfermline resolved to use the title of city in all official documents in the future, based on long usage and its former status as a royal capital. The status was never officially recognised.
In 1889, Dundee was granted city status by letters patent. The grant by formal document led to doubts about the use of the title city by other burghs. In 1891, the city status of Aberdeen was confirmed when the burgh was enlarged by local Act of Parliament. The Royal Burgh of Inverness applied for promotion to a city as part of the Jubilee honours in 1897. The request was not granted, partly because it would draw attention to the lack of any charter granting the title to existing cities. Aberdeen, Dundee, Edinburgh and Glasgow were constituted "counties of cities '' by the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1929. The Act made no statement on the title city for any other burgh. In 1969, the Home Secretary, James Callaghan, stated that there were six cities in Scotland (without naming them) and Aberdeen, Dundee, Edinburgh, Elgin, Glasgow and Perth were the only burghs listed as cities in 1972.
The Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 completely reorganised Scotland 's local administration in 1975. All burghs were abolished, and a system of districts created. The four districts of Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Dundee and Glasgow had City included in their titles by the Act. The 1975 districts were replaced with the present council areas by the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994 in 1996, and the same four cities were designated. Since the 1996 reorganisation, three more Scottish cities have been designated: Inverness as part of the millennium celebrations, Stirling in 2002 to commemorate Queen Elizabeth II 's Golden Jubilee and Perth in 2012 to mark the Queen 's Diamond Jubilee. In the case of these three cities, there are no city councils and no formal boundaries. In January 2008, a petition to matriculate armorial bearings for the City of Inverness was refused by Lord Lyon King of Arms on the grounds that there is no corporate body or legal persona to whom arms can be granted.
City status in Ireland tended historically to be granted by royal charter. There are many towns in Ireland with Church of Ireland cathedrals that have never been called cities. In spite of this, Armagh was considered a city, by virtue of its being the seat of the Primate of All Ireland, until the abolition of Armagh 's city corporation by the Municipal Corporations (Ireland) Act 1840. The only historic city with a charter in present - day Northern Ireland is Derry. Derry was given its first charter by James I in 1604, but the garrison was attacked and destroyed by Cahir O'Doherty in 1608. The present city is the result of a second charter granted in 1613 to members of the London guilds, as part of the Plantation of Ulster, providing for the building of a walled city, which was renamed Londonderry.
In 1887, the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria was celebrated, and the Borough of Belfast submitted a memorial to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland seeking city status. Belfast based its claim on its similarity to two English boroughs that had received the honour -- the seaport of Liverpool and the textile centre of Manchester -- and the fact that it had (at the time) a larger population than the City of Dublin. Following some legal debate, city status was conferred in 1888. The grant of the honour on the grounds of being a large industrial town, rather than a diocesan centre, was unprecedented. Belfast 's example was soon followed by Birmingham in England and Dundee in Scotland.
In 1994, Armagh 's city status was restored. In 2002, Lisburn and Newry were two of the five towns in the UK that were granted city status by Queen Elizabeth II to mark her Golden Jubilee. In the case of Lisburn, the status extends to the entire local government district. Newry, like Inverness and Stirling in Scotland, has no formal boundaries or city council. The letters patent were presented to representatives of Newry and Mourne District Council on behalf of the city.
According to a Memorandum from the Home Office issued in 1927,
If a town wishes to obtain the title of a city the proper method of procedure is to address a petition to the King through the Home Office. It is the duty of the Home Secretary to submit such petitions to his Majesty and to advise his Majesty to the reply to be returned. It is a well - established principle that the grant of the title is only recommended in the case of towns of the first rank in population, size and importance, and having a distinctive character and identity of their own. At the present day, therefore, it is only rarely and in exceptional circumstances that the title is given.
In fact, a town can now apply for city status by submitting an application to the Lord Chancellor, who makes recommendations to the sovereign. Competitions for new grants of city status have been held to mark special events, such as coronations, royal jubilees or the Millennium.
Some cities in England, Wales and Northern Ireland have the further distinction of having a lord mayor rather than a simple mayor -- in Scotland, the equivalent is the lord provost. Lord mayors have the right to be styled "The Right Worshipful The Lord Mayor ''. The Lord Mayors and Provosts of Belfast, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Glasgow, City of London and York have the further right to be styled "The Right Honourable the Lord Mayor '' (or Provost), although they are not members of the Privy Council as this style usually indicates. The style is associated with the office, not the person holding it, so "The Right Worshipful Joseph Bloggsworthy '' would be incorrect.
There are currently 69 recognised cities (including 30 Lord Mayoralties or Lord Provostships) in the UK: 51 cities (23 Lord Mayoralties) in England, six cities (two Lord Mayoralties) in Wales, seven cities (four Lord Provostships) in Scotland and five cities (one Lord Mayoralty) in Northern Ireland.
In the Republic of Ireland, the ceremonial head of the city government of Dublin is the Lord Mayor of Dublin. This title was granted by Charles II in 1665 when Dublin was part of the Kingdom of Ireland. Whilst the 1665 letters patent provided for the Lord Mayor to hold the formal title of Right Honourable, this was repealed in 2001. There is also a Lord Mayor of Cork, a title granted in 1900 when Cork was still part of the United Kingdom.
In modern practice, competitions are held for cities that wish to gain the distinction of a lord mayor. The 2002 competition was entered by Bath, Cambridge, Carlisle, Chichester, Derby, Exeter, Gloucester, Lancaster, Lincoln, St Albans, St David 's, Salford, Southampton, Sunderland, Truro, Wolverhampton and Worcester; the successful candidate was Exeter. In 2012 a further competition was held, as part of the Diamond Jubilee celebrations, with Armagh receiving the distinction. Eleven other cities entered the contest, namely: Cambridge, Derby, Gloucester, Lancaster, Newport, Peterborough, Salford, Southampton, St Albans, Sunderland, and Wakefield.
Since local government reorganisation in 1974 city status has been awarded to a number of local government districts which are not themselves towns. Each includes a number of towns and villages outside the urban area from which the district takes its name. In some of these cases city status was awarded to districts where the largest settlement had city status before 1974. In other cases a borough was formed to govern an area covering several towns and then city status was granted to the borough. The largest "city '' district in terms of area is the City of Carlisle, which covers some 400 square miles (1,000 km) of mostly rural landscape in the north of England, and is larger than smaller counties such as Merseyside or Rutland. Such cities include:
There are some cities where the local government district is in fact smaller than the historical or natural boundaries of the city. Examples include: Manchester, where the traditional area associated includes areas of the neighbouring authorities of Trafford, Tameside, Oldham, Bury and the City of Salford; Kingston upon Hull, where surrounding areas and villages that are effectively suburbs, such as Cottingham, which comes under East Riding of Yorkshire Council; Glasgow, where suburban areas of the city are located in East Dunbartonshire, East Renfrewshire, North Lanarkshire, Renfrewshire, South Lanarkshire and West Dunbartonshire; Wolverhampton and London.
The holding of city status gives a settlement no special rights other than that of calling itself a "city ''. Nonetheless, this appellation carries its own prestige and, consequently, competitions for the status are hard - fought.
Historically, city status could only be granted to incorporated towns. The grant was specifically awarded to the relevant local government area such as a civil parish or borough. However, recent grants have used a looser wording, where the status is awarded to the "town ''. In most cases the "town '' is held to be coterminous with the relevant local government area, such that the city status holder is the corporate body of the council. Examples include the Letters Patent awarded to the "Towns of Brighton and Hove '', the "Town of Wolverhampton '' and the "Town of Newport in the County Borough of Newport ''. In each case the existing borough council became the city council.
Most cities have city councils, which have varying powers depending on the country and type of settlement.
Twelve of the 51 cities in England are in metropolitan counties and their city councils are single - tier metropolitan district councils. Outside the metropolitan counties eleven cities are unitary authorities, and fifteen have ordinary district councils, which are subordinate to their local county council. In London the Westminster City Council functions as a London borough council, and the City of London Corporation is the council for the City of London. Nine smaller episcopal cities such as Durham and Wells are neither local government districts nor within a ' local government district with city status ', and have city councils which are parish councils, with limited powers. Two cities (Bath and Chester) have no city council.
Aberdeen, Dundee, Edinburgh and Glasgow are themselves council areas and have their own city councils. The cities of Perth, Stirling and Inverness are part of council areas which do not have city status, and have no city councils. Stirling Council 's application for city status was specifically for the urban area of the (now former) Royal Burgh of Stirling and included proposed city boundaries which are much smaller than Stirling council area.
Cardiff, Newport and Swansea are principal areas and have city councils. The city councils of Bangor, St Asaph and St Davids are community councils with limited powers.
Belfast City Council is a local government district council. Since the local government reforms of 2015 the four other cities form parts of wider districts and do not have their own councils.
City status is conferred by letters patent and not by a royal charter (except historically in Ireland). There are twenty towns in England and Wales that were recognised as cities by "ancient prescriptive right ''; none of these communities had been formally declared a city, but they had all used the title since "time immemorial '', that is, before 3 September 1189.
The holding of city status brings no special benefits other than the right to be called a city. All cities where a local government unit that holds that status is abolished have to be re-issued with letters patent reconfirming city status following local government reorganisation where that holder has been abolished. This process was followed by a number of cities since 1974, and York and Hereford 's status was confirmed twice, in 1974 and again in the 1990s. Failure to do so leads to the loss of city status as happened at Rochester in 1998 (see above), and also previously in St David 's and Armagh, although both of these latter have regained city status since losing it. These three had been cities since time immemorial before the loss of city status.
Charters originated as charters of incorporation, allowing a town to become an incorporated borough, or to hold markets. Some of these charters recognised officially that the town involved was a city. Apart from that recognition, it became accepted that such a charter could make a town into a city.
The formal definition of a city has been disputed, in particular by inhabitants of towns that have been regarded as cities in the past such as Colchester and Dunfermline but are not generally considered cities today. Additionally, although the Crown clearly has the right to bestow "official '' city status, some have doubted the right of the Crown to define the word city in the United Kingdom. In informal usage, city can be used for large towns or conurbations that are not formally cities. The best - known example of this is London, which contains two cities (the City of London and the City of Westminster) but is not itself a city.
There are currently 69 officially designated cities in the UK, of which 11 have been created since 2000 in competitions to celebrate the new millennium and Queen Elizabeth II 's Golden Jubilee in 2002 and Diamond Jubilee in 2012. The designation is highly sought after, with over 40 communities submitting bids at recent competitions.
As noted above, in ordinary discourse, city can refer to any large settlement, with no fixed limit.
There are certain towns with large urban areas that could qualify for city status on the grounds of population size. Some have applied for city status and had the application turned down. Northampton is one of the most populous urban districts not to be a London Borough, metropolitan borough, unitary authority or city; on this basis, the council claims that it is the largest town in England.
The government - published "Key Statistics for Built - Up Areas 2011 '' show that the following are the largest urban areas in the United Kingdom not having a city as a component. The name shown is the largest town in the area:
See List of urban areas in the United Kingdom for further examples.
The largest local authorities to have applied for city status in the recent competitions are:
Since being the seat of an Anglican diocese is no longer sufficient or necessary to gain city status, some cathedral towns exist:
The 1911 Encyclopeædia Britannica refers to Southwell as a city.
In total there are 14 English and Welsh cities that have never had Anglican cathedrals within their borders -- Brighton and Hove, Cambridge, Hull, Lancaster, Leeds, Nottingham, Plymouth, Preston, Salford, Southampton, Stoke - on - Trent, Sunderland, Swansea, and Wolverhampton.
Bath Abbey was once a diocesan cathedral, as was Westminster Abbey briefly during the reign of Henry VIII. These cities retained their city status despite their cathedrals losing that status.
The national church of Scotland, the Church of Scotland, is presbyterian in governance (not recognising authority of bishops), and thus has high kirks rather than cathedrals. However, the pre-Reformation dioceses do have extant cathedrals, most notably at Glasgow and Edinburgh, which remain in use by the Church of Scotland and continue to bear the honorific title of cathedral. Others (such as that of St Andrews) are now in ruins.
As noted above, both Perth and Elgin were recognised as cities before 1975 (Perth 's city status was restored in 2012). Additionally, five other pre-Reformation sees -- Brechin, Dunblane, Dunkeld, Kirkwall and St Andrews -- are often referred to as cities, notably in names associated with the settlements (e.g. Brechin City F.C., City Road in St Andrews). Dornoch, Fortrose and Whithorn also possess pre-Reformation cathedrals but have never been described as cities.
Towns with non-Church of Scotland, post-Reformation cathedrals which are not recognised as cities are Ayr (R.C.), Millport (Episcopal), Oban (R.C.), Motherwell (R.C.) and Paisley (R.C.). Of these, Ayr, Motherwell and Paisley have larger populations than Perth, Stirling and Inverness, and both Ayr and Paisley have formally made a bid for city status in the recent past.
Of settlements granted city status in the 21st century, Inverness (awarded 2001) possesses an Episcopal cathedral (1866), but none under the auspices of the Church of Scotland. Stirling (awarded 2002) has never had a cathedral of any kind. Perth (reinstated 2012) has an Episcopal cathedral dating from 1860, but no pre-Reformation establishment.
In Northern Ireland, as noted above, possession of a diocesan cathedral has never (except in the anomalous case of Armagh) been sufficient to attain this status.
In spite of this, the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica refers to Armagh (Armagh had lost city status in 1840) and Lisburn as cities. Armagh subsequently regained city status formally in 1994 and Lisburn achieved city status in 2002.
There are four towns in Northern Ireland with Church of Ireland cathedrals that do not have city status -- Clogher, Downpatrick, Dromore and Enniskillen.
Newry is the only city in Northern Ireland that does not have a Church of Ireland cathedral within its borders.
A number of towns describe themselves as cities (at least in some contexts), despite not having the requisite Charter.
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where will the 2018 grey cup be played | 106th Grey Cup - wikipedia
The 106th Grey Cup (known as the 106th Grey Cup presented by Shaw for sponsorship reasons) will be played to decide the Canadian Football League (CFL) championship for the 2018 season. The game will be televised in Canada nationally on TSN.
The game is scheduled to be played at The Brick Field at Commonwealth Stadium in Edmonton, Alberta on Sunday, November 25, 2018.
On March 24, 2017, it was reported by several news outlets that the Calgary Stampeders and Edmonton Eskimos were bidding to host the 2018 Grey Cup game. In previous years, the games would be awarded based on regional preference or ownership changes (such as Toronto hosting the 104th Grey Cup four years after hosting their previous one). However, beginning with the 2018 game, the league will have a bidding process based on the merits of the application to determine a host. Calgary last hosted the Grey Cup in 2009 while Edmonton last hosted in 2010. Both cities have previously hosted the Grey Cup game four times. Edmonton was awarded the 106th Grey Cup on June 5, 2017 and Calgary was awarded the 107th Grey Cup on April 25, 2018.
Despite having a new stadium, and not having hosted the Grey Cup game since 1996, it was reported that the Hamilton Tiger - Cats would not submit a bid for the 106th Grey Cup due to ongoing lawsuits filed against the construction firms that completed the stadium more than a year behind schedule. Tiger - Cats CEO, Scott Mitchell, relayed that the organization was focused on the lawsuits first and foremost, and once those are completed they will focus on hosting a Grey Cup in the near future.
On June 6, 2018 the Eskimos announced they had sold 51,000 tickets in only four days; leaving only a little more than 4,800 seats remaining.
On June 28, 2018, the CFL announced that The Reklaws would perform prior to the game as part of the SiriusXM Canada Kickoff Show, after their scheduled week 1 halftime performance at Investor 's Group Field was cancelled due to inclement weather.
On September 29, 2018, the CFL announced that Alessia Cara would be the halftime performer.
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who is the 3 headed dragon in transformers 5 | Transformers: the Last Knight - wikipedia
Steve Jablonsky
Transformers: The Last Knight is a 2017 American science fiction action film based on the Transformers toy line created by Hasbro. It is the fifth installment of the live - action Transformers film series, the second film in the sequel trilogy and the sequel to 2014 's Transformers: Age of Extinction. Like its predecessors, the film is directed by Michael Bay, featuring Mark Wahlberg returning from Age of Extinction, with Josh Duhamel, John Turturro, and Glenn Morshower all reprising their roles from the first three films, with Laura Haddock and Anthony Hopkins both joining the cast. Bay has stated that he will not return for another sequel, though he will remain as producer.
The film premiered at Odeon Leicester Square in London on June 18, 2017, and was theatrically released in the United States on June 21, 2017, by Paramount Pictures in 2D, 3D, and IMAX 3D. Like its predecessors, the film received negative reviews from critics and, with an approval rating of 16 % on Rotten Tomatoes, it is the worst - reviewed film of the Transformers series. It underperformed at the domestic and international box office, grossing $605 million worldwide against a budget of $217 million, and making only $132 million in the United States making it the lowest of the franchise.
A spin - off / prequel, entitled Bumblebee: The Movie, is scheduled for release on December 21, 2018 and an untitled sixth film, a direct sequel to The Last Knight, is set to release on June 28, 2019. Bay will produce both films.
In 484 AD, King Arthur and his knights struggle in a devastating battle against the Saxons. Meanwhile, Merlin begs for help from the Knights of Iacon, a group of twelve Transformers who have hidden on Earth. They give Merlin an alien staff and combine themselves into a huge robotic dragon named Dragonstorm to help Arthur triumph over the Saxons, but not before warning Merlin that a great evil will one day come for the staff.
In the present, five years after the Hong Kong battle, all Transformers are declared outlaws by all governments on Earth, and the Transformer Reaction Force (TRF) is formed from the fallen Cemetery Wind faction to kill them, despite more Transformers continuously arriving on Earth. All the while, enormous metallic horns begin to rise from different parts of the world. In a part of war - torn Chicago, a group of children find a ship with a knight inside before being caught by a TRF drone. Izabella, a survivor of the Battle of Chicago, saves the children along with her Transformers companions Sqweeks and Canopy. The drone mistakes Canopy for a Decepticon and kills him before Bumblebee and Cade Yeager, who is also being hunted by the TRF, arrive and rescue the others. Cade finds the knight in the ship, who attaches a metallic talisman to his arm. The Decepticon Barricade observes this act and reports the discovery to Megatron. After a brief standoff with the TRF, Cade and Bumblebee return to their junkyard in South Dakota where the remaining Autobots are taking refuge from the TRF; Izabella and Sqweeks stow away with them.
TRF member and former Autobot ally William Lennox brokers a deal between the TRF and Megatron so he can find Cade and recover the talisman. In exchange, Megatron demands the release of a squad of Decepticons; Nitro Zeus, Mohawk, Onslaught, and Dreadbot. Meanwhile, in deep space, Optimus Prime crash - lands on Cybertron, discovering that it is heading directly for Earth. He encounters Quintessa, the self - proclaimed creator of the Transformers, who brainwashes Optimus and renames him "Nemesis Prime ''. Quintessa tasks him with recovering the staff from the Knights, who had stolen it from her after betraying her. She then reveals that Earth is actually Cybertron 's ancient enemy, Unicron, and she intends to drain its life force using the staff so that Cybertron can be restored.
Back on Earth, Megatron and the TRF locate Cade, his coworker Jimmy, Izabella, Sqweeks, and the Autobots thanks to a tracker that had been planted on Bumblebee during the standoff. This forces them to flee to a nearby abandoned town. In the ensuing battle, Dreadbot, Onslaught, Mohawk, and several TRF soldiers are killed, forcing Megatron, Nitro Zeus, and Barricade to retreat. While fighting off a unit of TRF drones, Cade is approached by Cogman, a Transformer envoy who takes him and Bumblebee to England to meet his master, Sir Edmund Burton. There, Burton arranges a meeting between Cade and Viviane Wembly, an Oxford professor, who had been kidnapped by the Autobot Hot Rod (who gains an alternate form along the way) under Burton 's orders. Burton introduces himself as the last living member of the "Witwiccan '' order, an ancient brotherhood dedicated to guarding the secret history of Transformers on Earth. He reveals that Cade 's talisman indicates he is the Last Knight of Iacon and that Viviane is Merlin 's last descendant, as well as revealing that Viviane must find and use his staff to prevent the impending destruction of Earth by Cybertron. MI6 and the TRF arrive at Burton 's mansion, forcing the group to flee.
After escaping from MI6, the TRF, and Barricade, Cade, Viviane, Bumblebee, and Cogman follow clues left by Viviane 's late father and take the museum submarine HMS Alliance (after Burton shuts the attraction down and reveals that the submarine itself is actually a Transformer) into the sea to find the Cybertronian Knights ' sunken ship; the TRF pursue them with submarines of their own. Burton meets with the Prime Minister to dispatch the military to Stonehenge, which he deduces is Unicron 's access point. In the ship, Cade and Viviane discover the tomb of Merlin and the staff. Viviane activates the staff, which causes the ship to rise towards the surface. The TRF confronts the group and attempts to take the staff from them, before Optimus intervenes and forces them to hand over the staff. Bumblebee chases after Optimus and the two Autobots fight each other at the top of the ship. Before Optimus can kill Bumblebee, the mute Autobot finally speaks, freeing Optimus from Quintessa 's control. Suddenly, Megatron, revealed to be conspiring with Quintessa, arrives to steal the staff and flees while the Knights arrive and attack Optimus for his presumed betrayal. Cade stops the Knights with the talisman, which transforms into King Arthur 's sword Excalibur. The Knights yield to Cade, and he urges Optimus to fight for Earth once more.
As Cybertron anchors itself to Earth, Megatron, Nitro Zeus, and Barricade deliver the staff to Quintessa, who begins draining the life force of Earth from Unicron. Burton and the British military intervene, and Megatron shoots Burton, who dies with Cogman by his side. The Autobots arrive to join the TRF, Cade, Viviane, Izabella, and Sqweeks. They land on Cybertron and battle the Decepticons and Quintessa 's minions, the Infernocons. After Optimus kills the Infernocons, the Autobots reach the chamber where the staff and Quintessa are. Optimus defeats Megatron by kicking him through the chamber 's wall, sending him flying to Earth, while Bumblebee kills Nitro Zeus. Together, Optimus and Bumblebee seemingly kill Quintessa. Viviane removes the staff, stopping Cybertron 's destruction of Earth but leaving both worlds connected. Optimus declares that humans and Transformers must now work together to rebuild their worlds and sends a message calling any surviving Autobots to come home.
In a mid-credits scene, scientists inspect one of Unicron 's horns in a desert. Quintessa, who survived and is now disguised as a human, arrives and offers them a way to destroy Unicron.
Additionally, Mitch Pileggi, Tony Hale, and Gil Birmingham appear as a TRF group leader, a JPL engineer, and Chief Sherman, respectively. Nicola Peltz has a vocal cameo as Tessa Yeager, Cade 's daughter, who helped the Autobots during the events of Age of Extinction, while Shia LeBeouf is seen as Sam Witwicky, who allied with the Autobots in events prior to Age of Extinction, in a photograph spotted in Burton 's mansion. Tyrese Gibson was cast to return as Robert Epps, but was unable to appear in the film due to scheduling conflicts with The Fate of the Furious.
An uncredited actor voices Canopy, an Autobot refugee and a friend of Izabella who camouflages into a shielding pile of rubble. Additionally, an elderly Autobot that transforms into a Hawker Hurricane fighter plane cameos at Burton 's castle, whose voice actor is also uncredited. A Transformer who turns into the HMS Alliance appears, though not seen in robot mode. Trench, an Autobot who resembles the Constructicon Scrapper and transforms into an excavator, makes a cameo at Cade 's junkyard.
Uncredited actors both voice Onslaught, a Decepticon tactician who transforms into a green Western Star 4900SF tow truck, and Berserker, a monstrous Decepticon commando who transforms into a Chevy Tahoe emergency vehicle, each speaking only a single line. Starscream 's severed head is shown being boasted by Daytrader, and later held by Megatron. In Sir Edmund Burton 's castle, a picture of Shockwave is seen; both Shockwave and Soundwave are briefly mentioned by Viviane.
In March 2015, Deadline.com reported that Paramount Pictures was in talks with Oscar winner Akiva Goldsman (A Beautiful Mind) to pitch new ideas for the Transformers franchise 's future installments. The studio intends to do what James Cameron and 20th Century Fox have been doing in planning three Avatar sequels, and what Disney has done to revive Star Wars, with sequels and spin - offs. Paramount wants to have their own cinematic universe for Transformers, similar to Marvel 's / Disney 's Marvel Cinematic Universe (which had been one of Paramount 's previous film series), and DC Comics / Warner Bros. ' DC Extended Universe. Goldsman is the head of the future projects, and worked with franchise director Michael Bay, executive producer Steven Spielberg, and producer Lorenzo di Bonaventura to organize a "writers ' room '' that incubates ideas for potential Transformers sequels, prequels and spin - offs. The writers ' room members include: Christina Hodson, Lindsey Beer, Andrew Barrer, and Gabriel Ferrari (Ant - Man), Robert Kirkman (The Walking Dead), Art Marcum & Matt Holloway, Zak Penn (Pacific Rim: Uprising), Jeff Pinkner (The Amazing Spider - Man 2), Ken Nolan, and Geneva Robertson - Dworet. Kirkman left the room after just one day to undergo throat surgery. In July 2015, Akiva Goldsman and Jeff Pinkner were announced as the fifth Transformers film 's screenwriters. However, on November 20, due to Goldsman 's commitments creating a writers ' room for G.I. Joe and Micronauts properties, Paramount began to negotiate with Art Marcum and Matt Holloway (Iron Man), as well as Ken Nolan (Black Hawk Down), to write the film. Lindsey Beer and Geneva Robertson - Dworet were also brought aboard for writing duties.
After Transformers: Age of Extinction, Bay had decided not to direct any future Transformers films. But in early January 2016, in an interview with Rolling Stone, he stated that he would return to direct the fifth film, and that it will be his last Transformers film. Paramount Pictures spent $80 million on production in Michigan, in return for $21 million in state incentives, under agreements entered into before the state legislature eliminated the film office incentive program in July 2015. In April 2016, Paramount hired cinematographer Jonathan Sela. On May 17, Bay revealed the official title of the film to be The Last Knight on his Instagram account, where he also posted a production video showing a close - up of Optimus Prime 's face with purple eyes instead of blue, and his face mostly discolored. The official Twitter account showed a 19 - second short video in morse code that translates to "I 'm coming for you May 31 ''. On May 31, it was revealed that Megatron would return in the sequel.
In December 2014, Mark Wahlberg confirmed that he would return in the sequel. In February 2016, there were casting calls for new lead and supporting roles in Los Angeles and London, and Peter Cullen was announced as returning to voice Optimus Prime. Approximately 850 cast and crew were hired, 450 of whom were Michigan residents, equating to 228 full - time positions. Additionally, 700 extras were hired from among Detroit residents, as part of Paramount 's incentive deal with the state. On April 13, TheWrap reported that Isabela Moner was in talks to star as Izabella. The site also reported that Bay was eyeing Jean Dujardin, Stephen Merchant, and Jerrod Carmichael for supporting roles. On May 17, 2016, it was confirmed that Josh Duhamel would reprise his role in the film, and Jerrod Carmichael was cast. In June 2016, Anthony Hopkins, Mitch Pileggi, Santiago Cabrera, and Laura Haddock joined the cast, and Tyrese Gibson stated that he will return as Robert Epps. In August 2016, Liam Garrigan was confirmed to play King Arthur, a different version from his role as the same character on the television series Once Upon a Time. On September 4, 2016, Stanley Tucci confirmed his return. On October 14, 2016, Bay announced that John Turturro would reprise his role as Seymour Simmons from the first three films, and that John Goodman would return to voice Hound. A month before the film 's release, Bay revealed that the character Cogman would be voiced by Downton Abbey actor Jim Carter, at the request of co-writer Matt Holloway, who is a fan of the series. On June 9, 2017, Reno Wilson confirmed via Twitter that he would have a voice role in the film. On June 16, 2017, Gibson revealed that despite closing a deal for the film, he was unable to appear as Epps due to scheduling conflicts with The Fate of the Furious.
Principal photography began on May 25, 2016, in Havana, Cuba, with a few scenes shot by a "small team ''. Filming continued on June 6, 2016, in Phoenix, Arizona, and on June 19, 2016, in Detroit, Michigan, under the working title E75, with additional filming taking place in Chicago, Illinois. In Detroit, filming took place in the Michigan Motion Pictures Studio, Packard Plant, Michigan Central Station, Cafe D'Mongo's Speakeasy, and MGM Grand Detroit. Production moved to Europe on August 21, and filming commenced on August 22 in Scotland and Wales. In England, filming took place in North Yorkshire, Newcastle upon Tyne, Northumberland, London, Gosport and Stonehenge. Between August and October, filming occurred in Ireland, and Preikestolen, Trolltunga and Atlanterhavsveien in Norway.
In early September 2016, filming took place in Alnwick Castle in Alnwick Northumberland in England, including car chase scenes. Production continued at St Aidan 's Church, Seahouses, where Walhberg spent an hour inside the church and reportedly donated £ 200. Rev Father Des McGiven said: "I did n't even know he was in church until he left. One of my parishioners, Danielle Love, recognised him and explained who he was. It 's great that we had him in for the service, and we appreciate his generosity towards our church. '' Car chases were also filmed at the Monument area of Newcastle upon Tyne, where Josh Duhamel was filming, while Wahlberg and Sir Anthony Hopkins continued at Alnwick, Seahouses and the Bamburgh Region of Northumberland. In late September 2016, filming was spotted in Gosport, Hampshire at the Royal Navy Submarine Museum. On October 5, 2016 filming was spotted at St Bartholomew - the - Great, London. London filming wrapped on October 27, 2016. Principal photography wrapped on December 4, 2016.
As with previous Transformers installments, Industrial Light & Magic served as the main visual effects company for Transformers: The Last Knight. In early 2016, the company showed Bay an underwater rendering of a crash - landed alien spaceship and a new dump - truck Transformer with a cloak.
On September 27, it was confirmed that Steve Jablonsky would return to write the score, having composed the music for the first four films. The score was released digitally on the film 's original release date, Friday June 23, 2017, and a limited - edition two - disc CD set of 3,000 units will be released by La - La Land Records on July 11, 2017. Unlike the previous films ' scores, which contained anywhere from fourteen to twenty - three tracks, the film 's soundtrack contains thirty - four tracks, amounting to over two hours of music.
On the score, Jablonsky said, "I met with Michael before he started shooting ' Transformers: The Last Knight. ' He showed me some amazing concept art and explained how the story connects the history of Transformers all the way back to the times of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. I loved the idea because it gave me the opportunity to explore new musical ideas. The storyline allowed me to write melodies that are a bit more ' classical ' than I 've written for the other Transformers films, which was a lot of fun for me. Another important aspect of the story revolves around massive skyscraper - sized ' horns from hell ' that start emerging from the Earth. They look like gigantic animal horns, but no one knows what they are or why they have appeared. I wanted to create an unsettling sense of mystery and tension with the music. '' The film also featured the song Torches by X Ambassadors.
Transformers: The Last Knight was released on June 21, 2017, after being moved up from its original June 23 release date. The teaser trailer of the film was released on December 5, 2016, and was later attached to Rogue One.
The first teaser trailer aired on Monday, December 5, during ESPN 's Monday Night Football, and was released online shortly thereafter. With 24 hours of its release, the trailer garnered a record - breaking 93.6 million views from social media platforms, such as Facebook, YouTube, Twitter and Instagram, making it the third - highest - viewed trailer of 2016, falling behind Disney 's Beauty and the Beast remake (127.6 million views) and Universal 's Fifty Shades Darker (114 million views in 24 hours), but surpassing Marvel Studios ' Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 trailer, which scored 81 million views in its first 24 hours online. Following the trailer 's release, the film trended on all major social media sites, including YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, and Reddit. It was Weibo 's No. 1 trending topic in China, where the preview was viewed 16 million times its first day of release. Television spots for the film started airing ahead of the Super Bowl spot on February 3, 2017. An extended TV spot for the Super Bowl aired during Super Bowl LI, on February 5, 2017. On March 11, 2017, a new TV spot and clip were shown at Nickelodeon 's 2017 Kids ' Choice Awards. A new trailer aired with the release of Beauty and the Beast on March 17, 2017, while the third trailer was released on April 13, 2017. The international trailer was released on May 17th, 2017, and a smaller trailer was released shortly after, on June 4, 2017. After that, various TV spots were released.
Transformers: The Last Knight was released on Digital HD on September 12, 2017, and on Blu - ray, Blu - ray 4K, Blu - ray 3D and DVD on September 26, 2017 in the United States. It was also released in a collection with the four previous films.
Transformers: The Last Knight grossed $130.2 million in the United States and Canada and $475.3 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $605.4 million, against a production budget of $217 million. It is the lowest grossing film of the Transformers film series.
In North America, The Last Knight was originally projected to gross $70 -- 75 million from 4,069 theaters over its first five days, which would have been the lowest debut of the franchise. However, after the film grossed a franchise - low $15.7 million on its first day (including $5.5 million from Tuesday night previews), opening estimates were lowered to $60 -- 65 million. On Thursday, it grossed $8.1 million, potentially dropping the five - day debut to under $60 million. It ended up having an opening weekend of $44.6 million, the lowest debut of the franchise by $25 million (and lowest since the first film 's $70.5 million). The film 's five - day gross of $68.4 million was also lower than every three - day opening of the previous four films. The film grossed $16.9 million in its second weekend, dropping 62.2 % and finishing third at the box office, and $6.4 million in its third, dropping an identical 62.2 % and finishing 5th. The film closed from theatres on August 24, 2017 with only $130 million domestic, failing to recoup it 's $217 million budget, thus making it the lowest grossing domestic film of the Transformers film series.
Internationally, The Last Knight opened in its first 42 foreign territories alongside its United States debut, including major markets China, the UK, Russia, Australia, Germany, Italy, South Korea and Hong Kong, and was projected to have an opening of $167 -- 200 million. Due to its predecessor 's success in China, expectations were high for the film in the country. Box office observers and trackers believed the film would open to $80 -- 100 million, and end its run there with anywhere between $290 to $400 million. The film ended up having a global debut of $265.3 million ($196.2 million from overseas), including $123.4 million from China, representing 63 % of the film 's foreign opening. In the film 's second week in China, it fell 76 % and had a running cume of $147.6 million. As of August 6, 2017, the film 's largest markets outside North America are: China ($228.84 million), South Korea ($19.24 million), Russia ($15.89 million), Germany ($15.42 million), Mexico ($15.33 million), U.K. ($12.19 million), Brazil ($13.70 million), Indonesia ($11.71 million), Japan ($15.69 million) and France ($10.99 million). In India, the film was given an adult certificate and, hence, it was not successful at the Indian box office (4.87 million) as compared to Age of Extinction (10.23 million) and other Transformers movies (3.01 million TF1, 2.80 million ROTF, 6.88 million DOTM).
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 16 % based on 204 reviews, with an average rating of 3.3 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Cacophonous, thinly plotted, and boasting state - of - the - art special effects, The Last Knight is pretty much what you 'd expect from the fifth installment of the Transformers franchise. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 28 out of 100 based on 46 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Mike Ryan of Uproxx gave the film a negative review, criticizing its running time and incoherent plot, writing: "I have no proof Transformers: The Last Knight will kill your brain cells, but I would n't be surprised to learn that it does and I 'd proceed with caution just in case. But I can say with absolute certainty that after watching, your head will hurt. '' Alonso Duralde of TheWrap was also critical of the film 's sloppiness, saying, "... fear not, fans of the franchise: if you 're here for the director 's trademark chaos editing (where fights go from points A to D to Q), toxic masculinity (and female objectification), comedy scenes rendered tragic (and vice versa), and general full - volume confusion, you 'll get all those things in abundance. ''
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film a zero - star review (as he did to the previous films), saying "Every time Michael Bay directs another Transformers abomination (this is the fifth), the movies die a little. This one makes the summer 's other blockbuster misfires look like masterpieces. ''
Variety gave the film a lukewarm review stating, "The fifth time may not quite be the charm, but the latest entry in Michael Bay 's crunched - metal robot - war mega-series is badder, and therefore better. ''
The New Yorker acknowledged the film 's flaws but noted there was almost something impressive about them, saying: "The absolute tastelessness of Bay 's images, their stultifying service to platitudes and to merchandise, does n't at all diminish their wildly imaginative power. '' Times Of India gave the movie 2.5 stars out of 5 stars.
On September 21, 2016, shooting for a particular scene took place in Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, Oxfordshire in England, the home of Sir Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister during World War II. The mansion was dressed as a Nazi swastika - draped headquarters for Adolf Hitler for filming. This evoked both anger and criticism for being "symbolically disrespectful to Churchill '', according to Colonel Richard Kemp, who said Churchill "will be turning in his grave '', while Tony Hayes of the UK Veterans Association stated that surviving World War II ex-servicemen and women would be "appalled ''. Churchill 's grandson and British Parliament member Sir Nicholas Soames dismissed the controversy entirely, stating, "They 've no idea what my grandfather would have thought! '' Churchill was buried less than a mile away, at St Martin 's Church, Bladon.
A spin - off / prequel, entitled Bumblebee: The Movie which stars Hailee Steinfeld and John Cena is set for release on December 21, 2018. The movie 's working title is ' Brighton Falls ' and will wrap up shooting in November 2017, while a direct sequel to The Last Knight, the yet - to - be-titled Transformers 6 is scheduled to be released on June 28, 2019.
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which prime minister of india was born this country but died in a foreign nation | Lal Bahadur Shastri - Wikipedia
Lal Bahadur Shastri (Hindustani: (laːl bəˈɦaːdʊr ˈʃaːstri), listen (help info), 2 October 1904 -- 11 January 1966) was the 2nd Prime Minister of India and a senior leader of the Indian National Congress political party.
Shastri joined the Indian independence movement in the 1920s and with his friend Nithin Eslavath. Deeply impressed and influenced by Mahatma Gandhi (with whom he shared his birthday), he became a loyal follower, first of Gandhi, and then of Jawaharlal Nehru. Following independence in 1947, he joined the latter 's government and became one of Prime Minister Nehru 's principal, first as Railways Minister (1951 -- 56), and then in a variety of other functions, including Home Minister.
He led the country during the Indo - Pakistan War of 1965. His slogan of "Jai Jawan Jai Kisan '' ("Hail the soldier, Hail the farmer '') became very popular during the war. The war formally ended with the Tashkent Agreement on 10 January 1966; he died the following day, still in Tashkent, with the cause of his death in dispute: it was initially reported to be a cardiac arrest. Shastri was a Nehru loyalist. Nehru was his mentor and was fond of Shastri. Although Shastri faced stiff opposition from within his party, his relationship with Nehru aided his ascension to the office of Prime Minister.
Shastri was born at the house of his maternal grandparents in Ramnagar, Varanasi in a Kayastha Hindu family, that had traditionally been employed as Highly administrators and civil servants. Shastri 's paternal ancestors had been in the service of the zamindar of Ramnagar near Varanasi and Shastri lived there for the first one year of his life. Shastri 's father, Sharada Prasad Srivastava, was a school teacher who later became a clerk in the revenue office at Allahabad, while his mother, Ramdulari Devi, was the daughter of Munshi Hazari Lal, the headmaster and English teacher at a railway school in Mughalsarai. Shastri was the second child and eldest son of his parents; he had an elder sister, Kailashi Devi (b. 1900).
In April 1906, When Shastri was hardly one year old, his father, had only recently been promoted to the post of deputy tahsildar, died in an epidemic of bubonic plague. Ramdulari Devi, then only 23 and pregnant with her third child, took her two children and moved from Ramnnagar to her father 's house in Mughalsarai and settled there for good. She gave birth to a daughter, Sundari Devi, in July 1906. Thus, Shastri and his sisters grew up in the household of his maternal grandfather, Hazari Lal. However, Hazari Lal himself died from a stroke in mid-1908, after which the family were looked after by his brother (Shastri 's great - uncle) Darbari Lal, who was the head clerk in the opium regulation department at Ghazipur, and later by his son (Ramdulari Devi 's cousin) Bindeshwari Prasad, a school teacher in Mughalsarai.
In Shastri 's family, as with many Kayastha families, it was the custom in that era for children to receive an education in the Urdu language and culture. This is because Urdu / Persian had been the language of government for centuries, before being replaced by English, and old traditions persisted into the 20th century. Therefore, Shastri began his education at the age of four under the tutelage of a maulvi (a Muslim cleric), Budhan Mian, at the East Central Railway Inter college in Mughalsarai. He studied there until the sixth standard. In 1917, Bindeshwari Prasad (who was now head of the household) was transferred to Varanasi, and the entire family moved there, including Ramdulari Devi and her three children. In Varanasi, Shastri joining the seventh standard at Harish Chandra High School. At this time, he decided to drop his caste - derived surname of "Srivastava '' (which is a traditional surname for all Kayastha families).
While Shastri 's family had no links to the independence movement then taking shape, among his teachers at Harish Chandra High School was an intensely patriotic and highly respected teacher named Nishkameshwar Prasad Mishra, who gave Shastri much - needed financial support by allowing him to tutor his children. Inspired by Mishra 's patriotism, Shastri took a deep interest in the freedom struggle, and began to study its history and the works of several of its noted personalities, including those of Swami Vivekananda, Gandhi and Annie Besant. In January 1921, when Shastri was in the 10 standard and three months from sitting the final examinations, he attended a public meeting in Benares hosted by Gandhi and Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya. Inspired by the Mahatma 's call for students to withdraw from government schools and join the non-cooperation movement, Shastri withdrew from Harish Chandra the next day and joined the local branch of the Congress Party as a volunteer, actively participating in picketing and anti-government demonstrations. He was soon arrested and jailed, but was then let off as he was still a minor. Shastri 's immediate supervisor was a former Benares Hindu University lecturer named J.B. Kripalani, who would become one of the most prominent leaders of the Indian independence movement and among Gandhi 's closest followers. Recognising the need for the younger volunteers to continue their educations, Kripalani and a friend, V.N. Sharma, had founded an informal school centered around "nationalist education '' to educate the young activists in their nation 's heritage. With the support of a wealthy philanthropist and ardent Congress nationalist, Shiv Prasad Gupta, the Kashi Vidyapith was inaugurated by Gandhi in Benares as a national institution of higher education on 10 February 1921. Among the first students of the new institution, Shastri graduated with a first - class degree in philosophy and ethics from the Vidyapith in 1925. He was given the title Shastri ("scholar ''). The title was a bachelor 's degree awarded by the Vidyapith, but it stuck as part of his name.
Shastri enrolled himself as a life member of the Servants of the People Society (Lok Sevak Mandal), founded by Lala Lajpat Rai, and began to work for the betterment of the Harijans under Gandhi 's direction at Muzaffarpur. Later he became the President of the Society.
In 1928 shastri become an active and mature member of congress at the call of gandhiji. Shastri participated in the Salt Satyagraha in 1930. He was imprisoned for two and a half years. Later, he worked as the Organizing Secretary of the Parliamentary Board of U.P. in 1937. In 1940, he was sent to prison for one year, for offering individual Satyagraha support to the independence movement.
On 8 August 1942, Mahatma Gandhi issued the Quit India speech at Gowalia Tank in Mumbai, demanding that the British leave India. Shastri, who had just then come out after a year in prison, travelled to Allahabad. For a week, he sent instructions to the independence activists from Jawaharlal Nehru 's home, Anand Bhavan. A few days later, he was arrested and imprisoned until 1946. Shastri spent almost nine years in jail in total. During his stay in prison, he spent time reading books and became familiar with the works of western philosophers, revolutionaries and social reformers.
Following India 's independence, Shastri was appointed Parliamentary Secretary in his home state, Uttar Pradesh. He became the Minister of Police and Transport under Govind Ballabh Pant 's Chief Ministership on 15 August 1947 following Rafi Ahmed Kidwai 's departure to become minister at centre. As the Transport Minister, he was the first to appoint women conductors. As the minister in charge of the Police Department, he ordered that police use water jets, whose instructions was given by him, instead of lathis to disperse unruly crowds. His tenure as police minister (As Home Minister was called prior to 1950) saw successful curbing of communal riots in 1947, mass migration and resettlement of refugees.
In 1951, Shastri was made the General Secretary of the All - India Congress Committee with Jawaharlal Nehru as the Prime Minister. He was directly responsible for the selection of candidates and the direction of publicity and electioneering activities. His cabinet consisted of the finest business men of India including Ratilal Premchand Mehta. He played an important role in the landslide successes of the Congress Party in the Indian General Elections of 1952, 1957 and 1962. In 1952, he successfully contested UP Vidhansabha from Soraon North cum Phulpur West seat and won getting over 69 % of vote. He was believed to be retained as home minister of UP, but in a surprise move was called to Centre as minister by Nehru. Shastri was made Minister of Railways in First Cabinet of Republic of India on 13 May 1952.
Jawaharlal Nehru died in office on 27 May 1964 and left a void. Then Congress Party chief Minister K. Kamaraj was instrumental in making Shastri Prime Minister on 9 June. Shastri, though mild - mannered and soft - spoken, was a Nehruvian socialist and thus held appeal to those wishing to prevent the ascent of conservative right - winger Morarji Desai.
In his first broadcast as Prime Minister, on 11 June 1964, Shastri stated:
There comes a time in the life of every nation when it stands at the cross-roads of history and must choose which way to go. But for us there need be no difficulty or hesitation, no looking to right or left. Our way is straight and clear -- the building up of a secular mixed - economy democracy at home with freedom and prosperity, and the maintenance of world peace and friendship with select nations.
Shastri retained many members of Nehru 's Council of Ministers. T.T. Krishnamachari was retained as the Finance Minister of India, as was Defence Minister Yashwantrao Chavan. He appointed Swaran Singh to succeed him as External Affairs Minister. He also appointed Indira Gandhi, daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru and former Congress President, as the Minister of Information and Broadcasting. Gulzarilal Nanda continued as the Minister of Home Affairs.
Lal Bahadur Shastri 's tenure witnessed the Madras anti-Hindi agitation of 1965. The government of India had for a long time made an effort to establish Hindi as the sole national language of India. This was resisted by the non-Hindi speaking states particularly Madras State. To calm the situation, Shastri gave assurances that English would continue to be used as the official language as long the non-Hindi speaking states wanted. The riots subsided after Shastri 's assurance, as did the student agitation.
Shastri discontinued Nehru 's socialist economic policies with central planning. He promoted the White Revolution -- a national campaign to increase the production and supply of milk -- by supporting the Amul milk co-operative of Anand, Gujarat and creating the National Dairy Development Board.
He visited Anand on 31 October 1964 for inauguration of the Cattle Feed Factory of Amul at Kanjari. As he was keenly interested in knowing the success of this co-operative, he stayed overnight with farmers in a village, and even had dinner with a farmer 's family. He discussed his wish with Mr Verghese Kurien, then the General Manager of Kaira District Co-operative Milk Producers ' Union Ltd (Amul) to replicate this model to other parts of the country for improving the socio - economic conditions of farmers. As a result of this visit, the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) was established at Anand in 1965
While speaking on the chronic food shortages across the country, Shastri urged people to voluntarily give up one meal so that the food saved could be distributed to the affected populace. However he ensured that he first implemented the system in his own family before appealing to the country. He went on air to appeal to his countrymen to skip a meal a week. The response to his appeal was overwhelming. Even restaurants and eateries downed the shutters on Monday evenings. Many parts of the country observed the "Shastri Vrat ''. He motivated the country to maximize the cultivation of food grains by ploughing the lawn himself, at his official residence in New Delhi.
During the 22 - day war with Pakistan in 1965, On 19 October 1965, Shastri gave the seminal ' Jai Jawan Jai Kishan ' ("Hail the soldier, Hail the farmer '') slogan at Urwa in Allahabad that became a national slogan.
Underlining the need to boost India 's food production. Shastri also promoted the Green Revolution. Though he was a socialist, Shastri stated that India can not have a regimented type of economy.
The Food Corporation of India was set up under the Food Corporation 's Act 1964. Also The National Agricultural Products Board Act.
For the outstanding slogan given by him during Indo - Pak war of 1965 Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India) commemorated Shastriji even after 47 years of his death on his 48th martyr 's day:
Former Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri was one of those great Indians who has left an indelible impression on our collective life. Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri 's contribution to our public life were unique in that they were made in the closest proximity to the life of the common man in India. Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri was looked upon by Indians as one of their own, one who shared their ideals, hopes and aspirations. His achievements were looked upon not as the isolated achievements of an individual but of our society collectively.
Under his leadership India faced and repulsed the Pakistani invasion of 1965. It is not only a matter of pride for the Indian Army but also for every citizen of the country. Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri 's slogan Jai Jawan! Jai Kisan!! reverberates even today through the length and breadth of the country. Underlying this is the inner-most sentiments ' Jai Hind '. The war of 1965 was fought and won for our self - respect and our national prestige. For using our Defence Forces with such admirable skill, the nation remains beholden to Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri. He will be remembered for all times to come for his large heartedness and public service.
Shastri continued Nehru policy of non-alignment but also built closer relations with the Soviet Union. In the aftermath of the Sino - Indian War of 1962 and the formation of military ties between the Chinese People 's Republic and Pakistan, Shastri 's government decided to expand the defence budget of India 's armed forces.
In 1964, Shastri signed an accord with the Sri Lankan Prime minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike regarding the status of Indian Tamils in the then Ceylon. This agreement is also known as the Sirima - Shastri Pact or the Bandaranaike - Shastri pact.
Under the terms of this agreement, 600,000 Indian Tamils were to be repatriated, while 375,000 were to be granted Sri Lankan citizenship. This settlement was to be done by 31 October 1981. However, after Shastri 's death, by 1981, India had taken only 300,000 Tamils as repatriates, while Sri Lanka had granted citizenship to only 185,000 citizens (plus another 62,000 born after 1964). Later, India declined to consider any further applications for citizenship, stating that the 1964 agreement had lapsed.
India 's relationship with Burma had been strained after the 1962 Military coup followed by the repatriation of many Indian families in 1964 by Burma. While the central government in New Delhi monitored the overall process of repatriation and arranged for identification and transportation of the Indian returnees from Burma, it fell under the responsibilities of local governments to provide adequate facilities to shelter the repatriates upon disembarkation on Indian soil. Particularly in the Madras State the Chief Minister during that time, Minjur K. Bhaktavatsalam, showed care in rehabilitation of the returnees. In December 1965 Shastri made an official visit with his Family to Rangoon, Burma and re-established cordial relations with the country 's military government of General Ne Win.
Shastri 's greatest moment came when he led India in the 1965 Indo - Pak War.
Laying claim to half the Kutch peninsula, the Pakistani army skirmished with Indian forces in August, 1965. In his report to the Lok Sabha on the confrontation in Kutch, Shastri stated:
In the utilization of our limited resources, we have always given primacy to plans and projects for economic development. It would, therefore, be obvious for anyone who is prepared to look at things objectively that India can have no possible interest in provoking border incidents or in building up an atmosphere of strife... In these circumstances, the duty of Government is quite clear and this duty will be discharged fully and effectively... We would prefer to live in poverty for as long as necessary but we shall not allow our freedom to be subverted.
On 1 August 1965, major incursions of militants and Pakistani soldiers began, hoping not only to break down the government but incite a sympathetic revolt. The revolt did not happen, and India sent its forces across the Ceasefire Line (now Line of Control) and threatened Pakistan by crossing the International Border near Lahore as war broke out on a general scale. Massive tank battles occurred in the Punjab, and while the Pakistani forces made gains in the northern part of subcontinent, Indian forces captured the key post at Haji Pir, in Kashmir, and brought the Pakistani city of Lahore under artillery and mortar fire.
On 17 September 1965, while the Indo - Pak war was on, India received a letter from China alleging that the Indian army had set up army equipment in Chinese territory, and India would face China 's wrath, unless the equipment was pulled down. In spite of the threat of aggression from China, Shastri declared "China 's allegation is untrue ''. The Chinese did not respond, but the Indo - Pak war resulted in some 3 -- 4,000 casualties on each side and significant loss of material.
The Indo - Pak war ended on 23 September 1965 with a United Nations - mandated ceasefire. In a broadcast to the nation on the day of the ceasefire, Shastri stated:
While the conflict between the armed forces of the two countries has come to an end, the more important thing for the United Nations and all those who stand for peace is to bring to an end the deeper conflict... How can this be brought about? In our view, the only answer lies in peaceful coexistence. India has stood for the principle of coexistence and championed it all over the world. Peaceful coexistence is possible among nations no matter how deep the differences between them, how far apart they are in their political and economic systems, no matter how intense the issues that divide them.
During his tenure as Prime Minister, Shastri visited many countries including Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, England, Canada, Nepal, Egypt and Burma. Incidentally while returning from the Non Alliance Conference in Cairo on the invitation of then President of the Pakistan, Mohammed Ayub Khan to have lunch with him, Shastri made a stop over at Karachi Airport for few hours and breaking from the protocol Ayub Khan personally received him at the Airport and had an informal meeting during October 1964. After the declaration of ceasefire with Pakistan in 1965, Shastri and Ayub Khan attended a summit in Tashkent (former USSR, now in modern Uzbekistan), organized by Alexei Kosygin. On 10 January 1966, Shastri and Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Declaration.
Shastri died in Tashkent, at 02: 00 on the day after signing the Tashkent Declaration, reportedly due to a heart attack, but people allege conspiracy behind the death. He was the first Prime Minister of India to die overseas. He was eulogized as a national hero and the Vijay Ghat memorial established in his memory. Upon his death, Gulzarilal Nanda once again assumed the role of Acting Prime Minister until the Congress Parliamentary Party elected Indira Gandhi over Morarji Desai to officially succeed Shastri.
Shastri 's sudden death immediately after signing the Tashkent Pact with Pakistan raised many questions in the minds of Indian citizens. The Prime Minister of India going to Tashkent for a pact and never coming back has not been accepted easily by Indian citizens. His health was fit according to his doctor, R.N. Chugh, and he had no sign of heart trouble before.
After Shastri 's death, his wife Lalita Shastri had alleged he was poisoned. An epic poetry book in Hindi titled Lalita Ke Aansoo written by Krant M.L. Verma was published in 1978. In this book, the tragic story about the death of Shastri has been narrated by his wife Lalita Shastri. There are still serious doubts surrounding the nature of his death. His son, Sunil Shastri, asked the government to unravel the mystery behind Lal Bahadur Shastri 's death. Raising doubts about the dark blue spots and cut marks on the abdomen of his father 's body after his death in 1966, Sunil asked how the cut marks appeared if a post-mortem had not been conducted.
When Shastri went to the USSR for the Tashkent talks, he wanted a promise from Ayub Khan that Pakistan would never use force in the future. But the talks did not proceed and followed Shastri 's death on the next day. The Indian Government released no information about his death, and the media then was kept silent. The possible existence of a conspiracy was covered in India by the Outlook magazine. A query was later posed by Anuj Dhar, author of CIA 's Eye on South Asia, under the Right to Information Act to declassify a document supposedly related to Shastri 's death, but the Prime Minister 's Office refused to oblige, reportedly citing that this could lead to harming of foreign relations, cause disruption in the country and cause breach of parliamentary privileges. Another RTI plea by Kuldip Nayar was also declined, as PMO cited exemption from disclosure on the plea. The home ministry is yet to respond to queries whether India conducted a post-mortem on Shastri, and if the government had investigated allegations of foul play. The Delhi Police in their reply to an RTI application said they do not have any record pertaining to Shastri 's death. The Ministry of External Affairs has already said no post-mortem was conducted in the USSR. The Central Public Information Officer of Delhi Police in his reply dated 29 July said, "No such record related to the death of the former Prime Minister of India Lal Bahadur Shastri is available in this district... Hence the requisite information pertaining to New Delhi district may please be treated as nil. '' This has created more doubts.
The PMO answered only two questions of the RTI application, saying it has only one classified document pertaining to the death of Shastri, which is exempted from disclosure under the RTI Act. It sent the rest of the questions to the Ministry of External Affairs and Home Ministry to answer. The MEA said the only document from the erstwhile Soviet Government is "the report of the Joint Medical Investigation conducted by a team comprising R.N. Chugh, Doctor in - Attendance to the PM and some Russian doctors '' and added no post-mortem was conducted in the USSR. The Home Ministry referred the matter to Delhi Police and National Archives for the response pertaining to any post-mortem conducted on the body of Shastri in India. Sunil Shastri, son of the former Prime Minister, called the transferring of application as "absurd '' and "silly joke ''. "He (Lal Bahadur Shastri) died as sitting Prime Minister. It sounds very silly that MHA is referring the matter of death of second Prime Minister of India to a district level police. '' He also demanded that "It should be looked into by highest authorities like President, Prime Minister and home minister. ''
Later, Gregory Douglas, a journalist who interviewed former CIA operative Robert Crowley over a period of 4 years, recorded their telephone conversations and published a transcription in a book titled Conversations with the Crow. In the book, Crowley claimed that the CIA was responsible for eliminating Homi Bhabha, an Indian nuclear scientist whose plane crashed into Alps, when he was going to attend a conference in Vienna; and Lal Bahadur Shastri. Crowley said that the USA was wary of India 's rigid stand on nuclear policy and of then prime minister Lal Bahadur Shastri, who wanted to go ahead with nuclear tests. He also said that the agency was worried about collective domination by India and Russia over the region, for which a strong deterrent was required.
On 16 May 1928, Shastri married Lalita Devi who was from Mirzapur. The couple had four sons and two daughters, namely
Ramachandra Guha argued that Shastri shared little in common with his predecessor Jawaharlal Nehru. While Shastri preferred peace with Pakistan, writing to a friend after the Indo - Pakistani War in 1965 that the problems between both countries should be settled amicably, he had previously displayed a knack for taking quick and decisive actions during the war. He swiftly took the advice of his commanders, and ordered a strike across the Punjab border. This was in stark contrast to Nehru who in a similar situation in 1962 against a much larger Chinese force, had refused to call in the air force to relieve the pressure on the ground troops. At the end of the conflict, Shastri flamboyantly posed for a photograph on top of a captured US - supplied Pakistani M48 Patton tank.
However, in common with Nehru, Shastri was a self - described secularist who refused to mix religion with politics. In a public meeting held at the Ram Lila grounds in Delhi, a few days after the ceasefire, he complained against a BBC report which claimed that Shastri 's identity as a Hindu meant that he was ready for a war with Pakistan. He stated:
While I am a Hindu, Mir Mushtaq who is presiding over this meeting is a Muslim. Mr. Frank Anthony who has addressed you is a Christian. There are also Sikhs and Parsis here. The unique thing about our country is that we have Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Parsis and people of all other religions. We have temples and mosques, gurdwaras and churches. But we do not bring all this into politics. This is the difference between India and Pakistan. Whereas Pakistan proclaims herself to be an Islamic State and uses religion as a political factor, we Indians have the freedom to follow whatever religion we may choose, and worship in any way we please. So far as politics is concerned, each of us is as much an Indian as the other.
Kuldip Nayar, Shastri 's media advisor from 1960 to 1964, recalls that, during the Quit India Movement, his daughter was ill and he was released on parole from jail. However, he could not save her life because doctors had prescribed costly drugs. Later on in 1963, on the day when he was dropped from the cabinet, he was sitting in his home in the dark, without a light. When asked about the reason, he said as he no longer is a minister, all expenses will have to be paid by himself and that as a MP and minister he did n't earn enough to save for time of need.
Although Shastri had been a cabinet minister for many years in the 1950s, he was poor when he died. All he owned at the end was an old car, which he had bought in instalments from the government and for which he still owed money. He was a member of Servants of India society (which included Gandhi, Lala Lajpat Rai, Gopal Krishna Gokhle) which asked all its members to shun accumulation of private property and remain in public life as servants of people. He was the first railway minister who resigned from office following a major train accident as he felt moral responsibility.
The foundation stone of Bal Vidya Mandir, a distinguished school of Lucknow, was laid by him during his tenure as the Prime Minister, on 19 November 1964.
He inaugurated the Central Institute of Technology Campus at Tharamani, Chennai, in November 1964.
He inaugurated the Plutonium Reprocessing Plant at Trombay in 1965. As suggested by Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha, Shastri authorized the development of nuclear explosives. Bhabha initiated the effort by setting up the nuclear explosive design group Study of Nuclear Explosions for Peaceful Purposes (SNEPP).
He inaugurated the Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University at Hyderabad on 20 March 1965 which renamed as Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University in 1996 and was separated into two universities after formation Telangana State. The University in Telangana was named in July 2014 as Professor. Jayashanker Agricultural University.
Shasstriji also inaugurated the National Institute of Technology, Allahabad.
Lal Bahadur Shastri inaugurated the Jawahar Dock of the Chennai Port Trust & starts the construction work of Tuticorin Port (Now VOC Port Trust) in November 1964.
He inaugurated Sainik School Balachadi, in State of Gujarat. He laid the foundation stone of Almatti dam during the year -- -- -- --. Now the commissioned dam bears his name.
Shastri was known for his honesty and humility throughout his life. He was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, and a memorial "Vijay Ghat '' was built for him in Delhi.
Several educational institutes, Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration (Mussorie, Uttarakhand) is after his name.
Lal Bahadur Shastri Institute of Management was established in Delhi by the ' Lal Bahadur Shastri Educational Trust ' in 1995 as is one of the top business schools in India.
The Shastri Indo - Canadian Institute was named after Shastri due to his role in promoting scholarly activity between India and Canada.
Lal Bhadur Shastri Memorial run by Lal Bahadur Shastri National Memorial Trust, is situated next to 10 Janpath his residence as Prime Minister, at 1, Motilal Nehru Place, New Delhi.
In 2011, on Shastri 's 45th death anniversary, Uttar Pradesh Government announced to renovate Shastri 's ancestral house at Ramnagar in Varanasi and declared plans to convert it into a biographical museum.
Varanasi International Airport is named after him.
Lal Bahadur Shastri Centre for Indian Culture with a Monument and a street is named after him in the city of Tashkent, Uzbekistan.
Few stadiums are named after him in the cities of Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh Ahmadabad in Gujarat, Kollam, Kerala and Bhawanipatna in Odisha.
The Almatti Dam is renamed as Lal Bahadur Shastri Sagar in Northern Karnataka built across the River Krishna. The foundation stone was laid by him.
MV Lal Bahadur Shastri a Cargo Ship is named after him.
RBI released coins in the denomination of Rs. 5 during his birth century celebrations.
All India Lal Bahadur Shastri Hockey tournament is held every year since 1991 a major tournament in the field of Hockey.
The Left Bank Canal form the Nagarjuna Sagar Dam in AP is named Lal Bahadur Shastri Canal which is 295 km in Length.
Life size statues of Shastri are erected at Mumbai, Bangalore (Vidhana Soudha), New Delhi (CGO Complex), Almatti Dam Site, Ramnagar - UP, Hisar, Vishakapattanam, Nagarjuna Dam site, Warangal.
Life size bust of Shastri are erected at Thiruvananthapuram, Pune, Varanasi (Airport), Ahmedabad (lake side), Khrushetra, Shimla, Kasargod, Indore, Jalandar, Mhow, Uran.
Some major roads in the cities of New Delhi, Mumbai, Pune, Puduchery, Lucknow, Warangal and Allahabad bearing the name of the legend.
Lal Bahadur Shastri Medical College in Mandi, Himachal Pradesh.
Shastri Bhavans in Newdelhi, Chennai, Lucknow
In 2005, the Government of India created a chair in his honour in the field of democracy and governance at Delhi University.
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what is the classification of wasp-39b (how big is it) | WASP - 39b - wikipedia
WASP - 39b is a "hot Saturn '' extrasolar planet discovered in 2011 by the WASP project, notable for containing a substantial amount of water in its atmosphere. WASP - 39b is in the Virgo constellation, and is about 700 light - years from Earth.
WASP - 39b has a mass of about 0.28 times that of Jupiter and a radius about 1.27 times that of Jupiter. The exoplanet orbits WASP - 39, its host star, every 4 days. Hot water molecules were found in the atmosphere of WASP - 39b in a 2018 study.
WASP - 39b is also notable for having an extremely low density, near that of WASP - 17b, the least dense known exoplanet. While WASP - 17b has a density of 6999130000000000000 ♠ 0.13 ± 0.06 g / cm, WASP - 39b has a slightly higher density of 6999180000000000000 ♠ 0.18 ± 0.04 g / cm.
Media related to WASP - 39b at Wikimedia Commons
Coordinates: 14 29 18.0, − 03 ° 26 ′ 40 ''
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who might be confined in a modern jail | Prison - wikipedia
A prison, also known as a correctional facility, detention center (US English), jail (US and Australia), gaol (dated) (British English), penitentiary (sometimes used in American English) or remand centre is a facility in which inmates are forcibly confined and denied a variety of freedoms under the authority of the state. Prisons are most commonly used within a criminal justice system: people charged with crimes may be imprisoned until they are brought to trial; those pleading or being found guilty of crimes at trial may be sentenced to a specified period of imprisonment. Besides their use for punishing crimes, jails and prisons are frequently used by authoritarian regimes against perceived opponents.
The term prison or penitentiary is often used to describe institutions that incarcerate people for longer periods of time, such as many years, while the term jail is more often used to describe institutions focused on confining people for shorter periods of time (e.g. for shorter sentences or while waiting for trial / sentencing). Prisons often have facilities that are more designed with long term confinement in mind in comparison to jails.
Prisons can be used as a tool of political repression to punish what are deemed political crimes, often without trial or other legal due process; this use is illegal under most forms of international law governing fair administration of justice. In times of war, prisoners of war or detainees may be detained in military prisons or prisoner of war camps, and large groups of civilians might be imprisoned in internment camps.
Common slang terms for prison include: "The Stir '', "The Pokey '', "The Slammer '', "The Joint '', "The Calaboose '', "The Hoosegow '', "The Big House '', and "Up The River '' (a possible reference to Sing Sing).
The use of prisons can be traced back to the rise of the state as a form of social organization. Corresponding with the advent of the state was the development of written language, which enabled the creation of formalized legal codes as official guidelines for society. The best known of these early legal codes is the Code of Hammurabi, written in Babylon around 1750 BC. The penalties for violations of the laws in Hammurabi 's Code were almost exclusively centered on the concept of lex talionis ("the law of retaliation ''), whereby people were punished as a form of vengeance, often by the victims themselves. This notion of punishment as vengeance or retaliation can also be found in many other legal codes from early civilizations, including the ancient Sumerian codes, the Indian Manama Dharma Astra, the Hermes Trismegistus of Egypt, and the Israelite Mosaic Law.
Some Ancient Greek philosophers, such as Plato, began to develop ideas of using punishment to reform offenders instead of simply using it as retribution. Imprisonment as a penalty was used initially for those who could not afford to pay their fines. Eventually, since impoverished Athenians could not pay their fines, leading to indefinite periods of imprisonment, time limits were set instead. The prison in Ancient Athens was known as the desmoterion ("place of chains '').
The Romans were among the first to use prisons as a form of punishment, rather than simply for detention. A variety of existing structures were used to house prisoners, such as metal cages, basements of public buildings, and quarries. One of the most notable Roman prisons was the Mamertine Prison, established around 640 B.C. by Ancus Marcius. The Mamertine Prison was located within a sewer system beneath ancient Rome and contained a large network of dungeons where prisoners were held in squalid conditions, contaminated with human waste. Forced labor on public works projects was also a common form of punishment. In many cases, citizens were sentenced to slavery, often in ergastula (a primitive form of prison where unruly slaves were chained to workbenches and performed hard labor).
During the Middle Ages in Europe, castles, fortresses, and the basements of public buildings were often used as makeshift prisons. The possession of the right and the capability to imprison citizens, however, granted an air of legitimacy to officials at all levels of government, from kings to regional courts to city councils; and the ability to have someone imprisoned or killed served as a signifier of who in society possessed power or authority over others. Another common punishment was sentencing people to galley slavery, which involved chaining prisoners together in the bottoms of ships and forcing them to row on naval or merchant vessels.
However, the concept of the modern prison largely remained unknown until the early 19th - century. Punishment usually consisted of physical forms of punishment, including capital punishment, mutilation, flagellation (whipping), branding, and non-physical punishments, such as public shaming rituals (like the stocks). From the Middle Ages up to the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe, imprisonment was rarely used as a punishment in its own right, and prisons were mainly to hold those awaiting trial and convicts awaiting punishment.
However, an important innovation at the time was the Bridewell House of Corrections, located at Bridewell Palace in London, which resulted in the building of other houses of correction. These houses held mostly petty offenders, vagrants, and the disorderly local poor. In these facilities, inmates were given jobs, and through prison labor they were taught how to work for a living. By the end of the 17th century, houses of correction were absorbed into local prison facilities under the control of the local justice of the peace.
From the late 17th century and during the 18th century, popular resistance to public execution and torture became more widespread both in Europe and in the United States. Particularly under the Bloody Code, with few sentencing alternatives, imposition of the death penalty for petty crimes, such as theft, was proving increasingly unpopular with the public; many jurors were refusing to convict defendants of petty crimes when they knew the defendants would be sentenced to death. Rulers began looking for means to punish and control their subjects in a way that did not cause people to associate them with spectacles of tyrannical and sadistic violence. They developed systems of mass incarceration, often with hard labor, as a solution. The prison reform movement that arose at this time was heavily influenced by two somewhat contradictory philosophies. The first was based in Enlightenment ideas of utilitarianism and rationalism, and suggested that prisons should simply be used as a more effective substitute for public corporal punishments such as whipping, hanging, etc. This theory, referred to as deterrence, claims that the primary purpose of prisons is to be so harsh and terrifying that they deter people from committing crimes out of fear of going to prison. The second theory, which saw prisons as a form of rehabilitation or moral reform, was based on religious ideas that equated crime with sin, and saw prisons as a place to instruct prisoners in Christian morality, obedience and proper behavior. These later reformers believed that prisons could be constructed as humane institutions of moral instruction, and that prisoners ' behavior could be "corrected '' so that when they were released, they would be model members of society.
England used penal transportation of convicted criminals (and others generally young and poor) for a term of indentured servitude within the general population of British America between the 1610s and 1776. The Transportation Act 1717 made this option available for lesser crimes, or offered it by discretion as a longer - term alternative to the death penalty, which could theoretically be imposed for the growing number of offenses. The substantial expansion of transportation was the first major innovation in eighteenth - century British penal practice. Transportation to America was abruptly suspended by the Criminal Law Act 1776 (16 Geo. 3 c. 43) with the start of the American Rebellion. While sentencing to transportation continued, the act instituted a punishment policy of hard labour instead. The suspension of transport also prompted the use of prisons for punishment and the initial start of a prison building program. Britain would resume transportation to specifically planned penal colonies in Australia between 1788 and 1868.
Gaols at the time were run as business ventures, and contained both felons and debtors; the latter were often housed with their wives and younger children. The gaolers made their money by charging the inmates for food, drink, and other services, and the system was generally corruptible. One reform of the seventeenth century was the establishment of the London Bridewell as a house of correction for women and children. It was the first facility to make any medical services available to prisoners.
With the widely used alternative of penal transportation halted in the 1770s, the immediate need for additional penal accommodations emerged. Given the undeveloped institutional facilities, old sailing vessels, termed hulks, were the most readily available and expandable choice to be used as places of temporary confinement. While conditions on these ships were generally appalling, their use and the labor thus provided set a precedent which persuaded many people that mass incarceration and labour were viable methods of crime prevention and punishment. The turn of the 19th century would see the first movement toward Prison reform, and by the 1810s, the first state prisons and correctional facilities were built, thereby inaugurating the modern prison facilities available today.
France also sent criminals to overseas penal colonies, including Louisiana, in the early 18th century. Penal colonies in French Guiana operated until 1952, such as the notable Devil 's Island (Île du Diable). Katorga prisons were harsh work camps established in the 17th century in Russia, in remote underpopulated areas of Siberia and the Russian Far East, that had few towns or food sources. Siberia quickly gained its fearful connotation of punishment.
John Howard was one of the most notable early prison reformers. After having visited several hundred prisons across England and Europe, in his capacity as high sheriff of Bedfordshire, he published The State of the Prisons in 1777. He was particularly appalled to discover prisoners who had been acquitted but were still confined because they could n't pay the gaoler 's fees. He proposed wide - ranging reforms to the system, including the housing of each prisoner in a separate cell; the requirements that staff should be professional and paid by the government, that outside inspection of prisons should be imposed, and that prisoners should be provided with a healthy diet and reasonable living conditions. The prison reform charity, the Howard League for Penal Reform, was established in 1866 by his admirers.
Following Howard 's agitation, the Penitentiary Act was passed in 1779. This introduced solitary confinement, religious instruction, a labor regime, and proposed two state penitentiaries (one for men and one for women). However, these were never built due to disagreements in the committee and pressures from wars with France, and gaols remained a local responsibility. But other measures passed in the next few years provided magistrates with the powers to implement many of these reforms, and eventually, in 1815, gaol fees were abolished.
Quakers were prominent in campaigning against and publicizing the dire state of the prisons at the time. Elizabeth Fry documented the conditions that prevailed at Newgate prison, where the ladies ' section was overcrowded with women and children, some of whom had not even received a trial. The inmates did their own cooking and washing in the small cells in which they slept on straw. In 1816, Fry was able to found a prison school for the children who were imprisoned with their parents. She also began a system of supervision and required the women to sew and to read the Bible. In 1817, she helped found the Association for the Reformation of the Female Prisoners in Newgate.
The theory of the modern prison system was born in London, influenced by the utilitarianism of Jeremy Bentham. Bentham 's panopticon introduced the principle of observation and control that underpins the design of the modern prison. The notion of prisoners being incarcerated as part of their punishment and not simply as a holding state until trial or hanging, was at the time revolutionary. His views influenced the establishment of the first prisons used as criminal rehabilitation centers. At a time when the implementation of capital punishment for a variety of relatively trivial offences was on the decline, the notion of incarceration as a form of punishment and correction held great appeal to reform - minded thinkers and politicians.
In the first half of the 19th century, capital punishment came to be regarded as inappropriate for many crimes that it had previously been carried out for, and by the mid-19th century, imprisonment had replaced the death penalty for the most serious offenses except for murder.
The first state prison in England was the Millbank Prison, established in 1816 with a capacity for just under 1000 inmates. By 1824, 54 prisons had adopted the disciplinary system advocated by the SIPD. By the 1840s, penal transportation to Australia and the use of hulks was on the decline, and the Surveyor - General of convict prisons, Joshua Jebb, set an ambitious program of prison building in the country, with one large prison opening per year. Pentonville prison opened in 1842, beginning a trend of ever increasing incarceration rates and the use of prison as the primary form of crime punishment. Robert Peel 's Gaols Act of 1823 introduced regular visits to prisoners by chaplains, provided for the payment of gaolers and prohibited the use of irons and manacles.
In 1786, the state of Pennsylvania passed a law which mandated that all convicts who had not been sentenced to death would be placed in penal servitude to do public works projects such as building roads, forts, and mines. Besides the economic benefits of providing a free source of hard labor, the proponents of the new penal code also thought that this would deter criminal activity by making a conspicuous public example of consequences of breaking the law. However, what actually ended up happening was frequent spectacles of disorderly conduct by the convict work crews, and the generation of sympathetic feelings from the citizens who witnessed the mistreatment of the convicts. The laws quickly drew criticism from a humanitarian perspective (as cruel, exploitative and degrading) and from a utilitarian perspective (as failing to deter crime and delegitimizing the state in the eyes of the public). Reformers such as Benjamin Rush came up with a solution that would enable the continued used of forced labor, while keeping disorderly conduct and abuse out of the eyes of the public. They suggested that prisoners be sent to secluded "houses of repentance '' where they would be subjected (out of the view of the public) to "bodily pain, labour, watchfulness, solitude, and silence... joined with cleanliness and a simple diet ''.
Pennsylvania soon put this theory into practice, and turned its old jail at Walnut Street in Philadelphia into a state prison, in 1790. This prison was modeled on what became known as the "Pennsylvania system '' (or "separate system ''), and placed all prisoners into solitary cells with nothing other than religious literature, and forced them to be completely silent to reflect on their wrongs. New York soon built the Newgate state prison in Greenwich Village, which was modeled on the Pennsylvania system, and other states followed.
But by 1820 faith in the efficacy of legal reform had declined as statutory changes had no discernible effect on the level of crime and the prisons, where prisoners shared large rooms and booty including alcohol, had become riotous and prone to escapes. In response, New York developed the Auburn system in which prisoners were confined in separate cells and prohibited from talking when eating and working together, implementing it at Auburn State Prison and Sing Sing at Ossining. The aim of this was rehabilitative: the reformers talked about the penitentiary serving as a model for the family and the school and almost all the states adopted the plan (though Pennsylvania went even further in separating prisoners). The system 's fame spread and visitors to the U.S. to see the prisons included de Tocqueville who wrote Democracy in America as a result of his visit.
The use of prisons in Continental Europe was never as popular as it became in the English - speaking world, although state prison systems were largely in place by the end of the 19th century in most European countries. After the unification of Italy in 1861, the government reformed the repressive and arbitrary prison system they inherited, and modernized and secularized criminal punishment by emphasizing discipline and deterrence. Italy developed an advanced penology under the leadership of Cesare Lombroso (1835 -- 1909).
Another prominent prison reformer who made important contributions was Alexander Paterson who advocated for the necessity of humanising and socialising methods within the prison system in Great Britain and America.
Prisons are normally surrounded by fencing, walls, earthworks, geographical features, or other barriers to prevent escape. Multiple barriers, concertina wire, electrified fencing, secured and defensible main gates, armed guard towers, security lighting, motion sensors, dogs and roving patrols may all also be present depending on the level of security.
Remotely controlled doors, CCTV monitoring, alarms, cages, restraints, nonlethal and lethal weapons, riot - control gear and physical segregation of units and prisoners may all also be present within a prison to monitor and control the movement and activity of prisoners within the facility.
Modern prison designs have increasingly sought to restrict and control the movement of prisoners throughout the facility and also to allow a smaller prison staff to monitor prisoners directly; often using a decentralized "podular '' layout. (In comparison, 19th - century prisons had large landings and cell blocks which permitted only intermittent observation of prisoners.) Smaller, separate and self - contained housing units known as "pods '' or "modules '' are designed to hold 16 to 50 prisoners and are arranged around exercise yards or support facilities in a decentralized "campus '' pattern. A small number of prison officers, sometimes a single officer, supervise each pod. The pods contain tiers of cells arranged around a central control station or desk from which a single officer can monitor all the cells and the entire pod, control cell doors and communicate with the rest of the prison.
Pods may be designed for high - security "indirect supervision '', in which officers in segregated and sealed control booths monitor smaller numbers of prisoners confined to their cells. An alternative is "direct supervision '', in which officers work within the pod and directly interact with and supervise prisoners, who may spend the day outside their cells in a central "dayroom '' on the floor of the pod. Movement in or out of the pod to and from exercise yards, work assignments or medical appointments can be restricted to individual pods at designated times and is generally centrally controlled. Goods and services, such as meals, laundry, commissary, educational materials, religious services and medical care can increasingly be brought to individual pods or cells as well.
Generally, when an inmate arrives at a prison, they go through a security classification screening and risk assessment that determines where they will be placed within the prison system. Classifications are assigned by assessing the prisoner 's personal history and criminal record, and through subjective determinations made by intake personnel (which include mental health workers, counselors, prison unit managers, and others). This process will have a major impact on the prisoner 's experience, determining their security level, educational and work programs, mental health status (e.g. will they be placed in a mental health unit), and many other factors. This sorting of prisoners is one of the fundamental techniques through which the prison administration maintains control over the inmate population, and creates an orderly and secure prison environment. At most prisons, prisoners are made to wear prison uniform.
The levels of security within a prison system are categorized differently around the world, but tend to follow a distinct pattern. At one end of the spectrum are the most secure facilities ("maximum security ''), which typically hold prisoners that are considered dangerous, disruptive or likely to try to escape. Furthermore, in recent times, supermax prisons have been created where the custody level goes beyond maximum security for people such as terrorists or political prisoners deemed a threat to national security, and inmates from other prisons who have a history of violent or other disruptive behavior in prison or are suspected of gang affiliation. These inmates have individual cells and are kept in lockdown, often for more than 23 hours per day. Meals are served through "chuck holes '' in the cell door, and each inmate is allotted one hour of outdoor exercise per day, alone. They are normally permitted no contact with other inmates and are under constant surveillance via closed - circuit television cameras.
On the other end are "minimum security '' prisons which are most often used to house those for whom more stringent security is deemed unnecessary. For example, while white - collar crime rarely results in incarceration, when it does offenders are almost always sent to minimum - security prisons due to them having committed nonviolent crimes. Lower - security prisons are often designed with less restrictive features, confining prisoners at night in smaller locked dormitories or even cottage or cabin - like housing while permitting them free movement around the grounds to work or activities during the day. Some countries (such as Britain) also have "open '' prisons where prisoners are allowed home - leave or part - time employment outside of the prison. Suomenlinna Island facility in Finland is an example of one such "open '' correctional facility. The prison has been open since 1971 and, as of September 2013, the facility 's 95 male prisoners leave the prison grounds on a daily basis to work in the corresponding township or commute to the mainland for either work or study. Prisoners can rent flat - screen televisions, sound systems, and mini-refrigerators with the prison - labor wages that they can earn -- wages range between 4.10 and 7.30 € per hour. With electronic monitoring, prisoners are also allowed to visit their families in Helsinki and eat together with the prison staff. Prisoners in Scandinavian facilities are permitted to wear their own clothes.
Modern prisons often hold hundreds or thousands of inmates, and must have facilities onsite to meet most of their needs, including dietary, health, fitness, education, religious practices, entertainment, and many others. Conditions in prisons vary widely around the world, and the types of facilities within prisons depend on many intersecting factors including funding, legal requirements, and cultural beliefs / practices. Nevertheless, in addition to the cell blocks that contain the prisoners, also there are certain auxiliary facilities that are common in prisons throughout the world.
Prisons generally have to provide food for a large number of individuals, and thus are generally equipped with a large institutional kitchen. There are many security considerations, however, that are unique to the prison dining environment. For instance, cutlery equipment must be very carefully monitored and accounted for at all times, and the layout of prison kitchens must be designed in a way that allows staff to observe activity of the kitchen staff (who are usually prisoners). The quality of kitchen equipment varies from prison to prison, depending on when the prison was constructed, and the level of funding available to procure new equipment. Prisoners are often served food in a large cafeteria with rows of tables and benches that are securely attached to the floor. However, inmates that are locked in control units, or prisons that are on "lockdown '' (where prisoners are made to remain in their cells all day) have trays of food brought to their cells. It is said that prison food of many developed countries is adequate to maintain health and dieting.
Prisons in wealthy, industrialized nations provide medical care for most of their inmates. Additionally, prison medical staff play a major role in monitoring, organizing, and controlling the prison population through the use of psychiatric evaluations and interventions (psychiatric drugs, isolation in mental health units, etc.). Prison populations are largely from poor minority communities that experience greater rates of chronic illness, substance abuse, and mental illness than the general population. This leads to a high demand for medical services, and in countries such as the US that do n't provide free healthcare, prison is often the first place that people are able to receive medical treatment (which they could n't afford outside).
Prison medical facilities include primary care, mental health services, dental care, substance abuse treatment, and other forms of specialized care, depending on the needs of the inmate population. Health care services in many prisons have long been criticized as inadequate, underfunded, and understaffed, and many prisoners have experienced abuse and mistreatment at the hands of prison medical staff who are entrusted with their care.
In the United States, mental health services in prison are n't available in providing treatments for criminals; most prisoners have an untreated mental disorder and psychiatric care or treatment is expensive for the mentally ill. 64 percent of jail inmates, 54 percent of state prisoners, and 45 percent of federal prisoners in the US report having mental health concerns.
Despite the fact that studies reveal more than 50 % of those incarcerated are likely to suffer from at least one mental illness or condition, the verdict of "not guilty by reason of insanity '' is exceedingly rare according to a 2014 Scientific American article. In the United States, a million people who are incarcerated suffer from mental illness without any assistance or treatment for their condition and the tendency of a convicted criminal to reoffend, known as the rate of recidivism, is unusually high for those with the most serious disorders. Analysis of data in 2000 from several forensic hospitals in California, New York and Oregon found that with treatment the rate of recidivism was "much lower '' than untreated mentally ill offenders. Treatment works to lower crime among those who are mentally ill, but public support is often shaded by stigmas. Without public support, funding is restricted and the cycle of recidivism that feeds the U.S. prison system is perpetuated. The issue of health care for prisoners with mental illness is not a moral issue, it is a psychological issue, and if treatment were readily available, crime would decrease as would the rate of recidivism among those who are mentally ill who are essentially trapped in a prison system that offers little to no relief.
Some prisons provide educational programs for inmates that can include basic literacy, secondary education, or even college education. Prisoners seek education for a variety of reasons, including the development of skills for after release, personal enrichment and curiosity, finding something to fill their time, or trying to please prison staff (which can often secure early release for good behavior). However, the educational needs of prisoners often come into conflict with the security concerns of prison staff and with a public that wants to be "tough on crime '' (and thus supports denying prisoners access to education). Whatever their reasons for participating in educational programs, prison populations tend to have very low literacy rates and lack of basic mathematical skills, and many have not completed secondary education. This lack of basic education severely limits their employment opportunities outside of prison, leading to high rates of recidivism, and research has shown that prison education can play a significant role in helping prisoners reorient their lives and become successful after reentry.
Many prisons also provide a library where prisoners can check out books, or do legal research for their cases. Often these libraries are very small, consisting of a few shelves of books. In some countries, such as the United States, drastic budget cuts have resulted in many prison libraries being shut down. Meanwhile, many nations that have historically lacked prison libraries are starting to develop them. Prison libraries can dramatically improve the quality of life for prisoners, who have large amounts of empty time on their hands that can be occupied with reading. This time spent reading has a variety of benefits including improved literacy, ability to understand rules and regulations (leading to improved behavior), ability to read books that encourage self - reflection and analysis of one 's emotional state, consciousness of important real - world events, and education that can lead to successful re-entry into society after release.
Many prisons provide limited recreational and fitness facilities for prisoners. The provision of these services is controversial, with certain elements of society claiming that prisons are being "soft '' on inmates, and others claiming that it is cruel and dehumanizing to confine people for years without any recreational opportunities. The tension between these two opinions, coupled with lack of funding, leads to a large variety of different recreational procedures at different prisons. Prison administrators, however, generally find the provision of recreational opportunities to be useful at maintaining order in the prisons, because it keeps prisoners occupied and provides leverage to gain compliance (by depriving prisoners of recreation as punishment). Examples of common facilities / programs that are available in some prisons are: gyms and weightlifting rooms, arts and crafts, games (such as cards, chess, or bingo), television sets, and sports teams. Additionally, many prisons have an outdoor recreation area, commonly referred to as an "exercise yard ''.
Most prisoners are part of the "general population '' of the prison, members of which are generally able to socialize with each other in common areas of the prison. A control unit or segregation unit (also called a "block '' or "isolation cell '') is a highly secure area of the prison, where inmates are placed in solitary confinement to isolate them from the general population. Other prisoners that are often segregated from the general population include those who are in protective custody, or who are on suicide watch, and those whose behavior presents a threat to other prisoners.
In addition to the above facilities, others that are common include prison factories and workshops, visiting areas, mail rooms, telephone and computer rooms, a prison store (often called a "canteen '') where prisoners can purchase goods, or a death row where prisoners who have been sentenced to death await execution.
Prisons for juveniles are known by a variety of names, including "youth detention facilities '', "juvenile detention centers '', and "reformatories ''. The idea of separately treating youthful and adult offenders is a relatively modern idea. The earliest known use of the term "juvenile delinquency '' was in London in 1816, from where it quickly spread to the United States. The first juvenile correctional institution in the United States opened in 1825 in New York City. By 1917, juvenile courts had been established in all but 3 states. It was estimated that in 2011 more than 95,000 juveniles were locked up in prisons and jails in the United States (the largest youth prisoner population in the world). Besides prisons, many other types of residential placement exist within juvenile justice systems, including youth homes, community - based programs, training schools and boot camps.
Like adult facilities, youth detention centers in some countries are experiencing overcrowding due to large increases in incarceration rates of young offenders. Crowding can create extremely dangerous environments in juvenile detention centers and juvenile correctional facilities. Overcrowding may also lead to the decrease in availability to provide the youth with much needed and promised programs and services while they are in the facility. Many times the administration is not prepared to handle the large number of residents and therefore the facilities can become unstable and create instability in simple logistics.
In addition to overcrowding, juvenile prisons are questioned for their overall effectiveness in rehabilitating youth. Many critics note high juvenile recidivism rates, and the fact that the most of the youths that are incarcerated are those from lower socio - economic classes (who often suffer from broken families, lack of educational / job opportunities, and violence in their communities).
The majority of women incarcerated have experienced abuse before prison, and while they are incarcerated they may suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder. Sexual offenses against women prisoners can include rape, assault, and groping during pat frisks. Male correctional officials often violate women prisoners ' privacy by watching them undress, shower, and go to the bathroom. Research suggests that, "women with histories of abuse are more likely to accept sexual misconduct from prison staff because they are already conditioned to respond to coercion and threats by acquiescing to protect themselves from further violence ''. "In federal women 's correction facilities, 70 % of guards are male, '' reinforcing female inmates ' powerlessness.
Most inmates are women of color from low socioeconomic backgrounds and therefore suffer from both chronic diseases that are common in minorities (such as diabetes, heart disease, and hypertension) and health problems that may result from living in poverty (such as malnutrition, etc.). Incarcerated women suffer disproportionately from HIV / AIDS, infectious disease, reproductive issues, and chronic diseases. Within the American prison system, HIV became more prevalent among women than among men. According to the U.S. Department of Justice, from 1991 to 1998 the number of women prisoners with HIV increased by 69 %, while the equivalent figure among male prisoners decreased by 22 % during the same time period. The New York State Department of Health stated in 1999 that women entering New York state prisons had twice as high of an HIV rate as men entering New York state prisons. At the end of the year 2000 women in U.S. state prison systems had a 60 % higher likelihood of carrying HIV than men in American state prison systems.
The needs of mothers during pregnancy and childbirth often conflict with the demands of the prison system. "In 2007, the Bureau of Justice Statistics stated that, on average, 5 % of women who enter into state prisons are pregnant and in jails 6 % of women are pregnant ''. Very few of these women receive prenatal care, which can be very detrimental to both the mother and child, especially when coupled with inmates ' histories of inadequate health care as well as sexual, physical and substance abuse. Most of these pregnancies are deemed as high risk. Additionally, a lack of maternity clothes and resources to deal with premature births, false labors, and miscarriages pose serious challenges to prisoners. Furthermore, incarcerated women are a source of free labor for private companies. It is recorded that if women decline to work, then their medicinal needs are not fulfilled. This becomes a major issue for pregnant women who may not physically be able to work but are in dire need of medical care. Most pregnant women are shackled on grounds of security in labor and delivery. The Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals established that is unconstitutional in 2009, and prohibited restraint of women during labor.
Prisons have formed parts of military systems since the French Revolution. France set up its system in 1796. They were modernized in 1852 and since their existence, are used variously to house prisoners of war, unlawful combatants, those whose freedom is deemed a national security risk by military or civilian authorities, and members of the military found guilty of a serious crime. Military prisons in the United States have also been converted to civilian prisons, to include Alcatraz Island. Alcatraz was formerly a military prison for soldiers during the American Civil War.
In the American Revolution, British prisoners held by the U.S. were assigned to local farmers as laborers. The British kept American sailors in broken down ship hulks with high death rates.
In the Napoleonic wars, the broken down hulks were still in use for naval prisoners. One French surgeon recalled his captivity in Spain, where scurvy, diarrhea, dysentery, and typhus abounded, and prisoners died by the thousands:
In the American Civil War, at first prisoners of war were released, after they promised not to fight again unless formally exchanged. When the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners the system broke down, and each side built large - scale POW camps. Conditions in terms of housing, food and medical care were bad in the Confederacy, and the Union retaliated by imposing harsh conditions.
By 1900 the legal framework of the Geneva and Hague Convention provided considerable protection. In the First World War, millions of prisoners were held on both sides, with no major atrocities. Officers received privileged treatment. There was an increase in the use of forced labor throughout Europe. Food and medical treatment were generally comparable to what active duty soldiers received, and housing was much better than front - line conditions.
Political prisoners are people who have been imprisoned because of their political beliefs, activities and affiliations. There is much debate about who qualifies as a "political prisoner ''. The category of "political prisoner '' is often contested, and many regimes that incarcerate political prisoners often claim that they are merely "criminals ''. Others who are sometimes classified as "political prisoners '' include prisoners who were politicized in prison, and are subsequently punished for their involvement with political causes.
Many countries maintain or have in the past had a system of prisons specifically intended for political prisoners. In some countries, dissidents can be detained, tortured, executed, and / or "disappeared '' without trial. This can happen either legally, or extralegally (sometimes by falsely accusing people and fabricating evidence against them).
Administrative detention is a classification of prisons or detention centers where people are held without trial.
Some psychiatric facilities have characteristics of prisons, particularly when confining patients who have committed a crime and are considered dangerous. In addition, many prisons have psychiatric units dedicated to housing offenders diagnosed with a wide variety of mental disorders. The United States government refers to psychiatric prisons as "Federal Medical Centers (FMC) ''.
Some jurisdictions refer to the prison population (total or per - prison) as the prison muster.
As of 2010 it was estimated that at least 10.1 million people were imprisoned worldwide.
As of 2012 the United States of America had the world 's largest prison population, with over 2.3 million people in American prisons or jails -- up from 744,000 in 1985 -- making 1 in every 100 American adults a prisoner. That same year it was also reported that the United States government spent an estimated US $37 billion to maintain prisons. The cost of these prisons was then estimated at US $74 billion per year.
As of 2009 California 's 158,000 inmates were detained in prisons that were designed to hold 84,000 -- almost 14,000 of these inmates were sleeping in very tight spaces, or in hallways, or on floors. People are also being incarcerated at an increasing rate and new prisons can not be built fast enough. As of 2009 China had a prison population of about 1.6 million, while the prison population of India was 332,112.
A mid-November 2013 news report announced that four prisons in Sweden closed during the year due to a significant drop in the number of inmates. The head of Sweden 's prison and probation services characterised the decrease in the number of Swedish prisoners as "out - of - the - ordinary '', with prison numbers in Sweden falling by around 1 % a year since 2004. Prisons closed in the towns of Åby, Håja, Båtshagen, and Kristianstad.
In the United States alone, more than $74 billion per year is spent on prisons, with over 800,000 people employed in the prison industry. As the prison population grows, revenues increase for a variety of small and large businesses that construct facilities, and provide equipment (security systems, furniture, clothing), and services (transportation, communications, healthcare, food) for prisons. These parties have a strong interest in the expansion of the prison system since their development and prosperity directly depends on the number of inmates.
The prison industry also includes private businesses that benefit from the exploitation of the prison labor. Some scholars, using the term prison - industrial complex, have argued that the trend of "hiring out prisoners '' is a continuation of the slavery tradition, pointing out that the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution freed slaves but allowed forced labor for people convicted of crimes. Prisons are very attractive to employers, because prisoners can be made to perform a great array of jobs, under conditions that most free laborers would n't accept (and would be illegal outside of prisons): sub-minimum wage payments, no insurance, no collective bargaining, lack of alternative options, etc. Prison labor can soon deprive the free labor of jobs in a number of sectors, since the organized labor turns out to be uncompetitive compared to the prison counterpart.
Mass incarceration has a powerful negative influence on communities (particularly poor communities), creating broken families, economic disenfranchisement, and increases in criminal activity. In many poor neighborhoods in the U.S., as many as one fifth of the adult men are in prison at any given time. When they are released, they are unable to find work, earn less money when they do find work, and experience a wide range of medical and psychological issues that make it harder for them to integrate back into society. Because of the lack of opportunities for former prisoners, rates of recidivism are very high; according to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, within three years of release, 67.8 percent of released prisoners are rearrested and within five years, 76.6 percent are rearrested. This dynamic affects not only the individuals who are incarcerated, but the families and communities around them, who have to pick up the burden while they are away (e.g. one parent who has to work and raise their children alone, because the other parent is imprisoned or teachers who have to deal with disciplinary problems from children who are acting out due to broken families). Furthermore, spending billions of dollars every year on prisons often results in funding shortages for social welfare programs like schools, food aid, and healthcare, which address the poverty that fuels much of the criminal activity in many poor communities.
As a result of the ineffectiveness of prisons at preventing crime, the high costs of maintaining them, and the detrimental socio - economic effects of mass incarceration, many nations (e.g. Sweden, Germany, and the Netherlands) have been working towards policies of large - scale decarceration, addressing crime and violence with alternative strategies such as fines, community service, and restorative justice processes. In addition to moving towards a more wholistic style of punishment, Nordic Countries in particular are focusing their efforts on prevention. In Sweden local police now work with county government to target at - risk youths. Swedish children from dysfunctional homes are provided more education and after - school activities to try and keep them out of trouble. In addition, police in Nordic countries are less likely to arrest youth for minor violations of the law. If a teenager steals food from a grocery store, they are often given community service time.
A variety of justifications and explanations are put forth for why people are imprisoned by the state. The most common of these are:
Conditional sentences are sentences that are served outside of the prison walls and in the community with some sort of restrictions or conditions placed on the offender, in an effort to reduce prison populations. The requirements or conditions may include mandatory programs such as a drug or alcohol treatment seminars, curfews, house arrest, or electronic monitoring. Most offenders who receive conditional sentences are low risk and are usually serving time for impaired driving where no death occurred. When an offender receives a conditional sentence of home confinement in comparison to incarceration, the offender is still able to see family members, maintain a normal job, and attend school. This is a huge advantage to conditional sentencing, since offenders are not completely cut off from the external world. Although the offender is not locked away in a prison cell, the offender is still expected to stay at home during certain times of the day or night. In order to verify that offenders are abiding by the restrictions placed on them, electronic monitoring is often used. The development of GPS, which allows law enforcement agencies to know the exact location of the offender by the use of satellites, has increased the effectiveness of offenders serving home confinement sentences drastically. Offenders can now easily be identified and tracked down through the use of GPS allowing law enforcement officers to quickly move in to make an arrest when an offender is in breach of their conditions.
The prison abolition movement seeks to reduce or eliminate prisons and the prison system, and replace them with more humane and effective systems. It is distinct from prison reform, which is the attempt to improve conditions inside prisons; however, relying on prisons less can significantly improve their conditions by eliminating overcrowding. Abolitionists criticize the focus on "crime '' as violations of laws that are arbitrarily defined by those in power -- especially when these lawmakers are seen as oppressive and corrupt. Abolitionists see most anti-social acts (violence, theft, etc.) as the result of social problems (e.g. poverty, racism, sexism) that can not be dealt with by simply punishing individuals, and instead require systemic changes to address the underlying structural causes.
Restorative justice is an approach to justice that focuses on the needs of the victims and the offenders, as well as the involved community, instead of focusing on satisfying abstract legal principles or punishing offenders (such as imprisoning them). Victims take an active role in the process, while offenders are encouraged to take responsibility for their actions, "to repair the harm they 've done -- by apologizing, returning stolen money, or community service ''.
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what sirius xm channel is the weather channel | Sirius XM Weather & Emergency - wikipedia
Sirius XM Weather & Emergency was a free satellite radio channel dedicated to providing critical, updated information before, during and after natural disasters, weather emergencies and other hazardous incidents as well as AMBER Alerts to listeners across North America. The channel was also affiliated with The Weather Channel. It was normally a low bitrate channel, but bitrate was raised in case of widespread emergencies. The channel number, 247 on XM, is a reference to the term 24 / 7, the old name of the channel XM Emergency Alert.
As a promotional channel, it was available from any XM or Sirius radio without a subscription (which is required by law as part of the Emergency Alert System, which they are required to take part in).
These channels were discontinued during November 2010.
During these events, XM Emergency Alert was used to give specific regional information for the affected area:
Hurricane Irene with an audio relay of The Weather Channel from August 28 -- 29.
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where does the song spooky scary skeletons come from | Andrew Gold - wikipedia
Andrew Maurice Gold (August 2, 1951 -- June 3, 2011) was an American singer, songwriter, musician and arranger. His works include the US Top 10 single "Lonely Boy '' (1977), as well as "Thank You for Being a Friend '' (1978) and the UK Top Five hit "Never Let Her Slip Away '' (1978). He had further international chart success in the 1980s as the lead singer of Wax, a collaboration with English musician and songwriter Graham Gouldman.
Gold was a multi-instrumentalist who played guitar, bass, keyboards, accordion, synthesizer, harmonica, saxophone, flute, drums and percussion, and more arcane musical instruments such as ukulele, musette, and harmonium. He was also a producer, sound engineer, film composer, session musician, actor, and painter.
Gold played and recorded with artists such as Linda Ronstadt, Paul McCartney, Don Henley, James Taylor, Brian Wilson, Roy Orbison, Ringo Starr, Carly Simon, John Waite, Roxy Music, Jennifer Warnes, Stephen Bishop, America, Nicolette Larson, Maria Muldaur, Neil Diamond, Barbi Benton, Eric Carmen, Juice Newton, Leo Sayer, Freddie Mercury, Nitty Gritty Dirt Band, Karla Bonoff, Bette Midler, Diana Ross, Cher, Jesse McCartney and J.D. Souther.
Gold was born in Burbank, California, and eventually followed his parents into show business. His mother was singer Marni Nixon (who provided the singing voice for numerous actresses, notably Natalie Wood in West Side Story, Deborah Kerr in The King and I, and Audrey Hepburn in My Fair Lady); his father was Ernest Gold, an Austrian - born composer who won an Academy Award for his score for the movie Exodus. He had two younger sisters.
Gold began writing songs at the age of 13. Abroad in England for school, the 16 - year - old Gold scored his first recording contract on the strength of a selection of demos he submitted to Polydor Records ' London office. That contract resulted in the single "Of All the Little Girls, '' which was recorded with his friend and collaborator Charlie Villiers, and released in 1967 under the name Villiers and Gold.
By the early 1970s, Gold was working full - time as a musician, songwriter and record producer. He was a member of the Los Angeles band Bryndle, alongside Kenny Edwards, Wendy Waldman, and Karla Bonoff, releasing the single "Woke Up This Morning '' in 1970. He played a major role as multi-instrumentalist and arranger for Linda Ronstadt 's breakthrough album, 1974 's Heart Like a Wheel, and her next four albums. Among other accomplishments, he played the majority of instruments on "You 're No Good, '' Ronstadt 's only # 1 single on the Billboard Hot 100, and the same on "When Will I Be Loved, '' "Heat Wave '' and many other classic hits. He was in her band from 1973 until 1977, and then sporadically throughout the 1980s and 1990s, appearing at some of her concert appearances.
In 1975, Gold debuted as a solo artist, with the eponymously titled album Andrew Gold. He released four studio albums during the 1970s and over twelve since then. The second of his 1970s studio albums, released in 1976, was titled What 's Wrong With This Picture? Its cover art consisted of a photograph with which many things were wrong; however, it had no title track. From it, he released his hit single "Lonely Boy, '' which reached # 7 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in June 1977 and was included in a number of film soundtracks, including Boogie Nights in 1997 and Adam Sandler 's 1998 movie The Waterboy. In February 2000, the American rock band Foo Fighters recorded a cover of the song to be used as a B - side for an upcoming single off their 1999 album There Is Nothing Left to Lose; however, it was not used as planned. On Marc Maron 's January 17, 2013 WTF podcast, Foo Fighters leader Dave Grohl said that the band 's cover of "Lonely Boy '' would eventually be released as the A-side of a special "Solid Gold '' 45 rpm single with a Foo Fighters version of Gold 's "Never Let Her Slip Away '' as the B - side.
Although "Lonely Boy '' was the bigger radio hit in the States, his single "Thank You for Being a Friend, '' which peaked at # 25 in 1978, later gained popularity as the theme song for The Golden Girls. (It was performed by Cindy Fee over the opening titles of the series.) "Thank You for Being a Friend '' has also shown up in places as diverse as an episode of the long - running animated TV situation comedy The Simpsons, a 2013 Super Bowl ad for the National Football League, and an audio file in various musical greeting cards. Gold 's biggest UK hit was "Never Let Her Slip Away, '' which made it to # 5 twice on the British singles charts, once by him and again 14 years later by dance - pop group Undercover. Freddie Mercury, who was a friend of Gold 's, assisted him with harmony vocals as an uncredited background singer. Among the artists recording Gold 's material was British singer Petula Clark who covered "Lonely Boy '' in French ("Poor Lonesome Play Boy '') on her Paris, Orleans, Paris album. On his 1976 Endless Flight album, Leo Sayer covered Gold 's song "Endless Flight, '' drawn from Gold 's own debut album released the previous year.
The year 1975 also marked a successful collaboration with Art Garfunkel, wherein Gold played most of the instruments on Garfunkel 's solo hit "I Only Have Eyes For You '' (which went to # 1 on the UK Singles Chart), as well as several other cuts on Garfunkel 's album Breakaway. In 1977 Gold also played guitar on two cuts of Eric Carmen 's album Boats Against the Current, including "She Did It, '' which was a # 23 hit that same year. Gold toured with the Eagles; worked in the recording studio and toured with Linda Ronstadt, Jackson Browne; played and sang on record and toured with James Taylor; and was second engineer on part of Joni Mitchell 's Blue album.
In 1981, Gold produced, co-wrote, sang and played on three 10cc tracks that appeared on the hit - making pop - rock band 's 1981 album Ten Out of 10. Subsequently, Eric Stewart and Graham Gouldman of 10cc invited Gold to become a member of the group. Although he had worked with them in the studio, business conflicts prevented him from joining their ranks. In late 1983, 10cc broke up, and in the aftermath, Gold and Gouldman formed Wax. Wax recorded and toured for five years. They enjoyed international success, particularly in the UK, where the duo had several Top 10 hits including "Right Between the Eyes '' and their biggest hit "Bridge to Your Heart. '' Wax broke up as a recording and touring entity in 1989, but Gold and Gouldman continued to write and record together whenever possible.
Gold played on Cher 's hit 1989 album Heart of Stone and, during the early ' 90s, wrote and composed hits for Trisha Yearwood as well as Wynonna Judd, for whom he co-wrote the # 1 single "I Saw The Light '' with Lisa Angelle. (Later, Gold would produce Angelle on her own album, which featured a number of songs on whose authorship and composition they collaborated.) He also produced singles for Vince Gill, wrote and produced tracks for Celine Dion, and arranged a cover of the Everly Brothers ' hit "All I Have to Do Is Dream '' that was sung by stars Jeff Bridges and Karen Allen in the 1984 science - fiction film Starman.
In the 1990s, Gold once again joined forces with ex-bandmates Karla Bonoff, Wendy Waldman and Kenny Edwards to re-form Bryndle and release their first full - length album, Bryndle. In 1996, Gold left Bryndle and released the children 's Halloween - oriented novelty album Halloween Howls with John Waite, featuring the track "Spooky Scary Skeletons. '' The same year, he released the solo album... Since 1951, and produced Stephen Bishop 's Blue Guitar album. Thereafter, he recorded the psychedelic ' 60s tribute album Greetings from Planet Love under the pseudonym "The Fraternal Order Of The All, '' releasing it on his own record label, "QBrain Records. '' This album was a multi-tracked solo affair with Gold essentially playing all of the instruments and singing all of the vocals on original songs in the style of Gold 's favorite 1960s bands such as The Beatles, The Byrds and The Beach Boys. He produced, composed, and / or wrote tracks for numerous films, such as the comedy Rectuma from director Mark Pirro, and contributed songs to many television soundtracks and commercials. Among his more high - profile gigs, he sang "Final Frontier, '' the theme song for the television sitcom Mad About You. In a remarkable turn of events, his rendition of the song was used as the wake - up call for the Mars Pathfinder space probe in 1996. Gold also produced seven albums for Japanese singer - songwriter Eikichi Yazawa.
In 2000, Gold compiled a Wax rarities album, House of Wax on Wax, as well as recording and releasing a new solo album The Spence Manor Suite; this last was followed in 2002 by another solo collection, Intermission. In the early 2000s, he formed a Byrds tribute band, Byrds of a Feather, which performed in the Los Angeles area. He appeared in a 2006 concert with the classic rock group America, and singer - songwriter Stephen Bishop, and the performance was later released as a DVD titled America And Friends - Live at the Ventura Theater. The show featured Gold performing "Thank You for Being a Friend, '' "Final Frontier, '' "Bridge to Your Heart '' and "Lonely Boy, '' as well as accompanying America and Bishop on guitar and vocals. Gold had earlier produced America 's Holiday Harmony Christmas album back in 2002, wherein he also played most of the instruments and co-wrote the track "Christmas in California. ''
Gold was married to Leslie Kogan. His first marriage was to Vanessa Gold, with whom he had three daughters, Emily, Victoria, and Olivia.
Although Gold put personal references in the lyrics to "Lonely Boy '' (including his year of birth), he admitted in an interview that it was not autobiographical: "Maybe it was a mistake to do that, but I simply put in those details because it was convenient. I had n't been a lonely boy at all -- I 'd had a very happy childhood. ''
In 1990, Gold and four of his family members competed on the game show Family Feud.
On June 3, 2011, Gold died in his sleep from heart failure at age 59 in Los Angeles.
Compilations and Live Albums
With Graham Gouldman as WAX
With Bryndle
With Graham Gouldman as WAX
Some singles released as promo copies only; some chart numbers are from the magazines Cashbox and Record World.
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how many 3 star michelin restaurants are there | List of Michelin 3 - Star restaurants - wikipedia
Michelin stars are a rating system used by the red Michelin Guide to grade restaurants on their quality. The guide was originally developed in 1900 to show French drivers where local amenities such as restaurants and mechanics were, the rating system was first introduced in 1926 as a single star, with the second and third stars introduced in 1933. According to the Guide, one star signifies "a very good restaurant '', two stars are "excellent cooking that is worth a detour '', and three stars mean "exceptional cuisine that is worth a special journey ''. The listing of starred restaurants is updated once a year.
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ncis season 15 episode 7 to be continued | NCIS (season 15) - wikipedia
The fifteenth season of the American police procedural drama NCIS premiered on September 26, 2017, in the same time slot as in the previous seasons, Tuesdays at 8 PM.
NCIS revolves around a fictional team of special agents from the Naval Criminal Investigative Service, which conducts criminal investigations involving the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps. The series was renewed for fourteenth and fifteenth seasons by CBS on Monday, February 29, 2016.
The series was renewed for fourteenth and fifteenth seasons by CBS on Monday, February 29, 2016. CBS has yet to renew the venerable police procedural drama for its 16th Season, but the ratings are still staying strong. It was announced that Jennifer Esposito, who portrayed NCIS agent Alexandra Quinn, has departed and will be replaced by Maria Bello as Agent Jackie Sloane -- a new series regular, beginning with episode 15: 5. As to Quinn 's departure, Special Agent Torres (Wilmer Valderrama) states in 15: 1 ("House Divided '') that Quinn is now on leave taking care of her mother; this coincides with a running story - arc her character has maintained for some time. The specific turnover point between Quinn & Sloane 's characters occurs at the end of 15: 4, when Bello 's character premieres. In another central casting announcement, TV Line reported (October 4, 2017) that founding NCIS character Pauley Perrette will be leaving the role of "Abby Sciuto '' after the conclusion of season fifteen.
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who is when it rains it pours about | When It Rains It Pours (song) - wikipedia
"When It Rains It Pours '' is a song written and recorded by American country music singer Luke Combs. It is his second single release overall, and it appears on his 2017 debut album This One 's for You. The song is about a man 's lucky streak that began with him being left by his girlfriend. "When It Rains It Pours '' reached number one on both the Billboard Country Airplay and Hot Country Songs charts respectively, giving Combs his second number - one country hit overall. It also charted at number 33 on the Hot 100 chart. The song was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and has sold 369,000 units as of February 2018. It received similar chart success in Canada, giving Combs his first number - one hit on the Canada Country chart and peaking at number 54 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart. An accompanying music video was made for the song that retells the story.
Taste of Country writer Sterling Whitaker described the song as being "a more uptempo, lighthearted song that turns the old woe - is - me phrase on its ear with a savvy twist. '' In the song, the narrator humorously recalls a streak of favorable occurrences beginning with his girlfriend leaving him.
"When It Rains It Pours '' first entered the Billboard 's Country Airplay on chart date of July 1, 2017 at No. 56, and Hot Country Songs at No. 43 the same week. The song was certified Gold by the RIAA on October 23, 2017, and has sold 369,000 copies in the United States as of February 2018.
The song 's music video retells the story, featuring Combs encountering his ex-girlfriend, and then driving, celebrating with his friends, getting a phone number from a waitress, and celebrating over winning money on a lottery ticket.
From This One 's for You liner notes.
Musicians
Technical
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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why is the back of a coin upside down | Coin orientation - Wikipedia
Coin orientation (or coin alignment or variations of these) is a feature of coins struck by some nations. In these nations, most coins, including all modern coins, have their reverse turned, or aligned, in a specified way relative to the obverse. There are essentially two options, referred to as medallic orientation and coin orientation.
Medallic orientation (or medal alignment, or variations of these) derives its name from medals tagged to a uniform. For a medal to display properly, even if it flips over, the reverse needs to be aligned so that the top of the reverse shares the same position as the top of the obverse. In other words, the image on one face of the coin is rightside - up relative to the other.
In Britain this is sometimes referred to as "British turnover ''.
Coins with medallic orientation include British coinage and most other Commonwealth coinage, Japanese yen coinage, and euro coinage.
The opposite situation is seen in some coins, e.g. coins of the United States. In this case, the coin must be flipped about its horizontal axis in order to see the other side the correct way up. In other words, the image on one face of the coin is upside - down relative to the other. For this reason, ' coin orientation ' is used in the United States to express the opposite of ' medal orientation '.
Coins with coin orientation include United States coinage, South Korean coinage, Thai coinage and pre-Euro French coinage.
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the who tommy royal albert hall 2017 drummer | 2017 Tommy & More - wikipedia
2017 Tommy & More was a UK "Tommy plus hits '' mini concert tour by British band The Who.
This set list is representative of the Teenage Cancer Trust Benefit performance on 30 March 2017 at the Royal Albert Hall, London, UK. It does not represent all concerts for the duration of the tour.
This set list is representative of the Teenage Cancer Trust Benefit performance on 1 April 2017 at the Royal Albert Hall, London, UK. It does not represent all concerts for the duration of the tour. This show was officially released on 13 October 2017 as Tommy - Live At The Royal Albert Hall on various formats (2 CD Digipack / 3 Vinyls Gatefold / 1 DVD / 1 Blu - ray).
Source:
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where do the dodgers play their spring training games | Camelback Ranch - wikipedia
Camelback Ranch -- Glendale is a stadium in Phoenix, Arizona owned and operated by the city of Glendale, Arizona. It is the spring training home of the Los Angeles Dodgers and Chicago White Sox. The stadium holds 13,000 people.
Camelback Ranch replaces Holman Stadium in Vero Beach, Florida as the Dodgers ' spring training home, and Tucson Electric Park in Tucson, Arizona as the White Sox spring training home.
The park is also home to the Arizona League Dodgers, who moved to Camelback Ranch with the Major League team in 2009. The Arizona League White Sox play there as of 2014, after the White Sox rejoined the Arizona rookie circuit.
The stadium name is derived from the longstanding name of the property it is built on.
Roger Bossard, White Sox head groundskeeper, designed and put in all of the fields for the Dodgers and the White Sox. During the park 's first year, Dodgers fans have noted and expressed their dismay at the absence of the Dodger Dog at the ballpark concession stands. The following season, Dodger Dogs began to be sold at the ballpark.
Camelback Ranch opened on March 1, 2009 for the spring training home opener between the Los Angeles Dodgers and the Chicago White Sox. The Dodgers took a 2 -- 0 lead into the top ninth until the White Sox came back to defeat them 3 -- 2. (Attendance: 11,280)
In 2015, the Dodgers drew 147,066 fans to their 15 spring training games at Camelback Ranch (an average of just over 9,804 per game), setting a new franchise spring training record.
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cast of dancing with the stars season 23 | Dancing with the Stars (Us season 23) - wikipedia
Season twenty - three of Dancing with the Stars premiered on September 12, 2016, on the ABC network.
On November 23, 2016, Olympic gymnast Laurie Hernandez and Valentin Chmerkovskiy were announced the winner; IndyCar driver James Hinchcliffe and Sharna Burgess placed second, and retired NFL player Calvin Johnson Jr. and Lindsay Arnold placed third. Having won at age 16, Hernandez is currently the youngest winner of the show, surpassing Olympic gymnast Shawn Johnson (season 8).
The first eight professional dancers were revealed on Good Morning America on August 23, 2016, and have all appeared on the show before. The six returning from the previous season include Lindsay Arnold, Sharna Burgess, Witney Carson, Artem Chigvintsev, Val Chmerkovskiy, and Sasha Farber; the two returning from past seasons are Allison Holker (last seen in season 21) and Gleb Savchenko (from season 16). Later, other returning dancers were announced: Emma Slater (last seen in season 21), Maksim Chmerkovskiy (last competed in season 18), Derek Hough (last competed season 21) and Cheryl Burke (last competed season 19). Past troupe member Jenna Johnson is the only new pro this season. Pros from the previous season who did not return this season include reigning champion Peta Murgatroyd, who was expecting a child, Mark Ballas, Tony Dovolani, Edyta Śliwińska, and Karina Smirnoff. Keo Motsepe returned, but as a member of the show 's dance troupe.
The full cast of celebrities and pros was revealed on August 30, 2016, on Good Morning America. They are:
Tom Bergeron and Erin Andrews return as hosts, and Carrie Ann Inaba, Len Goodman, and Bruno Tonioli return as judges. On August 26, 2016, it was reported that Julianne Hough would return to the show as a judge following a hiatus. Due to a personal tragedy involving her boyfriend, Erin Andrews took a week off from her co-hosting duties; former pro Kym Johnson - Herjavec filled in during week 3 Tuesday 's results show. On October 17, Pitbull took over Len Goodman 's position as a guest judge for week 6. On November 7, Idina Menzel took over for Goodman as a guest judge for week 9.
This table only counts dances scored on a 40 - point scale (Weeks in which the scores were out of 30 have been rounded to be out of 40).
The best and worst performances in each dance according to the judges ' 40 - point scale (Weeks in which the scores were out of 30 have been rounded to be out of 40) are as follows:
Scores are based upon a potential 40 - point maximum (Weeks in which the scores were out 30 have been rounded to be out of 40).
Individual judges ' scores in the charts below (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Carrie Ann Inaba, Len Goodman, Julianne Hough, Bruno Tonioli.
The couples danced the cha - cha - cha, foxtrot, jive, or Viennese Waltz.
The couples performed one unlearned dance to famous TV theme songs; Argentine tango, paso doble, quickstep, and tango are introduced.
The couples were paired off into six sets, with each set of couples performing the same dance to different songs. The highest - scoring couple from each set won immunity, and could not be eliminated (ties were broken by Len Goodman 's deciding vote). Salsa is introduced. The show was shortened to one hour due to the presidential debate.
Individual judges ' scores in this charts (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Carrie Ann Inaba, Julianne Hough, Bruno Tonioli.
The couples performed one unlearned dance inspired by a Cirque du Soleil show, while Cirque du Soleil acrobats, aerialists, dancers, and fire stick performers performed alongside them; Charleston, jazz, and samba are introduced.
The couples performed one unlearned dance to celebrate the most memorable year of their lives; contemporary is introduced. Due to the lack of a separate results show, no elimination took place this week.
Individual judges ' scores in the chart below (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Carrie Ann Inaba, Pitbull, Julianne Hough, Bruno Tonioli.
The couples danced a Latin - inspired routine; rumba is introduced.
The couples performed one unlearned dance and a team dance representing different historical eras; jitterbug is introduced.
After a three - week absence, Len Goodman temporarily returned to the judges ' table.
Individual judges ' scores in the chart below (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Carrie Ann Inaba, Julianne Hough, Bruno Tonioli.
Couples performed one unlearned dance to Halloween themes and songs; the couple with the highest score earned an immunity from elimination, while the rest of the couples participated in dance - offs for extra points.
After injuring her knee in week 7, Sharna Burgess was unable to perform with James Hinchcliffe; Jenna Johnson danced in her place.
Because Calvin, Laurie, and James all earned perfect scores, the tiebreaker was cumulative points over the season, which resulted in James winning immunity and a five - point bonus. For each dance - off, the couple with the highest remaining score picked the opponent against whom they wanted to dance; the chosen opponent was allowed to pick the dance style (cha - cha - cha, jive, or salsa). The winner of each dance - off earned three points. The general public helped to determine the winner of each dance - off via the show 's official website.
Individual judges ' scores in the chart below (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Carrie Ann Inaba, Idina Menzel, Julianne Hough, Bruno Tonioli.
Couples performed one musical theatre - inspired dance and a team - up dance with another couple, which involved the celebrities dancing side - by - side to the same song (and, for a few moments, without the assistance of their pro partners) and receiving the same set of scores from the judges for the routine. Waltz is introduced.
Jenna Johnson stepped in to dance with James Hinchcliffe again this week due to Sharna Burgess ' knee injury.
Individual judges ' scores in the chart below (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Carrie Ann Inaba, Julianne Hough, Bruno Tonioli.
The couples performed an unlearned dance and a trio dance involving an eliminated pro or a member of the troupe; Sharna Burgess returned to the dance floor after a two - week hiatus.
Individual judges ' scores in the chart below (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Carrie Ann Inaba, Len Goodman, Julianne Hough, Bruno Tonioli.
On the first night, the couples performed a redemption dance and a freestyle.
On the second night, the final three couples danced a fusion dance that fused two dance styles.
Once again after a three - week absence, Len Goodman returned to the judges ' table for the finals.
The celebrities and professional partners will dance one of these routines for each corresponding week:
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who has the most postseason wins as a pitcher | List of Major League Baseball all - time leaders in home runs by pitchers - wikipedia
In baseball, a home run (HR) is typically a fair hit that passes over an outfield fence or into the stands at a distance from home base of 250 feet or more, which entitles the batter to legally touch all bases and score without liability. Atypically, a batter who hits a fair ball and touches each base in succession from 1st to home, without an error being charged to a defensive player, is credited with an inside - the - park home run. If, during a play, defensive or fan interference is called, and the awarded bases allow the batter to cross home plate, the batter is credited with a home run.
Wes Ferrell holds the all - time Major League Baseball record for home runs hit while playing the position of pitcher. He hit 37 as a pitcher. Baseball Hall of Famers Bob Lemon and Warren Spahn are tied for second with 35 career home runs apiece. Red Ruffing, Earl Wilson, and Don Drysdale are the only other pitchers to hit at least 25 home runs. Jack Stivetts hit a total of 35 home runs in his playing career, 21 as a pitcher.
As of 3 September 2017, Madison Bumgarner, with 17 home runs, holds the lead among all active pitchers. Bumgarner is also the pitcher who has hit the most home runs since the American League adopted the designated hitter rule in 1973. Bumgarner has played his whole career thus far for the San Francisco Giants of the National League.
Ferrell also holds the single - season record for home runs by a pitcher, with nine, a mark that he reached in 1931. The record had previously been held by Stivetts, who had hit seven in 1890. Since 1931, six different pitchers have hit seven home runs in a season: Ferrell, Lemon, Don Newcombe, Don Drysdale (twice), Wilson, and Mike Hampton.
Babe Ruth started his major league career as a pitcher before moving to the outfield. Only 14 of his 714 career home runs were hit as a pitcher, however.
The first pitcher to officially hit a home run was Jack Manning, who accomplished the feat on August 3, 1876. The most home runs by a pitcher in a single game is three, achieved by Jim Tobin on May 13, 1942.
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when is episode 7 season 3 of rick and morty coming out | Rick and Morty (season 3) - wikipedia
The third season of the animated television series Rick and Morty originally aired in the United States on Cartoon Network 's late night programming block, Adult Swim. It premiered with "The Rickshank Rickdemption, '' which aired unannounced on April 1, 2017 and was replayed every half hour from 8pm to 12am ET, as part of Adult Swim 's annual April Fools ' prank. The episode was also simulcast as a looping live stream on Adult Swim 's site. The remaining episodes began airing four months later and concluded on October 1, 2017 with "The Rickchurian Mortydate ''. This season aired a total of ten episodes, despite co-creator Justin Roiland stating that they were "supposed to do 14 this season ''.
The actors and actresses listed below lend their voices to the corresponding animated characters.
Other cast members of the season, who each have voiced one or more characters, include: Dan Harmon, Brandon Johnson, Tom Kenny, Maurice LaMarche, Nolan North, Cassie Steele, Kari Wahlgren, Laura Bailey, John DiMaggio, Ryan Ridley, Scott Chernoff, Dan Benson, Clancy Brown, Echo Kellum, Melique Berger, William Holmes, Tara Strong, Jeff B. Davis, Jonas Briedis, Phil Hendrie, Rob Paulsen, Alex Jayne Go, Jennifer Hale and Mariana Wise.
Rick is interrogated via a mind - computer link, inside a galactic federal prison. Summer and Morty attempt to rescue him, but they are captured by SEAL Team Ricks, who take them to the Citadel of Ricks and decide to assassinate Rick. Back at the prison, Rick tricks both the federal agents and his aspiring assassins by switching bodies with them. He then teleports the entire Citadel into the federal prison, prompting a massive battle. Amid the confusion, Rick rescues Morty and Summer and uses the Galactic Federation 's mainframe to make its currency worthless. The Federation falls into chaos and collapses as a result, with the aliens leaving Earth. Rick, Morty, and Summer return home, where Jerry gives Beth an ultimatum to choose between him and Rick. She chooses Rick. After the new status quo is established, Rick reveals to Morty that his ulterior motive was to become his de facto male influence. This escalates into a nonsensical angry rant that parallels the final scene of the pilot, but this time it is centered around Rick 's desire to find more of the discontinued McDonald 's Szechuan sauce, a promotional product for the 1998 Disney film Mulan.
Rick takes Morty and Summer to a Mad Max-esque version of Earth, where they are chased by a group of scavengers, known as Death Stalkers. Rick notices that the group is carrying a valuable rock of Isotope 322, so he and the kids join them in hope of stealing it. Summer falls in love with the Death Stalkers ' leader, while Morty is given the strength of a giant arm, which takes him in search of its previous owner 's killer. Rick leaves and replaces the kids with androids to fool Beth. When he returns, he helps the Death Stalkers use the Isotope to power a more advanced civilization. Summer does n't like how the change softens the Death Stalkers, and she decides to follow Rick and Morty back home. Before leaving, Rick steals the Isotope. The experience helps the kids overcome their parents ' divorce. Summer reconciles with Jerry, and Morty realizes he must live his own life.
Rick turns himself into a pickle to get out of attending school - ordered family therapy, but Beth takes Rick 's serum which would revert the transformation. Left alone, Rick eventually rolls down into an open sewer drain, where he manages to manipulate the nervous systems of dead roaches and rats to build himself a mobile exoskeleton, with added weapons such as razors and drills. He unwittingly escapes into a foreign government agency. The guards try to kill Rick, under orders from the agency director, but Rick kills them all. In the process, Rick battles and ultimately befriends a prisoner named Jaguar. Rick changes his mind and decides to attend the therapy session, arriving towards the end. Dr. Wong gives her diagnosis, observing that Rick crafts relationships that punish emotions and vulnerability. On their way home, Rick apologizes to Beth for deceiving her and uses the serum to turn human again. Morty and Summer wish to continue seeing Dr. Wong, but Rick and Beth ignore them.
At Morty 's insistence, Rick agrees to join the Vindicators, a group of intergalactic superheroes, to fight their arch - nemesis, Worldender. Rick can not hide his disdain for the superheroes, while Morty is thrilled. The next morning, the Vindicators enter Worldender 's base, only to find that the previous night a blackout drunk Rick had killed him and set up a variety of puzzles that the Vindicators must solve to survive. They start arguing and kill one another, while Morty solves all the puzzles, as he knows what Rick had in mind when he put them up. After all puzzles are solved, the only ones left alive are Rick, Morty and Supernova, a member of the Vindicators. Supernova tries to kill Rick and Morty, but before she can do so, the three of them are transported to a party that Rick also set up while blackout drunk, where she gets away.
To bolster Jerry 's self - esteem, Rick takes him on an adventure at Morty 's request. They visit an otherworldly resort within an immortality field so Jerry wo n't be harmed while away. Jerry encounters Risotto Groupon, an alien who blames Rick for his kingdom being usurped. Risotto enlists Jerry in a plot to kill Rick, but Jerry backs out after Rick apologizes for ruining his marriage. Meanwhile, Summer deals with self - esteem issues as well. Her boyfriend, Ethan, leaves her for a larger - breasted girlfriend, and Summer attempts to enlarge her own breasts using one of Rick 's devices. Her aim is off, and she grows to freakish proportions. Morty wants to call Rick for assistance, but Beth refuses. Arrogantly trying to prove her own self - worth, Beth repeatedly fails to fix the problem and is tricked into releasing three tiny technical support workers that were trapped inside the machine. Once Morty figures out how the machine works, he restores Summer 's size and spitefully uses it to deform Ethan in an act of vengeance.
After a six - day outer space adventure that leaves them on the verge of psychological collapse, Rick and Morty decide to spend some time at an alien spa. There, they use a machine that extracts a person 's negative personality traits. However, without Rick and Morty knowing, those traits are transposed into toxic physical counterparts, characterized by Rick 's arrogance and Morty 's self - loathing. On the other hand, the true Rick becomes more considerate, and Morty 's confidence soars, which allows him to start dating girls. Toxic Rick uses a moonlight tower to remake the whole Earth in his own image, but the true Rick reverts the situation by merging back with him. Morty avoids merging back with his toxic counterpart and goes on to live a life as a stock broker in New York City. Rick tracks him down with the help of Jessica, Morty 's classmate, and restores order by re-injecting the negative personality traits into him.
As Rick and Morty adventure to Atlantis, the episode shifts focus towards the Ricks and Mortys living at the Citadel. A group of Mortys, reminiscent of the protagonists in Stand by Me, journey to a portal to have their wishes granted. A rookie cop Rick starts working with an experienced Morty cop to take down drug dealers, in a plot - line reminiscent of Training Day. A Rick working at Simple Rick 's wafer factory, where the key ingredient comes from said Simple Rick hooked up to a machine to re-experience his best memories, holds Simple Rick hostage after he does n't get a promotion. An election is held for the new president of the Citadel. Despite being the underdog, the Morty Party candidate manages to secure the presidency thanks to his views on Ricks and Mortys. His former campaign manager fails to assassinate him after discovering that the new president is actually Evil Morty from "Close Rick - counters of the Rick Kind ''.
After Morty requests to have a traumatic memory deleted, Rick reveals a room where he has been storing a number of memories he has removed from Morty. However, as it turns out, besides the memories that Morty did n't want to keep from their adventures, the room also contains memories of moments where Rick was made to look foolish and had them forcibly removed. This revelation prompts a fight, during which Rick and Morty have their memories accidentally erased. Morty scours the memories to replace the ones he lost, but is displeased with the truth he finds, and convinces Rick to both kill themselves. Summer enters the room moments before they commit suicide. At this point, it is revealed that Rick has a contingency plan should this happen. Summer, following written instructions, tranquilizes Rick and Morty, restores their memories and drags them to the living room. Rick and Morty wake up on the couch, believing that they slept through an entire "Interdimensional Cable '' episode.
Rick and Beth enter Froopyland, a fantasy world created by Rick for young Beth. Their goal is to recover Tommy, Beth 's childhood friend who 's been trapped in Froopyland, and prevent the execution of his father, who is being falsely accused of eating him. Tommy, who has survived all these years by resorting to bestiality, incest and cannibalism, refuses to return to the real world. Rick and Beth manage to save his father 's life by creating a clone of Tommy. Back at home, Beth is presented with the option of having a replacement clone of her created, so that she will be free to travel the world. Meanwhile, Jerry dates an alien hunter named Kiara, to Morty and Summer 's dismay. When he decides to get out of the relationship, Kiara is enraged and tries to kill the kids, whom she holds responsible. The situation is resolved following the revelation that Kiara was using Jerry to get over her previous boyfriend, much like Jerry was doing with her.
The President calls on Rick and Morty to defeat a monster in the tunnels underneath the White House, which they do with little effort. Annoyed that he constantly calls on them without any gratitude, they go back home, with the President quickly finding out. The resulting argument leads to a battle of egos that culminates in a fight in the White House between Rick and the President 's security. Meanwhile, fearing she might be a clone made by Rick, Beth reunites with Jerry to figure out the truth. Shortly after, the entire family gets together to hide from Rick, but he tracks them down. Rick eventually submits to Jerry once again being a family - member. Rick ends his conflict with the President by pretending to be Fly Fishing Rick, a Rick from a different reality, and calling a truce. The episode ends with the family happy to be together again, except for Rick who is disappointed by this outcome.
On August 12, 2015, Adult Swim announced that the series had been renewed for a third season. Roiland reportedly began writing on November 2, 2015. Mike McMahan announced that the first episode was recorded on February 18, 2016. On February 5, 2017, Dan Harmon, answering questions regarding the delayed release, announced on his podcast, Harmontown, that the show was in the animation process, after a long period of writing. On June 24, 2017, Harmon wrote a series of posts on Twitter, explaining that the writing process took that long to complete because of his perfectionism.
The season currently holds a 98 % approval rating from review aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes based on ten reviews, with an average rating of 8.85 out of 10 and an audience score average of 4.7 out of 5.
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difference between active directory services and domain name system | Active Directory - wikipedia
Active Directory (AD) is a directory service that Microsoft developed for the Windows domain networks. It is included in most Windows Server operating systems as a set of processes and services. Initially, Active Directory was only in charge of centralized domain management. Starting with Windows Server 2008, however, Active Directory became an umbrella title for a broad range of directory - based identity - related services.
A server running Active Directory Domain Services (AD DS) is called a domain controller. It authenticates and authorizes all users and computers in a Windows domain type network -- assigning and enforcing security policies for all computers and installing or updating software. For example, when a user logs into a computer that is part of a Windows domain, Active Directory checks the submitted password and determines whether the user is a system administrator or normal user. Also, it allows management and storage of information, provides authentication and authorization mechanisms, and establishes a framework to deploy other related services: Certificate Services, Federated Services, Lightweight Directory Services and Rights Management Services.
Active Directory uses Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) versions 2 and 3, Microsoft 's version of Kerberos, and DNS.
Active Directory, like many information - technology efforts, originated out of a democratization of design using Request for Comments or RFCs. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), which oversees the RFC process, has accepted numerous RFCs initiated by widespread participants. Active Directory incorporates decades of communication technologies into the overarching Active Directory concept then makes improvements upon them. For example, LDAP underpins Active Directory. Also X. 500 directories and the Organizational Unit preceded the Active Directory concept that makes use of those methods. The LDAP concept began to emerge even before the founding of Microsoft in April 1975, with RFCs as early as 1971. RFCs contributing to LDAP include RFC 1823 (on the LDAP API, August 1995), RFC 2307, RFC 3062, and RFC 4533.
Microsoft previewed Active Directory in 1999, released it first with Windows 2000 Server edition, and revised it to extend functionality and improve administration in Windows Server 2003. Additional improvements came with subsequent versions of Windows Server. In Windows Server 2008, additional services were added to Active Directory, such as Active Directory Federation Services. The part of the directory in charge of management of domains, which was previously a core part of the operating system, was renamed Active Directory Domain Services (ADDS) and became a server role like others. "Active Directory '' became the umbrella title of a broader range of directory - based services. According to Bryon Hynes, everything related to identity was brought under Active Directory 's banner.
Active Directory Services consist of multiple directory services. The best known is Active Directory Domain Services, commonly abbreviated as AD DS or simply AD.
Active Directory Domain Services (AD DS) is the cornerstone of every Windows domain network. It stores information about members of the domain, including devices and users, verifies their credentials and defines their access rights. The server (or the cluster of servers) running this service is called a domain controller. A domain controller is contacted when a user logs into a device, accesses another device across the network, or runs a line - of - business Metro - style app sideloaded into a device.
Other Active Directory services (excluding LDS, as described below) as well as most of Microsoft server technologies rely on or use Domain Services; examples include Group Policy, Encrypting File System, BitLocker, Domain Name Services, Remote Desktop Services, Exchange Server and SharePoint Server.
Active Directory Lightweight Directory Services (AD LDS), formerly known as Active Directory Application Mode (ADAM), is a light - weight implementation of AD DS. AD LDS runs as a service on Windows Server. AD LDS shares the code base with AD DS and provides the same functionality, including an identical API, but does not require the creation of domains or domain controllers. It provides a Data Store for storage of directory data and a Directory Service with an LDAP Directory Service Interface. Unlike AD DS, however, multiple AD LDS instances can run on the same server.
Active Directory Certificate Services (AD CS) establishes an on - premises public key infrastructure. It can create, validate and revoke public key certificates for internal uses of an organization. These certificates can be used to encrypt files (when used with Encrypting File System), emails (per S / MIME standard), and network traffic (when used by virtual private networks, Transport Layer Security protocol or IPSec protocol).
AD CS predates Windows Server 2008, but its name was simply Certificate Services.
AD CS requires an AD DS infrastructure.
Active Directory Federation Services (AD FS) is a single sign - on service. With an AD FS infrastructure in place, users may use several web - based services (e.g. internet forum, blog, online shopping, webmail) or network resources using only one set of credentials stored at a central location, as opposed to having to be granted a dedicated set of credentials for each service. AD FS 's purpose is an extension of that of AD DS: The latter enables users to authenticate with and use the devices that are part of the same network, using one set of credentials. The former enables them to use the same set of credentials in a different network.
As the name suggests, AD FS works based on the concept of federated identity.
AD FS requires an AD DS infrastructure, although its federation partner may not.
Active Directory Rights Management Services (AD RMS, known as Rights Management Services or RMS before Windows Server 2008) is a server software for information rights management shipped with Windows Server. It uses encryption and a form of selective functionality denial for limiting access to documents such as corporate e-mails, Microsoft Word documents, and web pages, and the operations authorized users can perform on them.
As a directory service, an Active Directory instance consists of a database and corresponding executable code responsible for servicing requests and maintaining the database. The executable part, known as Directory System Agent, is a collection of Windows services and processes that run on Windows 2000 and later. Objects in Active Directory databases can be accessed via LDAP, ADSI (a component object model interface), messaging API and Security Accounts Manager services.
Active Directory structures are arrangements of information about objects. The objects fall into two broad categories: resources (e.g., printers) and security principals (user or computer accounts and groups). Security principals are assigned unique security identifiers (SIDs).
Each object represents a single entity -- whether a user, a computer, a printer, or a group -- and its attributes. Certain objects can contain other objects. An object is uniquely identified by its name and has a set of attributes -- the characteristics and information that the object represents -- defined by a schema, which also determines the kinds of objects that can be stored in Active Directory.
The schema object lets administrators extend or modify the schema when necessary. However, because each schema object is integral to the definition of Active Directory objects, deactivating or changing these objects can fundamentally change or disrupt a deployment. Schema changes automatically propagate throughout the system. Once created, an object can only be deactivated -- not deleted. Changing the schema usually requires planning.
The Active Directory framework that holds the objects can be viewed at a number of levels. The forest, tree, and domain are the logical divisions in an Active Directory network.
Within a deployment, objects are grouped into domains. The objects for a single domain are stored in a single database (which can be replicated). Domains are identified by their DNS name structure, the namespace.
A domain is defined as a logical group of network objects (computers, users, devices) that share the same Active Directory database.
A tree is a collection of one or more domains and domain trees in a contiguous namespace, and is linked in a transitive trust hierarchy.
At the top of the structure is the forest. A forest is a collection of trees that share a common global catalog, directory schema, logical structure, and directory configuration. The forest represents the security boundary within which users, computers, groups, and other objects are accessible.
The objects held within a domain can be grouped into Organizational Units (OUs). OUs can provide hierarchy to a domain, ease its administration, and can resemble the organization 's structure in managerial or geographical terms. OUs can contain other OUs -- domains are containers in this sense. Microsoft recommends using OUs rather than domains for structure and to simplify the implementation of policies and administration. The OU is the recommended level at which to apply group policies, which are Active Directory objects formally named Group Policy Objects (GPOs), although policies can also be applied to domains or sites (see below). The OU is the level at which administrative powers are commonly delegated, but delegation can be performed on individual objects or attributes as well.
Organizational units do not each have a separate namespace; e.g. user accounts with an identical username (sAMAccountName) in separate OUs within a domain are not allowed, such as "fred. staff - ou. domain '' and "fred. student - ou. domain '', where "staff - ou '' and "student - ou '' are the OUs. This is because sAMAccountName, a user object attribute, must be unique within the domain. However, two users in different OUs can have the same Common Name (CN), the name under which they are stored in the directory itself.
In general the reason for this lack of allowance for duplicate names through hierarchical directory placement, is that Microsoft primarily relies on the principles of NetBIOS, which is a flat - file method of network object management that for Microsoft software, goes all the way back to Windows NT 3.1 and MS - DOS LAN Manager. Allowing for duplication of object names in the directory, or completely removing the use of NetBIOS names, would prevent backward compatibility with legacy software and equipment. However, disallowing duplicate object names in this way is a violation of the LDAP RFCs on which Active Directory is supposedly based.
As the number of users in a domain increases, conventions such as "first initial, middle initial, last name '' (Western order) or the reverse (Eastern order) fail for common family names like Li (李), Smith or Garcia. Workarounds include adding a digit to the end of the username. Alternatives include creating a separate ID system of unique employee / student id numbers to use as account names in place of actual user 's names, and allowing users to nominate their preferred word sequence within an acceptable use policy.
Because duplicate usernames can not exist within a domain, account name generation poses a significant challenge for large organizations that can not be easily subdivided into separate domains, such as students in a public school system or university who must be able to use any computer across the network.
In Microsoft 's Active Directory, OUs do not confer access permissions, and objects placed within OUs are not automatically assigned access privileges based on their containing OU. This is a design limitation specific to Active Directory. Other competing directories such as Novell NDS are able to assign access privileges through object placement within an OU.
Active Directory requires a separate step for an administrator to assign an object in an OU as a member of a group also within that OU. Relying on OU location alone to determine access permissions is unreliable, because the object may not have been assigned to the group object for that OU.
A common workaround for an Active Directory administrator is to write a custom PowerShell or Visual Basic script to automatically create and maintain a user group for each OU in their directory. The scripts are run periodically to update the group to match the OU 's account membership, but are unable to instantly update the security groups anytime the directory changes, as occurs in competing directories where security is directly implemented into the directory itself. Such groups are known as Shadow Groups. Once created, these shadow groups are selectable in place of the OU in the administrative tools.
Microsoft refers to shadow groups in the Server 2008 Reference documentation, but does not explain how to create them. There are no built - in server methods or console snap - ins for managing shadow groups.
The division of an organization 's information infrastructure into a hierarchy of one or more domains and top - level OUs is a key decision. Common models are by business unit, by geographical location, by IT Service, or by object type and hybrids of these. OUs should be structured primarily to facilitate administrative delegation, and secondarily, to facilitate group policy application. Although OUs form an administrative boundary, the only true security boundary is the forest itself and an administrator of any domain in the forest must be trusted across all domains in the forest.
The Active Directory database is organized in partitions, each holding specific object types and following a specific replication pattern. Microsoft often refers to these partitions as ' naming contexts '. The ' Schema ' partition contains the definition of object classes and attributes within the Forest. The ' Configuration ' partition contains information on the physical structure and configuration of the forest (such as the site topology). Both replicate to all domains in the Forest. The ' Domain ' partition holds all objects created in that domain and replicates only within its domain.
Sites are physical (rather than logical) groupings defined by one or more IP subnets. AD also holds the definitions of connections, distinguishing low - speed (e.g., WAN, VPN) from high - speed (e.g., LAN) links. Site definitions are independent of the domain and OU structure and are common across the forest. Sites are used to control network traffic generated by replication and also to refer clients to the nearest domain controllers (DCs). Microsoft Exchange Server 2007 uses the site topology for mail routing. Policies can also be defined at the site level.
Physically, the Active Directory information is held on one or more peer domain controllers, replacing the NT PDC / BDC model. Each DC has a copy of the Active Directory. Servers joined to Active Directory that are not domain controllers are called Member Servers. A subset of objects in the domain partition replicate to domain controllers that are configured as global catalogs. Global catalog (GC) servers provide a global listing of all objects in the Forest. Global Catalog servers replicate to themselves all objects from all domains and hence, provide a global listing of objects in the forest. However, to minimize replication traffic and keep the GC 's database small, only selected attributes of each object are replicated. This is called the partial attribute set (PAS). The PAS can be modified by modifying the schema and marking attributes for replication to the GC. Earlier versions of Windows used NetBIOS to communicate. Active Directory is fully integrated with DNS and requires TCP / IP -- DNS. To be fully functional, the DNS server must support SRV resource records, also known as service records.
Active Directory synchronizes changes using multi-master replication. Replication by default is ' pull ' rather than ' push ', meaning that replicas pull changes from the server where the change was effected. The Knowledge Consistency Checker (KCC) creates a replication topology of site links using the defined sites to manage traffic. Intrasite replication is frequent and automatic as a result of change notification, which triggers peers to begin a pull replication cycle. Intersite replication intervals are typically less frequent and do not use change notification by default, although this is configurable and can be made identical to intrasite replication.
Each link can have a ' cost ' (e.g., DS3, T1, ISDN etc.) and the KCC alters the site link topology accordingly. Replication may occur transitively through several site links on same - protocol site link bridges, if the cost is low, although KCC automatically costs a direct site - to - site link lower than transitive connections. Site - to - site replication can be configured to occur between a bridgehead server in each site, which then replicates the changes to other DCs within the site. Replication for Active Directory zones is automatically configured when DNS is activated in the domain based by site.
Replication of Active Directory uses Remote Procedure Calls (RPC) over IP (RPC / IP). Between Sites SMTP can be used for replication, but only for changes in the Schema, Configuration, or Partial Attribute Set (Global Catalog) GCs. SMTP can not be used for replicating the default Domain partition.
In general, a network utilizing Active Directory has more than one licensed Windows server computer. Backup and restore of Active Directory is possible for a network with a single domain controller, but Microsoft recommends more than one domain controller to provide automatic failover protection of the directory. Domain controllers are also ideally single - purpose for directory operations only, and should not run any other software or role.
Certain Microsoft products such as SQL Server and Exchange can interfere with the operation of a domain controller, necessitating isolation of these products on additional Windows servers. Combining them can make configuration or troubleshooting of either the domain controller or the other installed software more difficult. A business intending to implement Active Directory is therefore recommended to purchase a number of Windows server licenses, to provide for at least two separate domain controllers, and optionally, additional domain controllers for performance or redundancy, a separate file server, a separate Exchange server, a separate SQL Server, and so forth to support the various server roles.
Physical hardware costs for the many separate servers can be reduced through the use of virtualization, although for proper failover protection, Microsoft recommends not running multiple virtualized domain controllers on the same physical hardware.
The Active - Directory database, the directory store, in Windows 2000 Server uses the JET Blue - based Extensible Storage Engine (ESE98) and is limited to 16 terabytes and 2 billion objects (but only 1 billion security principals) in each domain controller 's database. Microsoft has created NTDS databases with more than 2 billion objects. (NT4 's Security Account Manager could support no more than 40,000 objects). Called NTDS. DIT, it has two main tables: the data table and the link table. Windows Server 2003 added a third main table for security descriptor single instancing.
Programs may access the features of Active Directory via the COM interfaces provided by Active Directory Service Interfaces.
Flexible Single Master Operations Roles (FSMO, pronounced "fizz - mo '') operations are also known as operations master roles. Although domain controllers allow simultaneous updates in multiple places, certain operations are supported only on a single server. These operations are performed using the roles listed below:
The Infrastructure Master role as described above is only for the domain partition (default naming context), netdom query fsmo and ntdsutil will only query the domain partition. However, every application partition, including Forest and Domain - level DNS domain zones has its own Infrastructure Master. The holder of this role is stored in the fSMORoleOwner attribute of the Infrastructure object in the root of the partition, it can be modified with ADSIEdit, for example one can modify the fSMORoleOwner attribute of the CN = Infrastructure, DC = DomainDnsZones, DC = yourdomain, DC = tld object to CN = NTDSSettings, CN = Name_of_DC, CN = Servers, CN = DRSite, CN = Sites, CN = Configuration, DC = Yourdomain, DC = TLD.
To allow users in one domain to access resources in another, Active Directory uses trusts.
Trusts inside a forest are automatically created when domains are created. The forest sets the default boundaries of trust, and implicit, transitive trust is automatic for all domains within a forest.
Windows Server 2003 introduced the forest root trust. This trust can be used to connect Windows Server 2003 forests if they are operating at the 2003 forest functional level. Authentication across this type of trust is Kerberos - based (as opposed to NTLM).
Forest trusts are transitive for all the domains the trusted forests. However, forest trusts are not transitive between forests.
Example: Suppose that a two - way transitive forest trust exists between the forest root domains in Forest A and Forest B, and another two - way transitive forest trust exists between the forest root domains in Forest B and Forest C. Such a configuration lets users in Forest B access resources in any domain in either Forest A or Forest C, and users in Forest A or C can access resources in any domain in Forest B. However, it does not let users in Forest A access resources in Forest C, or vice versa. To let users in Forest A and Forest C share resources, a two - way transitive trust must exist between both forests.
Microsoft Active Directory management tools include:
These management tools may not provide enough functionality for efficient workflow in large environments. Some third - party solutions extend the administration and management capabilities. They provide essential features for a more convenient administration processes, such as automation, reports, integration with other services, etc.
Varying levels of interoperability with Active Directory can be achieved on most Unix - like operating systems (including Unix, Linux, Mac OS X or Java and Unix - based programs) through standards - compliant LDAP clients, but these systems usually do not interpret many attributes associated with Windows components, such as Group Policy and support for one - way trusts.
Third parties offer Active Directory integration for Unix - like platforms, including:
The schema additions shipped with Windows Server 2003 R2 include attributes that map closely enough to RFC 2307 to be generally usable. The reference implementation of RFC 2307, nss_ldap and pam_ldap provided by PADL.com, support these attributes directly. The default schema for group membership complies with RFC 2307bis (proposed). Windows Server 2003 R2 includes a Microsoft Management Console snap - in that creates and edits the attributes.
An alternative option is to use another directory service as non-Windows clients authenticate to this while Windows Clients authenticate to AD. Non-Windows clients include 389 Directory Server (formerly Fedora Directory Server, FDS), ViewDS Identity Solutions - ViewDS v7. 2 XML Enabled Directory and Sun Microsystems Sun Java System Directory Server. The latter two both being able to perform two - way synchronization with AD and thus provide a "deflected '' integration.
Another option is to use OpenLDAP with its translucent overlay, which can extend entries in any remote LDAP server with additional attributes stored in a local database. Clients pointed at the local database see entries containing both the remote and local attributes, while the remote database remains completely untouched.
Administration (querying, modifying, and monitoring) of Active Directory can be achieved via many scripting languages, including PowerShell, VBScript, JScript / JavaScript, Perl, Python, and Ruby. Free and non-free AD administration tools can help to simplify and possibly automate AD management tasks.
Also since October 2017 Amazon AWS offers integration with Microsoft Active Directory.
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how many employees does boeing have in the us | Boeing - Wikipedia
The Boeing Company (/ ˈboʊ. ɪŋ /) is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, and satellites worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product support services. Boeing is among the largest global aircraft manufacturers; it is the second - largest defense contractor in the world based on 2015 revenue, and is the largest exporter in the United States by dollar value. Boeing stock is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average.
The Boeing Company 's corporate headquarters are located in Chicago and the company is led by President and CEO Dennis Muilenburg. Boeing is organized into five primary divisions: Boeing Commercial Airplanes (BCA); Boeing Defense, Space & Security (BDS); Engineering, Operations & Technology; Boeing Capital; and Boeing Shared Services Group. In 2016, Boeing recorded $94.6 billion in sales, ranked 24th on the Fortune magazine "Fortune 500 '' list (2017), ranked 61st on the "Fortune Global 500 '' list (2017), and ranked 25th on the "World 's Most Admired Companies '' list (2018).
In March 1910, William E. Boeing bought Heath 's shipyard in Seattle on the Duwamish River, which later became his first airplane factory. Boeing was incorporated in Seattle by William Boeing, on July 15, 1916, as "Pacific Aero Products Co ''. Boeing was later incorporated in Delaware, the original Certificate of Incorporation was filed with the Secretary of State of Delaware on July 19, 1934. Boeing, who studied at Yale University, worked initially in the timber industry, where he became wealthy and learned about wooden structures. This knowledge proved invaluable in his subsequent design and assembly of airplanes. The company stayed in Seattle to take advantage of the local supply of spruce wood.
One of the two "B&W '' seaplanes built with the assistance of George Conrad Westervelt, a U.S. Navy engineer, took its maiden flight on June 15, 1916. Boeing and Westervelt decided to build the B&W seaplane after having flown in a Curtiss aircraft. Boeing bought a Glenn Martin "Flying Birdcage '' seaplane (so called because of all the guy - wires holding it together) and was taught to fly by Glenn Martin himself. Boeing soon crashed the Birdcage and when Martin informed Boeing that replacement parts would not become available for months, Boeing realized he could build his own plane in that amount of time. He and his friend Cdr. G.C. Westervelt agreed to build a better airplane and soon produced the B&W Seaplane. This first Boeing airplane was assembled in a lakeside hangar located on the northeast shore of Seattle 's Lake Union. Many of Boeing 's early planes were seaplanes.
On April 6, 1917, the U.S. declared war on Germany and entered World War I. On May 9, 1917, the company became the "Boeing Airplane Company ''. With the U.S. entering the war, Boeing knew that the U.S. Navy needed seaplanes for training. So Boeing shipped two new Model Cs to Pensacola, Florida, where the planes were flown for the Navy. The Navy liked the Model C and ordered 50 more. The company moved its operations to a larger former shipbuilding facility known as Boeing Plant 1, located on the lower Duwamish River, Washington state.
When World War I ended in 1918, a large surplus of cheap, used military planes flooded the commercial airplane market, preventing aircraft companies from selling any new airplanes, driving many out of business. Others, including Boeing, started selling other products. Boeing built dressers, counters, and furniture, along with flat - bottom boats called Sea Sleds.
In 1919 the Boeing B - 1, flying boat made its first flight. It accommodated one pilot and two passengers and some mail. Over the course of eight years, it made international airmail flights from Seattle to Victoria, British Columbia. On May 24, 1920, the Boeing Model 8 made its first flight. It was the first plane to fly over Mount Rainier.
In 1923, Boeing entered competition against Curtiss to develop a pursuit fighter for the U.S. Army Air Service. Although Curtiss finished its design first and was awarded the contract, Boeing continued to develop its PW - 9 fighter. That plane, along with the Boeing P - 12 / F4B fighter, made Boeing a leading manufacturer of fighters over the course of the next decade.
In 1925, Boeing built its Model 40 mail plane for the U.S. government to use on airmail routes. In 1927, an improved version of this plane was built, the Model 40A which won the U.S. Post Office 's contract to deliver mail between San Francisco and Chicago. The 40A also had a passenger cabin that accommodated two.
That same year, Boeing created an airline named Boeing Air Transport, which merged a year later with Pacific Air Transport and the Boeing Airplane Company. The first airmail flight for the airline was on July 1, 1927. The company changed its name to United Aircraft and Transport Corporation in 1929 and acquired Pratt & Whitney, Hamilton Standard Propeller Company, and Chance Vought. United Aircraft then purchased National Air Transport in 1930.
On July 27, 1928, the 12 - passenger Boeing 80 biplane made its first flight. With three engines, it was Boeing 's first plane built with the sole intention of being a passenger transport. An upgraded version, the 80A, carrying eighteen passengers, made its first flight in September 1929.
In 1930, the Monomail, a low - wing monoplane that carried mail, was built. Built entirely out of metal, it was very fast and aerodynamic, and had retractable landing gear. In fact, its design was so revolutionary that the engines and propellers of the time could not handle the plane. By the time controllable pitch propellers were developed, Boeing was building its Model 247 airliner. Two Monomails were built. The second one, the Model 221, had a 6 - passenger cabin.
In 1933 the Boeing 247 was introduced, the first truly modern airliner. The 247 was an all - metal low - wing monoplane that was much faster, safer, and easier to fly than other passenger aircraft. For example, it was the first twin engine passenger aircraft that could fly on one engine. In an era of unreliable engines, this vastly improved flight safety. Boeing built the first 59 aircraft exclusively for its own United Airlines subsidiary 's operations. This badly hurt competing airlines, and was typical of the anti-competitive corporate behavior that the U.S. government sought to prohibit at the time.
The Air Mail Act of 1934 prohibited airlines and manufacturers from being under the same corporate umbrella, so the company split into three smaller companies -- Boeing Airplane Company, United Airlines, and United Aircraft Corporation, the precursor to United Technologies. As a result, William Boeing sold off his shares and left Boeing. Clairmont "Claire '' L. Egtvedt, who had become Boeing 's president in 1933, became the chairman as well. He believed the company 's future was in building bigger planes. Work began in 1936 on Boeing Plant 2 to accommodate the production of larger modern aircraft.
Shortly after, an agreement with Pan American World Airways (Pan Am) was reached, to develop and build a commercial flying boat able to carry passengers on transoceanic routes. The first flight of the Boeing 314 Clipper was in June 1938. It was the largest civil aircraft of its time, with a capacity of 90 passengers on day flights, and of 40 passengers on night flights. One year later, the first regular passenger service from the U.S. to the UK was inaugurated. Subsequently, other routes were opened, so that soon Pan Am flew with the Boeing 314 to destinations all over the world.
In 1938, Boeing completed work on its Model 307 Stratoliner. This was the world 's first pressurized - cabin transport aircraft, and it was capable of cruising at an altitude of 20,000 feet (6,100 m) -- above most weather disturbances. It was based on the B - 17, using the same wings, tail and engines.
During World War II, Boeing built a large number of B - 17 and B - 29 bombers. Boeing ranked twelfth among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. Many of the workers were women whose husbands had gone to war. In the beginning of March 1944, production had been scaled up in such a manner that over 350 planes were built each month. To prevent an attack from the air, the manufacturing plants had been covered with greenery and farmland items. During these years of war the leading aircraft companies of the U.S. cooperated. The Boeing - designed B - 17 bomber was assembled also by Lockheed Aircraft Corp. and Douglas Aircraft Co., while the B - 29 was assembled also by Bell Aircraft Co. and by Glenn L. Martin Company.
After the war, most orders of bombers were canceled and 70,000 people lost their jobs at Boeing. The company aimed to recover quickly by selling its Stratocruiser (the Model 377), a luxurious four - engine commercial airliner developed from the B - 29. However, sales of this model were not as expected and Boeing had to seek other opportunities to overcome the situation. The company successfully sold military derivatives of the Stratocruiser, such as the C - 97 adapted for troop transportation and the KC - 97 for aerial refueling.
Boeing developed military jets such as the B - 47 Stratojet and B - 52 Stratofortress bombers in the late - 1940s and into the 1950s. During the early 1950s, Boeing used company funds to develop the 367 -- 80 jet airliner demonstrator that led to the KC - 135 Stratotanker and Boeing 707 jetliner. Some of these were built at Boeing 's facilities in Wichita, Kansas, which existed from 1931 to 2014.
In the mid-1950s technology had advanced significantly, which gave Boeing the opportunity to develop and manufacture new products. One of the first was the guided short - range missile used to intercept enemy aircraft. By that time the Cold War had become a fact of life, and Boeing used its short - range missile technology to develop and build an intercontinental missile.
In 1958, Boeing began delivery of its 707, the United States ' first commercial jet airliner, in response to the British De Havilland Comet, French Sud Aviation Caravelle and Soviet Tupolev Tu - 104, which were the world 's first generation of commercial jet aircraft. With the 707, a four - engine, 156 - passenger airliner, the U.S. became a leader in commercial jet manufacture. A few years later, Boeing added a second version of this aircraft, the Boeing 720, which was slightly faster and had a shorter range.
Boeing was a major producer of small turbine engines during the 1950s and 1960s. The engines represented one of the company 's major efforts to expand its product base beyond military aircraft after World War II. Development on the gasoline turbine engine started in 1943 and Boeing 's gas turbines were designated models 502, 520, 540, 551 and 553. Boeing built 2,461 engines before production ceased in April 1968. Many applications of the Boeing gas turbine engines were considered to be firsts, including the first turbine - powered helicopter and boat.
Vertol Aircraft Corporation was acquired by Boeing in 1960, and was reorganized as Boeing 's Vertol division. The twin - rotor CH - 47 Chinook, produced by Vertol, took its first flight in 1961. This heavy - lift helicopter remains a work - horse vehicle up to the present day. In 1964, Vertol also began production of the CH - 46 Sea Knight.
In December 1960, Boeing announced the model 727 jetliner, which went into commercial service about three years later. Different passenger, freight and convertible freighter variants were developed for the 727. The 727 was the first commercial jetliner to reach 1,000 sales.
Boeing won a contract in 1961 to manufacture the S - IC stage of the Saturn V rocket, manufactured at the Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans, Louisiana.
In 1966, Boeing president William M. Allen asked Malcolm T. Stamper to spearhead production of the new 747 airliner on which the company 's future was riding. This was a monumental engineering and management challenge, and included construction of the world 's biggest factory in which to build the 747 at Everett, Washington, a plant which is the size of 40 football fields.
In 1967, Boeing introduced another short - and medium - range airliner, the twin - engine 737. It has become since then the best - selling commercial jet aircraft in aviation history. Several versions have been developed, mainly to increase seating capacity and range. The 737 remains in production as of February 2018 with the latest 737 MAX series.
The roll - out ceremonies for the first 747 - 100 took place in 1968, at the massive new factory in Everett, about an hour 's drive from Boeing 's Seattle home. The aircraft made its first flight a year later. The first commercial flight occurred in 1970. The 747 has an intercontinental range and a larger seating capacity than Boeing 's previous aircraft.
Boeing also developed hydrofoils in the 1960s. The screw - driven USS High Point (PCH - 1) was an experimental submarine hunter. The patrol hydrofoil USS Tucumcari (PGH - 2) was more successful. Only one was built, but it saw service in Vietnam and Europe before running aground in 1972. Its waterjet and fully submersed flying foils were the example for the later Pegasus - class patrol hydrofoils and the Model 929 Jetfoil ferries in the 1980s. The Tucumcari and later boats were produced in Renton. While the Navy hydrofoils were withdrawn from service in the late 1980s, the Boeing Jetfoils are still in service in Asia.
In the early 1970s Boeing suffered from the simultaneous decline in Vietnam War military spending, the slowing of the space program as Project Apollo neared completion, the recession of 1969 -- 70, and the company 's $2 billion debt as it built the new 747 airliner. Boeing did not receive any orders for more than a year. Its bet for the future, the 747, was delayed in production by three months because of problems with its Pratt & Whitney engines. Another problem was that, in 1971, the U.S. Congress decided to stop funding for the development of the supersonic 2707, Boeing 's answer to the British - French Concorde, forcing the company to discontinue the project.
Commercial Airplane Group, by far the largest unit of Boeing, went from 83,700 employees in 1968 to 20,750 in 1971. Each unemployed Boeing employee cost at least one other job in the Seattle area, and unemployment rose to 14 percent, the highest in the United States. Housing vacancy rates rose to 16 percent from 1 percent in 1967. U-Haul dealerships ran out of trailers because so many people moved out. A billboard appeared near the airport:
Will the last person leaving SEATTLE - Turn out the lights.
In January 1970, the first 747, a four - engine long - range airliner, flew its first commercial flight with Pan American World Airways. The 747 changed the airline industry, providing much larger seating capacity than any other airliner in production. The company has delivered over 1,500 Boeing 747s. The 747 has undergone continuous improvements to keep it technologically up - to - date. Larger versions have also been developed by stretching the upper deck. The newest version of the 747, the 747 - 8 is in production as of 2016.
Boeing launched three Jetfoil 929 - 100 hydrofoils that were acquired in 1975 for service in the Hawaiian Islands. When the service ended in 1979 the three hydrofoils were acquired by Far East Hydrofoil for service between Hong Kong and Macau.
During the 1970s, Boeing also developed the US Standard Light Rail Vehicle, which has been used in San Francisco, Boston, and Morgantown, West Virginia.
In 1983, the economic situation began to improve. Boeing assembled its 1,000 th 737 passenger aircraft. During the following years, commercial aircraft and their military versions became the basic equipment of airlines and air forces. As passenger air traffic increased, competition was harder, mainly from Airbus, a European newcomer in commercial airliner manufacturing. Boeing had to offer new aircraft, and developed the single - aisle 757, the larger, twin - aisle 767, and upgraded versions of the 737. An important project of these years was the Space Shuttle, to which Boeing contributed with its experience in space rockets acquired during the Apollo era. Boeing participated also with other products in the space program, and was the first contractor for the International Space Station program.
During the decade several military projects went into production, including Boeing support of the stealth B - 2 bomber. As part of an industry team led by Northrop, Boeing built the outboard portion of the B - 2 stealth bomber wing, the aft center fuselage section, landing gear, fuel system and weapons delivery system. At its peak in 1991, the B - 2 was the largest military program at Boeing, employing about 10,000 people. The same year, the National Aeronautic Association of the USA awarded the B - 2 design team the Collier Trophy for the greatest achievement in aerospace in America. The first B - 2 rolled out of the bomber 's final assembly facility in Palmdale, California, in November 1988 and it flew for the first time on July 17, 1989.
The Avenger air defense system and a new generation of short - range missiles also went into production. During these years, Boeing was very active in upgrading existing military equipment and developing new ones. Boeing also contributed to wind power development with the experimental MOD - 2 Wind Turbines for NASA and the United States Department of Energy, and the MOD - 5B for Hawaii.
Boeing was one of seven competing companies that bid for the Advanced Tactical Fighter. Boeing agreed to team with General Dynamics and Lockheed, so that all three companies would participate in the development if one of the three companies designs was selected. The Lockheed design was eventually selected and developed into the F - 22 Raptor.
In April 1994, Boeing introduced the most modern commercial jet aircraft at the time, the twin - engine 777, with a seating capacity of approximately 300 to 370 passengers in a typical three - class layout, in between the 767 and the 747. The longest range twin - engined aircraft in the world, the 777 was the first Boeing airliner to feature a "fly - by - wire '' system and was conceived partly in response to the inroads being made by the European Airbus into Boeing 's traditional market. This aircraft reached an important milestone by being the first airliner to be designed entirely by using computer - aided design (CAD) techniques. The 777 was also the first airplane to be certified for 180 minute ETOPS at entry into service by the FAA. Also in the mid-1990s, the company developed the revamped version of the 737, known as the 737 "Next - Generation '', or 737NG. It has since become the fastest - selling version of the 737 in history, and on April 20, 2006 sales passed those of the "Classic 737 '', with a follow - up order for 79 aircraft from Southwest Airlines.
In 1995, Boeing chose to demolish the headquarters complex on East Marginal Way South instead of upgrading it to match new seismic standards. The headquarters were moved to an adjacent building and the facility was demolished in 1996. In 1997, Boeing was headquartered on East Marginal Way South, by King County Airport, in Seattle.
In 1996, Boeing acquired Rockwell 's aerospace and defense units. The Rockwell business units became a subsidiary of Boeing, named Boeing North American, Inc. In August 1997, Boeing merged with McDonnell Douglas in a US $13 billion stock swap under the name The Boeing Company. However this name had actually been Boeing 's official name previously adopted on May 21, 1961. Following the merger, the McDonnell Douglas MD - 95 was renamed the Boeing 717, and the production of the MD - 11 trijet was limited to the freighter version. Boeing introduced a new corporate identity with completion of the merger, incorporating the Boeing logo type and a stylized version of the McDonnell Douglas symbol, which was derived from the Douglas Aircraft logo from the 1970s.
Aerospace analyst Scott Hamilton heavily criticized the CEO and his deputy, Philip M. Condit and Harry Stonecipher, for thinking of their personal benefit first, and with it causing the problems hitting Boeing many years later. Instead of investing the huge cash reserve to build new airplanes, they initiated a program to buy back Boeing stock for more than US $10 billion.
In May 1999, Boeing studied buying Embraer to encourage commonality between the E-Jets and the Boeing 717, but this was nixed by then president Harry Stonecipher. He preferred buying Bombardier Aerospace, but its owner, the Beaudoin family, asked for a price too high for Boeing which remembered its mid-1980s purchase of de Havilland Canada, losing a million dollars every day for three years before selling it to Bombardier in 1992.
In January 2000, Boeing chose to expand its presence in another aerospace field of satellite communications by purchasing Hughes Electronics. Hughes Space and Communications Company, which had pioneered the satellite communications field.
In September 2001, Boeing moved its corporate headquarters from Seattle to Chicago. Chicago, Dallas and Denver -- vying to become the new home of the world 's largest aerospace concern -- all had offered packages of multimillion - dollar tax breaks. Its offices are located in the Fulton River District just outside the Loop, Chicago.
On October 10, 2001, Boeing lost to its rival Lockheed Martin in the fierce competition for the multibillion - dollar Joint Strike Fighter contract. Boeing 's entry, the X-32, was rejected in favor of Lockheed 's X-35 entrant. Boeing continues to serve as the prime contractor on the International Space Station and has built several of the major components.
Boeing began development of the KC - 767 aerial refueling tanker in the early 2000s. Italy and Japan ordered four KC - 767s each. After development delays and FAA certification, Boeing delivered the tankers to Japan from 2008 with the second KC - 767 following on March 5. to 2010. Italy received its four KC - 767 during 2011.
In 2004, Boeing ended production of the 757 after 1,050 aircraft were produced. More advanced, stretched versions of the 737 were beginning to compete against the 757, and the planned 787 - 3 was to fill much of the top end of the 757 market. Also that year, Boeing announced that the 717, the last civil aircraft to be designed by McDonnell Douglas, would cease production in 2006. The 767 was in danger of cancellation as well, with the 787 replacing it, but orders for the freighter version extended the program.
After several decades of success, Boeing lost ground to Airbus and subsequently lost its lead in the airliner market in 2003. Multiple Boeing projects were pursued and then canceled, notably the Sonic Cruiser, a proposed jetliner that would travel just under the speed of sound, cutting intercontinental travel times by as much as 20 percent. It was launched in 2001 along with a new advertising campaign to promote the company 's new motto, "Forever New Frontiers '', and to rehabilitate its image. However, the plane 's fate was sealed by the changes in the commercial aviation market following the September 11 attacks and the subsequent weak economy and increase in fuel prices.
Subsequently, Boeing streamlined its production and turned its attention to a new model, the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, using much of the technology developed for the Sonic Cruiser, but in a more conventional aircraft designed for maximum efficiency. The company also launched new variants of its successful 737 and 777 models. The 787 proved to be a highly popular choice with airlines, and won a record number of pre-launch orders. With delays to Airbus ' A380 program several airlines threatened to switch their A380 orders to Boeing 's new 747 version, the 747 - 8. Airbus 's response to the 787, the A350, received a lukewarm response at first when it was announced as an improved version of the A330, and then gained significant orders when Airbus promised an entirely new design. The 787 program has encountered delays, with the first flight not occurring until late 2009.
After regulatory approval, Boeing formed a joint venture, United Launch Alliance with its competitor, Lockheed Martin, on December 1, 2006. The new venture is the largest provider of rocket launch services to the U.S. government.
In 2005, Gary Scott, ex-Boeing executive and then head of Bombardier CSeries program, suggested a collaboration on the upcoming CSeries, but an internal study assessed Embraer as the best partner for regional jets. The Brazilian government wanted to retain control and blocked an acquisition.
On August 2, 2005, Boeing sold its Rocketdyne rocket engine division to Pratt & Whitney. On May 1, 2006, Boeing agreed to purchase Dallas, Texas - based Aviall, Inc. for $1.7 billion and retain $350 million in debt. Aviall, Inc. and its subsidiaries, Aviall Services, Inc. and ILS formed a wholly owned subsidiary of Boeing Commercial Aviation Services (BCAS).
Realizing that increasing numbers of passengers have become reliant on their computers to stay in touch, Boeing introduced Connexion by Boeing, a satellite based Internet connectivity service that promised air travelers unprecedented access to the World Wide Web. The company debuted the product to journalists in 2005, receiving generally favorable reviews. However, facing competition from cheaper options, such as cellular networks, it proved too difficult to sell to most airlines. In August 2006, after a short and unsuccessful search for a buyer for the business, Boeing chose to discontinue the service.
On August 18, 2007, NASA selected Boeing as the manufacturing contractor for the liquid - fueled upper stage of the Ares I rocket. The stage, based on both Apollo - Saturn and Space Shuttle technologies, was to be constructed at NASA 's Michoud Assembly Facility near New Orleans; Boeing constructed the S - IC stage of the Saturn V rocket at this site in the 1960s.
Boeing launched the 777 Freighter in May 2005 with an order from Air France. The freighter variant is based on the − 200LR. Other customers include FedEx and Emirates. Boeing officially announced in November 2005 that it would produce a larger variant of the 747, the 747 - 8, in two versions, commencing with the Freighter version with firm orders for two cargo carriers. The second version, named the Intercontinental, is for passenger airlines. Both 747 - 8 versions feature a lengthened fuselage, new, advanced engines and wings, and the incorporation of other technologies developed for the 787.
Boeing also received the launch contract from the U.S. Navy for the P - 8 Poseidon Multimission Maritime Aircraft, an anti-submarine warfare patrol aircraft. It has also received orders for the 737 AEW&C "Wedgetail '' aircraft. The company has also introduced new extended range versions of the 737. These include the 737 - 700ER and 737 - 900ER. The 737 - 900ER is the latest and will extend the range of the 737 -- 900 to a similar range as the successful 737 -- 800 with the capability to fly more passengers, due to the addition of two extra emergency exits.
The 777 - 200LR Worldliner embarked on a well - received global demonstration tour in the second half of 2005, showing off its capacity to fly farther than any other commercial aircraft. On November 10, 2005, the 777 - 200LR set a world record for the longest non-stop flight. The plane, which departed from Hong Kong traveling to London, took a longer route, which included flying over the U.S. It flew 11,664 nautical miles (21,601 km) during its 22 - hour 42 - minute flight. It was flown by Pakistan International Airlines pilots and PIA was the first airline to fly the 777 - 200LR Worldliner.
On August 11, 2006, Boeing agreed to form a joint - venture with the large Russian titanium producer, VSMPO - Avisma for the machining of titanium forgings. The forgings will be used on the 787 program. In December 2007, Boeing and VSMPO - Avisma created a joint venture, Ural Boeing Manufacturing, and signed a contract on titanium product deliveries until 2015, with Boeing planning to invest $27 billion in Russia over the next 30 years.
In February 2011, Boeing received a contract for 179 KC - 46 U.S. Air Force tankers at a value of $35 billion. The KC - 46 tankers are based on the KC - 767.
Boeing jointly with Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC), were the prime contractors in the U.S. military 's Future Combat Systems program. The FCS program was canceled in June 2009 with all remaining systems swept into the BCT Modernization program. Boeing works jointly with SAIC in the BCT Modernization program like the FCS program but the U.S. Army will play a greater role in creating baseline vehicles and will only contract others for accessories.
Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates ' shift in defense spending to, "make tough choices about specific systems and defense priorities based solely on the national interest and then stick to those decisions over time '' hit Boeing especially hard, because of their heavy involvement with canceled Air Force projects.
In May 2003, the U.S. Air Force announced it would lease 100 KC - 767 tankers to replace the oldest 136 of its KC - 135s. In November 2003, responding to critics who argued that the lease was more expensive than an outright purchase, the DoD announced a revised lease of 20 aircraft and purchase of 80. In December 2003, the Pentagon announced the project was to be frozen while an investigation of allegations of corruption by one of its former procurement staffers, Darleen Druyun (who began employment at Boeing in January) was begun. The fallout of this resulted in the resignation of Boeing CEO Philip M. Condit and the termination of CFO Michael M. Sears. Harry Stonecipher, former McDonnell Douglas CEO and Boeing COO, replaced Condit on an interim basis. Druyun pleaded guilty to inflating the price of the contract to favor her future employer and to passing information on the competing Airbus A330 MRTT bid. In October 2004, she received a jail sentence for corruption.
In March 2005, the Boeing board forced President and CEO Harry Stonecipher to resign. Boeing said an internal investigation revealed a "consensual '' relationship between Stonecipher and a female executive that was "inconsistent with Boeing 's Code of Conduct '' and "would impair his ability to lead the company ''. James A. Bell served as interim CEO (in addition to his normal duties as Boeing 's CFO) until the appointment of Jim McNerney as the new Chairman, President, and CEO on June 30, 2005.
In June 2003, Lockheed Martin sued Boeing, alleging that the company had resorted to industrial espionage in 1998 to win the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) competition. Lockheed Martin claimed that the former employee Kenneth Branch, who went to work for McDonnell Douglas and Boeing, passed nearly 30,000 pages of proprietary documents to his new employers. Lockheed Martin argued that these documents allowed Boeing to win 19 of the 28 tendered military satellite launches.
In July 2003, Boeing was penalized, with the Pentagon stripping seven launches away from the company and awarding them to Lockheed Martin. Furthermore, the company was forbidden to bid for rocket contracts for a twenty - month period, which expired in March 2005. In early September 2005, it was reported that Boeing was negotiating a settlement with the U.S. Department of Justice in which it would pay up to $500 million to cover this and the Darleen Druyun scandal.
Until the late 1970s, the U.S. had a near monopoly in the Large Civil Aircraft (LCA) sector. The Airbus consortium (created in 1969) started competing effectively in the 1980s. At that stage the U.S. became concerned about the European competition and the alleged subsidies paid by the European governments for the developments of the early models of the Airbus family. This became a major issue of contention, as the European side was equally concerned by subsidies accruing to U.S. LCA manufacturers through NASA and Defense programs.
The EU and the U.S. started bilateral negotiations for the limitation of government subsidies to the LCA sector in the late 1980s. Negotiations were concluded in 1992 with the signing of the EC - US Agreement on Trade in Large Civil Aircraft which imposes disciplines on government support on both sides of the Atlantic which are significantly stricter than the relevant World Trade Organization (WTO) rules: Notably, the Agreement regulates in detail the forms and limits of government support, prescribes transparency obligations and commits the parties to avoiding trade disputes.
In 2004, the EU and the U.S. agreed to discuss a possible revision of the 1992 EU - US Agreement provided that this would cover all forms of subsidies including those used in the U.S., and in particular the subsidies for the Boeing 787; the first new aircraft to be launched by Boeing for 14 years. In October 2004 the U.S. began legal proceedings at the WTO by requesting WTO consultations on European launch investment to Airbus. The U.S. also unilaterally withdrew from the 1992 EU - US Agreement. The U.S. claimed Airbus had violated a 1992 bilateral accord when it received what Boeing deemed "unfair '' subsidies from several European governments. Airbus responded by filing a separate complaint, contesting that Boeing had also violated the accord when it received tax breaks from the U.S. Government. Moreover, the EU also complained that the investment subsidies from Japanese airlines violated the accord.
On January 11, 2005, Boeing and Airbus agreed that they would attempt to find a solution to the dispute outside of the WTO. However, in June 2005, Boeing and the United States government reopened the trade dispute with the WTO, claiming that Airbus had received illegal subsidies from European governments. Airbus has also responded to this claim against Boeing, reopening the dispute and also accusing Boeing of receiving subsidies from the U.S. Government.
On September 15, 2010, the WTO ruled that Boeing had received billions of dollars in government subsidies. Boeing responded by stating that the ruling was a fraction of the size of the ruling against Airbus and that it required few changes in its operations. Boeing has received $8.7 billion in support from Washington state.
In May 2006, four concept designs being examined by Boeing were outlined in The Seattle Times based on corporate internal documents. The research aims in two directions: low - cost airplanes, and environmental - friendly planes. Codenamed after the well - known Muppets, a design team known as the Green Team concentrated primarily on reducing fuel usage. All four designs illustrated rear - engine layouts.
As with most concepts, these designs are only in the exploratory stage, intended to help Boeing evaluate the potentials of such radical technologies.
Boeing recently patented its own force field technology, also known as the shock wave attenuation system, that would protect vehicles from shock waves generated by nearby explosions. Boeing has yet to confirm when they plan to build and test the technology.
In Summer 2010, Boeing acquired Fairfax, VA - based C4ISR and combat systems developer Argon ST to expand its C4ISR, cyber and intelligence capabilities.
In 2011, Boeing was hesitating between re-engineing the 737 or developing an all - new small airplane for which Embraer could have been involved, but when the A320neo was launched with new engines, that precipitated the 737 MAX decision. On November 17, Boeing received its largest provisional order for $21.7 billion at list prices from Indonesian LCC Lion Air for 201 737 MAX, 29 737 - 900ERs and 150 purchase rights, days after its previous order record of $18 billion for 50 777 - 300ER from Emirates.
On January 5, 2012, Boeing announced it would close its facilities in Wichita, Kansas with 2,160 workers before 2014, more than 80 years after it was established, where it had employed as many as 40,000 people.
In May 2013, Boeing announced it would cut 1,500 IT jobs in Seattle over the next three years through layoffs, attrition and mostly relocation to St. Louis and North Charleston, South Carolina − 600 jobs each. In September, Boeing announced their Long Beach facility manufacturing the C - 17 Globemaster III military transport would shut down.
In January 2014, the company announced US $1.23 billion profits for Q4 2013, a 26 % increase, due to higher demand for commercial aircraft. The last plane to undergo maintenance in Boeing Wichita 's facility left in May 2014. In September, NASA awarded contracts to Boeing and SpaceX for transporting astronauts to the International Space Station.
In June 2015, Boeing announced that James McNerney would step down as CEO to be replaced by Boeing 's COO, Dennis Muilenburg, on July 1, 2015. The 279th and last C - 17 was delivered in Summer before closing the site, affecting 2,200 jobs.
In February 2016, Boeing announced that Boeing President and CEO Dennis Muilenburg was elected the 10th Chairman of the Board, succeeding James McNerney. In March, Boeing announced to cut 4,000 jobs from its commercial airplane division by mid-year. On May 13, 2016, Boeing opened a $1 billion, 27 - acre (11 - hectare) factory in Washington state that will make carbon - composite wings for its 777X to be delivered by 2020.
On 28 April 2016, Bombardier Aerospace sold 75 CSeries CS100 firmly plus 50 options to Delta Air Lines. On 27 April 2017, Boeing filed a petition for dumping them at $19.6 m each, below their $33.2 m production cost.
On 9 June 2017, the US International Trade Commission (USITC) found the US industry could be threatened. On 26 September, the US Department of Commerce (DoC) observed subsidies of 220 % and will collect deposits based on these. It will add a 80 % preliminary anti-dumping duty on top, resulting in a total duty of 300 %. The DoC announced its final ruling, a total duty of 292 %, on 20 December. On 10 January 2018, the Canadian government filed a complaint at the World Trade Organisation against the USA.
On 26 January 2018, the USITC four commissioners unanimously determined the U.S. industry is not threatened and no duty orders will be issued, overturning the imposed duties. The Commission public report was made available by February 2018.
In October 2017, Boeing announced plans to acquire Aurora Flight Sciences to expand its capabilities to develop autonomous, electric - powered and long - flight - duration aircraft for its commercial and military businesses, pending regulatory approval.
In December 2017, the Wall Street Journal reported Boeing has been in takeover talks with the 18,000 employee strong Embraer, valuing it over its $3.7 billion market value, awaiting Brazilian government approbation. The two companies both confirmed that a potential "combination '' was being discussed, with a transaction subject to approval by the Brazilian government and regulators, the two companies ' boards and shareholders. The potential deal is seen as a reaction to the Airbus - Bombardier deal on the CSeries.
Embraer 's engineers could work on Boeing 's future developments, the New Midsize Airplane or a New Small Airplane, but it wants to control at least Embraer 's airliners to avoid repeating the B787 debacle: it partnered with major subcontractors and handed them engineering work, but those were n't up to the task, resulting in unprecedented delays, overruns of billions of dollars and Boeing was forced to buy out some.
In 2017, Boeing won 912 net orders for $134.8 billion at list prices including 745 737s, 94 787s and 60 777s, and delivered 763 airliners including 529 737s, 136 787s and 74 777s.
In January 2018, a joint venture was formed by auto seat maker Adient (50.01 %) and Boeing (49.99 %) to develop and manufacture airliner seats for new installations or retrofit, a $4.5 billion market in 2017 which will grow to $6 billion by 2026, to be based in Kaiserslautern near Frankfurt and distributed by Boeing subsidiary Aviall, with its customer service center in Seattle.
In 2006, the UCLA Center for Environmental Risk Reduction released a study showing that Boeing 's Santa Susana Field Laboratory, in the Simi Hills of eastern Ventura County in Southern California, had been contaminated with toxic and radioactive waste. The study found that air, soil, groundwater, and surface water at the site all contained radionuclides, toxic metals, and dioxins; air and water additionally contained perchlorate, TCE, and hydrazines, while water showed the presence of PCBs as well. Clean up studies and lawsuits are in progress.
The airline industry is responsible for about 11 percent of greenhouse gases emitted by the U.S. transportation sector. Aviation 's share of the greenhouse gas emissions is poised to grow, as air travel increases and ground vehicles use more alternative fuels like ethanol and biodiesel. Boeing estimates that biofuels could reduce flight - related greenhouse - gas emissions by 60 to 80 percent. The solution blends algae fuels with existing jet fuel.
Boeing executives said the company is informally collaborating with leading Brazilian biofuels maker Tecbio, Aquaflow Bionomic of New Zealand and other fuel developers around the world. So far, Boeing has tested six fuels from these companies, and will probably have gone through 20 fuels "by the time we 're done evaluating them. '' Boeing was also joining other aviation - related members in the Algal Biomass Organization (ABO) on June 2008.
Air New Zealand and Boeing are researching the jatropha plant to see if it is a sustainable alternative to conventional fuel. A two - hour test flight using a 50 -- 50 mixture of the new biofuel with Jet A-1 in the number one position Rolls Royce RB - 211 engine of 747 - 400 ZK - NBS, was successfully completed on December 30, 2008. The engine was then removed to be scrutinised and studied to identify any differences between the Jatropha blend and regular Jet A1. No effects to performances were found.
On August 31, 2010, Boeing worked with the U.S. Air Force to test the Boeing C - 17 running on 50 percent JP - 8, 25 percent Hydro - treated Renewable Jet fuel and 25 percent of a Fischer -- Tropsch fuel with successful results.
For NASA 's N + 3 future airliner program, Boeing has determined that hybrid electric engine technology is by far the best choice for its subsonic design. Hybrid electric propulsion has the potential to shorten takeoff distance and reduce noise.
In both 2008 and 2009, Boeing was second on the list of Top 100 US Federal Contractors, with contracts totalling $22 billion and $23 billion respectively. Since 1995, the company has agreed to pay $1.6 billion to settle 39 instances of misconduct, including $615 million in 2006 in relation to illegal hiring of government officials and improper use of proprietary information.
Boeing is the top receiver of subsidies (dubbed "corporate welfare '') in the U.S. based on 2014 data, with a total of $13.18 billion. It also secured the highest ever tax breaks at the state level in 2013.
Boeing 's 2010 lobbying expenditure by the third quarter was $13.2 million (2009 total: $16.9 million). In the 2008 presidential election, Barack Obama "was by far the biggest recipient of campaign contributions from Boeing employees and executives, hauling in $197,000 -- five times as much as John McCain, and more than the top eight Republicans combined. ''
Boeing has a corporate citizenship program centered on charitable contributions in five areas: education, health, human services, environment, the arts, culture, and civic engagement. In 2011, Boeing spent $147.3 million in these areas through charitable grants and business sponsorships. In February 2012, Boeing Global Corporate Citizenship partnered with the Insight Labs to develop a new model for foundations to more effectively lead the sector that they serve.
The company is a member of the U.S. Global Leadership Coalition, a Washington D.C. - based coalition of over 400 major companies and NGOs that advocates for a larger International Affairs Budget, which funds American diplomatic and development efforts abroad. A series of U.S. diplomatic cables show how U.S. diplomats and senior politicians intervene on behalf of Boeing to help boost the company 's sales.
In 2007 and 2008, the company benefited from over $10 billion of long - term loan guarantees, helping finance the purchase of their commercial aircraft in countries including Brazil, Canada, Ireland and the United Arab Emirates, from the Export - Import Bank of the United States, some 65 percent of the total loan guarantees the bank made in the period.
In December 2011, the non-partisan organization Public Campaign criticized Boeing for spending $52.29 million on lobbying and not paying taxes during 2008 -- 2010, instead getting $178 million in tax rebates, despite making a profit of $9.7 billion, laying off 14,862 workers since 2008, and increasing executive pay by 31 percent to $41.9 million in 2010 for its top five executives.
The two largest divisions are Boeing Commercial Airplanes and Boeing Defense, Space & Security (BDS).
The company 's employment count is listed on its website below.
Approximately 1.5 percent of Boeing employees are in the Technical Fellowship program, a program through which Boeing 's top engineers and scientists set technical direction for the company. The average salary at Boeing is $76,784, reported by former employees.
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see no evil hear no evil see no evil origin | Three wise monkeys - wikipedia
The three wise monkeys (Japanese: 三猿, Hepburn: san'en or sanzaru, alternatively 三 匹 の 猿 sanbiki no saru, literally "three monkeys ''), sometimes called the three mystic apes, are a pictorial maxim. Together they embody the proverbial principle "see no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil ''. The three monkeys are Mizaru, covering his eyes, who sees no evil; Kikazaru, covering his ears, who hears no evil; and Iwazaru, covering his mouth, who speaks no evil.
There are various meanings ascribed to the monkeys and the proverb including associations with being of good mind, speech and action. In the Western world the phrase is often used to refer to those who deal with impropriety by turning a blind eye.
Outside Japan the monkeys ' names are sometimes given as Mizaru, Mikazaru, and Mazaru, as the last two names were corrupted from the Japanese originals. The monkeys are Japanese macaques, a common species in Japan.
The source that popularized this pictorial maxim is a 17th - century carving over a door of the famous Tōshō - gū shrine in Nikkō, Japan. The carvings at Toshogu Shrine were carved by Hidari Jingoro, and believed to have incorporated Confucius 's Code of Conduct, using the monkey as a way to depict man 's life cycle. There are a total of eight panels, and the iconic three wise monkeys picture comes from panel 2. The philosophy, however, probably originally came to Japan with a Tendai - Buddhist legend, from China in the 8th century (Nara Period). It has been suggested that the figures represent the three dogmas of the so - called middle school of the sect.
In Chinese, a similar phrase exists in the late Analects of Confucius from 2nd to 4th century B.C.: "Look not at what is contrary to propriety; listen not to what is contrary to propriety; speak not what is contrary to propriety; make no movement which is contrary to propriety '' (非禮 勿 視, 非禮 勿 聽, 非禮 勿 言, 非禮 勿 動). It may be that this phrase was shortened and simplified after it was brought into Japan.
It is through the Kōshin rite of folk religion that the most significant examples are presented. The Kōshin belief or practice is a Japanese folk religion with Chinese Taoism origins and ancient Shinto influence. It was founded by Tendai Buddhist monks in the late 10th century. A considerable number of stone monuments can be found all over the eastern part of Japan around Tokyo. During the later part of the Muromachi period, it was customary to display stone pillars depicting the three monkeys during the observance of Kōshin.
Though the teaching had nothing to do with monkeys, the concept of the three monkeys originated from a simple play on words. The saying in Japanese is mizaru, kikazaru, iwazaru (見 ざる, 聞か ざる, 言わ ざる) "see not, hear not, speak not '', where the - zaru is a negative conjugation on the three verbs, matching zaru, the modified form of saru (猿) "monkey '' used in compounds. Thus the saying (which does not include any specific reference to "evil '') can also be interpreted as referring to three monkeys.
The shrine at Nikko is a Shinto shrine, and the monkey is an extremely important being in the Shinto religion. The monkey is believed to be the messenger of the Hie Shinto shrines, which also have connections with Tendai Buddhism. There are even important festivals that are celebrated during the year of the Monkey (occurring every twelve years) and a special festival is celebrated every sixteenth year of the Kōshin.
"The Three Mystic Apes '' (Sambiki Saru) were described as "the attendants of Saruta Hito no Mikoto or Kōshin, the God of the Roads ''. The Kōshin festival was held on the 60th day of the calendar. It has been suggested that during the Kōshin festival, according to old beliefs, one 's bad deeds might be reported to heaven "unless avoidance actions were taken... ''. It has been theorized that the three Mystic Apes, Not Seeing, Hearing, or Speaking, may have been the "things that one has done wrong in the last 59 days ''.
According to other accounts, the monkeys caused the Sanshi and Ten - Tei not to see, say or hear the bad deeds of a person. The Sanshi (三 尸) are the Three Corpses living in everyone 's body. The Sanshi keep track of the good deeds and particularly the bad deeds of the person they inhabit. Every 60 days, on the night called Kōshin - Machi (庚申待), if the person sleeps, the Sanshi will leave the body and go to Ten - Tei (天帝), the Heavenly God, to report about the deeds of that person. Ten - Tei will then decide to punish bad people, making them ill, shortening their time alive, and in extreme cases putting an end to their lives. Those believers of Kōshin who have reason to fear will try to stay awake during Kōshin nights. This is the only way to prevent the Sanshi from leaving their body and reporting to Ten - Tei.
An ancient representation of the "no see, no hear, no say, no do '' can be found in four golden figurines in the Zelnik Istvan Southeast Asian Gold Museum. These golden statues date from the 6th to 8th century. The figures look like tribal human people with not very precise body carvings and strong phallic symbols. This set indicates that the philosophy comes from very ancient roots.
It is not clear how or when the saying travelled; in Ethiopia the Ge'ez language has the saying "Let the eye fast, let the mouth fast, let the ears fast. ''
Just as there is disagreement about the origin of the phrase, there are differing explanations of the meaning of "see no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil ''.
Sometimes there is a fourth monkey depicted, Shizaru, who symbolizes the principle of "do no evil ''. He may be shown crossing his arms or covering his genitals. Yet another variation has the fourth monkey hold its nose to avoid a stench and has been dubbed "smell no evil '' accordingly.
According to Osho Rajneesh, the monkey symbolism originated in ancient Hindu tradition and Buddhist monks spread this symbolism across Asia. The original Hindu and Buddhist version contains 4 monkeys and the fourth monkey covers his genitals. The Buddhist version means this as "Do n't do anything evil ''.
In Hindu original version the meaning of the fourth monkey is totally different from the popular Buddhist version. It means, "Hide your pleasures. Hide your enjoyment, do n't show it to anybody. ''
Osho Rajneesh gave his own meaning regarding this. The first monkey denotes ' Do n't listen to the truth because it will disturb all your consoling lies '. The second monkey denotes ' Do n't look at the truth; otherwise your God will be dead and your heaven and hell will disappear '. The third monkey denotes ' Do n't speak the truth, otherwise you will be condemned, crucified, poisoned, tortured by the whole crowd, the unconscious people. You will be condemned, do n't speak the truth! ' The fourth monkey denotes "Keep your pleasures, your joys, hidden. Do n't let anybody know that you are a cheerful man, a blissful man, an ecstatic man, because that will destroy your very life. It is dangerous ''.
The three wise monkeys, and the associated proverb, are known throughout Asia and in the Western world. They have been a motif in pictures, such as the ukiyo - e (Japanese woodblock printings) by Keisai Eisen, and are frequently represented in modern culture.
Mahatma Gandhi 's one notable exception to his lifestyle of non-possession was a small statue of the three monkeys - Bapu, Ketan and Bandar. Today, a larger representation of the three monkeys is prominently displayed at the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, where Gandhi lived from 1915 to 1930 and from where he departed on his famous salt march. Gandhi 's statue also inspired a 2008 artwork by Subodh Gupta, Gandhi 's Three Monkeys.
The three monkeys are depicted in the trial scene in the 1968 Planet of the Apes. An example of semiotics, as the judges mimic the see no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil monkeys.
The maxim inspired an award - winning 2008 Turkish film by director Nuri Bilge Ceylan called Three Monkeys (Üç Maymun).
Unicode provides emoji representations of the monkeys in the Emoticons block as follows:
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shania twain i'm gonna get ya good | I 'm Gonna Getcha Good! - Wikipedia
"I 'm Gonna Getcha Good! '' is a song co-written and recorded by Canadian singer Shania Twain. It was the first single from her album Up! The song was written by Mutt Lange and Shania Twain. "I 'm Gonna Getcha Good! '' was originally released to American radio on September 23, 2002. Shania chose "I 'm Gonna Getcha Good! '' as the first single for Up! since she felt it was relatable to past Shania singles, and she did n't want something too unfamiliar. The song has become one of her biggest hits worldwide, charting in different countries where she had never had hits before. At the 2003 Juno Awards "I 'm Gonna Getcha Good! '' was named Country Recording of the Year. Later, the Jonas Brothers covered the song for the soundtrack for their film Jonas Brothers: The 3D Concert Experience.
Reception to "I 'm Gonna Getcha Good! '' was mostly positive, though many reviews compared the song to earlier singles. Billboard called the single "one catchy little puppy, '' though stated the song is "more a reminder of where we 've been than where she 's planning to take us ''. About.com called the song "pure ear candy from beginning to end ''. Entertainment Weekly gave the song a C+ grade and found Shania "softening every edge with skillful vixen - next - door charm ''.
The music video for "I 'm Gonna Getcha Good! '' was shot in London, UK and directed by Paul Boyd. The music video as written by visualist Ash Beck. It was filmed on August 22 and 23, 2002 and debuted on CMT on October 4, 2002. The video is set in a dystopian futuristic setting, with Twain riding a motorcycle out of a secret location and cruising around the city. She passes what she thinks is a rock sculpture, which then reveals to be a flying robot, who attempts to capture Twain and trap her. She manages to evade being captured by tricking the robot into one of its own traps, and narrowly dodges the explosion. Intercut throughout are scenes of Twain and a band performing in a music video studio setting behind a glass wall. Near the end of the video, she is revealed to be a clone of the actual Twain, who is nearby when she finds the robot 's eye and throws it to break the glass. The video ends with the Twain - clone slowly stepping into the outside world. The video was a success, peaking at number one on VH1 's weekly countdown. The video won the Best Video of the Year Award at the 2003 Canadian Country Music Awards, and Concept Video of the Year at the 2003 CMT Flameworthy Awards. The ' Red SFX Edit ' version of the video is available on the DVD - Audio version of Up!, while the ' Green ' version is available on Twain 's budget video compilation A Collection of Video Hits. After the video shoot, Shania donated the "I 'm Gonna Getcha Good! '' costume to the Shania Twain Centre in her hometown of Timmins, Ontario.
In total there are six versions of the "I 'm Gonna Getcha Good! '' video. The first to be released was the original version for both the ' Red ' and ' Green ' radio mixes. These were later replaced by an ' SFX Edit ' version for both Red and Green versions which featured more sound effects from the motorcycle and robot. The ' Blue ' mix was released solely in India, and an alternative ' Red ' version was released featuring only Twain and her band performing in the studio setting to the longer album version, unlike the original video which is shortened to suit the radio edit.
"I 'm Gonna Getcha Good! '' debuted on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart the week of October 19, 2002 at number 24, setting what was then a record for the highest - ever debut by a female artist on the country charts (it would later be surpassed by Gretchen Wilson 's "All Jacked Up '' and later Carrie Underwood 's "So Small ''). The single spent 20 weeks on the chart and climbed to a peak position of number seven on December 7, 2002, where it remained for one week. "I 'm Gonna Getcha Good! '' became Twain 's 13th top ten single and 17th top 20 single. The song reached number 31 on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay chart.
At adult contemporary radio, "I 'm Gonna Getcha Good! '' debuted at number 27 the week of November 16, 2002, the highest debut of the week. The single spent 26 weeks on the chart and climbed to a peak position of number ten on December 21, 2002, where it remained for three non-consecutive weeks. "I 'm Gonna Getcha Good! '' became Twain 's fifth top ten single and sixth consecutive top 20 single.
"I 'm Gonna Getcha Good! '' became Twain 's third biggest single in the UK, only behind "That Do n't Impress Me Much '' and "Man! I Feel Like a Woman! ''. It also became her fifth consecutive, sixth overall, top ten single. It debuted on November 16, 2002, at its peak at number four. The song remained on the entire chart for 15 weeks, and has gone on to sell more than 155,000 copies within the nation.
In Canada, the commercial single became Twain 's first number one on the Canadian Singles Chart. The song also gained enough airplay in Romania to hit the number one spot. In all, the song hit the top ten in 14 countries: Canada, Denmark, Hungary, Ireland, Latvia, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the UK.
As Twain had been out of the media spotlight for several years, and because "I 'm Gonna Getcha Good! '' was the lead single from a brand new album, the singer performed the song worldwide to help bring herself back into the limelight, and to sell the album (as well as the single). Sexually suggestive images were used to brand the single and promotion started in Europe, where in Germany she performed on Wetten, dass...?, in the UK she performed at BBC, Royal Variety Show, CD: UK, and Top of the Pops. In Sweden she performed the single on Bingolotto and in Portugal she performed on the Herman SIC Show. In Italy she performed at the Festival della canzone italiana. Following promotion in Europe she headed to Japan where she performed at the Japan Music Festival. In November 2002, she headed to North America, where she performed the song for the first time at the 2002 Country Music Awards on November 6. In New York the song was performed on The Late Show on the album release day (November 19) and The Today Show. In Canada Shania headlined the Grey Cup half time show from Edmonton, and performed "I 'm Gonna Getcha Good! '' and "Up! '' on November 24. In 2003 the song was also performed on the American Music Awards in a medley with "Up! '', the Early Show and Vh1 Big in ' 03.
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of "I 'm Gonna Getcha Good! '':
shipments figures based on certification alone
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where does the last name mcqueen come from | Mcqueen (surname) - wikipedia
McQueen, Mcqueen, and MacQueen, Macqueen are English - language surnames derived from Scottish Gaelic. There have been several differing etymologies given for the surnames; as well as several differing ways to represent the surname in modern Scottish Gaelic. The surnames are not among the most common surnames in the United Kingdom, Australia, nor the United States.
There have been several differing etymologies given for the surname. One view is that it is an Anglicised form of the Gaelic MacShuibhne, which means "son of Suibhne ''. The Gaelic name Suibhne is a byname, which means "pleasant ''. This Gaelic name was also used as a Gaelic equivalent of the Old Norse byname Sveinn, which means "boy ''. Another view is that the Anglicised surname is derived from the Gaelic MacCuinn, meaning "son of Conn ''. The Gaelic personal name Conn is composed of an Old Celtic element meaning "chief ''. Another suggested origin of the Anglicised surname is from the Gaelic MacCuithein.
A similarly spelt surname, Macquien, is considered to be often confused with, and wrongly represented by Macqueen. This name is considered to be derived from the Gaelic personal name Aoidhean which means "little Aodh ''. The Gaelic personal name Aodh is a modern form of Áed, which means "fire ''. Macquien can be presented in Scottish Gaelic as MacAoidhein; and in the north of Scotland as MacCuithein.
The surname has undergone changes over the years. Mackquean (1502); M'Queyn (1543); M'Queen (1609).
The Anglicised surnames can be represented in Scottish Gaelic several different ways. MacCuinn is the form for the surname of Galloway. MacCuithein is the form for the surname in the north of Scotland; and MacShuibhne is the form in the south of Scotland.
Similar surnames are McKeen (from Ian); McQuinn (from Conn); McSwain, McSween (from Suibhne, or possibly Sveinn); McSweeney, McQueeney (from Suibhne); Macquien (from Aoidhean); Queen (a reduced form of the surname McQueen, also from Quena).
Neither surname ranked within the top 300 recorded in Scotland, within the United Kingdom Census 1901.
In the United Kingdom, the surname was ranked in the United Kingdom Census 1881 as the 17,664 th most common surname; with 125 recorded, equalling less than 0.001 % of the population. Currently the surname is ranked as the 1,950 th most common; with 3,204 recorded, equalling 0.007 % of the population. This census shows that the county where the surname occurred the most was Lancashire (in England); with 22 of the name recorded, equalling 0.0006 % of the population there. The town where the surname occurred the most, and was most frequent, was Newcastle upon Tyne All Sts (in Northumberland, England); with 11 of the name recorded, equalling 0.0424 % of the population there.
In Australia, the surname is ranked 1,531 st most common name; with 1,078 recorded equalling 0.007 % of the total population.
The surname was ranked as the 1,322 nd most common surname in the 1990 United States Census; accounting for 0.009 % of the population. It was ranked 1,757 th most common surname in the 2000 United States Census; with 18,701 recorded. Of these this number, 60.16 % were recorded as being (non-Hispanic) white; 36.12 % (non-Hispanic) black; 0.29 % (non-Hispanic) Asian and Pacific Islander; 0.44 % (non-Hispanic) American Indian and Native Alaskan; 1.59 % (non Hispanic) of two or more races; 1.4 % Hispanic origin.
Currently worldwide, the surname is most frequently found in Australia, with a frequency of 117.79 per million people (fpm); New Zealand with 113.22 fpm; the United Kingdom with 75.78 fpm; the United States with 57.84 fpm; Canada with 55.47 fpm. The top region where it is located is Rangitikei District (in New Zealand); with 550.36 fpm. The top city is Glasgow (in Scotland). The top forenames with the surname are James, John, David, Robert, and William.
In the United Kingdom, the surname was ranked in the United Kingdom Census 1881 as the 8,913 th most common surname; with 347 recorded, equalling 0.001 % of the population. Currently the surname is ranked as the 6,817 th most common; with 714 recorded, equalling 0.002 % of the population. This census shows that the county where the surname occurred the most, and was most frequent, was Inverness - shire (in Scotland); with 86 of the name recorded, equalling 0.0986 % of the population there. The town where the surname occurred the most, and was most frequent, was Kilmuir (in Inverness - shire, Scotland); with 26 of the name recorded, equalling 1.0136 % of the population there.
In Australia, the surname is ranked 4,770 th most common name; with 331 recorded equalling 0.002 % of the total population.
The surname was ranked as the 27,425 th most common surname in the 1990 United States Census; accounting for less than 0.001 % of the population. It was ranked 24,115 th most common surname in the 2000 United States Census; with 976 recorded. Of this number, 96.21 % were recorded as being (non-Hispanic) white; 1.02 % (non-Hispanic) black; 0.92 % (non Hispanic) of two or more races; 1.43 % Hispanic origin.
Currently worldwide, the surname is most frequently found in Australia, with a frequency of 33.91 per million people (fpm); Canada with 18.11 fpm; the United Kingdom with 16.89 fpm; New Zealand with 8.46 fpm; the United States with 4.54 fpm. The top region where it is located is the Marlborough district (in New Zealand); with 550.36 fpm. The top city is Glasgow (in Scotland). The top forenames with the surname are John, Donald, David, Andrew, and James.
The following maps show the distribution of families with the surname McQueen and MacQueen.
McQueen, per 1920 United States Census
MacQueen, per 1920 United States Census
McQueen, per Canada 1911 Census
MacQueen, per Canada 1911 Census
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who has won an academy award so far | Academy award for Best Picture - wikipedia
The Academy Award for Best Picture is one of the Academy Awards presented annually since the awards debuted in 1929, by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS). This award goes to the producers of the film and is the only category in which every member is eligible to submit a nomination. Best Picture is the final award of the night and is considered the most prestigious honor of the ceremony.
The Grand Staircase columns at the Dolby Theatre in Hollywood, where the Academy Awards ceremonies have been held since 2002, showcase every film that has won the Best Picture title since the award 's inception. As of 2018, there have been 546 films nominated for Best Picture and 90 winners.
At the 1st Academy Awards ceremony (for 1927 and 1928), there were two categories of awards that were each considered the top award of the night: Outstanding Picture and Unique and Artistic Picture, the former being won by the war epic Wings, and the latter by the art film Sunrise. Each award was intended to honor different and equally important aspects of superior filmmaking.
The following year, the Academy dropped the Unique and Artistic Picture award, and decided retroactively that the award won by Wings was the highest honor that could be awarded. Though the award kept the title Outstanding Picture for the next ceremony, the name underwent several changes over the years as seen below. Since 1962, the award has been simply called Best Picture.
Until 1950, this award was presented to a representative of the production company. That year the protocol was changed so that the award was presented to all credited producers. This rule was modified in 1998 to apply a limit of three producers receiving the award, after the five producers of Shakespeare in Love had received the award.
As of 2014, the "Special Rules for the Best Picture of the Year Award '' limit recipients to those who meet two main requirements:
The rules allow "bona fide team (s) of not more than two people to be considered to be a single ' producer ' if the two individuals have had an established producing partnership for at least the previous five years and as a producing team have produced a minimum of five theatrically released feature motion pictures during that time.
The Academy can make exceptions to the limit, as when Anthony Minghella and Sydney Pollack were posthumously included among the four producers nominated for The Reader. As of 2014 the Producers Branch Executive Committee determines such exceptions, noting they take place only in "rare and extraordinary circumstance (s). ''
Steven Spielberg currently holds the record for most nominations at ten, winning one, while Kathleen Kennedy holds the record for most nominations without a win at eight. Sam Spiegel and Saul Zaentz tie for the most wins with three each. As for the time when the Oscar was given to production companies instead, Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer holds the record with five wins and 40 nominations.
The Academy Awards for Best Picture and Best Director have been closely linked throughout their history. Of the 90 films that have won Best Picture, 63 have also been awarded Best Director. Only four films have been awarded Best Picture without receiving a Best Director nomination: Wings (1927 / 28), Grand Hotel (1931 / 32), Driving Miss Daisy (1989), and Argo (2012). The only two Best Director winners to win for films that did not receive a Best Picture nomination were during the early years of the awards: Lewis Milestone for Two Arabian Knights (1927 / 28), and Frank Lloyd for The Divine Lady (1928 / 29).
On June 24, 2009, AMPAS announced that the number of films to be nominated in the Best Picture award category would increase from five to ten, starting with the 82nd Academy Awards (2009). The expansion was a throwback to the Academy 's early years in the 1930s and 1940s, when eight to 12 films were nominated each year. "Having 10 Best Picture nominees is going to allow Academy voters to recognize and include some of the fantastic movies that often show up in the other Oscar categories but have been squeezed out of the race for the top prize, '' AMPAS President Sid Ganis said in a press conference. "I ca n't wait to see what that list of 10 looks like when the nominees are announced in February. ''
At the same time, the voting system was switched from first - past - the - post to instant runoff voting (also known as preferential voting). Two years after this change, the Academy revised the rule again so that the number of films nominated was between five and ten; nominated films must earn either 5 % of first - place rankings or 5 % after an abbreviated variation of the single transferable vote nominating process. Bruce Davis, the Academy executive director at the time, said, "A Best Picture nomination should be an indication of extraordinary merit. If there are only eight pictures that truly earn that honor in a given year, we should n't feel an obligation to round out the number. ''
One point of contention with the award is the lack of consideration of non-English language films for Best Picture. Only nine foreign language films have been nominated in the category: Grand Illusion (French, 1938); Z (French, 1969); The Emigrants (Swedish, 1972); Cries and Whispers (Swedish, 1973); The Postman (Il Postino) (Italian / Spanish, 1995); Life Is Beautiful (Italian, 1998); Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (Mandarin Chinese, 2000); Letters from Iwo Jima (Japanese, 2006, but ineligible for Best Foreign Language Film, as it was an American production); and Amour (French, 2012).
Only nine films wholly financed outside the United States have won Best Picture, eight of which were financed, in part or in whole, by the United Kingdom. Those films being: Hamlet (1948), Tom Jones (1963), A Man for All Seasons (1966), Chariots of Fire (1981), Gandhi (1982), The Last Emperor (1987), Slumdog Millionaire (2008), and The King 's Speech (2010). The ninth film, The Artist, (2011) was financed by France.
In 2017, at the 89th Academy Awards, presenters Faye Dunaway and Warren Beatty read La La Land as the winner of the award. However, they had mistakenly been given the envelope for the "Best Actress in a Leading Role '' award, which Emma Stone had won for her role in La La Land moments prior. When the mistake was realized, the show 's producers rushed onstage to correct it; in the resulting chaos, it was La La Land producer Jordan Horowitz who finally announced that Moonlight was the real winner.
Few sequels have been nominated for Best Picture; two have won: The Godfather Part II and The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King. Other nominees include The Bells of St. Mary 's, The Godfather Part III, The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers, Toy Story 3, and Mad Max: Fury Road.
Another nominee, Broadway Melody of 1936, was a follow - up of sorts to previous winner The Broadway Melody. But, beyond the title and some music, there is no story connection to the earlier film. The Silence of the Lambs was adapted from the sequel novel to Red Dragon. The latter had been adapted for film as Manhunter by a different studio. Best Picture nominee The Lion in Winter features Peter O'Toole as King Henry II, a role he had played previously in the film Becket. But Winter is not a sequel to Becket. Clint Eastwood 's Letters from Iwo Jima was a companion piece to his film Flags of Our Fathers, released earlier the same year. These two films depict the same battle from the different viewpoints of Japanese and United States military forces; the two films were shot back - to - back.
Several musical adaptations based on material previously filmed in non-musical form have won Best Picture, including Gigi, West Side Story, My Fair Lady, The Sound of Music, Oliver!, and Chicago.
The Artist (with the exception of a single scene of dialogue, and dream sequence with sound effects) was the first silent film since Wings to win Best Picture. It was the first silent nominee since 1928 's The Patriot. It was the first Best Picture winner to be shot entirely in black - and - white since 1960 's The Apartment. (Schindler 's List, the 1993 winner, was predominantly black - and - white but it did contain some color sequences).
No Best Picture winner has been lost, though a few such as All Quiet on the Western Front and Lawrence of Arabia exist only in a form altered from their original, award - winning release form. This has usually been due to editing for reissue (and subsequently partly restored by archivists). Other winners and nominees, such as Tom Jones and Star Wars, are widely available only in subsequently altered versions. The Broadway Melody originally had some sequences photographed in two - color Technicolor. This footage survives only in black and white.
The 1928 film The Patriot is the only Best Picture nominee that is lost (about one - third is extant). The Racket, also from 1928, was believed lost for many years until a print was found in Howard Hughes ' archives. It has since been restored and shown on Turner Classic Movies. The only surviving complete prints of 1931 's East Lynne and 1934 's The White Parade exist within the UCLA film archive.
In the list below, winners are listed first in the colored row, followed by the other nominees. Except for the early years (when the Academy used a non-calendar year), the year shown is the one in which the film first premiered in Los Angeles County, California; normally this is also the year of first release, however, it may be the year after first release (as with Casablanca and, if the film - festival premiere is considered, Crash). This is also the year before the ceremony at which the award is given; for example, a film exhibited theatrically during 2005 was eligible for consideration for the 2005 Best Picture Oscar, awarded in 2006. The number of the ceremony (1st, 2nd, etc.) appears in parentheses after the awards year, linked to the article on that ceremony. Each individual entry shows the title followed by nominee.
Until 1950, the Best Picture award was given to the production company; from 1951 on, it has gone to the producer or producers. The Academy used the producer credits of the Producers Guild of America (PGA) until 1998, when all five producers of Shakespeare in Love made speeches after its win. A three - producer limit has been applied some years since. There was controversy over the exclusion of some PGA - credited producers of Crash and Little Miss Sunshine. The Academy can make exceptions to the limit, as when Anthony Minghella and Sydney Pollack were posthumously among the four nominated for The Reader. However, now any number of producers on a film can be nominated for Best Picture, should they be deemed eligible.
For the first ceremony, three films were nominated for the award. For the following three years, five films were nominated for the award. This was expanded to eight in 1933, to ten in 1934, and to twelve in 1935, before being dropped back to ten in 1937. In 1945 it was further reduced to five. This number remained until 2009, when the limit was raised to ten and later adjusted in 2011, to vary between five and ten.
For the first six ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned two calendar years. For example, the 2nd Academy Awards presented on April 3, 1930, recognized films that were released between August 1, 1928, and July 31, 1929. Starting with the 7th Academy Awards, held in 1935, the period of eligibility became the full previous calendar year from January 1 to December 31.
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all of the books on google books are free and complete | Google books - wikipedia
Google Books (previously known as Google Book Search and Google Print and by its codename Project Ocean) is a service from Google Inc. that searches the full text of books and magazines that Google has scanned, converted to text using optical character recognition (OCR), and stored in its digital database. Books are provided either by publishers and authors, through the Google Books Partner Program, or by Google 's library partners, through the Library Project. Additionally, Google has partnered with a number of magazine publishers to digitize their archives.
The Publisher Program was first known as Google Print when it was introduced at the Frankfurt Book Fair in October 2004. The Google Books Library Project, which scans works in the collections of library partners and adds them to the digital inventory, was announced in December 2004.
The Google Books initiative has been hailed for its potential to offer unprecedented access to what may become the largest online body of human knowledge and promoting the democratization of knowledge. But it has also been criticized for potential copyright violations, and lack of editing to correct the many errors introduced into the scanned texts by the OCR process.
As of October 2015, the number of scanned book titles was over 25 million, but the scanning process has slowed down in American academic libraries. Google estimated in 2010 that there were about 130 million distinct titles in the world, and stated that it intended to scan all of them.
Results from Google Books show up in both the universal Google Search as well as in the dedicated Google Books search website (books.google.com).
In response to search queries, Google Books allows users to view full pages from books in which the search terms appear, if the book is out of copyright or if the copyright owner has given permission. If Google believes the book is still under copyright, a user sees "snippets '' of text around the queried search terms. All instances of the search terms in the book text appear with a yellow highlight.
The four access levels used on Google Books are:
In response to criticism from groups such as the American Association of Publishers and the Authors Guild, Google announced an opt - out policy in August 2005, through which copyright owners could provide a list of titles that it did not want scanned, and Google would respect the request. Google also stated that it would not scan any in - copyright books between August and 1 November 2005, to provide the owners with the opportunity to decide which books to exclude from the Project. Thus, Google provides a copyright owner with three choices with respect to any work:
Most scanned works are no longer in print or commercially available.
In addition to procuring books from libraries, Google also obtains books from its publisher partners, through the "Partner Program '' -- designed to help publishers and authors promote their books. Publishers and authors submit either a digital copy of their book in EPUB or PDF format, or a print copy to Google, which is made available on Google Books for preview. The publisher can control the percentage of the book available for preview, with the minimum being 20 %. They can also choose to make the book fully viewable, and even allow users to download a PDF copy. Books can also be made available for sale on Google Play. Unlike the Library Project, this does not raise any copyright concerns as it is conducted pursuant to an agreement with the publisher. The publisher can choose to withdraw from the agreement at any time.
For many books, Google Books displays the original page numbers. However, Tim Parks, writing in The New York Review of Books in 2014, noted that Google had stopped providing page numbers for many recent publications (likely the ones acquired through the Partner Program) "presumably in alliance with the publishers, in order to force those of us who need to prepare footnotes to buy paper editions. ''
The project began in 2002 under the codename Project Ocean. Google co-founder Larry Page had always had an interest in digitizing books. When he and Marissa Mayer began experimenting with book scanning in 2002, it took 40 minutes for them to digitize a 300 - page book. But soon after the technology had been developed to the extent that scanning operators could scan up to 6000 pages an hour.
Google established designated scanning centers to which books were transported by trucks. The stations could digitize at the rate of 1,000 pages per hour. The books were placed in a custom - built mechanical cradle that adjusted the book spine in place for the scanning. An array of lights and optical instruments were used -- including four cameras, two directed at each half of the book, and a range - finding LIDAR that overlaid a three - dimensional laser grid on the book 's surface to capture the curvature of the paper. A human operator would turn the pages by hand and operate the cameras through a foot pedal. The system was made efficient since there was no need to flatten the book pages or align them perfectly. The crude images were worked upon by de-warping algorithms that used the LIDAR data to process the images. Optical character recognition (OCR) software were developed to process the raw images to text. Algorithms were also created to extract page numbers, footnotes, illustrations and diagrams.
Many of the books are scanned using a customized Elphel 323 camera at a rate of 1,000 pages per hour. A patent awarded to Google in 2009 revealed that Google had come up with an innovative system for scanning books that uses two cameras and infrared light to automatically correct for the curvature of pages in a book. By constructing a 3D model of each page and then "de-warping '' it, Google is able to present flat - looking pages without having to really make the pages flat, which requires the use of destructive methods such as unbinding or glass plates to individually flatten each page, which is inefficient for large scale scanning.
Each book on Google Books has an associated "About this book '' page which displays analytical information regarding the book such as a word map of the most used words and phrases, a selection of pages, list of related books, list of scholarly articles and other books that cite the book, and tables of content. This information is collated through automated methods, and sometimes data from third - party sources is used. This information provides an insight into the book, particularly useful when only a snippet view is available. The list of related books can often contain irrelevant entries. In some cases, a book summary and information about the author is also displayed. The page also displays bibliographic information, which can be exported as citations in BibTeX, EndNote and RefMan formats. Registered users logged in with their Google accounts can post reviews for books on this page. Google Books also displays reviews from Goodreads alongside these reviews. For books still in print, the site provides links to the website of the publisher and booksellers.
Google Books can retrieve scanned books from URLs based on the ISBN, LCCN and OCLC record numbers. The ' About this book ' page of a book with the ISBN123456789 can be linked as books.google.com/books? vid = ISBN123456789. For some books, Google also provides the ability to link directly to the front cover, title page, copyright page, table of contents, index, and back cover of a book, by using an appropriate parameter. For example, the front cover of a book with the OCLC number 17546826 can be linked as books.google.com/books? vid = OCLC17546826&printsec = frontcover
Signed - in users can create a personalized collection or a "library '' of books, using the "My Library '' feature. Organized through "bookshelves '', books can be added to the library using a button that appears along with search results or from the "Overview '' page of books. The library can be shared with friends by making bookshelves publicly visible and sharing the private library URL. Users can also import a list of books to the library using their ISBN or ISSN numbers. There are four default bookshelves which can not be renamed: "Favorites '', "Reading now '', "To read '' and "Have read ''. The library also has default bookshelves ("Purchased '', "Reviewed '', "My Books on Google Play '', "Recently viewed '', "Browsing history '', and "Books for you '') to which books get added automatically. Users can not add or remove books from these bookshelves.
The Ngram Viewer is a service connected to Google Books that graphs the frequency of word usage across their book collection. The service is important for historians and linguists as it can provide an inside look into human culture through word use throughout time periods. This program has fallen under criticism because of metadata errors used in the program.
The project has received criticism that its stated aim of preserving orphaned and out - of - print works is at risk due to scanned data having errors and the problems being not solved.
Google allows users to report errors in books at the website support.google.com/books/partner/troubleshooter/2983879.
The scanning process is subject to errors. For example, some pages may be unreadable, upside down, or in the wrong order. Scholars have even reported crumpled pages, obscuring thumbs and fingers, and smeared or blurry images. On this issue, a declaration from Google at the end of scanned books says:
Getting this right allows us to render the book in a way that follows the format of the original book. Despite our best efforts you may see spelling mistakes, garbage characters, extraneous images, or missing pages in this book. Based on our estimates, these errors should not prevent you from enjoying the content of the book. The technical challenges of automatically constructing a perfect book are daunting, but we continue to make enhancements to our OCR and book structure extraction technologies.
As of 2009 Google stated that they would start using ReCAPTCHA to help fix the errors found in Google Book scannings. This method would only improve scanned words that are hard to recognize because of the scanning process and can not solve errors such as turned pages or blocked words.
Scholars have frequently reported rampant errors in the metadata information on Google Books -- including misattributed authors and erroneous dates of publication. Geoffrey Nunberg, a linguist researching on the changes in word usage over time noticed that a search for books published before 1950 and containing the word "internet '' turned up an unlikely 527 results. Woody Allen is mentioned in 325 books ostensibly published before he was born. Google responded to Nunberg by blaming the bulk of errors on the outside contractors.
Other metadata errors reported include publication dates before the author 's birth (e.g. 182 works by Charles Dickens prior to his birth in 1812); incorrect subject classifications (an edition of Moby Dick found under "computers '', a biography of Mae West classified under "religion ''), conflicting classifications (10 editions of Whitman 's Leaves of Grass all classified as both "fiction '' and "nonfiction ''), incorrectly spelled titles, authors, and publishers (Moby Dick: or the White "Wall ''), and metadata for one book incorrectly appended to a completely different book (the metadata for an 1818 mathematical work leads to a 1963 romance novel).
Metadata errors based incorrect scanned date makes research using the Google Books Project database difficult. Google has shown only limited interest in cleaning up these errors.
Some European politicians and intellectuals have criticized Google 's effort on linguistic imperialism grounds. They argue that because the vast majority of books proposed to be scanned are in English, it will result in disproportionate representation of natural languages in the digital world. German, Russian, French, and Spanish, for instance, are popular languages in scholarship. The disproportionate online emphasis on English, however, could shape access to historical scholarship, and, ultimately, the growth and direction of future scholarship. Among these critics is Jean - Noël Jeanneney, the former president of the Bibliothèque nationale de France.
While Google Books has digitized large numbers of journal back issues, its scans do not include the metadata required for identifying specific articles in specific issues. This has led the makers of Google Scholar to start their own program to digitize and host older journal articles (in agreement with their publishers).
The Google Books Library Project is aimed at scanning and making searchable the collections of several major research libraries. Along with bibliographic information, snippets of text from a book are often viewable. If a book is out of copyright and in the public domain, the book is fully available to read or download.
In - copyright books scanned through the Library Project are made available on Google Books for snippet view. Regarding the quality of scans, Google acknowledges that they are "not always of sufficiently high quality '' to be offered for sale on Google Play. Also, because of supposed technical constraints, Google does not replace scans with higher quality versions that may be provided by the publishers.
The project is the subject of the Authors Guild v. Google lawsuit, filed in 2005 and ruled in favor of Google in 2013, and again, on appeal, in 2015.
Copyright owners can claim the rights for a scanned book and make it available for preview or full view (by "transferring '' it to their Partner Program account), or request Google to prevent the book text from being searched.
The number of institutions participating in the Library Project has grown since its inception. The University of Mysore has been mentioned in many media reports as being a library partner, although it is not listed as a partner by Google.
Other institutional partners have joined the project since the partnership was first announced:
2002: A group of team members at Google officially launch the "secret ' books ' project. '' Google founders Sergey Brin and Larry Page came up with the idea that later became Google Books while still graduate students at Stanford in 1996. The history page on the Google Books website describes their initial vision for this project: "in a future world in which vast collections of books are digitized, people would use a ' web crawler ' to index the books ' content and analyze the connections between them, determining any given book 's relevance and usefulness by tracking the number and quality of citations from other books. '' This team visited the sites of some of the larger digitization efforts at that time including the Library of Congress 's American Memory Project, Project Gutenberg, and the Universal Library to find out how they work, as well as the University of Michigan, Page 's alma mater, and the base for such digitization projects as JSTOR and Making of America. In a conversation with the at that time University President Mary Sue Coleman, when Page found out that the University 's current estimate for scanning all the library 's volumes was 1,000 years, Page reportedly told Coleman that he "believes Google can help make it happen in six. ''
2003: The team works to develop a high - speed scanning process as well as software for resolving issues in odd type sizes, unusual fonts, and "other unexpected peculiarities. ''
December 2004: Google signaled an extension to its Google Print initiative known as the Google Print Library Project. Google announced partnerships with several high - profile university and public libraries, including the University of Michigan, Harvard (Harvard University Library), Stanford (Green Library), Oxford (Bodleian Library), and the New York Public Library. According to press releases and university librarians, Google planned to digitize and make available through its Google Books service approximately 15 million volumes within a decade. The announcement soon triggered controversy, as publisher and author associations challenged Google 's plans to digitize, not just books in the public domain, but also titles still under copyright.
September -- October 2005: Two lawsuits against Google charge that the company has not respected copyrights and has failed to properly compensate authors and publishers. One is a class action suit on behalf of authors (Authors Guild v. Google, Sept. 20 2005) and the other is a civil lawsuit brought by five large publishers and the Association of American Publishers. (McGraw Hill v. Google, Oct. 19 2005)
November 2005: Google changed the name of this service from Google Print to Google Book Search. Its program enabling publishers and authors to include their books in the service was renamed Google Books Partner Program, and the partnership with libraries became Google Books Library Project.
2006: Google added a "download a pdf '' button to all its out - of - copyright, public domain books. It also added a new browsing interface along with new "About this Book '' pages.
August 2006: The University of California System announced that it would join the Books digitization project. This includes a portion of the 34 million volumes within the approximately 100 libraries managed by the System.
September 2006: The Complutense University of Madrid became the first Spanish - language library to join the Google Books Library Project.
October 2006: The University of Wisconsin -- Madison announced that it would join the Book Search digitization project along with the Wisconsin Historical Society Library. Combined, the libraries have 7.2 million holdings.
November 2006: The University of Virginia joined the project. Its libraries contain more than five million volumes and more than 17 million manuscripts, rare books and archives.
January 2007: The University of Texas at Austin announced that it would join the Book Search digitization project. At least one million volumes would be digitized from the university 's 13 library locations.
March 2007: The Bavarian State Library announced a partnership with Google to scan more than a million public domain and out - of - print works in German as well as English, French, Italian, Latin, and Spanish.
May 2007: A book digitizing project partnership was announced jointly by Google and the Cantonal and University Library of Lausanne.
May 2007: The Boekentoren Library of Ghent University announced that it would participate with Google in digitizing and making digitized versions of 19th century books in the French and Dutch languages available online.
June 2007: The Committee on Institutional Cooperation (rebranded as the Big Ten Academic Alliance in 2016) announced that its twelve member libraries would participate in scanning 10 million books over the course of the next six years.
July 2007: Keio University became Google 's first library partner in Japan with the announcement that they would digitize at least 120,000 public domain books.
August 2007: Google announced that it would digitize up to 500,000 both copyrighted and public domain items from Cornell University Library. Google would also provide a digital copy of all works scanned to be incorporated into the university 's own library system.
September 2007: Google added a feature that allows users to share snippets of books that are in the public domain. The snippets may appear exactly as they do in the scan of the book, or as plain text.
September 2007: Google debuted a new feature called "My Library '' which allows users to create personal customized libraries, selections of books that they can label, review, rate, or full - text search.
December 2007: Columbia University was added as a partner in digitizing public domain works.
May 2008: Microsoft tapered off and planned to end its scanning project, which had reached 750,000 books and 80 million journal articles.
October 2008: A settlement was reached between the publishing industry and Google after two years of negotiation. Google agreed to compensate authors and publishers in exchange for the right to make millions of books available to the public.
November 2008: Google reached the 7 million book mark for items scanned by Google and by their publishing partners. 1 million were in full preview mode and 1 million were fully viewable and downloadable public domain works. About five million were out of print.
December 2008: Google announced the inclusion of magazines in Google Books. Titles include New York Magazine, Ebony, and Popular Mechanics
February 2009: Google launched a mobile version of Google Book Search, allowing iPhone and Android phone users to read over 1.5 million public domain works in the US (and over 500,000 outside the US) using a mobile browser. Instead of page images, the plain text of the book is displayed.
May 2009: At the annual BookExpo convention in New York, Google signaled its intent to introduce a program that would enable publishers to sell digital versions of their newest books direct to consumers through Google.
December 2009: A French court shut down the scanning of copyrighted books published in France, saying this violated copyright laws. It was the first major legal loss for the scanning project.
April 2010: Visual artists were not included in the previous lawsuit and settlement, are the plaintiff groups in another lawsuit, and say they intend to bring more than just Google Books under scrutiny. "The new class action, '' read the statement, "goes beyond Google 's Library Project, and includes Google 's other systematic and pervasive infringements of the rights of photographers, illustrators and other visual artists. ''
May 2010: It was reported that Google would launch a digital book store called Google Editions. It would compete with Amazon, Barnes & Noble, Apple and other electronic book retailers with its own e-book store. Unlike others, Google Editions would be completely online and would not require a specific device (such as kindle, Nook, or iPad).
June 2010: Google passed 12 million books scanned.
August 2010: It was announced that Google intends to scan all known existing 129,864,880 books within a decade, amounting to over 4 billion digital pages and 2 trillion words in total.
December 2010: Google eBooks (Google Editions) was launched in the US.
December 2010: Google launched the Ngram Viewer, which collects and graphs data on word usage across its book collection.
March 2011: A federal judge rejected the settlement reached between the publishing industry and Google.
March 2012: Google passed 20 million books scanned.
March 2012: Google reached a settlement with publishers.
January 2013: The documentary Google and the World Brain was shown at the Sundance Film Festival.
November 2013: Ruling in Authors Guild v. Google, US District Judge Denny Chin sides with Google, citing fair use. The authors said they would appeal.
October 2015: The appeals court sided with Google, declaring that Google did not violate copyright law. According to the New York Times, Google has scanned more than 25 million books.
April 2016: The US Supreme Court declined to hear the Authors Guild 's appeal, which means the lower court 's decision stood, and Google would be allowed to scan library books and display snippets in search results without violating the law.
Google has been quite secretive regarding its plans on the future of the Google Books project. Scanning operations had been slowing down since at least 2012, as confirmed by the librarians at several of Google 's partner institutions. At University of Wisconsin, the speed had reduced to less than half of what it was in 2006. However, the librarians have said that the dwindling pace could be a natural result of maturation of the project -- initially stacks of books were entirely taken up for scanning whereas now Google only needed to consider the ones that have not been scanned already. The company 's own Google Books history page ends in 2007, and the Google Books blog was merged into the Google Search blog in 2012.
Despite winning the decade - long litigation in 2017, The Atlantic has said that Google has "all but shut down its scanning operation. '' In April 2017, Wired reported that there were only a few Google employees working on the project, and new books were still being scanned, but at a significantly lower rate. It commented that the decade - long legal battle had caused Google to lose its ambition.
Through the project, library books were being digitized somewhat indiscriminately regardless of copyright status, which led to a number of lawsuits against Google. By the end of 2008, Google had reportedly digitized over seven million books, of which only about one million were works in the public domain. Of the rest, one million were in copyright and in print, and five million were in copyright but out of print. In 2005, a group of authors and publishers brought a major class - action lawsuit against Google for infringement on the copyrighted works. Google argued that it was preserving "orphaned works '' -- books still under copyright, but whose copyright holders could not be located.
The Authors Guild and Association of American Publishers separately sued Google in 2005 for its book project, citing "massive copyright infringement. '' Google countered that its project represented a fair use and is the digital age equivalent of a card catalog with every word in the publication indexed. The lawsuits were consolidated, and eventually a settlement was proposed. The settlement received significant criticism on a wide variety of grounds, including antitrust, privacy, and inadequacy of the proposed classes of authors and publishers. The settlement was eventually rejected, and the publishers settled with Google soon after. The Authors Guild continued its case, and in 2011 their proposed class was certified. Google appealed that decision, with a number of amici asserting the inadequacy of the class, and the Second Circuit rejected the class certification in July 2013, remanding the case to the District Court for consideration of Google 's fair use defense.
In 2015 Authors Guild filed another appeal against Google to be considered by the 2nd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in New York. Google won the case unanimously based on the argument that they were not showing people the full texts but instead snippets, and they are not allowing people to illegally read the book. In a report, courts stated that they did not infringe on copyright laws, as they were protected under the fair use clause.
Authors Guild tried again in 2016 to appeal the decision and this time took their case to be considered by the Supreme Court. The case was rejected, leaving the Second Circuit 's decision on the case intact, meaning that Google did not violate copyright laws. This case also set a precedent for other case similar in regards to fair use laws as it further clarified the law and expands it. Such clarification is important in the new digital age as it affects other scanning projects similar to Google.
Other lawsuits followed the Authors Guild 's lead. In 2006 a German lawsuit, previously filed, was withdrawn. In June 2006, Hervé de la Martinière, a French publisher known as La Martinière and Éditions du Seuil, announced its intention to sue Google France. In 2009, the Paris Civil Court awarded 300,000 EUR (approximately 430,000 USD) in damages and interest and ordered Google to pay 10,000 EUR a day until it removes the publisher 's books from its database. The court wrote, "Google violated author copyright laws by fully reproducing and making accessible '' books that Seuil owns without its permission and that Google "committed acts of breach of copyright, which are of harm to the publishers ''. Google said it will appeal. Syndicat National de l'Edition, which joined the lawsuit, said Google has scanned about 100,000 French works under copyright.
In December 2009, Chinese author Mian Mian filed a civil lawsuit for $8,900 against Google for scanning her novel, Acid Lovers. This is the first such lawsuit to be filed against Google in China. Also, in November that year, the China Written Works Copyright Society (CWWCS) accused Google of scanning 18,000 books by 570 Chinese writers without authorization. Google agreed on Nov 20 to provide a list of Chinese books it had scanned, but the company refused to admit having "infringed '' copyright laws.
In March 2007, Thomas Rubin, associate general counsel for copyright, trademark, and trade secrets at Microsoft, accused Google of violating copyright law with their book search service. Rubin specifically criticized Google 's policy of freely copying any work until notified by the copyright holder to stop.
Google licensing of public domain works is also an area of concern due to using of digital watermarking techniques with the books. Some published works that are in the public domain, such as all works created by the U.S. Federal government, are still treated like other works under copyright, and therefore locked after 1922.
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where was hurricane katrina originally supposed to hit | Timeline of Hurricane Katrina - wikipedia
This article contains a historical timeline of the events of Hurricane Katrina on August 23, 2005
Tropical Depression Twelve formed a category 1 hurricane over the Bahamas at 5: 00 p.m. EDT (2100 UTC) on August 23, 2005, partially from the remains of Tropical Depression Ten, which had dissipated due to the effects of a nearby upper trough. While the normal standards for numbering tropical depressions in the Atlantic indicate that the old name / number is retained when a depression dissipates and regenerates, satellite data indicated that a second tropical wave combined with Tropical Depression Ten north of Puerto Rico to form a new, much more advanced system, which was then designated as Tropical Depression Twelve. Simultaneously, the trough in the upper troposphere weakened, causing wind shear in the area 666 and identity were not met.
Twelve strengthened into Tropical Storm Katrina.
Katrina strengthened to a C1 storm. Two hours before landing on Keating beach, just two miles south of the Fort Lauderdale international airport, Katrina reached hurricane level status. Winds were 85 mph (137 km / h) and Pressure was 989 mbar. During its passage, the eye of the hurricane moved directly over the office of the National Hurricane Center, which reported a wind gust of 87 mph (140 km / h). The strongest sustained winds in Florida was a report of 72 mph (116 km / h) on the roof of the Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science in Virginia Key. The same station recorded a gust of 94 mph (151 km / h). Unofficially, wind gusts reached 97 mph (156 km / h) at Homestead General Aviation Airport.
Katrina lasted six hours on land over the water - laden Everglades, losing the hurricane strength before reaching the Gulf of Mexico just north of Cape Sable.
At 1: 00 AM EDT, maximum sustained winds had decreased to 70 mph (110 km / h) and Katrina was downgraded to a tropical storm. At 5: 00 AM EDT, the eye of Hurricane Katrina was located just offshore of southwestern Florida over the Gulf of Mexico about 50 miles (80 km) north - northeast of Key West, Florida. Maximum sustained winds had again increased to 75 mph (121 km / h) and Katrina was upgraded again to a Category 1 hurricane.
At 5: 00 PM EDT, the National Hurricane Center officially shifts the possible track of Katrina from the Florida Panhandle to the Mississippi / Alabama coast. (8) Governor Kathleen Babineaux Blanco declared a state of emergency for the state of Louisiana. The declaration included activation of the state of Louisiana 's emergency response and recovery program under the command of the director of the state office of Homeland Security and Emergency Preparedness to supply emergency support services. Following the declaration of a state of emergency, federal troops were deployed to Louisiana to coordinate the planning of operations with the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). 922 Army National Guard and 8 Air National Guard are deployed. By 4: 00 PM EDT, Katrina was upgraded to a Category 2 storm. Buras - Triumph, Louisiana, 66 miles (106 km) southeast of New Orleans.
By 5: 00 AM EDT, Hurricane Katrina reached Category 3 intensity.
At 10: 00 AM EDT, officials in 666, St. Tammany Parish, and Plaquemines Parish ordered a mandatory evacuation of all of their residents. Jefferson Parish and St. Bernard Parish ordered voluntary evacuations, recommending that all residents evacuate, particularly those living in lower areas. Jefferson Parish officials did declare a mandatory evacuation for the coastal areas of Grand Isle, Crown Point, Lafitte, and Barataria. Tolls were suspended on the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway as well as the Crescent City Connection, to speed up the evacuation process.
At 5: 00 PM EDT, New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin announced a state of emergency and a called for a voluntary evacuation. He added that he would stick with the state 's evacuation plan and not order a mandatory evacuation until 30 hours before the expected landfall. This would allow those residents in low - lying surrounding parishes to leave first and avoid gridlocked escape routes. However, he did recommend that residents of low - lying areas of the city, such as Algiers and the 9th Ward, get a head start. Nagin said the city would open the Superdome as a shelter of last resort for evacuees with special needs. He advised anyone planning to stay there to bring their own food, drinks and other comforts such as folding chairs. "No weapons, no large items, and bring small quantities of food for three or four days, to be safe, '' he said. The Louisiana National Guard had delivered three truckloads of water and seven truckloads of MRE 's to the Superdome, enough to supply 15,000 people for three days.
Governor Blanco sends a letter to President George W. Bush asking him to declare a major disaster for the State of Louisiana, in order to release federal financial assistance.
In response to Governor Blanco 's request, President Bush declared a federal state of emergency in Louisiana under the authority of the Stafford Act, which provided a, "means of assistance by the Federal Government to State and local governments in carrying out their responsibilities to alleviate the suffering and damage which result from such disasters,... ''
The emergency declaration provided for federal assistance and funding, as well as assigned, by law, the responsibility for coordinating relief efforts with those government bodies and relief agencies which agree to operate under his advice or direction, to the FEMA federal coordinating officer (FCO). It also provided for military assets and personnel to be deployed in relief and support operations, although the Posse Comitatus Act imposes strict limitations on the use of Active Duty soldiers in law enforcement. 1701 Army National Guard and 932 Air National Guard are deployed (2633 total).
That night, National Hurricane Center director Max Mayfield briefed President Bush, Governor Blanco, Governor Haley Barbour of Mississippi, and Mayor Nagin on the status of Hurricane Katrina.
Just after midnight, at 12: 40 AM CDT (0540 UTC), Hurricane Katrina reached Category 4 intensity with 145 mph (233 km / h) winds. By 7: 00 AM CDT (1200 UTC), it was a Category 5 storm, with maximum sustained winds of 175 mph (282 km / h), gusts up to 190 mph (310 km / h) and a central pressure of 902 mbar.
In a press conference at roughly 10: 00 AM CDT (1500 UTC), Nagin declared that "a mandatory evacuation order is hereby called for all of the parish of Orleans. '' "We 're facing the storm most of us have feared, '' he told the early - morning news conference, with the governor at his side. Following Nagin 's speech, Governor Blanco stated that President Bush called her "just before '' the press conference and said that he was "concerned about the (storm 's) impact '' and asked her "to please ensure that there would be a mandatory evacuation of New Orleans. '' Katrina was expected to make landfall overnight. Shortly after the meeting, at 10: 00 AM CDT (1500 UTC), the National Weather Service issued a bulletin predicting "devastating '' damage.
At 12: 00 PM CDT (1700 UTC), the Louisiana Superdome was opened as a, "refuge of last resort, '' for those residents that were unable to obtain safe transport out of the city. 20,000 people entered the Dome. The Louisiana National Guard had delivered three truckloads of water and seven truckloads of MRE 's to the Superdome, enough to supply 15,000 people for three days. 4444 Army National Guard and 932 Air National Guard are deployed (5,376 total).
President Bush declared a state of emergency in Alabama and Mississippi, and a major disaster in Florida, under the authority of the Stafford Act.
At 6: 10 AM CDT (1110 UTC), Hurricane Katrina made its second landfall as a strong Category 3 hurricane at Bay St. Louis, MS, with sustained winds of more than 125 mph (205 km / h), although Category 4 winds may have briefly affected the area. Katrina also made landfall in St. Bernard parish and St. Tammany parish as a Category 3 hurricane for a total of three landfalls in Louisiana.
By 8: 00 AM CDT (1300 UTC), in New Orleans, water was seen rising on both sides of the Industrial Canal.
At approximately 8: 14 AM CDT (1314 UTC), the New Orleans office of the National Weather Service issued a Flash Flood Warning for Orleans Parish and St Bernard Parish, citing a levee breach at the Industrial Canal. The National Weather Service predicted three to eight feet of water and advised people in the warning area to "move to higher ground immediately. ''
By 9: 00 AM CDT (1400 UTC), there was 6 -- 8 feet of water in the Lower Ninth Ward.
At 10: 00 AM CDT (1500 UTC), Hurricane Katrina made its third landfall near Pearlington, Mississippi and Slidell, Louisiana, with sustained winds of 120 mph (193 km / h) after crossing Breton Sound. Also at 10: 00 AM. while at a Medicare event in El Mirage, Arizona, President Bush said, "I want to thank the governors of the affected regions for mobilizing assets prior to the arrival of the storm to help citizens avoid this devastating storm. ''
By 11: 00 AM CDT (1600 UTC), there was approximately 10 feet (3 m) of water in St. Bernard Parish. Many rooftops could not be seen here as they were submerged. Therefore, there was much more than 10 feet (3.0 m) of water in many places.
At 2: 00 PM CDT (1900 UTC), New Orleans officials confirmed a breach of the 17th Street Canal levee. There was also confirmation of breaches at two other canals.
In a press conference at 3: 00 PM CDT (2000 UTC), New Orleans Homeland Security Director Terry Ebbertt stated that he was positive that there were casualties resulting from the storm, based on calls to emergency workers from people trapped in trees and homes. He said that, "Everybody who had a way or wanted to get out of the way of this storm was able to. For some that did n't, it was their last night on this earth. '' Police were fanning out across the city to assess damage, rescue people, and get a good look at the situation before nightfall. The hardest - hit areas of the city were the Lower Ninth Ward, New Orleans East, Gentilly, Lakeview, St. Bernard parish, and Plaquemines parish.
Governor Blanco ordered 68 school buses into New Orleans from surrounding parishes to begin evacuating any survivors that remained in the city. 6908 Army National Guard and 933 Air National Guard were deployed (7,841 total). Governor Blanco and the National Guard stated that they could "handle it ''. FEMA Director Michael Brown also urged local fire and rescue departments outside Louisiana, Alabama, and Mississippi not to send trucks or emergency workers into disaster areas without an explicit request for help from state or local governments. Brown sought the approval from Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff five hours after landfall to dispatch 1,000 Homeland Security workers into the region. Brown acknowledged that this process would take two days. He described Katrina as a, "near catastrophic event. ''
Brown defined the role of requested assigned personnel and additional aid from the United States Department of Homeland Security: "Establish and maintain positive working relationships with disaster affected communities and the citizens of those communities. Collect and disseminate information and make referrals for appropriate assistance. Identification of potential issues within the community and reporting to appropriate personnel. Convey a positive image of disaster operations to government officials, community organizations and the general public. Perform outreach with community leaders on available Federal disaster assistance. ''
President Bush declared a major disaster for Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama, under the authority of the Stafford Act.
At 12: 00 PM CDT (1700 UTC), Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff became aware that the New Orleans levee breaches could not be plugged. Governor Blanco ordered that all of New Orleans, including the Superdome, be evacuated due to the flooding of the city. She commandeered hundreds of buses from across Louisiana using her executive powers, and those buses eventually evacuated more than 15,000 people that were stranded in the city to the Superdome by Thursday, September 1. There were also many instances of reported looting, including looting by police officers. Governor Blanco also said that she will request President Bush send federal troops to help restore law and order in New Orleans. 9,668 Army National Guard and 956 Air National Guard were deployed (10,624 total). USCG helicopters rescue 350 people off roof tops.
Hurricane Katrina is downgraded to a tropical depression.
At 10: 00 PM CDT (0300 UTC), Mayor Ray Nagin announced that the planned sandbagging of the 17th Street Canal levee breach had failed. At the time, 85 % of the city was underwater.
Michael Chertoff released a memo to other cabinet members and the Environmental Protection Agency stating that, "the President has established the ' White House Task Force on Hurricane Katrina Response. ' He will meet with us tomorrow to launch this effort. '' The memo also declared Hurricane Katrina to be an Incident of National Significance and designated Michael Brown, Under - Secretary for Emergency Preparedness and Response (EP&R), as the Principal Federal Official (PFO) for incident management purposes. ''
In a national news conference presided over by Chertoff, EPA Administrator Stephen L. Johnson announces relaxation of Federal fuel and emissions standards in response to Katrina.
The USS Bataan was positioned off the coast of Gulfport, Mississippi to support the relief efforts. The United States Navy moved additional ships and helicopters into the region at the request of FEMA. The number of National Guardsmen on duty in the Gulf Coast rose to approximately 8,300 (actually 10,428 Army National Guard and 960 Air National Guard were deployed - 11,388 total). They remained under their respective governor 's control, which enables them to provide law - enforcement support in the affected regions, which is prohibited (to the military) by the Posse Comitatus Act.
President Bush returned early to Washington from vacationing at his ranch in Crawford, Texas. Though he does not stop in Louisiana, Air Force One flies low over the Gulf Coast so that he can view the devastation in Air Force One. He later declared a Public Health Emergency for the Gulf Coast.
Mayor Nagin ordered almost the entire New Orleans ' police force to abandon search and rescue missions and turn their attention toward controlling the widespread looting and a curfew is placed in effect.
State workers began work at closing the 17th Street Canal breach, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers adds additional resources to the task.
At 11: 00 PM EDT (0300 UTC), the National Hurricane Center announced that the center of the remnant low of what was Hurricane Katrina has been completely absorbed by a frontal boundary in southeastern Canada, with no discernible circulation. The remnants of the hurricane caused roads in northern Quebec to be rutted and eroded by heavy rainfall, isolating the north shore communities for several days.
BNSF Railway announced that it expected to restore limited freight service to southern Louisiana by September 1. Other than debris on the mainline, the biggest problem facing crews working to reopen the line is the damage to the Bayou Boeuf bridge in Morgan City, Louisiana. The bridge and bridge piers were struck by a barge propelled by the storm 's winds and wave action. BNSF sent crews to repair damaged railway signal systems starting on August 30. BNSF transferred freight through other hubs such as St. Louis, Chicago, and Memphis until service was restored.
Norfolk Southern (NS) announced that the majority their mainlines that were damaged by Hurricane Katrina were again operational. They removed almost 3,700 fallen trees and inspected over 1,400 miles (2,253 km) of track before setting trains in motion. Tracks directly into New Orleans, however, remained out of service due to washouts, continued flooding, as well as the city 's evacuation orders. Freight that would have normally transferred in New Orleans was routed to other terminals across the NS system. The company 's experience with previous hurricanes helped it to prepare action plans before Katrina made landfall. They moved repair equipment, supplies and employees into nearby areas and quickly deployed them to inspect and repair the system after the storm passed.
USCG helicopters rescued 1,259 more people off house roof tops to total of 1,609.
U.S. Senate passes a relief package.
President Bush appeared on Good Morning America, and said that he understood the frustration of Katrina victims, many of whom are still waiting for food, water, and other aid. "I fully understand people wanting things to have happened yesterday, '' Bush said. "I understand the anxiety of people on the ground.... So there is frustration. But I want people to know there 's a lot of help coming. '' He said that the government 's first priority is to save lives, and described the devastation that he saw while flying over the hardest - hit areas as, "very emotional, '' but was also very optimistic about the prospects of New Orleans ' recovery.
A 50 - member Canadian search - and - rescue team from Vancouver, British Columbia reached a flooded New Orleans suburb to help save trapped residents.
National Guardsmen accompanied by buses (475 in all) and supply trucks begin to arrive at the Superdome.
A day after the National Guard (from Camp Beauregard) began delivering food, water and ice in New Orleans, the National President of the American Red Cross, Marsha Evans, requested to set up a shelter in New Orleans to pass out food and water. However, due to the ongoing military rescue operations in the city at the time, the Red Cross was asked to wait for 24 hours. By Saturday, the point was moot because the large - scale evacuation of the city was already underway.
Meanwhile, conditions at the Superdome, as well as the Ernest N. Morial Convention Center, continued to deteriorate. Food and potable water were unavailable, with mostly false reports and rumors of rescuers coming under fire from people seeking to hijack supplies or transportation, and few buses were arriving to evacuate the survivors. About 5,000 refugees made it by bus to Reliant Astrodome, yet there were only about 2,000 cots available. Secretary Chertoff is criticized by NPR 's Robert Siegel during an interview on All Things Considered, as he had no knowledge of the approximately 2,000 survivors at the Convention Center with no food or water. He said, "I have not heard a report of thousands of people in the Convention Center who do n't have food and water. '' FEMA Director Brown said that FEMA only became aware of crisis at the Convention Center on this date, yet later claims to have known about it 24 hours earlier.
Secretary Chertoff announced that 4,200 National Guard troops trained as military police would be deployed to New Orleans over the next three days. Governor Blanco requested the mobilization of an additional 40,000 National Guard troops. 14,284 Army National Guard and 972 Air National Guard were currently deployed (15,256 total).
California swift water rescue crew units deployed to the area rescued hundreds in New Orleans and Jefferson Parish. However, FEMA later halted the swift water rescue crews from conducting further rescues, citing safety concerns.
USAF Aeromedical Evacuation units from 43d Aeromedical Evacuation Squadron, Pope AFB and 433 Aeromedical Evacuation Squadron, Lackland AFB arrive Louis Armstrong Airport. These teams begin to work with State Disaster Medical Assistance (DMAT) teams to move nursing home patients that had sheltered the storm in the airport and those injured during the storm to Medical care in San Antonio Texas.
Sealing of the 17th Street Canal from Lake Pontchartrain with sheet pilings begins, while closing the breach continues.
The New Orleans suburb of Gretna seals the Crescent City Connection bridge across the Mississippi River, turning back fleeing flood victims at gunpoint. Evacuees blamed the incident on racism, but the chief of police stated that the city was in lockdown and was not equipped to handle evacuees from New Orleans.
The Kansas City Southern Railway reopened its Meridian Speedway railway line between Meridian, Mississippi, and Shreveport, Louisiana, after clearing debris and repairing damage caused by Hurricane Katrina. The line is also used by Norfolk Southern as a bridge route for NS intermodal trains between the Meridian and Alliance, Texas. KCS is also working with CSX Transportation and Meridian and Bigbee Railway to transfer additional intermodal traffic through Meridian rather than New Orleans or Birmingham.
President Bush signed a $ 10.5 billion relief package that was passed by Congress which included supplemental funds for FEMA, as well as $ 500 million for the Pentagon for its relief efforts. He also toured the hurricane - battered Gulf Coast, saying that he is ordering additional active duty forces to the region, and authorized a withdrawal of oil from the Strategic Petroleum Reserve.
The Bush administration sent Governor Blanco a proposed legal memorandum asking her to request a federal takeover of the evacuation of New Orleans. Louisiana officials eventually rejected the request after talks throughout the night, concerned that such a move would be comparable to a federal declaration of martial law.
Sheet piling blocks water flow into the 17th Street Canal, making closure of the breach not relevant to city flooding. Work on closing the breach continues for purposes of pumping.
In a letter to the governors of Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama, BNSF Railway (headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas) pledged a contribution of $ 1 Million, and offered rail transportation to aid in relief efforts for the areas affected by Hurricane Katrina. The monetary contribution came from the Burlington Northern Santa Fe Foundation as a donation to the American Red Cross relief efforts, while the transportation assistance was organized by the Association of American Railroads, the Federal Emergency Management Agency, the Federal Railroad Administration, as well as other railroads that serve the area. The letter also stated that repairs to the Bayou Boeuf bridge were now completed and BNSF 's mainline was reopened as originally planned at 6: 00 PM CST on September 1.
USCG helicopters rescue 2,859 people off roof tops for a total of 4,468.
25,548 Army National Guard and 3,998 Air National Guard were deployed (28,546 total).
Coast Guard air operations have saved 1,245 lives and conducted 385 sorties in the past 24 hours (as of 1600 EDT / 2000Z 3 SEP 05).
The evacuation of the Superdome has been completed. 29,588 Army National Guard and 4,596 Air National Guard were deployed (34,184 total).
USCG helicopters rescue 1,037 people from roof tops. USCG air & surface units assist with the evacuation of 9,400 + patients and staff from hospitals in the greater New Orleans area.
The 17th Street Canal levee breach was closed with truckloads of rock and sandbags. The canal reopened so that it could be used to pump water out of the city. 33,608 Army National Guard and 6,613 Air National Guard were deployed (40,221 total).
USCG Air Operations conducted 650 sorties rescuing 6,900 people. USCG Surface Operations conducted 31 sorties rescuing 10,950 people. For a total of 17,940 people rescued in the greater New Orleans area.
Rescue workers said that there were still many, "holdouts, '' who were not heeding the mandatory evacuation order first issued by Nagin on August 28. They were concerned about their property being looted, were unaware of the full extent of the disaster, worried about their pets, or concerned that conditions would be worse in the shelters. Due to unsanitary conditions in the city, as well as contaminations of E. coli bacteria in the standing water in the city, Nagin ordered the forced evacuation of everyone that was not involved in cleaning up after Hurricane Katrina.
38,093 Army National Guard and 5,770 Air National Guard were deployed (43,863 total).
Senator Barbara Mikulski (D - MD) called for Michael D. Brown 's resignation. House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi (D - CA) and Senate Minority Leader Harry Reid (D - NV) voiced criticism of the disaster 's handling, and of the Bush administration 's management, delegation of control, leadership, and human consideration.
USCG Air & Surface Operations rescue 10,182 people in the greater New Orleans area.
39,736 Army National Guard and 5,952 Air National Guard were deployed (45,688 total).
President Bush issued an executive order suspending the Davis - Bacon Act of 1931, allowing federal contractors rebuilding after Katrina to pay below the prevailing wage. This action upset labor leaders and Democrats in Congress, who feared that it would make it more difficult for union contractors to win bids.
40,667 Army National Guard and 5,735 Air National Guard were deployed (46,402 total).
USCG Air & Surface Operations rescue 342 people in the greater New Orleans area.
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Director Michael Brown was removed from directing Hurricane Katrina relief efforts in New Orleans by Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff. He was replaced by Vice Admiral Thad W. Allen, Chief of Staff of the United States Coast Guard.
U.S. Army Lieutenant General Russel L. Honoré and New Orleans Director of Homeland Security Terry Ebbert announced a "zero access '' policy with regards to the media, in order to prevent members of the media from reporting on the recovery of dead bodies in New Orleans. CNN filed a lawsuit, then obtained a temporary restraining order to prevent government agencies from interfering with news coverage of recovery efforts.
42,164 Army National Guard and 4,347 Air National Guard were deployed (46,511 total).
USCG Air & Surface Operations rescue 162 people in the greater New Orleans area.
The federal government subsequently agreed not to attempt to restrict media coverage of events and Honoré 's deputy says that the original statement referred to a policy of not allowing embedded journalists on relief operations.
42,257 Army National Guard and 4,581 Air National Guard were deployed (46,838 total - the peak deployment, with the military then arriving).
Louisiana 's Department of Environmental Quality issued an administrative order for information on railroad car status information from seventeen railroads in the areas affected by Hurricane Katrina. The Department sought to obtain a listing of all car reporting marks, types, contents, locations and physical status within the region. Previous flyovers of the area revealed a number of cars derailed in various states of damage, but it is as yet unknown the amount or types of hazardous materials that were involved.
Meanwhile, under the orders of Gov. Kathleen Blanco, Illinois police officers on loan to Louisiana were sent out with flat bottomed boats to rescue hundreds of frozen embryos from New Orleans Lakewood Hospital 's Fertility Institute, the first of which was born on Jan. 16, 2007.
Michael D. Brown resigned as Director of FEMA for, "the best interest of the agency and the best interest of the president. ''
Congress approved the Katrina Emergency Tax Relief Act of 2005 for Hurricane Katrina victims, which included the elimination of the early withdrawal penalty on retirement accounts, forgiven debts not being taxable, and more.
Karl Rove is reported to have been put in charge of reconstruction projects.
President Bush addresses the nation from Jackson Square, New Orleans, outlining many of the steps that the federal government was taking to provide assistance and relief to Katrina victims.
After starting to allow residents back into the city, Mayor Nagin ordered yet another evacuation due to Hurricane Rita. With the levees and pumping systems in a weakened state, even a near - miss could bring flooding back to areas that have begun to dry out.
The official death toll was raised to 1,036, with 63 additional deaths recognized in Louisiana. This marked the first time since 1928 that a natural disaster in the U.S. had been officially acknowledged to have killed at least 1,000 people. State - by - state death tolls: Louisiana 799, Mississippi 218, Florida 14, Alabama 2, Georgia 2, Tennessee 1.
Hurricane Rita headed towards Houston, with its outer bands bringing rain to the New Orleans area. Efforts continued to shore up the levees weakened by Katrina.
Hurricane Rita compounded the already growing problems as it makes landfall just west of where Hurricane Katrina had.
Brig. Gen. Doug Pritt and the 41st Brigade Combat Team of Oregon were designated as the head of Joint Task Force Rita, leading the multi-state National Guard relief efforts in the aftermath of Hurricanes Katrina and Hurricane Rita.
The official regionwide death toll from Hurricane Katrina was upgraded to 1,080. Mississippi still had not officially increased its death toll by much, but added 2 to the count. Thousands feared dead in Mississippi and Louisiana remain out of the official death toll. State - by - State death tolls: Louisiana 841, Mississippi 220, Florida 14, Alabama 2, Georgia 2, Tennessee 1.
The official death toll from Hurricane Katrina was upgraded to 1,135. It had been 33 days since landfall in Louisiana and Mississippi. State - by - State death tolls: Louisiana 896, Mississippi 220, Florida 14, Alabama 2, Georgia 2, Tennessee 1.
To date, approximately 1.5 million people were evacuated from the damaged areas in Louisiana, roughly 1 million have applied for hurricane - related federal aid, 30,000 are in out - of - state shelters, 46,400 are in state shelters and 972 people have perished in the storm.
The official death toll was upgraded to 1,836 with more than 2,500 still missing. State - by - State death tolls: Louisiana 1,577, Mississippi 238, Florida 14, Alabama 2, Georgia 2, Tennessee 1, Kentucky 1.
Mayor Nagin announced that, due to lack of funds, New Orleans would lay off 3,000 non-essential employees from the city 's payroll, or about half of its workforce, over the next two weeks.
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introduction to indian constitution and its salient features | Constitution of India - Wikipedia
The Constitution of India (IAST: Bhāratīya Saṃvidhāna) is the supreme law of India. The document lays down the framework demarcating fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers and duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles and the duties of citizens. It the longest written constitution of any country on earth. B.R. Ambedkar, chairman of the drafting committee, is widely considered to be its chief architect.
It imparts constitutional supremacy (not parliamentary supremacy, since it was created by a constituent assembly rather than Parliament), and was adopted by its people with a declaration in its preamble. Parliament can not override the constitution.
It was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 26 November 1949, and became effective on 26 January 1950. The constitution replaced the Government of India Act, 1935 as the country 's fundamental governing document, and the Dominion of India became the republic of India. To ensure constitutional autochthony, its framers repealed prior acts of the British parliament in Article 395. India celebrates its constitution on 26 January as Republic Day.
The constitution declares India a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic, assuring its citizens justice, equality and liberty, and endeavours to promote fraternity.
Most of the Indian subcontinent was under British rule from 1857 to 1947. The constitution of India repealed the Indian Independence Act 1947 and Government of India Act, 1935 when it became effective on 26 January 1950. India ceased to be a dominion of the British Crown and became a sovereign democratic republic with the constitution. Articles 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 60, 324, 366, 367, 379, 380, 388, 391, 392, 393 and 394 of the constitution came into force on 26 November 1949, and the remaining articles became effective on 26 January 1950.
The constitution was drawn from a number of sources. Mindful of India 's needs and conditions. its framers borrowed features of previous legislation, such as the Government of India Act 1858, the Indian Councils Acts of 1861, 1892 and 1909, the Government of India Acts of 1919 and 1935, and the Indian Independence Act 1947. The latter, which led to the creation of India and Pakistan, divided the former Constituent Assembly in two. Each new assembly had sovereign power to draft and enact a new constitution for the separate states.
The constitution was drafted by the Constituent Assembly, which was elected by elected members of the provincial assemblies. The 389 - member assembly (reduced to 299 after the partition of India) took almost three years to draft the constitution, holding eleven sessions over a 165 - day period.
B.R. Ambedkar, Sanjay Phakey, Jawaharlal Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari, Rajendra Prasad, Vallabhbhai Patel, Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi, Ganesh Vasudev Mavalankar, Sandipkumar Patel, Abul Kalam Azad, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Nalini Ranjan Ghosh, and Balwantrai Mehta were key figures in the assembly, which had over 30 representatives of the scheduled classes. Frank Anthony represented the Anglo - Indian community, and the Parsis were represented by H.P. Modi. Harendra Coomar Mookerjee, a Christian assembly vice-president, chaired the minorities committee and represented non-Anglo - Indian Christians. Ari Bahadur Gurung represented the Gorkha community. Judges, such as Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, Benegal Narsing Rau, K.M. Munshi and Ganesh Mavlankar were members of the assembly. Female members included Sarojini Naidu, Hansa Mehta, Durgabai Deshmukh, Amrit Kaur and Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.
The first, two - day president of the assembly was Sachchidananda Sinha; Rajendra Prasad was later elected president. It met for the first time on 9 December 1946.
Benegal Narsing Rau, a civil servant who became the first Indian judge in the International Court of Justice and was president of the United Nations Security Council, was appointed as the assembly 's constitutional adviser in 1946. Responsible for the constitution 's general structure, Rau prepared its initial draft in February 1948.
At the 14 August 1947 meeting of the assembly, committees were proposed. Rau 's draft was considered, debated and amended by the eight - person drafting committee, which was appointed on 29 August 1947 with B.R. Ambedkar as chair. A revised draft constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the assembly on 4 November 1947.
While deliberating the revised draft constitution, the assembly moved, discussed and disposed off 2,473 amendments out of a total of 7,635. Before adopting the constitution, the assembly held eleven sessions in 165 days. On 26 November 1949 it adopted the constitution, which was signed by 284 members. The day is celebrated as National Law Day, or Constitution Day.
The assembly 's final session convened on 24 January 1950. Each member signed two copies of the constitution, one in Hindi and the other in English. The original constitution is hand - written, with each page decorated by artists from Shantiniketan including Beohar Rammanohar Sinha and Nandalal Bose. Its calligrapher was Prem Behari Narain Raizada. The constitution was published in Dehradun and photolithographed by the Survey of India. Production of the original constitution took nearly five years. Two days later, on 26 January 1950, it became the law of India. The estimated cost of the Constituent Assembly was ₹ 6.3 crore (₹ 63 million). The constitution has had a number of amendments since it was enacted. The original 1950 constitution is preserved in a helium - filled case at the Parliament House in New Delhi.
The Indian constitution is the world 's longest for a sovereign nation. At its enactment, it had 395 articles in 22 parts and 8 schedules. At about 145,000 words, it is the second - longest active constitution -- after the Constitution of Alabama -- in the world.
The constitution has a preamble and 448 articles, which are grouped into 25 parts. With 12 schedules and five appendices, it has been amended 101 times; the latest amendment became effective on 1 July 2017.
The constitution 's articles are grouped into the following parts:
Schedules are lists in the constitution which categorise and tabulate bureaucratic activity and government policy.
The executive, legislative and judicial branches of government receive their power from the constitution and are bound by it. With the aid of its constitution, India is governed by a parliamentary system of government with the executive directly accountable to the legislature. The President of India is head of the executive branch, under Articles 52 and 53, with the duty of preserving, protecting and defending the constitution and the law under Article 60. Article 74 provides for a Prime Minister as head of the Council of Ministers, which aids and advises the president in the performance of their constitutional duties. The council is answerable to the lower house under Article 75 (3).
The constitution is considered federal in nature, and unitary in spirit. It has features of a federation (a codified, supreme constitution, a three - tier governmental structure (central, state and local), division of powers, bicameralism and an independent judiciary) and unitary features such as a single constitution, single citizenship, an integrated judiciary, a flexible constitution, a strong central government, appointment of state governors by the central government, All India Services (the IAS, IFS and IPS) and emergency provisions. This unique combination makes it quasi-federal in form.
Each state and union territory has its own government. Analogous to the president and prime minister, each has a governor or (in union territories) a lieutenant governor and a chief minister. Article 356 permits the president to dismiss a state government and assume direct authority if a situation arises in which state government can not be conducted in accordance with constitution. This power, known as president 's rule, was abused as state governments came to be dismissed on flimsy grounds for political reasons. After the S.R. Bommai v. Union of India decision, such a course of action is more difficult since the courts have asserted their right of review.
The 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts introduced the system of panchayati raj in rural areas and Nagar Palikas in urban areas. Article 370 gives special status to the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
Amendments are additions, variations or repeal of any part of the constitution by Parliament. The procedure is detailed in Article 368. An amendment bill must be passed by each house of Parliament by a with a two - thirds majority of its total membership when at least two - thirds are present and vote. Certain amendments pertaining to the constitution 's federal nature must also be ratified by a majority of state legislatures. Unlike ordinary bills in accordance with Article 245 (except for money bills), there is no provision for a joint session of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha to pass a constitutional amendment. During a parliamentary recess, the president can not promulgate ordinances under his legislative powers under Article 123, Chapter III. Deemed amendments to the constitution which can be passed under the legislative powers of parliament were invalidated by Article 368 (1) in the Twenty - fourth Amendment.
By July 2018, 124 amendment bills had been presented in Parliament; of these, 101 became Amendment Acts. Despite the supermajority requirement for amendments to pass, the Indian constitution is the world 's most frequently - amended national governing document. The constitution is so specific in spelling out government powers that many amendments address issues dealt with by statute in other democracies.
In 2000, the Justice Manepalli Narayana Rao Venkatachaliah Commission was formed to examine a constitutional update. The government of India establishes term - based law commissions to recommend legal reforms, facilitating the rule of law.
In Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, the Supreme Court ruled that an amendment can not destroy what it seeks to modify; it can not tinker with the constitution 's basic structure or framework, which are immutable. Such an amendment will be declared invalid, although no part of the constitution is protected from amendment; the basic structure doctrine does not protect any one provision of the constitution. According to the doctrine, the constitution 's basic features (when "read as a whole '') can not be abridged or abolished. These "basic features '' have not been fully defined, and whether a particular provision of the constitution is a "basic feature '' is decided by the courts.
The Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala decision laid down the constitution 's basic structure:
This implies that Parliament can only amend the constitution to the limit of its basic structure. The Supreme Court or a high court may declare the amendment null and void if this is violated, after a judicial review. This is typical of parliamentary governments, where the judiciary checks parliamentary power.
In its 1967 Golak Nath v. State of Punjab decision, the Supreme Court ruled that the state of Punjab could not restrict any fundamental rights protected by the basic structure doctrine. The extent of land ownership and practice of a profession, in this case, were considered fundamental rights. The ruling was overturned with the ratification of the 24th Amendment in 1971.
The judiciary is the final arbiter of the constitution. Its duty (mandated by the constitution) is to act as a watchdog, preventing any legislative or executive act from overstepping constitutional bounds. The judiciary protects the fundamental rights of the people (enshrined in the constitution) from infringement by any state body, and balances the conflicting exercise of power between the central government and a state (or states).
The courts are expected to remain unaffected by pressure exerted by other branches of the state, citizens or interest groups. An independent judiciary has been held as a basic feature of the constitution, which can not be changed by the legislature or the executive.
Judicial review was adopted by the constitution of India from judicial review in the United States. In the Indian constitution, judicial review is dealt with in Article 13. The constitution is the supreme power of the nation, and governs all laws. According to Article 13,
Due to the adoption of the Thirty - eighth Amendment, the Supreme Court was not allowed to preside over any laws adopted during a state of emergency which infringe fundamental rights under article 32 (the right to constitutional remedies). The Forty - second Amendment widened Article 31C and added Articles 368 (4) and 368 (5), stating that any law passed by Parliament could not be challenged in court. The Supreme Court ruled in Minerva Mills v. Union of India that judicial review is a basic characteristic of the constitution, overturning Articles 368 (4), 368 (5) and 31C.
According to Granville Austin, "The Indian constitution is first and foremost a social document, and is aided by its Parts III & IV (Fundamental Rights & Directive Principles of State Policy, respectively) acting together, as its chief instruments and its conscience, in realising the goals set by it for all the people. '' The constitution has deliberately been worded in generalities (not in vague terms) to ensure its flexibility. John Marshall, the fourth Chief Justice of the United States, said that a constitution 's "great outlines should be marked, its important objects designated, and the minor ingredients which compose those objects be deduced from the nature of the objects themselves. '' A document "intended to endure for ages to come '', it must be interpreted not only based on the intention and understanding of its framers, but in the existing social and political context.
The "right to life '' guaranteed under Article 21 has been expanded to include a number of human rights, including the right to a speedy trial,; the right to water; the right to earn a livelihood, the right to health, and the right to education.
At the conclusion of his book, Making of India 's Constitution, retired Supreme Court of India justice Hans Raj Khanna wrote:
If the Indian constitution is our heritage bequeathed to us by our founding fathers, no less are we, the people of India, the trustees and custodians of the values which pulsate within its provisions! A constitution is not a parchment of paper, it is a way of life and has to be lived up to. Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty and in the final analysis, its only keepers are the people. ''
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1. why is it convenient to measure gain in db | Gain (electronics) - wikipedia
In electronics, gain is a measure of the ability of a two - port circuit (often an amplifier) to increase the power or amplitude of a signal from the input to the output port by adding energy converted from some power supply to the signal. It is usually defined as the mean ratio of the signal amplitude or power at the output port to the amplitude or power at the input port. It is often expressed using the logarithmic decibel (dB) units ("dB gain ''). A gain greater than one (greater than zero dB), that is amplification, is the defining property of an active component or circuit, while a passive circuit will have a gain of less than one.
The term gain alone is ambiguous, and can refer to the ratio of output to input voltage (voltage gain), current (current gain) or electric power (power gain). In the field of audio and general purpose amplifiers, especially operational amplifiers, the term usually refers to voltage gain, but in radio frequency amplifiers it usually refers to power gain. Furthermore, the term gain is also applied in systems such as sensors where the input and output have different units; in such cases the gain units must be specified, as in "5 microvolts per photon '' for the responsivity of a photosensor. The "gain '' of a bipolar transistor normally refers to forward current transfer ratio, either h ("Beta '', the static ratio of I divided by I at some operating point), or sometimes h (the small - signal current gain, the slope of the graph of I against I at a point).
The gain of an electronic device or circuit generally varies with the frequency of the applied signal. Unless otherwise stated, the term refers to the gain for frequencies in the passband, the intended operating frequency range, of the equipment. The term gain has a different meaning in antenna design; antenna gain is the ratio of radiation intensity from a directional antenna to P in / 4 π (\ displaystyle P_ (\ text (in)) / 4 \ pi) (mean radiation intensity from a lossless antenna).
Power gain, in decibels (dB), is defined by the 10 log rule as follows:
where P in (\ displaystyle P_ (\ text (in))) is the power applied to the input and P out (\ displaystyle P_ (\ text (out))) is the power from the output.
A similar calculation can be done using a natural logarithm instead of a decimal logarithm, resulting in nepers instead of decibels:
The power gain can be calculated using voltage instead of power using Joule 's first law P = V 2 / R (\ displaystyle P = V ^ (2) / R); the formula is:
In many cases, the input impedance R in (\ displaystyle R_ (\ text (in))) and output impedance R out (\ displaystyle R_ (\ text (out))) are equal, so the above equation can be simplified to:
This simplified formula, the 20 log rule, is used to calculate a voltage gain in decibels and is equivalent to a power gain only if the impedances at input and output are equal.
In the same way, when power gain is calculated using current instead of power, making the substitution P = I 2 R (\ displaystyle P = I ^ (2) R), the formula is:
In many cases, the input and output impedances are equal, so the above equation can be simplified to:
This simplified formula is used to calculate a current gain in decibels and is equivalent to the power gain only if the impedances at input and output are equal.
The "current gain '' of a bipolar transistor, h FE (\ displaystyle h_ (\ text (FE))) or h fe (\ displaystyle h_ (\ text (fe))), is normally given as a dimensionless number, the ratio of I c (\ displaystyle I_ (\ text (c))) to I b (\ displaystyle I_ (\ text (b))) (or slope of the I c (\ displaystyle I_ (\ text (c))) - versus - I b (\ displaystyle I_ (\ text (b))) graph, for h fe (\ displaystyle h_ (\ text (fe)))).
In the cases above, gain will be a dimensionless quantity, as it is the ratio of like units (decibels are not used as units, but rather as a method of indicating a logarithmic relationship). In the bipolar transistor example, it is the ratio of the output current to the input current, both measured in amperes. In the case of other devices, the gain will have a value in SI units. Such is the case with the operational transconductance amplifier, which has an open - loop gain (transconductance) in siemens (mhos), because the gain is a ratio of the output current to the input voltage.
Q. An amplifier has an input impedance of 50 ohms and drives a load of 50 ohms. When its input (V in (\ displaystyle V_ (\ text (in)))) is 1 volt, its output (V out (\ displaystyle V_ (\ text (out)))) is 10 volts. What is its voltage and power gain?
A. Voltage gain is simply:
The units V / V are optional but make it clear that this figure is a voltage gain and not a power gain. Using the expression for power, P = V / R, the power gain is:
Again, the units W / W are optional. Power gain is more usually expressed in decibels, thus:
A gain of factor 1 (equivalent to 0 dB) where both input and output are at the same voltage level and impedance is also known as unity gain.
This article incorporates public domain material from the General Services Administration document "Federal Standard 1037C ''.
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when did glen doherty die in 13 hours | 13 Hours: the Secret Soldiers of Benghazi - wikipedia
13 Hours: The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi (also known simply as 13 Hours) is a 2016 American biographical war film directed and produced by Michael Bay and written by Chuck Hogan, based on Mitchell Zuckoff 's 2014 book 13 Hours. The film follows six members of Annex Security Team who fight to defend the American diplomatic compound in Benghazi, Libya after waves of terrorist attacks on September 11, 2012. The film stars James Badge Dale, John Krasinski, David Giuntoli, Max Martini, Pablo Schreiber and Toby Stephens.
Filming began on April 27, 2015 in Malta and Morocco. Known colloquially as "the Benghazi movie '', the film was released on January 15, 2016, by Paramount Pictures. Upon release, 13 Hours received generally mixed reviews from critics and grossed just $69 million worldwide against a budget of $50 million, becoming Bay 's lowest - grossing film to date.
The film received an Academy Award nomination for Best Sound Mixing at the 89th Academy Awards.
In 2012, Benghazi, Libya is named one of the most dangerous places in the world, and countries have pulled their diplomatic offices out of the country in fear of an attack by militants. The United States, however, still has a diplomatic compound (not an official consulate) open in the city. Less than a mile away is a CIA outpost called "The Annex '', which is protected by a team of private military contractors from Global Response Staff (GRS). New to the detail is Jack Silva, who arrives in Benghazi and is picked up by Tyrone "Rone '' Woods, commander of the GRS team and a personal friend of Silva. Arriving at the Annex, Silva is introduced to the rest of the GRS team and the CIA Chief of Station, who constantly gives the team strict reminders to never engage the citizens.
The U.S. Ambassador Chris Stevens arrives in Benghazi to maintain diplomatic connections amidst the political and social chaos. Despite warnings, Stevens decides to stay at the Special Mission with limited protection from a pair of Diplomatic Security (DS) agents, Scott Wickland and Dave Ubben, and guards hired from the local February 17th Martyrs Brigade militia, nicknamed "17 - Feb ''. On the morning of the eleventh anniversary of the September 11 attacks, Stevens notices suspicious men taking pictures of the compound and notifies his security detail. Back at the Annex, Silva finds out that his wife is pregnant.
That night, a group of militants from Ansar al - Sharia assault the compound. The 17 - Feb guards quickly surrender their posts, allowing the attackers easy access to the Special Mission compound. Wickland takes Stevens and Smith, an IT specialist, into the safe room. Unable to breach the safe room, the attackers set the building on fire hoping to burn the men out. Wickland is able to escape but loses both Stevens and Smith. At the Annex, the GRS team desperately wants to go to the compound to help, but the Chief refuses, fearing that the team 's departure would expose the Annex. However, the team dispatches to the compound and meets up with the DS agents. Silva and Woods go into the building to try to find Stevens and Smith, but are only able to find Smith 's body. The DS team from the compound retreats to the Annex; but after Wickland goes in the wrong direction, they are followed back to the Annex. Later, the GRS team also retreats to the Annex.
Knowing an attack by the militants is imminent, the CIA staff of the Annex makes several desperate calls for help. The only help they can get is from Glen "Bud '' Doherty, a GRS officer in Tripoli, who forms a team including two Delta operators that fly to Benghazi after several delays. Meanwhile, the GRS team fends off the militants as they try to breach the Annex perimeter. After repelling the largest attack wave, the Annex receives word from ISR that help is en route.
The Tripoli GRS reinforcements arrive and begin preparing the CIA and DS staff to depart for the airport. The militants launch a mortar attack in which Ubben and Geist are wounded; Geist 's left arm is partially severed. Woods rushes to aid Geist and is killed by another mortar round. Doherty is also killed when a third mortar detonates directly in front of him.
With the GRS team compromised, and the Annex now vulnerable, the remaining GRS operators watch as a convoy of vehicles rolls toward the Annex. Fearing the worst, the operators prepare to make a final stand, until it is revealed that the convoy is an element of the Libya Shield Force militia escorting the GRS reinforcements. They also find out that Stevens was found behind the compound, but was pronounced dead at the hospital.
At the airport, the CIA staff and the wounded Geist board the plane to Tripoli while the remainder of the GRS team waits for the next plane with the bodies of Stevens, Smith, Woods and Doherty. Closing titles reveal that all of the surviving members of the Annex security team received contractor medals in a private ceremony and have since retired from the GRS team and live with their families (Geist was able to save his arm after several surgeries).
On February 10, 2014, it was announced that Paramount Pictures was in talks with 3 Arts Entertainment to acquire the film rights to the book 13 Hours, written by Mitchell Zuckoff, with Erwin Stoff to produce. Chuck Hogan was set to adapt the book, based on the true events of the Benghazi attack by militants on the American diplomatic compound in Benghazi, Libya, on the evening of September 11, 2012. The film would focus on six members of a security team that fought to defend the Americans stationed there. On October 29, 2014, Michael Bay was set to direct and produce the thriller.
On January 14, 2015, John Krasinski was cast in the film, to play one of the lead roles, a former US Navy SEAL. On February 3, Pablo Schreiber also signed on to star in the film, playing Kris "Tanto '' Paronto, one of the six - man security team. On February 6, James Badge Dale was set to star, as the leader of the security team. Max Martini was cast as another member of the security team on February 17, 2015. David Denman signed on to star in the film on March 3, 2015, playing Boon, an elite sniper. On March 5, 2015, THR reported that Dominic Fumusa also signed on, to play John "Tig '' Tiegen, one of the members of the security team, who is also a former Marine with weapons expertise. Freddie Stroma was added to the cast on March 17, 2015 to play the role of an undercover CIA officer in Libya. On May 7, 2015, Toby Stephens was set to play Glen "Bub '' Doherty, another of the security team members.
Principal photography began on April 27, 2015 in Malta and Morocco. A large film set was built in March 2015 in Ta ' Qali, Malta.
On June 30, 2015, Paramount announced that the new title would be 13 Hours: The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi, and set the film to be released on January 15, 2016, on the MLK Holiday weekend. The film premiered on January 12, 2016, at the AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas, benefitting the Shadow Warriors Project, which supports private military security personnel and other groups.
Unusually for a major American film, the film was given only a limited release in Canada during its American wide opening weekend, playing in select theatres in Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Edmonton, Calgary and Ottawa. The film expanded to a wide release in Canadian theatres the following weekend, January 22 -- 24.
Paramount specifically marketed the film to conservatives, in a method similar to previous films Lone Survivor and American Sniper, both of which had beaten box office expectations. This included screening the film for key Republican Party figures in order to generate endorsement quotations.
13 Hours: The Secret Soldiers Benghazi was released on DVD and Blu - ray on June 7, 2016. Likely due to a boost from the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election, the film made $40 million in DVD and Blu - ray sales by August 2016.
13 Hours grossed $52.9 million in North America and $16.5 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $69.4 million, against a production budget of $50 million, making it Michael Bay 's lowest - grossing directorial film to date.
The film was projected to earn around $20 million in its four - day Martin Luther King weekend debut. It faced competition from fellow newcomer Ride Along 2, as well as holdovers The Revenant and Star Wars: The Force Awakens. Other films in a similar vein that had opened on the MLK weekend in previous years, American Sniper ($107.2 million in 2015) and Lone Survivor ($37.8 million in 2014), found success, although they had faced weaker competition, and were considered less politically divisive. However, The Hollywood Reporter noted that the film could outperform expectations if it was buoyed by waves of patriotism. The film made $900,000 from 1,995 theaters during its Thursday previews and $16.2 million in its opening weekend, finishing fourth at the box office.
13 Hours received mixed reviews from critics, though some viewed it as a welcomed tame effort from Michael Bay. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 50 % based on 210 reviews, with an average rating of 5.5 / 10. The site 's consensus reads, "13 Hours: The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi is a comparatively mature and restrained effort from Michael Bay, albeit one that ca n't quite boast the impact its fact - based story deserves. '' On Metacritic the film has a score of 48 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Soren Andersen, writing for The Seattle Times, gave the film 3 stars out of 4, criticizing the lack of distinctive characters but ultimately summarizing 13 Hours as "engrossing '' and "a ground - level depiction of heroism in the midst of the fog of war ''. Richard Roeper similarly praised 13 Hours in his review for the Chicago Sun - Times. Although he lamented the script, Roeper found the film to be a "solid action thriller with well - choreographed battle sequences and strong work from the ensemble cast ''. Like Roeper 's review, New York Daily News ' Joe Dziemianowicz was less receptive towards the script, but applauded the film 's focus on the real - life attack, summarizing: "War is gritty here, not glamorous... (Michael Bay) delivers a gripping, harrowing, and heartfelt film. ''
In a mixed review, Inkoo Kang of TheWrap praised 13 Hours for its action scenes, but panned Bay 's direction as "myopic ''. She writes, "13 Hours is the rare Michael Bay movie that was n't made with teenage boys in mind. But that does n't make his latest any less callously juvenile. '' Lindsey Bahr of the Associated Press was critical of the film 's direction and cinematography, and found the screenplay to be confusing. Similarly, The Economist described the film as "a sleek, poorly scripted and largely meaningless film ''.
The film caused controversy in Libya. Many Libyans believed it ignored the contributions of local people who helped save the US ambassador. Libya 's Foreign Ministry spokesman, Salah Belnaba, denounced the film 's portrayal of the Libyan people and described it as "fanatical and ignorant. '' Libya 's Culture and Information Minister, Omar Gawaari, also criticized the film saying: "the movie shows the US contractors who actually failed to secure the ambassador... as heroes '', adding that Michael Bay "turned America 's failure to protect its own citizens in a fragile state into a typical action movie all about American heroism ''.
At the 89th Academy Awards, 13 Hours received a nomination for Best Sound Mixing. However, Greg P. Russell (one of the four nominees from the film) had his nomination rescinded when it was discovered that he had contacted voters for the award by telephone in violation of campaigning regulations.
The film 's historical accuracy has been disputed. In the film 's most controversial scene, the CIA chief in Benghazi (identified only as "Bob '') tells the military contractors there, who seek permission to go defend the embassy, to "stand down '', thus denying them permission. The real - life CIA chief stated that there was no stand - down order. His statement was echoed by the bipartisan Senate Intelligence Committee 's finding that there was "no evidence of intentional delay or obstruction by the Chief of Base or any other party ''. However, National Review commentator David French argues that the Senate committee cited above found plenty of evidence of the "stand down '' order in the form of personal testimony from multiple witnesses. It just chose to rule that the contrary testimony outweighed it.
Kris "Tanto '' Paronto, a CIA contractor who was involved in action during the event said, "We were told to ' stand down '. Those words were used verbatim -- 100 percent. If the truth of it affects someone 's political career? Well, I 'm sorry. It happens. '' The CIA base chief portrayed in the film has directly contradicted Paronto 's claims, saying "There never was a stand - down order... At no time did I ever second - guess that the team would depart. ''
Also disputed is the film 's portrayal that air support was denied. A House Armed Services Committee report found that air support was unavailable, or it would have arrived too late to make a difference. French defended the film 's references to air support, writing that even if resources could not have been flown in during the time available, this would itself be "scandalous '', given Libya 's known instability. In July 2016, the Republican - led House Select Committee on Benghazi released its report that included numerous witnesses indicating that U.S. military help was available, but not called upon. The report indicated the Department of Defense would not provide the requested list of military assets that were available that night.
American conservative columnist Deroy Murdock wrote that the film confirmed his personal view that President Barack Obama and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton were lying when they initially blamed the YouTube video Innocence of Muslims for the attacks in the weeks after they occurred. The video led to various protests among Muslims around the world, and Obama and others initially stated publicly that the Benghazi attacks emerged from such a protest. Murdock noted that 13 Hours instead portrays the attacks as having been initiated by "well - armed jihadists who know exactly what they are doing ''.
Some of the vehicles used in the movie are models from later years, especially the Mercedes - Benz G - Class (model year 2013) and the Mercedes - Benz C - Class (W205) (model year 2015) which did not exist when the attacks happened in 2012, only known to be original prototypes. The video game Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare is also featured in the film despite the fact that the game was released two years after the Benghazi attack, which appeared as demo game.
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who was in charge of the sioux tribe | Sioux - wikipedia
The Sioux / ˈsuː / also known as Dakota, are groups of Native American tribes and First Nations peoples in North America. The term can refer to any ethnic group within the Great Sioux Nation or to any of the nation 's many language dialects. The Sioux comprise three major divisions based on language divisions: the Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota.
The Santee Dakota (Isáŋyathi; "Knife '') reside in the extreme east of the Dakotas, Minnesota and northern Iowa. The Yankton and Yanktonai Dakota (Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋ and Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna; "Village - at - the - end '' and "Little village - at - the - end ''), collectively also referred to by the endonym Wičhíyena, reside in the Minnesota River area. They are considered to be the middle Sioux, and have in the past been erroneously classified as Nakota. The actual Nakota are the Assiniboine and Stoney of Western Canada and Montana. The Lakota, also called Teton (Thítȟuŋwaŋ; possibly "Dwellers on the prairie ''), are the westernmost Sioux, known for their hunting and warrior culture.
Today, the Sioux maintain many separate tribal governments scattered across several reservations, communities, and reserves in North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Minnesota, and Montana in the United States; and Manitoba, southern Saskatchewan, and Alberta in Canada.
The name "Sioux '' was adopted in English by the 1760s from French. It is abbreviated from Nadouessioux, first attested by Jean Nicolet in 1640. The name is sometimes said to be derived from an Ojibwe exonym for the Sioux meaning "little snakes '' (compare nadowe "big snakes '', used for the Iroquois). The spelling in - x is due to the French plural marker. The Proto - Algonquian form * na towe wa, meaning "Northern Iroquoian '', has reflexes in several daughter languages that refer to a small rattlesnake (massasauga, Sistrurus). An alternative explanation is derivation from an (Algonquian) exonym na towe ssiw (plural na towe ssiwak), from a verb * - a towe meaning "to speak a foreign language ''. The current Ojibwe term for the Sioux and related groups is Bwaanag (singular Bwaan), meaning "roasters ''. Presumably, this refers to the style of cooking the Sioux used in the past.
Some of the tribes have formally or informally adopted traditional names: the Rosebud Sioux Tribe is also known as the Sičháŋǧu Oyáte, and the Oglala often use the name Oglála Lakȟóta Oyáte, rather than the English "Oglala Sioux Tribe '' or OST. The alternative English spelling of Ogallala is considered improper.
The historical Sioux referred to the Great Sioux Nation as the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ (pronounced (oˈtʃhethi ʃaˈkowĩ)), meaning "Seven Council Fires ''. Each fire was a symbol of an oyate (people or nation). The seven nations that comprise the Sioux are: Bdewákaŋthuŋwaŋ (Mdewakanton), Waȟpéthuŋwaŋ (Wahpeton), Waȟpékhute (Wahpekute), Sisíthuŋwaŋ (Sisseton), the Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ (Yankton), Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna (Yanktonai), and the Thítȟuŋwaŋ (Teton or Lakota). The Seven Council Fires would assemble each summer to hold council, renew kinships, decide tribal matters, and participate in the Sun Dance. The seven divisions would select four leaders known as Wičháša Yatápika from among the leaders of each division. Being one of the four leaders was considered the highest honor for a leader; however, the annual gathering meant the majority of tribal administration was cared for by the usual leaders of each division. The last meeting of the Seven Council Fires was in 1850.
Today the Teton, Santee (mixture of the four Dakota tribes) and the Minnesota Dakota, and Yankton / Yanktonai are usually known, respectively, as the Lakota, Eastern Dakota, or Western Dakota. In any of the three main dialects, Lakota or Dakota translate to mean "friend '' or "ally '', referring to the alliance that once bound the Great Sioux Nation.
The Dakota are first recorded to have resided at the source of the Mississippi River during the seventeenth century. Cite error: The opening < ref > tag is malformed or has a bad name (see the help page). story of the Oglala Sioux Indians publisher = University of Oklahoma Press location = Norman year = 1984 page = 3 isbn = 0 - 8061 - 1520 - 3)) < / ref > By 1700 some had migrated to present - day South Dakota. Late in the 17th century, the Dakota entered into an alliance with French merchants. The French were trying to gain advantage in the struggle for the North American fur trade against the English, who had recently established the Hudson 's Bay Company.
The first recorded encounter between the Sioux and the French occurred when Radisson and Groseilliers reached what is now Wisconsin during the winter of 1659 -- 60. Later visiting French traders and missionaries included Claude - Jean Allouez, Daniel Greysolon Duluth, and Pierre - Charles Le Sueur who wintered with Dakota bands in early 1700. In 1736 a group of Sioux killed Jean Baptiste de La Vérendrye and twenty other men on an island in Lake of the Woods. However, trade with the French continued until after the French gave up North America in 1763.
Author and historian Mark van de Logt wrote: "Although military historians tend to reserve the concept of "total war '' for conflicts between modern industrial nations, the term nevertheless most closely approaches the state of affairs between the Pawnees and the Sioux and Cheyennes. Both sides directed their actions not solely against warrior - combatants but against the people as a whole. Noncombatants were legitimate targets... It is within this context that the military service of the Pawnee Scouts must be viewed. ''
The battle of Massacre Canyon on August 5, 1873, was the last major battle between the Pawnee and the Sioux.
By 1862, shortly after a failed crop the year before and a winter starvation, the federal payment was late. The local traders would not issue any more credit to the Santee and one trader, Andrew Myrick, went so far as to say, "If they 're hungry, let them eat grass. '' On August 17, 1862 the Dakota War began when a few Santee men murdered a farmer and most of his family. They inspired further attacks on settlements along the Minnesota River. The Santee attacked the trading post. Later settlers found Myrick among the dead with his mouth stuffed full of grass.
On November 5, 1862 in Minnesota, in courts - martial, 303 Santee Sioux were found guilty of rape and murder of hundreds of American settlers. They were sentenced to be hanged. No attorneys or witnesses were allowed as a defense for the accused, and many were convicted in less than five minutes of court time with the judge. President Abraham Lincoln commuted the death sentences of 284 of the warriors, while signing off on the hanging of 38 Santee men on December 26, 1862 in Mankato, Minnesota. It was the largest mass - execution in U.S. history, on US soil.
Afterwards, the US suspended treaty annuities to the Dakota for four years and awarded the money to the victims and their families. The men remanded by order of President Lincoln were sent to a prison in Iowa, where more than half died.
During and after the revolt, many Santee and their kin fled Minnesota and Eastern Dakota to Canada, or settled in the James River Valley in a short - lived reservation before being forced to move to Crow Creek Reservation on the east bank of the Missouri. A few joined the Yanktonai and moved further west to join with the Lakota bands to continue their struggle against the United States military.
Others were able to remain in Minnesota and the east, in small reservations existing into the 21st century, including Sisseton - Wahpeton, Flandreau, and Devils Lake (Spirit Lake or Fort Totten) Reservations in the Dakotas. Some ended up in Nebraska, where the Santee Sioux Reservation today has a reservation on the south bank of the Missouri.
Those who fled to Canada now have descendants residing on nine small Dakota Reserves, five of which are located in Manitoba (Sioux Valley, Long Plain, Dakota Tipi, Birdtail Creek, and Oak Lake (Pipestone)) and the remaining four (Standing Buffalo, Moose Woods (White Cap), Round Plain (Wahpeton), and Wood Mountain) in Saskatchewan.
Red Cloud 's War (also referred to as the Bozeman War) was an armed conflict between the Lakota and the United States Army in the Wyoming Territory and the Montana Territory from 1866 to 1868. The war was fought over control of the Powder River Country in north central Wyoming.
The war is named after Red Cloud, a prominent Sioux chief who led the war against the United States following encroachment into the area by the U.S. military. The war ended with the Treaty of Fort Laramie. The Sioux victory in the war led to their temporarily preserving their control of the Powder River country.
The Great Sioux War of 1876 comprised a series of battles between the Lakota and allied tribes such as the Cheyenne against the United States military. The earliest engagement was the Battle of Powder River, and the final battle was the Wolf Mountain. Included are the Battle of the Rosebud, Battle of the Little Bighorn, Battle of Warbonnet Creek, Battle of Slim Buttes, Battle of Cedar Creek, and the Dull Knife Fight. The Great Sioux War of 1876 -- 77 was also known as the Black Hills War, and was centered on the Lakota tribes of the Sioux, although several natives believe that the primary target of the United States military was the Northern Cheyenne tribe. The series of battles occurred in Montana territory, Dakota territory, and Wyoming territory, and resulted in a victory for the United States military.
The massacre at Wounded Knee Creek was the last major armed conflict between the Lakota and the United States. It was described as a "massacre '' by General Nelson A. Miles in a letter to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs.
On December 29, 1890, five hundred troops of the 7th Cavalry Regiment, supported by four Hotchkiss guns (a lightweight artillery piece capable of rapid fire), surrounded an encampment of the Lakota bands of the Miniconjou and Hunkpapa with orders to escort them to the railroad for transport to Omaha, Nebraska.
By the time it was over, 25 troopers and more than 150 Lakota Sioux lay dead, including men, women, and children. It remains unknown which side was responsible for the first shot; some of the soldiers are believed to have been the victims of "friendly fire '' because the shooting took place at point - blank range in chaotic conditions. Around 150 Lakota are believed to have fled the chaos, many of whom may have died from hypothermia.
In the late 19th century, railroads wanted to build tracks through Indian lands. The railroad companies hired hunters to exterminate the bison herds, the Plains Indians ' primary food supply. The Dakota and Lakota were forced to accept US - defined reservations in exchange for the rest of their lands and farming and ranching of domestic cattle, as opposed to a nomadic, hunting economy. During the first years of the Reservation Era, the Sioux people depended upon annual federal payments guaranteed by treaty for survival.
In Minnesota, the treaties of Traverse des Sioux and Mendota in 1851 left the Dakota with a reservation 20 miles (32 km) wide on each side of the Minnesota River.
Today, half of all enrolled Sioux in the United States live off reservation. Enrolled members in any of the Sioux tribes in the United States are required to have ancestry that is at least 1 / 4 degree Sioux (the equivalent to one grandparent).
In Canada, the Canadian government recognizes the tribal community as First Nations. The land holdings of these First Nations are called Indian reserves.
The Wounded Knee incident began February 27, 1973 when the town of Wounded Knee, South Dakota was seized by followers of the American Indian Movement. The occupiers controlled the town for 71 days while various state and federal law enforcement agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the United States Marshals Service laid siege. Two members of A.I.M. were killed by gunfire during the incident.
The Lakota Freedom Delegation, a group of controversial Native American activists, declared on December 19, 2007 the Lakota were withdrawing from all treaties signed with the United States to regain sovereignty over their nation. One of the activists, Russell Means, claimed that the action is legal and cites natural, international and US law. The group considers Lakota to be a sovereign nation, although as yet the state is generally unrecognized. The proposed borders reclaim thousands of square kilometres of North and South Dakota, Wyoming, Nebraska and Montana.
The Lakota made national news when NPR 's "Lost Children, Shattered Families investigative story aired. It exposed what many critics consider to be the "kidnapping '' of Lakota children from their homes by the state of South Dakota 's Department of Social Services (D.S.S.). Lakota activists such as Madonna Thunder Hawk and Chase Iron Eyes, along with the People 's Law Project, have alleged that Lakota grandmothers are illegally denied the right to foster their own grandchildren. They are currently working to redirect federal funding away from the state of South Dakota 's D.S.S. to new tribal foster care programs. This would be a historic shift away from the state 's traditional control over Lakota foster children.
In early 2014 a Lakota group launched MazaCoin, a digital currency that is claimed to be the "national currency of the traditional Lakota Nation ''.
In the summer of 2016, Sioux Indians and the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe began a protest against construction of the Dakota Access oil pipeline, also known as the Bakken pipeline, which, if completed, is designed to carry hydrofracked crude oil from the Bakken oil fields of North Dakota to the oil storage and transfer hub of Patoka, Illinois. The pipeline travels only half a mile north of the Standing Rock Sioux reservation and is designed to pass underneath the Missouri River and upstream of the reservation, causing many concerns over the tribe 's drinking water safety, environmental protection, and harmful impacts on culture. The pipeline company claims that the pipeline will provide jobs, reduce American dependence on foreign oil and reduce the price of gas.
The conflict sparked a nationwide debate and much news media coverage. Thousands of indigenous and non-indigenous supporters joined the protest, and several camp sites were set up south of the construction zone. The protest was peaceful, and alcohol, drugs and firearms were not allowed at the campsite or the protest site. On August 23, Standing Rock Sioux Tribe released a list of 87 tribal governments who wrote resolutions, proclamations and letters of support stating their solidarity with Standing Rock and the Sioux people. Since then, many more Native American organizations, environmental groups and civil rights groups have joined the effort in North Dakota, including the Black Lives Matter movement, Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders, the 2016 Green Party presidential candidate Jill Stein and her running mate Ajamu Baraka, and many more. The Washington Post called it a "National movement for Native Americans. ''
The historical political organization was based on individual participation and the cooperation of many to sustain the tribe 's way of life. Leaders were chosen based upon noble birth and demonstrations of chiefly virtues, such as bravery, fortitude, generosity, and wisdom.
The Sioux comprise three closely related language groups:
The earlier linguistic three - way division of the Sioux language identified Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota as dialects of a single language, where Lakota = Teton, Dakota = Santee - Sisseton and Nakota = Yankton - Yanktonai. However, the latest studies show that Yankton - Yanktonai never used the autonym Nakhóta, but pronounced their name roughly the same as the Santee (i.e. Dakȟóta).
These later studies identify Assiniboine and Stoney as two separate languages, with Sioux being the third language. Sioux has three similar dialects: Lakota, Western Dakota (Yankton - Yanktonai) and Eastern Dakota (Santee - Sisseton). Assiniboine and Stoney speakers refer to themselves as Nakhóta or Nakhóda (cf. Nakota).
The term Dakota has also been applied by anthropologists and governmental departments to refer to all Sioux groups, resulting in names such as Teton Dakota, Santee Dakota, etc. This was mainly because of the misrepresented translation of the Ottawa word from which Sioux is derived.
The Sioux maintain many separate tribal governments scattered across several reservations and communities in North America: in the Dakotas, Minnesota, Nebraska, and Montana in the United States; and in Manitoba, southern Saskatchewan and Alberta in Canada.
The earliest known European record of the Sioux identified them in Minnesota, Iowa, and Wisconsin. After the introduction of the horse in the early 18th century, the Sioux dominated larger areas of land -- from present day Central Canada to the Platte River, from Minnesota to the Yellowstone River, including the Powder River country.
The Santee migrated north and westward from the Southeastern United States, first into Ohio, then to Minnesota. Some came up from the Santee River and Lake Marion, area of South Carolina. The Santee River was named after them, and some of their ancestors ' ancient earthwork mounds have survived along the portion of the dammed - up river that forms Lake Marion. In the past, they were a Woodland people who thrived on hunting, fishing and farming.
Migrations of Ojibwe from the east in the 17th and 18th centuries, with muskets supplied by the French and British, pushed the Dakota further into Minnesota and west and southward. The US gave the name "Dakota Territory '' to the northern expanse west of the Mississippi River and up to its headwaters.
The Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ - Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna, also known by the anglicized spelling Yankton (Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ: "End village '') and Yanktonai (Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna: "Little end village '') divisions consist of two bands or two of the seven council fires. According to Nasunatanka and Matononpa in 1880, the Yanktonai are divided into two sub-groups known as the Upper Yanktonai and the Lower Yanktonai (Hunkpatina).
They were involved in quarrying pipestone. The Yankton - Yanktonai moved into northern Minnesota. In the 18th century, they were recorded as living in the Mankato region of Minnesota.
The Sioux likely obtained horses sometime during the seventeenth century (although some historians date the arrival of horses in South Dakota to 1720, and credit the Cheyenne with introducing horse culture to the Lakota). The Teton (Lakota) division of the Sioux emerged as a result of this introduction. Dominating the northern Great Plains with their light cavalry, the western Sioux quickly expanded their territory further to the Rocky Mountains (which they call Heska, "white mountains ''). The Lakota once subsisted on the bison hunt, and on corn. They acquired corn mostly through trade with the eastern Sioux and their linguistic cousins, the Mandan and Hidatsa along the Missouri River. The name Teton or Thítȟuŋwaŋ is archaic among the people, who prefer to call themselves Lakȟóta.
The Sioux are divided into three ethnic groups, the larger of which are divided into sub-groups, and further branched into bands.
Today, many Sioux also live outside their reservations.
Contemporary Sioux people are listed under the tribes to which they belong.
A Manitoba Historical Plaque was erected at the Spruce Woods Provincial Park by the province to commemorate Assiniboin (Nakota) First Nation 's role in Manitoba 's heritage.
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what games are out for the nintendo switch | List of Nintendo Switch Games - wikipedia
This is a list of games for the Nintendo Switch. The Switch supports both physical and digital games. Physical games are sold on cartridges that slot into the Switch Console unit. Digital games are purchased through the Nintendo eShop and stored either in the Switch 's internal 32GB of storage or on a microSDXC card. The Switch does not have any regional lockout features, allowing games from any region to be played without issue. Despite its portable nature, retail games for the Switch usually sell at a standard console MSRP listing price of US $60. Nintendo requires that games that are sold both digitally and at retail be priced the same, creating a "Switch tax '' of typically US $10 for digital titles greater than their cost on other platforms.
See Arcade Archives for a list of the emulated arcade machine game titles from that series that have been released on the Switch.
There are currently 1087 games on the list.
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can you shoot 454 casull in a 460 s&w | . 460 S&W Magnum - wikipedia
The. 460 S&W Magnum round is a powerful revolver cartridge designed for long - range handgun hunting in the Smith & Wesson Model 460 revolver.
The. 460 S&W round is a lengthened, more powerful version of the popular. 454 Casull, itself a longer and more powerful version of the. 45 Colt. For this reason, the. 460 S&W Magnum could be considered an example of a "super magnum ''. Consequently, firearms that fire. 460 S&W are usually capable of firing the less powerful. 454 Casull,. 45 Colt and. 45 Schofield rounds, but this must be verified with each firearm 's manufacturer. For instance, some lever - action firearms are designed to handle cartridges within a certain length and bullet profile range. The reverse, however, does not apply:. 45 Schofield,. 45 Colt and. 454 Casull handguns generally can not safely fire. 460 S&W rounds -- nor can they even chamber the. 460 S&W because of the longer case length. It is also the most versatile big bore revolver being able to fire four standardized cartridges, as well as lesser known rimmed and straightwall cartridges of. 45 caliber that predate the. 45 Colt. The 460 Smith and Wesson Magnum is built to handle both long - range hunting and Dangerous Game hunting and defensive performance.
Smith & Wesson says that the. 460 S&W is the highest velocity revolver cartridge in the world, firing bullets at up to 2,409 feet per second (734 m / s). The. 460 cartridge achieves high velocities by operating at chamber pressures (65,000 psi max) normally reserved for magnum rifle cartridges. The recoil when shooting. 45 Colt ammunition out of the S&W. 460V is comparable to recoil from a weak 9mm or. 380 load, due to the weight of the gun and ported barrel. On the contrary, when loaded with. 460 S&W magnum cartridges utilizing 300 grain bullets, the recoil is more likely to feel like "three times '' that of what a. 44 magnum 's recoil would be. Since firearms chambered in. 460 S&W magnum can also fire cartridges of dissimilar trajectories, such as. 45 Colt, S&W provides an extra additional rear sight with the gun to compensate for bullet drop down range, depending on the user 's load and shooting applications. With Buffalo Bore 's loadings, the. 460 S&W can achieve 2,826 ft lbf (3,832 J) of energy by driving a 300 grain. 452 caliber bullet at 2,060 ft / s (630 m / s) and 2,860 ft lbf (3,880 J) of energy by driving a heavier 360 grain. 452 caliber bullet at 1,900 ft / s (580 m / s). For comparison, Hornady 's 9249 load for the. 500 S&W Magnum cartridge offers a bit more energy at the muzzle, achieving 2,868 ft lbf (3,888 J) by driving a 300 grain (19 g) FTX bullet at 2,075 ft / s (632 m / s). Buffalo Bore 's loading for the. 500 S&W Magnum cartridge offers much less energy at the muzzle, achieving only 2,579 ft lbf (3,497 J) by driving a 440 grain. 500 caliber bullet at 1,625 ft / s (495 m / s).
Big Horn Armory 's Model 90 carbine and rifle are currently the only repeating long guns chambered in this cartridge. The 460 S&W Magnum typically produces an additional 200 - 400 feet per second. This extra velocity flattens the trajectory and increases energy.
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which areas in india are usually threatened by cyclone | List of tropical cyclones that affected India - wikipedia
The list below shows the tropical cyclones that affected India since 1990, sorted into the states their landfall was located in. Depressions and Deep Depressions are not listed.
The 1999 Orissa cyclone is the strongest storm to hit the Indian coast, as well as the strongest in the basin till date, with a minimum central pressure of 912 mbar (26.93 inHg) and Cyclone Nargis is the costliest cyclone with damages almost $ 12.1 billion. The 1970 Bhola Cyclone is the deadliest cyclone with almost 500000 people killed.
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when did the oakland raiders become the los angeles raiders | History of the Los Angeles Raiders - wikipedia
National Football League (1982 -- 1994)
Silver, Black
League championships (1)
Conference championships (1)
Division championships (4)
The professional American football team now known as the Oakland Raiders played in Los Angeles, California from 1982 to 1994 before relocating back to Oakland. This article chronicles the team 's history during their time as the Los Angeles Raiders.
Prior to the 1980 season, Al Davis attempted unsuccessfully to have improvements made to the Oakland -- Alameda County Coliseum, specifically the addition of luxury boxes. That year, he signed a Memorandum of Agreement to move the Raiders from Oakland to Los Angeles. The move, which required three - fourths approval by league owners, was defeated 22 -- 0 (with five owners abstaining). When Davis tried to move the team anyway, he was blocked by an injunction. In response, the Raiders not only became an active partner in an antitrust lawsuit filed by the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum (who had recently lost the Los Angeles Rams), but filed an antitrust lawsuit of their own. After the first case was declared a mistrial, in May 1982 a second jury found in favor of Davis and the Los Angeles Coliseum, clearing the way for the move. With the ruling, the Raiders finally relocated to Los Angeles for the 1982 season to play their home games at the Los Angeles Coliseum.
The team finished 8 -- 1 in the strike - shortened 1982 season, first in the AFC, but lost in the second round of the playoffs to the New York Jets. The following season, the team finished 12 -- 4 and won convincingly against the Steelers and Seattle Seahawks in the AFC playoffs. Against the Washington Redskins in Super Bowl XVIII, the Raiders built a 21 -- 3 halftime lead en route to a 38 -- 9 victory and their third NFL championship. The team had another successful regular season in 1984, finishing 11 -- 5, but a three - game losing streak forced them to enter the playoffs as a wildcard, where they fell to the Seahawks. The 1985 campaign saw 12 wins and a division title, but that was followed by an embarrassing home loss to the Patriots.
The Raiders ' fortunes declined after that, and from 1986 through 1989, the team finished no better than 8 -- 8 and posted consecutive losing seasons for the first time since 1961 -- 62. Also 1986 saw Al Davis get into a widely publicized argument with RB Marcus Allen, whom he accused of faking injuries. The feud continued into 1987, and Davis retaliating by signing Bo Jackson in Allen 's place. However, Jackson was also a left fielder for the Kansas City Royals, and could not play full - time until baseball season ended in October. Even worse, another strike cost the NFL one game and prompted them to use substitute players. The Raiders fill - ins achieved a 1 -- 2 record before the regular team returned. After a weak 5 -- 10 finish, Tom Flores moved to the front office and was replaced by Denver Broncos offensive assistant coach Mike Shanahan. Shanahan led the team to a 7 -- 9 season in 1988, and Allen and Jackson continued to trade places as the starting RB. Low game attendance and fan apathy were evident by this point, and In the summer of 1988, rumors of a Raiders return to Oakland intensified when a preseason game against the Houston Oilers was scheduled at Oakland Coliseum.
As early as 1986, Davis began to seek a new, more modern stadium away from the Coliseum and the dangerous neighborhood that surrounded it at the time (which caused the NFL to schedule the Raiders ' Monday Night Football appearances as away games). In addition to sharing the venue with the USC Trojans, the Coliseum was aging and still lacked the luxury suites and other amenities that Davis was promised when he moved the Raiders to Los Angeles. Finally, the Coliseum had 100,000 seats and was rarely able to fill all of them, and so most Raiders home games were blacked out on television. In August 1987, it was announced that the city of Irwindale paid Davis $10 million as a good - faith deposit for a prospective stadium site. When the bid failed, Davis kept the non-refundable deposit.
Negotiations between Davis and Oakland commenced in January 1989, and on March 11, 1990, Davis announced his intention to bring the Raiders back to Oakland. By September 1990, however, numerous delays had prevented the completion of the deal between Davis and Oakland. On September 11, Davis announced a new deal to stay in Los Angeles, leading many fans in Oakland to burn Raiders paraphernalia in disgust.
After starting the 1989 season with a 1 -- 3 record, Shanahan was fired by Davis, which began a long - standing feud between the two. He was replaced by former Raider offensive lineman Art Shell, who had been voted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame earlier in the year. With the hiring, Shell became the first African American head coach in the modern NFL era, but the team still finished a middling 8 -- 8. In 1990, Shell led Los Angeles to a 12 -- 4 record. They beat the Bengals in the divisional round of the playoffs, but Bo Jackson had his left femur ripped from the socket after a tackle. Without him, the Raiders were crushed in the AFC Championship by the Buffalo Bills. Jackson was forced to quit football as a result, although surgery allowed him to continue playing baseball until he retired in 1994.
The team 's fortunes faded after the loss. They made two other playoff appearances during the 1990s, and finished higher than third place only three times. The Todd Marinovich fiasco overshadowed the Raiders ' 1991 and 1992 efforts. Marinovich was groomed from childhood to play football; his strict upbringing led to him being called "Robo QB '' in the sports press. He attended USC and was the 24th overall pick in the 1991 draft. However, he struggled on field and was cut after the 1992 season due to repeated substance abuse problems. In 1991, they got into the postseason as a wild card after a 9 -- 7 regular season, but fell to Kansas City. 1992 saw them drop to 7 -- 9. This period was marked by the injury of Jackson in 1991, the failure of troubled quarterback Todd Marinovich, the acrimonious departure of Marcus Allen in 1993, and the retirement of Hall of Fame defensive end Howie Long after the 1993 season, where the Raiders went 10 -- 6 and lost to Buffalo in the divisional round of the playoffs. Shell was fired after posting a 9 -- 7 record in the 1994 season.
Shell 's five - plus - year tenure as head coach in Los Angeles was marked particularly by a bitter dispute between star running back Marcus Allen and Al Davis. The exact source of the friction is completely unknown but a contract dispute led Davis to refer to Allen as "a cancer on the team. '' By the late 1980s, injuries began to reduce Allen 's role in the offense. This role was reduced further in 1987, when the Raiders drafted Bo Jackson -- even though he originally decided to not play professional football in 1986 (when drafted by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in the first round). By 1990, Allen had dropped to fourth on the team 's depth chart, leading to resentment on the part of his teammates. In late 1992 Allen lashed out publicly at Davis, and accused him of trying to ruin his career. In 1993, Allen left to play for the rival Kansas City Chiefs.
In May 1995 after the departure of the Rams ' for St. Louis, the owners of the National Football League teams approved with a 27 -- 1 vote with two abstentions, a resolution supporting a plan to build a $200 million, privately financed stadium on property owned by Hollywood Park in Inglewood for the Raiders. Al Davis balked and refused the deal over a stipulation that he would have to accept a second team at the stadium.
On June 23, 1995, Davis signed a letter of intent to move the Raiders back to Oakland. The move was approved by the Alameda County Board of Supervisors the next month, as well as by the NFL. The move was greeted with much fanfare, and under new head coach Mike White. Hollywood Park would later become the site of an NFL Stadium for their former rivals, the Los Angeles Rams, set to open in 2020.
On February 19, 2015, the Raiders and the Chargers announced that they would build a privately financed $1.78 billion stadium in Carson, California if they were to move to the Los Angeles market. Both teams stated that they would continue to attempt to get stadiums built in their respective cities.
On April 22, 2015, the Carson City Council bypassed the option to put the stadium to public vote and approved the plan 3 -- 0. The council voted without having clarified several issues, including who would finance the stadium, how the required three - way land swap would be performed, and how it would raise enough revenue if only one team moved in as tenant.
On May 19, 2015, the Chargers and Raiders announced that they had finalized a deal to secure land in Carson which was transferred to a joint powers authority in Carson after the 157 - acre site was purchased by Carson Holdings a company set up by the two teams.
The League was skeptical of the site and seemed to prefer the Rams ' stadium plan on a site at Hollywood Park in Inglewood, the same place rejected by the Raiders in 1995. In response, Jerry Richardson, owner of the Carolina Panthers, who supported the plan, convinced Dean Spanos to recruit Bob Iger, CEO of The Walt Disney Company. Iger was appointed non-executive chairman of the Carson stadium project.
On January 4, 2016, the Raiders filed for relocation alongside the Chargers and Rams.
Despite the sales pitch from Bob Iger, many owners held reservations about the Carson site, with Jerry Jones even making a wise crack about Bob Iger. The Committee set up by the league initially recommended the Carson Site, but the Chargers and Raiders were unable to secure the votes they needed to move. After hours of debate, the league voted to allow the St. Louis Rams to move on January 12, 2016 with the San Diego Chargers having the option to join them within a year.
It was still possible, however, for the Raiders to move as they could have moved into the Rams ' new stadium in Inglewood with the Rams if the Chargers opted to stay in San Diego. On January 12, 2017 the Chargers opted to join the Rams in Los Angeles thereby closing the door on the return of the Raiders to the city although with an AFC West rival playing in Los Angeles, the Raiders get at least one game in Los Angeles each season playing the Los Angeles Chargers.
The Raiders time in Los Angeles had a large cultural impact on both the Raiders and Los Angeles. During and due to the time that the Raiders were in L.A. there was an explosion of popularity in both the team and the Raiders brand due to being in America 's second largest media market, the team 's early success and the exposure the brand got by way of Hollywood celebrities and most notably the gangsta rap group N.W.A. wearing Raider gear. This period is chronicled by the ESPN 30 for 30 documentary Straight Outta L.A.. This period is also considered by many to have been the beginnings of Raider Nation.
Today Los Angeles and Southern California continue to have a vary large number of Raider fans. Many after the Raiders left LA began to travel to Oakland to see the Raiders play. The Southern California fans are considered essential to the Raiders approved and planned relocation to Las Vegas being successful.
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which of the following is an example of both heterozygous advantage and balanced polymorphism | Heterozygote advantage - wikipedia
A heterozygote advantage describes the case in which the heterozygous genotype has a higher relative fitness than either the homozygous dominant or homozygous recessive genotype. The specific case of heterozygote advantage due to a single locus is known as overdominance. In more general terms, overdominance is a condition in genetics where the phenotype of the heterozygote lies outside of the phenotypical range of both homozygote parents, and heterozygous individuals have a higher fitness than homozygous individuals.
Polymorphism can be maintained by selection favoring the heterozygote, and this mechanism is used to explain the occurrence of some kinds of genetic variability. A common example is the case where the heterozygote conveys both advantages and disadvantages, while both homozygotes convey a disadvantage. A well - established case of heterozygote advantage is that of the gene involved in sickle cell anaemia.
Often, the advantages and disadvantages conveyed are rather complicated, because more than one gene may influence a given trait or morph. Major genes almost always have multiple effects (pleiotropism), which can simultaneously convey separate advantageous traits and disadvantageous traits upon the same organism. In this instance, the state of the organism 's environment will provide selection, with a net effect either favoring or working in opposition to the gene, until an environmentally determined equilibrium is reached.
Heterozygote advantage is a major underlying mechanism for heterosis, or "hybrid vigor '', which is the improved or increased function of any biological quality in a hybrid offspring. Previous research, comparing measures of dominance, overdominance and epistasis (mostly in plants), found that the majority of cases of heterozygote advantage were due to complementation (or dominance), the masking of deleterious recessive alleles by wild - type alleles, as discussed in the articles Heterosis and Complementation (genetics), but there were also findings of overdominance, especially in rice. More recent research, however, has established that there is also an epigenetic contribution to heterozygote advantage, primarily as determined in plants, though also reported in mice.
When two populations of any sexual organism are separated and kept isolated from each other, the frequencies of deleterious mutations in the two populations will differ over time, by genetic drift. It is highly unlikely, however, that the same deleterious mutations will be common in both populations after a long period of separation. Since loss - of - function mutations tend to be recessive (given that dominant mutations of this type generally prevent the organism from reproducing and thereby passing the gene on to the next generation), the result of any cross between the two populations will be fitter than the parent.
This article deals with the specific case of fitness overdominance, where the fitness advantage of the cross is caused by being heterozygous at one specific locus alone.
Cases of heterozygote advantage have been demonstrated in several organisms, including humans. The first experimental confirmation of heterozygote advantage was with Drosophila melanogaster, a fruit fly that has been a model organism for genetic research. In a classic study, Kalmus demonstrated how polymorphism can persist in a population through heterozygote advantage.
If weakness were the only effect of the mutant allele, so it conveyed only disadvantages, natural selection would weed out this version of the gene until it became extinct from the population. However, the same mutation also conveyed advantages, providing improved viability for heterozygous individuals. The heterozygote expressed none of the disadvantages of homozygotes, yet gained improved viability. The homozygote wild type was perfectly healthy, but did not possess the improved viability of the heterozygote, and was thus at a disadvantage compared to the heterozygote in survival and reproduction.
This mutation, which at first glance appeared to be harmful, conferred enough of an advantage to heterozygotes to make it beneficial, so that it remained at dynamic equilibrium in the gene pool. Kalmus introduced flies with the ebony mutation to a wild - type population. The ebony allele persisted through many generations of flies in the study, at genotype frequencies that varied from 8 % to 30 %. In experimental populations, the ebony allele was more prevalent and therefore advantageous when flies were raised at low, dry temperatures, but less so in warm, moist environments.
Sickle - cell anemia (SCA) is a genetic disorder caused by the presence of two incompletely recessive alleles. When a sufferer 's red blood cells are exposed to low - oxygen conditions, the cells lose their healthy round shape and become sickle - shaped. This deformation of the cells can cause them to become lodged in capillaries, depriving other parts of the body of sufficient oxygen. When untreated, a person with SCA may suffer from painful periodic bouts, often causing damage to internal organs, strokes, or anemia. Typically, the disease results in premature death.
Because the genetic disorder is incompletely recessive, a person with only one SCA allele and one unaffected allele will have a "mixed '' phenotype: The sufferer will not experience the ill effects of the disease, yet will still possess a sickle cell trait, whereby some of the red blood cells undergo benign effects of SCA, but nothing severe enough to be harmful. Those afflicted with sickle - cell trait are also known as carriers: If two carriers have a child, there is a 25 % chance their child will have SCA, a 50 % chance their child will be a carrier, and a 25 % chance that the child will neither have SCA nor be a carrier. Were the presence of the SCA allele to confer only negative traits, its allele frequency would be expected to decrease generation after generation, until its presence were completely eliminated by selection and by chance.
However, convincing evidence indicates, in areas with persistent malaria outbreaks, individuals with the heterozygous state have a distinct advantage (and this is why individuals with heterozygous alleles are far more common in these areas). Those with the benign sickle trait possess a resistance to malarial infection. The pathogen that causes the disease spends part of its cycle in the red blood cells and triggers an abnormal drop in oxygen levels in the cell. In carriers, this drop is sufficient to trigger the full sickle - cell reaction, which leads to infected cells being rapidly removed from circulation and strongly limiting the infection 's progress. These individuals have a great resistance to infection and have a greater chance of surviving outbreaks. However, those with two alleles for SCA may survive malaria, but will typically die from their genetic disease unless they have access to advanced medical care. Those of the homozygous "normal '' or wild - type case will have a greater chance of passing on their genes successfully, in that there is no chance of their offspring 's suffering from SCA; yet, they are more susceptible to dying from malarial infection before they have a chance to pass on their genes.
This resistance to infection is the main reason the SCA allele and SCA disease still exist. It is found in greatest frequency in populations where malaria was and often still is a serious problem. Approximately one in 10 African Americans is a carrier, as their recent ancestry is from malaria - stricken regions. Other populations in Africa, India, the Mediterranean and the Middle East have higher allele frequencies, as well. As effective antimalarial treatment becomes increasingly available to malaria - stricken populations, the allele frequency for SCA is expected to decrease, so long as SCA treatments are unavailable or only partially effective. If effective sickle - cell anemia treatments become available to the same degree, allele frequencies should remain at their present levels in these populations. In this context, ' treatment effectiveness ' refers to the reproductive fitness it grants, rather than the degree of suffering alleviation.
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an autosomal recessive hereditary monogenic disease of the lungs, sweat glands and digestive system. The disorder is caused by the malfunction of the CFTR protein, which controls inter membrane transport of chloride ions, which is vital to maintaining equilibrium of water in the body. The malfunctioning protein causes viscous mucus to form in the lungs and intestinal tract. Before modern times, children born with CF would have a life expectancy of only a few years, but modern medicine has made it possible for these people to live into adulthood. However, even in these individuals, CF typically causes male infertility. It is the most common genetic disease among people of European descent.
The presence of a single CF mutation may influence survival of people affected by diseases involving loss of body fluid, typically due to diarrhea. The most common of these maladies is cholera, which only began killing Europeans millennia after the CF mutation frequency was already established in the population. Another such disease that CF may protect against is typhoid. Those with cholera would often die of dehydration due to intestinal water losses. A mouse model of CF was used to study resistance to cholera, and the results were published in Science in 1994 (Gabriel, et al.). The heterozygote (carrier) mouse had less secretory diarrhea than normal, noncarrier mice. Thus, it appeared for a time that resistance to cholera explained the selective advantage to being a carrier for CF and why the carrier state was so frequent.
This theory has been called into question. Hogenauer, et al. have challenged this popular theory with a human study. Prior data were based solely on mouse experiments. These authors found the heterozygote state was indistinguishable from the noncarrier state.
Another theory for the prevalence of the CF mutation is that it provides resistance to tuberculosis. Tuberculosis was responsible for 20 % of all European deaths between 1600 and 1900, so even partial protection against the disease could account for the current gene frequency.
The most recent hypothesis, published in the Journal of Theoretical Biology, proposed having a single CF mutation granted respiratory advantage for early Europeans migrating north into the dusty wasteland left by the Last Glacial Maximum.
As of 2016, the selective pressure for the high gene prevalence of CF mutations is still uncertain, and may be due to an unbiased genetic drift rather than a selective advantage. Approximately one in 25 persons of European descent is a carrier of the disease, and one in 2500 to 3000 children born is affected by Cystic fibrosis.
Triosephosphate isomerase (TPI) is a central enzyme of glycolysis, the main pathway for cells to obtain energy by metabolizing sugars. In humans, certain mutations within this enzyme, which affect the dimerisation of this protein, are causal for a rare disease, triosephosphate isomerase deficiency. Other mutations, which inactivate the enzyme (= null alleles) are lethal when inherited homozygously (two defective copies of the TPI gene), but have no obvious effect in heterozygotes (one defective and one normal copy). However, the frequency of heterozygous null alleles is much higher than expected, indicating a heterozygous advantage for TPI null alleles. The reason is unknown; however, new scientific results are suggesting cells having reduced TPI activity are more resistant against oxidative stress. PlosOne, Dec. 2006
There is evidence that genetic heterozygosity in humans provides increased resistance to certain viral infections. A significantly lower proportion of HLA - DRB1 heterozygosity exists among HCV - infected cases than uninfected cases. The differences were more pronounced with alleles represented as functional supertypes (P = 1.05 x 10) than those represented as low - resolution genotypes (P = 1.99 x 10). These findings constitute evidence that heterozygosity provides an advantage among carriers of different supertype HLA - DRB1 alleles against HCV infection progression to end - stage liver disease in a large - scale, long - term study population.
Multiple studies have shown, in double - blind experiments, females prefer the scent of males who are heterozygous at all three MHC loci. The reasons proposed for these findings are speculative; however, it has been argued that heterozygosity at MHC loci results in more alleles to fight against a wider variety of diseases, possibly increasing survival rates against a wider range of infectious diseases. The latter claim has been tested in an experiment, which showed outbreeding mice to exhibit MHC heterozygosity enhanced their health and survival rates against multiple - strain infections.
B - cell activating factor (BAFF) is a cytokine encoded by the TNFSF13B gene. A variant of the gene containing a deletion (GCTGT -- > A) renders a shorter mRNA transcript that escapes degradation by microRNA, thus increasing expression of BAFF, which consequently up - regulates the humoral immune response. This variant is associated with systemic lupus erythematosus and multiple sclerosis, but heterozygote carriers of the variant have decreased susceptibility to malaria infection
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how long is the nba draft on tv | 2018 NBA draft - wikipedia
The 2018 NBA draft was held on June 21, 2018, at Barclays Center in Brooklyn, New York. National Basketball Association (NBA) teams took turns selecting amateur United States college basketball players and other eligible players, including international players. It was televised nationally by ESPN. This draft was the last to use the original weighted lottery system that gives teams near the bottom of the NBA draft better odds at the top three picks of the draft while teams higher up had worse odds in the process; the rule was agreed upon by the NBA on September 28, 2017, but would not be implemented until the 2019 draft. With the last year of what was, at the time, the most recent lottery system (with the NBA draft lottery being held in Chicago instead of in New York), the Phoenix Suns won the first overall pick on May 15, 2018, with the Sacramento Kings at the second overall pick and the Atlanta Hawks at third overall pick. The Suns ' selection is their first No. 1 overall selection in franchise history. They would use that selection on the Bahamian center DeAndre Ayton from the nearby University of Arizona.
This draft was also notable for its lack of draft - day trades involving NBA veterans. An average of more than five veterans per year were traded on the day of the last three drafts, but this draft was the first since 2003 in which no such trades were announced.
The invitation - only NBA Draft Combine was held in Chicago from May 16 to 20. The on - court element of the combine took place on May 18 and 19. A total of 69 players were invited for the NBA Draft Combine, with two top talents in Deandre Ayton and Luka Dončić declining invitations for the event this year, with the latter player being involved with the 2018 EuroLeague Final Four at the time. Both mystery man Mitchell Robinson and Chandler Hutchison would remove themselves from the event at the last minute, although two other players would enter the event instead of them, leaving the proper number of official participants at 69. At the end of the draft deadline for international players, 12 players that entered the NBA Draft Combine that year ultimately withdrew from the NBA Draft, with 11 players returning to college and Brian Bowen planning on playing professionally before trying another NBA Draft instead.
The NBA draft lottery took place during the playoffs on May 15, 2018. This year will be the last time it uses what was originally the updated system for the NBA draft lottery to upgrade draft odds for teams in the lower regions of the NBA. Starting in 2019 onward, the newer updated draft lottery will give the bottom 3 teams equal odds for the No. 1 pick, while some of the teams higher up the NBA draft would get an increased chance for a top - four pick instead of a top - three pick like in this year, thus hoping to discourage teams from potentially losing games on purpose for higher draft picks (and potentially better talent in the process). There were also two tiebreakers involved for lottery odds this season; the first involved the Dallas Mavericks having one more result favoring them having the No. 1 pick over Atlanta after splitting the odds together, while the second tiebreaker had the Chicago Bulls splitting odds with the Sacramento Kings, resulting in the Bulls having slightly better odds on their end in the process. Funnily enough, both of the teams mentioned that lost the tiebreakers would wind up being in the Top 3 at the end of the NBA draft lottery. Furthermore, the Hawks would trade their Top 3 selection to Dallas for their selection in the draft instead.
^ 1: The Brooklyn Nets ' pick was automatically conveyed to the Cleveland Cavaliers this year. ^ 2: The Los Angeles Lakers ' pick was conveyed to the Philadelphia 76ers since the pick turned unprotected for them this year and was n't in the Nos. 2 - 5 range. ^ 3: The Detroit Pistons ' pick was conveyed to the Los Angeles Clippers since it was outside the top 4.
The draft is conducted under the eligibility rules established in the league 's 2017 collective bargaining agreement (CBA) with its player 's union. The previous CBA that ended the 2011 lockout instituted no immediate changes to the draft, but called for a committee of owners and players to discuss future changes.
The NBA has since expanded the draft combine to include players with remaining college eligibility (who, like players without college eligibility, can only attend by invitation).
Players who are not automatically eligible have to declare their eligibility for the draft by notifying the NBA offices in writing no later than 60 days before the draft. For the 2018 draft, the date fell on April 22. After that date, "early entry '' players are able to attend NBA pre-draft camps and individual team workouts to show off their skills and obtain feedback regarding their draft positions. Under the CBA a player may withdraw his name from consideration from the draft at any time before the final declaration date, which is 10 days before the draft. Under current NCAA rules, players had until May 30 (10 days after the draft combine) to withdraw from the draft and retain college eligibility.
A player who has hired an agent forfeits his remaining college eligibility regardless of whether he is drafted.
A record - high 236 underclassed draft prospects (i.e., players with remaining college eligibility) had declared by the April 22 deadline, with 181 of these players being from college. The names listed here mean they have hired an agent, or have announced that they plan to do so before the night of the draft. At the end of the deadline, 77 players declared their intentions to enter the draft with an agent (with one player announcing his entry after the deadline) while 100 players announced their return to college for at least one more season. Meanwhile, Matur Maker, Brian Bowen, Micah Seaborn and Tavarius Shine did not enter the draft after letting their deadlines to retain college eligibility expire. These players instead decided to enter in 2019 via either the NBA G League or another professional league.
International players that had declared this year and did not previously declare in another prior year can drop out of the draft about 10 days before the draft begins on June 11. Initially, there were 55 players who originally expressed interest in entering the 2018 draft, one of which was a player who came directly out of high school from Canada. However, by the end of the deadline, 43 of those players (including the aforementioned Canadian high schooler) would ultimately pull their names out of the draft, leaving only 11 true international players entering the NBA Draft this year (the NBA link mentions LiAngelo Ball as an international player in the loosest sense of the word, but not Billy Preston there). Combining both the amount of players listed previously and both LiAngelo Ball and Billy Preston as now automatically eligible underclassmen under unique situations, the total amount of underclassmen rounds out to 90 overall players.
Players who do not meet the criteria for "international '' players are automatically eligible if they meet any of the following criteria:
Players who meet the criteria for "international '' players are automatically eligible if they meet any of the following criteria:
Prior to the day of the draft, the following trades were made and resulted in exchanges of draft picks between the teams below.
Draft - day trades occurred on June 21, 2018, the day of the draft.
The NBA annually invites around 15 -- 20 players to sit in the so - called "green room '', a special room set aside at the draft site for the invited players plus their families and agents. When their names are called, the player leaves the room and goes up on stage. Other players who are not invited are allowed to attend the ceremony. They sit in the stands with the fans and walk up on stage when (or if) they are drafted. On June 15, 2018, 19 total players were announced as invites for the NBA Draft that year (all of whom coming out of college this year), while potential top 3 pick Luka Dončić was initially not invited to the event due to the Liga ACB Finals potentially extending through the draft. On June 19th, ESPN reported that Dončić would attend the draft after all, following Real Madrid 's championship victory the previous night. The following players (listed alphabetically) have been confirmed as invites for the event this year:
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who got relegated from the premier league this year | 2017 -- 18 Premier League - wikipedia
The 2017 -- 18 Premier League was the 26th season of the Premier League, the top English professional league for association football clubs, since its establishment in 1992. The season started on 11 August 2017 and concluded on 13 May 2018. Fixtures for the 2017 -- 18 season were announced on 14 June 2017. Chelsea were the defending champions, while Newcastle United, Brighton & Hove Albion and Huddersfield Town entered as the promoted teams from the 2016 -- 17 EFL Championship.
Manchester City won their third Premier League title, and fifth English top - flight title overall, with five games to spare. The team broke numerous Premier League records over the course of the season, including: most points (100), most wins (32), most away wins (16), most goals (106), most consecutive league wins (18), highest goal difference (+ 79), most passes in a game (903), fewest minutes behind in matches (153 minutes) and biggest winning points margin (19). All three promoted clubs avoided relegation for the first time since the 2011 -- 12 campaign, and for only the third time in Premier League history.
From this season on, club strips can feature sleeve sponsorship, whereby sponsors ' logos will appear on the left sleeve of the strip in lieu of the Premier League patch.
From this season on, a three - man panel consisting of a former player, a former manager and a former match official will independently review video evidence on the Monday after games. Any player whom the three - man panel unanimously decide has caused an opponent to be sent off or has won a penalty as a result of deceiving the referee by simulation will be charged by the Football Association with "Successful Deception of a Match Official '' which carries a penalty of suspension for two matches. Everton striker Oumar Niasse became the first Premier League player to be punished under the new rule.
Manchester City were confirmed as Premier League champions following Manchester United 's 0 -- 1 defeat at home to West Bromwich Albion in the 33rd round. Manchester City had started the Premier League season with an away win over Brighton & Hove Albion in August. After a draw against Everton, Manchester City won eighteen games in a row. During this time they secured first position and held it for the remainder of the season. On 7 April, Manchester City lost to Manchester United in the local derby, in which a win would have secured their position as champions. The following week, Manchester United lost to bottom club West Bromwich Albion, and Manchester City defeated Tottenham. These results ensured Manchester City held an unassailable lead with five games left.
Defending champions Chelsea started the season badly, losing their opening game to Burnley 2 -- 3; a win at one of the title favourites, Tottenham, in their second game seemed to get their defence back on track, but results in September, including losing 0 -- 1 to Manchester City, left them six points behind the leaders in fourth place. They failed to show the consistency of the previous season, and finished in fifth place. Manchester United started the season strongly winning their first three games without conceding a goal and led the table until mid-September. However, following convincing wins against Liverpool (5 -- 0), Watford (6 -- 0) and Crystal Palace (5 -- 0), Manchester City went top of the league in September and remained there for the rest of the season. During the campaign Manchester City broke and set several new club and English football records. They established national records in consecutive away (11) and overall (20) victories in all competitions; set a new English record for consecutive league wins (18); equalled the Premier League record for consecutive away league wins (11) and set club records by achieving 28 consecutive games unbeaten in all competitions; 30 consecutive games unbeaten in the league; 20 consecutive home wins in all competitions; and winning 14 away games in a season. They won their fifth English league title, and completed their second league and League Cup double in four years.
Arsenal had a poor season, finishing sixth overall. Long - serving manager Arsène Wenger announced his departure from the club on 20 April 2018. Their final home game was an emphatic 5 -- 0 defeat of Burnley which guaranteed qualification to the group stage of the Europa League.
Despite the defeat, Burnley finished in seventh place, their best finish in English football since 1973 -- 74. This meant they would be entered into the second qualifying round of the Europa League, their first competitive European football campaign in 50 years. Their strong finish led to manager Sean Dyche and defender James Tarkowski being nominated for the Premier League Manager of the Season and Premier League Player of the Season awards respectively.
Stoke City were the first team to be relegated to the EFL Championship when they lost 1 -- 2 to Crystal Palace in their penultimate game. Although Stoke were only three points from safety with one game remaining, fellow strugglers Swansea and Southampton still had to play each other, meaning that Stoke would be unable to catch both of those teams and finish fourth from bottom. The game between Swansea and Southampton ended in a 1 -- 0 away win for Southampton, which also meant that despite a five game unbeaten run, West Bromwich Albion became the second team to be relegated to the Championship on 8 May 2018. Following their 1 -- 2 defeat at the hands of Stoke on the final matchday, Swansea City were also relegated.
Twenty teams competed in the league -- the top seventeen teams from the previous season and the three teams promoted from the Championship. The promoted teams were Brighton & Hove Albion, Newcastle United and play - off winners Huddersfield Town, who replaced Sunderland, Middlesbrough and Hull City.
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what time can you buy beer on sunday in ny | Alcohol laws of New York - wikipedia
The alcohol laws of New York are among the most lenient of any state in the Atlantic Northeast of the United States, but they remain considerably more restrictive than those of Louisiana, Missouri (see alcohol laws of Missouri), Nevada, Illinois, New Mexico, and Arizona.
The New York State Liquor Authority (NYSLA) and its agency arm, the Division of Alcoholic Beverage Control (DABC), were established under New York State Law in 1934 to "regulate and control the manufacture and distribution within the state of alcoholic beverages for the purpose of fostering and promoting temperance in their consumption and respect for and obedience to law. '' The SLA is also authorized by statute to "determine whether public convenience and advantage will be promoted by the issuance of licenses to traffic in alcoholic beverages... and to carry out the increase or decrease in the number thereof and the location of premises licensed... in the public interest. ''
In New York, for the purposes of state law, there are only four hours out of each day of the week (with the exception of Sunday) in which alcohol may not be served: 4: 00 a.m. to 8: 00 a.m. This was designed to accommodate New York City nightlife as well as late night workers statewide in general. Some upstate areas such as Buffalo, Albany, and Saratoga Springs retain the 4am closing time although individual counties are free to set an earlier "last call. '' In Binghamton, this is at 3: 00 a.m.; in Syracuse, Plattsburgh, Oneonta, and Rochester, bars close at 2: 00 a.m.; and Elmira, Geneva, and Ithaca, have some of the earliest closing times in the state at 1 a.m. For a complete list of closing hours by county, see http://www.sla.ny.gov/provisions-for-county-closing-hours.
The SLA does not permit establishments to allow patrons to "B.Y.O.B. '' if the establishment does not have a license or permit to sell alcoholic beverages. The only exception to this rule is that establishments with fewer than 20 seats can permit B.Y.O.B. However, the SLA does not have authority to take any direct action against an establishment that is not licensed with the SLA, unless the establishment is then or will be in the future applying for a liquor license.
Research has been conducted into the association between closing times and crime in New York. Counties with later closing times tend to have greater rates of violent crime (except gun violence), but not non-violent crime. This was true even after adjusting for socio - demographic factors.
Only liquor stores may obtain a license to sell liquor for off - premises consumption. Grocery and drug stores may obtain a license to sell beer alone or beer and "wine products '', such as wine coolers (but not wine). Minors visiting a liquor store must be accompanied by an adult at all times; a violation can lead to the owner or manager being charged with second - degree unlawfully dealing with a minor, a Class B misdemeanor.
Until the mid-2000s, sales of beer for off - premises consumption were prohibited statewide before noon on Sundays, a remnant of a royal decree during the Colonial era, and between 3 -- 6 a.m. any day. Changes to the law made in the last years of Governor George Pataki 's administration loosened those restrictions, and now beer sales are only prohibited from 3 -- 8 a.m. Sundays. Counties are free to adjust those hours in either direction, all the way to midnight and noon, and allow 24 - hour beer sales on other days of the week.
The law also changed for liquor stores. They may now open on Sundays. (although not before noon) They must still remain closed on Christmas, all day.
A few years after those changes, Governor David Paterson sought to allow supermarkets to sell wine as well. He argued that the increase in excise taxes collected would help the state close its budget deficit. The proposed law aroused so much opposition from liquor store owners that it was never voted on by either house of the New York State Legislature.
A provision unique to New York requires that every license to sell wine or spirits at retail for off - premises consumption be held by a single individual who lives within a few miles of the store and holds no other such licenses in the state. It was intended to prevent any chain liquor stores from doing business in the state, and none have ever done so. However, some proprietors open other stores in the names of their family members while maintaining complete control over the other establishments. Collaboration is n't only limited to families, for example, Premier Group in western New York has three locations each individually owned and operated.
There are no dry counties in New York as they are not allowed to make that decision. However, individual cities and towns may. In the case of towns, the decision would also be binding on any villages within them, or the parts of villages within them. Cities and towns may become totally dry, forbidding any on - or off - premises alcohol sales, or partially dry by forbidding one or the other or applying those prohibitions only to beer or to wine and spirits.
Currently there are 8 dry towns in the state, all in lightly populated rural areas upstate:
Ten towns forbid on - premises consumption but allow off - premises; four allow both only at a hotel open year - round. Seventeen disallow only special on - premises consumption. The town of Spencer in Tioga County allows only off - premises and special on - premises consumption. Williamson, in Wayne County, bans on - premises sale of beer at race tracks, outdoor athletic fields and sports stadia where admission is charged. In all, there are 39 partially dry towns.
In response to the National Minimum Drinking Age Act in 1984, which reduced by up to 10 % the federal highway funding of any state which did not have a minimum purchasing age of 21, the New York Legislature raised the drinking age from 19 to 21, effective December 1, 1985. (The drinking age had been 18 for many years before the first raise on December 4th, 1982, to 19.) Persons under 21 are prohibited from purchasing alcohol or possessing alcohol with the intent to consume, unless the alcohol was given to that person by their parent or legal guardian. There is no law prohibiting where people under 21 may possess or consume alcohol that was given to them by their parents. Persons under 21 are prohibited from having a blood alcohol level of 0.02 % or higher while driving.
Like every other state in the United States, driving under the influence is a crime in New York, and is subject to a great number of regulations outside of the state 's alcohol laws. New York 's maximum blood alcohol level for driving is 0.08 % for persons over the age of 21 and there is a "zero tolerance '' policy for persons under 21. Minors caught with any alcohol in the blood (defined legally as 0.02 % or more, presumably to avoid false positives) are subject to license revocation for 6 months or more. Other penalties for drunken driving include fines, license suspension / revocation, and possible imprisonment, and in some cases the implementation of an ignition interlock device. A lesser charge, driving with ability impaired (DWAI), may apply when a driver 's BAC exceeds 0.05 %.
Research suggests that misdemeanor drunk driving offenses, but not felony drunk driving offenses, are related to county - based closing times for on - premises licensed venues. Requirements for ignition interlock device 's for first - time DWI offending introduced with Leandra 's Law might explain why there was no relationship between alcohol availability and felony drunk driving offenses.
New York State has no law against being intoxicated from alcohol in public, but there is a law prohibiting other substances. Any person found under the influence of a substance other than alcohol in public who is endangering themselves and others is guilty under the New York State Penal Code. This also applies to those found under the influence and bothering others or damaging public or private property.
Drinking in public was outlawed in New York City by Ed Koch in 1979. The law was originally pitched as targeting antisocial derelicts congregating in parks and on sidewalks, with Frederick E. Samuel, one of the measure 's proponents in the New York City Council, stating "We do not recklessly expect the police to give a summons to a Con Ed worker having a beer with his lunch ''. By the end of the year similar laws had spread to municipalities in Westchester County. In March 2016, drinking in public in Manhattan was decriminalized.
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who is the magician in breaking the code | Breaking the magician 's Code: magic 's Biggest Secrets Finally Revealed - wikipedia
Fox, MyNetworkTV
Breaking the Magician 's Code: Magic 's Biggest Secrets Finally Revealed is a series of television shows in which the methods behind magic tricks and illusions are explained. In its original incarnation there were four shows in 1997 - 1998 and a special in 2002 broadcast on the Fox network in the United States, and on Sky and ITV in the United Kingdom. In 2008 - 2009, a new series of thirteen shows was broadcast by MyNetworkTV in the United States and ITV4 in the United Kingdom. On May 1, 2012, reruns of the first season began airing on BIO in the United States.
The first four specials and the full series featured incognito magician Val Valentino as the Masked Magician performing large - scale illusions and a few smaller - scale close up magic tricks before revealing the secrets of the tricks. The Masked Magician was promoted as a well - known magician who wore a mask to avoid recrimination from fellow magicians. He revealed his identity in the fourth episode. His assistants are also left unidentified. They are Michelle Berube, Denise Holland, Jennifer Lee Keyes, and Sybil Azur, in the first special. The fifth special featured a second unidentified Masked Magician, now sporting a silver and purple mask, a long black wig and a black outfit comprising trenchcoat, suit, and boots. His identity remains a mystery to this day and rumours has it, it may not be Valentino reprising this role. The assistants to this magician were Kelly Cooper, Kimi Bateman, Kadee Sweeney, and Noelle Naone..
The setting of the show is an abandoned warehouse set up with an eerie atmosphere in an undisclosed location somewhere in the United States. The show features a memorable soundtrack of ominous music.
The series is made by production company Nash Entertainment. The title alluded to the magician 's code: the promise by working magicians not to reveal the basis of their tricks, or else risk getting blackballed by fellow magicians. Fox returned on May 15, 2002, with Breaking the Magician 's Code: Magic 's Biggest Secrets Finally Revealed 5. A new magician was wearing a new mask with artificial hair, and a purple glistening outfit. It was never revealed who portrayed the magician in this episode.
MyNetworkTV bought thirteen new episodes for broadcast in the U.S. starting in the fall of 2008, with the first episode shown on October 2. They were shot at a secret location somewhere in the U.S. during the summer of 2008. The assistants learned the illusion the same day they shot it and filmed four to six illusions per day. These specials were also shown on TVB Pearl in Hong Kong, with the first episode shown on June 13, 2010. Val Valentino was credited as a producer and Mitch Pileggi returned as narrator, although he did not appear on camera. The show also aired in the UK on ITV4, and in Australia on 7Two with new narration by Grant Denyer. WWE Divas Maria Kanellis and Eve Torres appeared in the first episode as part of a trick.
There is an Australian version of the show that first aired at 7: 30 Monday, June 14, 2010 on Network Seven and has changed to Sundays at 6: 30 on 7Two. This is the same show as the US version with some minor changes. This show also began to air on Australian pay television network Fox8 on Wednesday September 21, 2011. This version is a duplicate of the American version. Since the first run of the series, the shows have been rerun many times on Sundays on Channel 7. The show also had a Portuguese adaptation in the public TV Channel DID, essentially a duplicate of the American version only with a different portuguese narrator
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when did tobacco companies start putting warning labels on cigarettes | History of warning labels in the us - wikipedia
The history of warning labels in the United States began in 1938 when the United States Congress passed a law mandating that food products have a list of ingredients on the label.
In 1966 the Federal government mandated that cigarette packs have a warning on them from the surgeon general. See Tobacco packaging warning messages. Congress voted in 1973 that products containing "toxic substances '' must have labels. In 1985 there was a testimony that wanted record companies to put labels on music that contained sexual or violent lyrics. On March 29, 1990 warning labels were put on music products that contained potentially offensive lyrics; this was done with the agreement of the recording companies. In 1989, alcohol was required to have their surgeon general 's warning.
Several federal agencies are involved in the business of warning - labels, including the Consumer Product Safety Commission, the Food and Drug Administration, and the Federal Bureau of Investigation. FBI warning labels have been appeared since 1975 in rented movies warning people about video piracy.
There are three levels of warning, CAUTION, WARNING and DANGER:
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when did mankind get thrown off the cell | The Undertaker vs. Mankind - wikipedia
The Undertaker vs. Mankind was a professional wrestling match between The Undertaker and Mankind, also known as Mick Foley, of the World Wrestling Federation (WWF), and the third held inside the Hell in a Cell structure (two weeks following the second, which took place on the June 15 episode of Raw is War to promote the pay - per - view 's dual main - event). The match took place at the King of the Ring pay - per - view on June 28, 1998, at the Civic Arena in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It would set the standard for future Hell in a Cell matches. During the bout, Foley received numerous injuries and took two dangerous and highly influential bumps. Journalist Michael Landsberg called it "maybe the most famous match ever. ''
Upon debuting with the WWF in 1996, Mankind immediately began feuding with The Undertaker, debuting the night after WrestleMania XII when Mankind interfered in The Undertaker 's match with Justin Hawk Bradshaw. For the next few months, Mankind ambushed and cost The Undertaker several matches. The feud intensified, and they began taking their battles into crowds, backstage areas, and in the boiler rooms of different arenas. Mankind cost the Undertaker the WWF Intercontinental Championship at In Your House 8: Beware of Dog, assisting champion Goldust to victory. As a result, the first ever Boiler Room Brawl was booked between the two at SummerSlam. During the match, when Undertaker reached for Paul Bearer 's urn, Bearer hit him with it, betraying The Undertaker and allowing Mankind to "incapacitate '' The Undertaker with the Mandible claw, giving him the win. After Bearer 's betrayal, The Undertaker took his rivalry with Mankind to a new level, resulting in a Buried Alive match in the main event of In Your House: Buried Alive. The Undertaker won the match after a chokeslam into the open grave, but after interference from The Executioner, as well as the help of several other superstars, The Undertaker was ultimately "buried alive ''.
After being buried alive, The Undertaker returned at the Survivor Series again pitting him against Mankind, but with a unique stipulation; hanging 20 ft (6.1 m) above the ring was Paul Bearer, enclosed in a steel cage. If Undertaker won the match, he would be able to get his hands on Bearer. Even though The Undertaker won the match, interference from The Executioner enabled Bearer to escape The Undertaker 's clutches. With no manager, Undertaker developed a more humanized incarnation, with a different, gothic and rebelling attitude -- perhaps to better fit him to The Attitude Era, a more adult - oriented programming content period of World Wrestling Federation --, proclaiming himself to be "The Lord of Darkness ''. After The Undertaker attended to other feuds and won the WWF Championship at WrestleMania 13, the feud with Mankind temporarily ended after one more match at In Your House: Revenge of the Taker, won by The Undertaker.
In the following year, The Undertaker would either hold the WWF Championship or be in contention for it while Foley would gradually bring out his "Three Faces of Foley '': Mankind, Dude Love, and his old gimmick from World Championship Wrestling & Extreme Championship Wrestling, Cactus Jack.
On the June 1, 1998, edition of WWF Raw is War, Foley would revert to his Mankind character, who began wearing an untucked shirt with a loose necktie and restarted the feud with The Undertaker. Mankind reunited with Paul Bearer, the father and manager of Kane, and the new alliance challenged Undertaker and WWF champion Stone Cold Steve Austin to the second Hell in a Cell match on the June 15 episode of Raw. That bout ended in a no - contest, with Undertaker attacking Bearer in a locked cell while Austin assaulted Kane atop the structure. This set up the double main - event for King of the Ring; Austin and Kane in a First Blood match for the title, while Undertaker and Mankind would then be booked for a one - on - one inside Hell in a Cell.
Before this match, Foley and Terry Funk were discussing the previous year 's Hell in a Cell at Badd Blood: In Your House that featured the Undertaker backdropping and slamming Shawn Michaels onto the chain - link ceiling of the cage. Foley and Funk were brainstorming ideas about how to top that match when Funk said, "laughing, ' maybe you should let him throw you off the top of the cage. ' '' Foley:
"Yeah, '' I shot back, "then I could climb back up -- and he could throw me off again. '' Man, that was a good one, and we were having a good time thinking completely ludicrous things to do inside, outside, and on top of the cage. After a while I got serious and said quietly to Terry, "I think I can do it. ''
When presented with the idea of throwing Foley off the top of the cage, Undertaker was a little more hesitant, even going as far as to ask Foley, "Mick, do you want to die? '' Ultimately, Undertaker reluctantly agreed to perform the spot. Fittingly for Foley, the King of the Ring was scheduled to take place that year at the Civic Arena in Pittsburgh. Foley himself trained to become a professional wrestler at Dominic DeNucci 's wrestling school in nearby Freedom, Pennsylvania, only 25 miles (40 km) from Pittsburgh, bringing his career full circle.
Foley came out first and once he reached the cell, he threw a chair on top of the structure and began to climb up to the top. The Undertaker then made his way to the ring, saw Foley on top of the cell, and also climbed to the top. Both wrestlers then began to fight on the roof of the cell.
The first bump Foley would take came as both wrestlers were brawling on top of the cell, and the Undertaker threw Mankind from the top of the cage from a height of 16 feet (4.9 m); (22 ft if including angle of the fall) and sent him crashing through the Spanish announcers ' table, which triggered announcer Jim Ross to famously shout, "Good God almighty! Good God almighty! That killed him! As God as my witness, he is broken in half! ''
Foley remained motionless underneath debris, while the Undertaker remained on top of the cell staring down. Terry Funk was the first person on the scene, followed by WWE 's resident doctor, Dr. Pettit, and various others, including a concerned - looking Vince McMahon. Foley was placed on a stretcher and began to be wheeled out of the arena.
Moments later, there was commotion on the entrance ramp as Foley got up from the stretcher and proceeded to make his way back to the cage, climbing to the top of the cell, with the Undertaker doing likewise (this time they both climbed the cage surprisingly quickly despite Foley having suffered a dislocated shoulder due to the fall, and the Undertaker wrestling with a broken foot that night). With both men back on the top of the cell the match resumed.
Earlier as both were walking on the chain - link mesh which comprised the cell 's ceiling, the metal fasteners were popping off causing the roof to sag and partially give way under their combined weight. According to Terry Funk, the prop guy had purposely designed it that way, except it was never meant to give way completely. In the second huge bump of the night, the Undertaker chokeslammed Mankind atop the chain - link mesh cage, causing a panel to give way completely, resulting in Foley falling through and hitting the ring canvas hard below. In response, announcer Jim Ross shouted, "Good God... Good God! Will somebody stop the damn match? Enough 's enough! ''; along with color commentator Jerry Lawler adding, "That 's it. He 's dead. ''
The cage giving way completely was a surprise to both Foley and the Undertaker. The Undertaker later said that he thought Foley was dead following the second fall, yet he was able to stay in character. Foley was genuinely knocked unconscious for a few moments from the impact, but was able to come around. Terry Funk wrote in his autobiography, "Watching from the back, I thought he was dead. I ran out here and looked down at him, still lying in the ring where he 'd landed. His eyes were n't rolled back in his head, but they looked totally glazed over, like a dead fish 's eyes. '' Foley later said that the only reason he survived the fall was because he did not take the chokeslam properly. In his memoir Have a Nice Day: A Tale of Blood and Sweatsocks, Foley called it both the best and worst chokeslam he ever took, saying that despite its looks, he would have likely died if he had landed properly. He also cited the fact that the ring onto which he landed had a harder surface than that of modern rings, which stopped his momentum once he landed. Foley would later explain that the roof of the cell was supposed to sag sufficiently so that Undertaker could kick him through, allowing him to dangle by his feet and eventually fall in a rotation to land on his front.
Some time after getting up and being attended to again by the aforementioned personnel, TV cameras showed a lingering shot of Foley smiling through his profusely bleeding mouth and lips, with a loose tooth hanging beneath his nose; the tooth having been knocked out due to being struck by the chair which had fallen through the cage and landed on his face, dislocating his jaw.
The match continued for a while longer, ending with Foley being chokeslammed by the Undertaker onto a pile of thumbtacks, which Foley himself had strewn onto the ring canvas, and The Undertaker executing the Tombstone Piledriver to end the match and the feud as planned.
Both wrestlers received a standing ovation for the match. Foley has said that although this match grew in legend, the reality was that his career remained "somewhat sluggish '' for sometime afterwards until Foley further developed the Mankind character, and fans began to catch on. Foley would go on to become a three - time WWF Champion after the match, and would be inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame on April 6, 2013, while Undertaker would develop his ' Streak ' and win five more world championships.
In the storyline; the cell reappeared that night, as both Undertaker and Mankind interfered in the Austin / Kane First Blood match. Kane won the WWF title, although the match is not considered an official Hell in a Cell match, and Austin won back the belt one night later on the June 29 episode of Raw. The fourth Hell in a Cell match took place on Raw is War two months later, between tag team champions Mankind and Kane, concluding their alliance. This bout, like the second cell match which was also televised on Raw, involved interference from Undertaker and Austin. Three official Hell in a Cell matches transpiring in the summer of 1998 makes this particular four - way feud unique, as well as the WWF championship title changing hands within its confines.
Many future matches attempted to replicate some of the spots from the match at King of the Ring. In his autobiography Have a Nice Day: A Tale of Blood and Sweatsocks, Foley wrote that he could not remember much of what happened, and he had to watch a tape of the match to write about it. The match was voted Pro Wrestling Illustrated 's Match of the Year for 1998. Although many fans regard the match as a classic, it has generated controversy as well. Critics charge that the falls in the match were so extreme and they set the bar for further bumps so high that the inevitable attempts to equal or surpass them would be very dangerous for any wrestlers involved. While WWE continues to have Hell in a Cell matches -- and even now has an annual pay - per - view featuring the match -- the match itself has been toned down somewhat in the wake of WWE moving towards more family - friendly programming since 2008. Foley himself acknowledged in 2014 while being interviewed about the Monday Night Wars that had the match taken place today, WWE would have immediately stopped the match after the first fall off the top of the cage "and rightfully so. ''
Foley said in his first book that his wife cried during a post match phone conversation between the two, and this made Foley strongly consider retiring from wrestling, something that Foley did eventually do on a full - time basis in 2000. Fittingly, his last match as a full - time wrestler was also a Hell in a Cell match at No Way Out in February 2000; Foley decided to replicate his fall through the roof of the cell during the match and proper precautions were taken to ensure his safety performing the stunt.
After the match, Vince McMahon said to Foley, "You have no idea how much I appreciate what you have just done for this company, but I never want to see anything like that again. '' He also made mention in the book of a rather humorous exchange he and Undertaker had while being checked out more thoroughly by Dr. Pettit in the backstage area. Foley, still somewhat dazed from the concussion he sustained, turned to the Undertaker and asked "Did I use the thumbtacks? '', which was a staple of a number of Foley 's early matches. The Undertaker looked at him and rather sternly replied "Look at your arm, Mick! '', at which point Foley discovered a significant number of thumbtacks still lodged in his arm.
In 2011, this incident was named as the number one "OMG! '' incident in the WWE history.
Both participants have said that the original Hell in a Cell match, between The Undertaker and Shawn Michaels at Badd Blood: In Your House on October 5, 1997, was superior; The Undertaker named the Badd Blood contest as his favorite match, while Foley called it the greatest Hell in a Cell bout ever.
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when did the individual states begin creating governments and writing new constitutions | History of the United states Constitution - wikipedia
The United States Constitution was written in 1787 during the Philadelphia Convention. The old Congress set the rules the new government followed in terms of writing and ratifying the new constitution. After ratification in eleven states, in 1789 its elected officers of government assembled in New York City, replacing the Articles of Confederation government. The original Constitution has been amended twenty - seven times. The meaning of the Constitution is interpreted and extended by judicial review in the federal courts. The original parchment copies are on display at the National Archives Building.
Two alternative plans were developed in Convention. The nationalist majority, soon to be called "Federalists, '' put forth the Virginia Plan, a consolidated government based on proportional representation among the states by population. The "old patriots, '' later called "Anti-Federalists, '' advocated the New Jersey Plan, a purely federal proposal, based on providing each state with equal representation. The Connecticut Compromise allowed for both plans to work together. Other controversies developed regarding slavery and a Bill of Rights in the original document.
The drafted Constitution was submitted to the Confederation Congress. It in turn forwarded the Constitution as drafted to the states for ratification by the Constitutional method proposed. The Federalist Papers provided background and justification for the Constitution. Some states agreed to ratify the Constitution only if the amendments that were to become the Bill of Rights would be taken up immediately by the new government, and they were duly proposed in the first session of the First Congress.
Once the Confederation Congress certified that eleven states had ratified the Constitution, elections were held, the new government began on March 4, 1789, and the Articles Congress dissolved itself. Later Amendments address individual liberties and freedoms, federal relationships, election procedures, terms of office, expanding the electorate, ending slavery, financing government, consumption of alcohol and Congressional pay. Criticism over the life of the Constitution has centered on expanding democracy and states rights.
On June 4, 1776, a resolution was introduced in the Second Continental Congress declaring the union with Great Britain to be dissolved, proposing the formation of foreign alliances, and suggesting the drafting of a plan of confederation to be submitted to the respective states. Independence was declared on July 4, 1776; the preparation of a plan of confederation was postponed. Although the Declaration was a statement of principles, it did not create a government or even a framework for how politics would be carried out. It was the Articles of Confederation that provided the necessary structure to the new nation during and after the American Revolution. The Declaration, however, did set forth the ideas of natural rights and the social contract that would help form the foundation of constitutional government.
The era of the Declaration of Independence is sometimes called the "Continental Congress '' period. John Adams famously estimated as many as one - third of those resident in the original thirteen colonies were patriots. Scholars such as Gordon Wood describe how Americans were caught up in the Revolutionary fervor and excitement of creating governments, societies, a new nation on the face of the earth by rational choice as Thomas Paine declared in Common Sense.
Republican government and personal liberty for "the people '' were to overspread the New World continents and to last forever, a gift to posterity. These goals were influenced by Enlightenment philosophy. The adherents to this cause seized on English Whig political philosophy as described by historian Forrest McDonald as justification for most of their changes to received colonial charters and traditions. It was rooted in opposition to monarchy they saw as venal and corrupting to the "permanent interests of the people. ''
To these partisans, voting was the only permanent defense of the people. Elected terms for legislature were cut to one year, for Virginia 's Governor, one year without re-election. Property requirements for suffrage for men were reduced to taxes on their tools in some states. Free blacks in New York could vote if they owned enough property. New Hampshire was thinking of abolishing all voting requirements for men but residency and religion. New Jersey let women vote. In some states, senators were now elected by the same voters as the larger electorate for the House, and even judges were elected to one - year terms.
These "radical Whigs '' were called the people "out - of - doors. '' They distrusted not only royal authority, but any small, secretive group as being unrepublican. Crowds of men and women massed at the steps of rural Court Houses during market - militia - court days. Shays Rebellion is a famous example. Urban riots began by the out - of - doors rallies on the steps of an oppressive government official with speakers such as members of the Sons of Liberty holding forth in the "people 's "committees '' until some action was decided upon, including hanging his effigy outside a bedroom window, or looting and burning down the offending tyrant 's home.
The government of the First and Second Continental Congress, the period from September 1774 to March 1, 1781 is referred to as the Revolutionary Congress. Beginning in 1777, the substantial powers assumed by Congress "made the league of states as cohesive and strong as any similar sort of republican confederation in history ''. The process created the United States "by the people in collectivity, rather than by the individual states '', because only four had state constitutions at the time of the Declaration of Independence founding the nation, and three of those were provisional. Prior to the Articles of Confederation, and the Articles Congress, the Supreme Court in Ware v. Hylton and again in Penhallow v. Doane 's Administrators, perceived Congress as exercising powers derived from the people, expressly conferred through the medium of state conventions or legislatures, and, once exercised, "impliedly ratified by the acquiescence and obedience of the people ''.
The Articles of Confederation was unanimously adopted in 1781. Over the previous four years, it had been used by Congress as a "working document '' to administer the early United States government, win the Revolutionary War and secure the Treaty of Paris (1783) with Great Britain. Lasting successes prior to the Constitutional Convention included the Land Ordinance of 1785 whereby Congress promised settlers west of the Appalachian Mountains full citizenship and eventual statehood. Some historians characterize this period from 1781 to 1789 as weakness, dissension, and turmoil. Other scholars view the evidence as reflecting an underlying stability and prosperity. But returning prosperity in some areas did not slow the growth of domestic and foreign problems. Nationalists saw the confederation 's central government as not strong enough to establish a sound financial system, regulate trade, enforce treaties, or go to war when needed.
The Congress was the sole organ of the national government, without a national court to interpret law nor an executive branch to enforce them. Governmental functions, including declarations of war and calls for an army, were supported in some degree for some time, by each state voluntarily, or not. These newly independent states separated from Britain no longer received favored treatment at British ports. The British refused to negotiate a commercial treaty in 1785 because the individual American states would not be bound by it. Congress could not act directly upon the States nor upon individuals. It had no authority to regulate foreign or interstate commerce. Every act of government was left to the individual States. Each state levied taxes and tariffs on other states at will, which invited retaliation. Congress could vote itself mediator and judge in state disputes, but states did not have to accept its decisions.
The weak central government could not back its policies with military strength, embarrassing it in foreign affairs. The British refused to withdraw their troops from the forts and trading posts in the new nation 's Northwest Territory, as they had agreed to do in the Treaty of Paris of 1783. British officers on the northern boundaries and Spanish officers to the south supplied arms to Native American tribes, allowing them to attack American settlers. The Spanish refused to allow western American farmers to use their port of New Orleans to ship produce.
Revenues were requisitioned by Congressional petition to each state. None paid what they were asked; sometimes some paid nothing. Congress appealed to the thirteen states for an amendment to the Articles to tax enough to pay the public debt as principal came due. Twelve states agreed, Rhode Island did not, so it failed. The Articles required super majorities. Amendment proposals to states required ratification by all thirteen states, all important legislation needed 70 % approval, at least nine states. Repeatedly, one or two states defeated legislative proposals of major importance.
Without taxes the government could not pay its debt. Seven of the thirteen states printed large quantities of its own paper money, backed by gold, land, or nothing, so there was no fair exchange rate among them. State courts required state creditors to accept payments at face value with a fraction of real purchase power. The same legislation that these states used to wipe out the Revolutionary debt to patriots was used to pay off promised veteran pensions. The measures were popular because they helped both small farmers and plantation owners pay off their debts.
The Massachusetts legislature was one of the five against paper money. It imposed a tightly limited currency and high taxes. Without paper money veterans without cash lost their farms for back taxes. This triggered Shays Rebellion to stop tax collectors and close the courts. Troops quickly suppressed the rebellion, but nationalists like George Washington warned, "There are combustibles in every state which a spark might set fire to. ''
An important milestone in interstate cooperation outside the framework of the Articles of Confederation occurred in March 1785, when delegates representing Maryland and Virginia met in Virginia, to address navigational rights in the states 's common waterways. On March 28, 1785, the group drew up a thirteen - point proposal to govern the two states ' rights on the Potomac River, Pocomoke River, and Chesapeake Bay. Known as the Mount Vernon Compact (formally titled the "Compact of 1785 ''), this agreement not only covered tidewater navigation but also extended to issues such as toll duties, commerce regulations, fishing rights, and debt collection. Ratified by the legislatures of both states, the compact, which is still in force, helped set a precedent for later meetings between states for discussions into areas of mutual concern.
The conference 's success encouraged James Madison to introduce a proposal in the Virginia General Assembly for further debate of interstate issues. With Maryland 's agreement, on January 21, 1786, Virginia invited all the states to attend another interstate meeting later that year in Annapolis, Maryland, to discuss the trade barriers between the various states.
The Articles Congress received a report on August 7, 1786 from a twelve - member "Grand Committee '', appointed to develop and present "such amendments to the Confederation, and such resolutions as it may be necessary to recommend to the several states, for the purpose of obtaining from them such powers as will render the federal government adequate to '' its declared purposes. Seven amendments to the Articles of Confederation were proposed. Under these reforms, Congress would gain "sole and exclusive '' power to regulate trade. States could not favor foreigners over citizens. Tax bills would require 70 % vote, public debt 85 %, not 100 %. Congress could charge states a late payment penalty fee. A state withholding troops would be charged for them, plus a penalty. If a state did not pay, Congress could collect directly from its cities and counties. A state payment on another 's requisition would earn annual 6 %. There would have been a national court of seven. No - shows at Congress would have been banned from any U.S. or state office. These proposals were, however, sent back to committee without a vote and were not taken up again.
The Annapolis Convention, formally titled "A Meeting of Commissioners to Remedy Defects of the Federal Government '', convened at George Mann 's Tavern on September 11, 1786. Delegates from five states gathered to discuss ways to facilitate commerce between the states and establish standard rules and regulations. At the time, each state was largely independent from the others and the national government had no authority in these matters.
Appointed delegates from four states either arrived too late to participate or otherwise decided not attend. Because so few states were present, delegates did not deem "it advisable to proceed on the business of their mission. '' However, they did adopt a report calling for another convention of the states to discuss possible improvements to the Articles of Confederation. They desired that Constitutional Convention take place in Philadelphia in the summer of 1787.
Legislatures of seven states -- Virginia, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, New Hampshire, Delaware, and Georgia -- immediately approved and appointed their delegations. New York and others hesitated thinking that only the Continental Congress could propose amendments to the Articles. George Washington was unwilling to attend an irregular convention like failed Annapolis Convention. Congress then called the convention at Philadelphia. The "Federal Constitution '' was to be changed to meet the requirements of good government and "the preservation of the Union ''. Congress would then approve what measures it allowed, then the state legislatures would unanimously confirm whatever changes of those were to take effect.
Twelve state legislatures, Rhode Island being the only exception, sent delegates to convene at Philadelphia in May 1787. While the resolution calling the Convention specified that its purpose was to propose amendments to the Articles, through discussion and debate it became clear by mid-June that the Convention would propose a Constitution with a fundamentally new design.
The Congress of the Confederation endorsed a plan to revise the Articles of Confederation on February 21, 1787. It called on each state legislature to send delegates to a convention "' for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation ' in ways that, when approved by Congress and the states, would ' render the federal constitution adequate to the exigencies of government and the preservation of the Union. ' ''
To amend the Articles into a workable government, 74 delegates from the twelve states were named by their state legislatures; 55 showed up, and 39 eventually signed. On May 3, eleven days early, James Madison arrived to Philadelphia and met with James Wilson of the Pennsylvania delegation to plan strategy. Madison outlined his plan in letters that (1) State legislatures each send delegates, not the Articles Congress. (2) Convention reaches agreement with signatures from every state. (3) The Articles Congress approves forwarding it to the state legislatures. (4) The state legislatures independently call one - time conventions to ratify, selecting delegates by each state 's various rules of suffrage. The Convention was to be "merely advisory '' to the people voting in each state.
George Washington arrived on time, Sunday, the day before the scheduled opening. For the entire duration of the Convention, Washington was a guest at the home of Robert Morris, Congress ' financier for the American Revolution and a Pennsylvania delegate. Morris entertained the delegates lavishly. William Jackson, in two years to be the president of the Society of the Cincinnati, had been Morris ' agent in England for a time; and he won election as a non-delegate to be the convention secretary.
The convention was scheduled to open May 14, but only Pennsylvania and Virginia delegations were present. The Convention was postponed until a quorum of seven states gathered on Friday the 25th. George Washington was elected the Convention president, and Chancellor (judge) George Wythe (Va) was chosen Chair of the Rules Committee. The rules of the Convention were published the following Monday.
Nathaniel Gorham (Ma) was elected Chair of the "Committee of the Whole ''. These were the same delegates in the same room, but they could use informal rules for the interconnected provisions in the draft articles to be made, remade and reconnected as the order of business proceeded. The Convention officials and adopted procedures were in place before the arrival of nationalist opponents such as John Lansing (NY) and Luther Martin (MD). By the end of May, the stage was set.
The Constitutional Convention voted to keep the debates secret so that the delegates could speak freely, negotiate, bargain, compromise and change. Yet the proposed Constitution as reported from the Convention was an "innovation '', the most dismissive epithet a politician could use to condemn any new proposal. It promised a fundamental change from the old confederation into a new, consolidated yet federal government. The accepted secrecy of usual affairs conducted in regular order did not apply. It became a major issue in the very public debates leading up to the crowd - filled ratification conventions.
Despite the public outcry against secrecy among its critics, the delegates continued in positions of public trust. State legislatures chose ten Convention delegates of their 33 total for the Articles Congress that September.
Every few days, new delegates arrived, happily noted in Madison 's Journal. But as the Convention went on, individual delegate coming and going meant that a state 's vote could change with the change of delegation composition. The volatility added to the inherent difficulties, making for an "ever - present danger that the Convention might dissolve and the entire project be abandoned. ''
Although twelve states sent delegations, there were never more than eleven represented in the floor debates, often fewer. State delegations absented themselves at votes different times of day. There was no minimum for a state delegation; one would do. Daily sessions would have thirty members present. Members came and went on public and personal business. The Articles Congress was meeting at the same time, so members would absent themselves to New York City on Congressional business for days and weeks at a time.
But the work before them was continuous, even if attendance was not. The Convention resolved itself into a "Committee of the Whole '', and could remain so for days. It was informal, votes could be taken and retaken easily, positions could change without prejudice, and importantly, no formal quorum call was required. The nationalists were resolute. As Madison put it, the situation was too serious for despair. They used the same State House, later named Independence Hall, as the Declaration signers. The building setback from the street was still dignified, but the "shaky '' steeple was gone. When they adjourned each day, they lived in nearby lodgings, as guests, roomers or renters. They ate supper with one another in town and taverns, "often enough in preparation for tomorrow 's meeting. ''
Delegates reporting to the Convention presented their credentials to the Secretary, Major William Jackson of South Carolina. The state legislatures of the day used these occasions to say why they were sending representatives abroad. New York thus publicly enjoined its members to pursue all possible "alterations and provisions '' for good government and "preservation of the Union ''. New Hampshire called for "timely measures to enlarge the powers of Congress ''. Virginia stressed the "necessity of extending the revision of the federal system to all its defects ''.
On the other hand, Delaware categorically forbade any alteration of the Articles one - state, equal vote, one - vote - only provision in the Articles Congress. The Convention would have a great deal of work to do to reconcile the many expectations in the chamber. At the same time, delegates wanted to finish their work by fall harvest and its commerce.
May 29, Edmund Randolph (VA) proposed the Virginia Plan that would serve as the unofficial agenda for the Convention. It was weighted toward the interests of the larger, more populous states. The intent was to meet the purposes set out in the Articles of Confederation, "common defense, security of liberty and general welfare ''. The Virginia Plan was national, authority flowed from the people. If the people will ratify them, changes for better republican government and national union should be proposed.
Much of the Virginia Plan was adopted. All the powers in the Articles transfer to the new government. Congress has two houses, the ' house ' apportioned by population. It can enact laws affecting more than one state and Congress can override a veto. The President can enforce the law. The Supreme Court and inferior courts rule on international, U.S. and state law. The Constitution is the supreme law and all state officers swear to uphold the Constitution. Every state is a republic, and new states can be admitted. The Articles Congress continued until the new system started. Amendments are possible without Congress. The Convention recommendations went to Congress, from them to the states. State legislatures set the election rules for ratification conventions, and the people "expressly '' chose representatives to consider and decide about the Constitution.
June 15, William Patterson (NJ) proposed the Convention minority 's New Jersey Plan. It was weighted toward the interests of the smaller, less populous states. The intent was to preserve the states from a plan to "destroy or annihilate '' them. The New Jersey Plan was purely federal, authority flowed from the states. Gradual change should come from the states. If the Articles could not be amended, then advocates argued that should be the report from the Convention to the states.
Although the New Jersey Plan only survived three days as an alternate proposal, substantial elements of it were adopted. The articles were "revised, corrected and enlarged '' for good government and preservation of the Union. The Senate is elected by the states, at first by the state legislatures. Congress passes acts for revenue collected directly in the states, and the rulings of state courts are reviewed by the Supreme Court. State apportionment for taxes failed, but the ' house ' is apportioned by the population count of free inhabitants and three - fifths of others originally. States can be added to the Union. Presidents appoint federal judges. Treaties entered into by Congress are the supreme law of the land. All state judiciaries are bound to enforce treaties, state laws notwithstanding. The President can raise an army to enforce treaties in any state. States treat a violation of law in another state as though it happened there.
Current knowledge of drafting the Constitution comes primarily from the Journal left by James Madison, found chronologically incorporated in Max Farrand 's "The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787 '', which included the Convention Journal and sources from other Federalists and Anti-Federalists.
Scholars observe that it is unusual in world history for the minority in a revolution to have the influence that the "old patriot '' Anti-Federalists had over the "nationalist '' Federalists who had the support of the revolutionary army in the Society of the Cincinnati. Both factions were intent on forging a nation in which both could be full participants in the changes which were sure to come, since that was most likely to allow for their national union, guarantee liberty for their posterity, and promote their mutual long - term material prosperity.
The contentious issue of slavery was too controversial to be resolved during the Convention. But it was at center stage in the Convention three times, June 7 regarding who would vote for Congress, June 11 in debate over how to proportion relative seating in the ' house ', and August 22 relating to commerce and the future wealth of the nation.
Once the Convention looked at how to proportion the House representation, tempers among several delegates exploded over slavery. When the Convention progressed beyond the personal attacks, it adopted the existing "federal ratio '' for taxing states by three - fifths of slaves held.
On August 6, the Committee of Detail reported its proposed revisions to the Randolph Plan. Again the question of slavery came up, and again the question was met with attacks of outrage. Over the next two weeks, delegates wove a web of mutual compromises relating to commerce and trade, east and west, slave - holding and free. The transfer of power to regulate slave trade from states to central government could happen in 20 years, but only then. Later generations could try out their own answers. The delegates were trying to make a government that might last that long.
Migration of the free or "importation '' of indentures and slaves could continue by states, defining slaves as persons, not property. Long - term power would change by population as counted every ten years. Apportionment in the House would not be by wealth, it would be by people, the free citizens and three - fifths the number of other persons meaning propertyless slaves and taxed Indian farming families.
In 1806, President Thomas Jefferson sent a message to the 9th Congress on their constitutional opportunity to remove U.S. citizens from the transatlantic slave trade "(violating) human rights ''. The 1807 "Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves '' took effect the first instant the Constitution allowed, January 1, 1808. The United States joined the British Parliament that year in the first "international humanitarian campaign ''.
In the 1840 - 1860 era abolitionists denounced the Fugitive Slave Clause and other protections of slavery. William Lloyd Garrison famously declared the Constitution "a covenant with death and an agreement with Hell. ''
In ratification conventions, the anti-slavery delegates sometimes began as anti-ratification votes. Still, the Constitution "as written '' was an improvement over the Articles from an abolitionist point of view. The Constitution provided for abolition of the slave trade but the Articles did not. The outcome could be determined gradually over time. Sometimes contradictions among opponents were used to try to gain abolitionist converts. In Virginia, Federalist George Nicholas dismissed fears on both sides. Objections to the Constitution were inconsistent, "At the same moment it is opposed for being promotive and destructive of slavery! '' But the contradiction was never resolved peaceably, and the failure to do so contributed to the Civil War.
Roger Sherman (CT), although something of a political broker in Connecticut, was an unlikely leader in the august company of the Convention. But on June 11, he proposed the first version of the Convention 's "Great Compromise ''. It was like the proposal he made in the 1776 Continental Congress. Representation in Congress should be both by states and by population. There, he was voted down by the small states in favor of all states equal, one vote only. Now in 1787 Convention, he wanted to balance all the big - state victories for population apportionment. He proposed that in the second ' senate ' branch of the legislature, each state should be equal, one vote and no more. The motion for equal state representation in a ' senate ' failed: 6 against, 5 for.
After these defeats, the delegates who called themselves the "old patriots '' of 1776 and the "men of original principles '' organized a caucus in the Convention. William Paterson (NJ) spoke for them introducing his "New Jersey Plan ''. Roger Sherman (CT), a signer of the Declaration of Independence, was with them. Supporters explained that it "sustained the sovereignty of the states '', while the Edmund Randolph (VA) "Virginia Plan '' erased it. The Convention had no authority to propose anything not sent up from state legislatures, and the states were not likely to adopt anything new. The "nationalists '' answered, The Convention could not conclude anything, but it could recommend anything.
"Patriots '' said if their legislature knew anything about proposals for consolidated government, it would not have sent anyone. "Nationalists '' countered, that it would be treason to withhold any proposal for good government when the salvation of the American republic was at stake. Three sessions after its introduction, the New Jersey Plan failed: 7 against, 3 for, 1 divided. For nearly a month there was no progress; small states were seriously thinking of walking out of the Convention.
Then June 25, the "original principles '' men finally won a vote. The ' senate ' would be chosen by the state legislatures, not the people, passed: 9 for, 2 against. The basis of representation for both the ' house ' and the ' senate ' re-surfaced. Sherman tried a second time to get his idea for a ' house ' on the basis of population and a ' senate ' on an equal states basis. The "big states '' got their population ' house ' win, then his equal state ' senate ' motion was dropped without a vote. The majority adjourned "before a determination was taken in the House. '' Luther Martin (MD) insisted that he would rather divide the Union into regional governments than submit to a consolidated government under the Randolph Plan.
Sherman 's proposal came up again for the third time from Oliver Ellsworth (CT). In the "senate '', the states should have equal representation. Advocates said that it could not be agreed to, the union would fall apart somehow. Big states would not be trusted, the small states could confederate with a foreign power showing "more good faith ''. If delegates could not unite behind this here, one day the states could be united by "some foreign sword ''. On the question of equal state representation, the Convention adjourned in the same way again, "before a determination was taken in the House. ''.
On July 2, the Convention for the fourth time considered a "senate '' with equal state votes. This time a vote was taken, but it stalled again, tied at 5 yes, 5 no, 1 divided. The Convention elected one delegate out of the delegation of each state onto a Committee to make a proposal; it reported July 5. Nothing changed over five days. July 10, Lansing and Yates (NY) quit the Convention in protest over the big state majorities repeatedly overrunning the small state delegations in vote after vote. No direct vote on the basis of ' senate ' representation was pushed on the floor for another week.
But the Convention floor leaders kept moving forward where they could. First the new ' house ' seat apportionment was agreed, balancing big and small, north and south. The big states got a decennial census for ' house ' apportionment to reflect their future growth. Northerners had insisted on counting only free citizens for the ' house '; southern delegations wanted to add property. Benjamin Franklin 's compromise was that there would be no "property '' provision to add representatives, but states with large slave populations would get a bonus added to their free persons by counting three - fifths other persons.
On July 16, Sherman 's "Great Compromise '' prevailed on its fifth try. Every state was to have equal numbers in the United States Senate. Washington ruled it passed on the vote 5 yes, 4 no, 1 divided. It was not that five was a majority of twelve, but to keep the business moving forward, he used precedent established in the Convention earlier. Now some of the big - state delegates talked of walking out, but none did. Debate over the next ten days developed an agreed general outline for the Constitution. Small states readily yielded on many questions. Most remaining delegates, big - state and small, now felt safe enough to chance a new plan.
The Constitution innovated two branches of government that were not a part of the U.S. government during the Articles of Confederation. Previously, a thirteen - member committee had been left behind in Philadelphia when Congress adjourned to carry out the "executive '' functions. Suits between states were referred to the Articles Congress, and treated as a private bill to be determined by majority vote of members attending that day.
On June 7, the "national executive '' was taken up in Convention. The "chief magistrate '', or ' presidency ' was of serious concern for a formerly colonial people fearful of concentrated power in one person. But to secure a "vigorous executive '', nationalist delegates such as James Wilson (PA), Charles Pinckney (SC), and John Dickenson (DE) favored a single officer. They had someone in mind whom everyone could trust to start off the new system, George Washington.
After introducing the item for discussion, there was a prolonged silence. Benjamin Franklin (Pa) and John Rutledge (SC) had urged everyone to speak their minds freely. When addressing the issue with George Washington in the room, delegates were careful to phrase their objections to potential offenses by officers chosen in the future who would be ' president ' "subsequent '' to the start - up. Roger Sherman (CT), Edmund Randolph (VA) and Pierce Butler (SC) all objected, preferring two or three persons in the executive, as had the ancient Roman Republic.
Nathaniel Gorham was Chair of the Committee of the Whole, so Washington sat in the Virginia delegation where everyone could see how he voted. The vote for a one - man ' presidency ' carried 7 - for, 3 - against, New York, Delaware and Maryland in the negative. Virginia, along with George Washington, had voted yes. As of that vote for a single ' presidency ', George Mason (VA) gravely announced to the floor, that as of that moment, the Confederation 's federal government was "in some measure dissolved by the meeting of this Convention. ''
The Convention was following the Randolph Plan for an agenda, taking each resolve in turn to move proceedings forward. They returned to items when overnight coalitions required adjustment to previous votes to secure a majority on the next item of business. June 19, and it was Randolph 's Ninth Resolve next, about the national court system. On the table was the nationalist proposal for the inferior (lower) courts in the national judiciary.
Pure 1776 republicanism had not given much credit to judges, who would set themselves up apart from and sometimes contradicting the state legislature, the voice of the sovereign people. Under the precedent of English Common Law according to William Blackstone, the legislature, following proper procedure, was for all constitutional purposes, "the people. '' This dismissal of unelected officers sometimes took an unintended turn among the people. One of John Adams clients believed the First Continental Congress in 1775 had assumed the sovereignty of Parliament, and so abolished all previously established courts in Massachusetts.
In the Convention, looking at a national system, Judge Wilson (PA) sought appointments by a single person to avoid legislative payoffs. Judge Rutledge (SC) was against anything but one national court, a Supreme Court to receive appeals from the highest state courts, like the South Carolina court he presided over as Chancellor. Rufus King (MA) thought national district courts in each state would cost less than appeals that otherwise would go to the ' supreme court ' in the national capital. National inferior courts passed but making appointments by ' congress ' was crossed out and left blank so the delegates could take it up later after "maturer reflection. ''
The Constitutional Convention created a new, unprecedented form of government by reallocating powers of government. Every previous national authority had been either a centralized government, or a "confederation of sovereign constituent states. '' The American power - sharing was unique at the time. The sources and changes of power were up to the states. The foundations of government and extent of power came from both national and state sources. But the new government would have a national operation. To meet their goals of cementing the Union and securing citizen rights, Framers allocated power among executive, senate, house and judiciary of the central government. But each state government in their variety continued exercising powers in their own sphere.
The Convention did not start with national powers from scratch, it began with the powers already vested in the Articles Congress with control of the military, international relations and commerce. The Constitution added ten more. Five were minor relative to power sharing, including business and manufacturing protections. One important new power authorized Congress to protect states from the "domestic violence '' of riot and civil disorder, but it was conditioned by a state request.
The Constitution increased Congressional power to organize, arm and discipline the state militias, to use them to enforce the laws of Congress, suppress rebellions within the states and repel invasions. But the Second Amendment would ensure that Congressional power could not be used to disarm state militias.
Taxation substantially increased the power of Congress relative to the states. It was limited by restrictions, forbidding taxes on exports, per capita taxes, requiring import duties to be uniform and that taxes be applied to paying U.S. debt. But the states were stripped of their ability to levy taxes on imports, which was at the time, "by far the most bountiful source of tax revenues ''.
Congress had no further restrictions relating to political economy. It could institute protective tariffs, for instance. Congress overshadowed state power regulating interstate commerce; the United States would be the "largest area of free trade in the world. '' The most undefined grant of power was the power to "make laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution '' the Constitution 's enumerated powers.
As of ratification, sovereignty was no longer to be theoretically indivisible. With a wide variety of specific powers among different branches of national governments and thirteen republican state governments, now "each of the portions of powers delegated to the one or to the other... is... sovereign with regard to its proper objects ''. There were some powers that remained beyond the reach of both national powers and state powers, so the logical seat of American "sovereignty '' belonged directly with the people - voters of each state.
Besides expanding Congressional power, the Constitution limited states and central government. Six limits on the national government addressed property rights such as slavery and taxes. Six protected liberty such as prohibiting ex post facto laws and no religious tests for national offices in any state, even if they had them for state offices. Five were principles of a republic, as in legislative appropriation. These restrictions lacked systematic organization, but all constitutional prohibitions were practices that the British Parliament had "legitimately taken in the absence of a specific denial of the authority. ''
The regulation of state power presented a "qualitatively different '' undertaking. In the state constitutions, the people did not enumerate powers. They gave their representatives every right and authority not explicitly reserved to themselves. The Constitution extended the limits that the states had previously imposed upon themselves under the Articles of Confederation, forbidding taxes on imports and disallowing treaties among themselves, for example.
In light of the repeated abuses by ex post facto laws passed by the state legislatures, 1783 -- 1787, the Constitution prohibited ex post facto laws and bills of attainder to protect United States citizen property rights and right to a fair trial. Congressional power of the purse was protected by forbidding taxes or restraint on interstate commerce and foreign trade. States could make no law "impairing the obligation of contracts. '' To check future state abuses the framers searched for a way to review and veto state laws harming the national welfare or citizen rights. They rejected proposals for Congressional veto of state laws and gave the Supreme Court appellate case jurisdiction over state law because the Constitution is the supreme law of the land. The United States had such a geographical extent that it could only be safely governed using a combination of republics. Federal judicial districts would follow those state lines.
The British had relied upon a concept of "virtual representation '' to give legitimacy to their House of Commons. It was not necessary to elect anyone from a large port city, or the American colonies, because the representatives of "rotten boroughs '', the mostly abandoned medieval fair towns with twenty voters, "virtually represented '' them. Philadelphia in the colonies was second in population only to London.
They were all Englishmen, supposed to be a single people, with one definable interest. Legitimacy came from membership in Parliament of the sovereign realm, not elections from people. As Blackstone explained, the Member is "not bound... to consult with, or take the advice, of his constituents. '' As Constitutional historian Gordon Wood elaborated, "The Commons of England contained all of the people 's power and were considered to be the very persons of the people they represented. ''
While the English "virtual representation '' was hardening into a theory of Parliamentary sovereignty, the American theory of representation was moving towards a theory of sovereignty of the people. In their new constitutions written since 1776, Americans required community residency of voters and representatives, expanded suffrage, and equalized populations in voting districts. There was a sense that representation "had to be proportioned to the population. '' The Convention would apply the new principle of "sovereignty of the people '' both to the House of Representatives, and to the United States Senate.
Once the Great Compromise was reached, delegates in Convention then agreed to a decennial census to count the population. The Americans themselves did not allow for universal suffrage for all adults. Their sort of "virtual representation '' said that those voting in a community could understand and themselves represent non-voters when they had like interests that were unlike other political communities. There were enough differences among people in different American communities for those differences to have a meaningful social and economic reality. Thus New England colonial legislatures would not tax communities which had not yet elected representatives. When the royal governor of Georgia refused to allow representation to be seated from four new counties, the legislature refused to tax them.
The 1776 Americans had begun to demand expansion of the franchise, and in each step, they found themselves pressing towards a philosophical "actuality of consent. '' The Convention determined that the power of the people, should be felt in the House of Representatives. For the U.S. Congress, persons alone were counted. Property was not counted.
The Convention found it more difficult to give expression to the will of the people in new states. What state might be "lawfully arising '' outside the boundaries of the existing thirteen states? The new government was like the old, to be made up of pre-existing states. Now there was to be admission of new states. Regular order would provide new states by state legislatures for Kentucky, Tennessee and Maine. But the Articles Congress had by its Northwest Ordnance presented the Convention with a new issue. Settlers in the Northwest Territory might one day constitute themselves into "no more than five '' states. More difficult still, most delegates anticipated adding alien peoples of Canada, Louisiana and Florida to United States territory. Generally in American history, European citizens of empire were given U.S. citizenship on territorial acquisition. Should they become states?
Some delegates were reluctant to expand into any so "remote wilderness ''. It would retard the commercial development of the east. They would be easily influenced, "foreign gold '' would corrupt them. Western peoples were the least desirable Americans, only good for perpetual provinces. There were so many foreigners moving out west, there was no telling how things would turn out. These were poor people, they could not pay their fair share of taxes. It would be "suicide '' for the original states. New states could become a majority in the Senate, they would abuse their power, "enslaving '' the original thirteen. If they also loved liberty, and could not tolerate eastern state dominance, they would be justified in civil war. Western trade interests could drag the country into an inevitable war with Spain for the Mississippi River. As time wore on, any war for the Mississippi River was obviated by the 1803 Louisiana Purchase and the 1812 American victory at New Orleans.
Even if there were to be western states, a House representation of 40,000 might be too small, too easy for the westerners. "States '' had been declared out west already. They called themselves republics, and set up their own courts directly from the people without colonial charters. In Transylvania, Westsylvania, Franklin, and Vandalia, "legislatures '' met with emissaries from British and Spanish Empires in violation of the Articles of Confederation, just as the sovereign states had done. In the Constitution as written, no majorities in Congress could break up the larger states without their consent.
"New state '' advocates had no fear of western states achieving a majority one day. For example, the British sought to curb American growth. That brought hate, then separation. Follow the same rule, get the same results. Congress has never been able to discover a better rule than majority rule. If they grow, let them rule. As they grow, they must get all their supplies from eastern businesses. Character is not determined by points of a compass. States admitted are equals, they will be made up of our brethren. Commit to right principles, even if the right way, one day, benefits other states. They will be free like ourselves, their pride will not allow anything but equality.
It was at this time in the Convention that Reverend Manasseh Cutler arrived to lobby for western land sales. He brought acres of land grants to parcel out. Their sales would fund most of the U.S. government expenditures for its first few decades. There were allocations for the Ohio Company stockholders at the Convention, and for others delegates too. Good to his word, in December 1787, Cutler led a small band of pioneers into the Ohio Valley.
The provision for admitting new states became relevant at the purchase of Louisiana. It was constitutionally justifiable under the "treaty making '' power of the federal government. The agrarian advocates sought to make the purchase of land that had never been administered, conquered, or formally ceded to any of the original thirteen states. Jefferson 's Democratic - Republicans would divide the Louisiana Purchase into states, speeding land sales to finance the federal government with no new taxes. The new populations of new states would swamp the commercial states in the Senate. They would populate the House with egalitarian Democrat - Republicans to overthrow the Federalists. Jefferson dropped the proposal of Constitutional amendment to permit the purchase, and with it, his notion of a confederation of sovereign states.
After nearly four months of debate, on September 8, 1787, the final text of the Constitution was set down and revised. Then, an official copy of the document was engrossed by Jacob Shallus. The effort consisted of copying the text (prelude, articles and endorsement) on four sheets of vellum parchment, made from treated animal skin and measuring approximately 28 inches (71 cm) by 23 inches (58 cm), probably with a goose quill. Shallus engrossed the entire document except for the list of states at the end of the document, which are in Alexander Hamilton 's handwriting. On September 17, 1787, following a speech given by Benjamin Franklin, 39 delegates endorsed and submitted the Constitution to the Congress of the Confederation.
Massachusetts ' Rufus King assessed the Convention as a creature of the states, independent of the Articles Congress, submitting its proposal to Congress only to satisfy forms. Though amendments were debated, they were all defeated. On September 28, 1787, the Articles Congress resolved "unanimously '' to transmit the Constitution to state legislatures for submitting to a ratification convention according to the Constitutional procedure. Several states enlarged the numbers qualified just for electing ratification delegates. In doing so, they went beyond the Constitution 's provision for the most voters for the state legislature.
Delaware, on December 7, 1787, became the first State to ratify the new Constitution, with its vote being unanimous. Pennsylvania ratified on December 12, 1787, by a vote of 46 to 23 (66.67 %). New Jersey ratified on December 19, 1787, and Georgia on January 2, 1788, both with unanimous votes. The requirement of ratification by nine states, set by Article Seven of the Constitution, was met when New Hampshire voted to ratify, on June 21, 1788.
In New York, fully two thirds of the convention delegates were at first opposed to the Constitution. Hamilton led the Federalist campaign, which included the fast - paced appearance of The Federalist Papers in New York newspapers. An attempt to attach conditions to ratification almost succeeded, but on July 26, 1788, New York ratified, with a recommendation that a bill of rights be appended. The vote was close -- yeas 30 (52.6 %), nays 27 -- due largely to Hamilton 's forensic abilities and his reaching a few key compromises with moderate anti-Federalists led by Melancton Smith.
Following Massachusetts 's lead, the Federalist minorities in both Virginia and New York were able to obtain ratification in convention by linking ratification to recommended amendments. A minority of the Constitution 's critics continued to oppose the Constitution. Maryland 's Luther Martin argued that the federal convention had exceeded its authority; he still called for amending the Articles. Article 13 of the Articles of Confederation stated that the union created under the Articles was "perpetual '' and that any alteration must be "agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State ''.
However, the unanimity required under the Articles made all attempts at reform impossible. Martin 's allies such as New York 's John Lansing, Jr., dropped moves to obstruct the Convention 's process. They began to take exception to the Constitution "as it was '', seeking amendments. Several conventions saw supporters for "amendments before '' shift to a position of "amendments after '' for the sake of staying in the Union. New York Anti 's "circular letter '' was sent to each state legislature proposing a second constitutional convention for "amendments before ''. It failed in the state legislatures. Ultimately only North Carolina and Rhode Island would wait for amendments from Congress before ratifying.
Article VII of the proposed constitution stipulated that only nine of the thirteen states would have to ratify for the new government to go into effect for the participating states. By the end of July 1788, eleven states had ratified the Constitution, and soon thereafter, the process of organizing the new government began. On September 13, 1788, the Articles Congress certified that the new Constitution had been ratified by more than enough states for it to go into effect. Congress fixed the city of New York as the temporary seat of the new government and set the dates for the election of representatives and presidential electors. It also set the date for operations to begin under the new government. This occurred on March 4, 1789, when the First Congress convened.
The membership of the new Congress was decidedly federalist. In the eleven - state (minus North Carolina and Rhode Island) Senate 20 were Federalist and two Anti-federalist (both from Virginia). The House included 48 Federalists and 11 Anti-federalists (from four states: Massachusetts, New York, South Carolina, and Virginia). On April 6 the House and Senate held a joint meeting to count the electoral vote. George Washington was unanimously elected the first president, even receiving the electoral vote of ardent anti-federalist Patrick Henry. John Adams of Massachusetts was elected vice president. Both were sworn into office on April 30, 1789. The business of setting up the new government was completed.
Anti-Federalists ' fears of personal oppression by Congress were allayed by amendments passed under the floor leadership of James Madison during the first session of Congress. These first ten Amendments became known as the Bill of Rights. Objections to a potentially remote federal judiciary were reconciled with 13 federal courts (11 states, plus Maine and Kentucky), and three federal riding circuits out of the Supreme Court: Eastern, Middle and South. Suspicion of a powerful federal executive was answered by Washington 's cabinet appointments of once - Anti-Federalists Edmund Jennings Randolph as Attorney General and Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State. What Constitutional historian Pauline Maier termed a national "dialogue between power and liberty '' had begun anew.
Since the beginning of federal operations under the Constitution in 1789 through the beginning of 2013, approximately 11,539 proposals to amend the Constitution have been introduced in the United States Congress. Of these, thirty - three have been approved by Congress and sent to the states for ratification. Twenty - seven of these amendments have been ratified and are now part of the Constitution. The first ten amendments were adopted and ratified simultaneously and are known collectively as the Bill of Rights. Prior to the Twenty - seventh Amendment, which languished for 202 years, 7 months, 12 days before being ratified (submitted for ratification in 1789 as part of the Bill of Rights, but not ratified until 1992), the Twenty - second Amendment held the record for longest time taken to successfully complete the ratification process -- 3 years, 11 months, 6 days. The Twenty - sixth Amendment holds the record for shortest time taken -- 3 months, 8 days. Six amendments adopted by Congress and sent to the states have not been ratified by the required number of states and are not part of the Constitution. Four of these are still technically open and pending, one is closed and has failed by its own terms, and one is closed and has failed by the terms of the resolution proposing it.
Much of opposition to the proposed Constitution within several states arose, not because the machinery of the new frame of government was considered unworkable or because strengthening the union between the 13 states viewed as undesirable. The debates in the state ratifying conventions centered around the absence of anything equivalent to the bill of rights found in several state constitutions. George Mason, a delegate to the 1787 Constitutional Convention, and the author of the Virginia Declaration of Rights, refused to sign the document because he felt it did not specifically spell out or protect individual rights sufficiently. He also opposed the constitution when it was brought before the state for ratification. He acquiesced and the convention voted narrowly to give its assent only after it was decided that a list of twenty proposed amendments be sent along with the state 's resolution of ratification. Delegates to Massachusetts ' convention had many of the same concerns, and along with its notification of approval made a request for nine alterations, the first among them being "that it be explicitly declared that all powers not specifically delegated to Congress by the Constitution are reserved to the states to be exercised by them. '' New York, not to be outdone, appended a list of thirty - two requested amendments plus a lengthy statement of impressions and explanations about the new Constitution to their affirmative vote.
The sharp Anti-Federalist critique of the Constitution did not abate after it became operational, and by the time the First Congress convened in March 1789, there existed widespread sentiment in both the House and Senate in favor of making alterations. That September, Congress adopted twelve amendments and sent to the states for ratification. Ten of these were ratified by the required number of states in December 1791 and became part of the Constitution. These amendments enumerate freedoms not explicitly indicated in the main body of the Constitution, such as freedom of religion, freedom of speech, a free press, and free assembly; the right to keep and bear arms; freedom from unreasonable search and seizure, security in personal effects, and freedom from warrants issued without probable cause; indictment by a grand jury for a capital or "infamous crime ''; guarantee of a speedy, public trial with an impartial jury; and prohibition of double jeopardy. In addition, the Bill of Rights reserves for the people any rights not specifically mentioned in the Constitution and reserves all powers not specifically granted to the federal government to the people or the States.
Amendments to the Constitution subsequent to the Bill of Rights cover a wide range of subjects. Several have added significant content to the original document. One of the most far - reaching is the Fourteenth, ratified in 1868, which establishes a clear and simple definition of citizenship and guarantees equal treatment under the law. Also significant are the Fifteenth, Nineteenth, Twenty - fourth, and Twenty - sixth, which were enacted to extend the right to vote to persons previously considered ineligible and also to protect their exercise of that right. One Amendment, the Eighteenth, which criminalized the production, transport and sale of alcohol nationwide, was later repealed by another, the Twenty - first. Nine ratified amendments (11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 20, 22, and 25) have explicitly superseded or modified the text of the original Constitution.
In the early twentieth century Lochner era, the Supreme Court ruled unconstitutional various state laws that limited labor contracts. The Constitution was criticized as putting the government at the beck and call of big business.
More recent criticism has often been academic and limited to particular features. University of Texas law professor Sanford Levinson wonders whether it makes sense for the Connecticut Compromise to give "Wyoming the same number of votes as California, which has roughly seventy times the population ''. Levinson thinks this imbalance causes a "steady redistribution of resources from large states to small states. '' Levinson is critical of the Electoral College as it allows the possibility of electing presidents who do not win the majority, or even plurality, of votes. Five times in American history, presidents have been elected despite failing to win a plurality of the popular vote: 1824 (John Quincy Adams), 1876 (Rutherford B. Hayes), 1888 (Benjamin Harrison), 2000 (George W. Bush) and 2016 (Donald Trump). The current impeachment powers do not give the people a quick way to remove incompetent or ill presidents, in his view. Others have criticized gerrymandering.
Yale professor Robert A. Dahl sees a problem with an American tendency towards worship of the Constitution itself. (See American civil religion) He sees aspects of American governance which are "unusual and potentially undemocratic: the federal system, the bicameral legislature, judicial review, presidentialism, and the electoral college system. '' Levinson and Labunski and others have called for a Second Constitutional Convention, although professors like Dahl believe there is no real hope this would ever happen. French journalist Jean - Philippe Immarigeon wrote in Harper 's that the "nearly 230 - year - old constitution stretched past the limits of its usefulness '', and suggested key problem points were the inability to call an election when government became gridlocked, a several month period between inauguration of a president and when he or she takes office, and inability of the lower house of Congress to influence serious foreign policy decisions such as ending a war when faced with a veto.
University of Virginia professor Larry Sabato advocates an amendment to organize presidential primaries. Sabato details more objections in his book A More Perfect Constitution. He opposes life tenure for Federal Court judges, including Supreme Court justices. He also writes that "If the 26 least populated states voted as a bloc, they would control the U.S. Senate with a total of just under 17 % of the country 's population. '' Sabato further contends that the Constitution is in need of an overhaul, and argues that only a national constitutional convention can bring the document up to date and settle many of the issues that have arisen over the past two centuries.
In United States history, four periods of widespread Constitutional criticism have been characterized by the idea that specific political powers belong to state governments and not to the federal government -- a doctrine commonly known as states rights. At each stage, states ' rights advocates failed to develop a preponderance in public opinion or to sustain the democratic political will required to alter the generally held constitutional understanding and political practice in the United States. At its adoption among the people in the state ratification conventions, the "men of original principles '' opposed the new national government as violating the Whig philosophy generally accepted among the original thirteen colonies in 1776. According to this view, Congress as a legislature should be only equal to any state legislature, and only the people in each state might be sovereign. They are now referred to as the Anti-Federalists in American historiography. The proponents of "state sovereignty '' and "states rights '' were outvoted in eleven of thirteen state ratification conventions, then thirteen of thirteen, to "ordain and establish '' the Constitution.
During Andrew Jackson 's administration, South Carolina objected to U.S. government 's "tariff of abominations '' collected as federal duties in Charleston Harbor. The Nullification Crisis ensued. Justification for the nullifiers was found in the U.S. Senate speeches and writings of John C. Calhoun. He defended slavery against the Constitutional provisions allowing its statutory regulation or its eventual abolition by Constitutional amendment, most notably in his Disquisition on Government. The crisis was averted when once General Jackson declared he would march a U.S. army into South Carolina and hang the first nullifier he saw from the first tree, and a new negotiated tariff, the Compromise Tariff of 1833, satisfactory to South Carolina was enacted. Despite this, a states - rights - based defense of slavery persisted amongst Southerners until the American Civil War; conversely, Northerners explored nullification of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. Abraham Lincoln kept a portrait of Andrew Jackson above his desk at the War Department during efforts to defend the Constitution as understood by a national majority of people and states at that time.
In the mid-19th Century during the administrations of Abraham Lincoln, Andrew Johnson and Ulysses S. Grant, the United States suffered a tragic passage through the Civil War and Reconstruction. An important survey of the philosophical and legal underpinnings of "States Rights '' as held by secessionists and Lost Cause advocates afterwards is found in the speeches of Confederate President Jefferson Davis and his Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government. Davis defended secession by appealing to the "original principles '' of the Founders ' 1776 Revolutionary generation, and by expanding on William Blackstone 's doctrine of legislative supremacy. By the elections of 1872, all states which had been admitted to the United States in accordance with the Constitution were fully represented in the U.S. Congress.
Following the Supreme Court 1954 holding in Brown v. Board of Education, President Dwight D. Eisenhower used National Guard and U.S. paratroopers to enforce the rulings of the Federal Courts as they pertained to the Constitution. The "States Rights '' doctrine was again appealed to during the mid-20th Century resistance to racial integration in the schools, notably in Arkansas ' Little Rock Nine, Alabama 's Stand in the Schoolhouse Door, and Virginia 's Massive Resistance. Public schools in every state are now racially integrated by law under the authority of the U.S. Constitution.
The tradition is seen in many shorter episodes of limited minority protest against the United States. During the War of 1812, Federalists conducted a Hartford Convention proposing New England secession during wartime to reopen trade with the declared enemy of the United States. It led to accusations of treason and the demise of the Federalist Party as a force in American politics. In 1921, the Maryland Attorney General sued to block woman suffrage. He argued in Leser v. Garnett that state legislatures were Constitutionally the sole determiners of who should vote in what federal or state elections, and that the 19th Amendment was improper. The Supreme Court 's judicial review of the state court findings held that the 19th Amendment was Constitutional, and that it applied to the women 's right to vote in every state. Women now vote in every state under the authority of the U.S. Constitution.
One exceptional example of "states rights '' persuading overwhelming majorities in a democratic and sustained way, and so transforming the nation came in the John Adams administration. Fear had spread that radical democratic sentiment might turn subversive as it had in the French Reign of Terror. But the Federalist - sponsored Alien and Sedition Acts meant to preempt the danger led to suppression of opposition press. The political reaction in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions sparked public opposition against the Federalist policy and led to twenty - four years of Constitutionally elected Democratic - Republican Party rule through six administrations of Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and James Monroe.
In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, opponents of federal laws prohibiting the sale and possession of marijuana have based their objections partially on states ' rights grounds, as have opponents of federal laws and regulations pertaining to firearms. States ' rights under the constitution has also been recently raised as an issue on a number of other occasions, most notably regarding Common Core, the Affordable Care Act, and same - sex marriage.
At first, little interest was shown in the parchment object itself. Madison had custody of it as Secretary of State (1801 -- 1809) but having left Washington, he had lost track of it in the years leading to his death. A publisher had access to it in 1846 for a book on the Constitution. In 1883 historian J. Franklin Jameson found the parchment folded in a small tin box on the floor of a closet at the State, War and Navy Building. In 1894 the State Department sealed the Declaration and Constitution between two glass plates and kept them in a safe.
The two parchment documents were turned over to the Library of Congress by executive order, and in 1924 President Coolidge dedicated the bronze - and - marble shrine for public display of the Constitution in the main building. The parchments were laid over moisture absorbing cellulose paper, vacuum - sealed between double panes of insulated plate glass, and protected from light by a gelatin film. Although building construction of the Archives Building was completed in 1935, in December 1941 they were moved from the Library of Congress until September 1944, and stored at the U.S. Bullion Depository, Fort Knox, Kentucky, along with the Declaration of Independence and the Gettysburg Address. In 1951 following a study by the National Bureau of Standards to protect from atmosphere, insects, mold and light, the parchments were re-encased with special light filters, inert helium gas and proper humidity. They were transferred to the National Archives in 1952.
Since 1952, the "Charters of Freedom '' have been displayed in the Rotunda of the National Archives Building. Visual inspections have been enhanced by electronic imaging. Changes in the cases led to removal from their cases July 2001, preservation treatment by conservators, and installment in new encasements for public display in September 2003.
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who introduced the system of local government in the subcontinent | Local government in Pakistan - Wikipedia
Parliament
Executive:
Judiciary
Pakistan is a federal republic with three tiers of government: national, provincial and local. Local government is protected by the constitution in Articles 32 and 140 - A, and each province also has its own local - government - enabling legislation and ministries responsible for implementation. District councils and metropolitan corporations are respectively the highest rural and urban tiers of local government in the provinces. Both urban and rural local government have two or three tiers in all provinces except Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, where councils are not identified as either urban or rural. There are 129 district councils across the four provinces, 619 urban councils made up of one city district, four metropolitan corporations, 13 municipal corporations, 96 municipal committees, 148 town councils, 360 urban union committees, and 1,925 rural councils. Additionally there are 3339 neighbourhood, ' tehsil ' and village councils in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
In response to the failure of central / provincial governments to account for local preferences, the National Reconstruction Bureau (NRB) designed a local government system which was presented in the blue print "Devolution Plan 2000 ''. Consequently, a new local government system was implemented on August 14th 2001, after each of the four provinces passed the Local Government Ordinance, 2001.
A district (Urdu: ضلع , zillah) is the first tier of local government. In total there are 149 districts in Pakistan, of which several are city districts. A District Government or a City District Government and Zillah Council form the governing body, with the District Coordination Officer serving as the administrative head. The District Governor or Zila Nazim used to be the executive head of districts until 2010, when the government shifted power to the District Coordination Officers. Their role is similar to district governors, with responsibility for implementing government strategy and developing initiatives arising out of it.
Among the three tiers of local government, Tesil government is second tier of it. It is where the functions, responsibilities and authorities of districts government is divided into more smaller units, these units are known as "Tehsil ''. The Tehsils are used in all over the Pakistan except Sindh province where the word "Taluka '' is used instead, although the functions and authorities are same. The head of the Tehsil government is "Tehsil Nazim '' who is assisted by the tehsil Naib - Nazim. Every tehsil has a Tehsil Municipal Administration, consisting of a Tehsil council, Tehsil Nazim, tehsil / taluka municipal officer (TMO), Chief officer and other officials of local council.
Members of Union Council including Union Administrator and Vice Union Administrator are elected through direct elections based on adult franchise and on the basis of joint electorate. However, for the election to the reserved seats for Women in Zila Council proportionately divided among Tehsils or Towns shall be all members of the Union Councils in a Tehsil or Town. It is the responsibility of the Chief Election Commissioner to organize and conduct these elections.
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collection of spinal nerves term means horse's tail | Cauda equina - wikipedia
The cauda equina (Latin for "horse 's tail '') is a bundle of spinal nerves and spinal nerve rootlets, consisting of the second through fifth lumbar nerve pairs, the first through fifth sacral nerve pairs, and the coccygeal nerve, all of which arise from the lumbar enlargement and the conus medullaris of the spinal cord. The cauda equina occupies the lumbar cistern, a subarachnoid space inferior to the conus medullaris. The nerves that compose the cauda equina innervate the pelvic organs and lower limbs to include motor innervation of the hips, knees, ankles, feet, internal anal sphincter and external anal sphincter. In addition, the cauda equina extends to sensory innervation of the perineum and, partially, parasympathetic innervation of the bladder.
In humans, the spinal cord stops growing in infancy and the end of the spinal cord is about the level of the third lumbar vertebra, or L3, at birth. Because the bones of the vertebral column continue to grow, by about 12 months of age, the end of the cord reaches its permanent position at the level of L1 or L2 (closer to the head). However, due to normal anatomical variations, the final cord end position may occur anywhere from T12 twelfth thoracic vertebra (T12) to L3. Individual spinal nerve roots arise from the cord as they get closer to the head, but as the differential growth occurs, the top end of the nerve stays attached to the spinal cord while the lower end of the nerve exits the spinal column at its proper level. This results in a "bundle '' - like structure of nerve fibers that extends caudally from the end of the spinal cord, gradually declining in number further down as individual pairs leave the spinal column.
The cauda equina exists within the lumbar cistern, a gap between the arachnoid membrane and the pia matter of the spinal cord, called the subarachnoid space. Cerebrospinal fluid also exists within this space. Because the spinal cord terminates at level L1 / L2, lumbar puncture (or colloquially, "spinal tap '') is performed from the lumbar cistern between two vertebrae at level L3 / L4, or L4 / L5, where there is no risk of accidental injury to the spinal cord, when a sample of CSF is needed for clinical purposes.
Cauda equina syndrome, a rare disorder affecting the bundle of nerve roots (cauda equina) at the lower (lumbar) end of the spinal cord, is a surgical emergency. Cauda equina syndrome occurs when the nerve roots in the lumbar spine are compressed, disrupting sensation and movement. Nerve roots that control the function of the bladder and bowel are especially vulnerable to damage. It can lead to permanent paralysis, impaired bladder and / or bowel control, loss of sexual sensation, and other problems if left untreated. Even with immediate treatment, some patients may not recover complete function.
Cauda equina syndrome most commonly results from a massive disc herniation in the lumbar region. A disc herniation occurs when one of the soft flexible discs that functions as an elastic shock absorber between the bones of the spinal column displaces from its normal position. The herniation occurs after the disc begins to break down with aging and can be precipitated by stress or a mechanical problem in the spine. The result is that the softer, center portion of the disc pushes out and causes pressure on the nerve roots in the lumbar spine. Other causes include spinal lesions and tumors, spinal infections or inflammation, lumbar spinal stenosis, trauma to the lower back, birth abnormalities, spinal arteriovenous malformations (AVMs), spinal hemorrhages (subarachnoid, subdural, epidural), narrowing of the spinal canal, postoperative lumbar spine surgery complications or spinal anesthesia.
The cauda equina was named after its resemblance to a horse 's tail (Latin: cauda equina) by the French anatomist Andreas Lazarius (André du Laurens) in the 17th century.
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according to the law of demand a decrease in the price of a good causes | Law of demand - wikipedia
In microeconomics, the law of demand states that, "conditional on all else being equal, as the price of a good increases (↑), quantity demanded decreases (↓); conversely, as the price of a good decreases (↓), quantity demanded increases (↑) ''. In other words, the law of demand describes an inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded of a good. Alternatively, other things being constant, quantity demanded of a commodity is inversely related to the price of the commodity. For example, a consumer may demand 2 kilograms of apples at Rs 70 per kg; he may, however, demand 1 kg if the price rises to Rs 80 per kg. This has been the general human behaviour on relationship between the price of the commodity and the quantity demanded. The factors held constant refer to other determinants of demand, such as the prices of other goods and the consumer 's income. There are, however, some possible exceptions to the law of demand, such as Giffen goods and Veblen goods.
Mathematically, the inverse relationship described by the law of demand may be expressed as:
where Q x (\ displaystyle Q_ (x)) is the quantity demanded of good x (\ displaystyle x), P x (\ displaystyle P_ (x)) is the price of the good, f (\ displaystyle f) is the demand function, ∂ f / ∂ P x (\ displaystyle \ partial f / \ partial P_ (x)) is the partial derivative of the demand function with respect to P x (\ displaystyle P_ (x)), and Y (\ displaystyle (\ mathbf (Y))) is the list of other parameters held constant.
The above equation, when plotted with quantity demanded (Q x (\ displaystyle Q_ (x))) on the x (\ displaystyle x) - axis and price (P x (\ displaystyle P_ (x))) on the y (\ displaystyle y) - axis, gives the demand curve, which is also known as the demand schedule. The downward sloping nature of a typical demand curve illustrates the inverse relationship between quantity demanded and price. Therefore, a downward sloping demand curve embeds the law of demand.
Note that "demand '' and "quantity demanded '' are used to mean different things in economic jargon. On the one hand, "demand '' refers to the entire demand curve, which is the relationship between quantity demanded and price. Changes in demand are due to changes in other determinants (Y (\ displaystyle (\ mathbf (Y)))), such as the income of consumers. Therefore, "change in demand '' is used to mean that the relationship between quantity demanded and price has changed. Alfred Marshall worded this as:
When then we say that a person 's demand for anything increases, we mean that he will buy more of it than he would before at the same price, and that he will buy as much of it as before at a higher price.
Changes in demand is depicted graphically by a shift in the demand curve. On the other hand, "quantity demanded '' refers to the quantity of goods consumers want for a given price, conditional on the other determinants. "Changes in quantity demanded '' is depicted graphically by a movement along the demand curve.
The law of demand was documented as early as 1892 by economist Alfred Marshall. Due to the law 's general agreement with observation, economists have come to accept the validity of the law under most situations. Furthermore, researchers found that the success of the law of demand extends to animals such as rats, under laboratory settings.
Generally the amount demanded of a good increases with a decrease in price of the good and vice versa. In some cases, however, this may not be true. There are certain goods which do not follow this law. These include Veblen goods and Giffen goods. Further exception and details are given in the sections below.
Initially proposed by Sir Robert Giffen, economists disagree on the existence of Giffen goods in the market. A Giffen good describes an inferior good that as the price increases, demand for the product increases. As an example, during the Irish Potato Famine of the 19th century, potatoes were considered a Giffen good. Potatoes were the largest staple in the Irish diet, so as the price rose it had a large impact on income. People responded by cutting out on luxury goods such as meat and vegetables, and instead bought more potatoes. Therefore, as the price of potatoes increased, so did the quantity demanded.
If an increase in the price of a commodity causes households to expect the price of a commodity to increase further, they may start purchasing a greater amount of the commodity even at the presently increased price. Similarly, if the household expects the price of the commodity to decrease, it may postpone its purchases. Thus, some argue that the law of demand is violated in such cases. In this case, the demand curve does not slope down from left to right; instead it presents a backward slope from the top right to down left. This curve is known as an exceptional demand curve. prestigious goods also fail law of demand.
The goods which people need no matter how high the price is are basic or necessary goods. Medicines covered by insurance are a good example. An increase or decrease in the price of such a good does not affect its quantity demanded. These goods have a perfectly inelastic relationship, in that any change in price does not change the quantity demanded.
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where was filmed sex and the city 2 | Sex and the City 2 - wikipedia
Sex and the City 2 is a 2010 American romantic comedy film written, co-produced, and directed by Michael Patrick King. It is the sequel to the 2008 film Sex and the City, which is based on the 1998 - 2004 HBO comedy series of the same name (itself based on the book of the same name by Candace Bushnell).
The film stars Sarah Jessica Parker, Kim Cattrall, Kristin Davis, Cynthia Nixon and Chris Noth, who reprised their roles from the previous film and television series. It also features cameo appearances from Liza Minnelli, Miley Cyrus, Tim Gunn, Ron White, Omid Djalili, and Penélope Cruz, as well as Broadway actors, Norm Lewis, Kelli O'Hara, and Ryan Silverman.
Sex and the City 2 was theatrically released on May 27, 2010 in the United States and May 28, 2010 in the United Kingdom and despite poor reviews from critics, the film was a commercial success, grossing over $294 million from a $95 million budget. It received seven Golden Raspberry nominations, and won in the categories of Worst Actress (for Parker, Cattrall, Davis, and Nixon), Worst Screen Ensemble, and Worst Sequel. The film was nominated for Worst Picture, Worst Screenplay, Worst Director, and Minnelli for Worst Supporting Actress. A third Sex and the City movie was confirmed in 2016, but was cancelled the following year.
Carrie, Samantha, Charlotte, and Miranda meet up with each other. In flashback Carrie is depicted arriving in New York City in 1986, then met Charlotte in 1987, Miranda in 1989. She also meets Samantha, when she was a bartender at the music club CBGB.
In the present, three of the four women are married but Samantha, who at 52, is desperately trying to keep her libido alive with the help of "Suzanne Somers and her team of doctors '' to keep her menopause at bay. The four of them attend Anthony and Stanford 's wedding, where Carrie serves as "best man. '' Miranda quits her job after the misogynistic new managing partner disrespects her once too often. Charlotte 's two children are a handful (mostly her two - year - old daughter Rose 's extreme and constant crying) and she 's worried that Harry is attracted to their buxom Irish nanny, Erin. Carrie 's marriage to Mr. Big has settled down, though they differ on how to spend their spare time. For their anniversary, Carrie gives Mr. Big a vintage Rolex watch engraved with a romantic message, while he, much to her dismay, shows her a new TV in their bedroom as his gift, which Big says they can use to watch old movies together, something they did at the hotel at Anthony and Stanford 's wedding and seemed to enjoy. Carrie, however, is disappointed, as she had hoped for jewelry as a gift.
Meanwhile, Samantha has been approached by an Arab sheikh to devise a PR campaign for his business. He offers to fly her and her friends on an all - expenses - paid luxury vacation to Abu Dhabi. The girls happily accept, although Carrie is worried about the separation from Big and Charlotte is worried about leaving her husband alone with the nanny. Only Miranda, unfettered by a job for the first time in her life, is enthusiastic. Upon entering Abu Dhabi, Samantha 's hormone - enhancing drugs are confiscated under UAE law. This renders her devoid of estrogen; her famous libido goes dead. Charlotte tries to call Harry every few minutes; Miranda revels in the luxury surrounding her, while Carrie befriends her manservant, Gaurau, who is an underpaid temporary worker from India.
Carrie runs into her former lover, Aidan. He proposes dinner à deux at his hotel and she decides to meet Aidan for dinner. The dinner is very enjoyable, with the two discussing old times. Aidan remarks on the ways Carrie is "not like other women ''. In a moment of remembered passion, they kiss. Carrie runs away in panic and returns to the hotel. Back at the hotel, Miranda and Charlotte have drinks together and discuss the difficulties of motherhood. Carrie arrives, tells her friends about the kiss, and asks them whether she should tell Big, as they have no secrets between them. Miranda reflects on the events of the previous film, when her husband, Steve, told her about his affair. Samantha counsels Carrie to wait before deciding anything. Carrie opts to call Big to tell him. Big is silent upon hearing the news, and after saying a few words, hangs up.
The four women find their style and Western attitudes contrast with Muslim customs. While on a date with a handsome Dane, Samantha is arrested for public indecency after fondling him at a restaurant and making out with him on the beach. With the Sheikh 's intervention, Samantha is released, but is left with a permanent police record. Worse, the Sheikh decides to cancel the PR meeting and ceases paying for the remainder of the women 's luxurious stay. They are told they have 1 hour to either pay $22,000 a night for the rest of their stay or leave. They quickly pack their bags and leave, but must return to the souq to find Carrie 's passport. When Samantha 's flamboyance nearly incites a riot, the girls are rescued by a group of Emirati women who share their sense of style under their black robes.
When Carrie returns home, she finds the bedroom television removed and Big gone. She passes an anxious day, at the end of which he returns. Big tells her that although he was "pretty torn up '', he realizes that what she needs is something to remind her at all times that she is married. He hands her a jewelry box, which reveals an engagement ring set with a black diamond. When Carrie asks him why a black diamond, he says, "Because you 're not like anyone else '', echoing Aidan 's earlier comment.
Big and Carrie combine their interests; Charlotte 's nanny, Erin, turns out to be a lesbian and is no threat to her marriage; Miranda finds a new job at a more laid back and diverse law firm where she is appreciated, and Samantha stays the same, even meeting up with the Danish architect she met in Abu Dhabi for sex on the beach, this time a beach on The Hamptons.
After months of speculation, the cast confirmed in February 2009 that a sequel was in the works. Filming began in August 2009.
The sequel is noticeably different from its predecessor, and includes more exotic locales than the original. King credits this to the experience he had promoting the original film in such locales. He was also inspired by the recession to write something bigger more akin to the extravagant adventures and escapist comedies of the 1930s. The location of Abu Dhabi was chosen because of its high fashion culture (although the authorities later revoked filming clearance) and also that it was a location relatively free from the recession.
All four stars, Sarah Jessica Parker, Cynthia Nixon, Kristin Davis, and Kim Cattrall, returned in the sequel; Chris Noth also signed on to reprise the role of Mr. Big. Evan Handler returned as Harry Goldenblatt, John Corbett as Aiden Shaw, David Eigenberg played Steve Brady once more, Willie Garson returned as Stanford Blatch, and Mario Cantone again played Anthony Marentino, making the original cast almost complete. In addition, Michael Patrick King wrote and directed again, and Patricia Field once again took charge of the costumes and wardrobe. Hats were once again created by Prudence Millinery for Vivienne Westwood.
Entertainment Weekly confirmed that the budget for the film was US $95 million, exactly $30 million greater than the budget for the first film. Sarah Jessica Parker was paid 15 million plus residuals for her dual role as a producer and starring as Carrie Bradshaw.
Filming in New York City was postponed to the end of July as Emirati authorities refused clearance for filming in the emirate. As a result, the Abu Dhabi segment of the film was filmed in Morocco. All four leading ladies and other cast and crew were photographed filming scenes in Morocco in November 2009, where they had originally planned to shoot for 13 days, which had to be extended to almost six weeks. Filming took place at several locations including the seaside town of Sidi Kaouki, and Amanjena, outside of Marrakesh.
The sequel officially began filming on September 1, 2009 and continued until the end of the year. Photos of all four leading women filming scenes around New York together and separately have emerged, featuring present - day scenes as well as a range of looks believed to be flashbacks from the earlier years of Carrie, Samantha, Miranda, and Charlotte 's long - standing friendships. Images of Samantha in a wedding dress have also been released. Additionally, scenes featuring prominent characters such as Mr. Big, Magda, Smith, Steve, and the children of Miranda and Charlotte have been filmed and photographed.
In September 2009, American singer / actress Liza Minnelli confirmed to several media outlets that she appeared in a cameo role. Singer / actress Bette Midler had been photographed on set, but does not appear in the film. Penélope Cruz appears briefly as Carmen, a banker. Miley Cyrus appeared in one scene where she appears at the premiere of Smith Jerrod 's new film, wearing the same dress as Samantha. On October 17, Oceanup.com posted several pictures of Miley filming the scene.
John Corbett was seen on location in Morocco, confirming his speculated involvement in the film as Aidan.
Promotion began in December 2009, when the official teaser poster was released online, featuring Carrie in a white dress and gold sunglasses which reflect a Moroccan backdrop, and the tagline "Carrie On '', a similar pun of the lead character 's name as "Get Carried Away '' from the first film. The same image and tagline was used for the launch of the official Sex and the City 2 website, also launched in December 2009.
The teaser trailer premiered online on December 22, 2009. In March 2010, new promotional stills were released, predominantly featuring scenes from the Moroccan portion of the film. Also in March, Sarah Jessica Parker, Kristin Davis and Cynthia Nixon attended ShoWest 2010 in Las Vegas to premiere the full length trailer and discuss the film (Kim Cattrall was in London performing on stage in the West End, and joined the rest of the cast for promotion when her stage run ended on May 3).
The full theatrical trailer premiered on Entertainment Tonight and online on April 8, 2010, featuring current New York City - themed hit "Empire State of Mind '' by Jay - Z and Alicia Keys as well as Australian R&B / Pop singer, Ricki - Lee Coulter 's platinum selling hit, "Ca n't Touch It ''.
A full scale promotional tour with all key cast members -- including television, press conference and print -- commenced in early May 2010, and continued throughout the film 's release, encompassing many different countries and cities. The New York City premiere of the film was held on 24 May 2010.
The film was panned by critics; review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes reports that 15 % of critics have given the film a positive review based on 198 reviews, with an average score of 3.7 / 10. By comparison the first film received a score of 49 % based on 172 reviews, with an average score of 5.5 / 10. The critical consensus is: "Straining under a thin plot stretched to its limit by a bloated running time, Sex and the City 2 adds an unfortunate coda to the long - running HBO series. '' Metacritic gave the film a score of 27 / 100 based on a normalized average of 39 reviews indicating generally unfavorable reviews.
The film was also criticized for its portrayal of the Middle East. Stephen Farber of The Hollywood Reporter called it "blatantly anti-Muslim '' and Hadley Freeman of the UK broadsheet The Guardian described the trailers as "borderline racist ''.
Andrew O'Hagan of the London Evening Standard described the movie as ugly on the inside, and ended by saying "This could be the most stupid, the most racist, the most polluting and women - hating film of the year ''.
Roger Ebert gave the film one star out of four; he wrote, "I am obliged to report that this film will no doubt be deliriously enjoyed by its fans, for the reasons described above. Male couch potatoes dragged to the film against their will may find some consolation. Reader, I must confess that while attending the sneak preview with its overwhelmingly female audience, I was gob - smacked by the delightful cleavage on display. ''
Lindy West wrote a noted review of the film, saying that "SATC2 takes everything that I hold dear as a woman and as a human -- working hard, contributing to society, not being an entitled cunt like it 's my job -- and rapes it to death with a stiletto that costs more than my car. It is 146 minutes long, which means that I entered the theater in the bloom of youth and emerged with a family of field mice living in my long, white mustache. This is an entirely inappropriate length for what is essentially a home video of gay men playing with giant Barbie dolls. ''
Mitu Sengupta, a Toronto - based academic, criticized the film for exploiting women 's and gay rights, and "pitifully '' turning them into "badges of national honor '' and "smug patriotic pride. '' She wrote: "what 's really worrying about Sex and the City 2 is not its Orientalism or crass materialism, but how easily this seemingly benign bubble - gum flick ends up fighting a very macho war of global one - upmanship on the bodies of women and gay men. ''
British film critic Mark Kermode declared it the worst film of 2010, saying he could n't think of anything civilization had made that was "more poisonous, more repugnant, more repulsive, more retrograde, more depressing than Sex and the City 2, '' and said its unintentionally "ghastly '' portrayal of the "disgustingly wealthy '' almost made him want to become a communist. Time named it one of the top 10 worst movies based on TV shows.
The film received 7 nominations at the 31st Golden Raspberry Awards including Worst Picture. It went on to win three awards, including a joint worst actress award for the film 's four principal actresses: Sarah Jessica Parker, Kim Cattrall, Cynthia Nixon, and Kristin Davis. David Eigenberg expressed interest in receiving the Worst Couple / Screen Ensemble Razzie, which was awarded to the entire cast. According to Razzies founder John J.B. Wilson, "(Eigenberg) said that he had never won an award of any kind and if this was what he won, he would accept it. '' Eigenberg then collaborated with Wilson to make a humorous acceptance video which was posted on the official YouTube channel of the Golden Raspberry Awards.
The film opened in 3,445 theaters on May 27, 2010, setting a record for one of the widest release for a R rated romantic comedy film. Playing in 2,000 theaters, the film grossed $3 million from its midnight premiere. On its opening day, the film topped the box office grossing $14.2 million, for a projected $60 million for a 4 - day opening weekend, plus $75 million for a 5 - day Memorial day weekend. But it debuted in second place behind Shrek Forever After with $31 million, and its total to $45.2 million, for its 4 - day opening weekend, plus $51 million on its 5 - day opening weekend (Memorial Day).
However, overseas, the sequel was a bigger success topping the charts in Germany for 5 weeks, Britain for 3 weeks, Australia for 2 weeks and exceeding the original in Japan and Greece. In fact, Sex and the City 2 sold more tickets than the first part in many of the foreign markets. As of August 19, 2010, the film 's total domestic gross stands at $95,347,692 and as of August 1, 2010, overseas, it has grossed $199,333,086 -- giving it a worldwide total of $294,680,778. Although 27 % lower than the first film, it was 2010 's highest - grossing romantic comedy.
Sex and the City 2 was released on DVD, Blu - ray, and iTunes on October 26, 2010, in the US where it entered the chart at number one selling almost one million copies in its first week. It was released on DVD and Blu - ray in the UK on November 29, 2010, also entering the sales chart at number one.
Sex and the City 2 original motion picture soundtrack was released on May 25, 2010.
The score was recorded and mixed by Dennis S. Sands and Steve Kempster and performed by a large ensemble of the Hollywood Studio Symphony conducted by Stephen Coleman who orchestrated Zigman 's score. Patrick Kirst also orchestrated.
In December 2016, Radar Online reported that a script for the third and final film had been approved. That same day, the main cast had signed on; however, no start filming date had been announced. On September 28, 2017, Sarah Jessica Parker confirmed to Extra that the third film is "It 's over, we 're not doing it. '' She said, "We had this beautiful, funny, heartbreaking, joyful, very relatable script and story '', and that "It 's not just disappointing that we do n't get to tell the story and have that experience, but more so for that audience that has been so vocal in wanting another movie. '' The Daily Mail reported that Kim Cattrall 's "outrageous demands '' to Warner Bros. are to blame for the third film 's cancellation, Cattrall responded on Twitter that, "The only ' DEMAND ' I ever made was that I did n't want to do a 3rd film... & that was back in 2016. ''
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when was the great pyramid of giza discovered | Great Pyramid of Giza - wikipedia
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The Great Pyramid of Giza (also known as the Pyramid of Khufu or the Pyramid of Cheops) is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza pyramid complex bordering what is now El Giza, Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain largely intact.
Based on a mark in an interior chamber naming the work gang and a reference to the fourth dynasty Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu, Egyptologists believe that the pyramid was built as a tomb over a 10 - to 20 - year period concluding around 2560 BC. Initially at 146.5 metres (481 feet), the Great Pyramid was the tallest man - made structure in the world for more than 3,800 years. Originally, the Great Pyramid was covered by limestone casing stones that formed a smooth outer surface; what is seen today is the underlying core structure. Some of the casing stones that once covered the structure can still be seen around the base. There have been varying scientific and alternative theories about the Great Pyramid 's construction techniques. Most accepted construction hypotheses are based on the idea that it was built by moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place.
There are three known chambers inside the Great Pyramid. The lowest chamber is cut into the bedrock upon which the pyramid was built and was unfinished. The so - called Queen 's Chamber and King 's Chamber are higher up within the pyramid structure. The main part of the Giza complex is a set of buildings that included two mortuary temples in honour of Khufu (one close to the pyramid and one near the Nile), three smaller pyramids for Khufu 's wives, an even smaller "satellite '' pyramid, a raised causeway connecting the two temples, and small mastaba tombs surrounding the pyramid for nobles.
Egyptologists believe the pyramid was built as a tomb for the Fourth Dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu (often Hellenized as "Cheops '') and was constructed over a 20 - year period. Khufu 's vizier, Hemiunu (also called Hemon) is believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid. It is thought that, at construction, the Great Pyramid was originally 280 Egyptian Royal cubits tall (146.5 metres (480.6 ft)), but with erosion and absence of its pyramidion, its present height is 138.8 metres (455.4 ft). Each base side was 440 cubits, 230.4 metres (755.9 ft) long. The mass of the pyramid is estimated at 5.9 million tonnes. The volume, including an internal hillock, is roughly 2,500,000 cubic metres (88,000,000 cu ft).
Based on these estimates, building the pyramid in 20 years would involve installing approximately 800 tonnes of stone every day. Additionally, since it consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks, completing the building in 20 years would involve moving an average of more than 12 of the blocks into place each hour, day and night. The first precision measurements of the pyramid were made by Egyptologist Sir Flinders Petrie in 1880 -- 82 and published as The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh. Almost all reports are based on his measurements. Many of the casing - stones and inner chamber blocks of the Great Pyramid fit together with extremely high precision. Based on measurements taken on the north - eastern casing stones, the mean opening of the joints is only 0.5 millimetre wide (1 / 50 of an inch).
The pyramid remained the tallest man - made structure in the world for over 3,800 years, unsurpassed until the 160 - metre - tall (520 ft) spire of Lincoln Cathedral was completed c. 1300. The accuracy of the pyramid 's workmanship is such that the four sides of the base have an average error of only 58 millimetres in length. The base is horizontal and flat to within ± 15 mm (0.6 in). The sides of the square base are closely aligned to the four cardinal compass points (within four minutes of arc) based on true north, not magnetic north, and the finished base was squared to a mean corner error of only 12 seconds of arc.
The completed design dimensions, as suggested by Petrie 's survey and subsequent studies, are estimated to have originally been 280 Egyptian Royal cubits high by 440 cubits long at each of the four sides of its base. The ratio of the perimeter to height of 1760 / 280 Egyptian Royal cubits equates to 2 π to an accuracy of better than 0.05 percent (corresponding to the well - known approximation of π as 22 / 7). Some Egyptologists consider this to have been the result of deliberate design proportion. Verner wrote, "We can conclude that although the ancient Egyptians could not precisely define the value of π, in practice they used it ''. Petrie, author of Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh concluded: "but these relations of areas and of circular ratio are so systematic that we should grant that they were in the builder 's design ''. Others have argued that the Ancient Egyptians had no concept of pi and would not have thought to encode it in their monuments. They believe that the observed pyramid slope may be based on a simple seked slope choice alone, with no regard to the overall size and proportions of the finished building. In 2013, rolls of papyrus called the Diary of Merer were discovered written by some of those who delivered limestone and other construction materials from Tora to Giza.
The Great Pyramid consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks which most believe to have been transported from nearby quarries. The Tura limestone used for the casing was quarried across the river. The largest granite stones in the pyramid, found in the "King 's '' chamber, weigh 25 to 80 tonnes and were transported from Aswan, more than 800 km (500 mi) away. Traditionally, ancient Egyptians cut stone blocks by hammering into them wooden wedges, which were then soaked with water. As the water was absorbed, the wedges expanded, causing the rock to crack. Once they were cut, they were carried by boat either up or down the Nile River to the pyramid. It is estimated that 5.5 million tonnes of limestone, 8,000 tonnes of granite (imported from Aswan), and 500,000 tonnes of mortar were used in the construction of the Great Pyramid.
At completion, the Great Pyramid was surfaced by white "casing stones '' -- slant - faced, but flat - topped, blocks of highly polished white limestone. These were carefully cut to what is approximately a face slope with a seked of 51⁄2 palms to give the required dimensions. Visibly, all that remains is the underlying stepped core structure seen today. In AD 1303, a massive earthquake loosened many of the outer casing stones, which were then carted away by Bahri Sultan An - Nasir Nasir - ad - Din al - Hasan in 1356 to build mosques and fortresses in nearby Cairo. Many more casing stones were removed from the great pyramids by Muhammad Ali Pasha in the early 19th century to build the upper portion of his Alabaster Mosque in Cairo, not far from Giza. These limestone casings can still be seen as parts of these structures. Later explorers reported massive piles of rubble at the base of the pyramids left over from the continuing collapse of the casing stones, which were subsequently cleared away during continuing excavations of the site.
Nevertheless, a few of the casing stones from the lowest course can be seen to this day in situ around the base of the Great Pyramid, and display the same workmanship and precision that has been reported for centuries. Petrie also found a different orientation in the core and in the casing measuring 193 centimetres ± 25 centimetres. He suggested a redetermination of north was made after the construction of the core, but a mistake was made, and the casing was built with a different orientation. Petrie related the precision of the casing stones as to being "equal to opticians ' work of the present day, but on a scale of acres '' and "to place such stones in exact contact would be careful work; but to do so with cement in the joints seems almost impossible ''. It has been suggested it was the mortar (Petrie 's "cement '') that made this seemingly impossible task possible, providing a level bed, which enabled the masons to set the stones exactly.
Many alternative, often contradictory, theories have been proposed regarding the pyramid 's construction techniques. Many disagree on whether the blocks were dragged, lifted, or even rolled into place. The Greeks believed that slave labour was used, but modern discoveries made at nearby workers ' camps associated with construction at Giza suggest that it was built instead by tens of thousands of skilled workers. Verner posited that the labour was organized into a hierarchy, consisting of two gangs of 100,000 men, divided into five zaa or phyle of 20,000 men each, which may have been further divided according to the skills of the workers.
One mystery of the pyramid 's construction is its planning. John Romer suggests that they used the same method that had been used for earlier and later constructions, laying out parts of the plan on the ground at a 1 - to - 1 scale. He writes that "such a working diagram would also serve to generate the architecture of the pyramid with precision unmatched by any other means ''. He also argues for a 14 - year time - span for its construction. A modern construction management study, in association with Mark Lehner and other Egyptologists, estimated that the total project required an average workforce of about 14,500 people and a peak workforce of roughly 40,000. Without the use of pulleys, wheels, or iron tools, they used critical path analysis methods, which suggest that the Great Pyramid was completed from start to finish in approximately 10 years.
The original entrance to the Great Pyramid is on the north, 17 metres (56 ft) vertically above ground level and 7.29 metres (23.9 ft) east of the centre line of the pyramid. From this original entrance, there is a Descending Passage 0.96 metres (3.1 ft) high and 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide, which goes down at an angle of 26 ° 31'23 '' through the masonry of the pyramid and then into the bedrock beneath it. After 105.23 metres (345.2 ft), the passage becomes level and continues for an additional 8.84 metres (29.0 ft) to the lower Chamber, which appears not to have been finished. There is a continuation of the horizontal passage in the south wall of the lower chamber; there is also a pit dug in the floor of the chamber. Some Egyptologists suggest that this Lower Chamber was intended to be the original burial chamber, but Pharaoh Khufu later changed his mind and wanted it to be higher up in the pyramid.
28.2 metres (93 ft) from the entrance is a square hole in the roof of the Descending Passage. Originally concealed with a slab of stone, this is the beginning of the Ascending Passage. The Ascending Passage is 39.3 metres (129 ft) long, as wide and high as the Descending Passage and slopes up at almost precisely the same angle to reach the Grand Gallery. The lower end of the Ascending Passage is closed by three huge blocks of granite, each about 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) long. One must use the Robbers ' Tunnel (see below) to access the Ascending Passage. At the start of the Grand Gallery on the right - hand side there is a hole cut in the wall. This is the start of a vertical shaft which follows an irregular path through the masonry of the pyramid to join the Descending Passage. Also at the start of the Grand Gallery there is the Horizontal Passage leading to the "Queen 's Chamber ''. The passage is 1.1 m (3'8 ") high for most of its length, but near the chamber there is a step in the floor, after which the passage is 1.73 metres (5.7 ft) high.
The "Queen 's Chamber '' is exactly halfway between the north and south faces of the pyramid and measures 5.75 metres (18.9 ft) north to south, 5.23 metres (17.2 ft) east to west, and has a pointed roof with an apex 6.23 metres (20.4 ft) above the floor. At the eastern end of the chamber there is a niche 4.67 metres (15.3 ft) high. The original depth of the niche was 1.04 metres (3.4 ft), but has since been deepened by treasure hunters.
In the north and south walls of the Queen 's Chamber there are shafts, which, unlike those in the King 's Chamber that immediately slope upwards (see below), are horizontal for around 2 m (6.6 ft) before sloping upwards. The horizontal distance was cut in 1872 by a British engineer, Waynman Dixon, who believed a shaft similar to those in the King 's Chamber must also exist. He was proved right, but because the shafts are not connected to the outer faces of the pyramid or the Queen 's Chamber, their purpose is unknown. At the end of one of his shafts, Dixon discovered a ball of black diorite (a type of rock) and a bronze implement of unknown purpose. Both objects are currently in the British Museum.
The shafts in the Queen 's Chamber were explored in 1993 by the German engineer Rudolf Gantenbrink using a crawler robot he designed, Upuaut 2. After a climb of 65 m (213 ft), he discovered that one of the shafts was blocked by limestone "doors '' with two eroded copper "handles ''. Some years later the National Geographic Society created a similar robot which, in September 2002, drilled a small hole in the southern door, only to find another door behind it. The northern passage, which was difficult to navigate because of twists and turns, was also found to be blocked by a door.
Research continued in 2011 with the Djedi Project. Realizing the problem was that the National Geographic Society 's camera was only able to see straight ahead of it, they instead used a fibre - optic "micro snake camera '' that could see around corners. With this they were able to penetrate the first door of the southern shaft through the hole drilled in 2002, and view all the sides of the small chamber behind it. They discovered hieroglyphs written in red paint. They were also able to scrutinize the inside of the two copper "handles '' embedded in the door, and they now believe them to be for decorative purposes. They also found the reverse side of the "door '' to be finished and polished, which suggests that it was not put there just to block the shaft from debris, but rather for a more specific reason.
The Grand Gallery continues the slope of the Ascending Passage, but is 8.6 metres (28 ft) high and 46.68 metres (153.1 ft) long. At the base it is 2.06 metres (6.8 ft) wide, but after 2.29 metres (7.5 ft) the blocks of stone in the walls are corbelled inwards by 7.6 centimetres (3.0 in) on each side. There are seven of these steps, so, at the top, the Grand Gallery is only 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide. It is roofed by slabs of stone laid at a slightly steeper angle than the floor of the gallery, so that each stone fits into a slot cut in the top of the gallery like the teeth of a ratchet. The purpose was to have each block supported by the wall of the Gallery, rather than resting on the block beneath it, in order to prevent cumulative pressure.
At the upper end of the Gallery on the right - hand side there is a hole near the roof that opens into a short tunnel by which access can be gained to the lowest of the Relieving Chambers. The other Relieving Chambers were discovered in 1837 -- 1838 by Colonel Howard Vyse and J.S. Perring, who dug tunnels upwards using blasting powder.
The floor of the Grand Gallery consists of a shelf or step on either side, 51 centimetres (20 in) wide, leaving a lower ramp 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide between them. In the shelves there are 54 slots, 27 on each side matched by vertical and horizontal slots in the walls of the Gallery. These form a cross shape that rises out of the slot in the shelf. The purpose of these slots is not known, but the central gutter in the floor of the Gallery, which is the same width as the Ascending Passage, has led to speculation that the blocking stones were stored in the Grand Gallery and the slots held wooden beams to restrain them from sliding down the passage. This, in turn, has led to the proposal that originally many more than 3 blocking stones were intended, to completely fill the Ascending Passage.
At the top of the Grand Gallery, there is a step giving onto a horizontal passage some metres long and approximately 1.02 metres (3.3 ft) in height and width, in which can be detected four slots, three of which were probably intended to hold granite portcullises. Fragments of granite found by Petrie in the Descending Passage may have come from these now - vanished doors.
In 2017, scientists from the ScanPyramids project discovered a large cavity above the Grand Gallery using muon radiography, which they called the "ScanPyramids Big Void ''. Its length is at least 30 metres (98 ft) and its cross-section is similar to that of the Grand Gallery. Its existence was confirmed by independent detection with three different technologies: nuclear emulsion films, scintillator hodoscopes, and gas detectors. The purpose of the cavity is not known and it is not accessible but according to Zahi Hawass it may have been a gap used in the construction of the Grand Gallery. The Japanese research team disputes this, however, saying that the huge void is completely different from the construction spaces previously identified.
The "King 's Chamber '' is 20 Egyptian Royal cubits or 10.47 metres (34.4 ft) from east to west and 10 cubits or 5.234 metres (17.17 ft) north to south. It has a flat roof 11 cubits and 5 digits or 5.852 metres (19 feet 2 inch) above the floor. 0.91 m (3.0 ft) above the floor there are two narrow shafts in the north and south walls (one is now filled by an extractor fan in an attempt to circulate air inside the pyramid). The purpose of these shafts is not clear: they appear to be aligned towards stars or areas of the northern and southern skies, yet one of them follows a dog - leg course through the masonry, indicating no intention to directly sight stars through them. They were long believed by Egyptologists to be "air shafts '' for ventilation, but this idea has now been widely abandoned in favour of the shafts serving a ritualistic purpose associated with the ascension of the king 's spirit to the heavens.
The King 's Chamber is entirely faced with granite. Above the roof, which is formed of nine slabs of stone weighing in total about 400 tons, are five compartments known as Relieving Chambers. The first four, like the King 's Chamber, have flat roofs formed by the floor of the chamber above, but the final chamber has a pointed roof. Vyse suspected the presence of upper chambers when he found that he could push a long reed through a crack in the ceiling of the first chamber. From lower to upper, the chambers are known as "Davison 's Chamber '', "Wellington 's Chamber '', "Nelson 's Chamber '', "Lady Arbuthnot 's Chamber '', and "Campbell 's Chamber ''. It is believed that the compartments were intended to safeguard the King 's Chamber from the possibility of a roof collapsing under the weight of stone above the Chamber. As the chambers were not intended to be seen, they were not finished in any way and a few of the stones still retain masons ' marks painted on them. One of the stones in Campbell 's Chamber bears a mark, apparently the name of a work gang.
The only object in the King 's Chamber is a rectangular granite sarcophagus, one corner of which is broken. The sarcophagus is slightly larger than the Ascending Passage, which indicates that it must have been placed in the Chamber before the roof was put in place. Unlike the fine masonry of the walls of the Chamber, the sarcophagus is roughly finished, with saw - marks visible in several places. This is in contrast with the finely finished and decorated sarcophagi found in other pyramids of the same period. Petrie suggested that such a sarcophagus was intended but was lost in the river on the way north from Aswan and a hurriedly made replacement was used instead.
Today tourists enter the Great Pyramid via the Robbers ' Tunnel, a tunnel purportedly created around AD 820 by Caliph al - Ma'mun 's workmen using a battering ram. The tunnel is cut straight through the masonry of the pyramid for approximately 27 metres (89 ft), then turns sharply left to encounter the blocking stones in the Ascending Passage. It is believed that their efforts dislodged the stone fitted in the ceiling of the Descending Passage to hide the entrance to the Ascending Passage and it was the noise of that stone falling and then sliding down the Descending Passage, which alerted them to the need to turn left. Unable to remove these stones, however, the workmen tunnelled up beside them through the softer limestone of the Pyramid until they reached the Ascending Passage. It is possible to enter the Descending Passage from this point, but access is usually forbidden.
The Great Pyramid is surrounded by a complex of several buildings including small pyramids. The Pyramid Temple, which stood on the east side of the pyramid and measured 52.2 metres (171 ft) north to south and 40 metres (130 ft) east to west, has almost entirely disappeared apart from the black basalt paving. There are only a few remnants of the causeway which linked the pyramid with the valley and the Valley Temple. The Valley Temple is buried beneath the village of Nazlet el - Samman; basalt paving and limestone walls have been found but the site has not been excavated. The basalt blocks show "clear evidence '' of having been cut with some kind of saw with an estimated cutting blade of 15 feet (4.6 m) in length, capable of cutting at a rate of 1.5 inches (38 mm) per minute. John Romer suggests that this "super saw '' may have had copper teeth and weighed up to 300 pounds (140 kg). He theorizes that such a saw could have been attached to a wooden trestle and possibly used in conjunction with vegetable oil, cutting sand, emery or pounded quartz to cut the blocks, which would have required the labour of at least a dozen men to operate it.
On the south side are the subsidiary pyramids, popularly known as the Queens ' Pyramids. Three remain standing to nearly full height but the fourth was so ruined that its existence was not suspected until the recent discovery of the first course of stones and the remains of the capstone. Hidden beneath the paving around the pyramid was the tomb of Queen Hetepheres I, sister - wife of Sneferu and mother of Khufu. Discovered by accident by the Reisner expedition, the burial was intact, though the carefully sealed coffin proved to be empty.
The Giza pyramid complex, which includes among other structures the pyramids of Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure, is surrounded by a cyclopean stone wall, the Wall of the Crow. Mark Lehner has discovered a worker 's town outside of the wall, otherwise known as "The Lost City '', dated by pottery styles, seal impressions, and stratigraphy to have been constructed and occupied sometime during the reigns of Khafre (2520 -- 2494 BC) and Menkaure (2490 -- 2472 BC). In the early 21st century, Mark Lehner and his team made several discoveries, including what appears to have been a thriving port, suggesting the town and associated living quarters, which consisted of barracks called "galleries '', may not have been for the pyramid workers after all but rather for the soldiers and sailors who utilized the port. In light of this new discovery, as to where then the pyramid workers may have lived, Lehner suggested the alternative possibility they may have camped on the ramps he believes were used to construct the pyramids or possibly at nearby quarries.
In the early 1970s, the Australian archaeologist Karl Kromer excavated a mound in the South Field of the plateau. This mound contained artefacts including mudbrick seals of Khufu, which he identified with an artisans ' settlement. Mudbrick buildings just south of Khufu 's Valley Temple contained mud sealings of Khufu and have been suggested to be a settlement serving the cult of Khufu after his death. A worker 's cemetery used at least between Khufu 's reign and the end of the Fifth Dynasty was discovered south of the Wall of the Crow by Zahi Hawass in 1990.
There are three boat - shaped pits around the pyramid, of a size and shape to have held complete boats, though so shallow that any superstructure, if there ever was one, must have been removed or disassembled. In May 1954, the Egyptian archaeologist Kamal el - Mallakh discovered a fourth pit, a long, narrow rectangle, still covered with slabs of stone weighing up to 15 tons. Inside were 1,224 pieces of wood, the longest 23 metres (75 ft) long, the shortest 10 centimetres (0.33 ft). These were entrusted to a boat builder, Haj Ahmed Yusuf, who worked out how the pieces fit together. The entire process, including conservation and straightening of the warped wood, took fourteen years.
The result is a cedar - wood boat 43.6 metres (143 ft) long, its timbers held together by ropes, which is currently housed in a special boat - shaped, air - conditioned museum beside the pyramid. During construction of this museum, which stands above the boat pit, a second sealed boat pit was discovered. It was deliberately left unopened until 2011 when excavation began on the boat.
Although succeeding pyramids were smaller, pyramid - building continued until the end of the Middle Kingdom. However, as authors Brier and Hobbs claim, "all the pyramids were robbed '' by the New Kingdom, when the construction of royal tombs in a desert valley, now known as the Valley of the Kings, began. Joyce Tyldesley states that the Great Pyramid itself "is known to have been opened and emptied by the Middle Kingdom '', before the Arab caliph Abdullah al - Mamun entered the pyramid around AD 820.
I.E.S. Edwards discusses Strabo 's mention that the pyramid "a little way up one side has a stone that may be taken out, which being raised up there is a sloping passage to the foundations ''. Edwards suggested that the pyramid was entered by robbers after the end of the Old Kingdom and sealed and then reopened more than once until Strabo 's door was added. He adds: "If this highly speculative surmise be correct, it is also necessary to assume either that the existence of the door was forgotten or that the entrance was again blocked with facing stones '', in order to explain why al - Ma'mun could not find the entrance.
He also discusses a story told by Herodotus. Herodotus visited Egypt in the 5th century BC and recounts a story that he was told concerning vaults under the pyramid built on an island where the body of Cheops lies. Edwards notes that the pyramid had "almost certainly been opened and its contents plundered long before the time of Herodotus '' and that it might have been closed again during the Twenty - sixth Dynasty of Egypt when other monuments were restored. He suggests that the story told to Herodotus could have been the result of almost two centuries of telling and retelling by Pyramid guides.
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how long is a football game on tv uk | English football on television - Wikipedia
English football on television has been broadcast since 1938. Since the establishment of the Premier League in 1992, English football has become a very lucrative industry. As of the 2013 - 14 season, domestic television rights for the 20 - team Premier League are worth £ 1 billion a year. The league generates € 2.2 billion per year in domestic and international television rights.
See Sports broadcasting contracts in the United Kingdom # Association football
The BBC started its television service in 1936, although it was nearly a year before the very first televised match of football was screened -- a specially - arranged friendly match between Arsenal and Arsenal Reserves at Highbury on 16 September 1937. This was followed by the first televised international match, between England and Scotland on 9 April 1938, and the first televised FA Cup final followed soon after, on 30 April the same year, between Huddersfield Town and Preston North End.
In October 1946, the first live televised football match was broadcast by the BBC from Barnet 's home ground Underhill. Twenty minutes of the game against Wealdstone were televised in the first half and thirty five minutes of the second half before it became too dark.
However, coverage of football television did not expand and for the next two decades the only matches screened were FA Cup finals and the odd England v. Scotland match. The first FA Cup tie other than the final to be shown was a fifth round match between Charlton Athletic and Blackburn Rovers on 8 February 1947, but matches were sparing and only games in London could be broadcast, for technical reasons.
The advent of floodlighting led to the creation of the European Cup, designed as a midweek cup competition for the champions of European nations, in 1955. The newly formed British television station ITV saw televised football as an ideal way of gaining a share of the audience from their only rival broadcaster, the BBC. The BBC meanwhile, started showing brief highlights of matches (with a maximum of five minutes) on its Saturday - night Sports Special programme from 10 September 1955, until its cancellation in 1963. The first games featured were both from Division One -- Luton Town v Newcastle United and Charlton Athletic v Everton. Kenneth Wolstenholme and Cliff Michelmore were the commentators.
An early attempt at live league football was made in 1960 - 61, when ITV agreed a deal worth £ 150,000 with the Football League to screen 26 matches; the very first live league match was on Saturday 10 September 1960 between Blackpool and Bolton Wanderers at Bloomfield Road. The match kicked off at 6: 50 pm with live coverage starting at 7: 30 under the title The Big Game. A major blow to the TV moguls was the absence of big box - office draw Stanley Matthews through injury, and the game ended 1 - 0 to Bolton in front of a half - empty stadium.
However, ITV withdrew from the deal after first Arsenal and then Tottenham Hotspur refused them permission to shoot at their matches against Newcastle United and Aston Villa respectively, and the Football League demanded a dramatic increase in player appearance payments. ITV showed the Nat King Cole Show instead, while both matches received highlights coverage from the BBC on Sports Special.
However, ITV moved again into football, albeit tentatively, in 1962 when Anglia Television launched Match of the Week, which showed highlights of matches from around East Anglia. The first match shown was Ipswich Town 's 3 - 2 defeat at the hands of Wolves at Portman Road on 22 September 1962. Tyne Tees Television in the North East of England began broadcasting local matches soon after under the title Shoot. League football was soon to gain a nationwide audience once more. In 1964, the BBC introduced Match of the Day - originally shown on BBC2 and intended to train BBC cameramen for the forthcoming 1966 World Cup. The first match was Liverpool 's 3 - 2 victory over Arsenal at Anfield on 22 August, and the estimated audience of 20,000 was considerably less than the number of paying customers at the ground. At the time BBC2 could only be received in the London area, although by the end of Match of the Day 's first season it could be sampled in the Midlands. The programme transferred to BBC1 in the wake of England 's 1966 World Cup win and at last could be received by television viewers across the UK.
There was live coverage of World Cup football on UK screens in 1954 and 1958 - however only selected matches were available. In 1954, Kenneth Wolstenholme provided commentary on the few televised matches for BBC from Switzerland - including the quarter - final between Hungary and Brazil. A thunderstorm over the Alps cut off the picture and many irate viewers wrote in to complain that the BBC had pulled the plug. The 1958 tournament in Sweden saw a greater range of matches thanks to the new Eurovision Network; the BBC and ITV both screened matches, although the networks had to overcome opposition to the coverage from the Scottish FA, who were worried that attendances at Junior football matches might be hit. The 1962 World Cup in Chile was covered in delayed form by the BBC with film having to be carried by air via the United States back to Britain. Matches were generally seen three days after they were played, though every match was covered by the BBC with commentary.
With intercontinental communications satellites in their infancy and videotape a new advance, the first tournament to gain widespread international live coverage was the 1966 tournament, which was held in England. The tournament, which England won, increased the popularity of the sport. With more football viewers than ever, Match of the Day thrived -- switching from BBC Two to BBC One to reach a wider audience. ITV 's regional coverage had also expanded during this period with London weekend company ATV launching Star Soccer in October 1965, Southern Television 's Southern Soccer and ABC 's World of Soccer also began to appear regularly in the TV Times Sunday schedules. London Weekend Television 's The Big Match started in 1968, and eventually the entire ITV network 's football coverage would be broadcast under its title.
The demand for football grew through the 1970s and early 1980s, and the decision to start screening live league matches was almost inevitable; a deal was struck for the start of the 1983 - 84 season and the first live league match since 1960 was screened on ITV, between Tottenham Hotspur and Nottingham Forest, on 2 October 1983. Spurs would also feature in the BBC 's first live league match at Manchester United on a Friday night a few weeks later.
By the late 1980s the value of live TV coverage had rocketed; while a two - year contract for rights in 1983 had cost just £ 5.2 m, the four - year contract exclusively landed by ITV in 1988 cost £ 44m, a fourfold increase per year. There was now a situation where live football was on TV almost every Sunday afternoon from about November onwards, as ITV screened top - flight football most weeks and the BBC had the rights to the FA Cup that occupied other weekends.
With top - flight football proving particularly lucrative, in 1992 the clubs of the Football League First Division voted to quit the league en masse and set up their own league, the Premier League. They eventually opted to agree a deal with Sky Sports rather than ITV or the BBC, meaning leading live top - flight football was no longer available on terrestrial television. ITV continued to show second tier matches on a regional basis for the next four seasons until they also transferred to Sky Sports, apart from one season (2001 - 02) when they were shown on its unsuccessful ITV Digital platform.
Coverage of Premier League now dominates football on English television, especially in financial terms; the contracts agreed between the league and broadcasters BSkyB in 1992 and 1997 were worth £ 191.5 m and £ 670m respectively. Sky were also able to show more live games than previously, with several games live on many matchdays (originally Sundays and Mondays). However, the European Union objected to what it saw as a monopoly on television rights and demanded the 2007 contract be split into separate packages of 23 games; eventually Sky won four of the six available packages, with the other two were taken by Setanta Sports. Setanta went bankrupt in 2009 with its packages taken over by ESPN. From 2010 / 11, Sky have five packages and ESPN one. The top tier still has a presence on terrestrial television in highlights form on Match of the Day.
From the 2009 / 10 season, live coverage of the Football League returned to British terrestrial television for the first time since 2001 with the BBC securing 10 live Championship (second tier) games per season, as well as Football League highlights after Match of the Day. Sky also showed live lower league football while Setanta also showed large numbers of Conference National games before the channels demise.
There is also extensive coverage of numerous Cup competitions. Every match in the Champions League (formerly European Cup) is available on BT Sport. BT Sport and the BBC broadcast the FA Cup while Sky show the League Cup. ITV and BT Sport show the Europa League with even the Football League Trophy getting live television exposure on Sky Sports.
The Premier League holds an exclusive contract with broadcasters British Sky Broadcasting. Some public houses install foreign satellite television decoders hardware to enable customers to watch live Premier League games in their establishment.
The Court of Justice of the European Union has ruled that EU law on the free movement of goods should be applied to the decoder cards.
In 2007 Karen Murphy, a Portsmouth publican, was convicted under s297 (1) of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (CDPA), in that on two occasions she: '... dishonestly received a programme included in a broadcasting service provided from a place in the United Kingdom with intent to avoid payment of any charge applicable to the reception of the programme. ' In 2012, the European Court ruled that blocking foreign satellite TV breached EU single market rules. The English high court quashed Mrs Murphy 's convictions.
Promoted as "The Greatest Show On Earth '', the Premier League is the most - watched football league in the world, broadcast in 212 territories to 643 million homes and a potential TV audience of 4.7 billion people;. The Premier League 's production arm, Premier League Productions, is operated by IMG Productions and is responsible for producing all content for its international television partners.
In the United States, coverage for most of the 2000s and early 2010s was shared between Fox Soccer / Fox Soccer Plus and ESPN, with Fox Deportes and ESPN Deportes holding Spanish language rights. NBC Sports (primarily through NBCSN, NBC, CNBC, and USA Network) replaced ESPN and Fox Soccer as the exclusive broadcaster of the league in the US (in both English and Spanish; Telemundo and NBC Universo now carry Spanish - language coverage) beginning in the 2013 -- 14 season, as the result of a new three - year, $250 million USD deal with the league, including 20 matches that start at 5: 30pm UK time on Saturdays free - to - air on the main NBC network (12: 30pm American Eastern). Other games are carried through gametime - only channels known as "Premier League Extra Time '', and all games are carried through NBC Sports ' website and the NBC Sports mobile app with TV Everywhere authentication, with USA Network carrying matches in lieu of NBCSN during the 2014 Winter Olympics and 2016 Summer Olympics. Beginning with the 2017 -- 18 season, all matches not shown on the linear TV channels will be available on Premier League Pass, a subscription service hosted by NBC Sports Gold. Survival Sunday coverage (under the banner Championship Sunday) will be carried on May 11, 2014 by ten NBCUniversal networks, along with Telemundo and mun2. Fox Sports properties air the FA Cup, with the free - to - air Fox network airing the FA Cup Final.
On 10 August 2015 NBC Sports announced it had reached a six - year extension with the Premier League to broadcast the football league through the 2021 - 22 season. The value of the licensing deal rose by 100 % with the deal estimated to be worth $1 billion (£ 640 million); double the previous value. Traditionally a three - year deal, NBC Sports were able to double that length, as Premier League viewership on NBC and NBCSN averaged a record 479,000 viewers in the 2014 - 15 season -- up 9 % from the record NBC Sports set during its debut covering the Premier League in 2013 - 14 (438,000 viewers), and up 118 % from 2012 - 13, when coverage still aired on Fox Soccer and ESPN / ESPN2 (220,000 viewers). Along with improved ratings, NBC Sports has been widely praised for its coverage of the Premier League, while Fox Sports and ESPN have been criticized for neglecting coverage, in favour of other major U.S. sports they also cover.
The Premier League is particularly popular in Asia, where it is the most widely distributed sports programme. In India, the matches are broadcast live on ESPN and Star Sports. In China, data from 2003 suggested that matches were attracting television audiences between 100 million and 360 million, more than any other foreign sport. In 2012, Chinese rights were awarded to Super Sports in a six - year agreement that began in the 2013 / 14 season. Due to its popularity in Asia, the league has held four pre-season tournaments there, the only Premier League affiliated tournaments ever to have been held outside England. The Premier League Asia Trophy has been played in Malaysia, Thailand, Hong Kong and China and involves three Premier League clubs playing against a prominent team from the host nation, often the national side.
In Canada, Sportsnet owned the Premier League rights for three years from the 2010 -- 11 season. Select games (particularly those aired by ESPN) were sub-licensed to TSN. Starting in the 2013 -- 14 season, the matches are divided between Sportsnet and TSN: some of TSN 's broadcasts utilize the NBC Sports feed rather than the primary world feed. Sportsnet holds rights to the FA Cup, although all but the finals are televised on its subscription service Sportsnet World.
In Australia, Fox Sports broadcasts all of the season 's 380 matches live, except for the final day, when only selected matches are shown. Foxtel uses its ' Viewers Choice ' service to give subscribers the option of selecting which Saturday 3pm match to watch.
Figures from UK tourism body VisitBritain suggest that 750,000 visitors to Britain attended a Premier League match in 2010, spending a total £ 595 million and an average of £ 766. Visitors from Norway are most likely to come to watch Premier League football, with one in 13 Norwegian tourists travelling specifically to attend matches. Second on the list is the United Arab Emirates. For those visiting family and friends, the most likely to watch a football match are from Japan, China and Australia.
Each weekend as many as six Premier League matches will be moved to be shown on Sky Sports or BT Sport. The main kick - off times for TV matches are 12: 30pm and 5: 30pm on Saturdays, 1: 30pm and 4: 00pm on Sundays, and 8: 00pm on Mondays. For up to 10 matches each season, there is also a Friday night 8: 00pm TV slot. Other matches may also be moved to Sunday, usually because one of the teams involved played in a UEFA Europa League fixture the preceding Thursday. This can sometimes result in 12: 00pm, 2: 15pm and 4: 30pm Sunday kick - offs, with the 12: 00 game sometimes being broadcast on BT Sport. The 2: 15pm game will sometimes kick off at 2: 05pm.
Sky will almost always show a Saturday 12: 30pm as well as a Sunday 4: 00pm game live, typically following a Sunday 1: 30pm kick off as part of a Super Sunday double - bill. Two matches per midweek round will also be picked for live broadcast by BT on Tuesday and Wednesday evenings at either 7: 45pm or 8: 00pm.
BT Sport typically broadcast live Premier League games at 5: 30pm on Saturdays.
Each broadcaster is subjected to restrictions on the number of times they can show each team live per season to ensure fair distribution of TV revenue. Similarly, each team must appear at least once in each TV slot.
All televised Football League games are broadcast on SkySports, with 2 games (usually Championship) per weekend broadcast at 7: 45pm on a Friday and 5: 30pm on a Saturday. Other games may be additionally scheduled at different times.
In the 1960s, Burnley F.C. Chairman Bob Lord successfully convinced fellow Football League Chairmen that televised matches on a Saturday afternoon would have a negative effect on the attendances of other football league games that were not being televised and as a result reduce their financial income.
As a result, the FA, Premier League and Football League do not permit English matches to be televised live between 2: 45pm and 5: 15pm on a Saturday within the United Kingdom. Until recently, the FA Cup Final was an exception and had been broadcast at 3pm on a Saturday in May; however, in 2012, the FA Cup Final was moved to 5pm.
Foreign matches shown in the United Kingdom are also affected by the blackout; Sky Sports do not broadcast the first 15 minutes of Spanish La Liga matches which kick off at 5pm UK time.
In February 2011, Advocate General Kokott of the European Court of Justice opined that the "closed periods '' did not encourage match attendance at other league games.
Kokott did not actually provide evidence to refute the premise that stopping the televising of games encouraged football fans to physically attend matches at their local clubs. She instead makes the simple comparative point that only a minority of football associations surveyed (itself a number that forms a minority of UEFA associations) used ' blackout ' policies to bolster the attendances of their clubs; implying that the healthy attendances recorded in Germany and Spain show that closed periods are not a necessary prerequisite to full stadia.
To avoid this blackout, the last day of the Premier League, when all ten games must kick - off simultaneously, is always played on a Sunday. The final round of fixtures each of the Football Leagues are also scheduled away from 3pm on a Saturday in order to broadcast one or more game live.
Live radio broadcasts are permitted, both nationally and locally; these may be simulcast on the internet, depending on the broadcaster. Viewers outside the UK can still watch these games live on foreign broadcasters, thus creating somewhat of a grey market within the UK with viewers able to subscribe to or watch streams of foreign channels.
The Premier League and Sky maintain that, while grey market viewing of games is not illegal on the part of the viewer, it is illegal for anyone (such as a public house) to make such services openly available. This has in the past lead to heavy fines for public houses in the United Kingdom which have shown 3pm games in their establishments. More recently, the legality of such fines has been disputed, and a number of Crown Court cases have been reported in which publicans successfully challenged the Premier League 's position.
In recent years, Sky Sports has shown 3pm games on tape delay on their Football First show, either in full or as extended highlights.
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who are the native speakers of english language | English language - wikipedia
English is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now a global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, it ultimately derives its name from the Anglia (Angeln) peninsula in the Baltic Sea. It is closely related to the Frisian languages, but its vocabulary has been significantly influenced by other Germanic languages, particularly Norse (a North Germanic language), as well as by Latin and Romance languages, especially French.
English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo - Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo - Saxon settlers in the 5th century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, and was a period in which the language was influenced by French. Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift.
Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries. Through all types of printed and electronic media, as well as the emergence of the United States as a global superpower, English has become the leading language of international discourse and the lingua franca in many regions and in professional contexts such as science, navigation and law.
English is the third most widespread native language in the world, after Standard Chinese and Spanish. It is the most widely learned second language and is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. There are more people who have learned it as a second language than there are native speakers. English is the most commonly spoken language in the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, Ireland and New Zealand, and it is widely spoken in some areas of the Caribbean, Africa and South Asia. It is co-official language of the United Nations, of the European Union and of many other world and regional international organisations. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70 % of speakers of this Indo - European branch. English has a vast vocabulary, and counting exactly how many words it has is impossible.
Modern English grammar is the result of a gradual change from a typical Indo - European dependent marking pattern with a rich inflectional morphology and relatively free word order, to a mostly analytic pattern with little inflection, a fairly fixed SVO word order and a complex syntax. Modern English relies more on auxiliary verbs and word order for the expression of complex tenses, aspect and mood, as well as passive constructions, interrogatives and some negation. Despite noticeable variation among the accents and dialects of English used in different countries and regions -- in terms of phonetics and phonology, and sometimes also vocabulary, grammar and spelling -- English - speakers from around the world are able to communicate with one another with relative ease.
English is an Indo - European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Old English originated from a Germanic tribal and linguistic continuum along the coast of the North Sea, whose languages are now known as the Anglo - Frisian subgroup within West Germanic. As such, the modern Frisian languages are the closest living relatives of Modern English. Low German / Low Saxon is also closely related, and sometimes English, the Frisian languages, and Low German are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic, though this grouping remains debated. Old English evolved into Middle English, which in turn evolved into Modern English. Particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English (Anglic) languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy (Yola) dialects of Ireland.
Like Icelandic and Faroese, the development of English on the British Isles isolated it from the continental Germanic languages and influences, and has since undergone substantial evolution. English is thus not mutually intelligible with any continental Germanic language, differing in vocabulary, syntax, and phonology, although some, such as Dutch or Frisian, do show strong affinities with English, especially with its earlier stages.
Unlike Icelandic or Faroese, the long history of invasions of the British Isles by other peoples and languages, particularly Old Norse and Norman French, left a profound mark of their own on the language, such that English shares substantial vocabulary and grammar similarities with many languages outside its linguistic clades, while also being unintelligible with any of those languages. Some scholars have even argued that English can be considered a mixed language or a creole -- a theory called the Middle English creole hypothesis. Although the high degree of influence from these languages on the vocabulary and grammar of Modern English is widely acknowledged, most specialists in language contact do not consider English to be a true mixed language.
English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares innovations with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German, and Swedish. These shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor called Proto - Germanic. Some shared features of Germanic languages include the use of modal verbs, the division of verbs into strong and weak classes, and the sound changes affecting Proto - Indo - European consonants, known as Grimm 's and Verner 's laws. English is classified as an Anglo - Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto - Germanic (see Phonological history of Old English § Palatalization).
The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo - Saxon (c. 550 -- 1066 CE). Old English developed from a set of North Sea Germanic dialects originally spoken along the coasts of Frisia, Lower Saxony, Jutland, and Southern Sweden by Germanic tribes known as the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. In the fifth century, the Anglo - Saxons settled Britain as the Roman economy and administration collapsed. By the seventh century, the Germanic language of the Anglo - Saxons became dominant in Britain, replacing the languages of Roman Britain (43 -- 409 CE): Common Brittonic, a Celtic language, and Latin, brought to Britain by the Roman occupation. England and English (originally Ænglaland and Ænglisc) are named after the Angles.
Old English was divided into four dialects: the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the ninth century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex, the West Saxon dialect became the standard written variety. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Cædmon 's Hymn, is written in Northumbrian. Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the early period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half - uncial letterforms. It included the runic letters wynn ⟨ ƿ ⟩ and thorn ⟨ þ ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ ð ⟩, and ash ⟨ æ ⟩.
Old English is very different from Modern English and difficult for 21st - century English speakers to understand. Its grammar was similar to that of modern German, and its closest relative is Old Frisian. Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs had many more inflectional endings and forms, and word order was much freer than in Modern English. Modern English has case forms in pronouns (he, him, his) and a few verb endings (I have, he has), but Old English had case endings in nouns as well, and verbs had more person and number endings.
The translation of Matthew 8: 20 from 1000 CE shows examples of case endings (nominative plural, accusative plural, genitive singular) and a verb ending (present plural):
In the period from the 8th to the 12th century, Old English gradually transformed through language contact into Middle English. Middle English is often arbitrarily defined as beginning with the conquest of England by William the Conqueror in 1066, but it developed further in the period from 1200 -- 1450.
First, the waves of Norse colonisation of northern parts of the British Isles in the 8th and 9th centuries put Old English into intense contact with Old Norse, a North Germanic language. Norse influence was strongest in the Northeastern varieties of Old English spoken in the Danelaw area around York, which was the centre of Norse colonisation; today these features are still particularly present in Scots and Northern English. However the centre of norsified English seems to have been in the Midlands around Lindsey, and after 920 CE when Lindsey was reincorporated into the Anglo - Saxon polity, Norse features spread from there into English varieties that had not been in intense contact with Norse speakers. Some elements of Norse influence that persist in all English varieties today are the pronouns beginning with th - (they, them, their) which replaced the Anglo - Saxon pronouns with h - (hie, him, hera).
With the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the now norsified Old English language was subject to contact with the Old Norman language, a Romance language closely related to Modern French. The Norman language in England eventually developed into Anglo - Norman. Because Norman was spoken primarily by the elites and nobles, while the lower classes continued speaking Anglo - Saxon, the influence of Norman consisted of introducing a wide range of loanwords related to politics, legislation and prestigious social domains. Middle English also greatly simplified the inflectional system, probably in order to reconcile Old Norse and Old English, which were inflectionally different but morphologically similar. The distinction between nominative and accusative case was lost except in personal pronouns, the instrumental case was dropped, and the use of the genitive case was limited to describing possession. The inflectional system regularised many irregular inflectional forms, and gradually simplified the system of agreement, making word order less flexible. By the Wycliffe Bible of the 1380s, the passage Matthew 8: 20 was written
Here the plural suffix - n on the verb have is still retained, but none of the case endings on the nouns are present.
By the 12th century Middle English was fully developed, integrating both Norse and Norman features; it continued to be spoken until the transition to early Modern English around 1500. Middle English literature includes Geoffrey Chaucer 's The Canterbury Tales, and Malory 's Le Morte d'Arthur. In the Middle English period the use of regional dialects in writing proliferated, and dialect traits were even used for effect by authors such as Chaucer.
The next period in the history of English was Early Modern English (1500 -- 1700). Early Modern English was characterised by the Great Vowel Shift (1350 -- 1700), inflectional simplification, and linguistic standardisation.
The Great Vowel Shift affected the stressed long vowels of Middle English. It was a chain shift, meaning that each shift triggered a subsequent shift in the vowel system. Mid and open vowels were raised, and close vowels were broken into diphthongs. For example, the word bite was originally pronounced as the word beet is today, and the second vowel in the word about was pronounced as the word boot is today. The Great Vowel Shift explains many irregularities in spelling, since English retains many spellings from Middle English, and it also explains why English vowel letters have very different pronunciations from the same letters in other languages.
English began to rise in prestige during the reign of Henry V. Around 1430, the Court of Chancery in Westminster began using English in its official documents, and a new standard form of Middle English, known as Chancery Standard, developed from the dialects of London and the East Midlands. In 1476, William Caxton introduced the printing press to England and began publishing the first printed books in London, expanding the influence of this form of English. Literature from the Early Modern period includes the works of William Shakespeare and the translation of the Bible commissioned by King James I. Even after the vowel shift the language still sounded different from Modern English: for example, the consonant clusters / kn ɡn sw / in knight, gnat, and sword were still pronounced. Many of the grammatical features that a modern reader of Shakespeare might find quaint or archaic represent the distinct characteristics of Early Modern English.
In the 1611 King James Version of the Bible, written in Early Modern English, Matthew 8: 20 says:
This exemplifies the loss of case and its effects on sentence structure (replacement with Subject - Verb - Object word order, and the use of of instead of the non-possessive genitive), and the introduction of loanwords from French (ayre) and word replacements (bird originally meaning "nestling '' had replaced OE fugol).
By the late 18th century, the British Empire had facilitated the spread of English through its colonies and geopolitical dominance. Commerce, science and technology, diplomacy, art, and formal education all contributed to English becoming the first truly global language. English also facilitated worldwide international communication. As England continued to form new colonies, these in turn became independent and developed their own norms for how to speak and write the language. English was adopted in North America, India, parts of Africa, Australasia, and many other regions. In the post-colonial period, some of the newly created nations that had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using English as the official language to avoid the political difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others. In the 20th century the growing economic and cultural influence of the United States and its status as a superpower following the Second World War has, along with worldwide broadcasting in English by the BBC and other broadcasters, significantly accelerated the spread of the language across the planet. By the 21st century, English was more widely spoken and written than any language has ever been.
A major feature in the early development of Modern English was the codification of explicit norms for standard usage, and their dissemination through official media such as public education and state sponsored publications. In 1755 Samuel Johnson published his A Dictionary of the English Language which introduced a standard set of spelling conventions and usage norms. In 1828, Noah Webster published the American Dictionary of the English language in an effort to establish a norm for speaking and writing American English that was independent from the British standard. Within Britain, non-standard or lower class dialect features were increasingly stigmatised, leading to the quick spread of the prestige varieties among the middle classes.
In terms of grammatical evolution, Modern English has now reached a stage where the loss of case is almost complete (case is now only found in pronouns, such as he and him, she and her, who and whom), and where SVO word - order is mostly fixed. Some changes, such as the use of do - support have become universalised. (Earlier English did not use the word "do '' as a general auxiliary as Modern English does; at first it was only used in question constructions where it was not obligatory. Now, do - support with the verb have is becoming increasingly standardised.) The use of progressive forms in - ing, appears to be spreading to new constructions, and forms such as had been being built are becoming more common. Regularisation of irregular forms also slowly continues (e.g. dreamed instead of dreamt), and analytical alternatives to inflectional forms are becoming more common (e.g. more polite instead of politer). British English is also undergoing change under the influence of American English, fuelled by the strong presence of American English in the media and the prestige associated with the US as a world power.
As of 2016, 400 million people spoke English as their first language, and 1.1 billion spoke it as a secondary language. English is probably the third largest language by number of native speakers, after Mandarin and Spanish. However, when combining native and non-native speakers it may, depending on the estimate used, be the most commonly spoken language in the world. English is spoken by communities on every continent and on oceanic islands in all the major oceans.
The countries in which English is spoken can be grouped into different categories by how English is used in each country. The "inner circle '' countries with many native speakers of English share an international standard of written English and jointly influence speech norms of English around the world. English does not belong to just one country, and it does not belong solely to descendants of English settlers. English is an official language of countries populated by few descendants of native speakers of English. It has also become by far the most important language of international communication when people who share no native language meet anywhere in the world.
Braj Kachru distinguishes countries where English is spoken with a three circles model. In his model, the "inner circle '' countries are countries with large communities of native speakers of English, "outer circle '' countries have small communities of native speakers of English but widespread use of English as a second language in education or broadcasting or for local official purposes, and "expanding circle '' countries are countries where many learners learn English as a foreign language. Kachru bases his model on the history of how English spread in different countries, how users acquire English, and the range of uses English has in each country. The three circles change membership over time.
Countries with large communities of native speakers of English (the inner circle) include Britain, the United States, Australia, Canada, Ireland, and New Zealand, where the majority speaks English, and South Africa, where a significant minority speaks English. The countries with the most native English speakers are, in descending order, the United States (at least 231 million), the United Kingdom (60 million), Canada (19 million), Australia (at least 17 million), South Africa (4.8 million), Ireland (4.2 million), and New Zealand (3.7 million). In these countries, children of native speakers learn English from their parents, and local people who speak other languages or new immigrants learn English to communicate in their neighbourhoods and workplaces. The inner - circle countries provide the base from which English spreads to other countries in the world.
Estimates of the number of English speakers who are second language and foreign - language speakers vary greatly from 470 million to more than 1,000 million depending on how proficiency is defined. Linguist David Crystal estimates that non-native speakers now outnumber native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1. In Kachru 's three - circles model, the "outer circle '' countries are countries such as the Philippines, Jamaica, India, Pakistan, Singapore, and Nigeria with a much smaller proportion of native speakers of English but much use of English as a second language for education, government, or domestic business, and where English is routinely used for school instruction and official interactions with the government.
Those countries have millions of native speakers of dialect continua ranging from an English - based creole to a more standard version of English. They have many more speakers of English who acquire English in the process of growing up through day by day use and listening to broadcasting, especially if they attend schools where English is the medium of instruction. Varieties of English learned by speakers who are not native speakers born to English - speaking parents may be influenced, especially in their grammar, by the other languages spoken by those learners. Most of those varieties of English include words little used by native speakers of English in the inner - circle countries, and they may have grammatical and phonological differences from inner - circle varieties as well. The standard English of the inner - circle countries is often taken as a norm for use of English in the outer - circle countries.
In the three - circles model, countries such as Poland, China, Brazil, Germany, Japan, Indonesia, Egypt, and other countries where English is taught as a foreign language make up the "expanding circle ''. The distinctions between English as a first language, as a second language, and as a foreign language are often debatable and may change in particular countries over time. For example, in the Netherlands and some other countries of Europe, knowledge of English as a second language is nearly universal, with over 80 percent of the population able to use it, and thus English is routinely used to communicate with foreigners and often in higher education. In these countries, although English is not used for government business, its widespread use puts them at the boundary between the "outer circle '' and "expanding circle ''. English is unusual among world languages in how many of its users are not native speakers but speakers of English as a second or foreign language.
Many users of English in the expanding circle use it to communicate with other people from the expanding circle, so that interaction with native speakers of English plays no part in their decision to use English. Non-native varieties of English are widely used for international communication, and speakers of one such variety often encounter features of other varieties. Very often today a conversation in English anywhere in the world may include no native speakers of English at all, even while including speakers from several different countries.
Pie chart showing the percentage of native English speakers living in "inner circle '' English - speaking countries. Native speakers are now substantially outnumbered worldwide by second - language speakers of English (not counted in this chart).
English is a pluricentric language, which means that no one national authority sets the standard for use of the language. But English is not a divided language, despite a long - standing joke originally attributed to George Bernard Shaw that the United Kingdom and the United States are "two countries separated by a common language ''. Spoken English, for example English used in broadcasting, generally follows national pronunciation standards that are also established by custom rather than by regulation. International broadcasters are usually identifiable as coming from one country rather than another through their accents, but newsreader scripts are also composed largely in international standard written English. The norms of standard written English are maintained purely by the consensus of educated English - speakers around the world, without any oversight by any government or international organisation.
American listeners generally readily understand most British broadcasting, and British listeners readily understand most American broadcasting. Most English speakers around the world can understand radio programmes, television programmes, and films from many parts of the English - speaking world. Both standard and nonstandard varieties of English can include both formal or informal styles, distinguished by word choice and syntax and use both technical and non-technical registers.
The settlement history of the English - speaking inner circle countries outside Britain helped level dialect distinctions and produce koineised forms of English in South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. The majority of immigrants to the United States without British ancestry rapidly adopted English after arrival. Now the majority of the United States population are monolingual English speakers, although English has been given official status by only 30 of the 50 state governments of the US.
English has ceased to be an "English language '' in the sense of belonging only to people who are ethnically English. Use of English is growing country - by - country internally and for international communication. Most people learn English for practical rather than ideological reasons. Many speakers of English in Africa have become part of an "Afro - Saxon '' language community that unites Africans from different countries.
As decolonisation proceeded throughout the British Empire in the 1950s and 1960s, former colonies often did not reject English but rather continued to use it as independent countries setting their own language policies. For example, the view of the English language among many Indians has gone from associating it with colonialism to associating it with economic progress, and English continues to be an official language of India. English is also widely used in media and literature, and the number of English language books published annually in India is the third largest in the world after the US and UK. However English is rarely spoken as a first language, numbering only around a couple hundred - thousand people, and less than 5 % of the population speak fluent English in India. David Crystal claimed in 2004 that, combining native and non-native speakers, India now has more people who speak or understand English than any other country in the world, but the number of English speakers in India is very uncertain, with most scholars concluding that the United States still has more speakers of English than India.
Modern English, sometimes described as the first global lingua franca, is also regarded as the first world language. English is the world 's most widely used language in newspaper publishing, book publishing, international telecommunications, scientific publishing, international trade, mass entertainment, and diplomacy. English is, by international treaty, the basis for the required controlled natural languages Seaspeak and Airspeak, used as international languages of seafaring and aviation. English used to have parity with French and German in scientific research, but now it dominates that field. It achieved parity with French as a language of diplomacy at the Treaty of Versailles negotiations in 1919. By the time of the foundation of the United Nations at the end of World War II, English had become pre-eminent and is now the main worldwide language of diplomacy and international relations. It is one of six official languages of the United Nations. Many other worldwide international organisations, including the International Olympic Committee, specify English as a working language or official language of the organisation.
Many regional international organisations such as the European Free Trade Association, Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and Asia - Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) set English as their organisation 's sole working language even though most members are not countries with a majority of native English speakers. While the European Union (EU) allows member states to designate any of the national languages as an official language of the Union, in practice English is the main working language of EU organisations.
Although in most countries English is not an official language, it is currently the language most often taught as a foreign language. In the countries of the EU, English is the most widely spoken foreign language in nineteen of the twenty - five member states where it is not an official language (that is, the countries other than the UK, Ireland and Malta). In a 2012 official Eurobarometer poll, 38 percent of the EU respondents outside the countries where English is an official language said they could speak English well enough to have a conversation in that language. The next most commonly mentioned foreign language, French (which is the most widely known foreign language in the UK and Ireland), could be used in conversation by 12 percent of respondents.
A working knowledge of English has become a requirement in a number of occupations and professions such as medicine and computing. English has become so important in scientific publishing that more than 80 percent of all scientific journal articles indexed by Chemical Abstracts in 1998 were written in English, as were 90 percent of all articles in natural science publications by 1996 and 82 percent of articles in humanities publications by 1995.
Specialised subsets of English arise spontaneously in international communities, for example, among international business people, as an auxiliary language. This has led some scholars to develop the study of English as an auxiliary languages. Globish uses a relatively small subset of English vocabulary (about 1500 words with highest use in international business English) in combination with the standard English grammar. Other examples include Simple English.
The increased use of the English language globally has had an effect on other languages, leading to some English words being assimilated into the vocabularies of other languages. This influence of English has led to concerns about language death, and to claims of linguistic imperialism, and has provoked resistance to the spread of English; however the number of speakers continues to increase because many people around the world think that English provides them with opportunities for better employment and improved lives.
Although some scholars mention a possibility of future divergence of English dialects into mutually unintelligible languages, most think a more likely outcome is that English will continue to function as a koineised language in which the standard form unifies speakers from around the world. English is used as the language for wider communication in countries around the world. Thus English has grown in worldwide use much more than any constructed language proposed as an international auxiliary language, including Esperanto.
The phonetics and phonology of the English language differ from one dialect to another, usually without interfering with mutual communication. Phonological variation affects the inventory of phonemes (i.e. speech sounds that distinguish meaning), and phonetic variation is differences in pronunciation of the phonemes. This overview mainly describes the standard pronunciations of the United Kingdom and the United States: Received Pronunciation (RP) and General American (GA) (See Section below on "Dialects, accents and varieties '').
The phonetic symbols used below are from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
Most English dialects share the same 24 consonant phonemes. The consonant inventory shown below is valid for Californian American English, and for RP.
* Conventionally transcribed / r /.
In the table, when obstruents (stops, affricates, and fricatives) appear in pairs, such as / pb /, / tʃ dʒ /, and / sz /, the first is fortis (strong) and the second is lenis (weak). Fortis obstruents, such as / p tʃ s / are pronounced with more muscular tension and breath force than lenis consonants, such as / b dʒ z /, and are always voiceless. Lenis consonants are partly voiced at the beginning and end of utterances, and fully voiced between vowels. Fortis stops such as / p / have additional articulatory or acoustic features in most dialects: they are aspirated (ph) when they occur alone at the beginning of a stressed syllable, often unaspirated in other cases, and often unreleased (p̚) or pre-glottalised (ˀp) at the end of a syllable. In a single - syllable word, a vowel before a fortis stop is shortened: thus nip has a noticeably shorter vowel (phonetically, but not phonemically) than nib (nɪˑp̬) (see below).
In RP, the lateral approximant / l /, has two main allophones (pronunciation variants): the clear or plain (l), as in light, and the dark or velarised (ɫ), as in full. GA has dark l in most cases.
All sonorants (liquids / l, r / and nasals / m, n, ŋ /) devoice when following a voiceless obstruent, and they are syllabic when following a consonant at the end of a word.
The pronunciation of vowels varies a great deal between dialects and is one of the most detectable aspects of a speaker 's accent. The table below lists the vowel phonemes in Received Pronunciation (RP) and General American (GA), with examples of words in which they occur from lexical sets compiled by linguists. The vowels are represented with symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet; those given for RP are standard in British dictionaries and other publications.
In RP, vowel length is phonemic; long vowels are marked with a triangular colon ⟨ ː ⟩ in the table above, such as the vowel of need (niːd) as opposed to bid (bɪd). GA does not have long vowels.
In both RP and GA, vowels are phonetically shortened before fortis consonants in the same syllable, like / t tʃ f /, but not before lenis consonants like / d dʒ v / or in open syllables: thus, the vowels of rich (rɪ̆tʃ), neat (niˑt), and safe (sĕɪ̆f) are noticeably shorter than the vowels of ridge (rɪdʒ), need (niːd), and save (seɪv), and the vowel of light (lăɪ̆t) is shorter than that of lie (laɪ). Because lenis consonants are frequently voiceless at the end of a syllable, vowel length is an important cue as to whether the following consonant is lenis or fortis.
The vowels / ɨ ə / only occur in unstressed syllables and are a result of vowel reduction. Some dialects do not distinguish them, so that roses and comma end in the same vowel, a dialect feature called weak - vowel merger. GA has an unstressed r - coloured schwa / ɚ /, as in butter (ˈbʌtɚ), which in RP has the same vowel as the word - final vowel in comma.
An English syllable includes a syllable nucleus consisting of a vowel sound. Syllable onset and coda (start and end) are optional. A syllable can start with up to three consonant sounds, as in sprint / sprɪnt /, and end with up to four, as in texts / teksts /. This gives an English syllable the following structure, (CCC) V (CCCC) where C represents a consonant and V a vowel; the word strengths / strɛŋkθs / is thus an example of the most complex syllable possible in English. The consonants that may appear together in onsets or codas are restricted, as is the order in which they may appear. Onsets can only have four types of consonant clusters: a stop and approximant, as in play; a voiceless fricative and approximant, as in fly or sly; s and a voiceless stop, as in stay; and s, a voiceless stop, and an approximant, as in string. Clusters of nasal and stop are only allowed in codas. Clusters of obstruents always agree in voicing, and clusters of sibilants and of plosives with the same point of articulation are prohibited. Furthermore, several consonants have limited distributions: / h / can only occur in syllable initial position, and / ŋ / only in syllable final position.
Stress plays an important role in English. Certain syllables are stressed, while others are unstressed. Stress is a combination of duration, intensity, vowel quality, and sometimes changes in pitch. Stressed syllables are pronounced longer and louder than unstressed syllables, and vowels in unstressed syllables are frequently reduced while vowels in stressed syllables are not. Some words, primarily short function words but also some modal verbs such as can, have weak and strong forms depending on whether they occur in stressed or non-stressed position within a sentence.
Stress in English is phonemic, and some pairs of words are distinguished by stress. For instance, the word contract is stressed on the first syllable (/ ˈkɒntrækt / KON - trakt) when used as a noun, but on the last syllable (/ kənˈtrækt / kən - TRAKT) for most meanings (for example, "reduce in size '') when used as a verb. Here stress is connected to vowel reduction: in the noun "contract '' the first syllable is stressed and has the unreduced vowel / ɒ /, but in the verb "contract '' the first syllable is unstressed and its vowel is reduced to / ə /. Stress is also used to distinguish between words and phrases, so that a compound word receives a single stress unit, but the corresponding phrase has two: e.g. to búrn óut versus a búrnout, and a hótdog versus a hót dóg.
In terms of rhythm, English is generally described as a stress - timed language, meaning that the amount of time between stressed syllables tends to be equal. Stressed syllables are pronounced longer, but unstressed syllables (syllables between stresses) are shortened. Vowels in unstressed syllables are shortened as well, and vowel shortening causes changes in vowel quality: vowel reduction.
Varieties of English vary the most in pronunciation of vowels. The best known national varieties used as standards for education in non English - speaking countries are British (BrE) and American (AmE). Countries such as Canada, Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and South Africa have their own standard varieties which are less often used as standards for education internationally. Some differences between the various dialects are shown in the table "Varieties of Standard English and their features ''.
English has undergone many historical sound changes, some of them affecting all varieties, and others affecting only a few. Most standard varieties are affected by the Great Vowel Shift, which changed the pronunciation of long vowels, but a few dialects have slightly different results. In North America, a number of chain shifts such as the Northern Cities Vowel Shift and Canadian Shift have produced very different vowel landscapes in some regional accents.
Some dialects have fewer or more consonant phonemes and phones than the standard varieties. Some conservative varieties like Scottish English have a voiceless (ʍ) sound in whine that contrasts with the voiced (w) in wine, but most other dialects pronounce both words with voiced (w), a dialect feature called wine -- whine merger. The unvoiced velar fricative sound / x / is found in Scottish English, which distinguishes loch / lɔx / from lock / lɔk /. Accents like Cockney with "h - dropping '' lack the glottal fricative / h /, and dialects with th - stopping and th - fronting like African American Vernacular and Estuary English do not have the dental fricatives / θ, ð /, but replace them with dental or alveolar stops / t, d / or labiodental fricatives / f, v /. Other changes affecting the phonology of local varieties are processes such as yod - dropping, yod - coalescence, and reduction of consonant clusters.
General American and Received Pronunciation vary in their pronunciation of historical / r / after a vowel at the end of a syllable (in the syllable coda). GA is a rhotic dialect, meaning that it pronounces / r / at the end of a syllable, but RP is non-rhotic, meaning that it loses / r / in that position. English dialects are classified as rhotic or non-rhotic depending on whether they elide / r / like RP or keep it like GA.
There is complex dialectal variation in words with the open front and open back vowels / æ ɑː ɒ ɔː /. These four vowels are only distinguished in RP, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. In GA, these vowels merge to three / æ ɑ ɔ /, and in Canadian English they merge to two / æ ɑ /. In addition, the words that have each vowel vary by dialect. The table "Dialects and open vowels '' shows this variation with lexical sets in which these sounds occur.
As is typical of an Indo - European language, English follows accusative morphosyntactic alignment. Unlike other Indo - European languages though, English has largely abandoned the inflectional case system in favor of analytic constructions. Only the personal pronouns retain morphological case more strongly than any other word class. English distinguishes at least seven major word classes: verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, determiners (including articles), prepositions, and conjunctions. Some analyses add pronouns as a class separate from nouns, and subdivide conjunctions into subordinators and coordinators, and add the class of interjections. English also has a rich set of auxiliary verbs, such as have and do, expressing the categories of mood and aspect. Questions are marked by do - support, wh - movement (fronting of question words beginning with wh -) and word order inversion with some verbs.
Some traits typical of Germanic languages persist in English, such as the distinction between irregularly inflected strong stems inflected through ablaut (i.e. changing the vowel of the stem, as in the pairs speak / spoke and foot / feet) and weak stems inflected through affixation (such as love / loved, hand / hands). Vestiges of the case and gender system are found in the pronoun system (he / him, who / whom) and in the inflection of the copula verb to be.
The seven word classes are exemplified in this sample sentence:
English nouns are only inflected for number and possession. New nouns can be formed through derivation or compounding. They are semantically divided into proper nouns (names) and common nouns. Common nouns are in turn divided into concrete and abstract nouns, and grammatically into count nouns and mass nouns.
Most count nouns are inflected for plural number through the use of the plural suffix - s, but a few nouns have irregular plural forms. Mass nouns can only be pluralised through the use of a count noun classifier, e.g. one loaf of bread, two loaves of bread.
Regular plural formation:
Irregular plural formation:
Possession can be expressed either by the possessive enclitic - s (also traditionally called a genitive suffix), or by the preposition of. Historically the - s possessive has been used for animate nouns, whereas the of possessive has been reserved for inanimate nouns. Today this distinction is less clear, and many speakers use - s also with inanimates. Orthographically the possessive - s is separated from the noun root with an apostrophe.
Possessive constructions:
Nouns can form noun phrases (NPs) where they are the syntactic head of the words that depend on them such as determiners, quantifiers, conjunctions or adjectives. Noun phrases can be short, such as the man, composed only of a determiner and a noun. They can also include modifiers such as adjectives (e.g. red, tall, all) and specifiers such as determiners (e.g. the, that). But they can also tie together several nouns into a single long NP, using conjunctions such as and, or prepositions such as with, e.g. the tall man with the long red trousers and his skinny wife with the spectacles (this NP uses conjunctions, prepositions, specifiers and modifiers). Regardless of length, an NP functions as a syntactic unit. For example, the possessive enclitic can, in cases which do not lead to ambiguity, follow the entire noun phrase, as in The President of India 's wife, where the enclitic follows India and not President.
The class of determiners is used to specify the noun they precede in terms of definiteness, where the marks a definite noun and a or an an indefinite one. A definite noun is assumed by the speaker to be already known by the interlocutor, whereas an indefinite noun is not specified as being previously known. Quantifiers, which include one, many, some and all, are used to specify the noun in terms of quantity or number. The noun must agree with the number of the determiner, e.g. one man (sg.) but all men (pl.). Determiners are the first constituents in a noun phrase.
Adjectives modify a noun by providing additional information about their referents. In English, adjectives come before the nouns they modify and after determiners. In Modern English, adjectives are not inflected, and they do not agree in form with the noun they modify, as adjectives in most other Indo - European languages do. For example, in the phrases the slender boy, and many slender girls, the adjective slender does not change form to agree with either the number or gender of the noun.
Some adjectives are inflected for degree of comparison, with the positive degree unmarked, the suffix - er marking the comparative, and - est marking the superlative: a small boy, the boy is smaller than the girl, that boy is the smallest. Some adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative forms, such as good, better, and best. Other adjectives have comparatives formed by periphrastic constructions, with the adverb more marking the comparative, and most marking the superlative: happier or more happy, the happiest or most happy. There is some variation among speakers regarding which adjectives use inflected or periphrastic comparison, and some studies have shown a tendency for the periphrastic forms to become more common at the expense of the inflected form.
English pronouns conserve many traits of case and gender inflection. The personal pronouns retain a difference between subjective and objective case in most persons (I / me, he / him, she / her, we / us, they / them) as well as a gender and animateness distinction in the third person singular (distinguishing he / she / it). The subjective case corresponds to the Old English nominative case, and the objective case is used both in the sense of the previous accusative case (in the role of patient, or direct object of a transitive verb), and in the sense of the Old English dative case (in the role of a recipient or indirect object of a transitive verb). Subjective case is used when the pronoun is the subject of a finite clause, and otherwise the objective case is used. While grammarians such as Henry Sweet and Otto Jespersen noted that the English cases did not correspond to the traditional Latin based system, some contemporary grammars, for example Huddleston & Pullum (2002), retain traditional labels for the cases, calling them nominative and accusative cases respectively.
Possessive pronouns exist in dependent and independent forms; the dependent form functions as a determiner specifying a noun (as in my chair), while the independent form can stand alone as if it were a noun (e.g. the chair is mine). The English system of grammatical person no longer has a distinction between formal and informal pronouns of address (the old 2nd person singular familiar pronoun thou acquired a pejorative or inferior tinge of meaning and was abandoned), and the forms for 2nd person plural and singular are identical except in the reflexive form. Some dialects have introduced innovative 2nd person plural pronouns such as y'all found in Southern American English and African American (Vernacular) English or youse and ye found in Irish English.
Pronouns are used to refer to entities deictically or anaphorically. A deictic pronoun points to some person or object by identifying it relative to the speech situation -- for example the pronoun I identifies the speaker, and the pronoun you, the addressee. Anaphorical pronouns such as that refer back to an entity already mentioned or assumed by the speaker to be known by the audience, for example in the sentence I already told you that. The reflexive pronouns are used when the oblique argument is identical to the subject of a phrase (e.g. "he sent it to himself '' or "she braced herself for impact '').
Prepositional phrases (PP) are phrases composed of a preposition and one or more nouns, e.g. with the dog, for my friend, to school, in England. Prepositions have a wide range of uses in English. They are used to describe movement, place, and other relations between different entities, but they also have many syntactic uses such as introducing complement clauses and oblique arguments of verbs. For example, in the phrase I gave it to him, the preposition to marks the recipient, or Indirect Object of the verb to give. Traditionally words were only considered prepositions if they governed the case of the noun they preceded, for example causing the pronouns to use the objective rather than subjective form, "with her '', "to me '', "for us ''. But some contemporary grammars such as that of Huddleston & Pullum (2002: 598 -- 600) no longer consider government of case to be the defining feature of the class of prepositions, rather defining prepositions as words that can function as the heads of prepositional phrases.
English verbs are inflected for tense and aspect, and marked for agreement with third person singular subject. Only the copula verb to be is still inflected for agreement with the plural and first and second person subjects. Auxiliary verbs such as have and be are paired with verbs in the infinitive, past, or progressive forms. They form complex tenses, aspects, and moods. Auxiliary verbs differ from other verbs in that they can be followed by the negation, and in that they can occur as the first constituent in a question sentence.
Most verbs have six inflectional forms. The primary forms are a plain present, a third person singular present, and a preterite (past) form. The secondary forms are a plain form used for the infinitive, a gerund -- participle and a past participle. The copula verb to be is the only verb to retain some of its original conjugation, and takes different inflectional forms depending on the subject. The first person present tense form is am, the third person singular form is and the form are is used second person singular and all three plurals. The only verb past participle is been and its gerund - participle is being.
English has two primary tenses, past (preterit) and non-past. The preterit is inflected by using the preterit form of the verb, which for the regular verbs includes the suffix - ed, and for the strong verbs either the suffix - t or a change in the stem vowel. The non-past form is unmarked except in the third person singular, which takes the suffix - s.
English does not have a morphologised future tense. Futurity of action is expressed periphrastically with one of the auxiliary verbs will or shall. Many varieties also use a near future constructed with the phrasal verb be going to.
Further aspectual distinctions are encoded by the use of auxiliary verbs, primarily have and be, which encode the contrast between a perfect and non-perfect past tense (I have run vs. I was running), and compound tenses such as preterite perfect (I had been running) and present perfect (I have been running).
For the expression of mood, English uses a number of modal auxiliaries, such as can, may, will, shall and the past tense forms could, might, would, should. There is also a subjunctive and an imperative mood, both based on the plain form of the verb (i.e. without the third person singular - s), and which is used in subordinate clauses (e.g. subjunctive: It is important that he run every day; imperative Run!).
An infinitive form, that uses the plain form of the verb and the preposition to, is used for verbal clauses that are syntactically subordinate to a finite verbal clause. Finite verbal clauses are those that are formed around a verb in the present or preterit form. In clauses with auxiliary verbs they are the finite verbs and the main verb is treated as a subordinate clause. For example, he has to go where only the auxiliary verb have is inflected for time and the main verb to go is in the infinitive, or in a complement clause such as I saw him leave, where the main verb is to see which is in a preterite form, and leave is in the infinitive.
English also makes frequent use of constructions traditionally called phrasal verbs, verb phrases that are made up of a verb root and a preposition or particle which follows the verb. The phrase then functions as a single predicate. In terms of intonation the preposition is fused to the verb, but in writing it is written as a separate word. Examples of phrasal verbs are to get up, to ask out, to back up, to give up, to get together, to hang out, to put up with, etc. The phrasal verb frequently has a highly idiomatic meaning that is more specialised and restricted than what can be simply extrapolated from the combination of verb and preposition complement (e.g. lay off meaning terminate someone 's employment). In spite of the idiomatic meaning, some grammarians, including Huddleston & Pullum (2002): 274, do not consider this type of construction to form a syntactic constituent and hence refrain from using the term "phrasal verb ''. Instead they consider the construction simply to be a verb with a prepositional phrase as its syntactic complement, i.e. he woke up in the morning and he ran up in the mountains are syntactically equivalent.
The function of adverbs is to modify the action or event described by the verb by providing additional information about the manner in which it occurs. Many adverbs are derived from adjectives with the suffix - ly, but not all, and many speakers tend to omit the suffix in the most commonly used adverbs. For example, in the phrase the woman walked quickly the adverb quickly derived from the adjective quick describes the woman 's way of walking. Some commonly used adjectives have irregular adverbial forms, such as good which has the adverbial form well.
Modern English syntax language is moderately analytic. It has developed features such as modal verbs and word order as resources for conveying meaning. Auxiliary verbs mark constructions such as questions, negative polarity, the passive voice and progressive aspect.
English word order has moved from the Germanic verb - second (V2) word order to being almost exclusively subject -- verb -- object (SVO). The combination of SVO order and use of auxiliary verbs often creates clusters of two or more verbs at the centre of the sentence, such as he had hoped to try to open it.
In most sentences English only marks grammatical relations through word order. The subject constituent precedes the verb and the object constituent follows it. The example below demonstrates how the grammatical roles of each constituent is marked only by the position relative to the verb:
An exception is found in sentences where one of the constituents is a pronoun, in which case it is doubly marked, both by word order and by case inflection, where the subject pronoun precedes the verb and takes the subjective case form, and the object pronoun follows the verb and takes the objective case form. The example below demonstrates this double marking in a sentence where both object and subject is represented with a third person singular masculine pronoun:
Indirect objects (IO) of ditransitive verbs can be placed either as the first object in a double object construction (SV IO O), such as I gave Jane the book or in a prepositional phrase, such as I gave the book to Jane
In English a sentence may be composed of one or more clauses, that may in turn be composed of one or more phrases (e.g. Noun Phrases, Verb Phrases, and Prepositional Phrases). A clause is built around a verb, and includes its constituents, such as any NPs and PPs. Within a sentence one clause is always the main clause (or matrix clause) whereas other clauses are subordinate to it. Subordinate clauses may function as arguments of the verb in the main clause. For example, in the phrase I think (that) you are lying, the main clause is headed by the verb think, the subject is I, but the object of the phrase is the subordinate clause (that) you are lying. The subordinating conjunction that shows that the clause that follows is a subordinate clause, but it is often omitted. Relative clauses are clauses that function as a modifier or specifier to some constituent in the main clause: For example, in the sentence I saw the letter that you received today, the relative clause that you received today specifies the meaning of the word letter, the object of the main clause. Relative clauses can be introduced by the pronouns who, whose, whom and which as well as by that (which can also be omitted.) In contrast to many other Germanic languages there is no major differences between word order in main and subordinate clauses.
English syntax relies on auxiliary verbs for many functions including the expression of tense, aspect and mood. Auxiliary verbs form main clauses, and the main verbs function as heads of a subordinate clause of the auxiliary verb. For example, in the sentence the dog did not find its bone, the clause find its bone is the complement of the negated verb did not. Subject -- auxiliary inversion is used in many constructions, including focus, negation, and interrogative constructions.
The verb do can be used as an auxiliary even in simple declarative sentences, where it usually serves to add emphasis, as in "I did shut the fridge. '' However, in the negated and inverted clauses referred to above, it is used because the rules of English syntax permit these constructions only when an auxiliary is present. Modern English does not allow the addition of the negating adverb not to an ordinary finite lexical verb, as in * I know not -- it can only be added to an auxiliary (or copular) verb, hence if there is no other auxiliary present when negation is required, the auxiliary do is used, to produce a form like I do not (do n't) know. The same applies in clauses requiring inversion, including most questions -- inversion must involve the subject and an auxiliary verb, so it is not possible to say * Know you him?; grammatical rules require Do you know him?
Negation is done with the adverb not, which precedes the main verb and follows an auxiliary verb. A contracted form of not - n't can be used as an enclitic attaching to auxiliary verbs and to the copula verb to be. Just as with questions, many negative constructions require the negation to occur with do - support, thus in Modern English I do n't know him is the correct answer to the question Do you know him?, but not * I know him not, although this construction may be found in older English.
Passive constructions also use auxiliary verbs. A passive construction rephrases an active construction in such a way that the object of the active phrase becomes the subject of the passive phrase, and the subject of the active phrase is either omitted or demoted to a role as an oblique argument introduced in a prepositional phrase. They are formed by using the past participle either with the auxiliary verb to be or to get, although not all varieties of English allow the use of passives with get. For example, putting the sentence she sees him into the passive becomes he is seen (by her), or he gets seen (by her).
Both yes -- no questions and wh - questions in English are mostly formed using subject -- auxiliary inversion (Am I going tomorrow?, Where can we eat?), which may require do - support (Do you like her?, Where did he go?). In most cases, interrogative words (wh - words; e.g. what, who, where, when, why, how) appear in a fronted position. For example, in the question What did you see?, the word what appears as the first constituent despite being the grammatical object of the sentence. (When the wh - word is the subject or forms part of the subject, no inversion occurs: Who saw the cat?.) Prepositional phrases can also be fronted when they are the question 's theme, e.g. To whose house did you go last night?. The personal interrogative pronoun who is the only interrogative pronoun to still show inflection for case, with the variant whom serving as the objective case form, although this form may be going out of use in many contexts.
While English is a subject - prominent language, at the discourse level it tends to use a topic - comment structure, where the known information (topic) precedes the new information (comment). Because of the strict SVO syntax, the topic of a sentence generally has to be the grammatical subject of the sentence. In cases where the topic is not the grammatical subject of the sentence, frequently the topic is promoted to subject position through syntactic means. One way of doing this is through a passive construction, the girl was stung by the bee. Another way is through a cleft sentence where the main clause is demoted to be a complement clause of a copula sentence with a dummy subject such as it or there, e.g. it was the girl that the bee stung, there was a girl who was stung by a bee. Dummy subjects are also used in constructions where there is no grammatical subject such as with impersonal verbs (e.g., it is raining) or in existential clauses (there are many cars on the street). Through the use of these complex sentence constructions with informationally vacuous subjects, English is able to maintain both a topic - comment sentence structure and a SVO syntax.
Focus constructions emphasise a particular piece of new or salient information within a sentence, generally through allocating the main sentence level stress on the focal constituent. For example, the girl was stung by a bee (emphasising it was a bee and not for example a wasp that stung her), or The girl was stung by a bee (contrasting with another possibility, for example that it was the boy). Topic and focus can also be established through syntactic dislocation, either preposing or postposing the item to be focused on relative to the main clause. For example, That girl over there, she was stung by a bee, emphasises the girl by preposition, but a similar effect could be achieved by postposition, she was stung by a bee, that girl over there, where reference to the girl is established as an "afterthought ''.
Cohesion between sentences is achieved through the use of deictic pronouns as anaphora (e.g. that is exactly what I mean where that refers to some fact known to both interlocutors, or then used to locate the time of a narrated event relative to the time of a previously narrated event). Discourse markers such as oh, so or well, also signal the progression of ideas between sentences and help to create cohesion. Discourse markers are often the first constituents in sentences. Discourse markers are also used for stance taking in which speakers position themselves in a specific attitude towards what is being said, for example, no way is that true! (the idiomatic marker no way! expressing disbelief), or boy! I 'm hungry (the marker boy expressing emphasis). While discourse markers are particularly characteristic of informal and spoken registers of English, they are also used in written and formal registers.
English is an immensely rich language in terms of vocabulary, containing more synonyms than any other language. There are words which appear on the surface to mean exactly the same thing but which, in fact, have a slightly different shade of meaning and must be used appropriately if a speaker wants to convey precisely the message they intend to convey. It is generally stated that English has around 170,000 words, or 220,000 if obsolete words are counted; this estimate is based on the last full edition of the Oxford English Dictionary from 1989. Over half of these words are nouns, a quarter adjectives and a seventh verbs. There is one count that puts the English vocabulary at about 1 million words -- but that count presumably includes words such as Latin species names, scientific terminology, prefixed and suffixed words, jargon, foreign words of extremely limited English use and technical acronyms.
Due to its status an international language, English is expeditious when it comes adopting foreign words, and borrows vocabulary from a large number of other sources. Early studies of English vocabulary by lexicographers, the scholars who formally study vocabulary, compile dictionaries, or both, were impeded by a lack of comprehensive data on actual vocabulary in use from good - quality linguistic corpora, collections of actual written texts and spoken passages. Many statements published before the end of the 20th century about the growth of English vocabulary over time, the dates of first use of various words in English, and the sources of English vocabulary will have to be corrected as new computerised analysis of linguistic corpus data becomes available.
English forms new words from existing words or roots in its vocabulary through a variety of processes. One of the most productive processes in English is conversion, using a word with a different grammatical role, for example using a noun as a verb or a verb as a noun. Another productive word - formation process is nominal compounding, producing compound words such as babysitter or ice cream or homesick. A process more common in Old English than in Modern English, but still productive in Modern English, is the use of derivational suffixes (- hood, - ness, - ing, - ility) to derive new words from existing words (especially those of Germanic origin) or stems (especially for words of Latin or Greek origin).
Formation of new words, called neologisms, based on Greek or Latin roots (for example television or optometry) is a highly productive process in English and in most modern European languages, so much so that it is often difficult to determine in which language a neologism originated. For this reason, lexicographer Philip Gove attributed many such words to the "international scientific vocabulary '' (ISV) when compiling Webster 's Third New International Dictionary (1961). Another active word - formation process in English is acronyms, words formed by pronouncing as a single word abbreviations of longer phrases (e.g. NATO, laser).
English, besides forming new words from existing words and their roots, also borrows words from other languages. This process of adding words from other languages is commonplace in many world languages, but English is characterised as being especially open to borrowing of foreign words throughout the last 1,000 years. The most commonly used words in English are West Germanic. The words in English learned first by children as they learn to speak, particularly the grammatical words that dominate the word count of both spoken and written texts, are the Germanic words inherited from the earliest periods of the development of Old English.
But one of the consequences of long language contact between French and English in all stages of their development is that the vocabulary of English has a very high percentage of "Latinate '' words (derived from French, especially, and also from Latin or from other Romance languages). French words from various periods of the development of French now make up one - third of the vocabulary of English. Words of Old Norse origin have entered the English language primarily from the contact between Old Norse and Old English during colonisation of eastern and northern England. Many of these words are part of English core vocabulary, such as egg or knife.
English has also borrowed many words directly from Latin, the ancestor of the Romance languages, during all stages of its development. Many of these words were earlier borrowed into Latin from Greek. Latin or Greek are still highly productive sources of stems used to form vocabulary of subjects learned in higher education such as the sciences, philosophy, and mathematics. English continues to gain new loanwords and calques ("loan translations '') from languages all over the world, and words from languages other than the ancestral Anglo - Saxon language make up about 60 percent of the vocabulary of English.
English has formal and informal speech registers, and informal registers, including child directed speech, tend to be made up predominantly of words of Anglo - Saxon origin, while the percentage of vocabulary that is of Latinate origin is higher in legal, scientific, and academic texts.
English has a strong influence on the vocabulary of other languages. The influence of English comes from such factors as opinion leaders in other countries knowing the English language, the role of English as a world lingua franca, and the large number of books and films that are translated from English into other languages. That pervasive use of English leads to a conclusion in many places that English is an especially suitable language for expressing new ideas or describing new technologies. Among varieties of English, it is especially American English that influences other languages. Some languages, such as Chinese, write words borrowed from English mostly as calques, while others, such as Japanese, readily take in English loanwords written in sound - indicating script. Dubbed films and television programmes are an especially fruitful source of English influence on languages in Europe.
Since the ninth century, English has been written in a Latin alphabet (also called Roman alphabet). Earlier Old English texts in Anglo - Saxon runes are only short inscriptions. The great majority of literary works in Old English that survive to today are written in the Roman alphabet. The modern English alphabet contains 26 letters of the Latin script: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z (which also have capital forms: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z).
The spelling system, or orthography, of English is multi-layered, with elements of French, Latin, and Greek spelling on top of the native Germanic system. Further complications have arisen through sound changes with which the orthography has not kept pace. Compared to European languages for which official organisations have promoted spelling reforms, English has spelling that is a less consistent indicator of pronunciation and standard spellings of words that are more difficult to guess from knowing how a word is pronounced. There are also systematic spelling differences between British and American English. These situations have prompted proposals for spelling reform in English.
Although letters and speech sounds do not have a one - to - one correspondence in standard English spelling, spelling rules that take into account syllable structure, phonetic changes in derived words, and word accent are reliable for most English words. Moreover, standard English spelling shows etymological relationships between related words that would be obscured by a closer correspondence between pronunciation and spelling, for example the words photograph, photography, and photographic, or the words electricity and electrical. While few scholars agree with Chomsky and Halle (1968) that conventional English orthography is "near - optimal '', there is a rationale for current English spelling patterns. The standard orthography of English is the most widely used writing system in the world. Standard English spelling is based on a graphomorphemic segmentation of words into written clues of what meaningful units make up each word.
Readers of English can generally rely on the correspondence between spelling and pronunciation to be fairly regular for letters or digraphs used to spell consonant sounds. The letters b, d, f, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, w, y, z represent, respectively, the phonemes / b, d, f, h, dʒ, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, w, j, z /. The letters c and g normally represent / k / and / ɡ /, but there is also a soft c pronounced / s /, and a soft g pronounced / dʒ /. The differences in the pronunciations of the letters c and g are often signalled by the following letters in standard English spelling. Digraphs used to represent phonemes and phoneme sequences include ch for / tʃ /, sh for / ʃ /, th for / θ / or / ð /, ng for / ŋ /, qu for / kw /, and ph for / f / in Greek - derived words. The single letter x is generally pronounced as / z / in word - initial position and as / ks / otherwise. There are exceptions to these generalisations, often the result of loanwords being spelled according to the spelling patterns of their languages of origin or proposals by pedantic scholars in the early period of Modern English to mistakenly follow the spelling patterns of Latin for English words of Germanic origin.
For the vowel sounds of the English language, however, correspondences between spelling and pronunciation are more irregular. There are many more vowel phonemes in English than there are vowel letters (a, e, i, o, u, w, y). As a result of a smaller set of single letter symbols than the set of vowel phonemes, some "long vowels '' are often indicated by combinations of letters (like the oa in boat, the ow in how, and the ay in stay), or the historically based silent e (as in note and cake).
The consequence of this complex orthographic history is that learning to read can be challenging in English. It can take longer for school pupils to become independently fluent readers of English than of many other languages, including Italian, Spanish, or German. Nonetheless, there is an advantage for learners of English reading in learning the specific sound - symbol regularities that occur in the standard English spellings of commonly used words. Such instruction greatly reduces the risk of children experiencing reading difficulties in English. Making primary school teachers more aware of the primacy of morpheme representation in English may help learners learn more efficiently to read and write English.
English writing also includes a system of punctuation that is similar to the system of punctuation marks used in most alphabetic languages around the world. The purpose of punctuation is to mark meaningful grammatical relationships in sentences to aid readers in understanding a text and to indicate features important for reading a text aloud.
Dialectologists identify many English dialects, which usually refer to regional varieties that differ from each other in terms of patterns of grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. The pronunciation of particular areas distinguishes dialects as separate regional accents. The major native dialects of English are often divided by linguists into the two extremely general categories of British English (BrE) and North American English (NAE). There also exists a third common major grouping of English varieties: Southern Hemisphere English, the most prominent being Australian and New Zealand English.
As the place where English first evolved, the British Isles, and particularly England, are home to the most diverse dialects. Within the United Kingdom, the Received Pronunciation (RP), an educated dialect of South East England, is traditionally used as the broadcast standard, and is considered the most prestigious of the British dialects. The spread of RP (also known as BBC English) through the media has caused many traditional dialects of rural England to recede, as youths adopt the traits of the prestige variety instead of traits from local dialects. At the time of the Survey of English Dialects, grammar and vocabulary differed across the country, but a process of lexical attrition has led most of this variation to disappear.
Nonetheless this attrition has mostly affected dialectal variation in grammar and vocabulary, and in fact only 3 percent of the English population actually speak RP, the remainder speaking regional accents and dialects with varying degrees of RP influence. There is also variability within RP, particularly along class lines between Upper and Middle class RP speakers and between native RP speakers and speakers who adopt RP later in life. Within Britain there is also considerable variation along lines of social class, and some traits though exceedingly common are considered "non-standard '' and are associated with lower class speakers and identities. An example of this is H - dropping, which was historically a feature of lower class London English, particularly Cockney, and can now be heard in the local accents of most parts of England -- yet it remains largely absent in broadcasting and among the upper crust of British society.
English in England can be divided into four major dialect regions, Southwest English, South East English, Midlands English, and Northern English. Within each of these regions several local subdialects exist: Within the Northern region, there is a division between the Yorkshire dialects, and the Geordie dialect spoken in Northumbria around Newcastle, and the Lancashire dialects with local urban dialects in Liverpool (Scouse) and Manchester (Mancunian). Having been the centre of Danish occupation during the Viking Invasions, Northern English dialects, particularly the Yorkshire dialect, retain Norse features not found in other English varieties.
Since the 15th century, southeastern England varieties centred around London, which has been the centre from which dialectal innovations have spread to other dialects. In London, the Cockney dialect was traditionally used by the lower classes, and it was long a socially stigmatised variety. The spread of Cockney features across the south - east led the media to talk of Estuary English as a new dialect, but the notion was criticised by many linguists on the grounds that London had influencing neighbouring regions throughout history. Traits that have spread from London in recent decades include the use of intrusive R (drawing is pronounced drawring / ˈdrɔːrɪŋ /), t - glottalisation (Potter is pronounced with a glottal stop as Po'er / poʔʌ /), and the pronunciation of th - as / f / (thanks pronounced fanks) or / v / (bother pronounced bover).
Scots is today considered a separate language from English, but it has its origins in early Northern Middle English and developed and changed during its history with influence from other sources, particularly Scots Gaelic and Old Norse. Scots itself has a number of regional dialects. And in addition to Scots, Scottish English are the varieties of Standard English spoken in Scotland, most varieties are Northern English accents, with some influence from Scots.
In Ireland, various forms of English have been spoken since the Norman invasions of the 11th century. In County Wexford, in the area surrounding Dublin, two extinct dialects known as Forth and Bargy and Fingallian developed as offshoots from Early Middle English, and were spoken until the 19th century. Modern Irish English, however has its roots in English colonisation in the 17th century. Today Irish English is divided into Ulster English, the Northern Ireland dialect with strong influence from Scots, as well as various dialects of the Republic of Ireland. Like Scottish and most North American accents, almost all Irish accents preserve the rhoticity which has been lost in the dialects influenced by RP.
American English is fairly homogeneous compared to British English. Today, American accent variation is often increasing at the regional level and decreasing at the very local level, though most Americans still speak within a phonological continuum of similar accents, known collectively as General American (GA), with differences hardly noticed even among Americans themselves (such as Midland and Western American English). In most American and Canadian English, rhoticity (or r - fulness) is dominant, with non-rhoticity (r - dropping) becoming associated with lower prestige and social class especially after World War II; this contrasts with the situation in England, where non-rhoticity has become the standard.
Separate from GA are American dialects with clearly distinct sound systems, historically including Southern American English, English of the coastal Northeast (famously including Eastern New England English and New York City English), and African American Vernacular English, all of which are historically non-rhotic. Canadian English, except for the Atlantic provinces and perhaps Quebec, may be classified under GA as well, but it often shows raising of certain vowels, / aɪ / and / aʊ /, before voiceless consonants, as well as distinct norms for written and pronunciation standards.
In Southern American English, the largest American "accent group '' outside of GA, rhoticity now strongly prevails, replacing the region 's historical non-rhotic prestige. Southern accents are colloquially described as a "drawl '' or "twang, '' being recognised most readily by the Southern Vowel Shift that begins with glide - deleting in the / aɪ / vowel (e.g. pronouncing spy almost like spa), the "Southern breaking '' of several front pure vowels into a gliding vowel or even two syllables (e.g. pronouncing the word "press '' almost like "pray - us ''), the pin -- pen merger, and other distinctive phonological, grammatical, and lexical features, many of which are actually recent developments of the 19th century or later.
Today spoken primarily by working - and middle - class African Americans, African American Vernacular English (AAVE) is also largely non-rhotic and likely originated among enslaved Africans and African Americans influenced primarily by the non-rhotic, non-standard English dialects of the Old South. A minority of linguists, contrarily, propose that AAVE mostly traces back to African languages spoken by the slaves who had to develop a pidgin or Creole English to communicate with slaves of other ethnic and linguistic origins. AAVE shares important commonalities with older Southern American English and so probably developed to a highly coherent and homogeneous variety in the 19th or early 20th century. AAVE is commonly stigmatised in North America as a form of "broken '' or "uneducated '' English, also common of modern Southern American English, but linguists today recognise both as fully developed varieties of English with their own norms shared by a large speech community.
Since 1788, English has been spoken in Oceania, and Australian English has developed as a first language of the vast majority of the inhabitants of the Australian continent, its standard accent being General Australian. The English of neighbouring New Zealand has to a lesser degree become an influential standard variety of the language. Australian and New Zealand English are each other 's closest relatives with few differentiating characteristics, followed by South African English and the English of southeastern England, all of which have similarly non-rhotic accents, aside from some accents in the South Island of New Zealand. Australian and New Zealand English stand out for their innovative vowels: many short vowels are fronted or raised, whereas many long vowels have diphthongised. Australian English also has a contrast between long and short vowels, not found in most other varieties. Australian English grammar aligns closely to British and American English; like American English, collective plural subjects take on a singular verb (as in the government is rather than are). New Zealand English uses front vowels that are often even higher than in Australian English.
English is spoken widely in South Africa and is an official or co-official language in several countries. In South Africa, English has been spoken since 1820, co-existing with Afrikaans and various African languages such as the Khoe and Bantu languages. Today about 9 percent of the South African population speak South African English (SAE) as a first language. SAE is a non-rhotic variety, which tends to follow RP as a norm. It is alone among non-rhotic varieties in lacking intrusive r. There are different L2 varieties that differ based on the native language of the speakers. Most phonological differences from RP are in the vowels. Consonant differences include the tendency to pronounce / p, t, t͡ʃ, k / without aspiration (e.g. pin pronounced (pɪn) rather than as (phɪn) as in most other varieties), while r is often pronounced as a flap (ɾ) instead of as the more common fricative.
Several varieties of English are also spoken in the Caribbean Islands that were colonial possessions of Britain, including Jamaica, and the Leeward and Windward Islands and Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, the Cayman Islands, and Belize. Each of these areas are home both to a local variety of English and a local English based creole, combining English and African languages. The most prominent varieties are Jamaican English and Jamaican Creole. In Central America, English based creoles are spoken in on the Caribbean coasts of Nicaragua and Panama. Locals are often fluent both in the local English variety and the local creole languages and code - switching between them is frequent, indeed another way to conceptualise the relationship between Creole and Standard varieties is to see a spectrum of social registers with the Creole forms serving as "basilect '' and the more RP - like forms serving as the "acrolect '', the most formal register.
Most Caribbean varieties are based on British English and consequently most are non-rhotic, except for formal styles of Jamaican English which are often rhotic. Jamaican English differs from RP in its vowel inventory, which has a distinction between long and short vowels rather than tense and lax vowels as in Standard English. The diphthongs / ei / and / ou / are monophthongs (eː) and (oː) or even the reverse diphthongs (ie) and (uo) (e.g. bay and boat pronounced (bjeː) and (bwoːt)). Often word final consonant clusters are simplified so that "child '' is pronounced (t͡ʃail) and "wind '' (win).
As a historical legacy, Indian English tends to take RP as its ideal, and how well this ideal is realised in an individual 's speech reflects class distinctions among Indian English speakers. Indian English accents are marked by the pronunciation of phonemes such as / t / and / d / (often pronounced with retroflex articulation as (ʈ) and (ɖ)) and the replacement of / θ / and / ð / with dentals (t̪) and (d̪). Sometimes Indian English speakers may also use spelling based pronunciations where the silent ⟨ h ⟩ found in words such as ghost is pronounced as an Indian voiced aspirated stop (ɡɦ).
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who did britain support in the american civil war | United Kingdom and the American Civil war - wikipedia
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland remained officially neutral throughout the American Civil War (1861 -- 1865). It legally recognised the belligerent status of the Confederate States of America (CSA) but never recognised it as a nation and neither signed a treaty with it or ever exchanged ambassadors. Over 90 percent of Confederate trade with Britain ended, causing a severe shortage of cotton by 1862. Britain financed blockade runners that sent munitions and luxuries to Confederate ports in return for cotton and tobacco. Top British officials debated offering to mediate in the first 18 months, which the Confederacy wanted but the United States strongly rejected.
The British elite tended to support the Confederacy, but ordinary people tended to support the United States of America. Large - scale trade continued between Britain and the US. The UUS shipped grain to Britain, and Britain sent manufactured items and munitions to the US. Immigration continued into the US, with many Britons volunteering for its army. British trade with the Confederacy fell over 90 % from the prewar period, with a small amount of cotton going to Britain and some munitions and luxury goods slipped in by numerous small blockade runners. They were operated and funded by British private interests. They were legal under international law and caused no dispute between the US and Britain.
The Confederate strategy for securing independence was based largely on the hope of military intervention by Britain and France. That never happened because the US threatened war, which would have cut off much of Britain 's food supply. A serious diplomatic dispute erupted over the "Trent Affair '' in late 1861 but was resolved peacefully after five weeks.
British intervention was likely only in co-operation with France, which had an imperialistic venture underway in Mexico. By early 1863, intervention was no longer seriously considered, as Britain turned its attention elsewhere, especially toward Russia and Greece.
A long - term issue was sales of warships to the Confederacy. A British shipyard (John Laird and Sons) built two warships for the Confederacy, including the CSS Alabama, over vehement protests from the US. Known as the Alabama Claims, the controversy was resolved peacefully after the Civil War when the US was awarded $15.5 million in arbitration by an international tribunal for damages caused by the warships.
However, the fact that British private interests operated blockade runners was not a cause of serious tension. In the end, British involvement did not significantly affect the outcome of the war. The US diplomatic mission, headed by Minister Charles Francis Adams, Sr., proved to be much more successful than the Confederate missions, which were never officially recognized by Britain.
The Confederacy, such as President Jefferson Davis, believed from the beginning in "King Cotton, '' the idea that British dependence on cotton for its large textile industry would lead to diplomatic recognition and mediation or military intervention. The Confederates had not sent out agents ahead of time to ascertain if the King Cotton policy would be effective. Instead, it was by popular demand, not government action, that shipments of cotton to Europe were ended in spring 1861. When the Confederate diplomats arrived, they tried to convince British leaders that the US naval blockade was an illegal paper blockade. Historian Charles Hubbard writes:
Davis left foreign policy to others in government and, rather than developing an aggressive diplomatic effort, tended to expect events to accomplish diplomatic objectives. The new president was committed to the notion that cotton would secure recognition and legitimacy from the powers of Europe. The men Davis selected as secretary of state and emissaries to Europe were chosen for political and personal reasons -- not for their diplomatic potential. This was due, in part, to the belief that cotton could accomplish the Confederate objectives with little help from Confederate diplomats.
Hubbard added that Davis 's policy was stubborn and coercive. The King Cotton strategy was resisted by the Europeans. Secretary of War Judah Benjamin and Secretary of the Treasury Christopher Memminger warned that cotton should be immediately exported to build up foreign credits.
The Union 's main goal in foreign affairs was to maintain friendly relations and large - scale trade with the world and to prevent any official recognition of the Confederacy by any country, especially Britain. Other concerns included preventing the Confederacy from buying foreign - made warships; gaining European support for policies against slavery; and attracting immigrant laborers, farmers, and soldiers. There had been continuous improvement in Anglo - American relations throughout the 1850s. The issues of Oregon, Texas, and the Canada -- US border had all been resolved, and trade was brisk. Secretary of State William H. Seward, the primary architect of American foreign policy during the war, intended to maintain the policy principles that had served the country well since the American Revolution: "non-intervention by the United States in the affairs of other countries and resistance to foreign intervention in the affairs of the United States and other countries in this hemisphere. ''
British public opinion was divided on the American Civil War. The Confederacy tended to have support from the elites: the aristocracy and the gentry, which identified with the landed plantation owners, and Anglican clergy and some professionals who admired tradition, hierarchy and paternalism. The Union was favored by the middle classes, the religious Nonconformists, intellectuals, reformers and most factory workers, who saw slavery and forced labor as a threat to the status of the workingman. The cabinet made the decisions. Chancellor of the Exchequer William E Gladstone, whose family fortune had been based on slavery in the West Indies before 1833, supported the Confederacy. Foreign Minister Lord Russell wanted neutrality. Prime Minister Lord Palmerston wavered between support for national independence, his opposition to slavery and the strong economic advantages of Britain remaining neutral.
Even before the war started, Lord Palmerston pursued a policy of neutrality. His international concerns were centred in Europe, where he had to watch both Napoleon III:s ambitions in Europe and Otto von Bismarck 's rise in Prussia. There were also serious problems involving Italy, Poland, Russia, Denmark and China. British reactions to American events were shaped by past British policies and their own national interests, both strategically and economically. In the Western Hemisphere, as relations with the United States improved, Britain had become cautious about confronting it over issues in Central America. As a naval power, Britain had a long record of insisting that neutral nations abide by its blockades, a perspective that led from the earliest days of the war to de facto support for the Union blockade and frustration in the South.
Diplomatic observers were suspicious of British motives. The Russian Minister in Washington, Eduard de Stoeckl, noted, "The Cabinet of London is watching attentively the internal dissensions of the Union and awaits the result with an impatience which it has difficulty in disguising. '' De Stoeckl advised his government that Britain would recognize the Confederacy at its earliest opportunity. Cassius Clay, the United States Minister in Russia, stated, "I saw at a glance where the feeling of England was. They hoped for our ruin! They are jealous of our power. They care neither for the South nor the North. They hate both. ''
Lincoln appointed Charles Francis Adams, Sr., as minister to Britain. An important part of his mission was to make clear to the British that the war was a strictly - internal insurrection and afforded the Confederacy no rights under international law. Any movement by Britain to recognizing the Confederacy officially would be considered an unfriendly act toward the US. Seward 's instructions to Adams included the suggestion that it should be made clear to Britain that a nation with widely scattered possessions, as well as a homeland that included Scotland and Ireland, should be very wary of "set (ting) a dangerous precedent. ''
Lord Lyons was appointed as the British minister to the United States in April 1859. An Oxford graduate, he had two decades of diplomatic experience before being given the American post. Lyons, like many British leaders, had reservations about Seward and shared them freely in his correspondence, which was widely circulated within the British government. As early as January 7, 1861, well before the Lincoln administration had even assumed office, Lyons wrote to British Foreign Secretary Lord Russell about Seward:
I can not help fearing that he will be a dangerous foreign minister. His view of the relations between the United States and Britain had always been that they are a good material to make political capital of... I do not think Mr. Seward would contemplate actually going to war with us, but he would be well disposed to play the old game of seeking popularity here by displaying violence toward us.
Despite his distrust of Seward, throughout 1861, Lyons maintained a "calm and measured '' diplomacy that contributed to a peaceful resolution to the Trent crisis.
The Confederate States came into existence after seven of the fifteen slave states seceded because of the election of Republican President Lincoln, whose party committed to the containment of slavery geographically and the weakening of slaveowners ' political power. Slavery was the cornerstone of the South 's plantation economy, although it was repugnant to the moral sensibilities of most people in Britain, which had abolished slavery in its Empire in 1833. Until the fall of 1862, the immediate end of slavery was not an issue in the war; in fact, some Union states (Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, Delaware, and what became West Virginia) allowed slavery. In 1861, Missouri had sought to extradite an escaped slave from Canada to face trial for a murder committed in his flight for which some in Britain falsely believed the punishment was to be burned alive.
Lincoln 's Emancipation Proclamation, announced in preliminary form in September 1862, made ending slavery an objective of the war and caused European intervention on the side of the South to be unpopular. However, some British leaders expected it would cause a large - scale race war that might need foreign intervention. Pro-Southern leaders in Britain then spoke of mediation, which they understood to mean the independence of the Confederacy and the continuation of slavery.
Outright war was a possibility in late 1861, when the U.S. Navy took control of a British mail ship and seized two Confederate diplomats. Confederate President Jefferson Davis had named James M. Mason and John Slidell as commissioners to represent Confederate interests in England and France. They went to Havana, in Spanish Cuba, where they took passage for England on the British mail steamer Trent. The American warship USS San Jacinto under Captain Charles Wilkes was looking for them.
It was generally then agreed that a nation at war had the right to stop and search a neutral merchant ship if it suspected that ship of carrying the enemy 's dispatches. Mason and Slidell, Wilkes reasoned, were in effect Confederate dispatches and so he had the right to remove them. On November 8, 1861, he fired twice across the bow of the Trent, sent a boat 's crew aboard, seized the Confederate commissioners, and bore them off in triumph to the US, where they were held prisoner in Boston. Wilkes was hailed as a national hero.
The violation of British neutral rights triggered an uproar in Britain. Britain sent 11,000 troops to Canada, and the British fleet was put on a war footing with plans to capture New York City if war broke out. A sharp note was dispatched to Washington to demand the return of the prisoners as an apology. Lincoln, concerned about Britain entering the war, ignored anti-British sentiment, issued what the British interpreted as an apology without actually apologizing, and ordered the prisoners to be released.
War was unlikely in any event, as the United States was providing Britain with over 40 % of its wheat imports during the war years, and suspension would have caused severe disruption to its food supply. Britain imported about 25 - 30 % of its grain ("corn '' in British English), and poor crops in 1861 and 1862 in France made Britain even more dependent on shiploads from New York City. Furthermore, British banks and financial institutions in the City of London had financed many projects such as railways in the US. There were fears that war would result in enormous financial losses as investments were lost and loans defaulted on.
Britain 's shortage of cotton was partially made up by imports from India and Egypt by 1863. The Trent Affair led to the Lyons - Seward Treaty of 1862, an agreement to clamp down hard on the Atlantic slave trade by using the US Navy and the Royal Navy.
The possibility of recognizing the Confederacy came to the fore late in the summer of 1862. At that time, as far as any European could see, the war seemed to be a stalemate. The US attempt to capture the Confederate capital had failed, and in the east and west alike, the Confederates were on the offensive. Charles Francis Adams, Sr., warned Washington that the British government might very soon offer to mediate the difficulty between North and South, which would be a polite but effective way of intimating that in the opinion of Britain, the fight had gone on long enough and should be ended by giving the South what it wanted. Recognition, as Adams warned, risked all - out war with the United States. War would involve an invasion of Canada, a full - scale American attack on British shipping interests worldwide, an end to American grain shipments that were providing a large part of the British food supply, and an end to British sales of machinery and supplies to the US. The British leadership, however, thought that if the Union armies were decisively defeated, the US might soften its position and accept mediation.
Earl Russell, British Foreign Secretary, had given Mason no encouragement, but after news of the Second Battle of Bull Run reached London in early September, Palmerston agreed that in late September, there could be a cabinet meeting at which Palmerston and Russell would ask approval of the mediation proposal. Then, Russell and Palmerston decided not to bring the plan before the cabinet until they got further word about Lee 's invasion of the North. If the Northerners were beaten, the proposal would go through; if Lee failed, it might be well to wait a little longer before taking any action.
The British working - class population, most notably the British cotton workers who suffered the Lancashire Cotton Famine, remained consistently opposed to the Confederacy. A resolution of support was passed by the inhabitants of Manchester and sent to Lincoln. His letter of reply has become famous:
I know and deeply deplore the sufferings which the working people of Manchester and in all Europe are called to endure in this crisis. It has been often and studiously represented that the attempt to overthrow this Government which was built on the foundation of human rights, and to substitute for it one which should rest exclusively on the basis of slavery, was likely to obtain the favor of Europe.
Through the action of disloyal citizens, the working people of Europe have been subjected to a severe trial for the purpose of forcing their sanction to that attempt. Under the circumstances I can not but regard your decisive utterances on the question as an instance of sublime Christian heroism which has not been surpassed in any age or in any country. It is indeed an energetic and re-inspiring assurance of the inherent truth and of the ultimate and universal triumph of justice, humanity and freedom.
I hail this interchange of sentiments, therefore, as an augury that, whatever else may happen, whatever misfortune may befall your country or my own, the peace and friendship which now exists between the two nations will be, as it shall be my desire to make them, perpetual.
There is now a statue of Lincoln in Manchester, with an extract from his letter carved on the plinth.
Lincoln became a hero amongst the British working class with progressive views. His portrait, often alongside that of Garibaldi, adorned many parlour walls. One can still be seen in the boyhood home of David Lloyd George, now part of the Lloyd George Museum.
The decisive factor, in the fall of 1862 and increasingly thereafter was the Battle of Antietam and what grew out of it. Lee 's invasion was a failure at Antietam, and he barely escaped back to Virginia. It was now obvious that no final, conclusive Confederate triumph could be anticipated. The swift recession of the high Confederate tide was as visible in Britain as in America, and in the end, Palmerston and Russell dropped any notion of bringing a mediation - recognition program before the cabinet.
During the late spring and early summer of 1862, Lincoln had come to see that he must broaden the base of the war. The Union itself was not enough; the undying vitality and drive of Northern anti-slavery men must be brought into full, vigorous support of the war effort and so the United States chose to declare itself officially against slavery. The Lincoln administration believed that slavery was the basis of the Confederate economy and leadership class and that victory required its destruction. Lincoln had drafted a plan and waited for a battlefield victory to announce it. The Battle of Antietam gave Lincoln victory, and on September 22, he gave the Confederacy 100 days notice to return to the Union or else on January 1, 1863, all slaves held in areas in rebellion would be free. William Ewart Gladstone, the Chancellor of the Exchequer and a senior Liberal leader, had accepted slavery in his youth; his family had grown wealthy through the ownership of slaves in the West Indies. However, the idea of slavery was abhorrent to him, and his idea was to civilise all nations. He strongly spoke out for Confederate independence. When the Emancipation Proclamation was announced, he tried to make the counterargument that an independent Confederacy would do a better job of freeing the slaves than an invading northern army would. He warned that a race war was imminent and would justify British intervention. Emancipation also alarmed the British Foreign Secretary Lord John Russell, who expected a bloody slave uprising. The question then would be British intervention on humanitarian grounds. However, there was no slave uprising and no race war. The advice of the war minister against going to war with United States, as well as the tide of British public opinion, convinced the cabinet to take no action.
Once the war with the US began, the best hope for the survival of the Confederacy was military intervention by Britain and France. The US realized that as well and made it clear that recognition of the Confederacy meant war and the end of food shipments into Britain. The Confederates who had believed in "King Cotton '' (Britain had to support the Confederacy to obtain cotton for its industries) were proven wrong. Britain, in fact, had ample stores of cotton in 1861 and depended much more on grain from the US.
During its existence, the Confederate government sent repeated delegations to Europe; historians do not give them high marks for diplomatic skills. James M. Mason was sent to London as Confederate minister to Queen Victoria, and John Slidell was sent to Paris as minister to Napoleon III. Both were able to obtain private meetings with high British and French officials, but they failed to secure official recognition for the Confederacy. Britain and the US were at sword 's point during the Trent Affair in late 1861. Mason and Slidell had been illegally seized from a British ship by an American warship. Queen Victoria 's husband, Prince Albert, helped calm the situation, and Lincoln released Mason and Slidell and so the episode was no help to the Confederacy.
Throughout the early years of the war, British foreign secretary Lord Russell, Napoleon III, and, to a lesser extent, British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston, explored the risks and advantages of recognition of the Confederacy or at least offering a mediation. Recognition meant certain war with the US, loss of American grain, loss of exports, loss of investments in American securities, potential invasion of Canada and other North American colonies, higher taxes, and a threat to the British merchant marine with little to gain in return. Many party leaders and the general public wanted no war with such high costs and meager benefits. Recognition was considered following the Second Battle of Manassas, when the British government was preparing to mediate in the conflict, but the Union victory at the Battle of Antietam and Lincoln 's Emancipation Proclamation, combined with internal opposition, caused the government to back away.
In 1863, the Confederacy expelled all foreign consuls (all of them British or French diplomats) for advising their subjects to refuse to serve in combat against the US.
Throughout the war, all European powers adopted a policy of neutrality, meeting informally with Confederate diplomats but withholding diplomatic recognition. None ever sent an ambassador or official delegation to Richmond. However, they applied principles of international law and recognized both sides as belligerents. Canada allowed both Confederate and Union agents to work openly within its borders.
Northerners were outraged at British tolerance of non-neutral acts, especially the building of warships. The United States demanded vast reparations for the damages caused by British - built commerce raiders, especially CSS Alabama, which Palmerston bluntly refused to pay.
The dispute continued for years after the war. After Palmerston 's death, Prime Minister Gladstone agreed to include the US war claims in treaty discussions on other pending issues, such as fishing rights and border disputes. In 1872, pursuant to the resultant Treaty of Washington, an international arbitration board awarded $15,500,000 to the US, and the British apologized for the destruction caused by the British - built Confederate ships but admitted no guilt.
The Union victory emboldened the forces in Britain that demanded more democracy and public input into the political system. The resulting Reform Act 1867 enfranchised the urban male working class in England and Wales and weakened the upper - class landed gentry, who identified more with the Southern planters. Influential commentators included Walter Bagehot, Thomas Carlyle, John Stuart Mill, and Anthony Trollope. Additionally, many Irishmen saw service in both the Union and Confederate State Army.
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in uno can you end on a power card | Uno (card game) - wikipedia
Uno (/ ˈuːnoʊ /; from Italian and Spanish for ' one ') (stylized as UNO) is an American shedding - type card game that is played with a specially printed deck. The game 's general principles put it into the Crazy Eights family of card games. The game was originally developed in 1971 by Merle Robbins in Reading, Ohio, a suburb of Cincinnati. It has been a Mattel brand since 1992. When his family and friends began to play more and more, he spent $8,000 to have 5,000 copies of the game made. He sold it from his barbershop at first, and local businesses began to sell it as well. Robins later sold the rights to UNO to a group of friends headed by Robert Tezak, a funeral parlor owner in Joliet, Illinois, for $50,000 plus royalties of 10 cents per game. Tezak formed International Games, Inc., to market UNO, with offices behind his funeral parlor. The games were produced by Lewis Saltzman of Saltzman Printers in Maywood, Illinois. In 1992, International Games became part of the Mattel family of companies.
The aim of the game is to be the first player to score 500 points, achieved (usually over several rounds of play) by a player discarding all of their cards and earning points corresponding to the value of the remaining cards still held by the other players. Action cards (Skip, Draw Two and Reverse) are worth 20 Points while Wild and Wild Draw Four cards are worth 50 Points.
The deck consists of 108 cards, of which there are 25 of each color (red, green, blue, and yellow), each color having two of each rank except zero. The ranks in each color are zero to nine, "Skip '', "Draw Two '', and "Reverse '' (the last three being "action cards ''). In addition, the deck contains four each of "Wild '' and "Wild Draw Four '' cards.
To start a hand, seven cards are dealt to each player, with the top card of the deck flipped over and set aside to begin the discard pile. The player to the dealer 's left plays first, unless the first card on the discard pile is an action or Wild card (see below). On a player 's turn, they must do one of the following:
Play proceeds clockwise around the table.
Action and Wild cards have the following effects:
A player who plays their next - to - last - card must call "Uno '' as a warning to the other players.
The first player to get rid of their last card ("going out '') wins the hand and scores points for the cards held by the other players. Number cards count their face value, all action cards count 20, and Wild and Wild Draw Four cards count 50. If a Draw Two or Wild Draw Four card is played to go out, the next player in sequence must draw the appropriate number of cards before the score is tallied.
The first player to score 500 points wins the game.
In a two - player game, the Reverse card acts like a Skip card; when played, the other player misses a turn.
The following house rules are suggested in the Uno rulebook, to alter the game:
A strategy at Uno may be offensive (aiming to go out), or defensive (aiming to minimize the value of one 's hand, in the event that another player goes out, thus getting those points). Part of the skill of playing Uno is knowing when to adopt an offensive or defensive strategy.
An offensive strategy would be holding on to Wild and Wild Draw Four cards, because they can be played near the end of the hand in order to go out (when it 's harder to play a matching card). However, a defensive strategy would advise getting rid of such cards early, because they have a high point value.
A defensive strategy would advise playing a high card in order to reduce the point value of the hand. However, an offensive strategy would suggest playing a 0 when the player wants to continue on the current color, because it is less likely to be matched by another 0 of a different color (there is only one 0 of each color, but two of each 1 -- 9).
A player holding only one card is required to call out "Uno '' or risk being penalized if caught. A player who calls "Uno '' risks being the target of concerted action by the other players, who may be able to use action cards to prevent that player from going out. Depending on the level and seriousness of play, some players may deliberately avoid saying "Uno '', in the hope of avoiding detection and then going out on the next turn. For this reason, it is useful to conceal how many cards are in your hand, and to keep track of how many cards every other player holds.
Little has been published on the optimal strategy for the game of Uno. Simulations of games may shed some light on the matter. Attempts to reduce point count in a player 's hands can be "read '' by other players if too transparent. This information can be exploited by other players, and it follows that a mixed strategy may be more appropriate.
Some work has been done into the psychology of Uno as it relates to individual and group behavior. Players may exhibit physical tells, in which a subtle, often repeated, cue inadvertently reveals their state of mind during a game. Alternatively, they may change their playing style, switching from an aggressive card - shedding strategy to a more subdued one, or vice versa.
The new Uno action cards bear symbols which denote their action, except for the Wild cards which still bear the word "Wild. '' Before the design change, such cards in English versions of the game had letters only. Especially old English versions can be denoted by the absence of the white rim that surrounds the edge of most Uno cards. Other versions use symbols and images in both old and new designs, especially ones with Wild cards that do not bear the word "Wild ''. The Xbox 360 version of the game uses the new English style of the cards. There are also language - free versions of the newer styles that do not bear the word "Wild '' but have the same styling. There is a new version called "Uno Mod '' where the cards have symbols instead of letters or numbers. This version also comes in a red and white case. It is one of several "Mod '' games by Mattel, the others being Othello (game) Mod, Apples to Apples Mod, Phase 10 Mod, and Skip - Bo Mod.
There are many different themes and versions of Uno. These theme games may come with slightly different directions and special cards.
Note: * indicates HIT Entertainment character, by which Mattel acquired HIT in 2012.
Card sets only have 36 cards designed for children at least 3 years of age. These sets come in several variants, based on titles for children. My First Uno versions:
Uno versions available on the Xbox 360:
Several sports teams each have 112 - card sets, featuring players from those teams. The special cards in each deck vary depending on the card set itself. The following teams have confirmed Uno sets.
Many variations from standard gameplay exist, such as Elimination Uno, Speed Uno, French Uno, Pirate Uno, and Pakistani Uno. A variation of Uno named Dos that includes math and the player having to say "Dos! '' when they have 2 cards left. This spinoff of Uno was introduced in 2018.
Uno is a member of the shedding family of card games. The shedding family of card games consists of games where the objective is to get rid of all your cards while preventing the other players from getting rid of their cards.
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who is jack in a star is born | A Star is Born (1954 film) - wikipedia
A Star Is Born is a 1954 American musical film written by Moss Hart, starring Judy Garland and James Mason, and directed by George Cukor. Hart 's screenplay was an adaptation of the original 1937 film, which was based on the original screenplay by Robert Carson, Dorothy Parker, Alan Campbell, and from the same story by William A. Wellman and Carson, with uncredited input from six additional writers -- David O. Selznick, Ben Hecht, Ring Lardner Jr., John Lee Mahin, Budd Schulberg and Adela Rogers St. Johns. In 2000, the 1954 film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. ''
The film ranked # 43 on the American Film Institute 's 100 Years... 100 Passions list in 2002 and # 7 on its list of greatest musicals in 2006. The song "The Man That Got Away '' was ranked # 11 on AFI 's list of 100 top songs in films.
Garland had not made a movie since she had negotiated release from her MGM contract soon after filming began on Royal Wedding in 1950, and the film was promoted heavily as her comeback. For her performance in A Star is Born, Garland was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress. NBC, which was televising the ceremony, sent a film crew to the hospital room where she was recuperating after giving birth to her son Joey in order to carry her acceptance speech live if she won, but she lost to Grace Kelly for The Country Girl.
It is the first of three official remakes of A Star Is Born, with the second released in 1976 starring Barbra Streisand and Kris Kristofferson. The third remake was released on October 5, 2018, starring Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper.
Esther Blodgett is a talented aspiring singer with a band, and Norman Maine is a former matinee idol with a career in the early stages of decline. When he arrives intoxicated at a function at the Shrine Auditorium, the studio publicist Matt Libby attempts to keep him away from reporters. After an angry exchange, Norman rushes away and bursts onto a stage where an orchestra is performing. Blodgett takes him by the hand and pretends he is part of the act, thereby turning a potentially embarrassing and disruptive moment into an opportunity for the audience to greet Norman with applause.
Realizing that Esther has saved him from public humiliation, Norman thanks her and draws a heart on the wall with her lipstick. He invites her to dinner, and later watches her perform in an after - hours club while recognizing her impressive talent. He urges her to follow her dream and convinces her she can break into movies. Esther is surprised that someone of Norman 's stature sees something special in her. He offers her a screen test and advises her to "sleep on it, '' promising to call her the next day. Esther tells Danny McGuire, her bandmate, that she 's quitting their upcoming gig to pursue movies in L.A. Thinking her crazy, he tries to talk her out of it, but Esther is determined. Norman is called away early in the morning to filming and then falls ill. He attempts to get a message to Esther but can not remember her address. When she does n't hear from him, she suspects he was insincere. Not disheartened, she takes jobs as a carhop and TV commercial singer to make ends meet, convinced she can make it, with or without Norman.
Norman tries to find Esther, who 's had to move from her apartment. Then he hears her singing on a television commercial and tracks her down. Studio head Oliver Niles believes Esther is just a passing fancy for the actor, but casts her in a small film role. The studio arbitrarily changes her name to Vicki Lester, which she finds out when she tries to pick up her paycheck. When Norman finally gets Niles to hear "Vicki '' sing, he is impressed and she is cast in an important musical film, making her a huge success. Her relationship with Norman flourishes, and they wed.
As Vicki 's career continues to flourish, Norman finds himself unemployed and going downhill fast -- an alcoholic in a tough new film business which does n't put up with it. Norman arrives, late and drunk, in the middle of Vicki 's Oscar acceptance speech. He interrupts her speech, rambling and pacing back and forth in front of her. While begging for work from the assembled and embarrassed Hollywood community, he accidentally strikes Vicki in the face.
Vicki continues working and tells Oliver that Norman has entered a sanitarium. After supporting him for so long, she worries about the effect of Norman 's alcoholism on her, while acknowledging that he 's trying very hard to overcome his addiction. Niles is amenable to offering Norman work, a gesture for which Vicki is grateful, thinking this may be just the boost her husband needs. At the racetrack, Norman runs into studio publicist Matt Libby, who taunts him and accuses him of living on Vicki 's earnings. The resulting fight prompts the actor to go on a drinking binge. He is eventually arrested for being drunk and disorderly and - even more humiliated - receives ninety days in the city jail. Vicki bails him out and brings him home, where they are joined by Niles. Norman goes to bed but overhears Vicki telling Niles she will give up her career to take care of him. He also hears Oliver say that Norman ruined his own career with his drinking. Finally realizing what he 's done to himself, Vicki, his career, and the people around him, Norman leaves his bed, tells Vicki cheerfully that he is going to go for a swim, walks into the ocean -- and drowns himself.
Despondent, Vicki becomes a recluse and refuses to see anyone. Finally, her old bandmate Danny convinces her she needs to attend a charity function because she constitutes the only good work Norman did and which he died trying to save. At the Shrine Auditorium, she notices the heart Norman drew on the wall on the night they met and for a moment seems to lose her composure. When she arrives on stage, the emcee tells her the event is being broadcast worldwide and asks her to say a few words to her fans. She says, "Hello, everybody. This is Mrs. Norman Maine, '' which prompts the crowd into a standing ovation.
In December 1952, George Cukor was approached by Sid Luft, who proposed the director helm a musical remake of the 1937 film A Star is Born with his then - wife Judy Garland in the lead role. Garland previously had portrayed Vicki Lester in a December 1942 Lux Radio Theater broadcast with Walter Pidgeon, and she and Luft, along with several associates, had formed Transcona Enterprises specifically to produce the project on screen. Cukor had declined to direct the original film because it was too similar to his 1932 What Price Hollywood?, but the opportunity to direct his first Technicolor film, first musical film, and work with screenwriter Moss Hart and especially Garland appealed to him, and he accepted.
Getting the updated film to the screen proved to be a challenge. Cukor wanted Cary Grant, whom he had directed three times before, for the male lead and went so far as to read the entire script with him. Grant, while agreeing it was the role of a lifetime, was more interested in traveling with wife Betsy Drake, and steadfastly refused the role (he also turned down Roman Holiday and Sabrina). He also was concerned about Garland 's reputation for unreliability; Cukor never forgave Cary for declining the role. The director then suggested either Humphrey Bogart or Frank Sinatra for the part, but Jack L. Warner rejected both. Stewart Granger was the front runner for a period of time, but he backed out when he was unable to adjust to Cukor 's habit of acting out scenes as a form of direction.
James Mason ultimately was signed, and filming began on October 12, 1953. As the months passed, Cukor was forced to deal not only with constant script changes but a very unstable leading lady, who was plagued by chemical dependencies, significant weight fluctuations, illnesses, and hypochondria. After considerable footage had been shot, studio executives decided the film should be the first Warner Brothers motion picture to use CinemaScope, necessitating everything be scrapped and filmed again.
In March 1954, a rough cut still missing several musical numbers was assembled, and Cukor had mixed feelings about it. When the last scene was filmed in the early morning hours of July 28, 1954, Cukor already had departed the production and was unwinding in Europe. The long "Born in a Trunk '' sequence was added after Cukor had left, supervised by Garland 's professional mentor Roger Edens.
The first test screening the following month ran 196 minutes, and, despite ecstatic feedback from the audience, Cukor and editor Folmar Blangsted trimmed it to 182 minutes for its New York premiere in October. The reviews were excellent, but Warner executives, concerned the running time would limit the number of daily showings, made drastic cuts without Cukor, who had departed for India to scout locations for Bhowani Junction. At its final running time of 154 minutes, the film lost two major musical numbers and crucial dramatic scenes, and Cukor called it "very painful '' to watch.
A Star Is Born cost over $5 million, making it one of the most expensive films ever made in Hollywood. In its initial release, it did very well and attracted huge crowds. According to Variety, it grossed $6,100,000 in US theatrical rentals.
Bosley Crowther of The New York Times wrote the film was "one of the grandest heartbreak dramas that has drenched the screen in years. '' He added, "The whole thing runs for three hours, and during this extraordinary time a remarkable range of entertainment is developed upon the screen... No one surpasses Mr. Cukor at handling this sort of thing, and he gets performances from Miss Garland and Mr. Mason that make the heart flutter and bleed... Theirs is a credible enactment of a tragic little try at love in an environment that packages the product. It is the strong tie that binds the whole show. But there is more that is complementary to it. There is the muchness of music that runs from a fine, haunting torch - song... to a mammoth, extensive production number recounting the career of a singer... And there is, through it all, a gentle tracing of clever satire of Hollywood, not as sharp as it was in the original, but sharp enough to be stimulating fun. ''
Time wrote Garland "gives what is just about the greatest one - woman show in modern movie history, '' and Newsweek said the film is "best classified as a thrilling personal triumph for Judy Garland. As an actress Miss Garland is more than adequate. As a mime and comedienne she is even better. But as a singer she can handle anything from torch songs and blues to ballads. In more ways than one, the picture is hers. '' When the Oscar for Best Actress went to Grace Kelly instead of Garland, Groucho Marx called it "the biggest robbery since Brink 's. ''
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film received an approval rating of 97 % based on 29 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "A Star is Born is a movie of grand scope and intimate moments, featuring Judy Garland 's possibly greatest performance. ''
For years, Garland fans and film historians expressed great interest in viewing the missing footage from this film. Beginning about 1981, film preservationist Ronald Haver did extensive research of the Warner Bros. film vaults and located some of the missing scenes, including two complete musical numbers, "Here 's What I 'm Here For '' and "Lose That Long Face ''.
In 1983, a 176 - minute "restored '' (i.e. reconstructed) version was shown in theaters and then released on home video. The project was a collaboration between the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences and the studio. Some of the missing footage had to be reconstructed using pan and scan of production stills, accompanied by the restored dialogue. The original multi-track stereophonic sound was also restored. Within the next year, more discoveries would follow. In the spring of 1984, the restored "A Star Is Born '' was again reissued and shown at The Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City and for this engagement, an outtake of Garland performing "The Man That Got Away ' in a different costume and hairstyle was included. Also that year, when PBS was producing its documentary for Great Performances, Judy Garland: The Concert Years, another small piece of footage of "A Star Is Born '' was found and shown for the very first time in the program - Garland singing When My Sugar Walks Down The Street, which was deleted from the "Born In A Trunk '' sequence.
In 2010, an all new restoration kicked off the all new Turner Classic Movies Film Festival. Many were hoping that the film would be the long lost "George Cukor cut '' but it was the Ron Haver Restoration.
Also in 2010, it was rumored that film restorer (and friend of Liza Minnelli) Michael Arick had a complete print of the film.
A Star Is Born, a remake itself, was again remade in 1976 with Barbra Streisand and Kris Kristofferson. The film was remade without permission in Bollywood as Aashiqui 2 in 2013. It also inspired Malayalam film Bharatham.
The latest remake of A Star Is Born stars Bradley Cooper and Lady Gaga, who also created new music for the project. Filming began April 17, 2017, and the movie was released on October 5, 2018.
The soundtrack has never been out of print. It was originally released by Columbia Records in 1954 in 10 - inch 78 rpm and 12 - inch 331⁄3 rpm editions, and also on 7 - inch 45 rpm records.
In 1988, Columbia released the soundtrack on compact disc, taking the overture and the main musical numbers directly from the film 's stereo soundtrack due to the fact no stereo pre-recordings for the soundtrack master existed for this number.
In 2004, in commemoration of the film 's 50th anniversary, Columbia, Legacy Recordings, and Sony Music Soundtrax released a nearly complete, digitally - remastered, expanded edition of the soundtrack. Due to the lack of a complete multitrack version of all songs and score from the film, the CD includes a mix of monaural and stereo elements in order to make as complete a soundtrack as possible.
Due in part to the fact that some of the songs were not complete on the film soundtrack, as well as the fact that many of the original music stems had been lost or destroyed subsequent to original mono mixdown, numbers such as "Here 's What I 'm Here For '' and "Lose That Long Face '' are taken from the original mono LP masters.
Other numbers such as "Gotta Have Me Go with You '' are mostly in stereo, save for brief sections where the mono soundtrack album master was used in order to remove various endemic plot - related sound effects from the track. All of the instrumental tracks are in mono as well due to the fact that the original elements have been lost or destroyed.
The 2004 soundtrack also includes three vocal outtakes -- an alternative vocal for the reprise of "It 's a New World '' that Esther sings while Norman goes for his final swim; "When My Sugar Walks Down the Street '', which was intended to be part of the "Born In a Trunk '' sequence, but was deleted for time constraints; and "The Trinidad Coconut Oil Shampoo Commercial '', which was taken from the only surviving recording of the complete track, a very worn acetate artist reference disc.
In addition, much of the instrumental portion of the 2004 soundtrack contains partial or whole outtakes. This CD also sees the first CD release of the complete version of "Gotta Have Me Go with You '' with the full introduction, as well as "The Man That Got Away '' with an expanded introduction not used in the original film.
The original Columbia 1954 mono vinyl version of the soundtrack has been released on CD in Britain by Prism Leisure and is also available for digital download. This version includes bonus tracks of Judy Garland 's Decca recordings of songs from other films.
Bonus Tracks
Bonus Tracks (Judy Garland studio recordings for Decca Records)
Warner Home Video released the 176 - minute 1983 "restored '' version on DVD in letterbox widescreen format on September 19, 2000. The film was digitally remastered from original CinemaScope elements for superior picture clarity and optimal audio vitality and features an remastered English audio soundtrack in Dolby Digital 5.1 and subtitles in English and French. Bonus features include the network telecast of the September 29, 1954 Hollywood premiere at the Pantages Theatre; highlights from the post-premiere party at the Cocoanut Grove; three alternative filmings of "The Man That Got Away '' with additional original recording session music; a short musical sequence that appeared in a test screening but was deleted before the film 's official premiere, "When My Sugar Walks Down the Street '' (which was to be part of the extended "Born in a Trunk '' sequence); and the theatrical trailers for this, the 1937 original, and the 1976 remake.
On June 22, 2010, Warner Home Video released the film on Blu - ray and DVD. The original production negative has been restored and transferred to video at 6K resolution, one of the first films transferred at such a high rate, however according to a Warner press release, no new footage has been found. The restoration "has meticulously preserved and restored Ronald Haver 's 176 - minute version of A Star Is Born to its original luster, bringing back the brilliant, saturated colors and crisp picture. ''
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invention of the twentieth and twenty first centuries | 20th century - wikipedia
The 20th century was a century that began on January 1, 1901 and ended on December 31, 2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium. It is distinct from the century known as the 1900s which began on January 1, 1900 and ended on December 31, 1999.
The 20th century was dominated by a chain of events that heralded significant changes in world history as to redefine the era: World War I and World War II, nuclear power and space exploration, nationalism and decolonization, the Cold War and post-Cold War conflicts; intergovernmental organizations and cultural homogenization through developments in emerging transportation and communications technology; poverty reduction and world population growth, awareness of environmental degradation, ecological extinction; and the birth of the Digital Revolution. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near - instantaneous worldwide computer communication and genetic modification of life.
Global total fertility rates, sea level rise and ecological collapses increased; the resulting competition for land and dwindling resources accelerated deforestation, water depletion, and the mass extinction of many of the world 's species and decline in the population of others; consequences which are now being dealt with. It took all of human history up to 1804 for the world 's population to reach 1 billion; world population reached an estimated 2 billion in 1927; by late 1999, the global population reached 6 billion. Global literacy averaged 80 %; global lifespan - averages exceeded 40 + years for the first time in history, with over half achieving 70 + years (three decades longer than it was a century ago).
The century had the first global - scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. Nationalism became a major political issue in the world in the 20th century, acknowledged in international law along with the right of nations to self - determination, official decolonization in the mid-century, and related regional conflicts.
The century saw a major shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology, and medicine. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization. Terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. Scientific discoveries, such as the theory of relativity and quantum physics, profoundly changed the foundational models of physical science, forcing scientists to realize that the universe was more complex than previously believed, and dashing the hopes (or fears) at the end of the 19th century that the last few details of scientific knowledge were about to be filled in. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high - speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the Space Shuttle. Horses, Western society 's basic form of personal transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. These developments were made possible by the exploitation of fossil fuel resources, which offered energy in an easily portable form, but also caused concern about pollution and long - term impact on the environment. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon.
Mass media, telecommunications, and information technology (especially computers, paperback books, public education, and the Internet) made the world 's knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people: the global life expectancy increased from 35 years to 65 years. Rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time. However, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the imperial system. For the first time in human history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized and cooperative world. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, violence has seen an unprecedented decline.
The world also became more culturally homogenized than ever with developments in transportation and communications technology, popular music and other influences of Western culture, international corporations, and what was arguably a true global economy by the end of the 20th century.
Technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of trench warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead, the powers that had formed the Triple Entente (France, Britain, and Russia, later replaced by the United States and joined by Italy and Romania) emerged victorious over the Central Powers (Germany, Austria - Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria). In addition to annexing much of the colonial possessions of the vanquished states, the Triple Entente exacted punitive restitution payments from them, plunging Germany in particular into economic depression. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, and the Austro - Hungarian and Ottoman empires were dismantled at the war 's conclusion.
At the beginning of the period, Britain was the world 's most powerful nation, having acted as the world 's policeman for the past century. Fascism, a movement which grew out of post-war angst and which accelerated during the Great Depression of the 1930s, gained momentum in Italy, Germany and Spain in the 1920s and 1930s, culminating in World War II, sparked by Nazi Germany 's aggressive expansion at the expense of its neighbors. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into a technologically advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in a surprise attack on the United States, bringing it into World War II. After some years of dramatic military success, Germany was defeated in 1945, having been invaded by the Soviet Union and Poland from the east and by the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and Free France from the west. The war ended with the dropping of two atomic bombs on Japan. Japan later became a western ally with an economy based on the manufacture of consumer goods and trade. Germany was divided between the Western powers (West Germany) and the Soviet Union; all areas recaptured by the Soviet Union (East Germany and eastward) became Soviet puppet states under communist rule. Meanwhile, Western European countries were influenced by the American Marshall Plan and made a quick economic recovery, becoming major allies of the United States under capitalist economies and relatively democratic governments.
World War II left about 60 million people dead. When the conflict ended in 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the major world powers. Allies during the war, they soon became hostile to one another as the competing ideologies of communism and democratic capitalism occupied Europe, divided by the Iron Curtain and the Berlin Wall. The military alliances headed by these nations (NATO in North America and Western Europe; the Warsaw Pact in Eastern Europe) threatened each other with total war in what was called the Cold War (1947 -- 91). The period was marked by a new arms race, and nuclear weapons were produced in the tens of thousands, sufficient to end most human life on the planet had a large - scale nuclear exchange ever occurred. The size of the nuclear arsenals is believed by many historians to have staved off war between the two, as the consequences were too great to bear. The policy of massive nuclear attack, knowing a similar counterattack would be forthcoming, was called mutually assured destruction (MAD). However, several proxy wars, such as the Korean War (1950 -- 1953) and the Vietnam War (1955 -- 1975), were waged as the United States implemented its worldwide "containment '' policy against communism.
After World War II, most of the European - colonized world in Africa and Asia gained independence in a process of decolonization. Meanwhile, the wars empowered several nations, including the UK, USA, Russia, China and Japan, to exert a strong influence over many world affairs. American culture spread around the world with the advent of the Hollywood motion picture industry, Broadway, rock and roll, pop music, fast food, big - box stores, and the hip - hop lifestyle. Britain continued to influence world culture, including the British Invasion -- The Rolling Stones, The Beatles -- into American music, leading many rock bands from other countries (such as Swedish ABBA) to sing in English. The western world and parts of Asia enjoyed a post -- World War II economic expansion. After the Soviet Union collapsed under internal pressure in 1991, the communist governments of the Eastern bloc were dismantled, followed by awkward transitions into market economies.
Following World War II, the United Nations, successor to the League of Nations, was established as an international forum in which the world 's nations could discuss issues diplomatically. It enacted resolutions on such topics as the conduct of warfare, environmental protection, international sovereignty, and human rights. Peacekeeping forces consisting of troops provided by various countries, with various United Nations and other aid agencies, helped to relieve famine, disease, and poverty, and to suppress some local armed conflicts. Europe slowly united, economically and, in some ways, politically, to form the European Union, which consisted of 15 European countries by the end of the 20th century.
In the last third of the century, concern about humankind 's impact on the Earth 's environment made environmentalism popular. In many countries, especially in Europe, the movement was channeled into politics through Green parties. Increasing awareness of global warming began in the 1980s, commencing decades of social and political debate.
Due to continuing industrialization and expanding trade, many significant changes of the century were, directly or indirectly, economic and technological in nature. Inventions such as the light bulb, the automobile, and the telephone in the late 19th century, followed by supertankers, airliners, motorways, radio, television, antibiotics, frozen food, computers and microcomputers, the Internet, and mobile telephones affected people 's quality of life across the developed world. Scientific research, engineering professionalization and technological development drove changes in everyday life.
At the beginning of the century, strong discrimination based on race and sex was significant in general society. Although the Atlantic slave trade had ended in the 19th century, the fight for equality for non-white people in white - dominated societies of North America, Europe, and South Africa continued. During the century, the social taboo of sexism fell. By the end of the 20th century, women had the same legal rights as men in many parts of the world, and racism had come to be seen as abhorrent. Attitudes towards homosexuality also began to change in the later part of the century.
Communications and information technology, transportation technology, and medical advances had radically altered daily lives. Europe appeared to be at a sustainable peace for the first time in recorded history. The people of the Indian subcontinent, a sixth of the world population at the end of the 20th century, had attained an indigenous independence for the first time in centuries. China, an ancient nation comprising a fifth of the world population, was finally open to the world in a new and powerful synthesis of west and east, creating a new state after the near - complete destruction of the old cultural order. With the end of colonialism and the Cold War, nearly a billion people in Africa were left in new nation states after centuries of foreign domination.
The world was undergoing its second major period of globalization; the first, which started in the 18th century, having been terminated by World War I. Since the US was in a dominant position, a major part of the process was Americanization. The influence of China and India was also rising, as the world 's largest populations were rapidly integrating with the world economy.
Terrorism, dictatorship, and the spread of nuclear weapons were some issues requiring attention. The world was still blighted by small - scale wars and other violent conflicts, fueled by competition over resources and by ethnic conflicts. Despots such as Kim Jong - il of North Korea continued to lead their nations toward the development of nuclear weapons.
Disease threatened to destabilize many regions of the world. New viruses such as SARS and West Nile continued to spread. Malaria and other diseases affected large populations. Millions were infected with HIV, the virus which causes AIDS. The virus was becoming an epidemic in southern Africa.
Based on research done by climate scientists, the majority of the scientific community consider that in the long term environmental problems may threaten the planet 's habitability. One argument is that of global warming occurring, and that it may be due (at least partially) to human - caused emission of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide produced by the burning of fossil fuels. This prompted many nations to negotiate and sign the Kyoto treaty, which set mandatory limits on carbon dioxide emissions.
World population increased from about 1.6 billion people in 1901 to 6.1 billion at the century 's end.
The number of people killed during the century by government actions was in the hundreds of millions. This includes deaths caused by wars, genocide, politicide and mass murders. The deaths from acts of war during the two world wars alone have been estimated at between 50 and 80 million. Political scientist Rudolph Rummel estimated 262,000,000 deaths caused by democide, which excludes those killed in war battles, civilians unintentionally killed in war and killings of rioting mobs. According to Charles Tilly, "Altogether, about 100 million people died as a direct result of action by organized military units backed by one government or another over the course of the century. Most likely a comparable number of civilians died of war - induced disease and other indirect effects. '' It is estimated that approximately 70 million Europeans died through war, violence and famine between 1914 and 1945.
The invention of music recording technologies such as the phonograph record, and dissemination technologies such as radio broadcasting, massively expanded the audience for music. Prior to the 20th century, music was generally only experienced in live performances. Many new genres of music were established during the 20th century.
The world 's most popular / famous music artists of the 20th century include: ABBA, Louis Armstrong, The Beach Boys, The Beatles, Harry Belafonte, Chuck Berry, James Brown, Miles Davis, Bob Dylan, Jimi Hendrix, Michael Jackson, Elton John, Robert Johnson, Led Zeppelin, Madonna, Bob Marley, Charlie Parker, Pink Floyd, Elvis Presley, The Rolling Stones, Frank Sinatra, Stevie Wonder, and many more.
Film as an artistic medium was created in the 20th century. The first modern movie theatre was established in Pittsburgh in 1905. Hollywood developed as the center of American film production. While the first films were in black and white, technicolor was developed in the 1920s to allow for color films. Sound films were developed, with the first full - length feature film, The Jazz Singer, released in 1927. The Academy Awards were established in 1929.
Multiple new fields of mathematics were developed in the 20th century. In the first part of the 20th century, measure theory, functional analysis, and topology were established, and significant developments were made in fields such as abstract algebra and probability. The development of set theory and formal logic led to Gödel 's incompleteness theorems.
Later in the 20th century, the development of computers led to the establishment of a theory of computation. Other computationally - intense results include the study of fractals and a proof of the four color theorem in 1976.
One of the prominent traits of the 20th century was the dramatic growth of technology. Organized research and practice of science led to advancement in the fields of communication, engineering, travel, medicine, and war.
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how much money do you win on the gong show | The Gong show - wikipedia
The Gong Show is an amateur talent contest franchised by Sony Pictures Television to many countries. It was broadcast on NBC 's daytime schedule from June 14, 1976 through July 21, 1978, and in first - run syndication from 1976 to 1980 and 1988 to 1989, and was revived in 2017 for broadcast on ABC. The show was created and originally produced by Chuck Barris, who also served as host for the NBC run and from 1977 to 1980 in syndication. It is currently executive produced by Will Arnett and hosted by Tommy Maitland, a fictional character performed by an uncredited Mike Myers. The Gong Show is known for its absurdist humor and style, with the actual competition secondary to the often outlandish acts presented; a small cash prize has typically been awarded to each show 's winner.
Each show presented a contest between amateur performers of often dubious talent, with a panel of three celebrity judges. The program 's regular judges included Jaye P. Morgan, Jamie Farr, Arte Johnson, Patty Andrews, Anson Williams, Steve Garvey, Rex Reed, and Rip Taylor. If any judge considered an act to be particularly bad, he or she could force it to stop by striking a large gong, a trope adapted from the durable radio show Major Bowes Amateur Hour. Most of the performers took the gong with sheepish good grace, but there were exceptions. Barris would then ask the judge (s) in question why they gonged the act.
Originally, panelists had to wait 20 seconds before they could "gong '' an act; This was quickly extended to 30 seconds and then to 45. Some performers deliberately ended their acts before the minimum time had elapsed if it appeared that a judge was about to gong them, but Barris would immediately disqualify them. In other cases, a judge would gong an act before its minimum time was up; Barris would overrule the gong, and the act would be obliged to continue with its fate already sealed. Occasionally, Barris would overrule a gong and permit an act to continue if he felt it was unjustifiably gonged or he simply felt sorry for the performer (s).
When an act was on the verge of being gonged, the laughter and anticipation built as the judges patiently waited to deliver the strike. They would stand up slowly and heft their mallets deliberately, letting everyone know what was coming. Sometimes, pantomimed disputes would erupt between judges, as one would attempt to physically obstruct another from gonging the act. The camera would cut back and forth between the performers onstage, and the mock struggle over their fate. Some acts were so bad that they were "Gang - Gonged '', with two or even all three judges striking the gong at once. On rare occasions, judges found an act so terrible that they would go onstage, hand a mallet to the performer, and lead him / her back to the table to gong him / herself out.
Any act that survived without being gonged was given a score by each of the three judges on a scale of 0 to 10, for a maximum possible score of 30. On the NBC series, the contestant who achieved the highest combined score won the grand prize: a check for $516.32 (a "highly unusual amount '', in Barris 's words; reportedly the Screen Actors Guild 's minimum pay for a day 's work at the time) and a "Golden Gong '' trophy. The syndicated series ' top prize was originally $712.05 (the first episode was $996.83) and later increased to $716.32. In the event of a tie, three different tiebreakers were used at various times during the show 's run. Originally the studio audience determined the winner by applause, but this was later changed to a decision by the producers and (later still) the celebrity judges.
When Barris announced the final score, a little person in formal wear (actor and former Munchkin Jerry Maren) would run onstage, throwing confetti while balloons dropped from overhead. On rare occasions, two acts that tied for highest score would each receive the check and trophy. No prize was awarded if all of the acts on a particular episode were gonged.
The daily Gong Show also gave out a "Worst Act of the Week '' Award (later changed to the "Most Outrageous Act of the Week '' Award), where the producers and that week 's judges decided which of the show 's bad acts for the week stood out the most. The winner of this award was announced following the trophy presentation on the Friday show, and the performer received a dirty tube sock and a check for $516.32.
Originally, the series was advertised as having each day 's winning contestants come back after a few weeks (this is also mentioned in the pilot episode) to compete in a "tournament of champions '', with the winner being given the chance to appear in an unspecified nightclub act. However, only one of these tournaments was ever held. The winners on the NBC daytime show became eligible to appear on the syndicated evening version of the show for a chance to win that show 's prize.
The two biggest Gong Show - related show - biz successes were Andrea McArdle and Cheryl Lynn. Twelve - year - old McArdle appeared on an early show in 1976, shortly before winning the lead role in the hit Broadway musical Annie. Lynn was signed to a recording contract as a result of her performance, and recorded the Top 40 disco hit "Got To Be Real ''.
Among the other true talents that appeared on the show were singer Boxcar Willie; comics and actors Paul Reubens and John Paragon (best known as Pee Wee Herman and Jambi the Genie); Joey D'Auria ("Professor Flamo '', later WGN 's second Bozo the Clown); impressionist / comic Michael Winslow; novelty rock band Green Jelly, and a band called The Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo which evolved into Oingo Boingo, led by future film and television score composer Danny Elfman. Crip founder, and executed murderer, Stanley Tookie Williams appeared on the show in 1979 as a bodybuilder. In 1976, future Academy Award nominated actress Mare Winningham sang the Beatles song "Here, There, and Everywhere ''. Future Super Bowl XXXV winning head coach Brian Billick also made an appearance, performing a routine known as the "spider monkey ''. Dancer Danny Lockin, who had played Barnaby in the film Hello Dolly!, was murdered hours after winning the show taped August 21, 1977.
The show had many running gags and characters who appeared as regular performers.
An established game show producer (The Dating Game, The Newlywed Game), after years of writing and producing hit popular records, Barris was originally the show 's co-producer but not its host. He was an emergency replacement host for eventual Real People host John Barbour, who objected to the show 's satirical concept and tried to steer it towards a traditional amateur - hour format. An NBC executive who had watched Barris rehearse the show suggested that Barris replace Barbour. Barris accepted but resisted the requirement that he wear a tuxedo, only caving when NBC threatened to drop the series altogether. Even then, Barris usually ended an episode with undone bowtie, shirt untucked and disheveled tails. In time, mandatory tuxedos gave way to more casual attire; later episodes had Barris in casual clothes very unusual for a television host, such as blue jeans. Also, Barris began wearing a variety of silly - looking hats on stage, which were later seen hanging on a rack at stage right. He would frequently change hats during a show.
Barris was initially ill at ease in front of the camera and was noticeably nervous in the show 's first episodes; he had a nervous habit of clapping his hands together and pointing to the camera while talking. He did this so often that, by the show 's second year, it had become a running gag. Audience members began clapping their hands in unison with Barris whenever they saw him doing it. Barris caught on, and would sometimes pretend to clap, deliberately stopping short to fool the audience.
Producer Chris Bearde, formerly of Rowan and Martin 's Laugh - In and The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour, clashed with Barris over the show 's content, favoring scripted comedy over chaotic nonsense. (Bearde 's "new talent '' segments on Laugh - In had featured oddball performers, the most famous being Tiny Tim.) Bearde eventually withdrew from The Gong Show, leaving Barris in full charge of the show. Before long, Barris was working so loosely that some viewers assumed he was intoxicated from alcohol or other drugs. For example, he sometimes pulled his hat down over his eyes, totally obscuring them and his mumbled dialogue was sometimes difficult to understand. It was almost never clear and often appeared to be unscripted ramblings. Barris later recounted, in an interview with the Archive of American Television, that he was never drunk, and that he would not allow drugs in his production company.
If Barris enjoyed an act, it was obvious -- he would stand there beaming, clapping his hands, or even dancing. For the losers, no matter how bad, Barris was unfailingly positive about their performances, often consoling them afterward with allegedly comforting words of encouragement like "I really liked your act. But then again, I like rancid milk. '' The celebrity who had gonged the performer was typically asked "Why 'd you do that? '' and was expected to provide an explanation, joke, or further insult. Typically, Barris would lead into commercial breaks with the cryptic promise "We 'll be back, with mor - re ssstuff -- right after this message! ''
Milton DeLugg, the show 's musical director, was a popular musician and bandleader during the 1940s, and got the Gong Show job by default. As musical director for the network, he was responsible for any NBC project that required special music (like the annual telecasts of the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade). Barris initially regarded DeLugg as "an anachronism '', but he soon found that DeLugg was very much attuned to the crazy tone of the show; his band, which Barris introduced as "Milton DeLugg and the Band With a Thug '', included top jazz players like Bob Findley, Joe Howard and Lanny Morgan, and kept the show 's energy level high. The band even led into station breaks, with Barris 's enthusiastic "Take me into the commercial, Milt! '' Barris often joined the band on guitar when a good singer was performing. DeLugg remained associated with Barris for many years after Gong ended.
Veteran composer Joey Carbone provided musical arrangements for the late 1980s revival with his own lineup of studio musicians, known as "The Gong Show Guys ''.
Johnny Jacobs was the main announcer from 1976 to 1980; due to an extended illness, Jack Clark substituted from October 3, 1977 through December 23, 1977. Charlie O'Donnell served as announcer for the late - 1980s revival.
In 1976, Carol Burnett (who did a skit on The Carol Burnett Show where her character Eunice Higgins, of the recurring The Family sketch, performed -- and got gonged -- on the show) introduced Barris with this quote, "And now, ladies and gentlemen, I would like to introduce a man with the charm of Cary Grant, good looks of Robert Redford, and the acting skills of Laurence Olivier. I 'd like to meet that man, but until then, I 'm stuck with Chuck Barris. '' That same year, actor Dick Van Dyke also introduced Barris; later in that episode, Barris promoted Van Dyke 's short - lived NBC series Van Dyke and Co.
Hostesses included Siv Åberg (a Swedish - born model who appeared on Barris 's syndicated New Treasure Hunt), actress Marlena Clark, porn actress Carol Connors, and Barris 's then - teenage daughter Della.
NBC decided to take the chance on Chris Bearde 's talent show to fix a scheduling problem at 12: 30 PM (11: 30 AM, Central). This was NBC 's least important time slot, as whatever program that ran in the slot at the time had to share the half - hour with a five - minute newscast anchored by Edwin Newman. As a result, the first six - plus months of Gong featured approximately twenty minutes of program content in a twenty - five - minute episode.
Many NBC affiliates in larger Eastern Time Zone markets opted not to run network programming during the Noon hour at all, preferring to broadcast local news and talk shows instead. Thus Gong made its debut mainly on medium - market and smaller stations or on large - market rival stations that picked up the program from the NBC affiliate that had rejected it, such as in Boston, where then - affiliate WBZ did not run the series; instead, local UHF independent outlet WSBK - TV aired it.
Gong 's timeslot was given to a new soap opera, Lovers and Friends, on January 3, 1977, and the show was relocated to replace the cancelled Another World spinoff Somerset at 4: 00 PM. The timeslot change allowed Gong to expand to a half - hour. However, Gong moved from one problem timeslot to another as the 4: 00 PM network slot was also prone to preemptions (in fact, NBC was not far away from handing the slot back to its affiliates). This left Gong unable to gain a ratings advantage over CBS ' hit game show Tattletales and ABC 's struggling but still popular soap opera The Edge of Night, as well as the popular syndicated programming on other stations. By early December the network decided to return Gong to 12: 30 / 11: 30, but this time the show was able to run for a half - hour as NBC ended the five - minute newscast at 12: 55.
NBC aired a one - hour primetime special on April 26, 1977, featuring in - studio special guests Tony Randall, Alice Cooper, and Harry James and his Orchestra. The winning act on this primetime special was The Bait Brothers. The panelists for the special were Jaye P. Morgan, Jamie Farr and Arte Johnson.
Barris was well known for his run - ins with the censors, bringing in risque acts as bait to allow some of the less risque acts to slip by. In 1978, one of these bait acts, two teenage girls referring to themselves as "Have You Got a Nickel '', made it onto the show. Their act consisted of the girls sitting cross-legged on the stage floor and silently eating popsicles in a manner that suggested they were performing fellatio on the frozen treats. The nature of the act led to the two girls being known as the "Popsicle twins ''.
While they were able to complete their act without being gonged, two of the judges gave them low marks. Phyllis Diller gave them a zero, while Jamie Farr awarded them a marginally better 2. The third judge, Jaye P. Morgan, awarded them a 10, quipping, "Do you know that that 's the way I started? '' (She was rewarded with a popsicle from one of the girls before they left the stage.)
The girls ' act was let through by the censors, who did not see anything wrong with it in rehearsals. However, once the episode aired in Eastern time zone markets NBC pulled the act from the Central, Mountain, and Pacific airings of the day 's episode immediately after it ended. The act was not cut from all the tapes, and the Popsicle Twins incident has aired in reruns. Barris said in a 2001 interview with Salon.com that this particular act began making him reconsider his career.
Despite fairly respectable ratings for a non-soap - opera midday show, NBC cancelled Gong, with its final episode to air on July 21, 1978. Much speculation occurred as to the network 's true motivations for dumping the show. Barris himself has commented that the official reason he heard was that NBC acted in response to both "lower than expected ratings '' and a desire by the network to "re-tailor the morning shows to fit the standard morning demographics '' (the move coincided with the arrival of new NBC president Fred Silverman, who was well known for such programming overhauls). America Alive, a magazine - style variety program hosted by Art Linkletter 's son Jack, replaced Gong.
Following the cancellation, many critics and industry analysts -- including Gene Shalit and Rona Barrett -- reported having heard comments from within NBC 's programming department from "sources preferring anonymity '' that the true reason behind the cancellation was Barris 's refusal to tone down the racy nature of the show. According to the sources, after the "Popsicle Twins '' incident (see above) and an incident where Morgan did a striptease and bared her breasts on - air during a Gene Gene the Dancing Machine performance, Barris had been given an ultimatum by NBC 's Standards and Practices department to deliver cleaner shows, with a particular eye to the potential children and youth watching the show. Barris, however, continued to deliver shows with the same amount of supposedly questionable content, apparently in an effort to call the network 's bluff.
NBC allowed Barris to continue the show for the rest of the contract, and Barris made no perceptible change in preparation for the finale. On the finale, staff member Larry Gotterer appeared as "Fenwick Gotterer '' to host the show, after Barris started the show doing a "Chuckie 's Fables '' sketch. The rest of the show was done in sort of a way to explain the life of the show, and its cancellation. Barris managed to have the last word on the show 's demise, appearing as a contestant. Playing in a country music band called "The Hollywood Cowboys '' with the house band 's rhythm section, Barris sang a slightly modified version of Johnny Paycheck 's "Take This Job and Shove It '', giving NBC the finger during the song to accentuate his point. NBC censored the gesture, with the word "OOPS! '' superimposed over a still shot of the set. Barris was gonged by Jamie Farr, who quipped, "Because that little fella 's been saying that I 've been a long a nose, I 'm also long a gong, fella. ''
The group "Lobster Repair '' (who sang Harry Belafonte 's song "Day - O '') won the last $516.32 and trophy for the NBC era. Gene Gene the Dancing Machine then came out after a few more skits, and said that the moral to the episode - long "Chuckie 's Fable '' was "Never bet against the Minnesota Vikings, at home, in the wintertime! '' Following that, he did his famous dance. The rest of the cast, including staff members, people who participated, and even Jaye P. Morgan (who had been banned from the NBC series some time earlier over the breast - baring incident) all joined in at the end to dance with him.
The decision to cancel The Gong Show was a two - pronged one by NBC. In addition to the removal of the show from its schedule, the network evicted the show from its Burbank studio. Since the syndicated Gong had n't been canceled and Barris was already using studio space at Golden West Broadcasting to tape The Dating Game, The Newlywed Game, and The $1.98 Beauty Show, production of Gong was moved there.
Gong continued in syndication for two years after its daytime counterpart 's cancellation, often airing on weekends and at night. The entire syndicated run from 1976 to 1980 was distributed by Firestone Program Services. While the series eventually met its demise in syndication as it had on NBC, according to Barris, the problem did not lie with any outrageous acts, but instead the controversy and public outcry over another series he produced.
In September 1979, Barris launched the game show 3 's a Crowd, which was a spin - off from The Newlywed Game. The difference was that as opposed to recently married couples, a married man joined forces with his wife and his secretary to see who knew him better. Religious activist groups and feminist groups protested against 3 's a Crowd and its ratings eventually plummeted to the point where the show was cancelled at the midway point of the season.
In fact, the backlash was so bad that in Barris ' autobiography The Game Show King, he wrote that "the public backlash from Three 's a Crowd not only caused the program to be canceled, but it took three other TV shows of mine with it. I went to my house in Malibu and stayed there for a year. '' Gong was one of those shows to be canceled, and Barris never hosted another series. Such was the trauma from 3 's a Crowd 's backlash that, in the last several weeks of Gong, he had "a small nervous breakdown '' on - air, "bored to death '' with broadcasting. His next two series, revivals of the 1960s game show Camouflage (the replacement for 3 's a Crowd) and his 1973 - 77 series Treasure Hunt (which Barris had little to no say in this time, according to host Geoff Edwards), both failed to find audiences and Barris went further into his self - imposed exile from television. (It was n't until 1985, when The Newlywed Game was revived in syndication, that Barris had another hit series.)
Reruns of the NBC version (with filler material inserted to pad out the 25 - minute episodes) began in syndication in fall 1979. Both NBC and syndicated episodes were rerun on the USA Network and Game Show Network, although by the time GSN picked up the series many episodes had become unairable due to performance clearance issues. No episodes from the first syndicated season were rerun.
A syndicated weekday revival of The Gong Show, hosted by San Francisco disc jockey Don Bleu, ran during the 1988 -- 89 season, but lasted only one year. Each winner was paid $701.
Extreme Gong, a later incarnation of The Gong Show on the Game Show Network had viewers vote on its acts by telephone. It was hosted by George Gray and ran from October 1, 1998 to October 1999, with reruns continuing for another year. Winners received $317.69. This version was well known for two known incidents: one episode featuring "Cody the Talking Dog '' for which he tried to say things like "I love you '' and "ice cream '' but did not succeed in talking, and another featuring a Village People parody as The Village Little People where they sang a cover of "YMCA '', taking the "Young Man '' literally. Orange County comedy punk band The Radioactive Chicken Heads (then called Joe & the Chicken Heads) made their national television debut on Extreme Gong, though they were gonged midway through their performance. Near the end of the show 's run, an hour - long "Tournament of Talent '' special was aired in August 1999, with contestants competing for a payoff of $10,000.
A few years after the cancellation of Extreme Gong, Sony Pictures Television decided to revive the game (under its original title and format) for The WB, and was to be hosted by South Florida radio and TV personality Phillip Benfield. Two pilots were made, but it was never picked up.
Comedy Central debuted a new incarnation called The Gong Show with Dave Attell, which lasted for 8 weeks in the summer of 2008. The show 's format was similar to the original, but its scoring was based on a scale of 0 to 500, and winning acts received $600. The $600 was shown as paid in cash on the spot, rather than being paid by check as in earlier versions, but in reality (because of contestant eligibility regulations by Sony) was paid as a check from Sony Pictures. In place of a typical trophy, winners were awarded a belt in the style of boxing championship belts.
A live stage version of The Gong Show took place at B.B. King 's Blues Club, in the Times Square district of New York City on August 12, 2010. It was produced by The Radio Chick, and is the Sony authorized stage production. This production went into development in 2011 -- 12 and now runs regularly in New York City, with engagements in other U.S. cities.
On October 3, 2016, ABC and Sony Pictures announced a 10 - episode summer 2017 revival of The Gong Show executive produced by Will Arnett.
The broadcast of the 2017 revival premiered on ABC on June 22, 2017, hosted by previously - unknown "British comedian '' Tommy Maitland. Maitland is, in fact, a character portrayed by Mike Myers, although neither ABC nor Myers confirmed this and ABC officially credited Maitland as host and executive producer. Maitland 's catchphrase is "Who 's a cheeky monkey? '' He also periodically uses Barris ' "back with more stuff '' catchphrase to lead into commercials.
Celebrity guest judges for the 2017 revival included Arnett, Zach Galifianakis, Alison Brie, Andy Samberg, Elizabeth Banks, Tracee Ellis Ross, Joel McHale, Megan Fox, Courteney Cox, Dana Carvey, Will Forte, Jack Black, Jennifer Aniston, Ken Jeong, Fred Armisen, and Anthony Anderson. Among the more notable acts featured on the revival are The Radioactive Chicken Heads, making their second appearance on a Gong Show incarnation since Extreme Gong in 1998. This version also features a regular segment featuring a staff performer leading the audience in a sing - along of the novelty song "Shaving Cream '', reminiscent of the recurring gag acts on the earlier version.
The winner of each show received a gong trophy and an oversized check in the amount of US $2,000.17, later increased by a penny the following year. The final episode of the first season featured a memorial to Barris, who died prior to the series ' premiere in 2017.
On January 8, 2018, ABC announced that the revival would be picked up for a second season and officially confirmed Myers as the portrayer of Maitland.
In 1980, The Gong Show Movie was released by Universal Pictures to scathing reviews and was quickly withdrawn from theatrical release. Advertising proclaimed it as "The Gong Show that Got Gonged by the Censor ''. It is seen periodically on cable TV, but was not released on home video until March 29, 2016, when the film was released on Blu - ray by Shout! Factory.
Confessions of a Dangerous Mind, a film directed by George Clooney and written by Charlie Kaufman, was based on the semi-fictional autobiography of the same name by Chuck Barris. Part of the film chronicles the making of The Gong Show, and features several clips from the original series.
Following the success of the print and screen versions of Confessions, GSN produced a documentary called The Chuck Barris Story: My Life on the Edge, which included rare footage from the Gary Owens pilot.
At the height of the show 's popularity, NBC gave Barris a prime - time variety hour, The Chuck Barris Rah Rah Show. This was played somewhat more seriously than the Gong Show, with Jaye P. Morgan singing straight pop songs as in her nightclub and recording days, and bygone headliners like Slim Gaillard reprising their old hits for a studio audience. Spinoffs include The $1.98 Beauty Show hosted by Rip Taylor and The Gong Show Movie.
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explain flip chip ball grid array package with diagrams | Ball grid array - wikipedia
A ball grid array (BGA) is a type of surface - mount packaging (a chip carrier) used for integrated circuits. BGA packages are used to permanently mount devices such as microprocessors. A BGA can provide more interconnection pins than can be put on a dual in - line or flat package. The whole bottom surface of the device can be used, instead of just the perimeter. The leads are also on average shorter than with a perimeter - only type, leading to better performance at high speeds.
Soldering of BGA devices requires precise control and is usually done by automated processes. BGA devices are not suitable for socket mounting.
The BGA is descended from the pin grid array (PGA), which is a package with one face covered (or partly covered) with pins in a grid pattern which, in operation, conduct electrical signals between the integrated circuit and the printed circuit board (PCB) on which it is placed. In a BGA the pins are replaced by pads on the bottom of the package, each initially with a tiny solder ball stuck to it. These solder spheres can be placed manually or by automated equipment, and are held in place with a tacky flux. The device is placed on a PCB with copper pads in a pattern that matches the solder balls. The assembly is then heated, either in a reflow oven or by an infrared heater, melting the balls. Surface tension causes the molten solder to hold the package in alignment with the circuit board, at the correct separation distance, while the solder cools and solidifies, forming soldered connections between the device and the PCB.
In more advanced technologies, solder balls may be used on both the PCB and the package. Also, in stacked multi-chip modules, solder balls are used to connect two packages.
The BGA is a solution to the problem of producing a miniature package for an integrated circuit with many hundreds of pins. Pin grid arrays and dual - in - line surface mount (SOIC) packages were being produced with more and more pins, and with decreasing spacing between the pins, but this was causing difficulties for the soldering process. As package pins got closer together, the danger of accidentally bridging adjacent pins with solder grew. BGAs do not have this problem if the solder is factory - applied to the package.
A further advantage of BGA packages over packages with discrete leads (i.e. packages with legs) is the lower thermal resistance between the package and the PCB. This allows heat generated by the integrated circuit inside the package to flow more easily to the PCB, preventing the chip from overheating.
The shorter an electrical conductor, the lower its unwanted inductance, a property which causes unwanted distortion of signals in high - speed electronic circuits. BGAs, with their very short distance between the package and the PCB, have low lead inductances, giving them superior electrical performance to pinned devices.
A disadvantage of BGAs is that the solder balls can not flex in the way that longer leads can, so they are not mechanically compliant. As with all surface mount devices, bending due to a difference in coefficient of thermal expansion between PCB substrate and BGA (thermal stress) or flexing and vibration (mechanical stress) can cause the solder joints to fracture.
Thermal expansion issues can be overcome by matching the mechanical and thermal characteristics of the PCB to those of the package. Typically, plastic BGA devices more closely match PCB thermal characteristics than ceramic devices.
The predominant use of RoHS compliant lead - free solder alloy assemblies has presented some further challenges to BGAs including "head in pillow '' soldering phenomenon, "pad cratering '' problems as well as their decreased reliability versus lead - based solder BGAs in extreme operating conditions such as high temperature, high thermal shock and high gravitational force environments, in part due to lower ductility of RoHS - compliant solders.
Mechanical stress issues can be overcome by bonding the devices to the board through a process called "underfilling '', which injects an epoxy mixture under the device after it is soldered to the PCB, effectively gluing the BGA device to the PCB. There are several types of underfill materials in use with differing properties relative to workability and thermal transfer. An additional advantage of underfill is that it limits tin whisker growth.
Another solution to non-compliant connections is to put a "compliant layer '' in the package that allows the balls to physically move in relation to the package. This technique has become standard for packaging DRAMs in BGA packages.
Other techniques for increasing the board - level reliability of packages include use of low - expansion PCBs for ceramic BGA (CBGA) packages, interposers between the package and PCB, and re-packaging a device.
Once the package is soldered into place, it is difficult to find soldering faults. X-ray machines, industrial CT scanning machines, special microscopes, and endoscopes to look underneath the soldered package have been developed to overcome this problem. If a BGA is found to be badly soldered, it can be removed in a rework station, which is a jig fitted with infrared lamp (or hot air), a thermocouple and a vacuum device for lifting the package. The BGA can be replaced with a new one, or it can be refurbished (or reballed) and re-installed on the circuit board. Pre-configured solder balls matching the array pattern can be used to reball BGAs when only one or a few need to be reworked.
Due to the cost of visual X-ray BGA inspection, electrical testing is very often used instead. Very common is boundary scan testing using an IEEE 1149.1 JTAG port.
A cheaper and easier inspection method, albeit destructive, is becoming increasingly popular because it does not require special equipment. Commonly referred to as dye and pry, the process includes immersing the entire PCB or just the BGA attached module into a dye, and after drying, the module is pried off and the broken joins are inspected. If a solder location contains the dye, then it indicates that the connection was imperfect.
During development it is not practical to solder BGAs into place, and sockets are used instead, but tend to be unreliable. There are two common types of socket: the more reliable type has spring pins that push up under the balls, although it does not allow using BGAs with the balls removed as the spring pins may be too short.
The less reliable type is a ZIF socket, with spring pinchers that grab the balls. This does not work well, especially if the balls are small.
Expensive equipment is required to reliably solder BGA packages; hand - soldering BGA packages is very difficult and unreliable, usable only for the smallest packages in the smallest quantities. However, as more ICs have become available only in leadless (e.g. quad - flat no - leads package) or BGA packages, various DIY reflow methods have been developed using inexpensive heat sources such as heat guns, and domestic toaster ovens and electric skillets.
To make it easier to use ball grid array devices, most BGA packages only have balls in the outer rings of the package, leaving the innermost square empty.
Intel used a package designated BGA1 for their Pentium II and early Celeron mobile processors. BGA2 is Intel 's package for their Pentium III and some later Celeron mobile processors. BGA2 is also known as FCBGA - 479. It replaced its predecessor, BGA1.
For example, the "Micro-FCBGA '' (Flip Chip Ball Grid Array) is Intel 's current BGA mounting method for mobile processors that use a flip chip binding technology. It was introduced with the Coppermine Mobile Celeron. Micro-FCBGA has 479 balls that are 0.78 mm in diameter. The processor is affixed to the motherboard by soldering the balls to the motherboard. This is thinner than a pin grid array socket arrangement, but is not removable.
The 479 balls of the Micro-FCBGA Package (a package almost identical to the 478 - pin Socketable Micro-FCPGA Package) are arranged as the 6 outer rings of a 1.27 mm pitch (20 balls per inch pitch) 26x26 square grid, with the inner 14x14 region empty.
Primary end - users of BGAs are original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). There is also a market among electronic hobbyists do it yourself (DIY) such as the increasingly popular maker movement. While OEMs generally source their components from the manufacturer, or the manufacturer 's distributor, the hobbyist will typically obtain BGAs on the aftermarket through electronic component brokers or distributors.
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art and craft flourished during this period in korean history | Korean art - wikipedia
Korean arts include traditions in calligraphy, music, painting and pottery, often marked by the use of natural forms, surface decoration and bold colors or sounds.
The earliest examples of Korean art consist of stone age works dating from 3000 BC. These mainly consist of votive sculptures and more recently, petroglyphs, which were rediscovered.
This early period was followed by the art styles of various Korean kingdoms and dynasties. Korean artists sometimes modified Chinese traditions with a native preference for simple elegance, spontaneity, and an appreciation for purity of nature.
The Goryeo Dynasty (918 -- 1392) was one of the most prolific periods for a wide range of disciplines, especially pottery.
The Korean art market is concentrated in the Insadong district of Seoul where over 50 small galleries exhibit and occasional fine arts auctions. Galleries are cooperatively run, small and often with curated and finely designed exhibits. In every town there are smaller regional galleries, with local artists showing in traditional and contemporary media. Art galleries usually have a mix of media. Attempts at bringing Western conceptual art into the foreground have usually had their best success outside of Korea in New York, San Francisco, London and Paris.
Professionals have begun to acknowledge and sort through Korea 's own unique art culture and important role in not only transmitting Chinese culture, but also assimilating and creating a unique culture of its own. "An art given birth to and developed by a nation is its own art ''.
Humans have occupied the Korean Peninsula from at least c. 50,000 BC. Pottery dated to approximately 7,000 BC has been found. This pottery was made from clay and fired over open or semi-open pits at temperatures around 700 degrees Celsius.
The earliest pottery style, dated to circa 7,000 BC, were flat - bottomed wares (yunggi - mun) were decorated with relief designs, raised horizontal lines and other impressions.
Jeulmun - type pottery, is typically cone - bottomed and incised with a comb - pattern appearing circa 6,000 BC in the archaeological record. This type of pottery is similar to Siberian styles.
Mumun - type pottery emerged approximately 2000 BC and is characterized as large, undecorated pottery, mostly used for cooking and storage.
Between 2000 BC and 300 BC bronze items began to be imported and made in Korea. By the seventh century BC, an indigenous bronze culture was established in Korea as evidenced by Korean bronze having a unique percentage of zinc. Items manufactured during this time were weapons such as swords, daggers, and spearheads. Also, ritual items such as mirrors, bells, and rattles were made. These items were buried in dolmens with the cultural elite. Additionally, iron - rich red pots began to be created around circa 6th century. Comma - shaped beads, usually made from nephrite, known as kokkok have also been found in dolmen burials. Kokkok may be carved to imitate bear claws. Another Siberian influence can be seen in rock drawings of animals that display a "life line '' in the X-ray style of Siberian art.
The Iron Age began in Korea around 300 BC. Korean iron was highly valued in the Chinese commanderies and in Japan. Korean pottery advanced with the introduction of the potters wheel and climbing kiln firing.
This period began circa 57 BC to 668 AD. Three Korean kingdoms, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla vied for control over the peninsula.
Buddhism was introduced to Goguryeo first in 372 CE because of its location spanning much of Manchuria and the northern half of Korea, closest to the northern Chinese states like the Northern Wei. Buddhism inspired the Goguryeo kings to begin commission art and architecture dedicated to the Buddha. A notable aspect of Goguryeo art are tomb murals that vividly depict everyday aspects of life in the ancient kingdom as well as its culture. UNESCO designated the Complex of Goguryeo Tombs and as a World Heritage Site because Goguryeo painting was influential in East Asia, including Japan, an example being the wall murals of Horyu - ji which was influenced by Goguryeo. Mural painting also spread to the other two kingdoms. The murals portrayed Buddhist themes and provide valuable clues about kingdom such as architecture and clothing. These murals were also the very beginnings of Korean landscape paintings and portraiture. However, the treasures of the tombs were easily accessible and looted leaving very little physical artifacts of the kingdom.
Baekje (or Paekche) is considered the kingdom with the greatest art among the three states. Baekje was a kingdom in southwest Korea and was influenced by southern Chinese dynasties, such as the Liang Dynasty. Baekje was also one of the kingdoms to introduce a significant Korean influence into the art of Japan during this time period.
Baekje Buddhist sculpture is characterized by its naturalness, warmness, and harmonious proportions exhibits a unique Korean style. Another example of Korean influence is the use of the distinctive "Baekje smile '', a mysterious and unique smile that is characteristic of many Baekje statutes. While there are no surviving examples of wooden architecture, the Mireuksa site holds the foundation stones of a destroyed temple and two surviving granite pagodas that show what Baekje architecture may have looked. An example of Baekje architecture may be gleaned from Horyu - ji temple because Baekje architects and craftsmen helped design and construct the original temple.
The tomb of King Muryeong held a treasure trove of artifacts not looted by grave robbers. Among the items were flame - like gold pins, gilt - bronze shoes, gold girdles (a symbol of royalty), and swords with gold hilts with dragons and phoenixes.
The Silla Kingdom was the most isolated kingdom from the Korean peninsula because it was situated in the southeast part of the peninsula. The kingdom was the last to adopt Buddhism and foreign cultural influences.
The Silla Kingdom tombs were mostly inaccessible and so many examples of Korean art come from this kingdom. The Silla craftsman were famed for their gold - crafting ability which have similarities to Etruscan and Greek techniques, as exampled by gold earrings and crowns. Because of Silla gold artifacts bearing similarities to European techniques along with glass and beads depicting blue - eyed people found in royal tombs, many believe that the Silk Road went all the way to Korea. Most notable objects of Silla art are its gold crowns that are made from pure gold and have tree and antler - like adornments that suggest a Scythe - Siberian and Korean shamanistic tradition.
The Gaya confederacy was a group of city - states that did not consolidate into a centralized kingdom. It shared many similarities in its art, such as crowns with tree - like protrusions which are seen in Baekje and Silla. Many of the artifacts unearthed in Gaya tumuli are artifacts related to horses, such as stirrups, saddles, and horse armor. Ironware was best plentiful in this period than any age.
North South States Period (698 -- 926 CE) refers to the period in Korean history when Silla and Balhae coexisted in the southern and northern part of Korea, respectively.
Unified Silla was a time of great artistic output in Korea, especially in Buddhist art. Examples include the Seokguram grotto and the Bulguksa temple. Two pagodas on the ground, the Seokgatap and Dabotap are also unique examples of Silla masonry and artistry. Craftsmen also created massive temple bells, reliquaries, and statutes. The capital city of Unified Silla was nicknamed the "city of gold '' because of use of gold in many objects of art.
The composite nature of the northern Korean Kingdom of Balhae art can be found in the two tombs of Balhae Princesses. Shown are some aristocrats, warriors, and musicians and maids of the Balhae people, who are depicted in the mural painting in the Tomb of Princess Jeonghyo, a daughter of King Mun (737 - 793), the third monarch of the kingdom. The murals displayed the image of the Balhae people in its completeness.
The Goryeo Dynasty lasted from 918 CE to 1392. The most famous art produced by Goryeo artisans was Korean celadon pottery which was produced from circa 1050 CE to 1250 CE. While celadon originated in China, Korean potters created their own unique style of pottery that was so valued that the Chinese considered it "first under heaven '' and one of the "twelve best things in the world. ''
The Korean celadon had a unique glaze known as "king - fisher '' color, an iron based blue - green glaze created by reducing oxygen in the kiln. Korean celadon displayed organic shapes and free - flowing style, such as pieces that were made to look like fish, melons, and other animals. Koreans invented an inlaid technique known as sanggam, where potters would engrave semi-dried pottery with designs and place materials within the decorations with black or white clay.
The influence of Confucianism superseded that of Buddhism in this period, however Buddhist elements remained and it is not true that Buddhist art declined, it continued, and was encouraged but not by the imperial centres of art, or the accepted taste of the Joseon Dynasty publicly; however in private homes, and indeed in the summer palaces of the Joseon Dynasty kings, the simplicity of Buddhist art was given great appreciation -- but it was not seen as citified art.
While the Joseon Dynasty began under military auspices, Goreyo styles were let to evolve, and Buddhist iconography (bamboo, orchid, plum and chrysanthemum; and the familiar knotted goodluck symbols) were still a part of genre paintings. Neither colours nor forms had any real change, and rulers stood aside from edicts on art. Ming ideals and imported techniques continued in early dynasty idealized works.
Mid-dynasty painting styles moved towards increased realism. A national painting style of landscapes called "true view '' began -- moving from the traditional Chinese style of idealized general landscapes to particular locations exactly rendered. While not photographic, the style was academic enough to become established and supported as a standardized style in Korean painting.
The mid - to late - Joseon Dynasty is considered the golden age of Korean painting. It coincides with the shock of the collapse of Ming dynasty links with the Manchu emperors accession in China, and the forcing of Korean artists to build new artistic models based on nationalism and an inner search for particular Korean subjects. At this time China ceased to have pre-eminent influence, Korean art took its own course, and became increasingly distinctive.
Korean art is characterized by transitions in the main religions at the time: early Korean shamanist art, then Korean Buddhist art and Korean Confucian art, through the various forms of Western arts in the 20th century.
Art works in metal, jade, bamboo and textiles have had a limited resurgence. The South Korean government has tried to encourage the maintenance of cultural continuity by awards, and by scholarships for younger students in rarer Korean art forms.
Korean calligraphy is seen as an art where brushstrokes reveal the artist 's personality enhancing the subject matter that is painted. This art form represents the apogee of Korean Confucian art.
Korean fabric arts have a long history, and include Korean embroidery used in costumes and screenwork; Korean knots as best represented in the work of Choe Eun - sun, used in costumes and as wall - decorations; and lesser known weaving skills as indicated below in rarer arts. There is no real tradition of Korean carpets or rugs, although saddle blankets and saddle covers were made from naturally dyed wool, and are extremely rare. Imperial dragon carpets, tiger rugs for judges or magistrates or generals, and smaller chair - covers were imported from China and are traditionally in either yellow or red. Few if any imperial carpets remain. Village rug weavers do not exist.
Korean paper art includes all manner of handmade paper (hanji), used for architectural purposes (window screens, floor covering), for printing, artwork, and the Korean folded arts (paper fans, paper figures), and as well Korean paper clothing which has an annual fashion show in Jeonju city attracting world attention.
In the 1960s, Korean paper made from mulberry roots was discovered when the Pulguksa (temple) complex in Gyeongju was remodelled. The date on the Buddhist documents converts to a western calendar date of 751, and indicated that indeed the oft quoted claim that Korean paper can last a thousand years was proved irrevocably. However, after repeated invasions, very little early Korean paper art exists. Contemporary paper artists are very active.
For much of the 20th century, painting commanded precedence above other artistic media in Korea. Beginning in the 1930s, abstraction was of particular interest.
From the mid-1960s, artists like Kwon Young - woo began to push paint, soak canvas, drag pencils, rip paper, and otherwise manipulate the materials of painting in ways that challenged preconceived notions of what it meant to be an ink painter (tongyanghwaga) or oil painter (soyanghwaga), the two categories within which most artists were categorized. In the 1970s and 80, these challenges eventually became the foundation of Dansaekhwa, or Korean monochrome painting, one of the most successful and controversial artistic movements in twentieth - century Korea. Literally meaning "monochrome painting, '' the works of artists like Ha Chonghyun, Park Seo - bo, Lee Ufan, Yun Hyong Keun, Choi Myoung - young, Kim Guiline and Lee Dong - youb were promoted in Seoul, Tokyo, and Paris. Tansaekhwa grew to be the international face of contemporary Korean art and a cornerstone of contemporary Asian art.
Some contemporary Korean painting demands an understanding of Korean ceramics and Korean pottery as the glazes used in these works and the textures of the glazes make Korean art more in the tradition of ceramic art, than of western painterly traditions, even if the subjects appear to be of western origin. Brush - strokes as well are far more important than they are to the western artist; paintings are judged on brush - strokes more often than pure technique.
The contemporary artist Suh Yongsun, who is highly appreciated and was elected "Korea 's artist of the year 2009 '', makes paintings with heavy brushstrokes and shows topics like both Korean history and urban scenes especially of Western cities like New York and Berlin. His artwork is a good example for the combination of Korean and Western subjects and painting styles.
Other Korean artists combining modern Western and Korean painting traditions are i.e. Junggeun Oh and Tschoon Su Kim.
While there have been only rare studies on Korean aesthetics, a useful place to begin for understanding how Korean art developed an aesthetic is in Korean philosophy, and related articles on Korean Buddhism, and Korean Confucianism.
During Kim Il - sung 's rule, painting was allowed only in the socialist realist genre and propaganda posters were the stock of North Korean visual arts. After Kim Il - sung 's death in 1994, directives on painting were relaxed and sometimes completely abolished under Kim Jong - il. New art forms, including a kind of impressionism peculiar to North Korea, rose to complement posters.
Art forms other than socialist realism are particularly seen in the patriotic films that dominated that culture from 1949 to 1994, and the reawakened architecture, calligraphy, fabric work and neo-traditional painting, that has occurred from 1994 to date.
The impact was greatest on revolutionary posters, lithography and multiples, dramatic and documentary film, realistic painting, grand architecture, and least in areas of domestic pottery, ceramics, exportable needlework, and the visual crafts. Sports art and politically charged revolutionary posters have been the most sophisticated and internationally collectible by auction houses and specialty collectors. North Korean painters who escaped to the United States in the late 1950s include the Fwhang sisters. Duk Soon Fwhang and Chung Soon Fwhang O'Dwyer avoid overtly political statements in favor of tempestuous landscapes, bridging Western and Far Eastern painting techniques. North Korean painters are renowned for their skill, and those who manage to defect to South Korea are regularly employed as artists there.
Korean pottery is the most famous and senior art in Korea, it is closely tied to Korean ceramics which represents tile work, large scale ceramic murals, and architectural elements.
There is a long tradition of Korean gardens, often linked with palaces.
Patterns often have their origins in early ideographs. Geometric patterns and patterns of plant, animal and nature motifs are the four most basic patterns. Geometric patterns include triangles, squares, diamonds, zigzags, latticework, frets, spirals sawteeth, circles, ovals and concentric circles. Stone Age rock carvings feature animal designs in order to relate to food - gathering activities. These patterns are found doors of temples and shrines, clothes, furniture and daily objects such as fans and spoons.
In the performing arts, Korean storytelling is done in both ritualistic shamanistic ways, in the songs of yangban scholars, and the crossovers between the visual arts and the performing arts, which are more intense and fluid than in the West.
Depicted on petroglyphs and in pottery shards, as well as wall paintings in tombs, the various performing arts nearly always incorporated Korean masks, costumes with Korean knots, Korean embroidery, and a dense overlay of art in combination with other arts.
Some specific dances are considered important cultural heritage pieces of art. The performing arts have always been linked to the fabric arts: not just in costumery but in woven screens behind the plays, ornaments woven or embroidered or knotted to indicate rank, position, or as shamanistic charms; and in other forms to be indicated.
Historically, the division of the performing arts is between arts done almost exclusively by women in costume, danceworks, and those done exclusively by men in costume, storytelling. Those done as a group by both sexes with women 's numbers in performances reduced as time goes on as it became reputable for men to function as public entertainers.
The Korean tea ceremony is held in a Korean tea house with characteristic architecture, often within Korean gardens and served in a way with ritualized conversation, formal poetry on wall - scrolls, and with Korean pottery and traditional Korean costumes, the environment itself is a series of naturally flowing events that provide a cultural and artistic experience.
The skill of contemporary Korean performing artists, who have had great recognition abroad, particularly in stringed instruments and as symphony directors, or operatic sopranos and mezzos, takes part in a long musical history.
Korean music in contemporary times is generally divided into the same audiences as the west: with the same kind of audiences for music based on age, and city (classical, pop, techno, house, hip - hop, jazz; traditional) and provincial divisions (folk, country, traditional, classical, rock). World music influences are very strong provincially, with traditional musical instruments once more gaining ground. Competition with China for tourists has forced a much larger attention to traditional Korean musical forms in order to differentiate itself from the west, and east.
The new Seoul Opera house, which will be the anchor for Korean opera has just been given the go - ahead, is set for a $300 million home on an island on the Han river. Korean opera and an entirely redeveloped western opera season, and opera school, to compete with the Beijing opera house, and Japan 's historical centre for western operas in the far east is the present focus.
Korean court music has a history going back to the Silla where Tang court music was played; later Song dynasty inspired "A-ak '' a Korean version played on Chinese instruments within the Joseon era. Recreations of this music are done in Seoul primarily under the auspices of the Korea Foundation and The National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts (NCKTPA).
Court musicians appear in traditional costume, maintain a rigid proper formal posture, and play stringed five - stringed instruments. Teaching by this the "yeak sasang '' principles of Confucianism, perfection of tone and acoustic space is put ahead of coarse emotionality. Famous works of court music include: jongmyo jeryeak, designated a UNESCO world cultural heritage, Cheoyongmu, Taepyeongmu, and Sujecheon.
Korean folk music or pansori is the base from which most new music originates being strongly simple and rhythmic.
Korean musicals are a recent innovation, encouraged by the success of Broadway revivals, like Showboat, recent productions such as the musical based on Queen Min have toured globally. There are precedents for popular musical dance - dramas in gamuguk popular in Goryeo times, with some 21st - century concert revivals.
Korean stage set design again has a long history and has always drawn inspiration from landscapes, beginning with outdoor theatre, and replicating this by the use of screens within court and temple stagings of rituals and plays. There are few if any books on this potentially interesting area. A rule of thumb has been that the designs have much open space, more two - dimensional space, and subdued tone and colour, and been done by artists to evoke traditional brush painting subjects. Modern plays have tended towards western scenic flats, or minimalist atonality to force a greater attention on the actors. Stage lighting still has to catch up to western standards, and does not reflect a photographer 's approach to painting in colour and light, quite surprisingly.
Korean masks are generally used in shamanistic performances that have increasingly been secularized as folkart dramas. At the same time the masks themselves have become tourist artefacts post 1945, and reproduced in large numbers as souvenirs.
Narrative storytelling, either in poetic dramatic song by yangban scholars, or in rough - housing by physical comedians, is generally a male performance. There is as yet virtually no stand - up comedy in Korea because of cultural restrictions on insult - humour, personal comments, and respect for seniors, despite globally successful Korean comic films which depend on comedy of error, and situations with no apparent easy resolution under tight social restraints.
Korean oral history includes narrative myths, legends, folk tales; songs, folksongs, shaman songs and p'ansori; proverbs that expand into short historical tales, riddles, and suspicious words which have their own stories. They have been studied by Cho Dong - Il; Choi In - hak, and Zong In - sop, and published often in editions in English for foreigners, or for primary school teachers.
Dance is a significant element of traditional Korean culture. Special traditional dances are performed as part of many annual festivals and celebrations (harvest, etc.), involving traditional costumes, specific colors, music, songs and special instruments. Some dances are performed by either men only or women only, while others are performed by both. The women usually have their hair pulled back away from the face in a bun, or may be wearing colorful hats. Some variation of the traditional hanbok is typically worn, or a special costume specific to that dance. In some dances, the women 's costumes will have very long sleeves, or trail a long length of fabric, to accentuate graceful arm movements. Outdoor festivals are loud and joyous, and cymbals and drums can prominently be heard. Masks may be worn.
Notable examples of historical records are very well documented from early times, and as well Korean books with moveable type, often imperial encyclopaedias or historical records, were circulated as early as the 7th century during the Three Kingdoms era from printing wood - blocks; and in the Goryeo era the world 's first metal type, and books printed by metal type were produced.
Genres include epics, poetry, religious texts and exigetical commentaries on Buddhist and Confucianist learning; translations of foreign works; plays and court rituals; comedies, tragedies, mixed genres; and various kinds of novels. Korean 's weave.
Korean poetry began to flourish in the Three Kingdoms period. Collections were repeatedly printed. With the rise of Joseon nationalism, poetry developed increasingly so and reached its apex in the late 18th century. There were attempts at introducing imagist and modern poetry methods in the early 20th century, and in the early republic period, patriotic works were very successful. Lyrical poetry dominated from the 1970s onwards.
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what were the principal issues of the war of austrian succession | War of the Austrian Succession - wikipedia
The War of the Austrian Succession (German: Österreichischer Erbfolgekrieg, 1740 -- 48) involved most of the powers of Europe over the question of Maria Theresa 's succession to the Habsburg Monarchy. The war included King George 's War in British America, the War of Jenkins ' Ear (which formally began on 23 October 1739), the First Carnatic War in India, the Jacobite rising of 1745 in Scotland, and the First and Second Silesian Wars.
The war began under the pretext that Maria Theresa was ineligible to succeed to the Habsburg thrones of her father, Charles VI, because Salic law precluded royal inheritance by a woman. In practice, this was an excuse put forward by the Kingdoms of France and Prussia, joined by the Electorate of Bavaria, to challenge Habsburg power. Maria Theresa was supported by the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Dutch Republic, the traditional enemies of France, as well as the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Electorate of Saxony.
Spain, which had been at war with Britain over colonies and trade since 1739, entered the war on the Continent to re-establish its influence in northern Italy, further reversing Austrian dominance over the Italian peninsula that had been achieved at Spain 's expense as a consequence of Spain 's war of succession earlier in the 18th century.
The war ended with the Treaty of Aix - la - Chapelle in 1748, by which Maria Theresa was confirmed as Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary, but Prussia retained control of Silesia. The peace was soon to be shattered, however, when Austria 's desire to recapture Silesia intertwined with the political upheaval in Europe, culminating in the Seven Years ' War (1756 - 1763).
The immediate cause of the War of the Austrian Succession was the death in 1740 of the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles VI, and the inheritance of Hapsburg lands in Austria, Hungary, Croatia, the Netherlands, Bohemia and Italy (often collectively referred to as ' Austria ').
When Charles succeeded his elder brother Joseph I in 1711, he was the last male Hapsburg heir in the direct line; this meant their lands would be divided on his death as Salic law prevented women inheriting in their own right. A family issue became a European one due to tensions within the Holy Roman Empire, a loose confederation of Germanic states whose monarch was officially chosen by seven prince - electors. The Thirty Years ' War of 1618 - 48 divided the Empire into Protestant and Catholic regions, substantially weakening the bonds holding it together, while by the mid 18th century states like Bavaria, Prussia and Saxony had increased dramatically in both size and power. The same was also true of the Hapsburgs, who now viewed the title of Emperor as being hereditary in practice if not principle (Sigismund the last non-Hapsburg Emperor ruled from 1368 - 1437.) These centrifugal forces led to a war that reshaped the traditional European balance of power; the various legal claims were largely pretexts and seen as such.
The Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 secured the integrity of the Hapsburg inheritance by allowing a female successor, a principle approved by the various Hapsburg territories, the Imperial Diet, Spain, Russia, Prussia, Britain and France. However, when his own daughter Maria Theresa was born in 1717, Charles had disinherited his two nieces Maria Josepha and Maria Amalia, married respectively to the rulers of Bavaria and Saxony who now refused to be bound by the decision of the Imperial Diet. In addition, despite publicly agreeing to the Pragmatic Sanction in 1735, France then signed a secret treaty with Bavaria in 1738 promising to back the ' just claims ' of Charles Albert of Bavaria.
Charles responded by supporting first the claim of Augustus, Elector of Saxony to the Polish throne in the War of the Polish Succession, then more disastrously Russia in the Russo - Turkish War of 1735 -- 1739. The losses of men, money and territory in these two conflicts of low strategic value weakened Austria at exactly the wrong time, while Charles also failed to prepare Maria Theresa for her new role, excluding her from any role in government. Many diplomats and statesmen were sceptical Austria could survive the widely anticipated contest that would follow Charles ' death, which finally occurred in October 1740.
For much of the eighteenth century, France approached its wars in the same way: It would either let its colonies defend themselves, or would offer only minimal help (sending them only limited numbers of troops or inexperienced soldiers), anticipating that fights for the colonies would likely be lost anyway. This strategy was, to a degree, forced upon France: geography, coupled with the superiority of the British navy, made it difficult for the French navy to provide significant supplies and support to French colonies. Similarly, several long land borders made an effective domestic army imperative for any ruler of France. Given these military necessities, the French government, unsurprisingly, based its strategy overwhelmingly on the army in Europe: it would keep most of its army on the European continent, hoping that such a force would be victorious closer to home. At the end of the War of Austrian Succession, France gave back its European conquests, while recovering such lost overseas possessions as Louisbourg, largely restoring the status quo ante as far as France was concerned.
The British -- by inclination as well as for pragmatic reasons -- had tended to avoid large - scale commitments of troops on the Continent. They sought to offset the disadvantage this created in Europe by allying themselves with one or more Continental powers whose interests were antithetical to those of their enemies, particularly France. In the War of the Austrian Succession, the British were allied with Austria; by the time of the Seven Years ' War, they were allied with its enemy, Prussia. In marked contrast to France, Britain strove to actively prosecute the war in the colonies once it became involved in the war, taking full advantage of its naval power. The British pursued a dual strategy of naval blockade and bombardment of enemy ports, and also utilized their ability to move troops by sea to the utmost. They would harass enemy shipping and attack enemy outposts, frequently using colonists from nearby British colonies in the effort. This plan worked better in North America than in Europe, but set the stage for the Seven Years ' War.
Prussia in 1740 was an emerging power, a small but well - organized state whose new king, Frederick II, wanted to unify the disparate and scattered holdings of his crown by gathering intervening lands into a unified, contiguous state. Prince Frederick was 28 years old when he ascended to the throne on 31 May 1740 upon the death of his father, Frederick William I. Although Prussia and Austria had been allies in the War of the Polish Succession (1733 -- 1738), concluded only two years before, the interests of the two countries diverged when the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles VI, died on 20 October 1740. Neither Frederick nor his father had ever been fond of Austria and its various snubs against Prussia (such as offering them the duchies of Julich and Berg in return for an alliance, only to renege later).
Emperor Charles VI had made provision for the succession of his daughter, Maria Theresa, to the throne as Empress of the Holy Roman Empire. Although the Salic law prevented succession through the female line, during his lifetime Emperor Charles VI obtained consent from several of the individual German states that were a part of the Holy Roman Empire for his Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, which circumvented the Salic Law to allow his daughter to succeed to the throne. While the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy was distracted by the succession, Frederick, upon coming to the throne, rejected the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and opportunistically invaded Silesia on 16 December 1740. In support of his invasion, Frederick used a questionable interpretation of a treaty (1537) between the Hohenzollerns and the Piasts of Brieg as a pretext. What Frederick really feared was that other princes of Europe were preparing to exploit the succession struggle to acquire Habsburg possessions for themselves and / or diminish the power of the Holy Roman Empire. In particular, Frederick feared that Augustus III, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, was preparing to seize Silesia for himself to unite Saxony and Poland.
The only recent combat experience of the Prussian Army was their participation in the War of the Polish Succession (Rhine campaign of 1733 -- 1735), in which the Prussians had largely been kept out of combat. Nobody in the court of the Holy Roman Empire trusted the motives of the new rising power of Prussia and, therefore, the Holy Roman Emperor did not call on the Prussians, who were vassals of the Holy Roman Empire, for military support of the Empire. Accordingly, the Prussian Army had an uninspiring reputation and was counted as one of the many minor armies of the Holy Roman Empire. This reputation misrepresented the fact of a standing army of 80,000 soldiers, representing 4 % of the 2.2 million population of Prussia. Thus the Prussian Army was disproportionate to the size of the state it protected. By comparison, the Austrian Empire had 16 million citizens but had an army only half its authorised size because of financial restraints. Thus, in defending the vast territory of the Austrian Empire this small army was more of "a sieve '' than a shield against foreign invasion.
Moreover, the Prussian army was better trained than other armies in Europe and was led by an excellent officer corps. King Frederick William I and "the guiding genius of the Prussian Army '', Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt - Dessau or "Old Dessauer '', had drilled the Prussian Army to a perfection previously unknown in Europe. The Prussian infantry soldier was so well - trained and well - equipped that he could fire 5 shots a minute to an Austrian 's 3 shots per minute; and while Prussian cavalry and artillery were comparatively less efficient, they were still of better quality than average. Furthermore, while the Austrians had to wait for conscription to complete the field forces, Prussian regiments took the field at once. With this army it might not have been surprising that Frederick was able to overrun Silesia. However, Frederick sought even more advantages in the war he was planning. Accordingly, he had his Foreign Minister -- Heinrich von Podewils -- secretly negotiate a treaty with France to put Austria in a two front war. In this way, Prussia could attack the Austrians in the east while France would attack Austria from the west. A treaty with France was signed in April 1739.
In early December, Frederick assembled his army along the Oder river and on 16 December, without a formal declaration of war, the Prussians invaded Silesia. For most of the previous century, Austria 's military resources had been concentrated in Hungary and Italy, countering threats from the Ottomans and Spanish respectively, while neglecting less vulnerable areas. As a result, the Austrians had fewer than 3,000 troops available to defend Silesia, and although this was increased to 7,000 shortly before the Prussian attack, they could only hold the fortresses of Glogau, Breslau, and Brieg, abandoning the rest of the province and retreating into Moravia, at which point both sides went into winter quarters. Prussia now controlled most of the single richest province in the Hapsburg Empire (Silesian taxes provided 10 % of total Imperial income), with a population of over one million, the major commercial centre of Breslau and large mining, weaving and dyeing industries. However, Frederick had hoped to avoid a long war by rapidly capturing all of Silesia, presenting Maria Theresa with a fait accompli, in exchange for which Prussia would guarantee the Hapsburgs ' other German territories; Austria 's retention of its fortresses in Southern Silesia and the failure of Prussian diplomatic efforts to persuade powers like Britain and Russia to agree meant a quick victory could not be achieved.
Early in the year, a new Austrian field army under general Wilhelm Reinhard von Neipperg relieved Neisse and marched on Brieg, threatening to cut the Prussians off. On 10 April, Frederick 's army caught the Austrians on the snow - covered fields near Mollwitz. This was the first time that Frederick had led troops into battle. The victory that Frederick attained at the Battle of Mollwitz was a learning experience for the young King, who departed from the field just before his troops routed the Austrians; both his tactics and his cavalry were rather clumsy, and victory was only obtained due to the discipline of the Prussian infantry and their veteran commander, Field Marshall Kurt von Schwerin.
Frederick obtained an alliance with the French against the Austrians, signing the Treaty of Breslau on 5 June. Accordingly, the French began to cross the Rhine on 15 August and joined the Bavarian Elector 's forces on the Danube and advanced towards Vienna. The combined forces of the French and the Bavarians captured the Austrian town of Linz on 14 September. However, at this point, the objective was suddenly changed, and after many countermarches the anti-Austrian allies advanced, in three widely separated corps, on Prague. A French corps moved via Amberg and Pilsen. The Elector marched on Budweis, and the Saxons (who had now joined the allies against Austria) invaded Bohemia by the Elbe valley. The Austrians could at first offer little resistance, but before long a considerable force intervened at Tábor between the Danube and the allies, and Austrian troops including Neipperg were soon transferred from Silesia back to the west to defend the Austrian capital, Vienna, from the French.
With fewer Austrian troops in Silesia Frederick now had an easier time. The remaining fortresses in Silesia were taken by the Prussians. Before he left Silesia, Austrian General Neipperg had made a curious agreement with Frederick, the so - called Klein - Schnellendorf agreement (9 October 1741). By this agreement, the fortress at Neisse was surrendered after a mock siege, and the Prussians agreed to let the Austrians leave unmolested releasing Neipperg 's army for service elsewhere. At the same time the Hungarians, moved to enthusiasm by the personal appeal, in September 1741, of Maria Theresia, had put into the field a levée en masse, or "insurrection, '' which furnished the regular army with an invaluable force of 60,000 more light troops. A fresh army was collected under Field Marshal Khevenhüller at Vienna, and the Austrians planned an offensive winter campaign against the Franco - Bavarian forces in Bohemia and the small Bavarian army that remained on the Danube to defend the electorate.
Meanwhile, the Saxon - born Maurice de Saxe and a small French force stormed Prague on 26 November 1741. Francis Stephen, husband of Maria Theresa, who commanded the Austrians in Bohemia, moved too slowly to save the fortress. The Elector of Bavaria, who now styled himself Archduke of Austria, was crowned King of Bohemia (9 December 1741) and elected to the imperial throne as Charles VII (24 January 1742), but no active measures were undertaken.
In Bohemia the month of December was occupied in mere skirmishes. On the Danube, Khevenhüller, the best general in the Austrian service, advanced on 27 December, swiftly drove back the allies, shut them up in Linz, and pressed on into Bavaria. Munich itself surrendered to the Austrians on the coronation day of Charles VII.
At the close of this first act of the campaign the French, under the old Marshal de Broglie, maintained a precarious foothold in central Bohemia, menaced by the main army of the Austrians, and Khevenhüller was ranging unopposed in Bavaria. Frederick made a secret truce with Austria and thus, lay inactive in Silesia.
Frederick had hoped by the truce to secure Silesia, for which alone he was fighting; although allied with the French, he had no wish to see them become the dominant power in Germany through the destruction of Austria. For their part, the French had aspirations to divide most of the Habsburg territories between themselves, Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony. But with the successes of Khevenhüller and the enthusiastic "insurrection '' of Hungary, Maria Theresa 's opposition became firmer, and she divulged the provisions of the truce, to compromise Frederick with his allies. The war recommenced. Frederick had not rested idle on his laurels. In the uneventful summer campaign of 1741 he had found time to begin the reorganisation of his cavalry. The training of the Prussian cavalry had been neglected by Frederick 's father -- King Frederick William I. Probably because he himself was an infantryman to his core, the training of the cavalry had also been overlooked by the "Old Dessauer '' who was the true genius behind the Prussian Army. Frederick had been disappointed by the performance of his cavalry at the Battle of Mollwitz. However, as a result of Frederick 's training over the summer of 1741 the Prussian cavalry would soon acquit themselves much better in the coming battles of the First Silesian War. Before long the cavalry would be more efficient than the Prussian infantry.
The Bavarian Emperor Charles VII, whose territories were overrun by the Austrians, asked him to create a diversion by invading Moravia. In December 1741, therefore, the Prussian general field marshal Kurt Christoph Graf von Schwerin crossed the border and captured Olmutz. Glatz also was invested, and the Prussian army was concentrated about Olomouc in January 1742. A combined plan of operations was made by the French, Saxons and Prussians for the rescue of Linz. But Linz soon fell. Broglie on the Vltava, weakened by the departure of the Bavarians to oppose Khevenhüller, and of the Saxons to join forces with Frederick, was in no condition to take the offensive, and large forces under Prince Charles of Lorraine lay in his front from Budweis to Jihlava (Iglau). Frederick 's march was made towards Iglau in the first place. Brno was invested about the same time (February), but the direction of the march was changed, and instead of moving against Prince Charles, Frederick pushed on southwards by Znojmo and Mikulov. The extreme outposts of the Prussians appeared before Vienna. But Frederick 's advance was a mere foray, and Prince Charles, leaving a screen of troops in front of Broglie, marched to cut off the Prussians from Silesia, while the Hungarian levies poured into Upper Silesia by the Jablunkov Pass. The Saxons, discontented and demoralised, soon marched off to their own country, and Frederick with his Prussians fell back by Svitavy and Litomyšl to Kutná Hora in Bohemia, where he was in touch with Broglie on the one hand and (Glatz having now surrendered) with Silesia on the other. No defence of Olomouc was attempted, and the small Prussian corps remaining in Moravia fell back towards Upper Silesia.
Prince Charles marched past Jihlava and Teutsch (Deutsch) Brod on Kutná Hora in pursuit of Frederick. On 17 May 1742 Frederick turned around and faced the Austrian forces that were pursuing him. He fought the Austrians in what has become known as the Battle of Chotusitz. After a severe struggle Frederick won a major Prussian victory. At Chotusitz, it was Frederick 's newly reorganised and trained cavalry that really won the victory and compensated for their previous failings. The cavalry 's conduct gave an earnest prospect of its future glory, not only by its charges on the battlefield, but by its vigorous pursuit of the defeated Austrians.
Almost at the same time the Battle of Chotusitz was occurring, French Field Marshal François Broglie fell upon a part of the Austrians left on the Vltava and won a small, but morally and politically important, success in the action of Sahay, near Budweis (24 May 1742). Frederick did not propose another combined movement. Frederick 's victory at Chotusitz, along with the victory of Field Marshal Broglie, persuaded Maria Theresa to seek peace even if it meant ceding away Silesia to make good her position elsewhere. Accordingly, a separate peace between Prussia and Austria was signed at Breslau on 11 June 1742, which drew the First Silesian War to a close. However, the larger War of the Austrian Succession continued.
The year 1743 opened disastrously for the forces of the new Holy Roman Emperor, Charles VII. The French and Bavarian armies were not working well together, and Field Marshal Broglie had been placed in command of the allied army in Bavaria. This created tension between Broglie and the Bavarian commanders. Broglie openly quarrelled with the Bavarian field marshal Friedrich Heinrich von Seckendorff. No connected resistance was offered to the converging march of Prince Charles 's army along the Danube, Khevenhüller from Salzburg towards southern Bavaria, and Prince Lobkowitz from Bohemia towards the Naab. The Bavarians, under the command of Count Minuzzi, suffered a severe reverse at the town of Simbach near Braunau on 9 May 1743 at the hands of Prince Charles of Lorraine.
Now an Anglo -- Allied army commanded by King George II retreated down the Main River to the village of Hanau. This army had been formed on the lower Rhine upon the withdrawal of the French (Westphalian) Army under the command of Count Maillebois. This British army became known as the "Pragmatic Army, '' because it was a confederation of states that supported the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 agreements to recognize Maria Theresa as sovereign of the Habsburg Empire. The Pragmatic Army had been advancing southward up the Main into Neckar country prior to this retreat in the summer of 1743. A French army, under Marshal Noailles, was being collected on the middle Rhine to deal with this new force. Marshal Noailles correctly anticipated that given the problems faced by the Pragmatic Army, George II would take the entire British Pragmatic Army back down the Main. Marshal Noailles made plans to lay a trap for the Pragmatic Army and destroy it. However, Marshal Noailles 's ally Marshal Broglie was now in full retreat. Strong places of Bavaria were surrendered one after the other to Prince Charles. Marshal Noailles 's French army, however, was still intent on finding victory while Marshal de Broglie 's Franco - Bavarian army was retreating towards France. In the Dettingen, Noailles attempted a daring maneuver to envelop the British army but his subordinate the Duke de Gramont, without orders, attacked the Pragmatic Army and was defeated with heavy casualties.
King Frederick of Prussia was terrified by the defeat at Dettingen. Frederick saw that he now faced a coalition of potential rivals that included Austria, Britain and Russia. However, Frederick soon realised that the coalition against him was not as strong as it first appeared. Neither Austria nor the British knew how to exploit their victory at Dettingen. Marshal Noailles was driven almost to the Rhine by King George. The French and Bavarian army had been completely outmanoeuvred and was in a position of the greatest danger between Aschaffenburg and Hanau in the defile formed by the Spessart Hills and the river Main. Yet the British Pragmatic Army did not quickly follow up the attack. Thus, Marshal Noailles had time to block the outlet and had posts all around. At this point, the allied troops had to force their way through the French and Bavarian lines. Still, because of the heavy losses inflicted on the French, the Battle of Dettingen and the follow up is justly reckoned as a notable victory of Anglo - Austrian - Hanoverian arms.
The coalition against Frederick was suddenly weakened when the St. Petersburg court discovered a plot to overthrow Tsarina Elisabeth and bring back the child Ivan VI as Tsar, with his mother Grand Duchess Anna Leopoldovna serving as regent for the child. Matters were made much worse for the allies against Frederick when an Austrian envoy Antoniotto Botta Adorno was found to be intimately involved in the plot. Indeed, the plot became known as the "Botta Conspiracy. '' The Botta - attempted coup redounded badly not only against Austria, but also against the Saxon and British courts. Frederick 's initial indifference to a treaty with Russia now changed to enthusiasm in the light of the fallout from the Botta Conspiracy.
Marshal Broglie, worn out by age and exertions, was soon replaced by Marshal Coigny. Both Broglie and Noailles were now on the strict defensive behind the Rhine. Not a single French soldier remained in Germany, and Prince Charles prepared to force the passage of the Rhine river in the Breisgau while George II, King of Britain, moved forward via Mainz to co-operate by drawing upon himself the attention of both the French marshals. The Anglo - allied army took Worms, but after several unsuccessful attempts to cross the Rhine river, Prince Charles went into winter quarters. The king followed his example, drawing his troops to the north, to deal, if necessary, with the army which the French were collecting on the frontier of the Southern Netherlands. Austria, Britain, the Dutch Republic and Sardinia were now allied. Saxony changed sides and the entry of Sweden had offset the loss of Russia to the allies. Thus, Sweden and Russia neutralised each other (Peace of Åbo, August 1743). Frederick was still quiescent. France, Spain and Bavaria actively continued the struggle against Maria Theresa.
While the Battle of Dettingen and Russian Botta plot were capturing all the attention during the summer of 1743, negotiations between the British, the Austrians and Sardinians were proceeding quietly in the city of Worms. The Austrians were desperately afraid that Frederick II would soon be invading the Austrian domains again. Thus, the Austrians sought a separate peace with Sardinia in Italy. Under the terms of the Treaty of Worms, which was signed on 13 September 1743, the Austrian Habsburgs surrendered all territory in Italy located west of the Ticino River and Lake Maggiore to Sardinia. Additionally some lands south of the Po River were also given to Sardinia. In exchange, Sardinia renounced its claim to Milan, guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction and agreed to provide 40,000 troops for a joint Italian army to fight the Bourbons.
The Second Silesian War began in 1744. Frederick of Prussia was disquieted by the universal success of the Austrians and their alliance with Sardinia. Accordingly, he secretly concluded another alliance with Louis XV of France. France had posed hitherto as an auxiliary -- its officers in Germany had worn the Bavarian cockade -- and was officially at war only with Britain. France now declared war directly upon Austria and Sardinia (April 1744).
At this point, the French planned a diversion that they hoped would cause Britain to leave the war. A French army was assembled at Dunkirk to support the cause of Charles Edward Stuart (Bonnie Prince Charlie) in an invasion of Great Britain. Prince Charles was son of James Francis Edward Stuart, Stuart pretender to the British throne, who was the son of James II the last Catholic and last Stuart king of England. James II had been deposed as the King of England in 1688 in favour of his daughter, Mary, and her husband the Protestant Prince of Orange, William III of the house of Orange - Nassau. A significant element of the British population still hoped for the return of the Stuart family as monarchs. King Louis XIV of France had shown great support for Stuart cause. Indeed, in 1715, France had sponsored an uprising in Scotland, which the pretender James had joined, but it was defeated. Forbidden to return to France by the new king, Louis XV, James sought sanctuary elsewhere. Finally, Pope Clement XI offered James and his family the use of Palazzo Muti and a lifetime annuity of 8,000 Roman scudi. Charles Edward Stuart was born and lived his whole life in the Palazzo Muti.
Charles had much more charisma than his father, and now Louis XV was favourably disposed toward helping him create another uprising in Scotland. Louis XV sent Drummond of Balhaldy as an emissary to the Stuart "court '' in Rome. French plans called for Charles to be in Dunkirk, France, to assemble with the fleet on 10 January 1744, yet Balhaldy had only arrived in Rome on 19 December 1743. Thus there was very little time to waste. On 23 December 1743, Charles ' father named him "Prince Regent '' so that Charles could act in his own name. In the spring of 1744, Prince Charles secretly arrived in France and was about to board the ships that would take him to England. However, on the night before he was to board, a fierce storm blew up (this storm became known as the "Protestant Wind '') and wrecked or dispersed the entire fleet. The violent storms had wrecked the crossing attempt, and the planned invasion was abandoned. However, Charles did not give up hope of restoring the Stuart family to the throne of England.
During naval operations that were possible preparations for a coordinated French invasion of England, the largest sea battle of the war occurred, on 22 February 1744. This naval battle took place in the Mediterranean off the coast of Toulon, France. A large British fleet under the command of Admiral Thomas Mathews, with Rear Admiral Richard Lestock second in command, was blockading the French coast. A smaller French and Spanish naval force attacked the British blockade and damaged some of the British ships, forcing the British to withdraw and seek repairs. Thus, the British blockade of the French coast was relieved, and the Spanish fleet apparently controlled the Mediterranean Sea. A Spanish squadron took refuge in the harbour at Toulon. The British fleet watched this squadron carefully from a harbour a short distance to the east. On 21 February 1744, the Spanish ships put to sea with a French fleet. Admiral Mathews took his British fleet and attacked the Spanish fleet from 22 February until 23 February 1744 in what has become known as the Battle of Toulon. However, because of miscommunication and possibly treachery on the part of Rear Admiral Lestock, the smaller Spanish fleet was allowed to escape. With the knowledge that a larger French fleet was sailing to the rescue the British ships broke off combat and retreated to the northeast.
Although technically the Battle of Toulon was regarded as a victory for Britain, in Britain the public feared that the combined French and Spanish ships were making for the Straits of Gibraltar and for a gathering of ships at Brest for a planned invasion of England. As a consequence, bitter recriminations were brought against Admiral Mathews for letting this Spanish - French fleet get away and, subsequently, placing England in danger of invasion. Consequently, both Mathews and Lestock were tried in naval court. Lestock was acquitted (unjustly according to some), while Mathews was found guilty (also regarded as an injustice by some commentators).
Meanwhile, on the battlefields in northern Europe, Louis XV in person, with 90,000 men, invaded the Austrian Netherlands and took Menin and Ypres in July 1744. His presumed opponent, although shorn of the Russians, still consisted of the same allied army, previously commanded by King George II, and composed of British, Dutch, German (Hanoverian) and Austrian troops.
The French put four armies into the field. On the Rhine, Marshal Coigny had 57,000 troops up against 70,000 allied troops under the command of Prince Charles. A fresh army of over 30,000 soldiers under the Prince de Conti was located between the Meuse and Moselle Rivers, which would later assist the Spaniards in Piedmont and Lombardy. This plan was, however, at once dislocated by the advance of Prince Charles, who, assisted by the veteran Marshal Traun, skillfully manoeuvred his allied army over the Rhine near Philippsburg on 1 July 1744 and captured the lines of Weissenburg, and cut off Marshal Coigny and his army from Alsace.
A third French Army composed of 17,000 men under the command of Duke d ' Harcourt kept Luxembourg at bay Meanwhile, the fourth French army was the largest army that put to field in the summer of 1744. This was the Army of Flanders, numbering 87,000 men and officially under the command of the king of France, Louis XV, but in actuality he was being militarily advised by Marshal Noailles. As these French forces invaded the Austrian Netherlands, they outnumbered the allied armies by about a four to three ratio. Furthermore, as they marched into the Austrian Netherlands, they met a confused resistance offered by Dutch forces. Consequently, the French Army of Flanders made rapid progress across the Austrian Netherlands. The situation became so desperate for the Dutch that the Dutch government sent an envoy to the king of France to seek peace. This plea for peace was rejected by the French.
However, the situation in the Austrian Netherlands was changed abruptly by the successful crossing of the Rhine on 30 June 1744 by Prince Charles and his 70,000 - man allied army. Marshal Coigny, caught far in advance of the other French forces, cut his way back through the enemy at Weissenburg and withdrew towards Strasbourg. Louis XV now abandoned the invasion of the Southern Netherlands, and his army moved down to take a decisive part in the war in Alsace and Lorraine.
Finally, on 12 July 1744, Frederick II of Prussia received confirmation that Prince Charles had taken his army beyond the Rhine and into France. Thus, Frederick knew that Prince Charles would not be able to present any immediate problem to him in the east. Consequently, on 15 August 1744, Frederick II crossed the Austrian frontier into Bohemia, and by late August all 80,000 of his troops were in Bohemia. The attention and resources of Austria had been fully occupied for some time on a renewal of the war in Silesia. However, neither Maria Theresa nor her advisers had expected the Prussians to march as quickly as they did. Accordingly, Frederick 's invasion of Bohemia came as a surprise to the Austrian court and Frederick was almost unopposed in Bohemia. One column consisting of 40,000 troops, under Frederick 's own command, passed through Saxony; another column of 16,000 men under the command of "Young Dessauer '' passed through Lusatia, while a third consisting of 16,000 soldiers under Count Schwerin advanced from Silesia. The destination for all three columns was Prague, and the objective was reached on 2 September. The city was surrounded and besieged. Six days later the Austrian garrison was compelled to surrender. Scarcely had Prague surrendered to Frederick II than he was off marching southwards, leaving 5,000 soldiers under General Baron Gottfried Emanual von Einsiedel to garrison Prague. Three days after the fall of Prague, Frederick seized Tabor, Budweis and Frauenberg.
Maria Theresa once again rose to the emergency: a new "insurrection '' took the field in Hungary, and a corps of regulars was assembled to cover Vienna. Meanwhile, Austrian diplomats won over Saxony to the Austrian side. Because of Frederick 's successful campaign in Bohemia, Prince Charles sought to withdraw from Alsace and cross the Rhine once again and strike at the Prussians. At this point the French had an excellent chance to strike at Prince Charles while he was in a vulnerable position, crossing the Rhine. However, the French military command was distracted and could not take any action, and Prince Charles was able to cross the Rhine once again unmolested by the French. The French had been unable to act because they were thrown into confusion by King Louis XV suddenly becoming very ill with smallpox at Metz. The King 's condition was so severe that many feared for his life. Only Count Seckendorf, commander of the Bavarians, pursued Prince Charles. No move was made by the French, and Frederick thus found himself isolated and exposed to the combined attack of the Austrians and Saxons. Count Traun, summoned from the Rhine, held the king in check in Bohemia with a united force of Austrians and Saxons. The Hungarian irregulars also inflicted numerous minor reverses on the Prussians. Finally Prince Charles arrived with the main army from the west. The campaign resembled that of 1742: the Prussian retreat was closely watched, and the rearguard pressed hard. Prague fell, and Frederick was completely outmanoeuvred by the united forces of Prince Charles and Count Traun. Frederick was forced to retreat to Silesia with heavy losses. However, the Austrians gained no foothold in Silesia itself. On the Rhine, Louis XV, now recovered, had besieged and taken Freiburg, after which the forces left in the north were reinforced and besieged the strong places of Southern Netherlands. There was also a slight war of manoeuvre on the middle Rhine.
In 1745 three of the greatest battles of the war occurred: Hohenfriedberg, Kesselsdorf and Fontenoy. The formation of the Quadruple Alliance of Britain, Austria, the Dutch Republic and Saxony was concluded at Warsaw on 8 January 1745 by the Treaty of Warsaw. Twelve days later on 20 January 1745, the death of the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles VII, submitted the imperial title to a new election. Charles VII 's son and heir, Maximilian III of Bavaria, was not even considered a candidate for the Imperial throne. The Bavarian army was again unfortunate. Caught in its scattered winter quarters (action of Amberg, 7 January), it was driven from point to point by a maneuver by the Austrian army under the joint command of Count Batthyány, Baron Bernklau and Count Browne. All Bavarian garrisons fled to the east. The Bavarian Army under the command of Count Törring was divided and paralyzed. The French in the area under Count Ségur marched to save the day. Count Sègur 's force out - numbered the Austrian army under Count Batthyany, yet Sègur and the French army were defeated at the Battle of Pfaffenhofen. The young elector Maximilian III had to abandon Munich once more. The Peace of Füssen followed on 22 April 1745, by which Maximilian III secured his hereditary states on condition of supporting the candidature of the Grand - Duke Francis, consort of Maria Theresa. The "imperial '' army ceased ipso facto to exist.
Frederick II of Prussia was again isolated. No help was to be expected from France, whose efforts at the time were centred on the Flanders campaign. Indeed, on 31 March 1745, before Frederick took the field, Louis XV and the Marshal of France Maurice de Saxe, commanding an army of 95,000 men, the largest force in the war, had marched down the Scheldt River valley and besieged Tournay. Tournay was defended by a Dutch garrison of 7,000 soldiers. In May 1745, a British army under the command of the Duke of Cumberland attempted to break the French siege and relieve Tournay. Maurice (who had just recently been appointed a Marshal in the French army) had very good intelligence and knew the road that Cumberland was using to attack his forces besieging forces. Thus, Maurice could select the battlefield. Maurice chose to attack the British allied army on a plain on the east side of the Scheldt River about two miles southeast of Tournay near the town of Fontenoy. There the Battle of Fontenoy was fought on 11 May 1745. Fighting began at 5: 00 AM with a French artillery barrage of the British - Allied forces, who were still attempting to move into their proper positions for their anticipated attack on Tournay. By noon, Cumberland 's troops had ground to a halt and discipline had begun to dissolve. The British - Allied army sought cover in a retreat. It was a victory for the French that captured the attention of Europe because it overturned the mystique of British military superiority, and it pointed out the importance of artillery. On 20 June 1745, after the Battle on Fontenoy, the fortress of Tournay surrendered to the French.
In the summer of 1745, the French once more decided to take up Charles Edward Stuart 's claim to the British throne. The goal was to start a revolt in Scotland that would divert British attention away from the war on the mainland in Europe, and may even require Britain to leave the war altogether. On 23 July 1745, Charles landed on the island of Eriskay in the Hebrides, north - west of the mainland of Scotland. On 25 July 1745, Charles set sail again for the mainland. By the end of August 1745, Charles had landed in Scotland and had started issuing calls for troops loyal to the Jacobite cause of placing him on the throne. Already, Charles had collected 1,300 Scots prepared to fight in his Jacobite army. Defence of the Hanovarian rule of King George II in Great Britain fell to General Sir John Cope, a veteran of the Battle of Dettingen. On 31 August 1745, Cope marched north with about 2,000 British government soldiers. Charles reached Perth on 18 September 1745 and Edinburgh surrendered to him on 27 September 1745. When Cope brought his army up to the town of Prestonpans, Scotland on 1 October 1745, he chose a stubble field that he felt was well protected on which to encamp his troops. However, it was not as safe as he thought, and at sunrise the next morning, 2 October 1745, Charles 's Scottish troops attacked and defeated the British government army. With the government army defeat at Prestonpans, it appeared that all Scotland belonged to Charles. By November 1745, his army consisted of 5,000 infantry men and 300 cavalry. In mid-November 1745 it crossed the border from Scotland and invaded England.
As the Jacobite army moved south into England, Charles kept assuring his troops that aid and reinforcements from English Jacobites would be arriving at any time. This aide and reinforcements were desperately needed as the Jacobites were badly outnumbered by the three British government armies already in the field. Finally on 6 December 1745, at Derby in the English midlands, Charles was reluctantly persuaded by his senior officers to turn back to Scotland. Upon hearing about the turnabout in Derby, the French gave up on their plans for an invasion of England. The Jacobites felt they could more securely fight the Hanovarians in a defensive battle on Scottish soil rather than fighting the British government army in England. On 17 January 1746, at the Battle of Falkirk Muir, 8,000 Scots, the largest amount of troops gathered by the Jacobite cause during the uprising defeated 7,000 of British troops. Ultimately, however, Charles Stuart and his uprising were defeated on 27 April 1746 at the Battle of Culloden.
The manoeuvres of the armies of both sides in the war on the upper Elbe occupied all the summer. Meanwhile, the political questions of the imperial election and of an understanding between Prussia and Britain were pending. The chief efforts of Austria were directed towards the valleys of the Main and of Lahn and Frankfurt, where the French and Austrian armies manoeuvred for a position from which to overawe the electoral body. Austrian Marshal Traun was successful, and, as a result, Francis, the husband / consort of Maria Theresa was elected Holy Roman Emperor on 13 September 1745. Frederick agreed with Britain to recognise the election a few days later, but Maria Theresa would not conform to the Treaty of Breslau of 1741, by which she had been forced to recognise Frederick 's annexation of Silesia. Maria Theresa now tried a further appeal to the fortunes of war to get Silesia back. Saxony joined Austria in this last attempt to reconquer Silesia.
In May 1745, The main Prussian army was stationed at Frankenstein. This army consisted of 59,000 soldiers and was fitted with 54 heavy cannon. Frederick learned that a combined Austrian - Saxon army of about 70,000 troops under the command of Prince Charles, was on the march to the northeast towards Landeshut. To meet this threat to Silesia, Frederick II marched north toward Reichenbach. Before he reached Reichenbach, Frederick learned that Prince Charles was crossing the mountains from the west to the east side and that Prince Charles planned to occupy the town of Hohenfriedberg. Accordingly, Frederick encamped his army at Schweidwitz and waited for Prince Charles to come to him. At this site, Frederick laid a trap for the superior Austrian - Saxon forces. Indeed, Frederick was operating on the theory that "to catch a mouse, leave the trap open. '' At 6: 30 AM on 4 June 1745, while the Austrian - Saxon troops were still recovering from their long march, the trap was sprung on them in the Battle of Hohenfriedberg. The Austrian - Saxon forces were no match for Frederick 's army and especially his cavalry, and they lost half their artillery and almost a quarter of their men. At 9: 00 AM, Prince Charles ordered a full retreat back toward Reichenberg.
A new advance of Prince Charles quickly led to the Battle of Soor on 30 September 1745, fought on ground destined to be famous in the Austro - Prussian War of 1866. Frederick commanded an army that at this time numbered only 20,000 soldiers in the vicinity of Soor. He was facing Prince Charles with an army of 41,000 troops. He was at first in a position of great peril, but his army changed front in the face of the advancing enemy, and by its boldness and tenacity won a remarkable victory on 30 September 1745 at Soor.
But the campaign was not ended. An Austrian contingent from the Main joined the Saxons under Field Marshal Rutowsky (1702 -- 1764), and a combined movement was made in the direction of Berlin by Rutowsky from Saxony and Prince Charles from Bohemia. The danger was great. Frederick hurried his forces from Silesia and marched as rapidly as possible on Dresden, in Saxony. Frederick won the actions of Katholisch - Hennersdorf on 24 November 1745 and Görlitz on 25 November. Prince Charles was thereby forced to abandon his plans to attack Silesia and hurry back to defend Saxony. A second Prussian army under the Old Dessauer advanced up the Elbe from Magdeburg to meet Rutowsky. The latter took up a strong position at Kesselsdorf between Meissen and Dresden, but the veteran Leopold attacked him directly and without hesitation on 14 December 1745. The Saxons and their allies were completely routed after a hard struggle in the Battle of Kesselsdorf. Maria Theresa was, at last, forced to give way. In the Treaty of Dresden signed on 25 December 1745, she recognised Frederick 's annexation of Silesia, as first recognised in the Peace of Breslau in 1741. Frederick on the other hand recognised the election of Maria Theresa 's husband / consort, Francis I, as the Holy Roman Emperor.
In central Italy an army of Spaniards and Neapolitans was collected for the purpose of conquering the Milanese. In 1741, the allied army of 40,000 Spaniards and Neapolitans under the command of the Duke of Montmar had advanced towards Modena, the Duke of Modena had allied himself with them, but the vigilant Austrian commander, Count Otto Ferdinand von Traun had out - marched them, captured Modena and forced the Duke to make a separate peace.
The aggressiveness of the Spanish in Italy forced Empress Maria Theresa of Austria and King Charles Emmanuel of Sardinia into negotiations in early 1742. These negotiations were held at Turin. Maria Theresa sent her envoy Count Schulenburg and King Charles Emmanuel sent the Marquis d'Ormea. On 1 February 1742, Schulenburg and Ormea signed the Convention of Turin which resolved (or postponed resolution) many differences and formed an alliance between the two countries. In 1742, field marshal Count Traun held his own with ease against the Spanish and Neapolitans. On 19 August 1742, Naples was forced by the arrival of a British naval squadron in Naples ' own harbour, to withdraw her 10,000 troops from the Montemar force to provide for home defence. The Spanish force under Montemar was now too weak to advance in the Po Valley and a second Spanish army was sent to Italy via France. Sardinia had allied herself with Austria in the Convention of Turin and at the same time neither state was at war with France and this led to curious complications, combats being fought in the Isère valley between the troops of Sardinia and of Spain, in which the French took no part. At the end of 1742, the Duke of Montemar was replaced as head of the Spanish forces in Italy by Count Gages.
In 1743, the Spanish on the Panaro had achieved a victory over Traun at Campo Santo on 8 February 1743. However, the next six months were wasted in inaction and Georg Christian, Fürst von Lobkowitz, joining Traun with reinforcements from Germany, drove back the Spanish to Rimini. Observing from Venice, Rousseau hailed the Spanish retreat as "the finest military manoeuvre of the whole century. '' The Spanish - Savoyan War in the Alps continued without much result, the only incident of note being the first Battle of Casteldelfino (7 -- 10 October 1743), when an initial French offensive was beaten off.
In 1744 the Italian war became serious. Prior to the War of the Spanish Succession (1701 -- 1714) Spain and Austria had been ruled by the same (Habsburg) royal house. Consequently, the foreign policies of Austria and Spain in regards to Italy had a symmetry of interests and these interests were usually opposed to the interests of Bourbon controlled France. However, since the Treaty of Utrecht and the end of the War of the Spanish Succession, the childless last Habsburg monarch (Charles II) had been replaced by the Bourbon grandson of the French king Louis XIV Philip of Anjou, who became Philip V in Spain. Now the symmetry of foreign policy interests in regards to Italy existed between Bourbon France and Bourbon Spain with Habsburg Austria usually in opposition. King Charles Emmanuel of Savoy had followed the long - established foreign policy of Savoy of opposing Spanish interference in northern Italy. Now in 1744, Savoy was faced with a grandiose military plan of the combined Spanish and French armies (called the Gallispan army) for conquest of northern Italy.
However, in implementing this plan, the Gallispan generals at the front were hampered by the orders of their respective governments. For example, the commander of the Spanish army in the field, the Prince of Conti, could not get along with, or even reason with, the Marquis de La Mina, the Supreme commander of all Spanish forces. The Prince of Conti felt that the Marquis "deferred blindly to all orders coming from Spain '' without any consideration of the realities on the ground. In preparation for the military campaign the Gallispan forces sought to cross the Alps in June 1744 and regroup the army in Dauphiné uniting there with the army on the lower Po.
The support of Genoa allowed a road into central Italy. While the Prince of Conti stayed in the north, Count Gages followed this road to the south. But then the Austrian commander, Prince Lobkowitz took the offensive and drove the Spanish army of the Count de Gages further southward towards the Neapolitan frontier near the small town of Velletri. Velletri just happened to be the birthplace of Caesar Augustus, but now from June through August 1744, Velletri became the scene of extensive military maneuvering between the French - Spanish army under the command of the Count Gages and the Austrian forces under the command of Prince Lobkowitz The King of Naples (the future Charles III of Spain) was increasingly worried about the Austrian army operating so close to his borders and decided to assist the Spaniards. Together a combined army of French, Spanish and Neapolitans surprised the Austrian army on the night of 16 -- 17 June 1744. The Austrians were routed from three important hills around the town of Velletri during the attack. This battle is sometimes called the "Battle of Nemi '' after the small town of Nemi located nearby. Because of this surprise attack, the combined army was able to take possession of the town of Velletri. Thus, the surprise attack has also been called the "first Battle of Velletri. ''
In early August 1744, the King of Naples paid a visit in person to the newly captured town of Velletri. Hearing about the presence of the King, the Austrians developed a plan for a daring raid on Velletri. During the predawn hours of 11 August 1744, about 6,000 Austrians under the direct command of Count Browne staged a surprise raid on the town of Velletri. They were attempting to abduct the King of Naples during his stay in the town. However, after occupying Velletri and searching the entire town, the Austrians found no hint of the King of Naples. The King had become aware of what was happening and had fled through a window of the palace where he was staying and rode off half - dressed on horseback out of the town. This was the second Battle of Velletri. The failure of the raid on Velletri meant that the Austrian march toward Naples was over. The defeated Austrians were ordered north where they could be used in the Piedmont of northern Italy to assist the King of Sardinia against the Prince of Conti. Count de Gages followed the Austrians north with a weak force. Meanwhile, the King of Naples returned home.
The war in the Alps and the Apennines had already been keenly contested before the Prince of Conti and the Gallispan army had come down out of the Alps. Villefranche and Montalbán had been stormed by Conti on 20 April 1744. After coming down out of the Alps, Prince Conti began his advance into Piedmont on 5 July 1744. On 19 July 1744, the Gallispan army engaged the Sardinian army in some desperate fighting at Peyre - Longue on 18 July 1744. As a result of the battle, the Gallispan army took control of Casteldelfino in the second Battle of Casteldelfino. Conti then moved on to Delmonte where on the night of 8 -- 9 August 1744, (a mere 36 hours before the Spanish army in south of Italy fought the second Battle of Velletri, (as noted above)) the Gallispan army took the city of Delmonte from the Sardinians in the Battle of Delmonte. The King of Sardinia was defeated yet again by Conti in a great Battle at Madonna dell'Olmo on 30 September 1744 near Coni (Cuneo). Conti did not, however, succeed in taking the huge fortress at Coni and had to retire into Dauphiné for his winter quarters. Thus, the Gallispan army never did combine with the Spanish army under Count of Gages in the south and now the Austro - Sardinian army lay between them.
The campaign in Italy in 1745 was also no mere war of posts. The Convention of Turin of February 1742 (described above), which established a provisional relationship between Austria and Sardinia had caused some consternation in the Republic of Genoa. However, when this provisional relationship was given a more durable and reliable character in the signing of the Treaty of Worms (1743) signed on 13 September 1743, the government of Genoa became fearful. This fear of diplomatic isolation had caused the Genoese Republic to abandon its neutrality in the war and join the Bourbon cause. Consequently, the Genoese Republic signed a secret treaty with the Bourbon allies of France, Spain and Naples. On 26 June 1745, Genoa declared war on Sardinia.
Empress Maria Theresa, was frustrated with the failure of Lobkowitz to stop the advance of Gage. Accordingly, Lobkowitz was replaced with Count Schulenburg. A change in the command of the Austrians, encouraged the Bourbon allies to strike first in the spring of 1745. Accordingly, Count de Gages moved from Modena towards Lucca, the Gallispan army in the Alps under the new command of Marshal Maillebois (Prince Conti and Marshal Maillebois had exchanged commands over the winter of 1744 -- 1745) advanced through the Italian Riviera to the Tanaro. In the middle of July 1745, the two armies were at last concentrated between the Scrivia and the Tanaro. Together Count de Gage 's army and the Gallispan army composed an unusually large number of 80,000 men. A swift march on Piacenza drew the Austrian commander thither and in his absence the allies fell upon and completely defeated the Sardinians at Bassignano on 27 September 1745, a victory which was quickly followed by the capture of Alessandria, Valenza and Casale Monferrato. Jomini calls the concentration of forces which effected the victory "Le plus remarquable de toute la Guerre ''.
The complicated politics of Italy, however, are reflected in the fact that Count Maillebois was ultimately unable to turn his victory to account. Indeed, early in 1746, Austrian troops, freed by the Austrian peace with Frederick II of Prussia, passed through the Tyrol into Italy. The Gallispan winter quarters at Asti, Italy, were brusquely attacked and a French garrison of 6,000 men at Asti was forced to capitulate. At the same time, Maximilian Ulysses Count Browne with an Austrian corps struck at the allies on the Lower Po, and cut off their communication with the main body of the Gallispan army in Piedmont. A series of minor actions thus completely destroyed the great concentration of Gallispan troops and the Austrians reconquered the duchy of Milan and took possession of much of northern Italy. The allies separated, Maillebois covering Liguria, the Spaniards marching against Browne. The latter was promptly and heavily reinforced and all that the Spaniards could do was to entrench themselves at Piacenza, Philip, the Spanish Infante as supreme commander calling up Maillebois to his aid. The French, skilfully conducted and marching rapidly, joined forces once more, but their situation was critical, for only two marches behind them the army of the King of Sardinia was in pursuit, and before them lay the principal army of the Austrians. The pitched Battle of Piacenza on 16 June 1746 was hard fought but ended in an Austrian victory, with the Spanish army heavily mauled. That the army escaped at all was in the highest degree creditable to Maillebois and to his son and chief of staff. Under their leadership the Gallispan army eluded both the Austrians and the Sardinians and defeated an Austrian corps in the Battle of Rottofreddo on 12 August 1746. Then the Austrian army made good its retreat back to Genoa.
Although the Austrian army was a mere shadow of its former self, when they returned to Genoa, the Austrians were soon in control of northern Italy. The Austrians occupied the Republic of Genoa on 6 September 1746. But they met with no success in their forays towards the Alps. Soon Genoa revolted from the oppressive rule of the victors, rose and drove out the Austrians on 5 -- 11 December 1746. As an Allied invasion of Provence stalled, and the French, now commanded by Charles Louis Auguste Fouquet, Duc de Belle - Isle, took the offensive (1747). Genoa held out against a second Austrian siege. As usual the plan of campaign had been referred to Paris and Madrid. A picked corps of the French army under the Chevalier de Belle - Isle (the younger brother of Marshal Belle - Isle) was ordered to storm the fortified pass of Exilles on 10 July 1747. However, the defending army of the Worms allies (Austria and Savoy) handed the French army a crushing defeat at this battle, which became known as the (Colle dell'Assietta). At this battle, the chevalier, and with him much of the elite of the French nobility, were killed on the barricades. Desultory campaigns continued between the Worms allies and the French until the conclusion of peace at Aix - la - Chapelle.
After their victory at Fontenoy in 1745, the French continued to advance. Most of the British forces withdrew to aid in suppressing the Jacobite rising of 1745 at home, leaving their allies in a helpless position. In 1746 the French drove the Dutch and Austrians back towards the line of the Meuse; the French took most of the important fortresses and in February 1746 captured Brussels. In September the British launched a raid on Lorient (in southern Brittany) in an attempt to divert French forces away from the Netherlands. The Battle of Roucoux (or Raucourt) near Liège, fought on 11 October, resulted in a victory for the French under Saxe over the allies under Prince Charles of Lorraine. The Dutch Republic itself was now in danger. In April 1747, Saxe 's army, which had now conquered the Austrian Netherlands up to the Meuse, turned its attention to the Dutch, and the old fortresses on the frontier offered only slight resistance. Since August 1746, ongoing talks at the Congress of Breda had discussed peace terms, but up to this point they had met with little success.
The Prince of Orange William IV and the Duke of Cumberland suffered a severe defeat at Lauffeld (Lawfeld, also called Val) near Maastricht on 2 July 1747, and Saxe, after his victory, promptly and secretly despatched a corps under Marshal Lowendahl to besiege Bergen op Zoom in northern Brabant. On 18 September the French stormed Bergen op Zoom, and in the last year of the war Maastricht, attacked by the entire forces of Saxe and Lowendahl, surrendered on 7 May 1748. A large Russian army arrived to join the allies, but too late to be of use. Russia and Sweden had settled their differences in the Peace of Åbo in 1743, and in 1746 Russia had allied itself with Austria. Eventually, 30,000 Russians (ru) marched from Livonia to the Rhine, an event not without military significance, and in a manner prefiguring the great invasions of 1813 -- 1814 and 1945. The major powers signed the general Peace of Aix - la - Chapelle (Aachen) on 18 October 1748.
The War of Austrian Succession concluded with the Treaty of Aix - la - Chapelle (1748). Maria Theresa and Austria survived nearly status quo ante bellum, sacrificing only the territory of Silesia, which Austria conceded to Prussia, and a few minor territorial losses to Spain in northern Italy. While Austria was far from crippled, the loss of Silesia was, in great measure, a humiliating defeat for Austria 's leadership of the German states within the Holy Roman Empire. By contrast, Prussian gains nearly doubled the size of its economy, territory and population, while Frederick II 's success as a commander soon earned him the epithet "Frederick the Great ''. This marked the beginning of the German dualism between Prussia and Austria, which would ultimately fuel German nationalism and the drive to unify Germany as a single entity.
Despite his victories, Louis XV of France, who wanted to appear as an arbiter and statesman and not as a conqueror, gave all of his conquests back to his defeated enemies with honour, arguing that he was "King of France, not a merchant ''. This decision, largely misunderstood by his generals and by the French people, made the king unpopular at home. The French obtained so little of what they had fought for that they adopted the expressions Bête comme la paix ("Stupid as the peace '') and Travailler pour le roi de Prusse ("To work for the king of Prussia '', i.e. working for nothing). France definitely succeeded in humiliating Maria Theresa and her kingdom. But because of this France had bolstered Prussia 's power, which would continue to grow, to France 's later detriment. Twice during the war, Prussia had made peace with Austria without informing France, leading Louis XV to consider Frederick II of Prussia (whom he already greatly disliked) an untrustworthy ally. Despite the long history of conflict between the Houses of Habsburg and Bourbon, he began to make overtures of alliance to Austria instead.
Spain, in one way or another, managed to achieve some of her war aims, which mostly centred on an effort to reinstate Spanish influence in the Italian peninsula.
Britain managed to get out of the war with a favorable settlement and on its own terms, which angered the Austrians; Britain 's power was increasing and its interests becoming even more complex. Realizing that Austria was no longer the sole hegemon of Central Europe, Britain decided to align itself with Prussia in order to protect Hanover from future French attack. This alliance however ended up destabilizing the continent, as the other great powers braced themselves with a counter grand alliance for an upcoming war that proved to be even grander in scale.
The triumph of Prussia was in a great measure due to its fuller application of principles of tactics and discipline universally recognised though less universally enforced. The other powers reorganised their forces after the war, not so much on the Prussian model as on the basis of a stricter application of known general principles. Prussia, moreover, was far ahead of all the other continental powers in administration, and over Austria, in particular, its advantage in this matter was almost decisive. Added to this was the personal ascendancy of Frederick, as opposed to generals who were responsible for their men to their individual sovereigns.
The war, like other conflicts of the time, featured an extraordinary disparity between the end and the means. The political schemes to be executed by the French and other armies were as grandiose as any of modern times. Their execution, under the conditions of time and space, invariably fell short of expectations, and the history of the war proves, as that of the Seven Years ' War was to prove, that the small standing army of the 18th century could conquer by degrees, but could not deliver a decisive blow. Frederick alone, with a definite end and proportionate means to achieve it, succeeded. Less was to be expected when the armies were composed of allied contingents, sent to the war each for a different object. The allied national armies of 1813 (at the Battle of Leipzig) co-operated loyally, for they had much at stake and worked for a common object. Those of 1741 represented the divergent private interests of the several dynasties, and achieved nothing.
The war was also conducted in North America and India. In North America the conflict was known in the British colonies as King George 's War, and did not begin until after formal war declarations of France and Britain reached the colonies in May 1744. The frontiers between New France and the British colonies of New England, New York, and Nova Scotia were the site of frequent small scale raids, primarily by French colonial troops and their Indian allies against British targets, although several attempts were made by British colonists to organise expeditions against New France. The most significant incident was the capture of the French Fortress Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island (Île Royale) by an expedition (29 April -- 16 June 1745) of colonial militia organised by Massachusetts Governor William Shirley, commanded by William Pepperrell of Maine (then part of Massachusetts), and assisted by a Royal Navy fleet. A French expedition to recover Louisbourg in 1746 failed due to bad weather, disease, and the death of its commander. Louisbourg was returned to France in exchange for Madras, generating much anger among the British colonists, who felt they had eliminated a nest of privateers with its capture.
The war marked the beginning of great power in England and the powerful struggle between Britain and France in India and of European military ascendancy and political intervention in the subcontinent. Major hostilities began with the arrival of a naval squadron under Mahé de la Bourdonnais, carrying troops from France. In September 1746 Bourdonnais landed his troops near Madras and laid siege to the port. Although it was the main British settlement in the Carnatic, Madras was weakly fortified and had only a small garrison, reflecting the thoroughly commercial nature of the European presence in India hitherto. On 10 September, only six days after the arrival of the French force, Madras surrendered. The terms of the surrender agreed by Bourdonnais provided for the settlement to be ransomed back for a cash payment by the British East India Company. However, this concession was opposed by Dupleix, the governor general of the Indian possessions of the Compagnie des Indes. When Bourdonnais was forced to leave India in October after the devastation of his squadron by a cyclone Dupleix reneged on the agreement. The Nawab of the Carnatic Anwaruddin Muhammed Khan intervened in support of the British and advanced to retake Madras, but despite vast superiority in numbers his army was easily and bloodily crushed by the French, in the first demonstration of the gap in quality that had opened up between European and Indian armies.
The French now turned to the remaining British settlement in the Carnatic, Fort St David at Cuddalore, which was dangerously close to the main French settlement of Pondichéry. The first French force sent against Cuddalore was surprised and defeated nearby by the forces of the Nawab and the British garrison in December 1746. Early in 1747 a second expedition laid siege to Fort St David but withdrew on the arrival of a British naval squadron in March. A final attempt in June 1748 avoided the fort and attacked the weakly fortified town of Cuddalore itself, but was routed by the British garrison.
With the arrival of a naval squadron under Admiral Boscawen, carrying troops and artillery, the British went on the offensive, laying siege to Pondichéry. They enjoyed a considerable superiority in numbers over the defenders, but the settlement had been heavily fortified by Dupleix and after two months the siege was abandoned.
The peace settlement brought the return of Madras to the British company, exchanged for Louisbourg in Canada. However, the conflict between the two companies continued by proxy during the interval before the outbreak of the Seven Years ' War, with British and French forces fighting on behalf of rival claimants to the thrones of Hyderabad and the Carnatic.
The naval operations of this war were entangled with the War of Jenkins ' Ear, which broke out in 1739 in consequence of the long disputes between Britain and Spain over their conflicting claims in America. The war was remarkable for the prominence of privateering on both sides. It was carried on by the Spaniards in the West Indies with great success, and actively at home. The French were no less active in all seas. Mahé de la Bourdonnais 's attack on Madras partook largely of the nature of a privateering venture. The British retaliated with vigour. The total number of captures by French and Spanish corsairs was in all probability larger than the list of British -- as the French wit Voltaire drolly put it upon hearing his government 's boast, namely, that more British merchants were taken because there were many more British merchant ships to take; but partly also because the British government had not yet begun to enforce the use of convoy so strictly as it did in later times.
War on Spain was declared by Great Britain on 23 October 1739, which has become known as the War of Jenkins ' Ear. A plan was laid for combined operations against the Spanish colonies from east and west. One force, military and naval, was to assault them from the West Indies under Admiral Edward Vernon. Another, to be commanded by Commodore George Anson, afterwards Lord Anson, was to round Cape Horn and to fall upon the Pacific coast of Latin America. Delays, bad preparations, dockyard corruption, and the squabbles of the naval and military officers concerned caused the failure of a hopeful scheme. On 21 November 1739, Admiral Vernon did, however, succeed in capturing the ill - defended Spanish harbour of Porto Bello in present - day Panama. When Vernon had been joined by Sir Chaloner Ogle with massive naval reinforcements and a strong body of troops, an attack was made on Cartagena in what is now Colombia (9 March -- 24 April 1741). The delay had given the Spanish under Sebastián de Eslava and Blas de Lezo time to prepare. After two months of skilful defence by the Spanish, the British attack finally succumbed to a massive outbreak of disease and withdrew having suffered a dreadful loss of lives and ships.
The war in the West Indies, after two other unsuccessful attacks had been made on Spanish territory, died down and did not revive until 1748. The expedition under Anson sailed late, was very ill - provided, and less strong than had been intended. It consisted of six ships and left Britain on 18 September 1740. Anson returned alone with his flagship the Centurion on 15 June 1744. The other vessels had either failed to round the Horn or had been lost. But Anson had harried the coast of Chile and Peru and had captured a Spanish galleon of immense value near the Philippines. His cruise was a great feat of resolution and endurance.
After the failure of the British invasions and a Spanish counter invasion of Georgia in 1742, belligerent naval actions in the Caribbean were left to the privateers of both sides. Fearing great financial and economic losses should a treasure fleet be captured, the Spanish reduced the risk by increasing the number of convoys, thereby reducing their value. They also increased the number of ports they visited and reduced the predictability of their voyages.
In 1744 300 British militia, slaves and regulars with two privateers from Saint Kitts invaded the French half of neighbouring Saint Martin, holding it until the 1748 Treaty of Aix - la - Chapelle. In late May 1745 two French royal frigates of 36 and 30 guns respectively under Commodore La Touché, plus three privateers in retaliation sailed from Martinique to invade and capture Anguilla but were repelled with heavy loss.
The last year of the war saw two significant actions in the Caribbean. A second British assault on Santiago de Cuba which also ended in failure and a naval action which arose from an accidental encounter between two convoys. The action unfolded in a confused way with each side at once anxious to cover its own trade and to intercept that of the other. Capture was rendered particularly desirable for the British by the fact that the Spanish homeward - bound fleet would be laden with bullion from the American mines. The advantage lay with the British when one Spanish warship ran aground and another was captured but the British commander failed to capitalise and the Spanish fleet took shelter in Havana.
While Anson was pursuing his voyage round the world, Spain was mainly intent on the Italian policy of the King. A squadron was fitted out at Cádiz to convey troops to Italy. It was watched by the British admiral Nicholas Haddock. When the blockading squadron was forced off by want of provisions, the Spanish admiral Don Juan José Navarro put to sea. He was followed, but when the British force came in sight of him Navarro had been joined by a French squadron under Claude - Elisée de La Bruyère de Court (December 1741). The French admiral announced that he would support the Spaniards if they were attacked and Haddock retired. France and Great Britain were not yet openly at war, but both were engaged in the struggle in Germany -- Great Britain as the ally of the Queen of Hungary, Maria Theresa; France as the supporter of the Bavarian claimant of the empire. Navarro and de Court went on to Toulon, where they remained until February 1744. A British fleet watched them, under the command of Admiral Richard Lestock, until Sir Thomas Mathews was sent out as commander - in - chief and as Minister to the Court of Turin.
Sporadic manifestations of hostility between the French and British took place in different seas, but avowed war did not begin until the French government issued its declaration of 30 March, to which Great Britain replied on 31 March. This formality had been preceded by French preparations for the invasion of England, and by the Battle of Toulon between the British and a Franco - Spanish fleet. On 11 February, a most confused battle was fought, in which the van and centre of the British fleet was engaged with the Spanish rear and centre of the allies. Lestock, who was on the worst possible terms with his superior, took no part in the action. Mathews fought with spirit but in a disorderly way, breaking the formation of his fleet, and showing no power of direction, while Navarro 's smaller fleet retained cohesion and fought off the energetic but confused attacks of its larger enemy until the arrival of the French fleet forced the heavily damaged British fleet to withdraw. The Spanish fleet then sailed to Italy where it delivered a fresh army and supplies that had a decisive impact upon the war. The mismanagement of the British fleet in the battle, by arousing deep anger among the people, led to a drastic reform of the British navy.
The French scheme to invade Britain was arranged in combination with the Jacobite leaders, and soldiers were to be transported from Dunkirk. In February 1744, a French fleet of twenty sail of the line entered the English Channel under Jacques Aymar, comte de Roquefeuil, before the British force under Admiral John Norris was ready to oppose him. But the French force was ill - equipped, the admiral was nervous, his mind dwelt on all the misfortunes which might possibly happen, and the weather was bad. De Roquefeuil came up almost as far as The Downs, where he learnt that Sir John Norris was at hand with twenty - five sail of the line, and thereupon precipitately retreated. The military expedition prepared at Dunkirk to cross under cover of De Roquefeuil 's fleet naturally did not start. The utter weakness of the French at sea, due to long neglect of the fleet and the bankrupt state of the treasury, was shown during the Jacobite rising of 1745, when France made no attempt to profit by the distress of the British government.
The Dutch, having by this time joined Great Britain, made a serious addition to the naval power opposed to France, though the Dutch Republic was compelled by the necessity for maintaining an army in Flanders to play a very subordinate part at sea. Not being stimulated by formidable attack, and having immediate interests both at home and in Germany, the British government was slow to make use of its latest naval strength. Spain, which could do nothing of an offensive character, was almost neglected. During 1745 the New England expedition which took Louisburg (30 April -- 16 June) was covered by a British naval force, but little else was accomplished by the naval efforts of any of the belligerents.
In 1746 a British combined naval and military expedition to the coast of France -- the first of a long series of similar ventures which in the end were derided as "breaking windows with guineas '' -- was carried out during August and October. The aim was the capture of the French East India Company 's dockyard at Lorient, but it was not attained.
From 1747 until the close of the war in October 1748, the naval policy of the British government, without reaching a high level, was more energetic and coherent. A closer watch was kept on the French coast, and effectual means were taken to intercept communication between France and her American possessions. In the spring information was obtained that an important convoy for the East and West Indies was to sail from L'Orient. The convoy was intercepted by Anson on 3 May, and in the first Battle of Cape Finisterre, British admiral George Anson 's fourteen ships of the line wiped out the French escort of six ships of the line and three armed Indiamen, although in the meantime the merchant ships escaped.
On 14 October, another French convoy, protected by a strong squadron, was intercepted by a well - appointed and well - directed squadron of superior numbers -- the squadrons were respectively eight French and fourteen British -- in the Bay of Biscay. In the second Battle of Cape Finisterre which followed, the French admiral, Henri - François des Herbiers - l'Étenduère, succeeded in covering the escape of most of the merchant ships, but Hawke 's British squadron took six of his warships. Most of the merchantmen were later intercepted and captured in the West Indies. This disaster convinced the French government of its helplessness at sea, and it made no further effort.
In the East Indies, attacks on French commerce by a British squadron under Curtis Barnett in 1745 led to the despatch of a French squadron commanded by Mahé de la Bourdonnais. After an inconclusive clash off Negapatnam in July 1746, Edward Peyton, Barnett 's successor, withdrew to Bengal, leaving Bourdonnais unopposed on the Coromandel Coast. He landed troops near Madras and besieged the port by land and sea, forcing it to surrender on 10 September 1746. In October the French squadron was devastated by a cyclone, losing four ships of the line and suffering heavy damage to four more, and the surviving ships withdrew. French land forces went on to make several attacks on the British settlement at Cuddalore, but the eventual replacement of the negligent Peyton by Thomas Griffin resulted in a return to British naval supremacy which put the French on the defensive. Despite the appearance of another French squadron, the arrival of large - scale British reinforcements under Edward Boscawen (who considered but did not make an attack on Île de France on the way) gave the British overwhelming dominance on land and sea, but the ensuing siege of Pondichéry organised by Boscawen was unsuccessful.
The Prussian infantry during the Battle of Mollwitz, 1741
King George II at the Battle of Dettingen, 1743
The Duke of Lorraine and Imperial troops crossing the Rhine before Strasbourg, 1744
View of the British landing on the island of Cape Breton to attack the fortress of Louisbourg, 1745
The British fleet bombarding the Corsican port of Bastia in 1745
The Battle of Fontenoy, 11 May 1745
Colonels of the French Guards and British guards politely discussing who should fire first at the battle of Fontenoy, 1745
The Battle of Rocoux in 1746, between the French and the British, Dutch and Austrians
The Battle of Cape Finisterre, 1747
Marshal Maurice de Saxe at the Battle of Lauffeld, 1747
Taking and looting of the fortress of Bergen - op - Zoom in 1747
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what country had the us put missiles in before the crisis | Cuban Missile Crisis - wikipedia
The Cuban Missile Crisis, also known as the October Crisis of 1962 (Spanish: Crisis de Octubre), the Caribbean Crisis (Russian: Карибский кризис, tr. Karibsky krizis, IPA: (kɐˈrjipskjɪj ˈkrjizjɪs)), or the Missile Scare, was a 13 - day (October 16 -- 28, 1962) confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union concerning American ballistic missile deployment in Italy and Turkey with consequent Soviet ballistic missile deployment in Cuba. The confrontation is often considered the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full - scale nuclear war.
In response to the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961 and the presence of American Jupiter ballistic missiles in Italy and Turkey, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev agreed to Cuba 's request to place nuclear missiles on the island to deter a future invasion. An agreement was reached during a secret meeting between Khrushchev and Fidel Castro in July 1962 and construction of a number of missile launch facilities started later that summer.
The 1962 United States elections were under way, and the White House had for months denied charges that it was ignoring dangerous Soviet missiles 90 miles (140 km) from Florida. The missile preparations were confirmed when an Air Force U-2 spy plane produced clear photographic evidence of medium - range (SS - 4) and intermediate - range (R - 14) ballistic missile facilities. The U.S. established a naval blockade on October 22 to prevent further missiles from reaching Cuba; Oval Office tapes during the crisis revealed that Kennedy had also put the blockade in place as an attempt to provoke Soviet - backed forces in Berlin as well. It announced that they would not permit offensive weapons to be delivered to Cuba and demanded that the weapons already in Cuba be dismantled and returned to the Soviet Union.
After a long period of tense negotiations, an agreement was reached between U.S. President John F. Kennedy and Khrushchev. Publicly, the Soviets would dismantle their offensive weapons in Cuba and return them to the Soviet Union, subject to United Nations verification, in exchange for a U.S. public declaration and agreement to avoid invading Cuba again. Secretly, the United States also agreed that it would dismantle all U.S. - built Jupiter MRBMs, which had been deployed in Turkey against the Soviet Union; there has been debate on whether or not Italy was included in the agreement as well.
When all offensive missiles and Ilyushin Il - 28 light bombers had been withdrawn from Cuba, the blockade was formally ended on November 21, 1962. The negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union pointed out the necessity of a quick, clear, and direct communication line between Washington and Moscow. As a result, the Moscow -- Washington hotline was established. A series of agreements reduced U.S. -- Soviet tensions for several years until the United States and Russia began to build their nuclear arsenal even further.
The U.S. was concerned about an expansion of communism, and a Latin American country openly allying with the Soviet Union was regarded by the U.S. as unacceptable since the end of World War II, and the start of the Cold War. Such an involvement would also directly defy the Monroe Doctrine, a U.S. policy limiting U.S. involvement in European colonies and European affairs but holding that the Western Hemisphere was in the U.S. sphere of influence.
The Kennedy administration had been publicly embarrassed by the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion in May 1961, which had been launched under President John F. Kennedy by CIA - trained forces of Cuban exiles. Afterward, former President Dwight Eisenhower told Kennedy that "the failure of the Bay of Pigs will embolden the Soviets to do something that they would otherwise not do. '' The half - hearted invasion left Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev and his advisers with the impression that Kennedy was indecisive and, as one Soviet adviser wrote, "too young, intellectual, not prepared well for decision making in crisis situations... too intelligent and too weak. '' U.S. covert operations against Cuba continued in 1961 with the unsuccessful Operation Mongoose.
In addition, Khrushchev 's impression of Kennedy 's weaknesses was confirmed by the President 's response during the Berlin Crisis of 1961, particularly to the building of the Berlin Wall. Speaking to Soviet officials in the aftermath of the crisis, Khrushchev asserted, "I know for certain that Kennedy does n't have a strong background, nor, generally speaking, does he have the courage to stand up to a serious challenge. '' He also told his son Sergei that on Cuba, Kennedy "would make a fuss, make more of a fuss, and then agree. ''
In January 1962, U.S. Army General Edward Lansdale described plans to overthrow the Cuban government in a top - secret report (partially declassified 1989), addressed to Kennedy and officials involved with Operation Mongoose. CIA agents or "pathfinders '' from the Special Activities Division were to be infiltrated into Cuba to carry out sabotage and organization, including radio broadcasts. In February 1962, the US launched an embargo against Cuba, and Lansdale presented a 26 - page, top - secret timetable for implementation of the overthrow of the Cuban government, mandating guerrilla operations to begin in August and September. "Open revolt and overthrow of the Communist regime '' would occur in the first two weeks of October.
When Kennedy ran for president in 1960, one of his key election issues was an alleged "missile gap '' with the Soviets leading. In fact, the US led the Soviets by a wide margin that would only increase. In 1961, the Soviets had only four intercontinental ballistic missiles (R - 7 Semyorka). By October 1962, they may have had a few dozen, with some intelligence estimates as high as 75.
The U.S., on the other hand, had 170 ICBMs and was quickly building more. It also had eight George Washington - and Ethan Allen - class ballistic missile submarines, with the capability to launch 16 Polaris missiles, each with a range of 2,500 nautical miles (4,600 km).
Khrushchev increased the perception of a missile gap when he loudly boasted to the world that the Soviets were building missiles "like sausages '' but Soviet missiles ' numbers and capabilities actually were nowhere close to his assertions. The Soviet Union had medium - range ballistic missiles in quantity, about 700 of them, but they were very unreliable and inaccurate. The US had a considerable advantage in total number of nuclear warheads (27,000 against 3,600) and in the technology required for their accurate delivery.
The US also led in missile defensive capabilities, naval and air power; but the Soviets had a 2 -- 1 advantage in conventional ground forces, more pronounced in field guns and tanks, particularly in the European theater.
In May 1961, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev was persuaded by the idea of countering the US 's growing lead in developing and deploying strategic missiles by placing Soviet intermediate - range nuclear missiles in Cuba, despite the misgivings of the Soviet Ambassador in Havana, Alexandr Ivanovich Alexeyev, who argued that Castro would not accept the deployment of the missiles. Khrushchev faced a strategic situation in which the US was perceived to have a "splendid first strike '' capability that put the Soviet Union at a huge disadvantage. In 1962, the Soviets had only 20 ICBMs capable of delivering nuclear warheads to the US from inside the Soviet Union. The poor accuracy and reliability of the missiles raised serious doubts about their effectiveness. A newer, more reliable generation of ICBMs would become operational only after 1965.
Therefore, Soviet nuclear capability in 1962 placed less emphasis on ICBMs than on medium and intermediate - range ballistic missiles (MRBMs and IRBMs). The missiles could hit American allies and most of Alaska from Soviet territory but not the Contiguous United States. Graham Allison, the director of Harvard University 's Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, points out, "The Soviet Union could not right the nuclear imbalance by deploying new ICBMs on its own soil. In order to meet the threat it faced in 1962, 1963, and 1964, it had very few options. Moving existing nuclear weapons to locations from which they could reach American targets was one. ''
A second reason that Soviet missiles were deployed to Cuba was because Khrushchev wanted to bring West Berlin, controlled by the American, British and French within Communist East Germany, into the Soviet orbit. The East Germans and Soviets considered western control over a portion of Berlin a grave threat to East Germany. Khrushchev made West Berlin the central battlefield of the Cold War. Khrushchev believed that if the U.S. did nothing over the missile deployments in Cuba, he could muscle the West out of Berlin using said missiles as a deterrent to western countermeasures in Berlin. If the U.S. tried to bargain with the Soviets after it became aware of the missiles, Khrushchev could demand trading the missiles for West Berlin. Since Berlin was strategically more important than Cuba, the trade would be a win for Khrushchev, as Kennedy recognized: "The advantage is, from Khrushchev 's point of view, he takes a great chance but there are quite some rewards to it. ''
Thirdly, from the perspective of the Soviet Union and of Cuba, it seemed that the United States wanted to increase its presence in Cuba. With actions like attempting to expel Cuba from the Organization of American States, placing economic sanctions on the nation and conducting secret operations on containing communism and Cuba, it was assumed that America was trying to invade Cuba. As a result, to try and prevent this, the USSR would place missiles in Cuba and neutralize the threat.
Khrushchev was also reacting in part to the nuclear threat of obsolescent Jupiter intermediate - range ballistic missiles that had been installed by the US in Turkey in April 1962. Additionally, placing nuclear missiles on Cuba was a way for Khrushchev to display and assert his strict political dominance; this was a much - needed display after numerous individuals within the Soviet Union began to doubt Khrushchev 's power as they believed that he was appeasing the Americans.
Another major reason why Khrushchev placed missiles on Cuba was to level the playing field. Before this event, America had the upper hand as they could launch from Turkey and destroy USSR before they would have a chance to react. After the transmission of nuclear missiles, Khrushchev had finally established mutually assured destruction. Mutually assured destruction means that if America decided to launch a nuclear strike against the USSR, the latter would react by launching a nuclear strike against America.
Additionally, placing nuclear missiles on Cuba was a way for the USSR to show their support for Cuba and support the people in Cuba whose rights were taken away by the United States, as the latter had become their ally after the Cuban Revolution of 1959. According to Khrushchev, the Soviet Union 's motives were "aimed at allowing Cuba to live peacefully and develop as its people desire ''.
An indirect reason why Khrushchev placed missiles on Cuba would be to try and draw the line to how far the Soviet Union can go regarding threatening the United States. Prior to this, there was no clear barrier to how the United States was willing to react, and with new president John F. Kennedy, it was unknown to the Soviet Union to what they can do to manipulate the United States. By placing missiles on Cuba, next to the doorstep of the United States, it would be clear to the extent of which the United States would react.
In early 1962, a group of Soviet military and missile construction specialists accompanied an agricultural delegation to Havana. They obtained a meeting with Cuban leader Fidel Castro. The Cuban leadership had a strong expectation that the U.S. would invade Cuba again and enthusiastically approved the idea of installing nuclear missiles in Cuba. However, according to another source, Castro objected to the missiles deployment that would have made him look like a Soviet puppet, but he was persuaded that missiles in Cuba would be an irritant to the U.S. and help the interests of the entire socialist camp. Also, the deployment would include short - range tactical weapons (with a range of 40 km, usable only against naval vessels) that would provide a "nuclear umbrella '' for attacks upon the island.
By May, Khrushchev and Castro agreed to place strategic nuclear missiles secretly in Cuba. Like Castro, Khrushchev felt that a U.S. invasion of Cuba was imminent and that to lose Cuba would do great harm to the communists, especially in Latin America. He said he wanted to confront the Americans "with more than words... the logical answer was missiles. '' The Soviets maintained their tight secrecy, writing their plans longhand, which were approved by Rodion Malinovsky on July 4 and Khrushchev on July 7.
From the very beginning, the Soviets ' operation entailed elaborate denial and deception, known as "maskirovka ''. All the planning and preparation for transporting and deploying the missiles were carried out in the utmost secrecy, with only a very few told the exact nature of the mission. Even the troops detailed for the mission were given misdirection by being told that they were headed for a cold region and being outfitted with ski boots, fleece - lined parkas, and other winter equipment. The Soviet codename was Operation Anadyr. The Anadyr River flows into the Bering Sea, and Anadyr is also the capital of Chukotsky District and a bomber base in the far eastern region. All the measures were meant to conceal the program from both internal and external audiences.
Specialists in missile construction under the guise of "machine operators, '' "irrigation specialists, '' and "agricultural specialists '' arrived in July. A total of 43,000 foreign troops would ultimately be brought in. Marshal Sergei Biryuzov, chief of the Soviet Rocket Forces, led a survey team that visited Cuba. He told Khrushchev that the missiles would be concealed and camouflaged by palm trees.
The Cuban leadership was further upset when in September, the U.S. Congress approved Joint Resolution 230, which expressed Congress 's resolve to prevent the creation of an externally - supported military establishment. On the same day, the US announced a major military exercise in the Caribbean, PHIBRIGLEX - 62, which Cuba denounced as a deliberate provocation and proof that the US planned to invade Cuba.
The Soviet leadership believed, based on its perception of Kennedy 's lack of confidence during the Bay of Pigs Invasion, that he would avoid confrontation and accept the missiles as a fait accompli. On September 11, the Soviet Union publicly warned that a US attack on Cuba or on Soviet ships that were carrying supplies to the island would mean war. The Soviets continued the Maskirovka program to conceal their actions in Cuba. They repeatedly denied that the weapons being brought into Cuba were offensive in nature. On September 7, Soviet Ambassador to the United States Anatoly Dobrynin assured United States Ambassador to the United Nations Adlai Stevenson that the Soviet Union was supplying only defensive weapons to Cuba. On September 11, the Telegrafnoe Agentstvo Sovetskogo Soyuza (Soviet News Agency TASS) announced that the Soviet Union had no need or intention to introduce offensive nuclear missiles into Cuba. On October 13, Dobrynin was questioned by former Undersecretary of State Chester Bowles about whether the Soviets planned to put offensive weapons in Cuba. He denied any such plans. On October 17, Soviet embassy official Georgy Bolshakov brought President Kennedy a personal message from Khrushchev reassuring him that "under no circumstances would surface - to - surface missiles be sent to Cuba. ''
As early as August 1962, the U.S. suspected the Soviets of building missile facilities in Cuba. During that month, its intelligence services gathered information about sightings by ground observers of Russian - built MiG - 21 fighters and Il - 28 light bombers. U-2 spyplanes found S - 75 Dvina (NATO designation SA - 2) surface - to - air missile sites at eight different locations. CIA director John A. McCone was suspicious. Sending antiaircraft missiles into Cuba, he reasoned, "made sense only if Moscow intended to use them to shield a base for ballistic missiles aimed at the United States. '' On August 10, he wrote a memo to Kennedy in which he guessed that the Soviets were preparing to introduce ballistic missiles into Cuba.
With important Congressional elections scheduled for November, the crisis became enmeshed in American politics. On August 31, Senator Kenneth Keating (R - New York), who received his information from Cuban exiles in Florida, warned on the Senate floor that the Soviet Union may be constructing a missile base in Cuba. He charged the Kennedy administration of covering up a major threat to the US. Air Force General Curtis LeMay presented a pre-invasion bombing plan to Kennedy in September, and spy flights and minor military harassment from U.S. forces at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base were the subject of continual Cuban diplomatic complaints to the US government.
The first consignment of R - 12 missiles arrived on the night of September 8, followed by a second on September 16. The R - 12 was a medium - range ballistic missile, capable of carrying a thermonuclear warhead. It was a single - stage, road - transportable, surface - launched, storable liquid propellant fueled missile that could deliver a megaton - class nuclear weapon. The Soviets were building nine sites -- six for R - 12 medium - range missiles (NATO designation SS - 4 Sandal) with an effective range of 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) and three for R - 14 intermediate - range ballistic missiles (NATO designation SS - 5 Skean) with a maximum range of 4,500 kilometres (2,800 mi).
On October 7, Cuban President Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado spoke at the UN General Assembly: "If... we are attacked, we will defend ourselves. I repeat, we have sufficient means with which to defend ourselves; we have indeed our inevitable weapons, the weapons, which we would have preferred not to acquire, and which we do not wish to employ. ''
The missiles in Cuba allowed the Soviets to target effectively most of the Continental U.S. The planned arsenal was forty launchers. The Cuban populace readily noticed the arrival and deployment of the missiles and hundreds of reports reached Miami. U.S. intelligence received countless reports, many of dubious quality or even laughable, most of which could be dismissed as describing defensive missiles.
Only five reports bothered the analysts. They described large trucks passing through towns at night that were carrying very long canvas - covered cylindrical objects that could not make turns through towns without backing up and maneuvering. Defensive missiles could turn. The reports could not be satisfactorily dismissed.
The United States had been sending U-2 surveillance over Cuba since the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion. The first issue that led to a pause in reconnaissance flights took place on August 30, when a U-2 operated by the U.S. Air Force 's Strategic Air Command flew over Sakhalin Island in the Soviet Far East by mistake. The Soviets lodged a protest and the US apologized. Nine days later, a Taiwanese - operated U-2 was lost over western China to an SA - 2 surface - to - air missile. US officials were worried that one of the Cuban or Soviet SAMs in Cuba might shoot down a CIA U-2, initiating another international incident. In a meeting with members of the Committee on Overhead Reconnaissance (COMOR) on September 10, Secretary of State Dean Rusk and National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy heavily restricted further U-2 flights over Cuban airspace. The resulting lack of coverage over the island for the next five weeks became known to historians as the "Photo Gap. '' No significant U-2 coverage was achieved over the interior of the island. US officials attempted to use a Corona photoreconnaissance satellite to obtain coverage over reported Soviet military deployments, but imagery acquired over western Cuba by a Corona KH - 4 mission on October 1 was heavily covered by clouds and haze and failed to provide any usable intelligence. At the end of September, Navy reconnaissance aircraft photographed the Soviet ship Kasimov, with large crates on its deck the size and shape of Il - 28 light bomber fuselages.
In September 1962, analysts from the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) noticed that Cuban surface - to - air missile sites were arranged in a pattern similar to those used by the Soviet Union to protect its ICBM bases, leading DIA to lobby for the resumption of U-2 flights over the island. Although in the past the flights had been conducted by the CIA, pressure from the Defense Department made the authority be transferred to the Air Force. Following the loss of a CIA U-2 over the Soviet Union in May 1960, it was thought that if another U-2 were shot down, an Air Force aircraft arguably being used for a legitimate military purpose would be easier to explain than a CIA flight.
When the reconnaissance missions were reauthorized on October 9, poor weather kept the planes from flying. The U.S. first obtained U-2 photographic evidence of the missiles on October 14, when a U-2 flight piloted by Major Richard Heyser took 928 pictures on a path selected by DIA analysts, capturing images of what turned out to be an SS - 4 construction site at San Cristóbal, Pinar del Río Province (now in Artemisa Province), in western Cuba.
On October 15, the CIA 's National Photographic Interpretation Center (NPIC) reviewed the U-2 photographs and identified objects that they interpreted as medium range ballistic missiles. This identification was made, in part, on the strength of reporting provided by Oleg Penkovsky, a double agent in the GRU working for CIA and MI6. Although he provided no direct reports of the Soviet missile deployments to Cuba, technical and doctrinal details of Soviet missile regiments that had been provided by Penkovsky in the months and years prior to the Crisis helped NPIC analysts correctly identify the missiles on U-2 imagery.
That evening, the CIA notified the Department of State and at 8: 30 pm EDT, Bundy chose to wait until the next morning to tell the President. McNamara was briefed at midnight. The next morning, Bundy met with Kennedy and showed him the U-2 photographs and briefed him on the CIA 's analysis of the images. At 6: 30 pm EDT, Kennedy convened a meeting of the nine members of the National Security Council and five other key advisors, in a group he formally named the Executive Committee of the National Security Council (EXCOMM) after the fact on October 22 by the National Security Action Memorandum 196. Without informing the members of EXCOMM, President Kennedy tape recorded all of their proceedings, and Sheldon M. Stern, head of the Kennedy library transcribed some of them.
The US had no plan in place because its intelligence had been convinced that the Soviets would never install nuclear missiles in Cuba. The EXCOMM quickly discussed several possible courses of action:
The Joint Chiefs of Staff unanimously agreed that a full - scale attack and invasion was the only solution. They believed that the Soviets would not attempt to stop the US from conquering Cuba. Kennedy was skeptical:
They, no more than we, can let these things go by without doing something. They ca n't, after all their statements, permit us to take out their missiles, kill a lot of Russians, and then do nothing. If they do n't take action in Cuba, they certainly will in Berlin.
Kennedy concluded that attacking Cuba by air would signal the Soviets to presume "a clear line '' to conquer Berlin. Kennedy also believed that US allies would think of the country as "trigger - happy cowboys '' who lost Berlin because they could not peacefully resolve the Cuban situation.
The EXCOMM then discussed the effect on the strategic balance of power, both political and military. The Joint Chiefs of Staff believed that the missiles would seriously alter the military balance, but McNamara disagreed. An extra 40, he reasoned, would make little difference to the overall strategic balance. The US already had approximately 5,000 strategic warheads, but the Soviet Union had only 300. McNamara concluded that the Soviets having 340 would not therefore substantially alter the strategic balance. In 1990, he reiterated that "it made no difference... The military balance was n't changed. I did n't believe it then, and I do n't believe it now. ''
The EXCOMM agreed that the missiles would affect the political balance. Kennedy had explicitly promised the American people less than a month before the crisis that "if Cuba should possess a capacity to carry out offensive actions against the United States... the United States would act. '' Also, credibility among US allies and people would be damaged if the Soviet Union appeared to redress the strategic balance by placing missiles in Cuba. Kennedy explained after the crisis that "it would have politically changed the balance of power. It would have appeared to, and appearances contribute to reality. ''
On October 18, Kennedy met with Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs, Andrei Gromyko, who claimed the weapons were for defensive purposes only. Not wanting to expose what he already knew and to avoid panicking the American public, Kennedy did not reveal that he was already aware of the missile buildup.
By October 19, frequent U-2 spy flights showed four operational sites. On the night of October 19 at 23: 56 a helicopter from USS Essex CVS - 9 squadron HSS - 2 crashed into the Gulf of Mexico. Lt. Cmdr. James Robert Hughes and AM - 3 George Blythe perished. Their bodies were never recovered. On October 22, 1962 a second helicopter crashed into the Gulf, that also was from HSS - 2 stationed on the Essex. Lost that night were Lt. Cmdr. Witkowski and Enlisted Serviceman 50 AZ Murphy. The details of the deaths of October 19, 1962 have never been provided to the families affected. There are numerous rumors that exist from bad storms, Soviet interference with the flight, or a one - way suicide recon mission. However, the most consistently repeated accounts from on deck witnesses indicate that the helicopter on October 19 was "shot down. ''
Two Operational Plans (OPLAN) were considered. OPLAN 316 envisioned a full invasion of Cuba by Army and Marine units, supported by the Navy following Air Force and naval airstrikes. However, Army units in the US would have had trouble fielding mechanized and logistical assets, and the US Navy could not supply enough amphibious shipping to transport even a modest armored contingent from the Army.
OPLAN 312, primarily an Air Force and Navy carrier operation, was designed with enough flexibility to do anything from engaging individual missile sites to providing air support for OPLAN 316 's ground forces.
Kennedy met with members of EXCOMM and other top advisers throughout October 21, considering two remaining options: an air strike primarily against the Cuban missile bases or a naval blockade of Cuba. A full - scale invasion was not the administration 's first option. McNamara supported the naval blockade as a strong but limited military action that left the US in control. However, the term "blockade '' was problematic. According to international law, a blockade is an act of war, but the Kennedy administration did not think that the Soviets would be provoked to attack by a mere blockade. Additionally, legal experts at the State Department and Justice Department concluded that a declaration of war could be avoided if another legal justification, based on the Rio Treaty for defense of the Western Hemisphere, was obtained from a resolution by a two - thirds vote from the members or the Organization of American States (OAS).
Admiral Anderson, Chief of Naval Operations wrote a position paper that helped Kennedy to differentiate between what they termed a "quarantine '' of offensive weapons and a blockade of all materials, claiming that a classic blockade was not the original intention. Since it would take place in international waters, Kennedy obtained the approval of the OAS for military action under the hemispheric defense provisions of the Rio Treaty:
Latin American participation in the quarantine now involved two Argentine destroyers which were to report to the U.S. Commander South Atlantic (COMSOLANT) at Trinidad on November 9. An Argentine submarine and a Marine battalion with lift were available if required. In addition, two Venezuelan destroyers (Destroyers ARV D - 11 Nueva Esparta '' and "ARV D - 21 Zulia '') and one submarine (Caribe) had reported to COMSOLANT, ready for sea by November 2. The Government of Trinidad and Tobago offered the use of Chaguaramas Naval Base to warships of any OAS nation for the duration of the "quarantine. '' The Dominican Republic had made available one escort ship. Colombia was reported ready to furnish units and had sent military officers to the U.S. to discuss this assistance. The Argentine Air Force informally offered three SA - 16 aircraft in addition to forces already committed to the "quarantine '' operation.
This initially was to involve a naval blockade against offensive weapons within the framework of the Organization of American States and the Rio Treaty. Such a blockade might be expanded to cover all types of goods and air transport. The action was to be backed up by surveillance of Cuba. The CNO 's scenario was followed closely in later implementing the "quarantine. ''
On October 19, the EXCOMM formed separate working groups to examine the air strike and blockade options, and by the afternoon most support in the EXCOMM shifted to the blockade option. However, reservations about the plan continued to be voiced as late as the October 21, the paramount concern being that once the blockade was put into effect, the Soviets would rush to complete some of the missiles. Consequently, the US could find itself bombing operational missiles if blockade failed to force Khrushchev to remove the missiles already on the island.
At 3: 00 pm EDT on October 22, President Kennedy formally established the Executive Committee (EXCOMM) with National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) 196. At 5: 00 pm, he met with Congressional leaders who contentiously opposed a blockade and demanded a stronger response. In Moscow, Ambassador Foy D. Kohler briefed Khrushchev on the pending blockade and Kennedy 's speech to the nation. Ambassadors around the world gave notice to non-Eastern Bloc leaders. Before the speech, U.S. delegations met with Canadian Prime Minister John Diefenbaker, British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan, West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, and French President Charles de Gaulle to brief them on the US intelligence and their proposed response. All were supportive of the U.S. position.
Shortly before his speech, Kennedy called former President Dwight Eisenhower. Kennedy 's conversation with the former President also revealed that the two were conspiring during the Cuban Missile Crisis. The two also anticipated that Khruschev would respond to the Western world in a matter that was similar to his response during the Suez Crisis and would possibly wind up trading off Berlin.
On October 22 at 7: 00 pm EDT, Kennedy delivered a nationwide televised address on all of the major networks announcing the discovery of the missiles. He noted:
It shall be the policy of this nation to regard any nuclear missile launched from Cuba against any nation in the Western Hemisphere as an attack by the Soviet Union on the United States, requiring a full retaliatory response upon the Soviet Union.
Kennedy described the administration 's plan:
To halt this offensive buildup, a strict quarantine on all offensive military equipment under shipment to Cuba is being initiated. All ships of any kind bound for Cuba, from whatever nation or port, will, if found to contain cargoes of offensive weapons, be turned back. This quarantine will be extended, if needed, to other types of cargo and carriers. We are not at this time, however, denying the necessities of life as the Soviets attempted to do in their Berlin blockade of 1948.
During the speech, a directive went out to all U.S. forces worldwide, placing them on DEFCON 3. The heavy cruiser USS Newport News was designated flagship for the blockade, with USS Leary as Newport News 's destroyer escort.
On October 23, at 11: 24 am EDT, a cable, drafted by George Wildman Ball to the U.S. Ambassador in Turkey and NATO, notified them that they were considering making an offer to withdraw what the US knew to be nearly - obsolete missiles from Italy and Turkey, in exchange for the Soviet withdrawal from Cuba. Turkish officials replied that they would "deeply resent '' any trade involving the U.S. 's missile presence in their country. Two days later, on the morning of October 25, American journalist Walter Lippmann proposed the same thing in his syndicated column. Castro reaffirmed Cuba 's right to self - defense and said that all of its weapons were defensive and Cuba would not allow an inspection.
Three days after Kennedy 's speech, the Chinese People 's Daily announced that "650,000,000 Chinese men and women were standing by the Cuban people. '' In West Germany, newspapers supported the U.S. 's response by contrasting it with the weak American actions in the region during the preceding months. They also expressed some fear that the Soviets might retaliate in Berlin. In France on October 23, the crisis made the front page of all the daily newspapers. The next day, an editorial in Le Monde expressed doubt about the authenticity of the CIA 's photographic evidence. Two days later, after a visit by a high - ranking CIA agent, the newspaper accepted the validity of the photographs. Also in France, in the October 29 issue of Le Figaro, Raymond Aron wrote in support of the American response. On October 24, Pope John XXIII sent a message to the Soviet embassy in Rome to be transmitted to the Kremlin in which he voiced his concern for peace. In this message he stated, "We beg all governments not to remain deaf to this cry of humanity. That they do all that is in their power to save peace. ''
The crisis was continuing unabated, and in the evening of October 24, the Soviet news agency TASS broadcast a telegram from Khrushchev to Kennedy in which Khrushchev warned that the United States 's "outright piracy '' would lead to war. However, that was followed at 9: 24 pm by a telegram from Khrushchev to Kennedy, which was received at 10: 52 pm EDT. Khrushchev stated, "if you weigh the present situation with a cool head without giving way to passion, you will understand that the Soviet Union can not afford not to decline the despotic demands of the USA '' and that the Soviet Union views the blockade as "an act of aggression '' and their ships will be instructed to ignore it.
The US requested an emergency meeting of the United Nations Security Council on October 25. US Ambassador to the United Nations Adlai Stevenson confronted Soviet Ambassador Valerian Zorin in an emergency meeting of the Security Council, challenging him to admit the existence of the missiles. Ambassador Zorin refused to answer. The next day at 10: 00 pm EDT, the US raised the readiness level of SAC forces to DEFCON 2. For the only confirmed time in US history, B - 52 bombers went on continuous airborne alert, and B - 47 medium bombers were dispersed to various military and civilian airfields and made ready to take off, fully equipped, on 15 minutes ' notice. One eighth of SAC 's 1,436 bombers were on airborne alert, and some 145 intercontinental ballistic missiles stood on ready alert, some of which targeted Cuba, and Air Defense Command (ADC) redeployed 161 nuclear - armed interceptors to 16 dispersal fields within nine hours, with one third maintaining 15 - minute alert status. Twenty - three nuclear - armed B - 52s were sent to orbit points within striking distance of the Soviet Union so that it would believe that the US was serious. Jack J. Catton later estimated that about 80 percent of SAC 's planes were ready for launch during the crisis; David A. Burchinal recalled that, by contrast:
the Russians were so thoroughly stood down, and we knew it. They did n't make any move. They did not increase their alert; they did not increase any flights, or their air defense posture. They did n't do a thing, they froze in place. We were never further from nuclear war than at the time of Cuba, never further.
By October 22, Tactical Air Command (TAC) had 511 fighters plus supporting tankers and reconnaissance aircraft deployed to face Cuba on one - hour alert status. However, TAC and the Military Air Transport Service had problems. The concentration of aircraft in Florida strained command and support echelons, which faced critical undermanning in security, armaments, and communications; the absence of initial authorization for war - reserve stocks of conventional munitions forced TAC to scrounge; and the lack of airlift assets to support a major airborne drop necessitated the call - up of 24 Reserve squadrons.
On October 25 at 1: 45 am EDT, Kennedy responded to Khrushchev 's telegram by stating that the US was forced into action after receiving repeated assurances that no offensive missiles were being placed in Cuba, and when the assurances proved to be false, the deployment "required the responses I have announced... I hope that your government will take necessary action to permit a restoration of the earlier situation. ''
At 7: 15 am EDT on October 25, USS Essex and USS Gearing attempted to intercept Bucharest but failed to do so. Fairly certain that the tanker did not contain any military material, the US allowed it through the blockade. Later that day, at 5: 43 pm, the commander of the blockade effort ordered the destroyer USS Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. to intercept and board the Lebanese freighter Marucla. That took place the next day, and Marucla was cleared through the blockade after its cargo was checked.
At 5: 00 pm EDT on October 25, William Clements announced that the missiles in Cuba were still actively being worked on. That report was later verified by a CIA report that suggested there had been no slowdown at all. In response, Kennedy issued Security Action Memorandum 199, authorizing the loading of nuclear weapons onto aircraft under the command of SACEUR, which had the duty of carrying out first air strikes on the Soviet Union. During the day, the Soviets responded to the blockade by turning back 14 ships that were presumably carrying offensive weapons.
The next morning, October 26, Kennedy informed the EXCOMM that he believed only an invasion would remove the missiles from Cuba. However, he was persuaded to give the matter time and continue with both military and diplomatic pressure. He agreed and ordered the low - level flights over the island to be increased from two per day to once every two hours. He also ordered a crash program to institute a new civil government in Cuba if an invasion went ahead.
At this point, the crisis was ostensibly at a stalemate. The Soviets had shown no indication that they would back down and had made several comments to the contrary. The US had no reason to believe otherwise and was in the early stages of preparing for an invasion, along with a nuclear strike on the Soviet Union if it responded militarily, which was assumed.
At 1: 00 pm EDT on October 26, John A. Scali of ABC News had lunch with Aleksandr Fomin, the cover name of Alexander Feklisov, the KGB station chief in Washington, at Fomin 's request. Following the instructions of the Politburo of the CPSU, Fomin noted, "War seems about to break out. '' He asked Scali to use his contacts to talk to his "high - level friends '' at the State Department to see if the US would be interested in a diplomatic solution. He suggested that the language of the deal would contain an assurance from the Soviet Union to remove the weapons under UN supervision and that Castro would publicly announce that he would not accept such weapons again in exchange for a public statement by the US that it would avoid invading Cuba. The US responded by asking the Brazilian government to pass a message to Castro that the US would be "unlikely to invade '' if the missiles were removed.
-- Letter From Chairman Khrushchev to President Kennedy, October 26, 1962
On October 26 at 6: 00 pm EDT, the State Department started receiving a message that appeared to be written personally by Khrushchev. It was Saturday at 2: 00 am in Moscow. The long letter took several minutes to arrive, and it took translators additional time to translate and transcribe it.
Robert F. Kennedy described the letter as "very long and emotional. '' Khrushchev reiterated the basic outline that had been stated to Scali earlier in the day: "I propose: we, for our part, will declare that our ships bound for Cuba are not carrying any armaments. You will declare that the United States will not invade Cuba with its troops and will not support any other forces which might intend to invade Cuba. Then the necessity of the presence of our military specialists in Cuba will disappear. '' At 6: 45 pm EDT, news of Fomin 's offer to Scali was finally heard and was interpreted as a "set up '' for the arrival of Khrushchev 's letter. The letter was then considered official and accurate although it was later learned that Fomin was almost certainly operating of his own accord without official backing. Additional study of the letter was ordered and continued into the night.
Direct aggression against Cuba would mean nuclear war. The Americans speak about such aggression as if they did not know or did not want to accept this fact. I have no doubt they would lose such a war.
Castro, on the other hand, was convinced that an invasion of Cuba was soon at hand, and on October 26, he sent a telegram to Khrushchev that appeared to call for a pre-emptive nuclear strike on the US in case of attack. However, in a 2010 interview, Castro expressed regret about his earlier stance on first use: "After I 've seen what I 've seen, and knowing what I know now, it was n't worth it at all. '' Castro also ordered all anti-aircraft weapons in Cuba to fire on any US aircraft: the orders had been to fire only on groups of two or more. At 6: 00 am EDT on October 27, the CIA delivered a memo reporting that three of the four missile sites at San Cristobal and the two sites at Sagua la Grande appeared to be fully operational. It also noted that the Cuban military continued to organize for action but was under order not to initiate action unless attacked.
At 9: 00 am EDT on October 27, Radio Moscow began broadcasting a message from Khrushchev. Contrary to the letter of the night before, the message offered a new trade: the missiles on Cuba would be removed in exchange for the removal of the Jupiter missiles from Italy and Turkey. At 10: 00 am EDT, the executive committee met again to discuss the situation and came to the conclusion that the change in the message was because of internal debate between Khrushchev and other party officials in the Kremlin. Kennedy realized that he would be in an "insupportable position if this becomes Khrushchev 's proposal '' because the missiles in Turkey were not militarily useful and were being removed anyway and "It 's gon na -- to any man at the United Nations or any other rational man, it will look like a very fair trade. '' Bundy explained why Khrushchev 's public acquiescence could not be considered: "The current threat to peace is not in Turkey, it is in Cuba. ''
McNamara noted that another tanker, the Grozny, was about 600 miles (970 km) out and should be intercepted. He also noted that they had not made the Soviets aware of the blockade line and suggested relaying that information to them via U Thant at the United Nations.
While the meeting progressed, at 11: 03 am EDT a new message began to arrive from Khrushchev. The message stated, in part:
"You are disturbed over Cuba. You say that this disturbs you because it is ninety - nine miles by sea from the coast of the United States of America. But... you have placed destructive missile weapons, which you call offensive, in Italy and Turkey, literally next to us... I therefore make this proposal: We are willing to remove from Cuba the means which you regard as offensive... Your representatives will make a declaration to the effect that the United States... will remove its analogous means from Turkey... and after that, persons entrusted by the United Nations Security Council could inspect on the spot the fulfillment of the pledges made. ''
The executive committee continued to meet through the day.
Throughout the crisis, Turkey had repeatedly stated that it would be upset if the Jupiter missiles were removed. Italy 's Prime Minister Amintore Fanfani, who was also Foreign Minister ad interim, offered to allow withdrawal of the missiles deployed in Apulia as a bargaining chip. He gave the message to one of his most trusted friends, Ettore Bernabei, the general manager of RAI - TV, to convey to Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. Bernabei was in New York to attend an international conference on satellite TV broadcasting. Unknown to the Soviets, the US regarded the Jupiter missiles as obsolescent and already supplanted by the Polaris nuclear ballistic submarine missiles.
On the morning of October 27, a U-2F (the third CIA U-2A, modified for air - to - air refueling) piloted by USAF Major Rudolf Anderson, departed its forward operating location at McCoy AFB, Florida. At approximately 12: 00 pm EDT, the aircraft was struck by a S - 75 Dvina (NATO designation SA - 2 Guideline) surface - to - air missile launched from Cuba. The aircraft was shot down, and Anderson was killed. The stress in negotiations between the Soviets and the US intensified; it was only later believed that the decision to fire the missile was made locally by an undetermined Soviet commander, acting on his own authority. Later that day, at about 3: 41 pm EDT, several US Navy RF - 8A Crusader aircraft, on low - level photoreconnaissance missions, were fired upon.
On October 28, 1962, Khrushchev told his son Sergei that the shooting down of Anderson 's U-2 was by the "Cuban military at the direction of Raul Castro. ''
At 4: 00 pm EDT, Kennedy recalled members of EXCOMM to the White House and ordered that a message should immediately be sent to U Thant asking the Soviets to suspend work on the missiles while negotiations were carried out. During the meeting, General Maxwell Taylor delivered the news that the U-2 had been shot down. Kennedy had earlier claimed he would order an attack on such sites if fired upon, but he decided to not act unless another attack was made. Forty years later, McNamara said:
We had to send a U-2 over to gain reconnaissance information on whether the Soviet missiles were becoming operational. We believed that if the U-2 was shot down that -- the Cubans did n't have capabilities to shoot it down, the Soviets did -- we believed if it was shot down, it would be shot down by a Soviet surface - to - air - missile unit, and that it would represent a decision by the Soviets to escalate the conflict. And therefore, before we sent the U-2 out, we agreed that if it was shot down we would n't meet, we 'd simply attack. It was shot down on Friday... Fortunately, we changed our mind, we thought "Well, it might have been an accident, we wo n't attack. '' Later we learned that Khrushchev had reasoned just as we did: we send over the U-2, if it was shot down, he reasoned we would believe it was an intentional escalation. And therefore, he issued orders to Pliyev, the Soviet commander in Cuba, to instruct all of his batteries not to shoot down the U-2.
Ellsberg said that Robert Kennedy (RFK) told him in 1964 that after the U-2 was shot down and the pilot killed, he (RFK) told Soviet ambassador Dobrynin, "You have drawn first blood... (T) he president had decided against advice... not to respond militarily to that attack, but he (Dobrynin) should know that if another plane was shot at,... we would take out all the SAMs and antiaircraft... And that would almost surely be followed by an invasion. ''
Emissaries sent by both Kennedy and Khrushchev agreed to meet at the Yenching Palace Chinese restaurant in the Cleveland Park neighborhood of Washington, DC, on Saturday evening, October 27. Kennedy suggested to take Khrushchev 's offer to trade away the missiles. Unknown to most members of the EXCOMM, Robert Kennedy had been meeting with the Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin in Washington to discover whether the intentions were genuine. The EXCOMM was generally against the proposal because it would undermine NATO 's authority, and the Turkish government had repeatedly stated it was against any such trade.
As the meeting progressed, a new plan emerged, and Kennedy was slowly persuaded. The new plan called for him to ignore the latest message and instead to return to Khrushchev 's earlier one. Kennedy was initially hesitant, feeling that Khrushchev would no longer accept the deal because a new one had been offered, but Llewellyn Thompson argued that it was still possible. White House Special Counsel and Adviser Ted Sorensen and Robert Kennedy left the meeting and returned 45 minutes later, with a draft letter to that effect. The President made several changes, had it typed, and sent it.
After the EXCOMM meeting, a smaller meeting continued in the Oval Office. The group argued that the letter should be underscored with an oral message to Dobrynin that stated that if the missiles were not withdrawn, military action would be used to remove them. Rusk added one proviso that no part of the language of the deal would mention Turkey, but there would be an understanding that the missiles would be removed "voluntarily '' in the immediate aftermath. The President agreed, and the message was sent.
At Rusk 's request, Fomin and Scali met again. Scali asked why the two letters from Khrushchev were so different, and Fomin claimed it was because of "poor communications. '' Scali replied that the claim was not credible and shouted that he thought it was a "stinking double cross. '' He went on to claim that an invasion was only hours away, and Fomin stated that a response to the US message was expected from Khrushchev shortly and urged Scali to tell the State Department that no treachery was intended. Scali said that he did not think anyone would believe him, but he agreed to deliver the message. The two went their separate ways, and Scali immediately typed out a memo for the EXCOMM.
Within the US establishment, it was well understood that ignoring the second offer and returning to the first put Khrushchev in a terrible position. Military preparations continued, and all active duty Air Force personnel were recalled to their bases for possible action. Robert Kennedy later recalled the mood: "We had not abandoned all hope, but what hope there was now rested with Khrushchev 's revising his course within the next few hours. It was a hope, not an expectation. The expectation was military confrontation by Tuesday (October 30), and possibly tomorrow (October 29)... ''
At 8: 05 pm EDT, the letter drafted earlier in the day was delivered. The message read, "As I read your letter, the key elements of your proposals -- which seem generally acceptable as I understand them -- are as follows: 1) You would agree to remove these weapons systems from Cuba under appropriate United Nations observation and supervision; and undertake, with suitable safe - guards, to halt the further introduction of such weapon systems into Cuba. 2) We, on our part, would agree -- upon the establishment of adequate arrangements through the United Nations, to ensure the carrying out and continuation of these commitments (a) to remove promptly the quarantine measures now in effect and (b) to give assurances against the invasion of Cuba. '' The letter was also released directly to the press to ensure it could not be "delayed. '' With the letter delivered, a deal was on the table. However, as Robert Kennedy noted, there was little expectation it would be accepted. At 9: 00 pm EDT, the EXCOMM met again to review the actions for the following day. Plans were drawn up for air strikes on the missile sites as well as other economic targets, notably petroleum storage. McNamara stated that they had to "have two things ready: a government for Cuba, because we 're going to need one; and secondly, plans for how to respond to the Soviet Union in Europe, because sure as hell they 're going to do something there. ''
At 12: 12 am EDT, on October 27, the US informed its NATO allies that "the situation is growing shorter... the United States may find it necessary within a very short time in its interest and that of its fellow nations in the Western Hemisphere to take whatever military action may be necessary. '' To add to the concern, at 6: 00 am, the CIA reported that all missiles in Cuba were ready for action.
On October 27, Khrushchev also received a letter from Castro, what is now known as the Armageddon Letter (dated the day before), which was interpreted as urging the use of nuclear force in the event of an attack on Cuba: "I believe the imperialists ' aggressiveness is extremely dangerous and if they actually carry out the brutal act of invading Cuba in violation of international law and morality, that would be the moment to eliminate such danger forever through an act of clear legitimate defense, however harsh and terrible the solution would be, '' Castro wrote.
Later that same day, what the White House later called "Black Saturday, '' the US Navy dropped a series of "signaling depth charges '' (practice depth charges the size of hand grenades) on a Soviet submarine (B - 59) at the blockade line, unaware that it was armed with a nuclear - tipped torpedo with orders that allowed it to be used if the submarine was damaged by depth charges or surface fire. As the submarine was too deep to monitor any radio traffic, the captain of the B - 59, Valentin Grigorievitch Savitsky, decided that a war might already have started and wanted to launch a nuclear torpedo. The decision to launch these required agreement from all three officers on board, but one of them, Vasili Arkhipov, objected and so the nuclear launch was narrowly averted.
On the same day a U-2 spy plane made an accidental, unauthorized ninety - minute overflight of the Soviet Union 's far eastern coast. The Soviets responded by scrambling MiG fighters from Wrangel Island; in turn, the Americans launched F - 102 fighters armed with nuclear air - to - air missiles over the Bering Sea.
On Saturday, October 27, after much deliberation between the Soviet Union and Kennedy 's cabinet, Kennedy secretly agreed to remove all missiles set in Turkey and possibly southern Italy, the former on the border of the Soviet Union, in exchange for Khrushchev removing all missiles in Cuba. There is some dispute as to whether removing the missiles from Italy was part of the secret agreement. Khrushchev wrote in his memoirs that it was, and when the crisis had ended McNamara gave the order to dismantle the missiles in both Italy and Turkey.
At this point, Khrushchev knew things the US did not: First, that the shooting down of the U-2 by a Soviet missile violated direct orders from Moscow, and Cuban antiaircraft fire against other US reconnaissance aircraft also violated direct orders from Khrushchev to Castro. Second, the Soviets already had 162 nuclear warheads on Cuba that the US did not then believe were there. Third, the Soviets and Cubans on the island would almost certainly have responded to an invasion by using those nuclear weapons, even though Castro believed that every human in Cuba would likely die as a result. Khrushchev also knew but may not have considered the fact that he had submarines armed with nuclear weapons that the US Navy may not have known about. (See the section above on "Depth charges against a Soviet submarine armed with nuclear weapons ''.)
Khrushchev knew he was losing control. President Kennedy had been told in early 1961 that a nuclear war would likely kill a third of humanity, with most or all of those deaths concentrated in the US, the USSR, Europe and China; Khrushchev may well have received similar reports from his military.
With this background, when Khrushchev heard Kennedy 's threats relayed by Robert Kennedy to Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin, he immediately drafted his acceptance of Kennedy 's latest terms from his dacha without involving the Politburo, as he had previously, and had them immediately broadcast over Radio Moscow, which he believed the US would hear. In that broadcast at 9: 00 am EST, on October 28, Khrushchev stated that "the Soviet government, in addition to previously issued instructions on the cessation of further work at the building sites for the weapons, has issued a new order on the dismantling of the weapons which you describe as ' offensive ' and their crating and return to the Soviet Union. ''
At 10: 00 am, October 28, Kennedy first learned of Khrushchev 's solution to the crisis with the US removing the 15 Jupiters in Turkey and the Soviets would remove the rockets from Cuba. Khrushchev had made the offer in a public statement for the world to hear. Despite almost solid opposition from his senior advisers, Kennedy quickly embraced the Soviet offer. "This is a pretty good play of his, '' Kennedy said, according to a tape recording that he made secretly of the Cabinet Room meeting. Kennedy had deployed the Jupiters in March of the year, causing a stream of angry outbursts from Khrushchev. "Most people will think this is a rather even trade and we ought to take advantage of it, '' Kennedy said. Vice President Lyndon Johnson was the first to endorse the missile swap but others continued to oppose the offer. Finally, Kennedy ended the debate. "We ca n't very well invade Cuba with all its toil and blood, '' Kennedy said, "when we could have gotten them out by making a deal on the same missiles on Turkey. If that 's part of the record, then you do n't have a very good war. ''
Kennedy immediately responded, issuing a statement calling the letter "an important and constructive contribution to peace. '' He continued this with a formal letter:
I consider my letter to you of October twenty - seventh and your reply of today as firm undertakings on the part of both our governments which should be promptly carried out... The US will make a statement in the framework of the Security Council in reference to Cuba as follows: it will declare that the United States of America will respect the inviolability of Cuban borders, its sovereignty, that it take the pledge not to interfere in internal affairs, not to intrude themselves and not to permit our territory to be used as a bridgehead for the invasion of Cuba, and will restrain those who would plan to carry an aggression against Cuba, either from US territory or from the territory of other countries neighboring to Cuba.
Kennedy 's planned statement would also contain suggestions he had received from his adviser Schlesinger Jr. in a "Memorandum for the President '' describing the "Post Mortem on Cuba. ''
Kennedy 's Oval Office telephone conversation with Eisenhower soon after Khrushchev 's message arrived revealed that the President was planning to use the Cuban Missile Crisis to escalate tensions with Khrushchev and in the long run, Cuba as well. The President also claimed that he thought the crisis would result in direct military confrontations in Berlin by the end of the next month. He also claimed in his conversation with Eisenhower that the Soviet leader had offered to withdraw from Cuba in exchange for the withdrawal of missiles from Turkey and that while the Kennedy Administration had agreed not to invade Cuba, they were only in process of determining Khrushchev 's offer to withdraw from Turkey.
When former US President Harry Truman called President Kennedy the day of Khrushchev 's offer, the President informed him that his Administration had rejected the Soviet leader 's offer to withdraw missiles from Turkey and was planning on using the Soviet setback in Cuba to escalate tensions in Berlin.
The US continued the blockade; in the following days, aerial reconnaissance proved that the Soviets were making progress in removing the missile systems. The 42 missiles and their support equipment were loaded onto eight Soviet ships. On November 2, 1962, Kennedy addressed the US via radio and television broadcasts regarding the dismantlement process of the Soviet R - 12 missile bases located in the Caribbean region. The ships left Cuba on November 5 to 9. The US made a final visual check as each of the ships passed the blockade line. Further diplomatic efforts were required to remove the Soviet IL - 28 bombers, and they were loaded on three Soviet ships on December 5 and 6. Concurrent with the Soviet commitment on the IL - 28s, the US government announced the end of the blockade from 6: 45 pm EST on November 20, 1962.
At the time when the Kennedy administration thought that the Cuban Missile Crisis was resolved, nuclear tactical rockets stayed in Cuba since they were not part of the Kennedy - Khrushchev understandings and the Americans did not know about them. However, the Soviets changed their minds, fearing possible future Cuban militant steps, and on November 22, 1962, Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union Anastas Mikoyan told Castro that the rockets with the nuclear warheads were being removed as well.
In his negotiations with the Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin, Robert Kennedy informally proposed that the Jupiter missiles in Turkey would be removed "within a short time after this crisis was over. '' The last U.S. missiles were disassembled by April 24, 1963 and were flown out of Turkey soon afterward.
The practical effect of the Kennedy - Khrushchev Pact was that the US would not invade Cuba. It is possible that Khrushchev placed the missiles in Cuba only to get Kennedy to remove the missiles from Italy and Turkey and that the Soviets had no intention of resorting to nuclear war if they were out - gunned by the U.S. Because the withdrawal of the Jupiter missiles from NATO bases in Italy and Turkey was not made public at the time, Khrushchev appeared to have lost the conflict and become weakened. The perception was that Kennedy had won the contest between the superpowers and that Khrushchev had been humiliated. However, both Kennedy and Khrushchev took every step to avoid full conflict despite pressures from their respective governments. Khrushchev held power for another two years.
The enormity of how close the world came to thermonuclear war impelled Krushchev to propose a far - reaching easing of tensions with the US. In a letter to President Kennedy dated October 30, 1962, Krushchev outlined a range of bold initiatives to forestall the possibility of a further nuclear crisis, including proposing a non-aggression treaty between the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact or even the disbanding these military blocs, a treaty to cease all nuclear weapons testing and even the elimination of all nuclear weapons, resolution of the hot - button issue of Germany by both East and West formally accepting the existence of West Germany and East Germany, and US recognition of the government of mainland China. The letter invited counter-proposals and further exploration of these and other issues through peaceful negotiations. Krushschev invited Norman Cousins, the editor of a major US periodical and an anti-nuclear weapons activist, to serve as liaison with President Kennedy, and Cousins met with Krushchev for four hours in December 1962.
Kennedy 's response to Krushchev 's proposals was lukewarm but Kennedy expressed to Cousins that he felt constrained in exploring these issues due to pressure from hardliners in the US national security apparatus. The US and the USSR did shortly thereafter agree on a treaty banning atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, known as the "Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty ''.
Further after the crisis, the U.S. and the Soviet Union created the Moscow -- Washington hotline, a direct communications link between Moscow and Washington. The purpose was to have a way that the leaders of the two Cold War countries could communicate directly to solve such a crisis.
The compromise embarrassed Khrushchev and the Soviet Union because the withdrawal of US missiles from Italy and Turkey was a secret deal between Kennedy and Khrushchev. Khrushchev went to Kennedy as he thought that the crisis was getting out of hand, but the Soviets were seen as retreating from circumstances that they had started.
Khrushchev 's fall from power two years later was in part because of the Soviet Politburo 's embarrassment at both Khrushchev 's eventual concessions to the US and this ineptitude in precipitating the crisis in the first place. According to Dobrynin, the top Soviet leadership took the Cuban outcome as "a blow to its prestige bordering on humiliation. ''
Cuba perceived the outcome as a betrayal by the Soviets, as decisions on how to resolve the crisis had been made exclusively by Kennedy and Khrushchev. Castro was especially upset that certain issues of interest to Cuba, such as the status of the US Naval Base in Guantánamo, were not addressed. That caused Cuban -- Soviet relations to deteriorate for years to come. On the other hand, Cuba continued to be protected from invasion.
The worldwide U.S. Forces DEFCON 3 status was returned to DEFCON 4 on November 20, 1962. General Curtis LeMay told the President that the resolution of the crisis was the "greatest defeat in our history '', however his was a minority position. He had pressed for an immediate invasion of Cuba as soon as the crisis began and still favored invading Cuba even after the Soviets had withdrawn their missiles. Twenty - five years later, LeMay still believed that "We could have gotten not only the missiles out of Cuba, we could have gotten the Communists out of Cuba at that time. ''
Critics, including Seymour Melman, and Seymour Hersh suggested that the Cuban Missile Crisis encouraged the United States ' use of military means, such as the case in the later Vietnam War.
U-2 pilot Anderson 's body was returned to the US and was buried with full military honors in South Carolina. He was the first recipient of the newly created Air Force Cross, which was awarded posthumously. Although Anderson was the only combatant fatality during the crisis, 11 crew members of three reconnaissance Boeing RB - 47 Stratojets of the 55th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing were also killed in crashes during the period between September 27 and November 11, 1962. Seven crew died when a Military Air Transport Service Boeing C - 135B Stratolifter delivering ammunition to Guantanamo Bay Naval Base stalled and crashed on approach on October 23.
Schlesinger, a historian and adviser to Kennedy, told National Public Radio in an interview on October 16, 2002 that Castro did not want the missiles, but Khrushchev pressured Castro to accept them. Castro was not completely happy with the idea, but the Cuban National Directorate of the Revolution accepted them, both to protect Cuba against US attack and to aid the Soviet Union. Schlesinger believed that when the missiles were withdrawn, Castro was more angry with Khrushchev than with Kennedy because Khrushchev had not consulted Castro before deciding to remove them. Although Castro was infuriated by Khrushchev, he planned on striking the US with remaining missiles if an invasion of the island occurred.
In early 1992, it was confirmed that Soviet forces in Cuba had, when the crisis broke, already received tactical nuclear warheads for their artillery rockets and Il - 28 bombers. Castro stated that he would have recommended their use if the US invaded despite Cuba being destroyed.
Arguably, the most dangerous moment in the crisis was not recognized until the Cuban Missile Crisis Havana conference, in October 2002. Attended by many of the veterans of the crisis, they all learned that on October 27, 1962, USS Beale had tracked and dropped signaling depth charges (the size of hand grenades) on B - 59, a Soviet Project 641 (NATO designation Foxtrot) submarine. Unknown to the US, it was armed with a 15 - kiloton nuclear torpedo. Running out of air, the Soviet submarine was surrounded by American warships and desperately needed to surface. An argument broke out among three officers aboard B - 59, including submarine captain Valentin Savitsky, political officer Ivan Semonovich Maslennikov, and Deputy brigade commander Captain 2nd rank (U.S. Navy Commander rank equivalent) Vasili Arkhipov. An exhausted Savitsky became furious and ordered that the nuclear torpedo on board be made combat ready. Accounts differ about whether Arkhipov convinced Savitsky not to make the attack or whether Savitsky himself finally concluded that the only reasonable choice left open to him was to come to the surface. During the conference, McNamara stated that nuclear war had come much closer than people had thought. Thomas Blanton, director of the National Security Archive, said, "A guy called Vasili Arkhipov saved the world. ''
Fifty years after the crisis, Graham T. Allison wrote:
Fifty years ago, the Cuban missile crisis brought the world to the brink of nuclear disaster. During the standoff, US President John F. Kennedy thought the chance of escalation to war was "between 1 in 3 and even, '' and what we have learned in later decades has done nothing to lengthen those odds. We now know, for example, that in addition to nuclear - armed ballistic missiles, the Soviet Union had deployed 100 tactical nuclear weapons to Cuba, and the local Soviet commander there could have launched these weapons without additional codes or commands from Moscow. The US air strike and invasion that were scheduled for the third week of the confrontation would likely have triggered a nuclear response against American ships and troops, and perhaps even Miami. The resulting war might have led to the deaths of over 100 million Americans and over 100 million Russians.
BBC journalist Joe Matthews published the story, on October 13, 2012, behind the 100 tactical nuclear warheads mentioned by Graham Allison in the excerpt above. Khrushchev feared that Castro 's hurt pride and widespread Cuban indignation over the concessions he had made to Kennedy might lead to a breakdown of the agreement between the Soviet Union and the US. To prevent that, Khrushchev decided to offer to give Cuba more than 100 tactical nuclear weapons that had been shipped to Cuba along with the long - range missiles but, crucially, had escaped the notice of U.S. intelligence. Khrushchev determined that because the Americans had not listed the missiles on their list of demands, keeping them in Cuba would be in the Soviet Union 's interests.
Anastas Mikoyan was tasked with the negotiations with Castro over the missile transfer deal that was designed to prevent a breakdown in the relations between Cuba and the Soviet Union. While in Havana, Mikoyan witnessed the mood swings and paranoia of Castro, who was convinced that Moscow had made the agreement with the US at the expense of Cuba 's defense. Mikoyan, on his own initiative, decided that Castro and his military not be given control of weapons with an explosive force equal to 100 Hiroshima - sized bombs under any circumstances. He defused the seemingly intractable situation, which risked re-escalating the crisis, on November 22, 1962. During a tense, four - hour meeting, Mikoyan convinced Castro that despite Moscow 's desire to help, it would be in breach of an unpublished Soviet law, which did not actually exist, to transfer the missiles permanently into Cuban hands and provide them with an independent nuclear deterrent. Castro was forced to give way and, much to the relief of Khrushchev and the rest of the Soviet government, the tactical nuclear weapons were crated and returned by sea to the Soviet Union during December 1962.
The American popular media, especially television, made frequent use of the events of the missile crisis and both fictional and documentary forms. Jim Willis includes the Crisis as one of the 100 "media moments that changed America. '' Sheldon Stern finds that a half century later there are still many "misconceptions, half - truths, and outright lies '' that have shaped media versions of what happened in the White House during those harrowing two weeks.
Historian William Cohn argued in a 1976 article that television programs are typically the main source used by the American public to know about and interpret the past. According to Cold War historian Andrei Kozovoi, the Soviet media proved somewhat disorganized as it was unable to generate a coherent popular history. Khrushchev lost power and was airbrushed out of the story. Cuba was no longer portrayed as a heroic David against the American Goliath. One contradiction that pervaded the Soviet media campaign was between the pacifistic rhetoric of the peace movement that emphasizes the horrors of nuclear war and the militancy of the need to prepare Soviets for war against American aggression.
(Listed chronologically)
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where is georgia's 6th congressional district located | Georgia 's 6th congressional district - wikipedia
Georgia 's 6th congressional district is a congressional district in the U.S. state of Georgia. It is currently represented by Republican Karen Handel. The district 's boundaries have been redrawn following the 2010 census, which granted an additional congressional seat to Georgia. The first election using the new district boundaries (listed below) was the 2012 congressional elections.
The district consists of many of the northern suburbs of Atlanta and includes portions of eastern Cobb County, northern Fulton County, and northern Dekalb County. The district includes all or portions of the cities of Roswell, Johns Creek, Tucker, Alpharetta, Milton, Mountain Park, Sandy Springs, Brookhaven, Chamblee, Doraville, and Dunwoody.
Georgia 's 6th Congressional District has existed since the 29th Congress (1845 -- 1847), the first Congress in which U.S. Representatives were elected from districts rather than at - large. Georgia gained a sixth U.S. Representative for the first time in the 13th Congress (1813 -- 1815). The district was represented by former Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich from 1979 to 1999.
The District has been represented by a Republican consistently since 1979, the longest in the state.
Election results from presidential races:
As of April 2017, there are three living former members of the U.S. House of Representatives from Georgia 's 6th congressional district.
Coordinates: 34 ° 00 ′ 47 '' N 84 ° 20 ′ 44 '' W / 34.01306 ° N 84.34556 ° W / 34.01306; - 84.34556
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exponential smoothing is one of the most commonly used techniques | Exponential smoothing - wikipedia
Exponential smoothing is a rule of thumb technique for smoothing time series data. Whereas in the simple moving average the past observations are weighted equally, exponential functions are used to assign exponentially decreasing weights over time. It is an easily learned and easily applied procedure for making some determination based on prior assumptions by the user, such as seasonality. Exponential smoothing is used for analysis of financial time - series data as well as the field of signal processing.
Exponential smoothing is commonly applied to smooth data, as many window functions are in signal processing, acting as low - pass filters to remove high frequency noise. This method is proceeded by Poisson 's use of recursive exponential window functions in convolutions from the 19th century, as well as Kolmogorov and Zurbenko 's use of recursive moving averages from their studies of turbulence in the 1940s.
The raw data sequence is often represented by (x t) (\ displaystyle \ (x_ (t) \)) beginning at time t = 0 (\ displaystyle t = 0), and the output of the exponential smoothing algorithm is commonly written as (s t) (\ displaystyle \ (s_ (t) \)), which may be regarded as a best estimate of what the next value of x (\ displaystyle x) will be. When the sequence of observations begins at time t = 0 (\ displaystyle t = 0), the simplest form of exponential smoothing is given by the formulas:
s 0 = x 0 s t = α x t + (1 − α) s t − 1, t > 0 (\ displaystyle (\ begin (aligned) s_ (0) & = x_ (0) \ \ s_ (t) & = \ alpha x_ (t) + (1 - \ alpha) s_ (t - 1), \ t > 0 \ end (aligned)))
where α (\ displaystyle \ alpha) is the smoothing factor, and 0 < α < 1 (\ displaystyle 0 < \ alpha < 1).
Intuitively, the simplest way to smooth a time series is to calculate a simple, or unweighted, moving average. This is known as using a rectangular or "boxcar '' window function. The smoothed statistic s is then just the mean of the last k observations:
where the choice of an integer k > 1 is arbitrary. A small value of k will have less of a smoothing effect and be more responsive to recent changes in the data, while a larger k will have a greater smoothing effect, and produce a more pronounced lag in the smoothed sequence. One disadvantage of this technique is that it can not be used on the first k − 1 terms of the time series without the addition of values created by some other means. This means effectively extrapolating outside the existing data, and the validity of this section would therefore be questionable and not a direct representation of the data. However, as long as the time series contains at least k values, this has no effect on forecasts of future values.
It also introduces a phase shift into the data of half the window length. For example, if the data were all the same except for one high data point, the peak in the "smoothed '' data would appear half a window length later than when it actually occurred. Where the phase of the result is important, this can be simply corrected by shifting the resulting series back by half the window length.
A major drawback of the SMA is that it lets through a significant amount of the signal shorter than the window length. Worse, it actually inverts it. This can lead to unexpected artifacts, such as peaks in the "smoothed '' result appearing where there were troughs in the data. It also leads to the result being less "smooth '' than expected since some of the higher frequencies are not properly removed.
A slightly more intricate method for smoothing a raw time series (x) is to calculate a weighted moving average by first choosing a set of weighting factors
and then using these weights to calculate the smoothed statistics (s):
In practice the weighting factors are often chosen to give more weight to the most recent terms in the time series and less weight to older data. Notice that this technique has the same disadvantage as the simple moving average technique (i.e., it can not be used until at least k observations have been made), and that it entails a more complicated calculation at each step of the smoothing procedure. In addition to this disadvantage, if the data from each stage of the averaging is not available for analysis, it may be difficult if not impossible to reconstruct a changing signal accurately (because older samples may be given less weight). If the number of stages missed is known however, the weighting of values in the average can be adjusted to give equal weight to all missed samples to avoid this issue.
The use of the exponential window function is first attributed to Poisson as an extension of a numerical analysis technique from the 17th century, and later adopted by the signal processing community in the 1940s. Here, exponential smoothing is the application of the exponential, or Poisson, window function. Exponential smoothing was first suggested in the statistical literature without citation to previous work by Robert Goodell Brown in 1956, and then expanded by Charles C. Holt in 1957. The formulation below, which is the one commonly used, is attributed to Brown and is known as "Brown 's simple exponential smoothing ''. All the methods of Holt, Winters and Brown may be seen as a simple application of recursive filtering, first found in the 1940s to convert FIR filters to IIR filters.
The simplest form of exponential smoothing is given by the formula:
where α is the smoothing factor, and 0 < α < 1. In other words, the smoothed statistic s is a simple weighted average of the current observation x and the previous smoothed statistic s. The term smoothing factor applied to α here is something of a misnomer, as larger values of α actually reduce the level of smoothing, and in the limiting case with α = 1 the output series is just the current observation. Simple exponential smoothing is easily applied, and it produces a smoothed statistic as soon as two observations are available.
Values of α close to one have less of a smoothing effect and give greater weight to recent changes in the data, while values of α closer to zero have a greater smoothing effect and are less responsive to recent changes. There is no formally correct procedure for choosing α. Sometimes the statistician 's judgment is used to choose an appropriate factor. Alternatively, a statistical technique may be used to optimize the value of α. For example, the method of least squares might be used to determine the value of α for which the sum of the quantities (s t − x t + 1) 2 (\ displaystyle (s_ (t) - x_ (t + 1)) ^ (2)) is minimized.
Unlike some other smoothing methods, such as the simple moving average, this technique does not require any minimum number of observations to be made before it begins to produce results. In practice, however, a "good average '' will not be achieved until several samples have been averaged together; for example, a constant signal will take approximately 3 / α stages to reach 95 % of the actual value. To accurately reconstruct the original signal without information loss all stages of the exponential moving average must also be available, because older samples decay in weight exponentially. This is in contrast to a simple moving average, in which some samples can be skipped without as much loss of information due to the constant weighting of samples within the average. If a known number of samples will be missed, one can adjust a weighted average for this as well, by giving equal weight to the new sample and all those to be skipped.
This simple form of exponential smoothing is also known as an exponentially weighted moving average (EWMA). Technically it can also be classified as an autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) (0, 1, 1) model with no constant term.
The time constant of an exponential moving average is the amount of time for the smoothed response of a unit set function to reach 1 − 1 / e ≈ 63.2 % (\ displaystyle 1 - 1 / e \ approx 63.2 \, \ %) of the original signal. The relationship between this time constant, τ (\ displaystyle \ tau), and the smoothing factor, α (\ displaystyle \ alpha), is given by the formula:
Where Δ T (\ displaystyle \ Delta T) is the sampling time interval of the discrete time implementation. If the sampling time is fast compared to the time constant then
Note that in the above definition s is being initialized to x. Because exponential smoothing requires that at each stage we have the previous forecast, it is not obvious how to get the method started. We could assume that the initial forecast is equal to the initial value of demand; however, this approach has a serious drawback. Exponential smoothing puts substantial weight on past observations, so the initial value of demand will have an unreasonably large effect on early forecasts. This problem can be overcome by allowing the process to evolve for a reasonable number of periods (10 or more) and using the average of the demand during those periods as the initial forecast. There are many other ways of setting this initial value, but it is important to note that the smaller the value of α, the more sensitive your forecast will be on the selection of this initial smoother value s.
For every exponential smoothing method we also need to choose the value for the smoothing parameters. For simple exponential smoothing, there is only one smoothing parameter (α), but for the methods that follow there is usually more than one smoothing parameter.
There are cases where the smoothing parameters may be chosen in a subjective manner -- the forecaster specifies the value of the smoothing parameters based on previous experience. However, a more robust and objective way to obtain values for the unknown parameters included in any exponential smoothing method is to estimate them from the observed data.
The unknown parameters and the initial values for any exponential smoothing method can be estimated by minimizing the SSE. The errors are specified as e t = y t − y ^ t t − 1 (\ displaystyle e_ (t) = y_ (t) - (\ hat (y)) _ (t t - 1)) for t = 1,..., T (the one - step - ahead within - sample forecast errors). Hence we find the values of the unknown parameters and the initial values that minimize
S S E = ∑ t = 1 T (y t − y ^ t t − 1) 2 = ∑ t = 1 T e t 2 (\ displaystyle SSE = \ sum _ (t = 1) ^ (T) (y_ (t) - (\ hat (y)) _ (t t - 1)) ^ (2) = \ sum _ (t = 1) ^ (T) e_ (t) ^ (2))
Unlike the regression case (where we have formulas that return the values of the regression coefficients which minimize the SSE) this involves a non-linear minimization problem and we need to use an optimization tool to perform this.
The name ' exponential smoothing ' is attributed to the use of the exponential window function during convolution. It is no longer attributed to Holt, Winters & Brown.
By direct substitution of the defining equation for simple exponential smoothing back into itself we find that
In other words, as time passes the smoothed statistic s becomes the weighted average of a greater and greater number of the past observations x, and the weights assigned to previous observations are in general proportional to the terms of the geometric progression (1, (1 − α), (1 − α), (1 − α),...). A geometric progression is the discrete version of an exponential function, so this is where the name for this smoothing method originated according to Statistics lore.
Exponential smoothing and moving average have similar defects of introducing a lag relative to the input data. While this can be corrected by shifting the result by half the window length for a symmetrical kernel, such as a moving average or gaussian, it is unclear how appropriate this would be for exponential smoothing. They also both have roughly the same distribution of forecast error when α = 2 / (k + 1). They differ in that exponential smoothing takes into account all past data, whereas moving average only takes into account k past data points. Computationally speaking, they also differ in that moving average requires that the past k data points, or the data point at lag k + 1 plus the most recent forecast value, to be kept, whereas exponential smoothing only needs the most recent forecast value to be kept.
In the signal processing literature, the use of non-causal (symmetric) filters is commonplace, and the exponential window function is broadly used in this fashion, but a different terminology is used: exponential smoothing is equivalent to a first - order Infinite Impulse Response or IIR filter and moving average is equivalent to a Finite Impulse Response or FIR filter with equal weighting factors.
Simple exponential smoothing does not do well when there is a trend in the data, which is inconvenient. In such situations, several methods were devised under the name "double exponential smoothing '' or "second - order exponential smoothing. '', which is the recursive application of an exponential filter twice, thus being termed "double exponential smoothing ''. This nomenclature is similar to quadruple exponential smoothing, which also references its recursion depth. The basic idea behind double exponential smoothing is to introduce a term to take into account the possibility of a series exhibiting some form of trend. This slope component is itself updated via exponential smoothing.
One method, sometimes referred to as "Holt - Winters double exponential smoothing '' works as follows:
Again, the raw data sequence of observations is represented by (x), beginning at time t = 0. We use (s) to represent the smoothed value for time t, and (b) is our best estimate of the trend at time t. The output of the algorithm is now written as F, an estimate of the value of x at time t + m, m > 0 based on the raw data up to time t. Double exponential smoothing is given by the formulas
And for t > 2 by
where α is the data smoothing factor, 0 < α < 1, and β is the trend smoothing factor, 0 < β < 1.
To forecast beyond x
Setting the initial value b is a matter of preference. An option other than the one listed above is (x - x) / n for some n > 1.
Note that F is undefined (there is no estimation for time 0), and according to the definition F = s + b, which is well defined, thus further values can be evaluated.
A second method, referred to as either Brown 's linear exponential smoothing (LES) or Brown 's double exponential smoothing works as follows.
where a, the estimated level at time t and b, the estimated trend at time t are:
Triple exponential smoothing takes into account seasonal changes as well as trends (all of which are trends). Seasonality is defined to be the tendency of time - series data to exhibit behavior that repeats itself every L periods, much like any periodic function. The term season is used to represent the period of time before behavior begins to repeat itself. There are different types of seasonality: ' multiplicative ' and ' additive ' in nature, much like addition and multiplication are basic operations in mathematics.
If every month of December we sell 10,000 more apartments than we do in November the seasonality is additive in nature. Can be represented by an ' absolute ' increase. However, if we sell 10 % more apartments in the summer months than we do in the winter months the seasonality is multiplicative in nature. Multiplicative seasonality can be represented as a constant factor, not an absolute amount.
Triple exponential smoothing was first suggested by Holt 's student, Peter Winters, in 1960 after reading a signal processing book from the 1940s on exponential smoothing. Holt 's novel idea was to repeat filtering an odd number of times (ignoring 1). While recursive filtering had been used previously, it was applied twice and four times to coincide with the Hadamard conjecture, while triple application required more than double the operations of singular convolution.
Suppose we have a sequence of observations (x), beginning at time t = 0 with a cycle of seasonal change of length L.
The method calculates a trend line for the data as well as seasonal indices that weight the values in the trend line based on where that time point falls in the cycle of length L.
(s) represents the smoothed value of the constant part for time t. (b) represents the sequence of best estimates of the linear trend that are superimposed on the seasonal changes. (c) is the sequence of seasonal correction factors. c is the expected proportion of the predicted trend at any time t mod L in the cycle that the observations take on. As a rule of thumb, a minimum of two full seasons (or 2L periods) of historical data is needed to initialize a set of seasonal factors.
The output of the algorithm is again written as F, an estimate of the value of x at time t + m, m > 0 based on the raw data up to time t. Triple exponential smoothing with multiplicative seasonality is given by the formulas
where α is the data smoothing factor, 0 < α < 1, β is the trend smoothing factor, 0 < β < 1, and γ is the seasonal change smoothing factor, 0 < γ < 1.
The general formula for the initial trend estimate b is:
Setting the initial estimates for the seasonal indices c for i = 1, 2,..., L is a bit more involved. If N is the number of complete cycles present in your data, then:
where
Note that A is the average value of x in the jth cycle of your data.
Triple exponential smoothing with additive seasonality is given by:
s 0 = x 0 s t = α (x t − c t − L) + (1 − α) (s t − 1 + b t − 1) b t = β (s t − s t − 1) + (1 − β) b t − 1 c t = γ (x t − s t − 1 − b t − 1) + (1 − γ) c t − L F t + m = s t + m b t + c t − L + 1 + (m − 1) mod L, (\ displaystyle (\ begin (aligned) s_ (0) & = x_ (0) \ \ s_ (t) & = \ alpha (x_ (t) - c_ (t-L)) + (1 - \ alpha) (s_ (t - 1) + b_ (t - 1)) \ \ b_ (t) & = \ beta (s_ (t) - s_ (t - 1)) + (1 - \ beta) b_ (t - 1) \ \ c_ (t) & = \ gamma (x_ (t) - s_ (t - 1) - b_ (t - 1)) + (1 - \ gamma) c_ (t-L) \ \ F_ (t + m) & = s_ (t) + mb_ (t) + c_ (t - L + 1 + (m - 1) \ mod L), \ end (aligned)))
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who has won state of origin the most | State of Origin series - wikipedia
The State of Origin series is the annual best - of - three Australian rugby league football match series between two state representative sides, the New South Wales Blues and the Queensland Maroons.
Referred to as Australian sport 's greatest rivalry, the State of Origin series is one of Australia 's premier sporting events, attracting huge television audiences and usually selling out the stadiums in which the games are played. It is regularly described as being the pinnacle of rugby league, even in comparison with international competitions.
Players are selected to represent the Australian state in which they played their first senior rugby league game, hence the name ' state of origin '. Prior to 1980 players were only selected for interstate matches on the basis of where they were playing their club football at the time. In both 1980 and 1981 there were two interstate matches under the old selection rules and one experimental "State of Origin '' match. From 1982 onwards a best - of - three match series has been played around the middle of the rugby league season for the State of Origin shield. During the early years, the results were extraordinarily even. However, since 2006, Queensland has won every series except in 2014.
Since the 1908 establishment of rugby league in Australia, the sport 's two major states, New South Wales and Queensland, have played representative matches against each other which have continued into the "state of origin '' era which began in the 1980s. The two states ' teams are frequently referred to as the Blues and Maroons, reflecting the respective colours of their jerseys. These were the colours of the Australia national rugby league team 's jersey until the adoption of the green and gold. The Blues team is administered by the New South Wales Rugby League and the Maroons by the Queensland Rugby League. The New South Wales team are sometimes referred to by the nickname "Cockroaches '' and the Queensland team as "Cane Toads '', due to a marketing campaign used in the 1980s where the respective teams were caricatured as such.
Whilst other Australian states also have representative rugby league teams, they have not competed in State of Origin.
The first calls for a state of origin selection policy in interstate rugby football came before the schism between the union and league codes eventuated in Australia. In 1900 a journalist known as ' The Cynic ' wrote in The Referee that star rugby player and recent immigrant to Queensland, Stephen Spragg, should be able to play for his home state of New South Wales.
Since the beginning of Australian rugby league in 1908, an interstate competition between New South Wales and Queensland has been conducted from time to time. Until 1982 each team drew its players from the clubs based in that state. No consideration was given to the origins of the players themselves.
The first of these interstate games was played at Sydney 's Agricultural Ground on 11 July 1908, before Queensland had even commenced its club competition. New South Wales easily accounted for Queensland in a 43 -- 0 victory. The local media were unimpressed.
The interstate series was dominated by New South Wales, apart from a golden period for Queensland in the 1920s. From 1922 to 1925 Queensland defeated New South Wales 11 times in 12 matches. At the end of the 1925 season a Kangaroo team was to be picked for touring Great Britain. Instead of announcing an Australian team dominated by Queenslanders, the Australian Rugby League Board of Control informed the media that the Rugby Football League had decided that the Kiwis would provide stronger opposition, and that there would be no Australian tour. The period spanning 1922 to 1929 saw no Australian team play in Great Britain, the only such hiatus outside the two World Wars.
The New South Wales dominance of interstate football increased after 1956 when gaming machines were legalised for all registered clubs in New South Wales. This provided New South Wales football clubs with a revenue source unmatched by Queensland clubs. From this time on an increasing number of Queensland players moved to the much stronger Sydney competition, becoming ineligible for Queensland state selection. Paul Hogan famously told a Queensland Rugby League gathering in 1977 that "every time Queensland produces a good footballer, he finishes up being processed through a New South Wales poker machine. ''
Prior to 1956, NSW had won 75 % and Qld only 25 % of series played. From 1956 -- 1981, NSW dominance soared even higher and Qld wins dwindled to only 3.8 % with only 1 series win, in 1959.
By the 1970s the prestige of interstate matches had been seriously downgraded. Matches were played mid-week, so as not to interfere with the Sydney club competition, and the small crowds in New South Wales were hosted at suburban grounds. Interstate football reached its nadir in 1977 when the New South Wales Rugby Football League (NSWRFL) declined to host the Queensland team, and both interstate games were played in Queensland.
Former Queensland captain and Australian vice-captain Jack Reardon, who had later become a journalist, was the first to suggest that Sydney - based Queenslanders should be available for selection to represent their state.
Brisbane Courier - Mail reporter Hugh Lunn, Barry Maranta (the future co-founder of the Brisbane Broncos) and Maranta 's business partner Wayne Reid played a part in persuading QRL chairman Ron McAullife that the concept could be used in rugby league. Lunn told McAullife that "you can take the Queenslander out of Queensland, Ron, but you ca n't take the Queensland out of the Queenslander. '' McAuliffe was initially sceptical. "What if we recall our boys from Sydney to play, and we are beaten. Where would we go from there? '' Reid spoke to NSWRFL president Kevin Humphreys and suggested that a one - off state of origin match could be used as a Test Match selection trial.
New South Wales clubs were reticent in their support of the concept and set two conditions:
Three Sydney clubs remained opposed to the plan: St. George Dragons, South Sydney Rabbitohs and Eastern Suburbs Roosters. As these clubs were refusing to release players, Humphreys threatened to make the game an official Australian Rugby League trial, which would make release mandatory. The clubs backed down.
After Queensland lost the first two interstate matches in 1980 (35 -- 3 and 17 -- 7, the second game in front of only 1,638 Sydneysiders) it was announced that a ' state of origin ' match would take place on 8 July at Lang Park in Brisbane. The New South Wales media gave both the event, and Queensland 's chance of winning it, little credence, calling the game a "three day wonder ''. Australia 's 1978 captain Bob Fulton called the match "the non-event of the century ''. Ron MacAullife however, was now committed to the concept and vigorously promoted the match. Thousands of tickets were sold before the game had been officially sanctioned. Although interstate matches in Brisbane had still been well attended (24,653 had attended the opening match of the 1979 series), few expected the sell - out crowd of 33,210 Queensland rugby league fans, delighted to see their heroes in the likes of Arthur Beetson representing their home state for the first time ever. Queensland convincingly beat New South Wales 20 -- 10.
I was strongly against such a match, but last night 's gripping clash showed that such a fixture would be a welcome addition to the League program.
In 1981 the first two interstate matches were again played under the old selection rules. As New South Wales won the first two matches in the series, state of origin selection rules were used once more in the third match. Although New South Wales ran out to an early 15 -- 0 lead in the game, Queensland rallied to win 22 -- 15.
The interest generated by the experimental state of origin matches of 1980 and 1981 and the potential for financial rewards were enough to convince the authorities to play all three games under state of origin rules the following year.
The State of Origin format is the only possible way to allow the interstate series to survive.
Despite the Maroons ' success so far in the State of Origin experiments, the New South Wales media dismissed the seriousness of the Queensland threat to the Blues ' long - held dominance in series wins. Queensland however, under the leadership of immortal captain Wally Lewis, was inspired by this, and for the first three State of Origin series Queensland won 2 matches to 1.
However, in 1985, under the leadership of captain Steve Mortimer, New South Wales won the deciding match in front of 29,068 spectators at the Sydney Cricket Ground, claiming the series for the first time. The following year the Blues were able to go one better and complete the first state of origin whitewash, taking the series 3 -- 0.
Barry Gomersall, from Sarina, Queensland (1945 -- 2007) was notorious for his refereeing of nine State of Origin matches between 1982 and 1988. Queensland rugby league team won seven of those matches, leading to accusations of bias and match - fixing. Gomersall himself did little to disassociate himself from those claims, famously referring to the only two matches under his control won by New South Wales rugby league team; "Surely anyone 's entitled to two bad games ''. Queenslanders, on the other hand, were generally of the view that Sydney referees were no more to be relied on to give unbiased rulings in the games they controlled.
After Queensland had won the 1987 series 2 -- 1, a fourth game was played at Long Beach, California to showcase rugby league to the American public.
In Origin: Rugby League 's Greatest Contest 1980 -- 2002 (2003) Queensland writer Jack Gallaway tells a story:
In 1987 the Australian Rugby League (ARL), New South Wales Rugby League and Queensland Rugby League agreed that the match would only count towards the players ' individual statistics. On 15 July 2003 the Australian Rugby League (whose primary members are originally from the New South Wales Rugby League) announced that the fourth 1987 game was to be classified as an official match, and that a win in the state of origin match on 16 July 2003 would take New South Wales into the overall lead.
ARL and NSWRL chief executive Geoff Carr said: "There had been some debate over whether the Origin fixture... in 1987 was counted as an official match but a search of ARL records has confirmed the status conferred on that clash by the game 's governing body at the time. In announcing the match in Big League in April 1987, Ken Arthurson, the ARL 's chief executive in 1987, was quoted as saying ' It 's an exciting experiment but the match is n't and wo n't be billed as an exhibition match '. ''
After the controversy of the match played in the United States, the Queensland halves pairing of Allan Langer and Wally Lewis led the Maroons in their 3 -- 0 series wins in both 1988 and 1989. The rise of the Canberra Raiders in the then Winfield Cup club competition produced for the Blues the formidable halves combination of Ricky Stuart and Laurie Daley who brought New South Wales back from defeat with two wins in the opening games of the 1990 series. It was evident that as the rivalry between the two states grew, the Origin matches had become much more physical forward orientated game than the open running play seen in earlier series.
As the great Queensland players from the 1980s began to retire from the game, the Maroons struggled with a team of fresh faces and considerable inexperience. The 1992, 1993 and 1994 series all went to NSW as the talent and experience of Blues players such as Brett Mullins, Daley and Stuart in the backs and Benny Elias and Bradley Clyde in the forwards gave the Blues the edge when the games were on the line. It was n't until the upheaval of the Super League war in 1995 that the Maroons were able to again clinch a series.
A main cause for concern for Queensland was the fact that the Brisbane Broncos, its players and many other Queenslanders were not aligned with the ARL prohibiting any players signed with the Super League to play for the Maroons. Despite this the Queenslanders won the 1995 series 3 -- 0 in a shocking white - wash. The 1996 series saw the off - field contract dramas put aside as all players were allowed, regardless of contract, state of origin selection. Having the majority of the Queenslanders back did n't help the Maroons though as the Blues 1996 white - wash with a 3 -- 0 series win of their own.
The Australian game divided in 1997 into two competitions, one run by the ARL and one by the News Limited - owned Super League, and an interstate series was played in each. Under the Super League banner there was a Tri-Origin series with a New Zealand side added to the competition. The ARL meanwhile stuck to its traditional format. The teams were selected using origin rules, and New South Wales and Queensland met twice. These matches do not count towards the official state of origin record. As with the premiership, players were spread between two representative tournaments as well.
The competitions merged again in 1998 as the current National Rugby League, and the series that year proved to be enthralling as both sides won a game each away from home, setting up a decider at the Sydney Football Stadium where 39,000 fans witnessed the visiting Queenslanders take the series 2 -- 1. The end of the decade saw a dramatic series with each side taking one game each and game three ending in a draw. Queensland were awarded the series as at the time the previous winners retained the interstate honours.
The early to mid-2000s saw New South Wales starting to assert its traditional interstate dominance, causing some commentators (who?) to question State of Origin ' future. However, this imbalance tipped in the third and deciding game of the 2006 State of Origin series, which is seen as the starting point of Queensland 's unprecedented dynasty. The 2008 series was won by Queensland making it three series in a row. New South Wales won Game 1 on 21 May 2008, however Queensland won Game 2 on 11 June 2008, and also Game 3 on 2 July 2008. Queensland followed this up by winning the first two games of the 2009 series becoming the first state to win four series in a row.
Queensland won its historic, record breaking, fifth consecutive Origin series with a 23 -- 18 win in the third and final match of the State of Origin, 2010. This was the first Queensland team to win all three consecutive State of Origin Games in 15 years. Queensland full back Billy Slater won man of the match in the third game and was awarded the Wally Lewis Medal as Man of the Series in 2010.
The 2010 State of Origin series was also the second televised program in Australia to be shot in 3D 1080i DVB - T as well as being simultaneously broadcast in regular 576i and 1080i DVB - T and PAL.
In the first game of the 2011 series Queensland defeated New South Wales 16 -- 12. In the second game of the 2011 series New South Wales defeated Queensland 18 -- 8. Queensland won the series 34 -- 24 in the 2011 decider in what was Queensland captain Darren Lockyer 's 36th and final game. Cameron Smith won man of the match in both the first and third game and was awarded the Wally Lewis Medal as Man of the Series.
In 2012, then NRL CEO David Gallop introduced the Under - 20s State of Origin for Toyota Cup players which saw New South Wales winning. Queensland went on to win an historic 7th series win in 2012, winning the final game by 1 point.
In 2013, New South Wales defeated Queensland 14 to 6 in game 1, Queensland defeated New South Wales 26 to 6 in game 2, while in game 3 Queensland defeated New South Wales 12 to 10 to take out the overall Origin title for the eighth consecutive time. The 2013 series set a new State of Origin television ratings record for a whole series since the 2001 introduction of the ratings system.
In 2014, New South Wales defeated Queensland 12 - 8 in the first game of the series, and 6 - 4 in the second. In the third game Queensland defeated New South Wales 32 - 8 after scoring the first try of the game in the 37th minute, with Queensland leading 6 - 2 in the first half. This gave the Blues the first series win in 8 years.
In 2015, Queensland defeated New South Wales 11 - 10 in game 1 played in Sydney, New South Wales defeated Queensland 26 - 18 in game 2 played in Melbourne, Queensland defeated New South Wales 52 - 6 in game 3 played in Brisbane, winning the series 2 - 1.
In 2016, Queensland defeated New South Wales 6 - 4 in game 1 and clinched the series with a 26 - 16 win in the second match. New South Wales closed off the series with a 18 - 14 win over Queensland.
In 2017, New South Wales won Game 1, 28 - 4 sparking the New South Wales media to start proclaiming the beginning of the Blues Dynasty. Queensland won Game 2, 18 - 16 after making changes to the team with the returning Billy Slater and Johnathan Thurston, who kicked the winning goal for Queensland. Thurston injured his shoulder in the 30th minute of the match, essentially disabling it as he played out the whole match. Thurston was later ruled out for the rest of the year after scans revealed his shoulder needed a reconstruction, ending his representative career as he announced 2017 would be his last representative year. In Game 3, New South Wales went in with an unchanged lineup for all three games, the first to do so since 1996. Queensland dominated the Blues, winning 22 - 6, with Queensland Winger Dane Gagai winning the Wally Lewis Medal for Best Player in the series. It also had Johnathan Thurston raise the Origin Shield with Queensland Captain Cameron Smith, before being chaired off the ground by his teammates, ending Thurston 's representative career on a high note.
In 2013, each individual game in the series drew a higher Australian television audience than any other sporting event. In recent years the series has gained popularity outside of New South Wales and Queensland, with games played in Melbourne drawing record crowds and local television ratings comparable to those of many Victorian AFL matches. Internationally, the series is televised in 91 countries, and is a national obsession in Papua New Guinea, occasionally sparking riots, violence and deaths. It also draws a strong following in neighbouring New Zealand.
Within Australia, Nine Network is the main broadcaster for the series, with replays airing on Fox Sports. The series is also broadcast on radio by ABC Grandstand.
Setanta Sports broadcasts live matches in Asia. In the United States, Fox Soccer televised all matches live using the Nine feed since 2011, with the coverage moving to Fox Sports 2 when Fox Soccer was discontinued in August 2013. Premier Sports broadcasts live coverage of State of Origin in the UK.
Another twist on the coverage was Roy and HG 's State of Origin commentary on Australian youth radio network Triple J. This broadcast was presented by the characters "Rampaging '' Roy Slaven and HG Nelson (played by John Doyle and Greig Pickhaver), who commentated the game with a unique comedic style. Roy and HG 's broadcasts began in the late 1980s, and continued until 2008. Roy and HG moved from Triple J to radio network Triple M in 2009, at which point the duo ceased their State of Origin commentary.
Under State of Origin rules players were previously selected for the state in which they first played senior (or registered) rugby league. In 2012, the NSWRL, CRL, QRL and ARLC agreed on new criteria in determining Origin eligibility, to encompass other factors, such as place of birth. Players must also be eligible to represent Australia at international level.
From time to time the selection of players under the State of Origin rules creates controversy. Since 1980, Queensland has completed just the 7 series with a team completely made up of players of a Queensland birth, while for New South Wales the total is only 6. However, place of birth has only been a relevant factor in eligibility since 2012.
An issue of contention has been the selection of players such as Peter Sterling, Ken Nagas, James McManus, Israel Folau and Greg Inglis. Folau was born and raised in New South Wales but is eligible to play for Queensland as he played his first senior rugby league match in Queensland. Ken Nagas was born and raised in Queensland but decided to play for New South Wales, Peter Sterling was born in Toowoomba, Queensland and raised in Wagga Wagga, Newcastle & Sydney, all in New South Wales, while McManus was born in Scotland and was raised in the Northern Territory, but was ruled eligible to play for New South Wales in the 2009 series.
The selection of Greg Inglis by Queensland was disputed. The Queensland Rugby League selected him based on the fact that either Wavell State High School or Brisbane Norths was Inglis ' first senior football, making him eligible for both states per the rules at the time. However Inglis had previously played for Hunter Sports High School in Newcastle, New South Wales, in the Arrive Alive Cup; considered to be a senior competition. Hunter Sports High coach Steve Dunn said "there was some talk the other day that he was actually brought to Queensland before his 16th birthday but I was coach of the team. He played for us at 16, he 's a Blue ''. The controversy led to the creation of the "That 's In Queensland '' viral video.
Due to the clarification of selection rules the Sims brothers are eligible for different States. Tariq and Ashton are eligible for New South Wales while Korbin Sims is eligible for Queensland. Previously father and son combinations, such as Steve and Mat Rogers have represented different states. This duo was especially notable because Mat was born in New South Wales and played for Queensland while Steve was born in Queensland and played for New South Wales. Steve Rogers played his first senior game of rugby League for the Southport Tigers on Queenslands Gold Coast
Foreign born players have also represented each state. New Zealand has had several players, such as Brad Thorn, Ben Te'o, Craig Smith, Willie Mason, Tonie Carroll, James Tamou and Karmichael Hunt play Origin. Tamou 's selection by New South Wales in 2012 was controversial as he was born in Palmerston North and played for the Junior Kiwis, lived in New Zealand until he moved to Sydney when he was 13 and was included in the New Zealand Kiwis training squad for the 2011 Four Nations. Both Hunt and Tamou played for Australia before being selected for State of Origin. Other players, such as Sam Kasiano and Jason Taumalolo are also eligible, creating concern in the New Zealand Rugby League. Apart from representing Queensland, Brad Thorn is also a dual rugby international, having played international rugby league for Australia, and international rugby union for the All Blacks.
Papua New Guinea - born Adrian Lam and Fijian - born Lote Tuqiri, Akuila Uate and Petero Civoniceva have also played Origin. Benny Elias was born in Lebanon and has played for and captained NSW. Mario Fenech was born in Malta and has played for NSW. The most recent case of a foreign born player being selected was the selection of former Samoan international, Ben Te'o, by Queensland in game three of the 2012 season.
A report into eligibility based on a player 's birth state showed; "Of the 18 series that QLD has won, it had the greater percentage of non-State (born) players in its side on 14 of those occasions -- revealing a 77.8 % dependency. Of the 13 series that NSW has won, on five of those occasions it had the higher percentage of non-State (born) players across the series -- revealing a 38.5 % dependency. ''
Of the 36 full series played, Queensland have won 21, New South Wales 13, with 2 series drawn (Queensland retained the Shield on both occasions as the previous year 's winner). With the addition of three one - off games that were played in 1980, 1981 and 1987, the total number of games played is 108. Queensland have won 58, New South Wales have won 48, with 2 matches being drawn.
The series of 1999 and 2002 are considered drawn series, as both New South Wales and Queensland won a single game of each 3 match series, with the final game concluding in a draw. At that time there was no overtime rule to break the deadlock, and by the same set of rules, Queensland retained the shield as they were the previous holders, but did not win the series. Due to controversy around the second drawn series, and the rule awarding the series champions to Queensland, the rules were subsequently changed to rule out drawn matches and series. Equal points at the close of full - time are now resolved with the golden point method.
From 1992 to 2003 the Wally Lewis Medal was awarded by the Queensland Rugby League for the Queensland player of the series. Since 2003 it has been awarded to the player of the series, irrespective of state. The following players have been awarded the Wally Lewis Medal for player of the series. Cameron Smith has won the medal a record four times.
The award was originally a Queensland only award from Lewis ' retirement in 1992 until 2003, where the best player of the series could win the award, regardless of their state. The Ron McAuliffe Medal replaced the Wally Lewis Medal as the Queensland exclusive award.
These records that are about to be shown are mainly about the stadium 's and players of the game. All this info can be found at http://afltables.com/rl/soo/records.html.
The Under 20s State of Origin has only had six seasons so far (2012 to 2017) with only one game a year, instead of three. New South Wales has won all of them. They play for the Darren Lockyer Shield.
The Women 's State of Origin is the Women 's rugby league version of the game, and has been running since 1999. The players play for the Nellie Doherty Cup. Furthermore, the current record for series won in the competition rests with Queensland, who won every series from 1999 - 2014, a better straight record than their male counterparts.
Queensland: 1808 Points
New South Wales: 1656 Points
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in which form of art were the romans most innovative | Roman art - wikipedia
Roman art refers to the visual arts made in Ancient Rome and in the territories of the Roman Empire. Roman art includes architecture, painting, sculpture and mosaic work. Luxury objects in metal - work, gem engraving, ivory carvings, and glass are sometimes considered in modern terms to be minor forms of Roman art, although this would not necessarily have been the case for contemporaries. Sculpture was perhaps considered as the highest form of art by Romans, but figure painting was also very highly regarded. The two forms have had very contrasting rates of survival, with a very large body of sculpture surviving from about the 1st century BC on wards, though very little from before, but very little painting at all remains, and probably nothing that a contemporary would have considered to be of the highest quality.
Ancient Roman pottery was not a luxury product, but a vast production of "fine wares '' in terra sigillata were decorated with reliefs that reflected the latest taste, and provided a large group in society with stylish objects at what was evidently an affordable price. Roman coins were an important means of propaganda, and have survived in enormous numbers. Other perishable forms of art have not survived at all.
While the traditional view of the ancient Roman artists is that they often borrowed from, and copied Greek precedents (much of the Greek sculptures known today are in the form of Roman marble copies), more recent analysis has indicated that Roman art is a highly creative pastiche relying heavily on Greek models but also encompassing Etruscan, native Italic, and even Egyptian visual culture. Stylistic eclecticism and practical application are the hallmarks of much Roman art.
Pliny, Ancient Rome 's most important historian concerning the arts, recorded that nearly all the forms of art -- sculpture, landscape, portrait painting, even genre painting -- were advanced in Greek times, and in some cases, more advanced than in Rome. Though very little remains of Greek wall art and portraiture, certainly Greek sculpture and vase painting bears this out. These forms were not likely surpassed by Roman artists in fineness of design or execution. As another example of the lost "Golden Age '', he singled out Peiraikos, "whose artistry is surpassed by only a very few... He painted barbershops and shoemakers ' stalls, donkeys, vegetables, and such, and for that reason came to be called the ' painter of vulgar subjects '; yet these works are altogether delightful, and they were sold at higher prices than the greatest (paintings) of many other artists. '' The adjective "vulgar '' is used here in its original meaning, which means "common ''.
The Greek antecedents of Roman art were legendary. In the mid-5th century BC, the most famous Greek artists were Polygnotos, noted for his wall murals, and Apollodoros, the originator of chiaroscuro. The development of realistic technique is credited to Zeuxis and Parrhasius, who according to ancient Greek legend, are said to have once competed in a bravura display of their talents, history 's earliest descriptions of trompe l'oeil painting. In sculpture, Skopas, Praxiteles, Phidias, and Lysippos were the foremost sculptors. It appears that Roman artists had much Ancient Greek art to copy from, as trade in art was brisk throughout the empire, and much of the Greek artistic heritage found its way into Roman art through books and teaching. Ancient Greek treatises on the arts are known to have existed in Roman times though are now lost. Many Roman artists came from Greek colonies and provinces...
The high number of Roman copies of Greek art also speaks of the esteem Roman artists had for Greek art, and perhaps of its rarer and higher quality. Many of the art forms and methods used by the Romans -- such as high and low relief, free - standing sculpture, bronze casting, vase art, mosaic, cameo, coin art, fine jewelry and metalwork, funerary sculpture, perspective drawing, caricature, genre and portrait painting, landscape painting, architectural sculpture, and trompe l'oeil painting -- all were developed or refined by Ancient Greek artists. One exception is the Roman bust, which did not include the shoulders. The traditional head - and - shoulders bust may have been an Etruscan or early Roman form. Virtually every artistic technique and method used by Renaissance artists 1,900 year later, had been demonstrated by Ancient Greek artists, with the notable exceptions of oil colors and mathematically accurate perspective. Where Greek artists were highly revered in their society, most Roman artists were anonymous and considered tradesmen. There is no recording, as in Ancient Greece, of the great masters of Roman art, and practically no signed works. Where Greeks worshiped the aesthetic qualities of great art and wrote extensively on artistic theory, Roman art was more decorative and indicative of status and wealth, and apparently not the subject of scholars or philosophers.
Owing in part to the fact that the Roman cities were far larger than the Greek city - states in power and population, and generally less provincial, art in Ancient Rome took on a wider, and sometimes more utilitarian, purpose. Roman culture assimilated many cultures and was for the most part tolerant of the ways of conquered peoples. Roman art was commissioned, displayed, and owned in far greater quantities, and adapted to more uses than in Greek times. Wealthy Romans were more materialistic; they decorated their walls with art, their home with decorative objects, and themselves with fine jewelry.
In the Christian era of the late Empire, from 350 to 500 CE, wall painting, mosaic ceiling and floor work, and funerary sculpture thrived, while full - sized sculpture in the round and panel painting died out, most likely for religious reasons. When Constantine moved the capital of the empire to Byzantium (renamed Constantinople), Roman art incorporated Eastern influences to produce the Byzantine style of the late empire. When Rome was sacked in the 5th century, artisans moved to and found work in the Eastern capital. The Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople employed nearly 10,000 workmen and artisans, in a final burst of Roman art under Emperor Justinian (527 -- 565 CE), who also ordered the creation of the famous mosaics of Ravenna.
Of the vast body of Roman painting we now have only a very few pockets of survivals, with many documented types not surviving at all, or doing so only from the very end of the period. The best known and most important pocket is the wall paintings from Pompeii, Herculaneum and other sites nearby, which show how residents of a wealthy seaside resort decorated their walls in the century or so before the fatal eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE. A succession of dated styles have been defined and analysed by modern art historians beginning with August Mau, showing increasing elaboration and sophistication.
Starting in the 3rd century CE and finishing by about 400 we have a large body of paintings from the Catacombs of Rome, by no means all Christian, showing the later continuation of the domestic decorative tradition in a version adapted - probably not greatly adapted - for use in burial chambers, in what was probably a rather humbler social milieu than the largest houses in Pompeii. Much of Nero 's palace in Rome, the Domus Aurea, survived as grottos and gives us examples which we can be sure represent the very finest quality of wall - painting in its style, and which may well have represented significant innovation in style. There are a number of other parts of painted rooms surviving from Rome and elsewhere, which somewhat help to fill in the gaps of our knowledge of wall - painting. From Roman Egypt there are a large number of what are known as Fayum mummy portraits, bust portraits on wood added to the outside of mummies by a Romanized middle - class; despite their very distinct local character they are probably broadly representative of Roman style in painted portraits, which are otherwise entirely lost.
Nothing remains of the Greek paintings imported to Rome during the 4th and 5th centuries, or of the painting on wood done in Italy during that period. In sum, the range of samples is confined to only about 200 years out of the about 900 years of Roman history, and of provincial and decorative painting. Most of this wall painting was done using the secco ("dry '') method, but some fresco paintings also existed in Roman times. There is evidence from mosaics and a few inscriptions that some Roman paintings were adaptations or copies of earlier Greek works. However, adding to the confusion is the fact that inscriptions may be recording the names of immigrant Greek artists from Roman times, not from Ancient Greek originals that were copied. The Romans entirely lacked a tradition of figurative vase - painting comparable to that of the Ancient Greeks, which the Etruscans had emulated.
Roman painting provides a wide variety of themes: animals, still life, scenes from everyday life, portraits, and some mythological subjects. During the Hellenistic period, it evoked the pleasures of the countryside and represented scenes of shepherds, herds, rustic temples, rural mountainous landscapes and country houses. Erotic scenes are also relatively common. In the late empire, after 200AD, early Christian themes mixed with pagan imagery survive on catacomb walls.
The main innovation of Roman painting compared to Greek art was the development of landscapes, in particular incorporating techniques of perspective, though true mathematical perspective developed 1,500 years later. Surface textures, shading, and coloration are well applied but scale and spatial depth was still not rendered accurately. Some landscapes were pure scenes of nature, particularly gardens with flowers and trees, while others were architectural vistas depicting urban buildings. Other landscapes show episodes from mythology, the most famous demonstrating scenes from the Odyssey.
In the traditional view, the art of the ancient East would have known landscape painting only as the backdrop to civil or military narrative scenes. This theory, defended by Franz Wickhoff, is debatable. It is possible to see evidence of Greek knowledge of landscape portrayal in Plato 's Critias (107b -- 108b):
... and if we look at the portraiture of divine and of human bodies as executed by painters, in respect of the ease or difficulty with which they succeed in imitating their subjects in the opinion of onlookers, we shall notice in the first place that as regards the earth and mountains and rivers and woods and the whole of heaven, with the things that exist and move therein, we are content if a man is able to represent them with even a small degree of likeness...
Roman still life subjects are often placed in illusionist niches or shelves and depict a variety of everyday objects including fruit, live and dead animals, seafood, and shells. Examples of the theme of the glass jar filled with water were skillfully painted and later served as models for the same subject often painted during the Renaissance and Baroque periods.
Pliny complained of the declining state of Roman portrait art, "The painting of portraits which used to transmit through the ages the accurate likenesses of people, has entirely gone out... Indolence has destroyed the arts. ''
In Greece and Rome, wall painting was not considered as high art. The most prestigious form of art besides sculpture was panel painting, i.e. tempera or encaustic painting on wooden panels. Unfortunately, since wood is a perishable material, only a very few examples of such paintings have survived, namely the Severan Tondo from c. 200 AD, a very routine official portrait from some provincial government office, and the well - known Fayum mummy portraits, all from Roman Egypt, and almost certainly not of the highest contemporary quality. The portraits were attached to burial mummies at the face, from which almost all have now been detached. They usually depict a single person, showing the head, or head and upper chest, viewed frontally. The background is always monochrome, sometimes with decorative elements. In terms of artistic tradition, the images clearly derive more from Greco - Roman traditions than Egyptian ones. They are remarkably realistic, though variable in artistic quality, and may indicate that similar art which was widespread elsewhere but did not survive. A few portraits painted on glass and medals from the later empire have survived, as have coin portraits, some of which are considered very realistic as well.
Gold glass, or gold sandwich glass, was a technique for fixing a layer of gold leaf with a design between two fused layers of glass, developed in Hellenistic glass and revived in the 3rd century AD. There are a very few large designs, including a very fine group of portraits from the 3rd century with added paint, but the great majority of the around 500 survivals are roundels that are the cut - off bottoms of wine cups or glasses used to mark and decorate graves in the Catacombs of Rome by pressing them into the mortar. They predominantly date from the 4th and 5th centuries. Most are Christian, though there are many pagan and a few Jewish examples. It is likely that they were originally given as gifts on marriage, or festive occasions such as New Year. Their iconography has been much studied, although artistically they are relatively unsophisticated. Their subjects are similar to the catacomb paintings, but with a difference balance including more portraiture. As time went on there was an increase in the depiction of saints. The same technique began to be used for gold tesserae for mosaics in the mid-1st century in Rome, and by the 5th century these had become the standard background for religious mosaics.
The earlier group are "among the most vivid portraits to survive from Early Christian times. They stare out at us with an extraordinary stern and melancholy intensity '', and represent the best surviving indications of what high quality Roman portraiture could achieve in paint. The Gennadios medallion in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, is a fine example of an Alexandrian portrait on blue glass, using a rather more complex technique and naturalistic style than most Late Roman examples, including painting onto the gold to create shading, and with the Greek inscription showing local dialect features. He had perhaps been given or commissioned the piece to celebrate victory in a musical competition. One of the most famous Alexandrian - style portrait medallions, with an inscription in Egyptian Greek, was later mounted in an Early Medieval crux gemmata in Brescia, in the mistaken belief that it showed the pious empress and Gothic queen Galla Placida and her children; in fact the knot in the central figure 's dress may mark a devotee of Isis. This is one of a group of 14 pieces dating to the 3rd century AD, all individualized secular portraits of high quality. The inscription on the medallion is written in the Alexanrian dialect of Greek and hence most likely depicts a family from Roman Egypt. The medallion has also been compared to other works of contemporaneous Roman - Egyptian artwork, such as the Fayum mummy portraits. It is thought that the tiny detail of pieces such as these can only have been achieved using lenses. The later glasses from the catacombs have a level of portraiture that is rudimentary, with features, hairstyles and clothes all following stereotypical styles.
Roman genre scenes generally depict Romans at leisure and include gambling, music and sexual encounters. Some scenes depict gods and goddesses at leisure.
From the 3rd century BC, a specific genre known as Triumphal Paintings appeared, as indicated by Pliny (XXXV, 22). These were paintings which showed triumphal entries after military victories, represented episodes from the war, and conquered regions and cities. Summary maps were drawn to highlight key points of the campaign. Josephus describes the painting executed on the occasion of Vespasian and Titus 's sack of Jerusalem:
There was also wrought gold and ivory fastened about them all; and many resemblances of the war, and those in several ways, and variety of contrivances, affording a most lively portraiture of itself. For there was to be seen a happy country laid waste, and entire squadrons of enemies slain; while some of them ran away, and some were carried into captivity; with walls of great altitude and magnitude overthrown and ruined by machines; with the strongest fortifications taken, and the walls of most populous cities upon the tops of hills seized on, and an army pouring itself within the walls; as also every place full of slaughter, and supplications of the enemies, when they were no longer able to lift up their hands in way of opposition. Fire also sent upon temples was here represented, and houses overthrown, and falling upon their owners: rivers also, after they came out of a large and melancholy desert, ran down, not into a land cultivated, nor as drink for men, or for cattle, but through a land still on fire upon every side; for the Jews related that such a thing they had undergone during this war. Now the workmanship of these representations was so magnificent and lively in the construction of the things, that it exhibited what had been done to such as did not see it, as if they had been there really present. On the top of every one of these pageants was placed the commander of the city that was taken, and the manner wherein he was taken.
These paintings have disappeared, but they likely influenced the composition of the historical reliefs carved on military sarcophagi, the Arch of Titus, and Trajan 's Column. This evidence underscores the significance of landscape painting, which sometimes tended towards being perspective plans.
Ranuccio also describes the oldest painting to be found in Rome, in a tomb on the Esquiline Hill:
It describes a historical scene, on a clear background, painted in four superimposed sections. Several people are identified, such Marcus Fannius and Marcus Fabius. These are larger than the other figures... In the second zone, to the left, is a city encircled with crenellated walls, in front of which is a large warrior equipped with an oval buckler and a feathered helmet; near him is a man in a short tunic, armed with a spear... Around these two are smaller soldiers in short tunics, armed with spears... In the lower zone a battle is taking place, where a warrior with oval buckler and a feathered helmet is shown larger than the others, whose weapons allow to assume that these are probably Samnites.
This episode is difficult to pinpoint. One of Ranuccio 's hypotheses is that it refers to a victory of the consul Fabius Maximus Rullianus during the second war against Samnites in 326 BC. The presentation of the figures with sizes proportional to their importance is typically Roman, and finds itself in plebeian reliefs. This painting is in the infancy of triumphal painting, and would have been accomplished by the beginning of the 3rd century BC to decorate the tomb.
Early Roman art was influenced by the art of Greece and that of the neighbouring Etruscans, themselves greatly influenced by their Greek trading partners. An Etruscan speciality was near life size tomb effigies in terracotta, usually lying on top of a sarcophagus lid propped up on one elbow in the pose of a diner in that period. As the expanding Roman Republic began to conquer Greek territory, at first in Southern Italy and then the entire Hellenistic world except for the Parthian far east, official and patrician sculpture became largely an extension of the Hellenistic style, from which specifically Roman elements are hard to disentangle, especially as so much Greek sculpture survives only in copies of the Roman period. By the 2nd century BC, "most of the sculptors working in Rome '' were Greek, often enslaved in conquests such as that of Corinth (146 BC), and sculptors continued to be mostly Greeks, often slaves, whose names are very rarely recorded. Vast numbers of Greek statues were imported to Rome, whether as booty or the result of extortion or commerce, and temples were often decorated with re-used Greek works.
A native Italian style can be seen in the tomb monuments of prosperous middle - class Romans, which very often featured portrait busts, and portraiture is arguably the main strength of Roman sculpture. There are no survivals from the tradition of masks of ancestors that were worn in processions at the funerals of the great families and otherwise displayed in the home, but many of the busts that survive must represent ancestral figures, perhaps from the large family tombs like the Tomb of the Scipios or the later mausolea outside the city. The famous bronze head supposedly of Lucius Junius Brutus is very variously dated, but taken as a very rare survival of Italic style under the Republic, in the preferred medium of bronze. Similarly stern and forceful heads are seen in the coins of the consuls, and in the Imperial period coins as well as busts sent around the Empire to be placed in the basilicas of provincial cities were the main visual form of imperial propaganda; even Londinium had a near - colossal statue of Nero, though far smaller than the 30 metre high Colossus of Nero in Rome, now lost. The Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker, a successful freedman (c. 50 - 20 BC) has a frieze that is an unusually large example of the "plebeian '' style. Imperial portraiture was initially Hellenized and highly idealized, as in the Blacas Cameo and other portraits of Augustus.
The Romans did not generally attempt to compete with free - standing Greek works of heroic exploits from history or mythology, but from early on produced historical works in relief, culminating in the great Roman triumphal columns with continuous narrative reliefs winding around them, of which those commemorating Trajan (113 CE) and Marcus Aurelius (by 193) survive in Rome, where the Ara Pacis ("Altar of Peace '', 13 BC) represents the official Greco - Roman style at its most classical and refined, and the Sperlonga sculptures it at its most baroque. Some late Roman public sculptures developed a massive, simplified style that sometimes anticipates Soviet socialist realism. Among other major examples are the earlier re-used reliefs on the Arch of Constantine and the base of the Column of Antoninus Pius (161), Campana reliefs were cheaper pottery versions of marble reliefs and the taste for relief was from the imperial period expanded to the sarcophagus.
All forms of luxury small sculpture continued to be patronized, and quality could be extremely high, as in the silver Warren Cup, glass Lycurgus Cup, and large cameos like the Gemma Augustea, Gonzaga Cameo and the "Great Cameo of France ''. For a much wider section of the population, moulded relief decoration of pottery vessels and small figurines were produced in great quantity and often considerable quality.
After moving through a late 2nd century "baroque '' phase, in the 3rd century, Roman art largely abandoned, or simply became unable to produce, sculpture in the classical tradition, a change whose causes remain much discussed. Even the most important imperial monuments now showed stumpy, large - eyed figures in a harsh frontal style, in simple compositions emphasizing power at the expense of grace. The contrast is famously illustrated in the Arch of Constantine of 315 in Rome, which combines sections in the new style with roundels in the earlier full Greco - Roman style taken from elsewhere, and the Four Tetrarchs (c. 305) from the new capital of Constantinople, now in Venice. Ernst Kitzinger found in both monuments the same "stubby proportions, angular movements, an ordering of parts through symmetry and repetition and a rendering of features and drapery folds through incisions rather than modelling... The hallmark of the style wherever it appears consists of an emphatic hardness, heaviness and angularity -- in short, an almost complete rejection of the classical tradition ''.
This revolution in style shortly preceded the period in which Christianity was adopted by the Roman state and the great majority of the people, leading to the end of large religious sculpture, with large statues now only used for emperors, as in the famous fragments of a colossal acrolithic statue of Constantine, and the 4th or 5th century Colossus of Barletta. However rich Christians continued to commission reliefs for sarcophagi, as in the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, and very small sculpture, especially in ivory, was continued by Christians, building on the style of the consular diptych.
Etruscan sarcophagus, 3rd century BC
The "Capitoline Brutus '', dated to the 4th to 3rd centuries BC
A Roman naval bireme depicted in a relief from the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia in Praeneste (Palastrina), which was built c. 120 BC; exhibited in the Pius - Clementine Museum (Museo Pio - Clementino) in the Vatican Museums.
The Orator, c. 100 BC, an Etrusco - Roman bronze statue depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an Etruscan man wearing a Roman toga while engaged in rhetoric; the statue features an inscription in the Etruscan alphabet
The Grave relief of Publius Aiedius and Aiedia, 30 BC, Pergamon Museum (Berlin)
Augustus of Prima Porta, statue of the emperor Augustus, 1st century AD, Vatican Museums
Tomb relief of the Decii, 98 -- 117 AD
Bust of Emperor Claudius, c. 50 CE, (reworked from a bust of emperor Caligula), Vatican Museums
Commodus dressed as Hercules, c. 191 CE, in the late imperial "baroque '' style; Capitoline Museum, Rome.
The Four Tetrarchs, c. 305, showing the new anti-classical style, in porphyry, now San Marco, Venice
The cameo gem known as the "Great Cameo of France '', c. 23 AD, with an allegory of Augustus and his family
Portrait Bust of a Man, Ancient Rome, 60 BC
Roman portraiture is characterized by its "warts and all '' realism.
Veristic portrait bust of an old man, head covered (capite velato), either a priest or paterfamilias (marble, mid-1st century BC)
Traditional Roman sculpture is divided into five categories: portraiture, historical relief, funerary reliefs, sarcophagi, and copies of ancient Greek works. Contrary to the belief of early archaeologists, many of these sculptures were large polychrome terra - cotta images, such as the Apollo of Veii (Villa Givlia, Rome), but the painted surface of many of them has worn away with time.
While Greek sculptors traditionally illustrated military exploits through the use of mythological allegory, the Romans used a more documentary style. Roman reliefs of battle scenes, like those on the Column of Trajan, were created for the glorification of Roman might, but also provide first - hand representation of military costumes and military equipment. Trajan 's column records the various Dacian wars conducted by Trajan in what is modern day Romania. It is the foremost example of Roman historical relief and one of the great artistic treasures of the ancient world. This unprecedented achievement, over 650 foot of spiraling length, presents not just realistically rendered individuals (over 2,500 of them), but landscapes, animals, ships, and other elements in a continuous visual history -- in effect an ancient precursor of a documentary movie. It survived destruction when it was adapted as a base for Christian sculpture. During the Christian era after 300 AD, the decoration of door panels and sarcophagi continued but full - sized sculpture died out and did not appear to be an important element in early churches.
The Romans inherited a tradition of art in a wide range of the so - called "minor arts '' or decorative art. Most of these flourished most impressively at the luxury level, but large numbers of terracotta figurines, both religious and secular, continued to be produced cheaply, as well as some larger Campana reliefs in terracotta. Roman art did not use vase - painting in the way of the ancient Greeks, but vessels in Ancient Roman pottery were often stylishly decorated in moulded relief. Producers of the millions of small oil lamps sold seem to have relied on attractive decoration to beat competitors and every subject of Roman art except landscape and portraiture is found on them in miniature.
Luxury arts included fancy Roman glass in a great range of techniques, many smaller types of which were probably affordable to a good proportion of the Roman public. This was certainly not the case for the most extravagant types of glass, such as the cage cups or diatreta, of which the Lycurgus Cup in the British Museum is a near - unique figurative example in glass that changes colour when seen with light passing through it. The Augustan Portland Vase is the masterpiece of Roman cameo glass, and imitated the style of the large engraved gems (Blacas Cameo, Gemma Augustea, Great Cameo of France) and other hardstone carvings that were also most popular around this time.
Mosaic was a minor art, though often on a very large scale, until the very end of the period, when late - 4th - century Christians began to use it for large religious images on walls in their new large churches; in earlier Roman art mosaic was mainly used for floors, curved ceilings, and inside and outside walls that were going to get wet. The famous copy of a Hellenistic painting in the Alexander Mosaic in Naples was originally placed in a floor in Pompeii; this is much higher quality work than most Roman mosaic, though very fine panels, often of still life subjects in small or micromosaic tesserae have also survived. The Romans distinguished between normal opus tessellatum with tesserae mostly over 4 mm across, which was laid down on site, and finer opus vermiculatum for small panels, which is thought to have been produced offsite in a workshop, and brought to the site as a finished panel. The latter was a Hellenistic genre which is found in Italy between about 100 BC and 100 AD. Most signed mosaics have Greek names, suggesting the artists remained mostly Greek, though probably often slaves trained up in workshops. The late 2nd century BC Nile mosaic of Palestrina is a very large example of the popular genre of Nilotic landscape, while the 4th century Gladiator Mosaic in Rome shows several large figures in combat.
Metalwork was highly developed, and clearly an essential part of the homes of the rich, who dined off silver, while often drinking from glass, and had elaborate cast fittings on their furniture, jewellery, and small figurines. A number of important hoards found in the last 200 years, mostly from the more violent edges of the late empire, have given us a much clearer idea of Roman silver plate. The Mildenhall Treasure and Hoxne Hoard are both from East Anglia in England. There are few survivals of upmarket ancient Roman furniture, but these show refined and elegant design and execution.
Few Roman coins reach the artistic peaks of the best Greek coins, but they survive in vast numbers and their iconography and inscriptions form a crucial source for the study of Roman history, and the development of imperial iconography, as well as containing many fine examples of portraiture. They penetrated to the rural population of the whole Empire and beyond, with barbarians on the fringes of the Empire making their own copies. In the Empire medallions in precious metals began to be produced in small editions as imperial gifts, which are similar to coins, though larger and usually finer in execution. Images in coins initially followed Greek styles, with gods and symbols, but in the death throes of the Republic first Pompey and then Julius Caesar appeared on coins, and portraits of the emperor or members of his family became standard on imperial coinage. The inscriptions were used for propaganda, and in the later Empire the army joined the emperor as the beneficiary.
It was in the area of architecture that Roman art produced its greatest innovations. Because the Roman Empire extended over so great of an area and included so many urbanized areas, Roman engineers developed methods for city building on a grand scale, including the use of concrete. Massive buildings like the Pantheon and the Colosseum could never have been constructed with previous materials and methods. Though concrete had been invented a thousand years earlier in the Near East, the Romans extended its use from fortifications to their most impressive buildings and monuments, capitalizing on the material 's strength and low cost. The concrete core was covered with a plaster, brick, stone, or marble veneer, and decorative polychrome and gold - gilded sculpture was often added to produce a dazzling effect of power and wealth.
Because of these methods, Roman architecture is legendary for the durability of its construction; with many buildings still standing, and some still in use, mostly buildings converted to churches during the Christian era. Many ruins, however, have been stripped of their marble veneer and are left with their concrete core exposed, thus appearing somewhat reduced in size and grandeur from their original appearance, such as with the Basilica of Constantine.
During the Republican era, Roman architecture combined Greek and Etruscan elements, and produced innovations such as the round temple and the curved arch. As Roman power grew in the early empire, the first emperors inaugurated wholesale leveling of slums to build grand palaces on the Palatine Hill and nearby areas, which required advances in engineering methods and large scale design. Roman buildings were then built in the commercial, political, and social grouping known as a forum, that of Julius Caesar being the first and several added later, with the Forum Romanum being the most famous. The greatest arena in the Roman world, the Colosseum, was completed around 80 AD at the far end of that forum. It held over 50,000 spectators, had retractable fabric coverings for shade, and could stage massive spectacles including huge gladiatorial contests and mock naval battles. This masterpiece of Roman architecture epitomizes Roman engineering efficiency and incorporates all three architectural orders -- Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Less celebrated but just as important if not more so for most Roman citizens, was the five - story insula or city block, the Roman equivalent of an apartment building, which housed tens of thousands of Romans.
It was during the reign of Trajan (98 -- 117 AD.) and Hadrian (117 -- 138 AD) that the Roman Empire reached its greatest extent and that Rome itself was at the peak of its artistic glory -- achieved through massive building programs of monuments, meeting houses, gardens, aqueducts, baths, palaces, pavilions, sarcophagi, and temples. The Roman use of the arch, the use of concrete building methods, the use of the dome all permitted construction of vaulted ceilings and enabled the building of these public spaces and complexes, including the palaces, public baths and basilicas of the "Golden Age '' of the empire. Outstanding examples of dome construction include the Pantheon, the Baths of Diocletian, and the Baths of Caracalla. The Pantheon (dedicated to all the planetary gods) is the best preserved temple of ancient times with an intact ceiling featuring an open "eye '' in the center. The height of the ceiling exactly equals the interior diameter of the building, creating an enclosure that could contain giant sphere. These grand buildings later served as inspirational models for architects of the Italian Renaissance, such as Brunelleschi. By the age of Constantine (306 - 337 AD), the last great building programs in Rome took place, including the erection of the Arch of Constantine built near the Colosseum, which recycled some stone work from the forum nearby, to produce an eclectic mix of styles.
Roman aqueducts, also based on the arch, were commonplace in the empire and essential transporters of water to large urban areas. Their standing masonry remains are especially impressive, such as the Pont du Gard (featuring three tiers of arches) and the aqueduct of Segovia, serving as mute testimony to their quality of their design and construction.
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where did the first human heart transplant happen | Christiaan Barnard - Wikipedia
Christiaan Neethling Barnard (8 November 1922 -- 2 September 2001) was a South African cardiac surgeon who performed the world 's first human - to - human heart transplant on 3 December 1967 at Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, South Africa. Growing up in Beaufort West, Cape Province, he studied medicine and practised for several years in his native country. As a young doctor experimenting on dogs, Barnard developed a remedy for the infant defect of intestinal atresia. His technique saved the lives of ten babies in Cape Town and was adopted by surgeons in Britain and the United States. In 1955, he travelled to the United States and was initially assigned further gastrointestinal work by Owen Harding Wangensteen. He was introduced to the heart - lung machine, and Barnard was allowed to transfer to the service run by open heart surgery pioneer Walt Lillehei. Upon returning to South Africa in 1958, Barnard was appointed head of the Department of Experimental Surgery at the Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town.
On 3 December 1967, Barnard transplanted the heart of Denise Darvall, who had just died from a head injury, into the chest of a 54 - year - old Louis Washkansky. Washkansky regained full consciousness and lived for eighteen days, even spending time with his wife, before he died of pneumonia, with the suppression of his immune system by the anti-rejection drugs being a major contributing factor. Barnard had told Mr. and Mrs. Washkansky that the operation had an 80 % chance of success, a claim which has been criticised as misleading.
Barnard 's second transplant patient Philip Blaiberg, with the operation performed at the beginning of 1968, lived for nineteen months and was able to go home from the hospital.
He retired as Head of the Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery in Cape Town in 1983 after developing rheumatoid arthritis in his hands which ended his surgical career. He became interested in anti-aging research, and in 1986 his reputation suffered when he promoted Glycel, an expensive "anti-aging '' skin cream, whose approval was withdrawn by the United States Food and Drug Administration soon thereafter. During his remaining years, he established the Christiaan Barnard Foundation, dedicated to helping underprivileged children throughout the world. He died in 2001 at the age of 78 after an asthma attack.
Barnard grew up in Beaufort West, Cape Province, Union of South Africa. His father, Adam Barnard, was a minister in the Dutch Reformed Church. One of his four brothers, Abraham, was a "blue baby '' who died of a heart problem at the age of three (Barnard would later guess that it was tetralogy of Fallot). The family also experienced the loss of a daughter who was stillborn and who had been the fraternal twin of Barnard 's older brother Johannes, who was twelve years older than Chris. Barnard matriculated from the Beaufort West High School in 1940, and went to study medicine at the University of Cape Town Medical School, where he obtained his MB ChB in 1945.
His father served as a missionary to mixed - race peoples. His mother, the former Maria Elisabeth de Swart, instilled in the surviving brothers the belief that they could do anything they set their minds to.
Barnard did his internship and residency at the Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, after which he worked as a general practitioner in Ceres, a rural town in the Cape Province. In 1951, he returned to Cape Town where he worked at the City Hospital as a Senior Resident Medical Officer, and in the Department of Medicine at the Groote Schuur Hospital as a registrar. He completed his master 's degree, receiving Master of Medicine in 1953 from the University of Cape Town. In the same year he obtained a doctorate in medicine (MD) from the same university for a dissertation titled "The treatment of tuberculous meningitis ''.
Soon after qualifying as a doctor, Barnard performed experiments on dogs investigating intestinal atresia, a birth defect which allows life - threatening gaps to develop in the intestines. He followed a medical hunch that this was caused by inadequate blood flow to the fetus. After nine months and forty - three attempts, Barnard was able to reproduce this condition in a fetus puppy by tying off some of the blood supply to a puppy 's intestines and then placing the animal back in the womb, after which it was born some two weeks later, with the condition of intestinal atresia. He was also able to cure the condition by removing the piece of intestine with inadequate blood supply. The mistake of previous surgeons had been attempting to reconnect ends of intestine which themselves still had inadequate blood supply. To be successful, it was typically necessary to remove between 15 and 20 centimeters of intestine (6 to 8 inches). Jannie Louw used this innovation in a clinical setting, and Barnard 's method saved the lives of ten babies in Cape Town. This technique was also adapted by surgeons in Britain and the US. In addition, Barnard analyzed 259 cases of tubercular meningitis.
Owen Wangensteen in Minnesota had been impressed by the work of Alan Thal, a young South African doctor working in Minnesota. He asked Groote Schuur Head of Medicine John Brock if he might recommend any similarly talented South Africans and Brock recommended Barnard. In December 1955, Barnard travelled to the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, United States, to begin a two - year scholarship under Chief of Surgery Wangensteen, who assigned Barnard more work on the intestines, which Barnard accepted even though he wanted to move onto something new. Simply by luck, whenever Barnard needed a break from this work, he could wander across the hall and talk with Vince Gott who ran the lab for open - heart surgery pioneer Walt Lillehei. Gott had begun to develop a technique of running blood backwards through the veins of the heart so Lillehei could more easily operate on the aortic valve (McRae writes, "It was the type of inspired thinking that entranced Barnard ''). In March 1956, Gott asked Barnard to help him run the heart - lung machine for an operation. Shortly thereafter, Wangensteen agreed to let Barnard switch to Lillehei 's service. It was during this time that Barnard first became acquainted with fellow future heart transplantation surgeon Norman Shumway. Barnard also became friendly with Gil Campbell who had demonstrated that a dog 's lung could be used to oxygenate blood during open - heart surgery. (The year before Barnard arrived, Lillehei and Campbell had used this procedure for twenty minutes during surgery on a 13 - year - old boy with ventricular septal defect, and the boy had made a full recovery.) Barnard and Campbell met regularly for early breakfast. In 1958, Barnard received a Master of Science in Surgery for a thesis titled "The aortic valve -- problems in the fabrication and testing of a prosthetic valve ''. The same year he was awarded a Ph. D. for his dissertation titled "The aetiology of congenital intestinal atresia ''. Barnard described the two years he spent in the United States as "the most fascinating time in my life. ''
Upon returning to South Africa in 1958, Barnard was appointed head of the Department of Experimental Surgery at Groote Schuur hospital, as well as holding a joint post at the University of Cape Town. He was promoted to full - time lecturer and Director of Surgical Research at the University of Cape Town. In 1960, he flew to Moscow in order to meet Vladimir Demikhov, a top expert on organ transplants (later he credited Demikhov 's accomplishment saying that "if there is a father of heart and lung transplantation then Demikhov certainly deserves this title. '') In 1961 he was appointed Head of the Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery at the teaching hospitals of the University of Cape Town. He rose to the position of Associate Professor in the Department of Surgery at the University of Cape Town in 1962. Barnard 's younger brother Marius, who also studied medicine, eventually became Barnard 's right - hand man at the department of Cardiac Surgery. Over time, Barnard became known as a brilliant surgeon with many contributions to the treatment of cardiac diseases, such as the Tetralogy of Fallot and Ebstein 's anomaly. He was promoted to Professor of Surgical Science in the Department of Surgery at the University of Cape Town in 1972. In 1981, Barnard became a founding member of the World Cultural Council. Among the many awards he received over the years, he was named Professor Emeritus in 1984.
Following the first successful kidney transplant in 1953, in the United States, Barnard performed the second kidney transplant in South Africa in October 1967, the first being done in Johannesburg the previous year.
On 23 January 1964, James Hardy at the University of Mississippi Medical Center in Jackson, Mississippi, performed the world 's first heart transplant and world 's first cardiac xenotransplant by transplanting the heart of a chimpanzee into a desperately ill and dying man. This heart did beat in the patient 's chest for approximately 60 to 90 minutes. The patient, Boyd Rush, died without ever regaining consciousness.
Barnard had experimentally transplanted forty - eight hearts into dogs, which was about a fifth the number that Adrian Kantrowitz had performed at Maimonides Medical Center in New York and about a sixth the number Norman Shumway had performed at Stanford University in California. Barnard had no dogs which had survived longer than ten days, unlike Kantrowitz and Shumway who had had dogs survive for more than a year.
With the availability of new breakthroughs introduced by several pioneers, also including Richard Lower at the Medical College of Virginia, several surgical teams were in a position to prepare for a human heart transplant. Barnard had a patient willing to undergo the procedure, but as with other surgeons, he needed a suitable donor.
During the Apartheid era in South Africa, non-white persons and citizens were not given equal opportunities in the medical professions. At Groote Schuur Hospital, Hamilton Naki was an informally taught surgeon. He started out as a gardener and cleaner. One day he was asked to help out with an experiment on a giraffe. From this modest beginning, Naki became principal lab technician and taught hundreds of surgeons, and assisted with Barnard 's organ transplant program. Barnard said, "Hamilton Naki had better technical skills than I did. He was a better craftsman than me, especially when it came to stitching, and had very good hands in the theatre ''. A popular myth, propagated principally by a widely discredited documentary film called Hidden Heart and an erroneous newspaper article, maintains incorrectly that Naki was present during the Washkansky transplant.
Barnard performed the world 's first human - to - human heart transplant operation in the early morning hours of Sunday 3 December 1967. Louis Washkansky, a 54 - year - old grocer who was suffering from diabetes and incurable heart disease, was the patient. Barnard was assisted by his brother Marius Barnard, as well as a team of thirty persons. The operation lasted approximately five hours.
Barnard stated to Washkansky and his wife Ann Washkansky that the transplant had an 80 % chance of success. This has been criticised by the ethicists Peter Singer and Helga Kuhse as making claims for chances of success to the patient and family which were "unfounded '' and "misleading ''.
Barnard later wrote, "For a dying man it is not a difficult decision because he knows he is at the end. If a lion chases you to the bank of a river filled with crocodiles, you will leap into the water, convinced you have a chance to swim to the other side. '' The donor heart came from a young woman, Denise Darvall, who had been rendered brain dead in an accident on 2 December 1967, while crossing a street in Cape Town. On examination at Groote Schuur hospital, Darvall had two serious fractures in her skull, with no electrical activity in her brain detected, and no sign of pain when ice water was poured into her ear. Coert Venter and Bertie Bosman requested permission from Darvall 's father for Denise 's heart to be used in the transplant attempt. The afternoon before his first transplant, Barnard dozed at his home while listening to music. When he awoke, he decided to modify Shumway and Lower 's technique. Instead of cutting straight across the back of the atrial chambers of the donor heart, he would avoid damage to the septum and instead cut two small holes for the venae cavae and pulmonary veins. Prior to the transplant, rather than wait for Darvall 's heart to stop beating, at his brother Marius Barnard 's urging, Christiaan had injected potassium into her heart to paralyse it and render her technically dead by the whole - body standard. Twenty years later, Marius Barnard recounted, "Chris stood there for a few moments, watching, then stood back and said, ' It works. ' ''
Washkansky survived the operation and lived for 18 days, having succumbed to pneumonia as he was taking immunosuppressive drugs.
Barnard was celebrated around the world for his accomplishment. He was photogenic, and enjoyed the media attention following the operation.
Worldwide, approximately 100 transplants were performed by various doctors during 1968. Only a third of these patients lived longer than three months. A U.S. National Institutes of Health publication states, "Within several years, only Shumway 's team at Stanford was attempting transplants. ''
Barnard 's second transplant operation was conducted on 2 January 1968, and the patient, Philip Blaiberg, survived for 19 months. Dirk van Zyl, who received a new heart in 1971, was the longest - lived recipient, surviving over 23 years.
Between December 1967 and November 1974 at Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, South Africa, ten heart transplants were performed, as well as a heart and lung transplant in 1971. Of these ten patients, four lived longer than 18 months, with two of these four becoming long - term survivors. One patient lived for over thirteen years and another for over twenty - four years.
Full recovery of donor heart function often takes place over hours or days, during which time considerable damage can occur. Other deaths to patients can occur from preexisting conditions. For example, in pulmonary hypertension the patient 's right ventricle has often adapted to the higher pressure over time and, although diseased and hypertrophied, is often capable of maintaining circulation to the lungs. Barnard designed the idea of the heterotopic (or "piggy back '' transplant) in which the patient 's diseased heart is left in place while the donor heart is added, essentially forming a "double heart ''. Barnard performed the first such heterotopic heart transplant in 1974.
From November 1974 through December 1983, 49 consecutive heterotopic heart transplants on 43 patients were performed at Groote Schuur. The survival rate for patients at one year was over 60 %, as compared to less than 40 % with standard transplants, and the survival rate at five years was over 36 % as compared to less than 20 % with standard transplants.
Many surgeons gave up cardiac transplantation due to poor results, often due to rejection of the transplanted heart by the patient 's immune system. Barnard persisted until the advent of cyclosporine, an effective immunosuppressive drug, which helped revive the operation throughout the world. He also attempted xenotransplantation in a human patient, while attempting to save the life of a girl who was unable to leave artificial life support after her second aortic valve replacement.
Barnard was an outspoken opponent of South Africa 's laws of apartheid, and was not afraid to criticise his nation 's government, although he had to temper his remarks to some extent to travel abroad. Rather than leaving his homeland, he used his fame to campaign for a change in the law. Christiaan 's brother, Marius Barnard, went into politics, and was elected to the legislature from Progressive Federal Party. Barnard later stated that the reason he never won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was probably because he was a "white South African ''.
Shortly before his visit to Kenya in 1978, the following was written about his views regarding race relations in South Africa; "While he believes in the participation of Africans in the political process of South Africa, he is opposed to a one - man - one - vote system in South Africa ''.
In answering a hypothetical question on how he would solve the race problem were he a "benevolent dictator in South Africa '', Barnard stated the following in a long interview at the Weekly Review:
The interview ended with the following summary from he himself; "I often say that, like King Lear, South Africa is a country more sinned against than sinning. ''
Barnard 's first marriage was to Aletta Gertruida Louw, a nurse, whom he married in 1948 while practising medicine in Ceres. The couple had two children -- Deirdre (born 1950) and Andre (1951 -- 1984). International fame took a toll on his personal life, and in 1969, Barnard and his wife divorced. In 1970, he married heiress Barbara Zoellner when she was 19, the same age as his son, and they had two children -- Frederick (born 1972) and Christiaan Jr. (born 1974). He divorced Zoellner in 1982. Barnard married for a third time in 1988 to Karin Setzkorn, a young model. They also had two children, Armin (born 1989) and Lara (born 1997), but this last marriage also ended in divorce in 2000.
Barnard described in his autobiography The Second Life a one - night extramarital affair with Italian film star Gina Lollobrigida, that occurred in January 1968. During that visit to Rome he received an audience from Pope Paul VI.
In October 2016, U.S. Congresswoman Ann McLane Kuster (D - NH) stated that Barnard sexually assaulted her when she was 23 years old. According to Kuster, he attempted to grope her under her skirt, while seated at a business luncheon with Rep. Pete McCloskey (R - CA), whom she worked for at the time.
Barnard retired as Head of the Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery in Cape Town in 1983 after developing rheumatoid arthritis in his hands which ended his surgical career. He had struggled with arthritis since 1956, when it was diagnosed during his postgraduate work in the United States. After retirement, he spent two years as the Scientist - In - Residence at the Oklahoma Transplantation Institute in the United States and as an acting consultant for various institutions.
He had by this time become very interested in anti-aging research, and his reputation suffered in 1986 when he promoted Glycel, an expensive "anti-aging '' skin cream, whose approval was withdrawn by the United States Food and Drug Administration soon thereafter. He also spent time as a research advisor to the Clinique la Prairie, in Switzerland, where the controversial "rejuvenation therapy '' was practised.
Barnard divided the remainder of his years between Austria, where he established the Christiaan Barnard Foundation, dedicated to helping underprivileged children throughout the world, and his game farm in Beaufort West, South Africa.
Christiaan Barnard died on 2 September 2001, while on holiday in Paphos, Cyprus. Early reports stated that he had died of a heart attack, but an autopsy showed his death was caused by a severe asthma attack.
Christiaan Barnard wrote two autobiographies. His first book, One Life, was published in 1969 (ISBN 0245599525) and sold copies worldwide. Some of the proceeds were used to set up the Chris Barnard Fund for research into heart disease and heart transplants in Cape Town. His second autobiography, The Second Life, was published in 1993, eight years before his death (ISBN 0947461388).
Apart from his autobiographies, Dr Barnard also wrote several other books including:
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the capital of new sweden was called new amsterdam | New Sweden - wikipedia
New Sweden (Swedish: Nya Sverige; Finnish: Uusi Ruotsi; Latin: Nova Svecia) was a Swedish colony along the lower reaches of the Delaware River in North America from 1638 to 1655, established during the Thirty Years ' War, when Sweden was a great power. New Sweden was part of Swedish colonization efforts in the Americas.
Settlements were established on both sides of the Delaware Valley in the present - day American Mid-Atlantic states of Delaware, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, often in places where Swedish traders had been visiting since about 1610. Fort Christina, now part of Wilmington, Delaware, was the first settlement, named after the reigning Swedish monarch, the sole daughter of Gustavus Adolphus. Along with Swedes and Finns, a number of the settlers were Dutch. New Sweden was conquered by the Dutch Republic in 1655, during the Second Northern War, and incorporated into the Dutch colonies of New Netherlands.
By the middle of the 17th century, the Realm of Sweden had reached its greatest territorial extent and was one of the great powers of Europe. Sweden then included Finland and Estonia, along with parts of modern Russia, Poland, Germany, and Latvia, under King Gustavus Adolphus and later Christina, Queen of Sweden. The Swedes sought to expand their influence by creating an agricultural (tobacco) and fur - trading colony to circumvent French and English merchants.
The Swedish South Company was founded in 1626 with a mandate to establish colonies between Florida and Newfoundland for the purposes of trade, particularly along the Delaware River. Its charter included Swedish, Dutch, and German stockholders led by directors of the New Sweden Company, including Samuel Blommaert. The company sponsored 11 expeditions in 14 separate voyages (two did not survive) to Delaware between 1638 and 1655.
The first Swedish expedition to North America sailed from the port of Gothenburg in late 1637. It was organized and overseen by Clas Fleming, a Swedish Admiral from Finland. The Flemish Dutch Samuel Blommaert assisted the fitting - out and appointed Peter Minuit (the former Governor of New Amsterdam) to lead the expedition. The members of the expedition, aboard the ships Fogel Grip and Kalmar Nyckel, sailed into Delaware Bay, which lay within the territory claimed by the Dutch, passing Cape May and Cape Henlopen in late March 1638, and anchored at a rocky point on the Minquas Kill that is known today as Swedes ' Landing on March 29, 1638. They built a fort on the present site of Wilmington, which they named Fort Christina, after Queen Christina of Sweden.
In the following years, 600 Swedes and Finns, the latter group mainly Forest Finns from central Sweden, and also a number of Dutchmen, a few Germans, a Dane and at least one Estonian in Swedish service, settled in the area. Peter Minuit was to become the first governor of the newly established colony of New Sweden. Having been the Director of the Dutch West India Company, and the predecessor of then - Director William Kieft, Minuit knew the status of the lands on either side of the Delaware River at that time. He knew that the Dutch had established deeds for the lands east of the river (New Jersey), but not for the lands to the west (Maryland, Delaware, and Pennsylvania).
Minuit landed on the west bank of the river and gathered the sachems of the local Delaware tribe. Sachems of the Susquehannocks were also present. They held a conclave in his cabin on the Kalmar Nyckel, and he persuaded them to sign deeds he had prepared to solve any issue with the Dutch. The Swedes claimed the section purchased included the land on the west side of the South River from just below the Schuylkill, which today would mean Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, southeastern Pennsylvania, Delaware, and coastal Maryland. The Delaware sachem Mattahoon, who was a participant, later stated that only as much land as was contained within an area marked by "six trees '' was actually purchased and the rest of the land occupied by the Swedes was stolen.
Dutch Director Willem Kieft objected to the Swedes landing, but Minuit ignored him, since he knew that the Dutch were militarily weak at the moment. Minuit completed Fort Christina in 1638, then sailed for Stockholm to bring a second group of settlers. He made a detour to the Caribbean to pick up a shipment of tobacco to sell in Europe to make the voyage profitable. However, Minuit died on this voyage during a hurricane at St. Christopher in the Caribbean.
The official duties of the governor of New Sweden were carried out by Lieutenant (promoted to Captain) Måns Nilsson Kling, until a new governor was selected and arrived from Sweden two years later.
Under Johan Björnsson Printz, governor from 1643 to 1653, the company expanded along the river from Fort Christina, establishing Fort Nya Elfsborg on the east bank of the Delaware near present - day Salem, New Jersey and Fort Nya Gothenborg on Tinicum Island, to the immediate southwest of today 's Philadelphia. He also built his manor house, The Printzhof, at Fort Nya Gothenborg. For a time, the Swedish colony prospered. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their victory in a war against the English in the Province of Maryland. In May 1654, the Fort Casimir was captured from the Dutch by soldiers from New Sweden led by their governor, Johan Risingh. Fort Casimir was promptly renamed Fort Trinity (in Swedish, Trefaldigheten).
However, soon after Sweden opened the Second Northern War in the Baltic by attacking the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Dutch sent an armed squadron of ships under the Director - General Peter Stuyvesant to seize New Sweden. In the summer of 1655, the Dutch marched an army to the Delaware River, easily capturing Fort Trinity and Fort Christina. The Swedish settlement was formally incorporated into the Dutch New Netherland on September 15, 1655. Still, the Swedish and Finnish settlers were allowed local autonomy. They retained their own militia, religion, court, and lands.
This lasted officially until the English conquest of the New Netherland was launched on June 24, 1664. The Duke of York sold what is today New Jersey to John Berkeley and George Carteret to become a proprietary colony, separate from the projected colony of New York. The invasion began on August 29, 1664, with the capture of New Amsterdam. It ended with the capture of Fort Casimir (New Castle, Delaware) in October. This took place at the beginning of the Second Anglo - Dutch War.
New Sweden continued to exist unofficially and some immigration and expansion had continued. The first settlement at Wicaco, a Swedish settlers ' log blockhouse located below Society Hill, was built in present - day Philadelphia in 1669. It was later used as a church until about 1700, when Gloria Dei (Old Swedes ') Church of Philadelphia was built on the site. New Sweden officially came to an end when its land was included in William Penn 's charter for Pennsylvania, on August 24, 1682.
The start of the Third Anglo - Dutch War resulted in the recapture of New Netherland by the Dutch in August 1673. The Dutch restored the status that pre-dated the English invasion, and codified it in the establishment of three counties in what had been New Sweden. They were Hoarkill County, which today is Sussex County, Delaware; New Amstel County, which is today New Castle County, Delaware; and Upland County, which was later partitioned between New Castle County, Delaware and the new Colony of Pennsylvania. The three counties were created on September 12, 1673, the first two on the west shore of the Delaware River, and the third on both sides of the river.
The signing of the Treaty of Westminster of 1674 ended the Dutch effort, and required them to return all of New Netherland to the English, including the three counties they created. That handover took place on June 29, 1674.
After taking stock, the English declared on November 11, 1674, that settlements on the west side of the Delaware River and Delaware Bay (in present - day Delaware and Pennsylvania) were to be dependent on the Colony of New York, including the three Counties. This declaration was followed on November 11 by a new declaration that renamed New Amstel as New Castle. The other counties retained their Dutch names for the duration.
The next step in the assimilation of New Sweden into New York was the extension of the Duke 's laws into the region on September 22, 1676. This was followed by the partition of some Upland Counties to conform to what would become the borders of Pennsylvania and Delaware, with most of the Delaware portion going to New Castle County, on November 12, 1678. The remainder of Upland continued in place under the same name. On June 21, 1680, New Castle and Hoarkill Counties were partitioned to produce St. Jones County.
On March 4, 1681, what had been the colony of New Sweden was formally partitioned into the colonies of Delaware and Pennsylvania. The border was established 12 miles north of New Castle, and the northern limit of Pennsylvania was set at 42 degrees north latitude. The eastern limit was the current border with New Jersey at the Delaware River, while the western limit was undefined. Pennsylvania immediately started to reorganize the lands of the former New Sweden within the limits of Pennsylvania. In June 1681, Upland ceased to exist as the result of the reorganization of the Colony of Pennsylvania, with the Upland government becoming the government of Chester County, Pennsylvania.
On August 24, 1682, the Duke of York transferred the western Delaware River region, including modern - day Delaware, to William Penn, thus transferring Deale and St. Jones from New York to Delaware. St. Jones County was renamed as Kent County; Deale County was renamed Sussex County; New Castle County retained its name.
The historian H. Arnold Barton has suggested that the greatest significance of New Sweden was the strong and long - lasting interest in North America that the colony generated in Sweden. Major Swedish immigration to the United States did not occur until the late 19th century, however. From 1870 to 1910, over one million Swedes arrived, settling particularly in Minnesota and other states of the Upper Midwest (see Swedish American).
Traces of New Sweden persist in the lower Delaware Valley to this day, including Holy Trinity Church in Wilmington, Delaware; Gloria Dei Church and St. James Kingsessing Church in Philadelphia; Trinity Episcopal Church in Swedesboro, New Jersey; and Christ Church (est. 1760) in Swedesburg (Upper Meriion Township), Pennsylvania. All of those churches are commonly known as "Old Swedes ' Church ''. Christiana, Delaware, is one of the few settlements in the area with a Swedish name. Swedesford Road is still found in Chester and Montgomery Counties, Pennsylvania, although Swedesford has long since become Norristown. The American Swedish Historical Museum, located in FDR Park in South Philadelphia, houses many exhibits, documents, and artifacts from the New Sweden colony.
Perhaps the greatest contribution of New Sweden to the development of the New World is one that is the traditional Finnish forest house building technique. The colonists brought with them the log cabin, which became such an icon of the American frontier that it is thought of as an American structure. The C.A. Nothnagle Log House on Swedesboro - Paulsboro Road in Gibbstown, New Jersey, is one of the oldest surviving log houses in the United States.
The settlers came from all over the Swedish realm. The percentage of Finns in New Sweden grew especially towards the end of the colonization, comprising 22 % of the population during Swedish rule, but rising to about 50 % after the colony came under Dutch rule. The year 1664 saw the arrival of a contingent of 140 Finns. In 1655, when the ship Mercurius sailed to the colony, 92 of the 106 passengers were listed as Finns. Memory of the early Finnish settlement lived on in place names near the Delaware River such as Finland (Marcus Hook), Torne, Lapland, Finns Point and Mullica Hill and Mullica River.
A portion of these Finns were known as Forest Finns, people of Finnish descent living in the forest areas of Central Sweden. The Forest Finns had moved from Savonia in Eastern Finland to Dalarna, Bergslagen and other provinces in central Sweden during the late - 16th and early - to - mid-17th centuries. Their relocation had started as part of an effort by Swedish king Gustav Vasa, to expand agriculture to these uninhabited parts of the country. The Finns in Savonia traditionally farmed with a slash - and - burn method which was better suited to pioneering agriculture in vast forest areas. This was also the farming method used by the Native Americans of Delaware.
Coordinates: 39 ° 44 ′ 12 '' N 75 ° 32 ′ 19 '' W / 39.73667 ° N 75.53861 ° W / 39.73667; - 75.53861
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countries who use euro as their main currency | Euro - wikipedia
The single currency
The euro (sign: €; code: EUR) is the official currency of the eurozone, which consists of 19 of the 28 member states of the European Union: Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain.
The currency is also officially used by the institutions of the European Union and four other European countries, as well as unilaterally by two others, and is consequently used daily by some 337 million Europeans as of 2015. Outside of Europe, a number of overseas territories of EU members also use the euro as their currency. Additionally, 210 million people worldwide as of 2013 use currencies pegged to the euro.
The euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar. As of January 2017, with more than € 1,109,000,000,000 in circulation, the euro has one of the highest combined values of banknotes and coins in circulation in the world, having surpassed the U.S. dollar at one point.
The name euro was officially adopted on 16 December 1995 in Madrid. The euro was introduced to world financial markets as an accounting currency on 1 January 1999, replacing the former European Currency Unit (ECU) at a ratio of 1: 1 (US $1.1743). Physical euro coins and banknotes entered into circulation on 1 January 2002, making it the day - to - day operating currency of its original members, and by May 2002 had completely replaced the former currencies. While the euro dropped subsequently to US $0.8252 within two years (26 October 2000), it has traded above the U.S. dollar since the end of 2002, peaking at US $1.6038 on 18 July 2008. Since late 2009, the euro has been immersed in the European sovereign - debt crisis which has led to the creation of the European Financial Stability Facility as well as other reforms aimed at stabilising the currency. In July 2012, the euro fell below US $1.21 for the first time in two years, following concerns raised over Greek debt and Spain 's troubled banking sector. As of September 2017, the euro -- dollar exchange rate stands at ~ US $1.19.
The euro is managed and administered by the Frankfurt - based European Central Bank (ECB) and the Eurosystem (composed of the central banks of the eurozone countries). As an independent central bank, the ECB has sole authority to set monetary policy. The Eurosystem participates in the printing, minting and distribution of notes and coins in all member states, and the operation of the eurozone payment systems.
The 1992 Maastricht Treaty obliges most EU member states to adopt the euro upon meeting certain monetary and budgetary convergence criteria, although not all states have done so. The United Kingdom and Denmark negotiated exemptions, while Sweden (which joined the EU in 1995, after the Maastricht Treaty was signed) turned down the euro in a 2003 referendum, and has circumvented the obligation to adopt the euro by not meeting the monetary and budgetary requirements. All nations that have joined the EU since 1993 have pledged to adopt the euro in due course.
Since 1 January 2002, the national central banks (NCBs) and the ECB have issued euro banknotes on a joint basis. Euro banknotes do not show which central bank issued them. Eurosystem NCBs are required to accept euro banknotes put into circulation by other Eurosystem members and these banknotes are not repatriated. The ECB issues 8 % of the total value of banknotes issued by the Eurosystem. In practice, the ECB 's banknotes are put into circulation by the NCBs, thereby incurring matching liabilities vis - à - vis the ECB. These liabilities carry interest at the main refinancing rate of the ECB. The other 92 % of the euro banknotes are issued by the NCBs in proportion to their respective shares in the capital key of the ECB, calculated using national share of European Union population and national share of European Union GDP, equally weighted.
The euro is divided into 100 cents (sometimes referred to as euro cents, especially when distinguishing them from other currencies, and referred to as such on the common side of all cent coins). In Community legislative acts the plural forms of euro and cent are spelled without the s, notwithstanding normal English usage. Otherwise, normal English plurals are sometimes used, with many local variations such as centime in France.
All circulating coins have a common side showing the denomination or value, and a map in the background. Due to the linguistic plurality in the European Union, the Latin alphabet version of euro is used (as opposed to the less common Greek or Cyrillic) and Arabic numerals (other text is used on national sides in national languages, but other text on the common side is avoided). For the denominations except the 1 -, 2 - and 5 - cent coins, the map only showed the 15 member states which were members when the euro was introduced. Beginning in 2007 or 2008 (depending on the country) the old map is being replaced by a map of Europe also showing countries outside the Union like Norway. The 1 -, 2 - and 5 - cent coins, however, keep their old design, showing a geographical map of Europe with the 15 member states of 2002 raised somewhat above the rest of the map. All common sides were designed by Luc Luycx. The coins also have a national side showing an image specifically chosen by the country that issued the coin. Euro coins from any member state may be freely used in any nation that has adopted the euro.
The coins are issued in € 2, € 1, 50c, 20c, 10c, 5c, 2c, and 1c denominations. To avoid the use of the two smallest coins, some cash transactions are rounded to the nearest five cents in the Netherlands and Ireland (by voluntary agreement) and in Finland (by law). This practice is discouraged by the Commission, as is the practice of certain shops to refuse to accept high value euro notes.
Commemorative coins with € 2 face value have been issued with changes to the design of the national side of the coin. These include both commonly issued coins, such as the € 2 commemorative coin for the fiftieth anniversary of the signing of the Treaty of Rome, and nationally issued coins, such as the coin to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics issued by Greece. These coins are legal tender throughout the eurozone. Collector coins with various other denominations have been issued as well, but these are not intended for general circulation, and they are legal tender only in the member state that issued them.
The design for the euro banknotes has common designs on both sides. The design was created by the Austrian designer Robert Kalina. Notes are issued in € 500, € 200, € 100, € 50, € 20, € 10, € 5. Each banknote has its own colour and is dedicated to an artistic period of European architecture. The front of the note features windows or gateways while the back has bridges, symbolising links between countries and with the future. While the designs are supposed to be devoid of any identifiable characteristics, the initial designs by Robert Kalina were of specific bridges, including the Rialto and the Pont de Neuilly, and were subsequently rendered more generic; the final designs still bear very close similarities to their specific prototypes; thus they are not truly generic. The monuments looked similar enough to different national monuments to please everyone.
Capital within the EU may be transferred in any amount from one country to another. All intra-EU transfers in euro are treated as domestic transactions and bear the corresponding domestic transfer costs. This includes all member states of the EU, even those outside the eurozone providing the transactions are carried out in euro. Credit / debit card charging and ATM withdrawals within the eurozone are also treated as domestic transactions; however paper - based payment orders, like cheques, have not been standardised so these are still domestic - based. The ECB has also set up a clearing system, TARGET, for large euro transactions.
A special euro currency sign (€) was designed after a public survey had narrowed the original ten proposals down to two. The European Commission then chose the design created by the Belgian Alain Billiet.
The European Commission also specified a euro logo with exact proportions and foreground and background colour tones. While the Commission intended the logo to be a prescribed glyph shape, font designers made it clear that they intended to design their own variants instead. Typewriters lacking the euro sign can create it by typing a capital ' C ', backspacing and overstriking it with the equal (' = ') sign. Placement of the currency sign relative to the numeric amount varies from nation to nation, but for texts in English the symbol (or the ISO - standard "EUR '') should precede the amount.
There is no official symbol for the cent.
The euro was established by the provisions in the 1992 Maastricht Treaty. To participate in the currency, member states are meant to meet strict criteria, such as a budget deficit of less than three percent of their GDP, a debt ratio of less than sixty percent of GDP (both of which were ultimately widely flouted after introduction), low inflation, and interest rates close to the EU average. In the Maastricht Treaty, the United Kingdom and Denmark were granted exemptions per their request from moving to the stage of monetary union which would result in the introduction of the euro.
Economists who helped create or contributed to the euro include Fred Arditti, Neil Dowling, Wim Duisenberg, Robert Mundell, Tommaso Padoa - Schioppa and Robert Tollison. (For macroeconomic theory, see below.)
The name "euro '' was officially adopted in Madrid on 16 December 1995. Belgian Esperantist Germain Pirlot, a former teacher of French and history is credited with naming the new currency by sending a letter to then President of the European Commission, Jacques Santer, suggesting the name "euro '' on 4 August 1995.
Due to differences in national conventions for rounding and significant digits, all conversion between the national currencies had to be carried out using the process of triangulation via the euro. The definitive values of one euro in terms of the exchange rates at which the currency entered the euro are shown on the right.
The rates were determined by the Council of the European Union, based on a recommendation from the European Commission based on the market rates on 31 December 1998. They were set so that one European Currency Unit (ECU) would equal one euro. The European Currency Unit was an accounting unit used by the EU, based on the currencies of the member states; it was not a currency in its own right. They could not be set earlier, because the ECU depended on the closing exchange rate of the non-euro currencies (principally the pound sterling) that day.
The procedure used to fix the conversion rate between the Greek drachma and the euro was different, since the euro by then was already two years old. While the conversion rates for the initial eleven currencies were determined only hours before the euro was introduced, the conversion rate for the Greek drachma was fixed several months beforehand.
The currency was introduced in non-physical form (traveller 's cheques, electronic transfers, banking, etc.) at midnight on 1 January 1999, when the national currencies of participating countries (the eurozone) ceased to exist independently. Their exchange rates were locked at fixed rates against each other. The euro thus became the successor to the European Currency Unit (ECU). The notes and coins for the old currencies, however, continued to be used as legal tender until new euro notes and coins were introduced on 1 January 2002.
The changeover period during which the former currencies ' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months, until 28 February 2002. The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state. The earliest date was in Germany, where the mark officially ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 2001, though the exchange period lasted for two months more. Even after the old currencies ceased to be legal tender, they continued to be accepted by national central banks for periods ranging from several years to forever (the latter in Austria, Germany, Ireland, Estonia and Latvia for banknotes and coins; also, Belgium, Luxembourg, Slovenia and Slovakia will accept banknotes forever, but not coins). The earliest coins to become non-convertible were the Portuguese escudos, which ceased to have monetary value after 31 December 2002, although banknotes remain exchangeable until 2022.
Following the U.S. financial crisis in 2008, fears of a sovereign debt crisis developed in 2009 among investors concerning some European states, with the situation becoming particularly tense in early 2010. Greece was most acutely affected, but fellow Eurozone members Cyprus, Ireland, Italy, Portugal, and Spain were also significantly affected. To be included in the eurozone, the countries had to fulfil certain convergence criteria, but the meaningfulness of such criteria was diminished by the fact it was not enforced with the same degree of strictness from country to country.
According to the Economist Intelligence Unit in 2011, "(I) f the (euro area) is treated as a single entity, its (economic and fiscal) position looks no worse and in some respects, rather better than that of the US or the UK '' and the budget deficit for the euro area as a whole is much lower and the euro area 's government debt / GDP ratio of 86 % in 2010 was about the same level as that of the United States. "Moreover '', they write, "private - sector indebtedness across the euro area as a whole is markedly lower than in the highly leveraged Anglo - Saxon economies ''. The authors conclude that the crisis "is as much political as economic '' and the result of the fact that the euro area lacks the support of "institutional paraphernalia (and mutual bonds of solidarity) of a state ''.
The crisis continued with S&P downgrading the credit rating of nine euro - area countries, including France, then downgrading the entire European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) fund.
A historical parallel -- to 1931 when Germany was burdened with debt, unemployment and austerity while France and the United States were relatively strong creditors -- gained attention in summer 2012 even as Germany received a debt - rating warning of its own.
The euro is the sole currency of 19 EU member states: Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain. These countries constitute the "eurozone '', some 332 million people in total as of 2013.
With all but two of the remaining EU members obliged to join, together with future members of the EU, the enlargement of the eurozone is set to continue. Outside the EU, the euro is also the sole currency of Montenegro and Kosovo and several European microstates (Andorra, Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican City) as well as in four overseas territories of EU members that are not themselves part of the EU (Saint Barthélemy, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the French Southern and Antarctic Lands and Akrotiri and Dhekelia). Together this direct usage of the euro outside the EU affects nearly 3 million people.
The euro has been used as a trading currency in Cuba since 1998, and Syria since 2006. There are also various currencies pegged to the euro (see below). In 2009, Zimbabwe abandoned its local currency and used major currencies instead, including the euro and the United States dollar.
Since its introduction, the euro has been the second most widely held international reserve currency after the U.S. dollar. The share of the euro as a reserve currency increased from 18 % in 1999 to 27 % in 2008. Over this period, the share held in U.S. dollar fell from 71 % to 64 % and that held in Yen fell from 6.4 % to 3.3 %. The euro inherited and built on the status of the Deutsche Mark as the second most important reserve currency. The euro remains underweight as a reserve currency in advanced economies while overweight in emerging and developing economies: according to the International Monetary Fund the total of euro held as a reserve in the world at the end of 2008 was equal to $1.1 trillion or € 850 billion, with a share of 22 % of all currency reserves in advanced economies, but a total of 31 % of all currency reserves in emerging and developing economies.
The possibility of the euro becoming the first international reserve currency is now widely debated among economists. Former US Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan gave his opinion in September 2007 that it was "absolutely conceivable that the euro will replace the US dollar as reserve currency, or will be traded as an equally important reserve currency ''. In contrast to Greenspan 's 2007 assessment, the euro 's increase in the share of the worldwide currency reserve basket has slowed considerably since 2007 and since the beginning of the worldwide credit crunch related recession and European sovereign - debt crisis.
Outside the eurozone, a total of 22 countries and territories that do not belong to the EU have currencies that are directly pegged to the euro including 13 countries in mainland Africa (CFA franc), two African island countries (Comorian franc and Cape Verdean escudo), three French Pacific territories (CFP franc) and three Balkan countries, Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark), Bulgaria (Bulgarian lev) and Macedonia (Macedonian denar). On 28 July 2009, São Tomé and Príncipe signed an agreement with Portugal which will eventually tie its currency to the euro. Additionally, the Moroccan dirham is tied to a basket of currencies, including the Euro and the US dollar, with the Euro given the highest weighting.
With the exception of Bosnia, Bulgaria, Macedonia (which had pegged their currencies against the Deutsche Mark) and Cape Verde (formerly pegged to the Portuguese escudo), all of these non-EU countries had a currency peg to the French Franc before pegging their currencies to the euro. Pegging a country 's currency to a major currency is regarded as a safety measure, especially for currencies of areas with weak economies, as the euro is seen as a stable currency, prevents runaway inflation and encourages foreign investment due to its stability.
Within the EU several currencies have a peg to the euro, in most instances as a precondition to joining the eurozone. The Bulgarian lev was formerly pegged to the Deutsche Mark; one other EU member state has a direct peg due to ERM II: the Danish krone.
In total, as of 2013, 182 million people in Africa use a currency pegged to the euro, 27 million people outside the eurozone in Europe, and another 545,000 people on Pacific islands.
Since 2005, stamps issued by the Sovereign Military Order of Malta have been denominated in euros, although the Order 's official currency remains the Maltese scudo. The Maltese scudo itself is pegged to the euro and is only recognised as legal tender within the Order.
In economics, an optimum currency area, or region (OCA or OCR), is a geographical region in which it would maximise economic efficiency to have the entire region share a single currency. There are two models, both proposed by Robert Mundell: the stationary expectations model and the international risk sharing model. Mundell himself advocates the international risk sharing model and thus concludes in favour of the euro. However, even before the creation of the single currency, there were concerns over diverging economies. Before the late - 2000s recession the chances of a state leaving the euro, or the chances that the whole zone would collapse, were considered extremely slim. However the Greek government - debt crisis led to former British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw claiming the eurozone could not last in its current form. Part of the problem seems to be the rules that were created when the euro was set up. John Lanchester, writing for The New Yorker, explains it:
The most obvious benefit of adopting a single currency is to remove the cost of exchanging currency, theoretically allowing businesses and individuals to consummate previously unprofitable trades. For consumers, banks in the eurozone must charge the same for intra-member cross-border transactions as purely domestic transactions for electronic payments (e.g., credit cards, debit cards and cash machine withdrawals).
The absence of distinct currencies also theoretically removes exchange rate risks, although the imposition of transfer restrictions in 2012 -- 13 Cypriot financial crisis means that the situation is not quite so simple. The risk of unanticipated exchange rate movement has always added an additional risk or uncertainty for companies or individuals that invest or trade outside their own currency zones. Companies that hedge against this risk will no longer need to shoulder this additional cost. This is particularly important for countries whose currencies had traditionally fluctuated a great deal, particularly the Mediterranean nations.
Financial markets on the continent are expected to be far more liquid and flexible than they were in the past. The reduction in cross-border transaction costs will allow larger banking firms to provide a wider array of banking services that can compete across and beyond the eurozone. However, although transaction costs were reduced, some studies have shown that risk aversion has increased during the last 40 years in the Eurozone.
Another effect of the common European currency is that differences in prices -- in particular in price levels -- should decrease because of the law of one price. Differences in prices can trigger arbitrage, i.e., speculative trade in a commodity across borders purely to exploit the price differential. Therefore, prices on commonly traded goods are likely to converge, causing inflation in some regions and deflation in others during the transition. Some evidence of this has been observed in specific eurozone markets.
Low levels of inflation are the hallmark of stable and modern economies. Because a high level of inflation acts as a tax (seigniorage) and theoretically discourages investment, it is generally viewed as undesirable. In spite of the downside, many countries have been unable or unwilling to deal with serious inflationary pressures. Before the introduction of the euro, some countries had successfully contained inflation, which was then seen as a major economic problem, by establishing largely independent central banks. One such bank was the Bundesbank in Germany; the European Central Bank was modelled on the Bundesbank. It is independent of the pressures of national governments and has a mandate to keep inflation low. Member countries that join the euro hope to enjoy the macroeconomic stability associated with low levels of inflation. The ECB (unlike the Federal Reserve in the United States of America) does not have a second objective to sustain growth and employment.
The Euro has come under criticism due to its imperialistic style regulation, lack of flexibility and rigidity towards sharing member States on issues such as nominal interest rates Many national and corporate bonds denominated in euro are significantly more liquid and have lower interest rates than was historically the case when denominated in national currencies. While increased liquidity may lower the nominal interest rate on the bond, denominating the bond in a currency with low levels of inflation arguably plays a much larger role. A credible commitment to low levels of inflation and a stable debt reduces the risk that the value of the debt will be eroded by higher levels of inflation or default in the future, allowing debt to be issued at a lower nominal interest rate.
Unfortunately, there is also a cost in structurally keeping inflation lower than in the United States, UK, and China. The result is that seen from those countries, the euro has become expensive, making European products increasingly expensive for its largest importers. Hence export from the euro zone becomes more difficult. This is one of the main reasons why economic growth inside the euro zone now lags behind growth in other large economies. This effect is strongest in European countries with a weak economy.
In general, those in Europe who own large amounts of euros are served by high stability and low inflation. Those who now need to earn euros, including those countries who need to pay interest on large debts, are likely better served with a slightly less strong euro leading to more export. Because with a lower euro, investors would see better chances for (companies in) southern European countries to grow themselves out of the crisis. As a result, investing there would become less risky, and that would push interest rates for southern countries more in line with the European average.
The contradiction here is that high macroeconomic stability in the form of ongoing historically low inflation over time leads to economic problems, creating higher interest rates and political and economic instability for the weaker partners.
A 2009 consensus from the studies of the introduction of the euro concluded that it has increased trade within the eurozone by 5 % to 10 %, although one study suggested an increase of only 3 % while another estimated 9 to 14 %. However, a meta - analysis of all available studies suggests that the prevalence of positive estimates is caused by publication bias and that the underlying effect may be negligible. Furthermore, studies accounting for time trend reflecting general cohesion policies in Europe that started before, and continue after implementing the common currency find no effect on trade. These results suggest that other policies aimed at European integration might be the source of observed increase in trade.
Physical investment seems to have increased by 5 % in the eurozone due to the introduction. Regarding foreign direct investment, a study found that the intra-eurozone FDI stocks have increased by about 20 % during the first four years of the EMU. Concerning the effect on corporate investment, there is evidence that the introduction of the euro has resulted in an increase in investment rates and that it has made it easier for firms to access financing in Europe. The euro has most specifically stimulated investment in companies that come from countries that previously had weak currencies. A study found that the introduction of the euro accounts for 22 % of the investment rate after 1998 in countries that previously had a weak currency.
The introduction of the euro has led to extensive discussion about its possible effect on inflation. In the short term, there was a widespread impression in the population of the eurozone that the introduction of the euro had led to an increase in prices, but this impression was not confirmed by general indices of inflation and other studies. A study of this paradox found that this was due to an asymmetric effect of the introduction of the euro on prices: while it had no effect on most goods, it had an effect on cheap goods which have seen their price round up after the introduction of the euro. The study found that consumers based their beliefs on inflation of those cheap goods which are frequently purchased. It has also been suggested that the jump in small prices may be because prior to the introduction, retailers made fewer upward adjustments and waited for the introduction of the euro to do so.
One of the advantages of the adoption of a common currency is the reduction of the risk associated with changes in currency exchange rates. It has been found that the introduction of the euro created "significant reductions in market risk exposures for nonfinancial firms both in and outside of Europe ''. These reductions in market risk "were concentrated in firms domiciled in the eurozone and in non-Euro firms with a high fraction of foreign sales or assets in Europe ''.
The introduction of the euro seems to have had a strong effect on European financial integration. According to a study on this question, it has "significantly reshaped the European financial system, especially with respect to the securities markets (...) However, the real and policy barriers to integration in the retail and corporate banking sectors remain significant, even if the wholesale end of banking has been largely integrated. '' Specifically, the euro has significantly decreased the cost of trade in bonds, equity, and banking assets within the eurozone. On a global level, there is evidence that the introduction of the euro has led to an integration in terms of investment in bond portfolios, with eurozone countries lending and borrowing more between each other than with other countries.
As of January 2014, and since the introduction of the euro, interest rates of most members countries (particularly those with a weak currency), have decreased. The countries whose interest rates fell most as a result of the adoption of the euro are Greece, Ireland, Portugal, Spain, and Italy. These very countries have had the most serious sovereign financing problems.
The effect of declining interest rates, combined with excess liquidity continually provided by the ECB, made it easier for banks within the countries in which interest rates fell the most, and their linked sovereigns, to borrow significant amounts (above the 3 % of GDP budget deficit imposed on the eurozone initially) and significantly inflate their public and private debt levels. Following the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008, governments in these countries found it necessary to bail out or nationalise their privately held banks to prevent systemic failure of the banking system when underlying hard or financial asset values were found to be grossly inflated and sometimes so near worthless there was no liquid market for them. This further increased the already high levels of public debt to a level the markets began to consider unsustainable, via increasing government bond interest rates, producing the ongoing European sovereign - debt crisis.
The evidence on the convergence of prices in the eurozone with the introduction of the euro is mixed. Several studies failed to find any evidence of convergence following the introduction of the euro after a phase of convergence in the early 1990s. Other studies have found evidence of price convergence, in particular for cars. A possible reason for the divergence between the different studies is that the processes of convergence may not have been linear, slowing down substantially between 2000 and 2003, and resurfacing after 2003 as suggested by a recent study (2009).
A study suggests that the introduction of the euro has had a positive effect on the amount of tourist travel within the EMU, with an increase of 6.5 %.
The ECB targets interest rates rather than exchange rates and in general does not intervene on the foreign exchange rate markets. This is because of the implications of the Mundell -- Fleming model, which implies a central bank can not (without capital controls) maintain interest rate and exchange rate targets simultaneously, because increasing the money supply results in a depreciation of the currency. In the years following the Single European Act, the EU has liberalised its capital markets, and as the ECB has chosen monetary autonomy, the exchange - rate regime of the euro is flexible, or floating. The result of the ECB maintaining historically low interest rates and restricting money supply has been that over the last decade the euro has become expensive relative to the currency of Europe 's main trading partners. However, in 2010, the euro started on a sharp decline. Starting at U.S $1.60 in 2008, and dropping to US $ 1.04 in 2015.In the following months € recovered till the value of 1.19 U.S. $. The Canadian dollar in the long term had a decline against €.
The euro is the second-most widely held reserve currency after the U.S. dollar. After its introduction on 4 January 1999 its exchange rate against the other major currencies fell reaching its lowest exchange rates in 2000 (25 October vs the U.S. dollar, 26 October vs Japanese Yen, 3 May vs Pound Sterling). Afterwards it regained and its exchange rate reached its historical highest point in 2008 (15 July vs U.S. dollar, 23 July vs Japanese Yen, 29 December vs Pound Sterling). With the advent of the global financial crisis the euro initially fell, only to regain later. Despite pressure due to the European sovereign - debt crisis the euro remained stable. In November 2011 the euro 's exchange rate index -- measured against currencies of the bloc 's major trading partners -- was trading almost two percent higher on the year, approximately at the same level as it was before the crisis kicked off in 2007.In late August 2017 € rose again above 1.20 $. It also hit new relative or absolute highs against £ and other currencies.
The formal titles of the currency are euro for the major unit and cent for the minor (one hundredth) unit and for official use in most eurozone languages; according to the ECB, all languages should use the same spelling for the nominative singular. This may contradict normal rules for word formation in some languages, e.g., those where there is no eu diphthong. Bulgaria has negotiated an exception; euro in the Bulgarian Cyrillic alphabet is spelled as eвро (evro) and not eуро (euro) in all official documents. In the Greek script the term ευρώ (evró) is used; the Greek "cent '' coins are denominated in λεπτό / ά (leptó / á). Official practice for English - language EU legislation is to use the words euro and cent as both singular and plural, although the European Commission 's Directorate - General for Translation states that the plural forms euros and cents should be used in English.
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how many goals were scored in the group stages of the last world cup | 2014 FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The 2014 FIFA World Cup was the 20th FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial world championship for men 's national football teams organized by FIFA. It took place in Brazil from 12 June to 13 July 2014, after the country was awarded the hosting rights in 2007. It was the second time that Brazil staged the competition, the first being in 1950, and the fifth time that it was held in South America.
Thirty - one national teams advanced through qualification competitions to join the host nation in the final tournament (with Bosnia and Herzegovina as only debutant). A total of 64 matches were played in 12 venues located in as many host cities across Brazil. For the first time at a World Cup finals, match officials used goal - line technology, as well as vanishing spray for free kicks. FIFA Fan Fests in each host city gathered a total of 5 million people, and the country received 1 million visitors from 202 countries. Every World Cup - winning team since the first tournament in 1930 -- Argentina, Brazil, England, France, Germany, Italy, Spain and Uruguay -- qualified for this tournament. Spain, the title holders, were eliminated at the group stage, along with England and Italy. Uruguay were eliminated in the round of 16, and France exited in the quarter - finals. Host nation Brazil, who had won the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, lost to Germany 7 -- 1 in the semi-finals and eventually finished in fourth place.
In the final, Germany defeated Argentina 1 -- 0 to win the tournament and secure the country 's fourth world title, the first after the German reunification in 1990, when as West Germany they also beat Argentina in the World Cup final. Germany became the first European team to win a World Cup staged in the Americas, and this result marked the third consecutive title won by a European team, after Italy in 2006 and Spain in 2010.
In March 2003, FIFA announced that the tournament would be held in South America for the first time since 1978, in line with its then - active policy of rotating the right to host the World Cup among different confederations. With 2010 FIFA World Cup hosted in South Africa, it would be the second consecutive World Cup outside of Europe, which was a first for the tournament. It was also second in the Southern Hemisphere. Only Brazil and Colombia formally declared their candidacy but, after the withdrawal of the latter from the process, Brazil was officially elected as host nation unopposed on 30 October 2007.
Following qualification matches played between June 2011 and November 2013, the following 32 teams -- shown with their last pre-tournament FIFA world ranking -- qualified for the final tournament. Twenty - four of these teams were returning participants from the 2010 World Cup. Bosnia and Herzegovina were the only team with no previous appearance at the World Cup finals. Colombia qualified for the World Cup after 16 years of absence, while the 2018 World Cup hosts Russia and Belgium returned after 12 years. Paraguay failed to qualify for the first time since 1994. This was also the first World Cup for 32 years that did not feature a representative from the Nordic countries. The highest ranked team not to qualify was Ukraine (ranked 16th), while the lowest ranked team that did qualify was Australia (ranked 62nd).
The 32 participating teams were drawn into eight groups. In preparation for this, the teams were organised into four pots with the seven highest - ranked teams joining host nation Brazil in the seeded pot. As with the previous tournaments, FIFA aimed to create groups which maximised geographic separation and therefore the unseeded teams were arranged into pots based on geographic considerations. The draw took place on 6 December 2013 at the Costa do Sauípe resort in Bahia, during which the teams were drawn by various past World Cup - winning players. Under the draw procedure, one randomly drawn team -- Italy -- was firstly relocated from Pot 4 to Pot 2 to create four equal pots of eight teams.
In March 2013, FIFA published a list of 52 prospective referees, each paired, on the basis of nationality, with two assistant referees, from all six football confederations for the tournament. On 14 January 2014, the FIFA Referees Committee appointed 25 referee trios and eight support duos representing 43 countries for the tournament. Yuichi Nishimura from Japan acted as referee in the opening match whereas Nicola Rizzoli from Italy acted as referee in the final.
As with the 2010 tournament, each team 's squad consists of 23 players (three of whom must be goalkeepers). Each participating national association had to confirm their final 23 - player squad no later than 10 days before the start of the tournament. Teams were permitted to make late replacements in the event of serious injury, at any time up to 24 hours before their first game. During a match, all remaining squad members not named in the starting team are available to be one of the three permitted substitutions (provided the player is not serving a suspension).
12 venues (seven new and five renovated) in twelve cities were selected for the tournament. The venues covered all the main regions of Brazil and created more evenly distributed hosting than the 1950 finals in Brazil. Consequently, the tournament required long - distance travel for teams. During the World Cup, Brazilian cities were also home to the participating teams at 32 separate base camps, as well as staging official fan fests where supporters could view the games.
The most used stadiums were the Maracana and Brasilia, which hosted seven matches each. The least - used venues were in Cuiaba, Manaus, Natal and Curitiba, which hosted four matches each; as the four smallest stadiums in use at the tournament, they did not host any knockout round matches.
Base camps were used by the 32 national squads to stay and train before and during the World Cup tournament. On 31 January 2014, FIFA announced the base camps for each participating team, having earlier circulated a brochure of 84 prospective locations. Most teams opted to stay in the Southeast Region of Brazil, with only eight teams choosing other regions; five teams (Croatia, Germany, Ghana, Greece and Switzerland) opted to stay in the Northeast Region and three teams (Ecuador, South Korea and Spain) opted to stay in the South Region. None opted to stay in the North Region or the Central - West Region.
For a third consecutive World Cup tournament, FIFA staged FIFA Fan Fests in each of the 12 host cities throughout the competition. Prominent examples were the Copacabana Beach in Rio de Janeiro, which already held a Fan Fest in 2010, and São Paulo 's Vale do Anhangabaú. The first official event took place on Iracema Beach, in Fortaleza, on 8 June 2014.
To avoid ghost goals the 2014 World Cup introduced goal - line technology following successful trials at among others 2013 Confederations Cup. The chosen Goal Control system featured 14 high speed cameras, 7 directed to each of the goals. Data were sent to the central image - processing centre, where a virtual representation of the ball was output on a widescreen to confirm the goal. The referee was equipped with a watch which vibrated and displayed a signal upon a goal. France 's second goal in their group game against Honduras was the first time goal - line technology was needed to confirm that a goal should be given.
Following successful trials, FIFA approved the use of vanishing spray by the referees for the first time at a World Cup Finals. The water - based spray, which disappears within minutes of application, can be used to mark a ten - yard line for the defending team during a free kick and also to draw where the ball is to be placed for a free kick.
The Adidas Brazuca was the official match ball of the 2014 FIFA World Cup and was supplied by Forward Sports of Sialkot, Pakistan. Adidas created a new design of ball after criticisms of the Adidas Jabulani used in the previous World Cup. The number of panels was reduced to six, with the panels being thermally bonded. This created a ball with increased consistency and aerodynamics compared to its predecessor. Furthermore, Adidas underwent an extensive testing process lasting more than two years to produce a ball that would meet the approval of football professionals.
Because of the relatively high ambient temperatures in Brazil, particularly at the northern venues, cooling breaks for the players were introduced. Breaks could take place at the referee 's discretion after the 30th minute of each half if the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature exceeded 32 ° C (90 ° F).
The first cooling break in World Cup play took place during the 32nd minute of the match between the Netherlands and Mexico in the round of 16. At the start of the match, FIFA listed the temperature at 32 ° C (90 ° F) with 68 % humidity.
The biological passport was introduced in the FIFA World Cup starting in 2014. Blood and urine samples from all players before the competition, and from two players per team per match, are analysed by the Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses. FIFA reported that 91.5 % of the players taking part in the tournament were tested before the start of the competition and none tested positive. However, FIFA was criticised for how it conducted doping tests.
The first round, or group stage, was a competition between the 32 teams divided among eight groups of four, where each group engaged in a round - robin tournament within itself. The two highest ranked teams in each group advanced to the knockout stage. Teams were awarded three points for a win and one for a draw. When comparing teams in a group over-all result came before head - to - head.
In the knockout stage there were four rounds (round of 16, quarter - finals, semi-finals, and the final), with each eliminating the losers. The two semi-final losers competed in a third place play - off. For any match in the knockout stage, a draw after 90 minutes of regulation time was followed by two 15 minute periods of extra time to determine a winner. If the teams were still tied, a penalty shoot - out was held to determine a winner.
The match schedule was announced on 20 October 2011 with the kick - off times being confirmed on 27 September 2012; after the final draw, the kick - off times of seven matches were adjusted by FIFA. The competition was organised so that teams that played each other in the group stage could not meet again during the knockout phase until the final (or the 3rd place match). The group stage began on 12 June, with the host nation competing in the opening game as has been the format since the 2006 tournament. The opening game was preceded by an opening ceremony that began at 15: 15 local time.
The group stage of the cup took place in Brazil from 12 June 2014 to 26 June 2014: each team played three games. The group stage was notable for a scarcity of draws and a large number of goals. The first drawn (and goalless) match did not occur until the 13th match of the tournament, between Iran and Nigeria: a drought longer than any World Cup since 1930. The group stage produced a total of 136 goals (an average of 2.83 goals per match), nine fewer than were scored during the entire 2010 tournament. This is the largest number of goals in the group stage since the 32 - team system was implemented in 1998 and the largest average in a group stage since 1958. World Cup holders Spain were eliminated after only two games, the quickest exit for the defending champions since Italy 's from the 1950 tournament. Spain also became the fourth nation to be eliminated in the first round while holding the World Cup crown, the first one being Italy in 1950 (and again in 2010), the second Brazil in 1966, and the third France in 2002.
Scores after extra time are indicated by (aet), and penalty shoot - outs are indicated by (pen.).
For the first time since the introduction of a round of 16 after the group stage in 1986, all the group winners advanced into the quarter - finals. They included four teams from UEFA, three from CONMEBOL, and one from CONCACAF. Of the eight matches, five required extra-time, and two of these required penalty shoot - outs; this was the first time penalty shoot - outs occurred in more than one game in a round of 16. The goal average per game in the round of 16 was 2.25, a drop of 0.58 goals per game from the group stage. The eight teams to win in the round of 16 included four former champions (Brazil, Germany, Argentina and France), a three - time runner - up (Netherlands), and two first - time quarter - finalists (Colombia and Costa Rica). Belgium reached the quarter - finals for the first time since 1986.
All times listed below are at local time (UTC − 3)
With a 1 -- 0 victory over France, Germany set a World Cup record with four consecutive semi-final appearances. Brazil beat Colombia 2 -- 1, but Brazil 's Neymar was injured and missed the rest of the competition. Argentina reached the final four for the first time since 1990 after a 1 -- 0 win over Belgium. The Netherlands reached the semi-finals for the second consecutive tournament, after overcoming Costa Rica in a penalty shoot - out following a 0 -- 0 draw at the end of extra time.
Germany qualified for the final for the eighth time with a historic 7 -- 1 win over Brazil -- the biggest defeat in Brazilian football since 1920. Miroslav Klose 's goal in this match was his 16th throughout all World Cups, breaking the record he had previously shared with Ronaldo. Klose set another record by becoming the first player to appear in four World Cup semi-finals. Argentina reached their first final since 1990, and the fifth overall after overcoming the Netherlands in a penalty shoot - out following a 0 -- 0 draw at the end of extra time.
The Netherlands defeated Brazil 3 -- 0 to secure third place, the first for the Dutch team in their history. Overall, Brazil conceded 14 goals in the tournament; this was the most by a team at any single World Cup since 1986, and the most by a host nation in history, although their fourth - place finish still represented Brazil 's best result in a World Cup since their last win in 2002.
The final featured Germany against Argentina for a record third time after 1986 and 1990.
This marked the first time that teams from the same continent had won three consecutive World Cups (following Italy in 2006 and Spain in 2010). It was also the first time that a European nation had won the World Cup in the Americas. On aggregate Europe now has 11 victories, compared to South America 's 9 victories.
James Rodríguez was awarded the Golden Boot for scoring six goals, the first time that a Colombian player received the award. In total, 171 goals were scored by a record 121 players, with five credited as own goals. Goals scored from penalty shoot - outs are not counted.
Source: FIFA
The most notable disciplinary case was that of Uruguayan striker Luis Suárez, who was suspended for nine international matches and banned from taking part in any football - related activity (including entering any stadium) for four months, following a biting incident on Italian defender Giorgio Chiellini. He was also fined CHF 100,000. After an appeal to the Court of Arbitration for Sport, Suárez was later allowed to participate in training and friendly matches with new club Barcelona.
The following awards were given at the conclusion of the tournament:
Lionel Messi Thomas Müller Arjen Robben
Ángel Di María James Rodríguez Javier Mascherano Mats Hummels Neymar Philipp Lahm Toni Kroos
James Rodríguez (6 goals, 2 assists) Thomas Müller (5 goals, 3 assists) Neymar (4 goals, 1 assist)
Manuel Neuer
Keylor Navas Sergio Romero
Paul Pogba
Memphis Depay Raphaël Varane
Colombia
The members of the Technical Study Group, the committee that decided which players won the awards, were led by FIFA 's head of the Technical Division Jean - Paul Brigger and featured:
There were changes to the voting procedure for awards for the 2014 edition: while in 2010 accredited media were allowed to vote for the Golden Ball award, in 2014 only the Technical Study Group could select the outcome.
As was the case during the 2010 edition, FIFA did not release an official All - Star Team, but instead invited users of FIFA.com to elect their Dream Team.
Manuel Neuer (Germany)
Marcelo (Brazil) Mats Hummels (Germany) Thiago Silva (Brazil) David Luiz (Brazil)
Ángel Di María (Argentina) Toni Kroos (Germany) James Rodríguez (Colombia)
Neymar (Brazil) Lionel Messi (Argentina) Thomas Müller (Germany)
Joachim Löw (Germany)
Castrol, the official sponsor of the tournament, released a team of the tournament based on their Castrol Performance Index, which evaluates player performances through statistical data. The team consisted of the players leading each position, with midfielder Toni Kroos ranked as the overall leader. Lionel Messi, the Golden Ball recipient, finished fifth among forwards and was thus not included in the team.
Manuel Neuer (Germany)
Marcos Rojo (Argentina) Mats Hummels (Germany) Thiago Silva (Brazil) Stefan de Vrij (Netherlands)
Oscar (Brazil) Toni Kroos (Germany) Philipp Lahm (Germany) James Rodríguez (Colombia)
Arjen Robben (Netherlands) Thomas Müller (Germany)
The total prize money on offer for the tournament was confirmed by FIFA as US $576 million (including payments of $70 million to domestic clubs and $100 million as player insurances), a 37 percent increase from the amount allocated in the 2010 tournament. Before the tournament, each of the 32 entrants received $1.5 million for preparation costs. At the tournament, the prize money was distributed as follows:
Per statistical convention in football, matches decided in extra time are counted as wins and losses, while matches decided by penalty shoot - outs are counted as draws.
Costs of the tournament totalled $11.6 billion, making it the most expensive World Cup to date, until surpassed by 2018 FIFA World Cup which cost an estimated $14.2 billion. FIFA was expected to spend US $2 billion on staging the finals, with its greatest single expense being the US $576 million prize money pot.
Although organisers originally estimated costs of US $1.1 billion, a reported US $3.6 billion was ultimately spent on stadium works. Five of the chosen host cities had brand new venues built specifically for the World Cup, while the Estádio Nacional Mané Garrincha in the capital Brasília was demolished and rebuilt, with the remaining six being extensively renovated.
An additional R $3 billion (US $1.3 billion, € 960 million, £ 780 million at June 2014 rates) was earmarked by the Brazilian government for investment in infrastructure works and projects for use during the 2014 World Cup and beyond. However, the failed completion of many of the proposed works provoked discontent among some Brazilians.
The Brazilian government pledged US $900 million to be invested into security forces and that the tournament would be "one of the most protected sports events in history. ''
The marketing of the 2014 FIFA World Cup included sale of tickets, support from sponsors and promotion through events that utilise the symbols and songs of the tournament. Popular merchandise included items featuring the official mascot as well as an official video game that has been developed by EA Sports. The official song of the tournament was "We Are One (Ole Ola) '' with vocals from Pitbull, Jennifer Lopez and Claudia Leitte. As a partner of the German Football Association, the German airline Lufthansa renamed itself "Fanhansa '' on some of its planes that flew the German national team, media representatives and football fans to Brazil.
The sponsors of the 2014 World Cup are divided into three categories: FIFA Partners, FIFA World Cup Sponsors and National Supporters.
For a fourth consecutive FIFA World Cup Finals, the coverage was provided by HBS (Host Broadcast Services), a subsidiary of Infront Sports & Media. Sony was selected as the official equipment provider and built 12 bespoke high definition production 40 - foot - long containers, one for each tournament venue, to house the extensive amount of equipment required. Each match utilised 37 standard camera plans, including Aerial and Cablecam, two Ultramotion cameras and dedicated cameras for interviews. The official tournament film, as well as three matches, will be filmed with ultra high definition technology (4K resolution), following a successful trial at the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup.
The broadcasting rights -- covering television, radio, internet and mobile coverage -- for the tournament were sold to media companies in each individual territory either directly by FIFA, or through licensed companies or organisations such as the European Broadcasting Union, Organización de Televisión Iberoamericana, International Media Content, Dentsu and RS International Broadcasting & Sports Management. The sale of these rights accounted for an estimated 60 % of FIFA 's income from staging a World Cup. The International Broadcast Centre was situated at the Riocentro in the Barra da Tijuca neighbourhood of Rio de Janeiro.
Worldwide, several games qualified as the most - watched sporting events in their country in 2014, including 42.9 million people in Brazil for the opening game between Brazil and Croatia, the 34.1 million in Japan who saw their team play Ivory Coast, and 34.7 million in Germany who saw their national team win the World Cup against Argentina, while the 24.7 million viewers during the game between the USA and Portugal is joint with the 2010 final as the most - watched football game in the United States. According to FIFA, over one billion people tuned in worldwide to watch the final between Germany and Argentina.
The 2014 FIFA World Cup generated various controversies, including demonstrations, some of which took place even before the tournament started. Furthermore, there were various issues with safety, including eight deaths of workers and a fire during construction, breaches into stadiums, an unstable makeshift staircase at the Maracanã Stadium, a monorail collapse, and the collapse of an unfinished overpass in Belo Horizonte. The houses of thousands of families living in Rio de Janeiro 's slums were cleared for redevelopments for the World Cup in spite of protests and resistance. Favela do Metrô, near the Maracanã Stadium, was completely destroyed as a result, having previously housed 700 families in 2010.
Prior to the opening ceremony of the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup staged in Brazil, demonstrations took place outside the venue, organised by people unhappy with the amount of public money spent to enable the hosting of the FIFA World Cup. Both the Brazilian president Dilma Rousseff and FIFA president Sepp Blatter were heavily booed as they were announced to give their speeches at the 2013 tournament 's opening, which resulted in FIFA announcing that the 2014 FIFA World Cup opening ceremony would not feature any speeches. Further protests took place during the Confederations Cup as well as prior to and during the World Cup.
At the Group B match between Spain and Chile, around 100 Chilean supporters who had gathered outside Maracanã Stadium forced their way into the stadium and caused damage to the media centre. Military police reported that 85 Chileans were detained during the events, while others reached the stands. Earlier, about 20 Argentinians made a similar breach during Argentina 's Group F game against Bosnia and Herzegovina at the same stadium.
On 3 July 2014, an overpass under construction in Belo Horizonte as part of the World Cup infrastructure projects collapsed onto a busy carriageway below, leaving two people dead and 22 others injured.
During the tournament, FIFA received significant criticism for the way head injuries are handled during matches. Two incidents in particular attracted the most attention. First, in a group stage match, after Uruguayan defender Álvaro Pereira received a blow to the head, he lay unconscious. The Uruguayan doctor signaled for the player to be substituted, but he returned to the match. The incident drew criticism from the professional players ' union FIFPro, and from Michel D'Hooghe, a member of the FIFA executive board and chairman of its medical committee.
Second, in the Final, German midfielder Christoph Kramer received a blow to the head from a collision in the 14th minute, but returned to the match before collapsing in the 31st minute. During that time, Kramer was disoriented and confused, and asked the referee Nicola Rizzoli whether the match he was playing in was the World Cup Final.
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who was the father of the constitutional convention | Founding Fathers of the United States - wikipedia
The Founding Fathers of the United States were descendants of colonists settled in the Thirteen Colonies in North America who led the American Revolution against the Kingdom of Great Britain.
Historian Richard B. Morris in 1973 identified the following seven figures as the key Founding Fathers: John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and George Washington. Adams, Jefferson, and Franklin were members of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence. Hamilton, Madison, and Jay were authors of The Federalist Papers, advocating ratification of the Constitution. The constitutions drafted by Jay and Adams for their respective states of New York (1777) and Massachusetts (1780) were heavily relied upon when creating language for the US Constitution. Jay, Adams and Franklin negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1783) that would end the American Revolutionary War. Washington was Commander - in - Chief of the Continental Army and was President of the Constitutional Convention. All held additional important roles in the early government of the United States, with Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and Madison serving as President. Jay was the nation 's first Chief Justice, Hamilton was the first Secretary of the Treasury, and Franklin was America 's most senior diplomat, and later the governmental leader of Pennsylvania.
The term Founding Fathers is sometimes used to refer to the Signers of the embossed version of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. Signers should not be confused with the term Framers; the Framers are defined by the National Archives as those 55 individuals who were appointed to be delegates to the 1787 Constitutional Convention and took part in drafting the proposed Constitution of the United States. Of the 55 Framers, only 39 were signers of the Constitution. Two further groupings of Founding Fathers include: 1) those who signed the Continental Association, a trade ban and one of the colonists ' first collective volleys protesting British control and the Intolerable Acts in 1774 or 2) those who signed the Articles of Confederation, the first U.S. constitutional document.
The phrase "Founding Fathers '' is a twentieth - century appellation, coined by Warren G. Harding in 1916. Prior to, and during the 19th century, they were referred to as simply the "Fathers ''. The term has been used to describe the founders and first settlers of the original royal colonies.
The First Continental Congress met briefly in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1774, consisting of fifty - six delegates from twelve of the thirteen colonies (excluding Georgia) that became the United States of America. Among them was George Washington, who would soon be drawn out of military retirement to command the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. Also in attendance was Patrick Henry, and John Adams, who like all delegates were elected by their respective colonial assemblies. Other delegates included Samuel Adams from Massachusetts, John Dickinson from Pennsylvania and New York 's John Jay. This congress in addition to formulating appeals to the British crown, established the Continental Association to administer boycott actions against Britain.
When the Second Continental Congress convened on May 10, 1775, it essentially reconstituted the First Congress. Many of the same 56 delegates who attended the first meeting participated in the second. New arrivals included Benjamin Franklin and Robert Morris of Pennsylvania, John Hancock of Massachusetts, and John Witherspoon of New Jersey. Hancock was elected Congress President two weeks into the session when Peyton Randolph was recalled to Virginia to preside over the House of Burgesses. Thomas Jefferson replaced Randolph in the Virginia congressional delegation. The second Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. Witherspoon was the only active clergyman to sign the Declaration. He also signed the Articles of Confederation and attended the New Jersey (1787) convention that ratified the Federal Constitution.
The newly founded country of the United States had to create a new government to replace the British Parliament. The U.S. adopted the Articles of Confederation, a declaration that established a national government with a one - house legislature. Its ratification by all thirteen colonies gave the second Congress a new name: the Congress of the Confederation, which met from 1781 to 1789. The Constitutional Convention took place during the summer of 1787, in Philadelphia. Although the Convention was called to revise the Articles of Confederation, the intention from the outset for some including James Madison and Alexander Hamilton was to create a new frame of government rather than amending the existing one. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the Convention. The result of the Convention was the United States Constitution and the replacement of the Continental Congress with the United States Congress.
The Founding Fathers represented a cross-section of 18th - century U.S. leadership. Almost all of them were well - educated men of means who were leaders in their communities. Many were also prominent in national affairs. Virtually every one had taken part in the American Revolution; at least 29 had served in the Continental Army, most of them in positions of command. Scholars have examined the collective biography of them as well as the signers of the Declaration and the Constitution.
Many of the Founding Fathers attended or held degrees from the colonial colleges, most notably Columbia known at the time as "King 's College '', Princeton originally known as "The College of New Jersey '', Harvard College, the College of William and Mary, Yale College and University of Pennsylvania. Some had previously been home schooled or obtained early instruction from private tutors or academies. Others had studied abroad. Ironically, Benjamin Franklin who had little formal education himself would ultimately establish the College of Philadelphia based on European models (1740); "Penn '' would have the first medical school (1765) in the thirteen colonies where another Founder, Benjamin Rush would eventually teach.
With a limited number of professional schools established in the U.S., Founders also sought advanced degrees from traditional institutions in England and Scotland such as the University of Edinburgh, the University of St. Andrews, and the University of Glasgow.
Several like John Jay, James Wilson, John Williams and George Wythe were trained as lawyers through apprenticeships in the colonies while a few trained at the Inns of Court in London.
Franklin, Washington, John Williams and Henry Wisner had little formal education and were largely self - taught or learned through apprenticeship.
Some of the Founding Fathers were natives of the Thirteen Colonies.
At least nine were born outside of the Thirteen Colonies
Many of them had moved from one state to another. Eighteen had already lived, studied or worked in more than one state or colony: Baldwin, Bassett, Bedford, Davie, Dickinson, Few, Franklin, Ingersoll, Hamilton, Livingston, Alexander Martin, Luther Martin, Mercer, Gouverneur Morris, Robert Morris, Read, Sherman, and Williamson.
Several others had studied or traveled abroad.
The Founding Fathers practiced a wide range of high and middle - status occupations, and many pursued more than one career simultaneously. They did not differ dramatically from the Loyalists, except they were generally younger and less senior in their professions.
Historian Caroline Robbins in 1977 examined the status of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence and concluded:
Several of the Founding Fathers had extensive national, state, local and foreign political experience prior to the adoption of the Constitution in 1787. Some had been diplomats. Several had been members of the Continental Congress or elected President of that body.
Nearly all of the 55 Constitutional Convention delegates had some experience in colonial and state government, and the majority had held county and local offices. Those who lacked national congressional experience were Bassett, Blair, Brearly, Broom, Davie, Dayton, Alexander Martin, Luther Martin, Mason, McClurg, Paterson, Charles Pinckney, Strong, and Yates.
Franklin T. Lambert (2003) has examined the religious affiliations and beliefs of some of the Founders. Of the 55 delegates to the 1787 Constitutional Convention, 28 were Anglicans (in the Church of England; or Episcopalian, after the American Revolutionary War was won), 21 were Protestants, and two were Roman Catholics (D. Carroll, and Fitzsimons). Among the Protestant delegates to the Constitutional Convention, eight were Presbyterians, seven were Congregationalists, two were Lutherans, two were Dutch Reformed, and two were Methodists.
A few prominent Founding Fathers were anti-clerical Christians such as Thomas Jefferson, who constructed the Jefferson Bible, and Benjamin Franklin.
Historian Gregg L. Frazer argues that the leading Founders (Adams, Jefferson, Franklin, Wilson, Morris, Madison, Hamilton, and Washington) were neither Christians nor Deists, but rather supporters of a hybrid "theistic rationalism ''.
The Faiths of the Founding Fathers is a book that discusses the religion held by the founding fathers, written in 2006 by historian of U.S. religion David L. Holmes.
The founding father were not unified on the issue of slavery. In her study of Thomas Jefferson, historian Annette Gordon - Reed discusses this topic, "Others of the founders held slaves, but no other founder drafted the charter for freedom, '' In addition to Jefferson, George Washington, John Jay and many other of the Founding Fathers practiced slavery but were also conflicted by the institution which many saw as immoral and politically divisive.
Franklin, though he was a key founder of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society originally owned slaves whom he later manumitted. John Jay would try unsuccessfully to abolish slavery as early as 1777 in the State of New York. He nonetheless founded the New York Manumission Society in 1785, for which Hamilton became an officer. They and other members of the Society founded the African Free School in New York City, to educate the children of free blacks and slaves. It was not until Jay was governor of New York in 1798, that he signed into law a gradual abolition law; fully ending slavery as of 1827. He freed his own slaves in 1798. Alexander Hamilton opposed slavery, as his experiences in life left him very familiar with slavery and its effect on slaves and on slaveholders, although he did negotiate slave transactions for his wife 's family, the Schuylers. John Adams, Samuel Adams, and Thomas Paine never owned slaves.
Slaves and slavery are mentioned only indirectly in the 1787 Constitution. For example, Article 1, Section 2, Clause 3 prescribes that "three fifths of all other Persons '' are to be counted for the apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives and direct taxes. Additionally, in Article 4, Section 2, Clause 3, slaves are referred to as "persons held in service or labor ''. The Founding Fathers, however, did make important efforts to contain slavery. Many Northern states had adopted legislation to end or significantly reduce slavery during and after the American Revolution. In 1782 Virginia passed a manumission law that allowed slave owners to free their slaves by will or deed. As a result, thousands of slaves were manumitted in Virginia. Thomas Jefferson, in 1784, proposed to ban slavery in all the Western Territories, which failed to pass Congress by one vote. Partially following Jefferson 's plan, Congress did ban slavery in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, for lands north of the Ohio River.
The international slave trade was banned in all states except South Carolina, by 1800. Finally in 1807, President Jefferson called for and signed into law a Federally - enforced ban on the international slave trade throughout the U.S. and its territories. It became a federal crime to import or export a slave. However, the domestic slave trade was allowed, for expansion, or for diffusion of slavery into the Louisiana Territory.
In the winter and spring of 1786 -- 1787, twelve of the thirteen states chose a total of 74 delegates to attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. Nineteen delegates chose not to accept election or attend the debates; for example, Patrick Henry of Virginia thought that state politics were far more interesting and important than national politics, though during the ratification controversy of 1787 -- 1788 he claimed, "I smelled a rat. '' Rhode Island did not send delegates because of its politicians ' suspicions of the Convention delegates ' motivations. As the colony was founded by Roger Williams as a sanctuary for Baptists, Rhode Island 's absence at the Convention in part explains the absence of Baptist affiliation among those who did attend. Of the 55 who did attend at some point, no more than 38 delegates showed up at one time.
Only four were lifelong bachelors. Many of their spouses, like Eliza Schuyler Hamilton, Martha Washington, Abigail Adams, Sarah Livingston Jay, Dolley Madison, Mary White Morris and Catherine Alexander Duer were strong women who made significant contributions of their own to the fight for liberty.
Sherman fathered the largest family: 15 children by two wives. At least nine (Bassett, Brearly, Johnson, Mason, Paterson, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Sherman, Wilson, and Wythe) married more than once. Four (Baldwin, Gilman, Jenifer, and Alexander Martin) were lifelong bachelors. Many of the delegates also had children conceived illegitimately. George Washington, "The Father of our Country, '' had no biological descendants.
The National Archives and Records Administration also known as NARA, defines U.S. Founding Documents, or Charters of Freedom, as the Declaration of Independence (1776), The Constitution (1787) and the Bill of Rights (1791). These original instruments which represent the philosophy of the United States are housed in Washington, D.C. in the NARA Rotunda. The Library of Congress further identifies the Articles of Confederation, also preserved at NARA, as a primary U.S. document. The Articles of Confederation served as the first constitution of the United States until its replacement by the present Constitution on March 4, 1789.
Signatories of the Continental Association (CA), Declaration of Independence (DI), Articles of Confederation (AC), and the United States Constitution (USC)):
Subsequent events in the lives of the Founding Fathers after the adoption of the Constitution were characterized by success or failure, reflecting the abilities of these men as well as the vagaries of fate. Washington, Adams, Jefferson and Madison served in highest U.S. office of President. Jay would be appointed as Chief Justice of the United States and later elected to two terms as Governor of New York.
Seven (Fitzsimons, Gorham, Luther Martin, Mifflin, Robert Morris, Pierce, and Wilson) suffered serious financial reversals that left them in or near bankruptcy. Robert Morris spent three of the last years of his life imprisoned following bad land deals. Two, Blount and Dayton, were involved in possibly treasonous activities. Yet, as they had done before the convention, most of the group continued to render public service, particularly to the new government they had helped to create.
Many of the Founding Fathers were under 40 years old at the time of the signing of the Declaration of Independence in 1776: James Armistead Lafayette was 15, Marquis de Lafayette was 18, Alexander Hamilton was 19, Aaron Burr was 20, Gouverneur Morris and Betsy Ross were 24. The oldest were Benjamin Franklin, 70, and Samuel Whittemore, 81.
Secretary Charles Thomson lived to the age of 94. Johnson died at 92. John Adams lived to the age of 90. A few -- Franklin, Jay, Jefferson, Madison, Hugh Williamson, and George Wythe -- lived into their eighties. Approximately 16 died in their seventies, 21 in their sixties, 8 in their fifties, and 5 in their forties. Three (Alexander Hamilton, Richard Dobbs Spaight and Button Gwinnett) were killed in duels.
Friends and political adversaries John Adams and Thomas Jefferson both died on the same day -- July 4, 1826.
The last remaining founders, also called the "Last of the Romans '', lived well into the nineteenth century.
The following men and women are also recognized by many as having been founders of the United States, based upon their contributions to the formation of American nation and democracy.
Several Founding Fathers were instrumental in establishing schools and societal institutions that still exist today:
Articles and books by twenty - first century historians combined with the digitization of primary sources like handwritten letters continue to contribute to an encyclopedic body of knowledge about the Founding Fathers.
Ron Chernow won the Pulitzer Prize for his biography of George Washington. His bestselling book about Alexander Hamilton inspired the blockbuster musical of the same name.
Joseph J. Ellis -- According to Ellis, the concept of the Founding Fathers of the U.S. emerged in the 1820s as the last survivors died out. Ellis says "the founders '', or "the fathers '', comprised an aggregate of semi-sacred figures whose particular accomplishments and singular achievements were decidedly less important than their sheer presence as a powerful but faceless symbol of past greatness. For the generation of national leaders coming of age in the 1820s and 1830s -- men like Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun -- "the founders '' represented a heroic but anonymous abstraction whose long shadow fell across all followers and whose legendary accomplishments defied comparison.
We can win no laurels in a war for independence, '' Webster acknowledged in 1825. "Earlier and worthier hands have gathered them all. Nor are there places for us... (as) the founders of states. Our fathers have filled them. But there remains to us a great duty of defence and preservation.
Joanne B. Freeman Freeman 's area of expertise is the life and legacy of Alexander Hamilton as well as political culture of the revolutionary and early national eras. Freeman has documented the often opposing visions of the Founding Fathers as they tried to build a new framework for governance, "Regional distrust, personal animosity, accusation, suspicion, implication, and denouncement -- this was the tenor of national politics from the outset. ''
Annette Gordon - Reed is an American historian and Harvard Law School professor. She is noted for changing scholarship on Thomas Jefferson regarding his relationship with Sally Hemings and her children. She has studied the challenges facing the Founding Fathers particularly as it relates to their position and actions on slavery. She points out "the central dilemma at the heart of American democracy: the desire to create a society based on liberty and equality '' that yet does not extend those privileges to all. ''
Jack N. Rakove -- Thomas Jefferson
Peter S. Onuf -- Thomas Jefferson
The Founding Fathers were portrayed in the Tony Award winning musical 1776, a stage production about the debates over, and eventual adoption of, the Declaration of Independence; the popular performance was later turned into the 1972 film
More recently, several of the Founding Fathers -- Hamilton, Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Laurens and Burr -- were reimagined in Hamilton, an acclaimed production about the life of Alexander Hamilton, with music, lyrics and book by Lin - Manuel Miranda. The show was inspired by the 2004 biography Alexander Hamilton by historian Ron Chernow. The rap musical won 11 Tony Awards.
In their 2015 children 's book, The Founding Fathers author Jonah Winter and illustrator Barry Blitt categorized 14 leading patriots into two teams based on their contributions to the formation of America - the Varsity Squad (Washington, Franklin, Jefferson, John Adams, Madison, Jay, and Hamilton) and the Junior Varsity Squad (Sam Adams, Hancock, Henry, Morris, Marshall, Rush, and Paine).
President of Pennsylvania (1785 -- 1788), Ambassador to France (1779 -- 1785)
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when was the first modern electric car made | History of the electric vehicle - wikipedia
Electric vehicles first appeared in the mid-19th century. An electric vehicle held the vehicular land speed record until around 1900. The high cost, low top speed, and short range of battery electric vehicles, compared to later internal combustion engine vehicles, led to a worldwide decline in their use; although electric vehicles have continued to be used in the form of electric trains and other niche uses.
At the beginning of the 21st century, interest in electric and other alternative fuel vehicles has increased due to growing concern over the problems associated with hydrocarbon - fueled vehicles, including damage to the environment caused by their emissions, and the sustainability of the current hydrocarbon - based transportation infrastructure as well as improvements in electric vehicle technology. Since 2010, combined sales of all - electric cars and utility vans achieved 1 million units delivered globally in September 2016.
The invention of the first model electric vehicle is attributed to various people. In 1828, Ányos Jedlik, a Hungarian who invented an early type of electric motor, created a small model car powered by his new motor. In 1834, Vermont blacksmith Thomas Davenport built a similar contraption which operated on a short, circular, electrified track. In 1834, Professor Sibrandus Stratingh of Groningen, the Netherlands and his assistant Christopher Becker created a small - scale electrical car, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells.
The first known electric locomotive was built in 1837, in Scotland by chemist Robert Davidson of Aberdeen. It was powered by galvanic cells (batteries). Davidson later built a larger locomotive named Galvani, exhibited at the Royal Scottish Society of Arts Exhibition in 1841. The 7,100 - kilogram (7 - long - ton) vehicle had two direct - drive reluctance motors, with fixed electromagnets acting on iron bars attached to a wooden cylinder on each axle, and simple commutators. It hauled a load of 6,100 kilograms (6 long tons) at 6.4 kilometres per hour (4 mph) for a distance of 2.4 km (1.5 miles). It was tested on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway in September of the following year, but the limited power from batteries prevented its general use. It was destroyed by railway workers, who saw it as a threat to their security of employment.
Between 1832 and 1839, Scottish inventor Robert Anderson also invented a crude electrical carriage. A patent for the use of rails as conductors of electric current was granted in England in 1840, and similar patents were issued to Lilley and Colten in the United States in 1847.
Rechargeable batteries that provided a viable means for storing electricity on board a vehicle did not come into being until 1859, with the invention of the lead -- acid battery by French physicist Gaston Planté. Camille Alphonse Faure, another French scientist, significantly improved the design of the battery in 1881; his improvements greatly increased the capacity of such batteries and led directly to their manufacture on an industrial scale.
An early electric - powered two - wheel cycle was put on display at the 1867 World Exposition in Paris by the Austrian inventor Franz Kravogl, but it was regarded as a curiosity and could not drive reliably in the street. Another cycle, this time with three wheels, was tested along a Paris street in April 1881 by French inventor Gustave Trouvé
English inventor Thomas Parker, who was responsible for innovations such as electrifying the London Underground, overhead tramways in Liverpool and Birmingham, and the smokeless fuel coalite, built the first production electric car in London in 1884, using his own specially designed high - capacity rechargeable batteries. Parker 's long - held interest in the construction of more fuel - efficient vehicles led him to experiment with electric vehicles. He also may have been concerned about the malign effects smoke and pollution were having in London.
Production of the car was in the hands of the Elwell - Parker Company, established in 1882 for the construction and sale of electric trams. The company merged with other rivals in 1888 to form the Electric Construction Corporation; this company had a virtual monopoly on the British electric car market in the 1890s. The company manufactured the first electric ' dog cart ' in 1896.
France and the United Kingdom were the first nations to support the widespread development of electric vehicles. The first electric car in Germany was built by the engineer Andreas Flocken in 1888.
Electric trains were also used to transport coal out of mines, as their motors did not use up precious oxygen. Before the pre-eminence of internal combustion engines, electric automobiles also held many speed and distance records. Among the most notable of these records was the breaking of the 100 km / h (62 mph) speed barrier, by Camille Jenatzy on 29 April 1899 in his ' rocket - shaped ' vehicle Jamais Contente, which reached a top speed of 105.88 km / h (65.79 mph). Also notable was Ferdinand Porsche 's design and construction of an all - wheel drive electric car, powered by a motor in each hub, which also set several records in the hands of its owner E.W. Hart.
The first electric car in the United States was developed in 1890 - 91 by William Morrison of Des Moines, Iowa; the vehicle was a six - passenger wagon capable of reaching a speed of 23 kilometres per hour (14 mph). It was not until 1895 that consumers began to devote attention to electric vehicles, after A.L. Ryker introduced the first electric tricycles to the U.S., by which point Europeans had been making use of electric tricycles, bicycles, and cars for almost 15 years.
Interest in motor vehicles increased greatly in the late 1890s and early 1900s. Electric battery - powered taxis became available at the end of the 19th century. In London, Walter C. Bersey designed a fleet of such cabs and introduced them to the streets of London in 1897. They were soon nicknamed "Hummingbirds '' due to the idiosyncratic humming noise they made. In the same year in New York City, the Samuel 's Electric Carriage and Wagon Company began running 12 electric hansom cabs. The company ran until 1898 with up to 62 cabs operating until it was reformed by its financiers to form the Electric Vehicle Company.
Electric vehicles had a number of advantages over their early - 1900s competitors. They did not have the vibration, smell, and noise associated with gasoline cars. They also did not require gear changes. (While steam - powered cars also had no gear shifting, they suffered from long start - up times of up to 45 minutes on cold mornings.) The cars were also preferred because they did not require a manual effort to start, as did gasoline cars which featured a hand crank to start the engine.
Electric cars found popularity among well - heeled customers who used them as city cars, where their limited range proved to be even less of a disadvantage. Electric cars were often marketed as suitable vehicles for women drivers due to their ease of operation; in fact, early electric cars were stigmatized by the perception that they were "women 's cars '', leading some companies to affix radiators to the front to disguise the car 's propulsion system.
Acceptance of electric cars was initially hampered by a lack of power infrastructure, but by 1912, many homes were wired for electricity, enabling a surge in the popularity of the cars. In the United States by the turn of the century, 40 percent of automobiles were powered by steam, 38 percent by electricity, and 22 percent by gasoline. A total of 33,842 electric cars were registered in the United States, and America became the country where electric cars had gained the most acceptance. Most early electric vehicles were massive, ornate carriages designed for the upper - class customers that made them popular. They featured luxurious interiors and were replete with expensive materials. Sales of electric cars peaked in the early 1910s.
In order to overcome the limited operating range of electric vehicles, and the lack of recharging infrastructure, an exchangeable battery service was first proposed as early as 1896. The concept was first put into practice by Hartford Electric Light Company through the GeVeCo battery service and initially available for electric trucks. The vehicle owner purchased the vehicle from General Vehicle Company (GVC, a subsidiary of the General Electric Company) without a battery and the electricity was purchased from Hartford Electric through an exchangeable battery. The owner paid a variable per - mile charge and a monthly service fee to cover maintenance and storage of the truck. Both vehicles and batteries were modified to facilitate a fast battery exchange. The service was provided between 1910 and 1924 and during that period covered more than 6 million miles. Beginning in 1917 a similar successful service was operated in Chicago for owners of Milburn Wagon Company cars who also could buy the vehicle without the batteries.
After enjoying success at the beginning of the 20th century, the electric car began to lose its position in the automobile market. A number of developments contributed to this situation. By the 1920s an improved road infrastructure required vehicles with a greater range than that offered by electric cars. Worldwide discoveries of large petroleum reserves led to the wide availability of affordable gasoline, making gas - powered cars cheaper to operate over long distances. Electric cars were limited to urban use by their slow speed (no more than 24 -- 32 km / h or 15 -- 20 mph.) and low range (30 -- 40 miles or 50 -- 65 km), and gasoline cars were now able to travel farther and faster than equivalent electrics.
Gasoline cars became even easier to operate thanks to the invention of the electric starter by Charles Kettering in 1912, which eliminated the need of a hand crank for starting a gasoline engine, and the noise emitted by ICE cars became more bearable thanks to the use of the muffler, which Hiram Percy Maxim had invented in 1897. Finally, the initiation of mass production of gas - powered vehicles by Henry Ford brought their price down. By contrast, the price of similar electric vehicles continued to rise; by 1912, an electric car sold for almost double the price of a gasoline car.
Most electric car makers stopped production at some point in the 1910s. Electric vehicles became popular for certain applications where their limited range did not pose major problems. Forklift trucks were electrically powered when they were introduced by Yale in 1923. In Europe, especially the United Kingdom, milk floats were powered by electricity, and for most of the 20th century the majority of the world 's battery electric road vehicles were British milk floats. Electric golf carts were produced by Lektro as early as 1954. By the 1920s, the early heyday of electric cars had passed, and a decade later, the electric automobile industry had effectively disappeared. Michael Brian examines the social and technological reasons for the failure of electric cars in his book Taking Charge: The Electric Automobile in America.
Years passed without a major revival in the use of electric cars. Fuel - starved European countries fighting in World War II experimented with electric cars such as the British milk floats and the French Breguet Aviation car, but overall, while ICE development progressed at a brisk pace, electric vehicle technology stagnated. In the late 1950s, Henney Coachworks and the National Union Electric Company, makers of Exide batteries, formed a joint venture to produce a new electric car, the Henney Kilowatt, based on the French Renault Dauphine. The car was produced in 36 - volt and 72 - volt configurations; the 72 - volt models had a top speed approaching 96 km / h (60 mph) and could travel for nearly an hour on a single charge. Despite the Kilowatt 's improved performance with respect to previous electric cars, consumers found it too expensive compared to equivalent gasoline cars of the time, and production ended in 1961.
In 1959, American Motors Corporation (AMC) and Sonotone Corporation announced a joint research effort to consider producing an electric car powered by a "self - charging '' battery. AMC had a reputation for innovation in economical cars while Sonotone had technology for making sintered plate nickel - cadmium batteries that could be recharged rapidly and weighed less than traditional lead - acid versions. That same year, Nu - Way Industries showed an experimental electric car with a one - piece plastic body that was to begin production in early 1960.
In the mid 1960s a few battery - electric concept cars appeared, such as the Scottish Aviation Scamp (1965), and an electric version of General Motors gasoline car, the Electrovair (1966). None of them entered production. The 1966 Enfield 8000 did make it into small - scale production, 112 were eventually produced.In 1967, AMC partnered with Gulton Industries to develop a new battery based on lithium and a speed controller designed by Victor Wouk. A nickel - cadmium battery supplied power to an all - electric 1969 Rambler American station wagon. Other "plug - in '' experimental AMC vehicles developed with Gulton included the Amitron (1967) and the similar Electron (1977).
On 31 July 1971, an electric car received the unique distinction of becoming the first manned vehicle to drive on the Moon; that car was the Lunar rover, which was first deployed during the Apollo 15 mission. The "moon buggy '' was developed by Boeing and GM subsidiary Delco Electronics (co-founded by Kettering) featured a DC drive motor in each wheel, and a pair of 36 - volt silver - zinc potassium hydroxide non-rechargeable batteries.
After years outside the limelight, the energy crises of the 1970s and 1980s brought about renewed interest in the perceived independence electric cars had from the fluctuations of the hydrocarbon energy market. General Motors created a concept car of another of their gasoline cars, the Electrovette (1976). At the 1990 Los Angeles Auto Show, General Motors President Roger Smith unveiled the GM Impact electric concept car, along with the announcement that GM would build electric cars for sale to the public.
In the early 1990s, the California Air Resources Board (CARB), the government of California 's "clean air agency '', began a push for more fuel - efficient, lower - emissions vehicles, with the ultimate goal being a move to zero - emissions vehicles such as electric vehicles. In response, automakers developed electric models, including the Chrysler TEVan, Ford Ranger EV pickup truck, GM EV1 and S10 EV pickup, Honda EV Plus hatchback, Nissan lithium - battery Altra EV miniwagon and Toyota RAV4 EV. The automakers were accused of pandering to the wishes of CARB in order to continue to be allowed to sell cars in the lucrative Californian market, while failing to adequately promote their electric vehicles in order to create the impression that the consumers were not interested in the cars, all the while joining oil industry lobbyists in vigorously protesting CARB 's mandate. GM 's program came under particular scrutiny; in an unusual move, consumers were not allowed to purchase EV1s, but were instead asked to sign closed - end leases, meaning that the cars had to be returned to GM at the end of the lease period, with no option to purchase, despite leasee interest in continuing to own the cars. Chrysler, Toyota, and a group of GM dealers sued CARB in Federal court, leading to the eventual neutering of CARB 's ZEV Mandate.
After public protests by EV drivers ' groups upset by the repossession of their cars, Toyota offered the last 328 RAV4 - EVs for sale to the general public during six months, up until 22 November 2002. Almost all other production electric cars were withdrawn from the market and were in some cases seen to have been destroyed by their manufacturers. Toyota continues to support the several hundred Toyota RAV4 - EV in the hands of the general public and in fleet usage. GM famously de-activated the few EV1s that were donated to engineering schools and museums.
Throughout the 1990s, interest in fuel - efficient or environmentally friendly cars declined among consumers in the United States, who instead favored sport utility vehicles, which were affordable to operate despite their poor fuel efficiency thanks to lower gasoline prices. Domestic U.S. automakers chose to focus their product lines around the truck - based vehicles, which enjoyed larger profit margins than the smaller cars which were preferred in places like Europe or Japan.
Most electric vehicles on the world roads are low - speed, low - range neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs). Pike Research estimated there were almost 479,000 NEVs on the world roads in 2011. As of July 2006, there were between 60,000 and 76,000 low - speed battery - powered vehicles in use in the United States, up from about 56,000 in 2004. North America 's top selling NEV is the Global Electric Motorcars (GEM) vehicles, with more than 50,000 units sold worldwide by mid 2014. The world 's two largest NEV markets in 2011 were the United States, with 14,737 units sold, and France, with 2,231 units. Other micro electric cars sold in Europe was the Kewet, since 1991, and replaced by the Buddy, launched in 2008. Also the Th! nk City was launched in 2008 but production was halted due to financial difficulties. Production restarted in Finland in December 2009. The Th! nk was sold in several European countries and the U.S. In June 2011 Think Global filed for bankruptcy and production was halted. Worldwide sales reached 1,045 units by March 2011. A total of 200,000 low - speed small electric cars were sold in China in 2013, most of which are powered by lead - acid batteries. These electric vehicles are not considered by the government as new energy vehicles due to safety and environmental concerns, and consequently, do not enjoy the same benefits as highway legal plug - in electric cars.
California electric car maker Tesla Motors began development in 2004 on the Tesla Roadster, which was first delivered to customers in 2008. The Roadster was the first highway legal serial production all - electric car to use lithium - ion battery cells, and the first production all - electric car to travel more than 320 km (200 miles) per charge. Since 2008, Tesla sold approximately 2,450 Roadsters in over 30 countries through December 2012. Tesla sold the Roadster until early 2012, when its supply of Lotus Elise gliders ran out, as its contract with Lotus Cars for 2,500 gliders expired at the end of 2011. Tesla stopped taking orders for the Roadster in the U.S. market in August 2011, and the 2012 Tesla Roadster was sold in limited numbers only in Europe, Asia and Australia. The next Tesla vehicle, the Model S, was released in the U.S. on 22 June 2012 and the first delivery of a Model S to a retail customer in Europe took place on 7 August 2013. Deliveries in China began on 22 April 2014. The next model was the Tesla Model X. In November 2014 Tesla delayed one more time the start of deliveries to retail customers, and announced the company expects Model X deliveries to begin in the third quarter of 2015.
The Mitsubishi i - MiEV was launched in Japan for fleet customers in July 2009, and for individual customers in April 2010, followed by sales to the public in Hong Kong in May 2010, and Australia in July 2010 via leasing. The i - MiEV was launched in Europe in December 2010, including a rebadged version sold in Europe as Peugeot iOn and Citroën C - Zero. The market launch in the Americas began in Costa Rica in February 2011, followed by Chile in May 2011. Fleet and retail customer deliveries in the U.S. and Canada began in December 2011. Accounting for all vehicles of the iMiEV brand, Mitsubishi reports around 27,200 units sold or exported since 2009 through December 2012, including the minicab MiEVs sold in Japan, and the units rebadged and sold as Peugeot iOn and Citroën C - Zero in the European market.
Senior leaders at several large automakers, including Nissan and General Motors, have stated that the Roadster was a catalyst which demonstrated that there is pent - up consumer demand for more efficient vehicles. In an August 2009 edition of The New Yorker, GM vice-chairman Bob Lutz was quoted as saying, "All the geniuses here at General Motors kept saying lithium - ion technology is 10 years away, and Toyota agreed with us -- and boom, along comes Tesla. So I said, ' How come some tiny little California startup, run by guys who know nothing about the car business, can do this, and we ca n't? ' That was the crowbar that helped break up the log jam. ''
The Nissan Leaf, introduced in Japan and the United States in December 2010, became the first modern all - electric, zero tailpipe emission five door family hatchback to be produced for the mass market from a major manufacturer. As of January 2013, the Leaf is also available in Australia, Canada and 17 European countries.
The Better Place network was the first modern commercial deployment of the battery swapping model. The Renault Fluence Z.E. was the first mass production electric car enable with switchable battery technology and sold for the Better Place network in Israel and Denmark. Better Place launched its first battery - swapping station in Israel, in Kiryat Ekron, near Rehovot in March 2011. The battery exchange process took five minutes. As of December 2012, there were 17 battery switch stations fully operational in Denmark enabling customers to drive anywhere across the country in an electric car. By late 2012 the company began to suffer financial difficulties, and decided to put on hold the roll out in Australia and reduce its non-core activities in North America, as the company decided to concentrate its resources on its two existing markets. On 26 May 2013, Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel. The company 's financial difficulties were caused by the high investment required to develop the charging and swapping infrastructure, about US $850 million in private capital, and a market penetration significantly lower than originally predicted by Shai Agassi. Less than 1,000 Fluence Z.E. cars were deployed in Israel and around 400 units in Denmark.
The Smart electric drive, Wheego Whip LiFe, Mia electric, Volvo C30 Electric, and the Ford Focus Electric were launched for retail customers during 2011. The BYD e6, released initially for fleet customers in 2010, began reatail sales in Shenzhen, China in October 2011. The Bolloré Bluecar was released in December 2011 and deployed for use in the Autolib ' carsharing service in Paris. Leasing to individual and corporate customers began in October 2012 and is limited to the Île - de-France area. In February 2011, the Mitsubishi i MiEV became the first electric car to sell more than of more than 10,000 units, including the models badged in Europe as Citroën C - Zero and Peugeot. The record was officially registered by Guinness World Records. Several months later, the Nissan Leaf overtook the i MiEV as the best selling all - electric car ever, and by February 2013 global sales of the Leaf reached the 50,000 unit mark.
Models released to the market in 2012 and 2013 include the BMW ActiveE, Coda, Renault Fluence Z.E., Tesla Model S, Honda Fit EV, Toyota RAV4 EV, Renault Zoe, Roewe E50, Mahindra e2o, Chevrolet Spark EV, Mercedes - Benz SLS AMG Electric Drive, Fiat 500e, Volkswagen e-Up!, BMW i3, and Kandi EV. Toyota released the Scion iQ EV in the U.S. (Toyota eQ in Japan) in 2013. The car production is limited to 100 units. The first 30 units were delivered to the University of California, Irvine in March 2013 for use in its Zero Emission Vehicle - Network Enabled Transport (ZEV - NET) carsharing fleet. Toyota announced that 90 out of the 100 vehicles produced globally will be placed in carsharing demonstration projects in the United States and the rest in Japan.
The Coda sedan went out of production in 2013, after selling only about 100 units in California. Its manufacturer, Coda Automotive, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on 1 May 2013. The company stated that it expects to emerge from the bankruptcy process to focus on energy storage solutions as it has decided to abandon car manufacturing.
The Tesla Model S ranked as the top selling plug - in electric car in North America during the first quarter of 2013 with 4,900 cars sold, ahead of the Chevrolet Volt (4,421) and the Nissan Leaf (3,695). European retail deliveries of the Tesla Model S began in Oslo in August 2013, and during its first full month in the market, the Model S ranked as the top selling car in Norway with 616 units delivered, representing a market share of 5.1 % of all the new cars sold in the country in September 2013, becoming the first electric car to top the new car sales ranking in any country, and contributing to a record all - electric car market share of 8.6 % of new car sales during that month. In October 2013, an electric car was the best selling car in the country for a second month in a row. This time was the Nissan Leaf with 716 units sold, representing a 5.6 % of new car sales that month.
The Renault -- Nissan Alliance reached global sales of 100,000 all - electric vehicles in July 2013. The 100,000 th customer was a U.S. student who bought a Nissan Leaf. In mid January 2014, global sales of the Nissan Leaf reached the 100,000 unit milestone, representing a 45 % market share of worldwide pure electric vehicles sold since 2010. The 100,000 th car was delivered to a British customer.
As of June 2014, there were over 500,000 plug - in electric passenger cars and utility vans in the world, with the U.S. leading plug - in electric car sales with a 45 % share of global sales. In September 2014, sales of plug - in electric cars in the United States reached the 250,000 unit milestone. Global cumulative sales of the Tesla Model S passed the 50,000 unit milestone in October 2014. In November 2014 the Renault -- Nissan Alliance reached 200,000 all - electric vehicles delivered globally, representing a 58 % share of the global light - duty all - electric market segment.
The world 's top selling all - electric cars in 2014 were the Nissan Leaf (61,507), Tesla Model S (31,655), BMW i3 (16,052), and the Renault Zoe (11,323). Accounting for plug - in hybrids, the Leaf and the Model S also ranked first and second correspondinly among the world 's top 10 selling plug - in electric cars. All - electric models released to the retail customers in 2014 include the BMW Brilliance Zinoro 1E, Chery eQ, Geely - Kandi Panda EV, Zotye Zhidou E20, Kia Soul EV, Volkswagen e-Golf, Mercedes - Benz B - Class Electric Drive, and Venucia e30.
General Motors unveiled the Chevrolet Bolt EV concept car at the 2015 North American International Auto Show. The Bolt is scheduled for availability in late 2016 as a model year 2017. GM anticipates the Bolt will deliver an all - electric range more than 320 km (200 miles), with pricing starting at US $37,500 before any applicable government incentives. The European version, marketed as the Opel Ampera - e, will go into production in 2017. In May 2015, global sales of highway legal all - electric passenger cars and light utility vehicles passed the 500,000 unit milestone, accounting for sales since 2008. Out these, Nissan accounts for about 35 %, Tesla Motors about 15 %, and Mitsubishi about 10 %. Also in May 2015, the Renault Zoe and the BMW i3 passed the 25,000 unit global sales milestone. In June 2015, worldwide sales of the Model S passed the 75,000 unit milestone in June 2015.
By early June 2015, the Renault -- Nissan Alliance continued as the leading all - electric vehicle manufacturer with global sales of over 250,000 pure electric vehicles representing about half of the global light - duty all - electric market segment. Nissan sales totaled 185,000 units, which includes the Nissan Leaf and the e-NV200 van. Renault has sold 65,000 electric vehicles, and its line - up includes the ZOE passenger car, the Kangoo Z.E. van, the SM3 Z.E. (previously Fluence Z.E.) sedan and the Twizy heavy quadricycle.
By mid-September 2015, the global stock of highway legal plug - in electric passenger cars and utility vans passed the one million sales milestone, with the pure electrics capturing about 62 % of global sales. The United States is the plug - in segment market leader with a stock of over 363,000 plug - in electric cars delivered since 2008 through August 2015, representing 36.3 % of global sales. The state of California is the largest plug - in car regional market, with more than 158,000 units sold between December 2010 and June 2015, representing 46.5 % of all plug - in cars sold in the U.S. Until December 2014, California not only had more plug - in electric vehicles than any other state in the nation, but also more than any other country.
As of August 2015, China ranked as the world 's second top selling country plug - in market, with over 157,000 units sold since 2011 (15.7 %), followed by Japan with more than 120,000 plug - in units sold since 2009 (12.1 %). As of June 2015, over 310,000 light - duty plug - in electric vehicles have been registered in the European market since 2010. European sales are led by Norway, followed by the Netherlands, and France. In the heavy - duty segment, China is the world 's leader, with over 65,000 buses and other commercial vehicles sold through August 2015.
As of December 2015, global sales of electric cars were led by the Nissan Leaf with over 200,000 units sold making the Leaf the world 's top selling highway - capable electric car in history. The Tesla Model S, with global deliveries of more than 100,000 units, is the world 's second best selling all - electric car of all - time. The Model S ranked as the world 's best selling plug - in electric vehicle in 2015, up from second best in 2014. The Model S was also the top selling plug - in car in the U.S. in 2015. Most models released in the world 's markets to retail customers during 2015 were plug - in hybrids. The only new series production all - electric cars launched up to October 2015 were the BYD e5 and the Tesla Model X, together with several variants of the Tesla Model S line - up.
The Tesla Model 3 was unveiled on 31 March 2016. With pricing starting at US $35,000 and an all - electric range of 345 km (215 miles), the Model 3 is Tesla Motors first vehicle aimed for the mass market. Before the unveiling event, over 115,000 people had reserved the Model 3. As of 7 April 2016, one week after the event, Tesla Motors reported over 325,000 reservations, more than triple the 107,000 Model S cars Tesla had sold by the end of 2015. These reservations represent potential sales of over US $14 billion. As of 31 March 2016, Tesla Motors has sold almost 125,000 electric cars worldwide since delivery of its first Tesla Roadster in 2008. Tesla reported the number of net reservations totaled about 373,000 as of 15 May 2016, after about 8,000 customer cancellations and about 4,200 reservations canceled by the automaker because these appeared to be duplicates from speculators.
The Hyundai Ioniq Electric was released in South Korea in July 2016, and sold over 1,000 units during its first two months in the market. The Renault - Nissan Alliance achieved the milestone of 350,000 electric vehicles sold globally in August 2016, and also set an industry record of 100,000 electric vehicle sold in a single year. Nissan global electric vehicle sales passed the 250,000 unit milestone also in August 2016. Renault global electric vehicle sales passed the 100,000 unit milestone in early September 2016. Global sales of the Tesla Model X passed the 10,000 unit mark in August 2016, with most cars delivered in the United States.
Cumulative global sales of pure electric passenger cars and utility vans passed the 1 million unit milestone in September 2016. Global sales of the Tesla Model S achieved the 150,000 unit milestone in November 2016, four years and five months after its introduction, and just five more months than it took the Nissan Leaf to achieve the same milestone. Norway achieved the milestone of 100,000 all - electric vehicles registered in December 2016. Retail deliveries of the 383 km (238 miles) Chevrolet Bolt EV began in the San Francisco Bay Area on 13 December 2016. In December 2016, Nissan reported that Leaf owners worldwide achieved the milestone of 3 billion km (1.9 billion miles) driven collectively through November 2016, saving the equivalent of nearly 500 million kg (1,100 million lb) of CO emissions. Global Nissan Leaf sales passed 250,000 units delivered in December 2016. The Tesla Model S was the world 's best - selling plug - in electric car in 2016 for the second year running, with 50,931 units delivered globally.
In December 2016, Norway became the first country where 5 % of all registered passenger cars was a plug - in electric. When new car sales in Norway are breakdown by powertrain or fuel, nine of the top ten best - selling models in 2016 were electric - drive models. The Norwegian electric - drive segment achieved a combined market share of 40.2 % of new passenger car sales in 2016, consisting of 15.7 % for all - electric cars, 13.4 % for plug - in hybrids, and 11.2 % for conventional hybris. The highest - ever monthly market share for the plug - in electric passenger segment in any country was achieved in Norway in January 2017 with 37.5 % of new car sales; the plug - in hybrid segment reached a 20.0 % market share of new passenger cars, and the all - electric car segment had a 17.5 % market share. Also in January 2017, the electrified passenger car segment, consisting of plug - in hybrids, all - electric cars and conventional hybrids, for the first time ever surpassed combined sales of cars with a conventional diesel or gasoline engine, with a market share of 51.4 % of new car sales that month. For many years Norwegian electric vehicles have been subsidised by approximately 50 %, and have several other benefits, such as use of bus lanes and free parking. Many of these perks have been extended to 2020.
In February 2017 Consumer Reports named Tesla as the top car brand in the United States and ranked it 8th among global carmakers. Global sales of the Nissan Leaf achieved the 300,000 unit milestone in January 2018.
The principal manufacturer of e-bikes globally is China, with 2009 seeing the manufacturer of 22.2 million units. In the world Geoby is the leading manufacturers of E-bikes. Pedego is the best selling in the U.S. China accounts for nearly 92 % of the market worldwide. In China the number of electric bicycles on the road was 120 million in 2010. Jiangsu Yadea, an electric bicycle producer of renown in China, leads the ranking of China National Light Industry Council (CNLIC) electric bicycle industry for three years. It retains capacity of nearly 6 million electric bicycles a year.
In 1997, Charger Electric Bicycle was the first U.S. company to come out with a pedelec.
Selected list of battery electric vehicles include (in chronological order):
US $29,120 base price (2017)
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did german real gdp increase during the hyperinflation in 1923 | Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic - wikipedia
During a period between 1918 and January 1924, the German mark suffered hyperinflation. It caused considerable internal political instability in the country, the occupation of the Ruhr by foreign troops as well as misery for the general populace.
To pay for the large costs of the ongoing First World War, Germany suspended the gold standard (the convertibility of its currency to gold) when the war broke out. Unlike the French Third Republic, which imposed its first income tax to pay for the war, German Emperor Wilhelm II and the German parliament decided unanimously to fund the war entirely by borrowing, a decision criticized by financial experts such as Hjalmar Schacht as a dangerous risk for currency devaluation.
The government believed that it would be able to pay off the debt by winning the war, and it would be able to annex resource - rich industrial territory in the west and east. Also, it would be able to impose massive reparations on the defeated Allies. The exchange rate of the mark against the US dollar thus steadily devalued from 4.2 to 7.9 marks per dollar, a preliminary to the extreme postwar inflation.
The strategy failed when Germany lost the war. The new Weimar Republic was saddled with a massive war debt that it could not afford. That was worsened by the fact that it was printing money without economic resources to back it. The Treaty of Versailles further accelerated the decline in the value of the mark, so that 48 paper marks were required to buy a US dollar by late 1919.
German currency was relatively stable at about 90 marks per dollar during the first half of 1921. Because the Western Front was mostly in France and Belgium, Germany came out of the war with most of its industrial infrastructure intact. It was in a better position to become the dominant economic force on the European continent.
The London Ultimatum in May 1921, demanded World War I reparations in gold or foreign currency to be paid in annual installments of 2 billion gold marks, plus 26 % of the value of Germany 's exports.
The first payment was made when it came due in June 1921. It marked the beginning of an increasingly rapid devaluation of the mark, which fell in value to approximately 330 marks per dollar. The total reparations demanded were 132 billion gold marks, but Germany had to pay only 50 billion marks.
Since reparations were required to be repaid in hard currency, not the rapidly depreciating paper mark, one strategy that Germany used was the mass printing of bank notes to buy foreign currency, which was then used to pay reparations. That greatly exacerbated the inflation of the paper mark.
From August 1921, Germany began to buy foreign currency with marks at any price, but that only increased the speed of breakdown in the value of the mark. As the mark sank in international markets, more and more marks were required to buy the foreign currency that was demanded by the Reparations Commission.
In the first half of 1922, the mark stabilized at about 320 marks per dollar. International reparations conferences were being held. One, in June 1922, was organized by US investment banker J.P. Morgan, Jr. The meetings produced no workable solution, and inflation erupted into hyperinflation, the mark falling to 7,400 marks per US dollar by December 1922. The cost - of - living index was 41 in June 1922 and 685 in December, a 15-fold increase.
By fall 1922, Germany found itself unable to make reparations payments. The mark was by now practically worthless, making it impossible for Germany to buy foreign exchange or gold using paper marks. Instead, reparations were to be paid in goods such as coal. In January 1923, French and Belgian troops occupied the industrial region of Germany in the Ruhr valley to ensure reparations payments. Inflation was exacerbated when workers in the Ruhr went on a general strike and the German government printed more money to continue paying for their passive resistance. By November 1923, the US dollar was worth 4,210,500,000,000 German marks.
50,000 marks, Aachen, 1923
500,000 marks, Leipzig, 1923
5,000,000 marks, Danzig, 1923
50,000,000 marks, Trier, 1923
500,000,000 marks, Dresden, 1923
5,000,000,000 marks, Berlin, 1923
50,000,000,000 marks, Plauen, 1923
500,000,000,000 marks, Berlin, 1923
5,000,000,000,000 marks, Stuttgart, 1923
50,000,000,000,000 marks Eschweiler, 1923
The hyperinflation crisis led prominent economists and politicians to seek a means to stabilize German currency. In August 1923, an economist, Karl Helfferich, proposed a plan to issue a new currency, the "Roggenmark '' ("rye mark ''), to be backed by mortgage bonds indexed to the market price of rye grain. The plan was rejected because of the greatly fluctuating price of rye in paper marks.
Agriculture Minister Hans Luther proposed a plan that substituted gold for rye and led to the issuance of the Rentenmark ("mortgage mark ''), backed by bonds indexed to the market price of gold. The gold bonds were defined at the rate of 2790 gold marks per kilogram of gold, the same as the prewar gold marks. Rentenmarks were not redeemable in gold but only indexed to the gold bonds. The plan was adopted in monetary reform decrees, on October 13 -- 15, 1923. A new bank, the Rentenbank, was set up and controlled by new German Finance Minister Hans Luther.
After November 12, 1923, when Hjalmar Schacht became currency commissioner, Germany 's central bank (the Reichsbank) was not allowed to discount any further government Treasury bills, which meant the corresponding issue of paper marks also ceased. The discounting of commercial trade bills was allowed and the amount of Rentenmarks expanded, but the issue was strictly controlled to conform to current commercial and government transactions. The Rentenbank refused credit to the government and to speculators who were not able to borrow Rentenmarks, because Rentenmarks were not legal tender.
On November 16, 1923, the new Rentenmark was introduced to replace the worthless paper marks issued by the Reichsbank. Twelve zeros were cut from prices, and the prices quoted in the new currency remained stable.
When the president of the Reichsbank, Rudolf Havenstein, died on November 20, 1923, Schacht was appointed to replace him. By November 30, 1923, there were 500,000,000 Rentenmarks in circulation, which increased to 1,000,000,000 by January 1, 1924 and to 1,800,000,000 Rentenmarks by July 1924. Meanwhile, the old paper Marks continued in circulation. The total paper marks increased to 1.2 sextillion (1,200,000,000,000,000,000,000) in July 1924 and continued to fall in value to a third of their conversion value in Rentenmarks.
On August 30, 1924, a monetary law permitted the exchange of a 1 - trillion paper mark note to a new Reichsmark, worth the same as a Rentenmark. By 1924 one dollar was equivalent to 4.2 Rentenmark.
Eventually, some debts were reinstated to compensate creditors partially for the catastrophic reduction in the value of debts that had been quoted in paper marks before the hyperinflation. A decree of 1925 reinstated some mortgages at 25 % of face value in the new currency, effectively 25,000,000,000 times their value in the old paper marks, if they had been held for at least five years. Similarly, some government bonds were reinstated at 2.5 % of face value, to be paid after reparations were paid.
Mortgage debt was reinstated at much higher rates than government bonds were. The reinstatement of some debts and a resumption of effective taxation in a still - devastated economy triggered a wave of corporate bankruptcies.
One of the important issues of the stabilization of a hyperinflation is the revaluation. The term normally refers to the raising of the exchange rate of one national currency against other currencies. As well, it can mean revalorization, the restoration of the value of a currency depreciated by inflation. The German government had the choice of a revaluation law to finish the hyperinflation quickly or of allowing sprawling and the political and violent disturbances on the streets. The government argued in detail that the interests of creditors and debtors had to be fair and balanced. Neither the living standard price index nor the share price index was judged as relevant.
The calculation of the conversion relation was considerably judged to the dollar index as well as to the wholesale price index. In principle, the German government followed the line of market - oriented reasoning that the dollar index and the wholesale price index would roughly indicate the true price level in general over the period of high inflation and hyperinflation. In addition, the revaluation was bound on the exchange rate mark and United States dollar to obtain the value of the Goldmark.
Finally, the Law on the Revaluation of Mortgages and other Claims of 16 July 1925 (Gesetz über die Aufwertung von Hypotheken und anderen Ansprüchen or Aufwertungsgesetze) included only the ratio of the paper mark to the gold mark for the period from January 1, 1918, to November 30, 1923, and the following days. The galloping inflation thus caused the end of a principle, "a mark is worth a mark '', which had been recognized, the nominal value principle.
The law was challenged in the Supreme Court of the German Reich (Reichsgericht), but its 5th Senate ruled, on November 4, 1925, that the law was constitutional, even according to the Bill of Rights and Duties of Germans (Articles 109, 134, 152 and 153 of the Constitution). The case set a precedent for judicial review in German jurisprudence.
The hyperinflation episode in the Weimar Republic in the early 1920s was not the first or even the most severe instance of inflation in history (the Hungarian pengő and Zimbabwean dollar, for example, have been even more inflated). However, it has been the subject of the most scholarly economic analysis and debate. The hyperinflation drew significant interest, as many of the dramatic and unusual economic behaviors now associated with hyperinflation were first documented systematically: exponential increases in prices and interest rates, redenomination of the currency, consumer flight from cash to hard assets and the rapid expansion of industries that produced those assets.
German monetary economics was at that time heavily influenced by Chartalism and the German Historical School, which conditioned the way the hyperinflation was analyzed.
John Maynard Keynes described the situation in The Economic Consequences of the Peace: "The inflationism of the currency systems of Europe has proceeded to extraordinary lengths. The various belligerent Governments, unable, or too timid or too short - sighted to secure from loans or taxes the resources they required, have printed notes for the balance. ''
It was during then that French and British economic experts began to claim that Germany deliberately destroyed its economy to avoid war reparations, but both governments had conflicting views on how to handle the situation. The French declared that Germany should keep paying reparations, but Britain sought to grant a moratorium to allow financial reconstruction.
Reparations accounted for about a third of the German deficit from 1920 to 1923 and so were cited by the German government as one of the main causes of hyperinflation. Other causes cited included bankers and speculators (particularly foreign). Hyperinflation reached its peak by November 1923 but ended when a new currency (the Rentenmark) was introduced. To make way for the new currency, banks "turned the marks over to junk dealers by the ton '' to be recycled as paper.
Since the hyperinflation, German monetary policy has retained a central concern with the maintenance of a sound currency, a concern that still affects Germany 's attitude to the European sovereign debt crisis from 2009.
The hyperinflated, worthless marks became widely collected abroad. The Los Angeles Times estimated in 1924 that more of the decommissioned notes were spread about the US than existed in Germany.
The cause of the immense acceleration of prices seemed unclear and unpredictable to those who lived through it, but in retrospect, it was relatively simple. The Treaty of Versailles imposed a huge debt on Germany that could be paid only in gold or foreign currency. With its gold depleted, the German government attempted to buy foreign currency with German currency, equivalent to selling German currency in exchange for payment in foreign currency, but the resulting increase in the supply of German marks on the market caused the German mark to fall rapidly in value, which greatly increased the number of marks needed to buy more foreign currency.
That caused German prices of goods to rise rapidly, increasing the cost of operating the German government, which could not be financed by raising taxes because those taxes would be payable in the ever - falling German currency. The alternative was some combination of running a budget deficit and simply creating more money, both increasing the supply of German currency on the market and reduced that currency 's price. When the German people realized that their money was rapidly losing value, they tried to spend it quickly. That increased monetary velocity and caused an ever - faster increase in prices, creating a vicious cycle.
The government and the banks had two unacceptable alternatives. If they stopped inflation, there would be immediate bankruptcies, unemployment, strikes, hunger, violence, collapse of civil order, insurrection and possibly even revolution. If they continued the inflation, they would default on their foreign debt.
However, attempting to avoid both unemployment and insolvency ultimately failed when Germany had both.
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the diagram shows a spectrometer being used to analyze a sample of a solution | Absorption spectroscopy - wikipedia
Absorption spectroscopy refers to spectroscopic techniques that measure the absorption of radiation, as a function of frequency or wavelength, due to its interaction with a sample. The sample absorbs energy, i.e., photons, from the radiating field. The intensity of the absorption varies as a function of frequency, and this variation is the absorption spectrum. Absorption spectroscopy is performed across the electromagnetic spectrum.
Absorption spectroscopy is employed as an analytical chemistry tool to determine the presence of a particular substance in a sample and, in many cases, to quantify the amount of the substance present. Infrared and ultraviolet - visible spectroscopy are particularly common in analytical applications. Absorption spectroscopy is also employed in studies of molecular and atomic physics, astronomical spectroscopy and remote sensing.
There are a wide range of experimental approaches for measuring absorption spectra. The most common arrangement is to direct a generated beam of radiation at a sample and detect the intensity of the radiation that passes through it. The transmitted energy can be used to calculate the absorption. The source, sample arrangement and detection technique vary significantly depending on the frequency range and the purpose of the experiment.
A material 's absorption spectrum is the fraction of incident radiation absorbed by the material over a range of frequencies. The absorption spectrum is primarily determined by the atomic and molecular composition of the material. Radiation is more likely to be absorbed at frequencies that match the energy difference between two quantum mechanical states of the molecules. The absorption that occurs due to a transition between two states is referred to as an absorption line and a spectrum is typically composed of many lines.
The frequencies where absorption lines occur, as well as their relative intensities, primarily depend on the electronic and molecular structure of the sample. The frequencies will also depend on the interactions between molecules in the sample, the crystal structure in solids, and on several environmental factors (e.g., temperature, pressure, electromagnetic field). The lines will also have a width and shape that are primarily determined by the spectral density or the density of states of the system.
Absorption lines are typically classified by the nature of the quantum mechanical change induced in the molecule or atom. Rotational lines, for instance, occur when the rotational state of a molecule is changed. Rotational lines are typically found in the microwave spectral region. Vibrational lines correspond to changes in the vibrational state of the molecule and are typically found in the infrared region. Electronic lines correspond to a change in the electronic state of an atom or molecule and are typically found in the visible and ultraviolet region. X-ray absorptions are associated with the excitation of inner shell electrons in atoms. These changes can also be combined (e.g. rotation - vibration transitions), leading to new absorption lines at the combined energy of the two changes.
The energy associated with the quantum mechanical change primarily determines the frequency of the absorption line but the frequency can be shifted by several types of interactions. Electric and magnetic fields can cause a shift. Interactions with neighboring molecules can cause shifts. For instance, absorption lines of the gas phase molecule can shift significantly when that molecule is in a liquid or solid phase and interacting more strongly with neighboring molecules.
The width and shape of absorption lines are determined by the instrument used for the observation, the material absorbing the radiation and the physical environment of that material. It is common for lines to have the shape of a Gaussian or Lorentzian distribution. It is also common for a line to be described solely by its intensity and width instead of the entire shape being characterized.
The integrated intensity -- obtained by integrating the area under the absorption line -- is proportional to the amount of the absorbing substance present. The intensity is also related to the temperature of the substance and the quantum mechanical interaction between the radiation and the absorber. This interaction is quantified by the transition moment and depends on the particular lower state the transition starts from, and the upper state it is connected to.
The width of absorption lines may be determined by the spectrometer used to record it. A spectrometer has an inherent limit on how narrow a line it can resolve and so the observed width may be at this limit. If the width is larger than the resolution limit, then it is primarily determined by the environment of the absorber. A liquid or solid absorber, in which neighboring molecules strongly interact with one another, tends to have broader absorption lines than a gas. Increasing the temperature or pressure of the absorbing material will also tend to increase the line width. It is also common for several neighboring transitions to be close enough to one another that their lines overlap and the resulting overall line is therefore broader yet.
Absorption and transmission spectra represent equivalent information and one can be calculated from the other through a mathematical transformation. A transmission spectrum will have its maximum intensities at wavelengths where the absorption is weakest because more light is transmitted through the sample. An absorption spectrum will have its maximum intensities at wavelengths where the absorption is strongest.
Emission is a process by which a substance releases energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. Emission can occur at any frequency at which absorption can occur, and this allows the absorption lines to be determined from an emission spectrum. The emission spectrum will typically have a quite different intensity pattern from the absorption spectrum, though, so the two are not equivalent. The absorption spectrum can be calculated from the emission spectrum using appropriate theoretical models and additional information about the quantum mechanical states of the substance.
The scattering and reflection spectra of a material are influenced by both its index of refraction and its absorption spectrum. In an optical context, the absorption spectrum is typically quantified by the extinction coefficient, and the extinction and index coefficients are quantitatively related through the Kramers - Kronig relation. Therefore, the absorption spectrum can be derived from a scattering or reflection spectrum. This typically requires simplifying assumptions or models, and so the derived absorption spectrum is an approximation.
Absorption spectroscopy is useful in chemical analysis because of its specificity and its quantitative nature. The specificity of absorption spectra allows compounds to be distinguished from one another in a mixture, making absorption spectroscopy useful in wide variety of applications. For instance, Infrared gas analyzers can be used to identify the presence of pollutants in the air, distinguishing the pollutant from nitrogen, oxygen, water and other expected constituents.
The specificity also allows unknown samples to be identified by comparing a measured spectrum with a library of reference spectra. In many cases, it is possible to determine qualitative information about a sample even if it is not in a library. Infrared spectra, for instance, have characteristics absorption bands that indicate if carbon - hydrogen or carbon - oxygen bonds are present.
An absorption spectrum can be quantitatively related to the amount of material present using the Beer - Lambert law. Determining the absolute concentration of a compound requires knowledge of the compound 's absorption coefficient. The absorption coefficient for some compounds is available from reference sources, and it can also be determined by measuring the spectrum of a calibration standard with a known concentration of the target.
One of the unique advantages of spectroscopy as an analytical technique is that measurements can be made without bringing the instrument and sample into contact. Radiation that travels between a sample and an instrument will contain the spectral information, so the measurement can be made remotely. Remote spectral sensing is valuable in many situations. For example, measurements can be made in toxic or hazardous environments without placing an operator or instrument at risk. Also, sample material does not have to be brought into contact with the instrument -- preventing possible cross contamination.
Remote spectral measurements present several challenges compared to laboratory measurements. The space in between the sample of interest and the instrument may also have spectral absorptions. These absorptions can mask or confound the absorption spectrum of the sample. These background interferences may also vary over time. The source of radiation in remote measurements is often an environmental source, such as sunlight or the thermal radiation from a warm object, and this makes it necessary to distinguish spectral absorption from changes in the source spectrum.
To simplify these challenges, Differential optical absorption spectroscopy has gained some popularity, as it focusses on differential absorption features and omits broad - band absorption such as aerosol extinction and extinction due to rayleigh scattering. This method is applied to ground - based, air - borne and satellite based measurements. Some ground - based methods provide the possibility to retrieve tropospheric and stratospheric trace gas profiles.
Astronomical spectroscopy is a particularly significant type of remote spectral sensing. In this case, the objects and samples of interest are so distant from earth that electromagnetic radiation is the only means available to measure them. Astronomical spectra contain both absorption and emission spectral information. Absorption spectroscopy has been particularly important for understanding interstellar clouds and determining that some of them contain molecules. Absorption spectroscopy is also employed in the study of extrasolar planets. Detection of extrasolar planets by the transit method also measures their absorption spectrum and allows for the determination of the planet 's atmospheric composition, temperature, pressure, and scale height, and hence allows also for the determination of the planet 's mass.
Theoretical models, principally quantum mechanical models, allow for the absorption spectra of atoms and molecules to be related to other physical properties such as electronic structure, atomic or molecular mass, and molecular geometry. Therefore, measurements of the absorption spectrum are used to determine these other properties. Microwave spectroscopy, for example, allows for the determination of bond lengths and angles with high precision.
In addition, spectral measurements can be used to determine the accuracy of theoretical predictions. For example, the Lamb shift measured in the hydrogen atomic absorption spectrum was not expected to exist at the time it was measured. Its discovery spurred and guided the development of quantum electrodynamics, and measurements of the Lamb shift are now used to determine the fine - structure constant.
The most straightforward approach to absorption spectroscopy is to generate radiation with a source, measure a reference spectrum of that radiation with a detector and then re-measure the sample spectrum after placing the material of interest in between the source and detector. The two measured spectra can then be combined to determine the material 's absorption spectrum. The sample spectrum alone is not sufficient to determine the absorption spectrum because it will be affected by the experimental conditions -- the spectrum of the source, the absorption spectra of other materials in between the source and detector and the wavelength dependent characteristics of the detector. The reference spectrum will be affected in the same way, though, by these experimental conditions and therefore the combination yields the absorption spectrum of the material alone.
A wide variety of radiation sources are employed in order to cover the electromagnetic spectrum. For spectroscopy, it is generally desirable for a source to cover a broad swath of wavelengths in order to measure a broad region of the absorption spectrum. Some sources inherently emit a broad spectrum. Examples of these include globars or other black body sources in the infrared, mercury lamps in the visible and ultraviolet and x-ray tubes. One recently developed, novel source of broad spectrum radiation is synchrotron radiation which covers all of these spectral regions. Other radiation sources generate a narrow spectrum but the emission wavelength can be tuned to cover a spectral range. Examples of these include klystrons in the microwave region and lasers across the infrared, visible and ultraviolet region (though not all lasers have tunable wavelengths).
The detector employed to measure the radiation power will also depend on the wavelength range of interest. Most detectors are sensitive to a fairly broad spectral range and the sensor selected will often depend more on the sensitivity and noise requirements of a given measurement. Examples of detectors common in spectroscopy include heterodyne receivers in the microwave, bolometers in the millimeter - wave and infrared, mercury cadmium telluride and other cooled semiconductor detectors in the infrared, and photodiodes and photomultiplier tubes in the visible and ultraviolet.
If both the source and the detector cover a broad spectral region, then it is also necessary to introduce a means of resolving the wavelength of the radiation in order to determine the spectrum. Often a spectrograph is used to spatially separate the wavelengths of radiation so that the power at each wavelength can be measured independently. It is also common to employ interferometry to determine the spectrum -- Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy is a widely used implementation of this technique.
Two other issues that must be considered in setting up an absorption spectroscopy experiment include the optics used to direct the radiation and the means of holding or containing the sample material (called a cuvette or cell). For most UV, visible, and NIR measurements the use of precision quartz cuvettes are necessary. In both cases, it is important to select materials that have relatively little absorption of their own in the wavelength range of interest. The absorption of other materials could interfere with or mask the absorption from the sample. For instance, in several wavelength ranges it is necessary to measure the sample under vacuum or in a rare gas environment because gases in the atmosphere have interfering absorption features.
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who are the key designers associated with art deco | Art Deco - wikipedia
Art Deco, sometimes referred to as Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture and design that first appeared in France just before World War I. Art Deco influenced the design of buildings, furniture, jewelry, fashion, cars, movie theatres, trains, ocean liners, and everyday objects such as radios and vacuum cleaners. It took its name, short for Arts Décoratifs, from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes (International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts) held in Paris in 1925. It combined modernist styles with fine craftsmanship and rich materials. During its heyday, Art Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance, and faith in social and technological progress.
Art Deco was a pastiche of many different styles, sometimes contradictory, united by a desire to be modern. From its outset, Art Deco was influenced by the bold geometric forms of Cubism; the bright colors of Fauvism and of the Ballets Russes; the updated craftsmanship of the furniture of the eras of Louis Philippe and Louis XVI; and the exotic styles of China and Japan, India, Persia, ancient Egypt and Maya art. It featured rare and expensive materials, such as ebony and ivory, and exquisite craftsmanship. The Chrysler Building and other skyscrapers of New York built during the 1920s and 1930s are monuments of the Art Deco style.
In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, the Art Deco style became more subdued. New materials arrived, including chrome plating, stainless steel and plastic. A sleeker form of the style, called Streamline Moderne, appeared in the 1930s; it featured curving forms and smooth, polished surfaces. Art Deco is one of the first truly international styles, but its dominance ended with the beginning of World War II and the rise of the strictly functional and unadorned styles of modernism and the International Style of architecture that followed.
Art Deco took its name, short for Arts Décoratifs, from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes held in Paris in 1925, though the diverse styles that characterize Art Deco had already appeared in Paris and Brussels before World War I.
The term arts décoratifs was first used in France in 1858; published in the Bulletin de la Société française de photographie.
In 1868, Le Figaro newspaper used the term objets d'art décoratifs with respect to objects for stage scenery created for the Théâtre de l'Opéra.
In 1875, furniture designers, textile, jewelry and glass designers and other craftsmen were officially given the status of artists by the French government. In response to this, the École royale gratuite de dessin (Royal Free School of Design) founded in 1766 under King Louis XVI to train artists and artisans in crafts relating to the fine arts, was renamed the National School of Decorative Arts (l'École nationale des arts décoratifs). It took its present name of ENSAD (École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs) in 1927.
During the 1925 Exposition the architect Le Corbusier wrote a series of articles about the exhibition for his magazine L'Esprit Nouveau under the title, "1925 Expo: Arts Déco '' which were combined into a book, "L'art décoratif d'aujourd'hui '' (Decorative Art Today). The book was a spirited attack on the excesses of the colorful and lavish objects at the Exposition; and on the idea that practical objects such as furniture should have any decoration at all; his conclusion was that "Modern decoration has no decoration ''.
The shorthand title "Arts Deco '' that Le Corbusier used in the articles and book was adapted in 1966 for title of the first modern exhibit on the subject, called Les Années 25: Art déco, Bauhaus, Stijl, Esprit nouveau, which covered the variety of major styles in the 1920s and 1930s. The term Art déco was then used in a 1966 newspaper article by Hillary Gelson in the Times (London, 12 November), describing the different styles at the exhibit.
Art Deco gained currency as a broadly applied stylistic label in 1968 when historian Bevis Hillier published the first major academic book on the style: Art Deco of the 20s and 30s. Hillier noted that the term was already being used by art dealers and cites The Times (2 November 1966) and an essay named "Les Arts Déco '' in Elle magazine (November 1967) as examples of prior usage. In 1971, Hillier organized an exhibition at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, which he details in his book about it, The World of Art Deco.
The emergence of Art Deco was closely connected with the rise in status of decorative artists, who until late in the 19th century had been considered simply as artisans. The term "arts décoratifs '' had been invented in 1875, giving the designers of furniture, textiles, and other decoration official status. The Société des artistes décorateurs (Society of decorative artists), or SAD, was founded in 1901, and decorative artists were given the same rights of authorship as painters and sculptors. A similar movement developed in Italy. The first international exhibition devoted entirely to the decorative arts, the Esposizione international d'Arte decorative moderna, was held in Turin in 1902. Several new magazines devoted to decorative arts were founded in Paris, including Arts et décoration and L'Art décoratif moderne. Decorative arts sections were introduced into the annual salons of the Sociéte des artistes français, and later in the Salon d'automne. French nationalism also played a part in the resurgence of decorative arts; French designers felt challenged by the increasing exports of less expensive German furnishings. In 1911, the SAD proposed the holding of a major new international exposition of decorative arts in 1912. No copies of old styles were to be permitted; only modern works. The exhibit was postponed until 1914, then, because of the war, postponed until 1925, when it gave its name to the whole family of styles known as Déco.
The Paris department stores and fashion designers also played an important part in the rise of Art Déco. Established firms including the luggage maker Louis Vuitton silverware firm Christofle, glass designer René Lalique, and the jewelers Louis Cartier and Boucheron, who all began designing products in more modern styles. Beginning in 1900, the Department stores had recruited decorative artists to work in their design studios. The decoration of the 1912 Salon d'Automne had been entrusted to the department store Printemps. During the same year Printemps created its own workshop called "Primavera ''. By 1920 Primavera employed more than three hundred artists. The styles ranged from the updated versions of Louis XIV, Louis XVI and especially Louis Philippe furniture made by Louis Süe and the Primavera workshop to more modern forms from the workshop of the Au Louvre department store. Other designers, including Émile - Jacques Ruhlmann and Paul Foliot refused to use mass production, and insisted that each piece be made individually by hand. The early art deco style featured luxurious and exotic materials such as ebony, and ivory and silk, very bright colors and stylized motifs, particularly baskets and bouquets of flowers of all colors, giving a modernist look.
Antoine Bourdelle, La Danse, facade of the Théâtre des Champs - Elysées, Paris (1912)
Théâtre des Champs - Élysées, by Auguste Perret, 15 avenue Montaigne, Paris, (1910 -- 13). Reinforced concrete gave architects the ability to create new forms and bigger spaces.
Interior of the Théâtre des Champs - Élysées, with Bourdelle bas - reliefs over the stage
Dome of the Theater, with Art - Deco rose design by Maurice Denis
The Théâtre des Champs - Élysées (1910 -- 1913), by Auguste Perret was the first landmark Art Deco building completed in Paris. Previously reinforced concrete had been used only for industrial and apartment buildings, Perret had built the first modern reinforced concrete apartment building in Paris on rue Benjamin Franklin in 1903 - 04. Henri Sauvage, another important future Art Deco architect, built another in 1904 at 7 rue Trétaigne (1904). From 1908 to 1910, the 21 - year old Le Corbusier worked as a draftsman in Perret 's office, learning the techniques of concrete construction. Perret 's building had clean rectangular form, geometric decoration and straight lines, the future trademarks of Art Deco. The decor of the theater was also revolutionary; the facade was decorated with plaques of Art Deco sculpture by Antoine Bourdelle, a dome by Maurice Denis, paintings by Édouard Vuillard, and an Art Deco curtain Ker - Xavier Roussel. The theater became famous as the venue for many of the first performances of the Ballets Russes. Perret and Sauvage became the leading Art Deco architects in Paris in the 1920s.
Set design for Sheherazade (1910) by Leon Bakst
Table and chairs by Maurice Dufrene and carpet by Paul Follot at the 1912 Salon des artistes décorateurs
Art Deco armchair made for art collector Jacques Doucet (1912 -- 13)
Display of early Art Deco furnishings by the Atelier Français at the 1913 Salon d'Automne from Art et décoration magazine (1914)
At its birth between 1910 and 1914, Art Deco was an explosion of colors, featuring bright and often clashing hues, frequently in floral designs, presented in furniture upholstery, carpets, screens, wallpaper and fabrics. Many colorful works, including chairs and a table by Maurice Dufrene and a bright Gobelin carpet by Paul Follot were presented at the 1912 Salon des artistes décorateurs. In 1912 -- 1913 designer Alfred Karbowsky made a floral chair with a parrot design for the hunting lodge of art collector Jacques Doucet. The furniture designers Louis Süe and André Mare made their first appearance at the 1912 exhibit, under the name of the Atelier Française, combining colorful fabrics with exotic and expensive materials, including ebony and ivory. After World War I they became one of the most prominent French interior design firms, producing the furniture for the first - class salons and cabins of the French transatlantic ocean liners.
The vivid colors of Art Deco came from many sources, including the exotic set designs by Leon Bakst for the Ballets Russes, which caused a sensation in Paris just before World War I. Some of the colors were inspired by the earlier Fauvism movement led by Henri Matisse; others by the Orphism of painters such as Sonia Delaunay; others by the movement known as the Nabis, and in the work of symbolist painter Odilon Redon, who designed fireplace screens and other decorative objects. Bright colors were a feature of the work of fashion designer Paul Poiret, whose work influenced both Art Deco fashion and interior design.
Design for the facade of La Maison Cubiste (Cubist House) by Raymond Duchamp - Villon (1912)
Raymond Duchamp - Villon, 1912, La Maison Cubiste (Cubist House) at the Salon d'Automne, 1912, detail of the entrance
Le Salon Bourgeois, designed by André Mare inside La Maison Cubiste, in the decorative arts section of the Salon d'Automne, 1912, Paris. Metzinger 's Femme à l'Éventail on the left wall
The art style known as Cubism appeared in France between 1907 and 1912, influencing the development of Art Deco. The Cubists, themselves under the influence of Paul Cézanne, were interested in the simplification of forms to their geometric essentials: the cylinder, the sphere, the cone.
In 1912, the artists of the Section d'Or exhibited works considerably more accessible to the general public than the analytical Cubism of Picasso and Braque. The Cubist vocabulary was poised to attract fashion, furniture and interior designers.
In the 1912 writings of André Vera. Le Nouveau style, published in the journal L'Art décoratif, he expressed the rejection of Art Nouveau forms (asymmetric, polychrome and picturesque) and called for simplicité volontaire, symétrie manifeste, l'ordre et l'harmonie, themes that would eventually become common within Art Deco; though with time the Deco style was often extremely colorful and anything but simple.
In the Art Décoratif section of the 1912 Salon d'Automne, an architectural installation was exhibited known as the La Maison Cubiste. The facade was designed by Raymond Duchamp - Villon. The decor of the house was by the firm of Louis Süe and André Mare, who had formed a company called the Atlelier Français in 1912. La Maison Cubiste was a furnished installation with a facade, a staircase, wrought iron banisters, a bedroom, a living room -- the Salon Bourgeois, where paintings by Albert Gleizes, Jean Metzinger, Marie Laurencin, Marcel Duchamp, Fernand Léger and Roger de La Fresnaye were hung. Thousands of spectators at the salon passed through the full - scale model.
The facade of the house, designed by Duchamp - Villon, was not very radical by modern standards; the lintels and pediments had prismatic shapes, but otherwise the facade resembled an ordinary house of the period. The rooms were furnished by Mare with neo-Louis XVI and Louis - Philippe style chairs and sofas that were updated with more angular features to make hem go with the Cubist paintings. The critic Emile Sedeyn described Mare 's work in the magazine Art et Décoration: "He does not embarrass himself with simplicity, for he multiplies flowers wherever they can be put. The effect he seeks is obviously one of picturesqueness and gaiety. He achieves it. '' The Cubist element was provided by the paintings. Despite its tameness, the installation was attacked by some critics as extremely radical, which helped make for its success. This architectural installation was subsequently exhibited at the 1913 Armory Show, New York, Chicago and Boston. Thanks largely to the exhibition, the term "Cubist '' began to be applied to anything modern, from women 's haircuts to clothing to theater performances.
The Cubist style continued within Art Deco, even as Deco branched out in many other directions. In 1927, Cubists Joseph Csaky, Jacques Lipchitz, Louis Marcoussis, Henri Laurens, the sculptor Gustave Miklos, and others collaborated in the decoration of a Studio House, rue Saint - James, Neuilly - sur - Seine, designed by the architect Paul Ruaud and owned by the French fashion designer Jacques Doucet, also a collector of Post-Impressionist art by Henri Matisse and Cubist paintings (including Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, which he bought directly from Picasso 's studio). Laurens designed the fountain, Csaky designed Doucet 's staircase, Lipchitz made the fireplace mantel, and Marcoussis made a Cubist rug.
Besides the Cubist artists, Doucet brought in other Deco interior designers to help in decorating the house, including Pierre Legrain, who was in charge of organizing the decoration, and Paul Iribe, Marcel Coard, André Groult, Eileen Gray and Rose Adler to provide furniture. The decor included massive pieces made of macassar ebony, inspired by African art, and furniture covered with Morocco leather, crocodile skin and snakeskin, and patterns taken from African designs.
The exoticism of the Ballets Russes had a strong influence on early Deco. A drawing of the dancer Vaslav Nijinsky by Paris fashion artist Georges Barbier (1913)
Illustration by Georges Barbier of a gown by Paquin (1914). Stylized floral designs and bright colors were a feature of early Art Deco.
Stairway in the hôtel particulier of fashion designer - art collector Jacques Doucet (1927). Design by Joseph Csaky. The geometric forms of Cubism had an important influence on Art Deco
Lobby of 450 Sutter Street in San Francisco by Timothy Pflueger, (1929) inspired by ancient Maya art
The gilded bronze Prometheus at Rockefeller Center by Paul Manship (1934), a stylized Art Deco update of classical sculpture (1936)
A ceramic vase inspired by motifs of traditional African carved wood sculpture, by Emile Lenoble (1937), Museum of Decorative Arts, Paris
Art Deco was not a single style, but a collection of different and sometimes contradictory styles. In architecture, Art Deco was the successor to and reaction against Art Nouveau, a style which flourished in Europe between 1895 and 1900, and also gradually replaced the Beaux - Arts and neoclassical that were predominant in European and American architecture. In 1905 Eugène Grasset wrote and published Méthode de Composition Ornementale, Éléments Rectilignes, in which he systematically explored the decorative (ornamental) aspects of geometric elements, forms, motifs and their variations, in contrast with (and as a departure from) the undulating Art Nouveau style of Hector Guimard, so popular in Paris a few years earlier. Grasset stressed the principle that various simple geometric shapes like triangles and squares are the basis of all compositional arrangements. The reinforced concrete buildings of Auguste Perret and Henri Sauvage, and particularly the Theatre des Champs - Elysees, offered a new form of construction and decoration which was copied worldwide.
In decoration, many different styles were borrowed and used by Art Deco. They included pre-modern art from around the world and observable at the Musée du Louvre, Musée de l'Homme and the Musée national des Arts d'Afrique et d'Océanie. There was also popular interest in archeology due to excavations at Pompeii, Troy, and the tomb of the 18th dynasty Pharaoh Tutankhamun. Artists and designers integrated motifs from ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome, Asia, Mesoamerica and Oceania with Machine Age elements.
Other styles borrowed included Russian Constructivism and Italian Futurism, as well as Orphism, Functionalism, and Modernism in general. Art Deco also used the clashing colors and designs of Fauvism, notably in the work of Henri Matisse and André Derain, inspired the designs of art deco textiles, wallpaper, and painted ceramics. It took ideas from the high fashion vocabulary of the period, which featured geometric designs, chevrons, zigzags, and stylized bouquets of flowers. It was influenced by discoveries in Egyptology, and growing interest in the Orient and in African art. From 1925 onwards, it was often inspired by a passion for new machines, such as airships, automobiles and ocean liners, and by 1930 this influence resulted in the style called streamline moderne.
The boudoir of fashion designer Jeanne Lanvin (1922 -- 25) now in the Museum of Decorative Arts, Paris
Bath of Jeanne Lanvin, of Sienna marble, with decoration of carved stucco and bronze (1922 -- 25)
An Art Deco study by the Paris design firm of Alavoine, now in the Brooklyn Museum (1928 -- 30)
The Glass Salon, designed for Suzanne Talbot by Paul Ruaud, with furniture by Eileen Gray (1932)
Art Deco was associated with both luxury and modernity; it combined very expensive materials and exquisite craftsmanship put into modernistic forms. Nothing was cheap about Art Deco: pieces of furniture included ivory and silver inlays, and pieces of Art Deco jewellry combined diamonds with platinum, jade, and other precious materials. The style was used to decorate the first - class salons of ocean liners, deluxe trains, and skyscrapers. It was used around the world to decorate the great movie palaces of the late 1920s and 1930s. Later, after the Great Depression, the style changed and became more sober.
A good example of the luxury style of Art Deco is the boudoir of the fashion designer Jeanne Lanvin, designed by Armand - Albert Rateau (1882 - 1938) made between 1922 - 25. It was located in her house at 16 rue Barbet de Jouy, in Paris, which was demolished in 1965. The room was reconstructed in the Museum of Decorative Arts in Paris. The walls are covered with molded lambris below sculpted bas - reliefs in stucco. The alcove is framed with columns of marble on with bases and a plinth of sculpted wood. The floor is of white and black marble, and in the cabinets decorative objects are displayed against a background of blue silk. Her bathroom had a tub and washstand made of sienna marble, with a wall of carved stucco and bronze fittings.
By 1928 the style had become more comfortable, with deep leather club chairs. The study designed by the Paris firm of Alavoine for an American businessman in 1928 - 30, now in the Brooklyn Museum, had a unique American feature. Since it was constructed during Prohibition, when serving alcohol was prohibited, it included a secret bar hidden behind the panels.
By the 1930s, the style had been somewhat simplified, but it was still extravagant. In 1932 the decorator Paul Ruoud made the Glass Salon for Suzanne Talbot. It featured a serpentine armchair and two tubular armchairs by Eileen Gray, a floor of mat silvered glass slabs, a panel of abstract patterns in silver and black lacquer, and an assortment of animal skins.
Postcard of the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts in Paris (1925)
Pavilion of the Galeries Lafayette Department Store at the 1925 Exposition
The Hotel du Riche Collectioneur, pavilion of the furniture manufacturer Émile - Jacques Ruhlmann
Salon of the Hôtel du Riche Collectionneur from the 1925 International Exposition of Decorative Arts, furnished by Émile - Jacques Ruhlmann, painting by Jean Dupas
The event that marked the zenith of the style and gave it its name was the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts which took place in Paris from April to October in 1925. This was officially sponsored by the French government, and covered a site in Paris of 55 acres, running from the Grand Palais on the right bank to Les Invalides on the left bank, and along the banks of the Seine. The Grand Palais, the largest hall in the city, was filled with exhibits of decorative arts from the participating countries. There were 15,000 exhibitors from twenty different countries, including England, Italy, Spain, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Belgium, Japan, and the new Soviet Union, though Germany was not invited because of tensions after the war and the United States, misunderstanding the purpose of the exhibit, declined to participate. It was visited by sixteen million people during its seven - month run. The rules of the exhibition required that all work be modern; no historical styles were allowed. The main purpose of the Exhibit was to promote the French manufacturers of luxury furniture, porcelain, glass, metal work, textiles and other decorative products. To further promote the products, all the major Paris department stores and major designers had their own pavilions. The Exposition had a secondary purpose in promoting products from French colonies in Africa and Asia, including ivory and exotic woods.
The Hôtel du Riche Collectionneur was a popular attraction at the Exposition; it displayed the new furniture designs of Emile - Jacques Ruhlmann, as well as Art Deco fabrics, carpets, and a painting by Jean Dupas. The interior design followed the same principles of symmetry and geometric forms which set it apart from Art Nouveau, and bright colors, fine craftsmanship rare and expensive materials which set it apart from the strict functionality of the Modernist style. While most of the pavilions were lavishly decorated and filled with hand - made luxury furniture, two pavilions, those of the Soviet Union and Pavilion du Nouveau Esprit, built by the magazine of that name run by Le Corbusier, were built in an austere style with plain white walls and no decoration; they were among the earliest examples of modernist architecture.
The American Radiator Building in New York City by Raymond Hood (1924)
Chrysler Building in New York City, by William Van Alen (1928 -- 30)
New York City skyline (1931 - 1933)
Crown of the General Electric Building (also known as 570 Lexington Avenue) by Cross & Cross (1933)
30 Rockefeller Center, now the Comcast Building, by Raymond Hood (1933)
American skyscrapers marked the summit of the Art Deco style; they became the tallest and most recognizable modern buildings in the world. They were designed to show the prestige of their builders through their height, their shape, their color, and their dramatic illumination at night. The first New York skyscraper, the Woolworth Building, in a neoclassical style, was completed in 1913, and the American Telephone and Telegraph Building (1924) had ionic and doric columns and a classical Doric hypostyle with a frieze. The American Radiator Building by Raymond Hood (1924) combined Gothic and Deco modern elements in the design of the building. Black brick on the frontage of the building (symbolizing coal) was selected to give an idea of solidity and to give the building a solid mass. Other parts of the facade were covered in gold bricks (symbolizing fire), and the entry was decorated with marble and black mirrors. Another early Art Deco skyscraper was Detroit 's Guardian Building, which opened in 1929. Designed by modernist Wirt C. Rowland, the building was the first to employ stainless steel as a decorative element, and the extensive use of colored designs in place of traditional ornaments.
The New York skyline was radically changed by the Chrysler Building in Manhattan (completed in 1930), designed by William Van Alen. It was a giant seventy - seven floor tall advertisement for Chrysler automobiles. The top was crowned by a stainless steel spire, and was ornamented by deco "gargoyles '' in the form of stainless steel radiator cap decorations. The base of the tower, thirty - three stories above the street, was decorated with colorful art deco friezes, and the lobby was decorated with art deco symbols and images expressing modernity.
The Chrysler Building was followed by the Empire State Building by William F. Lamb (1931) and the RCA Building (now the Comcast Building) in Rockefeller Center, by Raymond Hood (1933) which together completely changed the skyline of New York. The tops of the buildings were decorated with Art Deco crowns and spires covered with stainless steel, and, in the case of the Chrysler building, with Art Deco gargoyles modeled after radiator ornaments, while the entrances and lobbies were lavishly decorated with Art Deco sculpture, ceramics, and design. Similar buildings, though not quite as tall, soon appeared in Chicago and other large American cities. The Chrysler Building was soon surpassed in height by the Empire State Building, in a slightly less lavish Deco style. Rockefeller Center added a new design element: several tall building grouped around an open plaza, with a fountain in the center.
Lincoln Theater in Miami Beach, Florida by Thomas W. Lamb (1936)
The Palais de Chaillot by Louis - Hippolyte Boileau, Jacques Carlu and Léon Azéma from the 1937 Paris International Exposition
Stairway of the Economic and Social Council in Paris, originally the Museum of Public Works, built for the 1937 Paris International Exposition by Auguste Perret (1937)
High School in King City, California, built by Robert Stanton for the Works Progress Administration (1939)
In 1925 two different competing schools coexisted within Art Deco: the traditionalists, who had founded the Society of Decorative Artists; included the furniture designer Emile - Jacques Ruhlmann, Jean Dunard, the sculptor Antoine Bourdelle, and designer Paul Poiret; they combined modern forms with traditional craftsmanship and expensive materials. On the other side were the modernists, who increasingly rejected the past and wanted a style based upon advances in new technologies, simplicity, a lack of decoration, inexpensive materials, and mass production. The modernists founded their own organization, The French Union of Modern Artists, in 1929. Its members included architects Pierre Chareau, Francis Jourdain, Robert Mallet - Stevens, Corbusier, and, in the Soviet Union, Konstantin Melnikov; the Irish designer Eileen Gray, and French designer Sonia Delaunay, the jewelers Jean Fouquet and Jean Puiforcat. They fiercely attacked the traditional art deco style, which they said was created only for the wealthy, and insisted that well - constructed buildings should be available to everyone, and that form should follow function. The beauty of an object or building resided in whether it was perfectly fit to fulfill its function. Modern industrial methods meant that furniture and buildings could be mass - produced, not made by hand.
The Art Deco interior designer Paul Follot defended Art Deco in this way: "We know that man is never content with the indispensable and that the superfluous is always needed... If not, we would have to get rid of music, flowers, and perfumes...! '' However, Le Corbusier was a brilliant publicist for modernist architecture; he stated that a house was simply "a machine to live in '', and tirelessly promoted the idea that Art Deco was the past and modernism was the future. Le Corbusier 's ideas were gradually adopted by architecture schools, and the aesthetics of Art Deco were abandoned. The same features that made Art Deco popular in the beginning, its craftsmanship, rich materials and ornament, led to its decline. The Great Depression that began in the United States in 1929, and reached Europe shortly afterwards, greatly reduced the number of wealthy clients who could pay for the furnishings and art objects. In the Depression economic climate, few companies were ready to build new skyscrapers. Even the Ruhlmann firm resorted to producing pieces of furniture in series, rather than individual hand - made items. The last buildings built in Paris in the new style were the Museum of Public Works by Auguste Perret (now the French Economic, Social and Environmental Council) and the Palais de Chaillot by Louis - Hippolyte Boileau, Jacques Carlu and Léon Azéma, and the Palais de Tokyo of the 1937 Paris International Exposition; they looked out at the grandiose pavilion of Nazi Germany, designed by Albert Speer, which faced the equally grandiose socialist - realist pavilion of Stalin 's Soviet Union.
After World War II the dominant architectural style became the International Style pioneered by Le Corbusier, and Mies Van der Rohe. A handful of Art Deco hotels were built in Miami Beach after World War II, but elsewhere the style largely vanished, except in industrial design, where it continued to be used in automobile styling and products such as juke boxes. In the 1960s, it experienced a modest academic revival, thanks in part to the writings of architectural historians such as Bevis Hillier. In the 1970s efforts were made in the United States and Europe to preserve the best examples of Art Deco architecture, and many buildings were restored and repurposed. Postmodern architecture, which first appeared in the 1980s, like Art Deco, often includes purely decorative features. Deco continues to inspire designers, and is often used in contemporary fashion, jewelry, and toiletries.
Tamara de Lempicka, 1929, La Musicienne, oil on canvas, 161 × 96 cm
Diego Rivera, 1932 -- 1933, Detroit Industry, South Wall, Detroit Institute of Arts
Detail of Time, 1941, ceiling mural in lobby of Rockefeller Center by the Spanish painter Josep Maria Sert
Reginald Marsh, 1936, Workers sorting the mail, a mural in the U.S. Customs House in New York
Rockwell Kent, 1938, Art in the Tropics, mural in the William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building
There was no section set aside for painting at the 1925 Exposition. Art deco painting was by definition decorative, designed to decorate a room or work of architecture, so few painters worked exclusively in the style, but two painters are closely associated with Art Deco. Jean Dupas painted Art Deco murals for the Bordeaux Pavilion at the 1925 Decorative Arts Exposition in Paris, and also painted the picture over the fireplace in the Maison de la Collectioneur exhibit at the 1925 Exposition, which featured furniture by Ruhlmann and other prominent Art Deco designers. His murals were also prominent in the decor of the French ocean liner SS Normandie. His work was purely decorative, designed as a background or accompaniment to other elements of the decor. The other painter closely associated with the style is Tamara de Lempicka. Born in Poland in an aristocratic family, she emigrated to Paris after the Russian Revolution. There she became a student of the artist Maurice Denis of the movement called Les Nabis and the Cubist André Lhote and borrowed many elements from their styles. She painted almost exclusively portraits in a realistic, dynamic and colorful Art Deco style.
In the 1930s a dramatic new form of Art Deco painting appeared in the United States. During the Great Depression, the Federal Art Project of the Works Progress Administration was created to give work to unemployed artists. Many were given the task of decorating government buildings, hospitals and schools. There was no specific art deco style used in the murals; artists engaged to paint murals in government buildings came from many different schools, from American regionalism to social realism; they included Reginald Marsh, Rockwell Kent and the Mexican painter Diego Rivera. The murals were Art Deco because they were all decorative and related to the activities in the building or city where they were painted: Reginald Marsh and Rockwell Kent both decorated U.S. postal buildings, and showed postal employees at work while Diego Rivera depicted automobile factory workers for the Detroit Institute of Arts. Diego Rivera 's mural American Progress for Rockefeller Center featured an unauthorized portrait of Lenin. When Rivera refused to remove Lenin, the painting was destroyed and a new mural was painted by the Spanish artist Josep Maria Sert.
Christ the Redeemer by Paul Landowski, (1931), Soapstone, Corcovado Mountain, Rio de Janeiro
Dancer and Gazelles by Paul Manship, (1916), bronze, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Joseph Csaky, Tête (front and side view), limestone, Kröller - Müller Museum, Otterlo (c. 1920)
Salon sculpture by Josef Lorenzl (1920)
Speed by the American sculptor Harriet Whitney Frishmuth (1922)
François Pompon, Ours blanc (Polar Bear), Musée d'Orsay (1922)
Demétre Chiparus, Tanara, bronze, ivory and onyx (c. 1925)
Ralph Stackpole 's sculpture group over the door of the San Francisco Stock Exchange (1930)
Relief sculpture in the lobby of the former Daily Express Building in London (1932)
Portal decoration Wisdom by Lee Lawrie, Rockefeller Center, New York (1933)
Prometheus by Paul Manship, Rockefeller Center, New York (1937)
Lee Lawrie, 1936 -- 37, Atlas statue, in front of the Rockefeller Center in New York (installed 1937)
Air, by Aristide Maillol, in the Tuileries Gardens, Paris (1938)
A giant replica of the Academy Awards statuette known as The Oscar, by George Stanley and Cedric Gibbons (1928)
Monumento às Bandeiras, granite, by Victor Brecheret, at the Ibirapuera Park in São Paulo (1954)
Most of the sculpture of the Art Deco period was, as the name suggests, purely decorative; it was designed not for museums, but to ornament office buildings, government buildings, public squares, and private salons. It was almost always representational, usually of heroic or allegorical figures related to the purpose of the building; the themes were usually chosen by the patron, and abstract sculpture for decoration was extremely rare. It was frequently attached to facade of buildings, particularly over the entrance.
Allegorical sculptures of the dance and music by Antoine Bourdelle were the essential decorative feature of the earliest Art Deco landmark in Paris, the Théâtre des Champs - Elysées in Paris, in 1912. The sculptor Aristide Maillol reinvented the classical ideal for his statue of the River (1939), now at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. In the 1930s, a whole team of sculptors made sculpture for the 1937 Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne at Chaillot. The buildings of the Exposition were covered with low - relief sculpture, statues. Alfred Janniot made the relief sculptures on the facade of the Palais de Tokyo. The Paris City Museum of Modern Art, and the esplanade in front of the Palais de Chaillot, facing the Eiffel Tower, was crowded with new statuary by Charles Malfray, Henry Arnold, and many others.
In the United States, many European sculptors trained at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris, came to work; they included Gutzon Borglum, sculptor of Mount Rushmore Lincoln Memorial. Other American sculptors, including Harriet Whitney Frishmuth, had studied with Auguste Rodin in Paris. The 1929 stock market crash largely destroyed the market for monumental sculpture, but one grand project remained; the new Rockefeller Center. The American sculptors Lee Lawrie and Paul Manship designed heroic allegorical figures for facade and plaza. In San Francisco, Ralph Stackpole provided sculpture for the facade of the new San Francisco Stock Exchange building.
One of the best known and certainly the largest Art Deco sculpture is the Christ the Redeemer by the French sculptor Paul Landowski, completed between 1922 and 1931, located on a mountain top overlooking Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. François Pompon was a pioneer of modern stylized animalier sculpture. He was not fully recognized for his artistic accomplishments until the age of 67 at the Salon d'Automne of 1922 with the work Ours blanc, also known as The White Bear, now in the Musée d'Orsay in Paris.
Many early Art Deco sculptures were small, designed to decorate salons. One genre of this sculpture was called the Chryselephantine statuette, named for a style of ancient Greek temple statues made of gold and ivory. One of the best - known Art Deco salon sculptors was the Romanian - born Demétre Chiparus, who produced colorful small sculptures of dancers. Other notable salon sculptors included Ferdinand Preiss, Josef Lorenzl, Alexander Kelety, Dorothea Charol and Gustav Schmidtcassel.
Parallel with these more neoclassical sculptors, more avant - garde and abstract sculptors were at work in Paris and New York. The most prominent were Constantin Brâncuși, Joseph Csaky, Alexander Archipenko, Henri Laurens, Jacques Lipchitz, Gustave Miklos, Jean Lambert - Rucki, Jan et Joël Martel, Chana Orloff, and Pablo Gargallo.
Festival poster by Ludwig Hohlwein (1910)
Program for the Ballets Russes by Leon Bakst (1912)
Peter Behrens, Deutscher Werkbund exhibition poster (1914)
A Vanity Fair cover by Georges Lepape (1919)
Interpretation of Harlem Jazz I by Winold Reiss (c. 1920)
Cover of Harper 's Bazaar by Erté (1922)
London Underground poster by Horace Taylor (1924)
Moulin Rouge poster by Charles Gesmar (1925)
Poster for Chicago World 's Fair (1933)
The Art Deco style appeared early in the graphic arts, in the years just before World War I. It appeared in Paris in the posters and the costume designs of Leon Bakst for the Ballets Russes, and in the catalogs of the fashion designers Paul Poiret. The illustrations of Georges Barbier, and Georges Lepape and the images in the fashion magazine La Gazette du bon ton perfectly captured the elegance and sensuality of the style. In the 1920s, the look changed; the fashions stressed were more casual, sportive and daring, with the woman models usually smoking cigarettes. American fashion magazines such as Vogue, Vanity Fair and Harper 's Bazaar quickly picked up the new style and popularized it in the United States. It also influenced the work of American book illustrators such as Rockwell Kent. In Germany, the most famous poster artist of the period was Ludwig Hohlwein, who created colorful and dramatic posters for music festivals, beers, and, late in his career, for the Nazi Party.
During the Art Nouveau period, posters usually advertised theatrical products or cabarets. In the 1920s, travel posters, made for steamship lines and airlines, became extremely popular. The style changed notably in the 1920s, to focus attention on the product being advertised. The images became simpler, precise, more linear, more dynamic, and were often placed against a single color background. In France popular Art Deco designers included, Charles Loupot and Paul Colin, who became famous for his posters of American singer and dancer Josephine Baker. Jean Carlu designed posters for Charlie Chaplin movies, soaps, and theaters; in the late 1930s he emigrated to the United States, where, during the World War, he designed posters to encourage war production. The designer Charles Gesmar became famous making posters for the singer Mistinguett and for Air France. Among the best known French Art Deco poster designers was Cassandre, who made the celebrated poster of the ocean liner SS Normandie in 1935.
In the 1930s a new genre of posters appeared in the United States during the Great Depression. The Federal Art Project hired American artists to create posters to promote tourism and cultural events.
La Samaritaine department store, by Henri Sauvage, Paris, (1925 -- 28)
Los Angeles City Hall by John Parkinson, John C. Austin, and Albert C. Martin, Sr., (1928)
Interior of the Palacio de Bellas Artes (Palace of Fine Arts) in Mexico City (1934)
National Diet Building in Tokyo, Japan (1936)
Mayakovskaya Metro Station in Moscow (1936)
The architectural style of art deco made its debut in Paris in 1903 - 04, with the construction of two apartment buildings in Paris, one by Auguste Perret on rue Trétaigne and the other on rue Benjamin Franklin by Henri Sauvage. The two young architects used reinforced concrete for the first time in Paris residential buildings; the new buildings had clean lines, rectangular forms, and no decoration on the facades; they marked a clean break with the art nouveau style. Between 1910 and 1913, Perret used his experience in concrete apartment buildings to construct the Théâtre des Champs - Élysées, 15 avenue Montaigne. Between 1925 and 1928 he constructed the new art deco facade of the La Samaritaine department store in Paris.
After the First World War, art deco buildings of steel and reinforced concrete began to appear in large cities across Europe and the United States. In the United States the style was most commonly used for office buildings, government buildings, movie theaters, and railroad stations. It sometimes was combined with other styles; Los Angeles City Hall combined Art Deco with a roof based on the ancient Greek Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, while the Los Angeles railroad station combined Deco with Spanish mission architecture. Art Deco elements also appeared in engineering projects, including the towers of the Golden Gate Bridge and the intake towers of Hoover Dam. In the 1920s and 1930s it became a truly international style, with examples including the Palacio de Bellas Artes (Palace of Fine Arts) in Mexico City by Federico Mariscal (es), the Mayakovskaya Metro Station in Moscow and the National Diet Building in Tokyo by Watanabe Fukuzo.
The Art Deco style was not limited to buildings on land; the ocean liner SS Normandie, whose first voyage was in 1935, featured Art Deco design, including a dining room whose ceiling and decoration were made of glass by Lalique.
The Fisher Building in Detroit by Joseph Nathaniel French (1928)
Lower lobby of the Guardian Building in Detroit by Wirt Rowland (1929)
Lobby of 450 Sutter Street in San Francisco by Timothy Pflueger (1929)
Lobby of the Chrysler Building by William Van Alen in New York City (1930)
Elevator of the Chrysler Building (1930)
The grand showcases of Art deco interior design were the lobbies of government buildings, theaters, and particularly office buildings. Interiors were extremely colorful and dynamic, combining sculpture, murals, and ornate geometric design in marble, glass, ceramics and stainless steel. An early example was the Fisher Building in Detroit, by Joseph Nathaniel French; the lobby was highly decorated with sculpture and ceramics.) The Guardian Building (originally the Union Trust Building) in Detroit, by Wirt Rowland (1929), decorated with red and black marble and brightly colored ceramics, highlighted by highly polished steel elevator doors and counters. The sculptural decoration installed in the walls illustrated the virtues of industry and saving; the building was immediately termed the "Cathedral of Commerce ''. The Medical and Dental Building called 450 Sutter Street in San Francisco by Timothy Pflueger was inspired by Mayan architecture, in a highly stylized form; it used pyramid shapes, and the interior walls were covered highly stylized rows of hieroglyphs.
In France, the best example of an Art Deco interior during period was the Palais de la Porte Dorée (1931) by Albert Laprade, Léon Jaussely and Léon Bazin. The building (now the National Museum of Immigration, with an aquarium in the basement) was built for the Paris Colonial Exposition of 1931, to celebrate the people and products of French colonies. The exterior facade was entirely covered with sculpture, and the lobby created an Art Deco harmony with a wood parquet floor in a geometric pattern, a mural depicting the people of French colonies; and a harmonious composition of vertical doors and horizontal balconies.
Grauman 's Egyptian Theater in Hollywood (1922)
Grand Rex movie theater in Paris (1932)
Four - story high grand lobby of the Paramount Theater, Oakland (1932)
Auditorium and stage of Radio City Music Hall, New York City (1932)
Gaumont State Cinema in London (1937)
The Paramount in Shanghai, China (1933)
Many of the best surviving examples of Art Deco are movie theaters built in the 1920s and 1930s. The Art Deco period coincided with the conversion of silent films to sound, and movie companies built enormous theaters in major cities to capture the huge audience that came to see movies. Movie palaces in the 1920s often combined exotic themes with art deco style; Grauman 's Egyptian Theater in Hollywood (1922) was inspired by ancient Egyptian tombs and pyramids, while the Fox Theater in Bakersfield, California attached a tower in California Mission style to an Art Deco hall. The largest of all is Radio City Music Hall in New York City, which opened in 1932. Originally designed as a stage theater, it quickly transformed into a movie theater, which could seat 6,015 persons The interior design by Donald Deskey used glass, aluminum, chrome, and leather to create a colorful escape from reality The Paramount Theater in Oakland, California, by Timothy Pflueger, had a colorful ceramic facade a lobby four stories high, and separate Art Deco smoking rooms for gentlemen and ladies. Similar grand palaces appeared in Europe. The Grand Rex in Paris (1932), with its imposing tower, was the largest movie theater in Europe. The Gaumont State Cinema in London (1937) had a tower modeled after the Empire State building, covered with cream - colored ceramic tiles and an interior in an Art Deco - Italian Renaissance style. The Paramount Theater in Shanghai, China (1933) was originally built as a dance hall called The gate of 100 pleasures; it was converted to a movie theater after the Communist Revolution in 1949, and now is a ballroom and disco. In the 1930s Italian architects built a small movie palace, the Cinema Impero, in Asmara in what is now Eritrea. Today, many of the movie theaters have been subdivided into multiplexes, but others have been restored and are used as cultural centers in their communities.
Paris Building in the Pacquebot or ocean liner style, 3 boulevard Victor (1935)
Pan-Pacific Auditorium in Los Angeles (1936)
The San Francisco Maritime Museum, was originally a public bath house (1936)
The Marine Air Terminal at La Guardia Airport (1937) was the New York terminal for the flights of Pan Am Clipper flying boats to Europe
The Hoover Building canteen in Perivale in the London suburbs, by Wallis, Gilbert and Partners (1938)
The Ford Pavilion at the 1939 New York World 's Fair
The nautical - style rounded corner of BBC Broadcasting House (1931)
In the late 1930s, a new variety of Art Deco architecture became common; it was called Streamline Moderne or simply Streamline, or, in France, the Style Paqueboat, or Ocean Liner style. Buildings in the style were had rounded corners, long horizontal lines; they were built of reinforced concrete, and were almost always white; and sometimes had nautical features, such as railings that resembled those on a ship. The rounded corner was not entirely new; it had appeared in Berlin in 1923 in the Mossehaus by Erich Mendelsohn, and later in the Hoover Building, an industrial complex in the London suburb of Perivale. In the United States, it became most closely associated with transport; Streamline moderne was rare in office buildings, but was often used for bus stations and airport terminals, such as terminal at La Guardia airport in New York City that handled the first transatlantic flights, via the PanAm clipper flying boats; and in roadside architecture, such as gas stations and diners. In the late 1930s a series of diners, modeled after streamlined railroad cars, were produced and installed in towns in New England; at least two examples still remain and are now registered historic buildings.
Iron fireplace screen, Rose Iron Works, Cleveland (1930)
Elevator doors of the Chrysler Building, by William Van Alen (1927 -- 30)
Sunrise motif from the Wisconsin Gas Building (1930)
Detail of mosaic facade of Paramount Theater (Oakland, California) (1931)
Decoration in the Art Deco period went through several distinct phases. Between 1910 and 1920, as Art Nouveau was exhausted, design styles saw a return to tradition, particularly in the work of Paul Iribe. In 1912 André Vera published an essay in the magazine L'Art Décoratif calling for a return to the craftsmanship and materials of earlier centuries, and using a new repertoire of forms taken from nature, particularly baskets and garlands of fruit and flowers. A second tendency of Art Deco, also from 1910 to 1920, was inspired by the bright colors of the artistic movement known as the Fauves and by the colorful costumes and sets of the Ballets Russes. This style was often expressed with exotic materials such as sharkskin, mother of pearl, ivory, tinted leather, lacquered and painted wood, and decorative inlays on furniture that emphasized its geometry. This period of the style reached its high point in the 1925 Paris Exposition of Decorative Arts. In the late 1920s and the 1930s, the decorative style changed, inspired by new materials and technologies. It became sleeker and less ornamental. Furniture, like architecture, began to have rounded edges and to take on a polished, streamlined look, taken from the streamline moderne style. New materials, such as chrome - plated steel, aluminum and bakelite, an early form of plastic, began to appear in furniture and decoration.
Throughout the Art Deco period, and particularly in the 1930s, the motifs of the decor expressed the function of the building. Theaters were decorated with sculpture which illustrated music, dance, and excitement; power companies showed sunrises, the Chrysler building showed stylized hood ornaments; The friezes of Palais de la Porte Dorée at the 1931 Paris Colonial Exposition showed the faces of the different nationalities of French colonies. The Streamline style made it appear that the building itself was in motion. The WPA murals of the 1930s featured ordinary people; factory workers, postal workers, families and farmers, in place of classical heroes.
Chair by Paul Follot (1912 -- 14)
Armchair by Louis Süe (1912) and painted screen by André Mare (1920)
Dressing table and chair of marble and encrusted, lacquered, and glided wood by Paul Follot (1919 - 1920
Corner cabinet of Mahogany with rose basket design of inlaid ivory by Émile - Jacques Ruhlmann (1923)
Cabinet by Émile - Jacques Ruhlmann (1926)
Cabinet design by Émile - Jacques Ruhlmann
Cabinet covered with shagreen or sharkskin, by André Groult (1925)
Furniture by Gio Ponti (1927)
Desk of an administrator, by Michel Roux - Spitz for the 1930 Salon of Decorative Artists
An Art Deco club chair (1930s)
Late Art Deco furniture and rug by Jules Leleu (1930s)
French furniture from 1910 until the early 1920s was largely an updating of French traditional furniture styles, and the art nouveau designs of Louis Majorelle, Charles Plumet and other manufacturers. French furniture manufacturers felt threatened by the growing popularity of German manufacturers and styles, particularly the Biedermeier style, which was simple and clean - lined. The French designer Frantz Jourdain, the President of the Paris Salon d'Automne, invited designers from Munich to participate in the 1910 Salon. French designers saw the new German style, and decided to meet the German challenge. The French designers decided to present new French styles in the Salon of 1912. The rules of the Salon indicated that only modern styles would be permitted. All of the major French furniture designers took part in Salon: Paul Follot, Paul Iribe, Maurice Dufrene, André Groult, André Mare and Louis Süe took part, presenting new works that updated the traditional French styles of Louis XVI and Louis Philippe with more angular corners inspired by Cubism and brighter colors inspired by Fauvism and the Nabis.
The painter André Mare and furniture designer Louis Suë both participated the 1912 Salon. After the War the two men joined together to form their own company, formally called the Compagnie des Arts Française, but usually known simply as Suë and Mare. Unlike the prominent art nouveau designers like Louis Majorelle, who personally designed every piece, they assembled a team of skilled craftsmen and produced complete interior designs, including furniture, glassware, carpets, ceramics, wallpaper and lighting. Their work featured bright colors and furniture and fine woods, such ebony encrusted with mother of pearl, abalone and silvered metal to create bouquets of flowers. They designed everything from the interiors of ocean liners to perfume bottles for the label of Jean Patou. The firm prospered in the early 1920s, but the two men were better craftsmen than businessmen. The firm was sold in 1928, and both men left.
The most prominent furniture designer at the 1925 Decorative Arts Exposition was Émile - Jacques Ruhlmann, from Alsace. He first exhibited his works at the 1913 Autumn Salon, then had his own pavilion, the "House of the Rich Collector '', at the 1925 Exposition. He used only most rare and expensive materials, including ebony, mahogany, rosewood, ambon and other exotic woods, decorated with inlays of ivory, tortoise shell, mother of pearl, Little pompoms of silk decorated the handles of drawers of the cabinets. His furniture was based upon 18th century models, but simplified and reshaped. In all of his work, the interior structure of the furniture was completely concealed. The framework usually of oak, was completely covered with an overlay of thin strips of wood, then covered by a second layer of strips of rare and expensive woods. This was then covered with a veneer and polished, so that the piece looked as if it had been cut out of a single block of wood. Contrast to the dark wood was provided by inlays of ivory, and ivory key plates and handles. According to Ruhlmann, armchairs had to be designed differently according to the functions of the rooms where they appeared; living room armchairs were designed to be welcoming, office chairs comfortable, and salon chairs voluptuous. Only a small number of pieces of each design of furniture was made, and the average price of one of his beds or cabinets was greater than the price of an average house.
Jules Leleu was a traditional furniture designer who moved smoothly into Art Deco in the 1920s; he designed the furniture for the dining room of the Elysee Palace, and for the first - class cabins of the steamship Normandie. his style was characterized by the use of ebony, Macassar wood, walnut, with decoration of plaques of ivory and mother of pearl. He introduced the style of lacquered art deco furniture at the end of in the late 1920s, and in the late 1930s introduced furniture made of metal with panels of smoked glass. In Italy, the designer Gio Ponti was famous for his streamlined designs. In the United States,
The costly and exotic furniture Ruhlmann and other traditionalists infuriated modernists, including the architect Le Corbusier, causing him to write a famous series of articles denouncing the arts décoratif style. He attacked furniture made only for the rich, and called upon designers to create furniture made with inexpensive materials and modern style, which ordinary people could afford. He designed his own chairs, created to be inexpensive and mass - produced.
In the 1930s, furniture designs adapted to the form, with smoother surfaces and curved forms. The masters of the late style included Donald Deskey was one of the most influential designers; he created the interior of the Radio City Music Hall. He used a mixture of traditional and very modern materials, including aluminum, chrome, and bakelite, an early form of plastic.
Philips Art Deco radio set (1931)
Chrysler Airflow sedan, designed by Carl Breer (1934)
Grand dining room of the ocean liner SS Normandie (1935), bas - reliefs by Raymond Delamarre
Bugatti Aérolithe (1936)
Electrolux Vacuum cleaner (1937)
Streamlined railroad locomotive (1939)
Streamline was a variety of Art Deco which emerged during the mid-1930s. It was influenced by modern aerodynamic principles developed for aviation and ballistics to reduce air friction at high velocities. The bullet shapes were applied by designers to cars, trains, ships, and even objects not intended to move, such as refrigerators, gas pumps, and buildings. One of the first production vehicles in this style was the Chrysler Airflow of 1933. It was unsuccessful commercially, but the beauty and functionality of its design set a precedent; meant modernity. It continued to be used in car design well after World War II.
New industrial materials began to influence design of cars and household objects. These included aluminum, chrome, and bakelite, an early form of plastic. Bakelite could be easily molded into different forms, and soon was used in telephones, radios and other appliances.
Ocean liners also adopted a style of Art Deco, known in French as the Style Paquebot, or "Ocean Liner Style ''. The most famous example was the SS Normandie, which made its first transatlantic trip in 1935. It was designed particularly to bring wealthy Americans to Paris to shop. The cabins and salons featured the latest Art Deco furnishings and decoration. The Grand Salon of the ship, which was the restaurant for first - class passengers, was bigger than the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles. It was illuminated by electric lights within twelve pillars of Lalique crystal; thirty - six matching pillars lined the walls. This was one of the earliest examples of illumination being directly integrated into architecture. The style of ships was soon adapted to buildings. A notable example is found on the San Francisco waterfront, where the Maritime Museum building, built as a public bath in 1937, resembles a ferryboat, with ship railings and rounded corners. The Star Ferry Terminal in Hong Kong also used a variation of the style.
Art Deco bracelet of gold, coral and jade (1925) (Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris)
René Lalique (1925 -- 30), molded glass pendants on silk cords
Boucheron (1925), a gold buckle set with diamonds and carved onyx, lapis lazuli, jade, and coral
Cartier, (1930), Mackay Emerald Necklace, emerald, diamond and platinum, Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, USA
In the 1920s and 1930s, designers including René Lalique and Cartier tried reduce the traditional dominance of diamonds by introducing more colorful gemstones, such as small emeralds, rubies and sapphires. They also placed greater emphasis on very elaborate and elegant settings, featuring less - expensive materials such as enamel, glass, horn and ivory. Diamonds themselves were cut in less traditional forms; the 1925 Exposition saw a large number of diamonds cut in the form of tiny rods or matchsticks. The settings for diamonds also changed; More and more often jewelers used platinum instead of gold, since it was strong and flexible, and could set clusters of stones. Jewelers also began to use more dark materials, such as enamels and black onyx, which provided a higher contrast with diamonds.
Jewelry became much more colorful and varied in style. Cartier and the firm of Boucheron combined diamonds with colorful other gemstones cut into the form of leaves, fruit or flowers. to make brooches, rings, earrings, clips and pendants Far Eastern themes also became popular; plaques of jade and coral were combined with platinum and diamonds, and vanity cases, cigarette cases and powder boxes were decorated with Japanese and Chinese landscapes made with mother of pearl, enamel and lacquer.
Rapidly changing fashions in clothing brought new styles of jewelry. Sleeveless dresses of the 1920s meant that arms needed decoration, and designers quickly created bracelets of gold, silver and platinum encrusted with lapis - lazuli, onyx, coral, and other colorful stones; Other bracelets were intended for the upper arms, and several bracelets were often worn at the same time. The short haircuts of women in the twenties called for elaborate deco earring designs. As women began to smoke in public, designers created very ornate cigarette cases and ivory cigarette holders. The invention of the wrist - watch before World War I inspired jewelers to create extraordinary decorated watches, encrusted with diamonds and plated with enamel, gold and silver. Pendant watches, hanging from a ribbon, also became fashionable.
The established jewelry houses of Paris in the period, Cartier, Chaumet, Georges Fouquet, Mauboussin, and Van Cleef & Arpels all created jewellry and objects in the new fashion. The firm of Chaumet made highly geometric cigarette boxes, cigarette lighters, pillboxes and notebooks, made of hard stones decorated with jade, lapis lazuli, diamonds and sapphires. They were joined by many young new designers, each with his own idea of deco. Raymond Templier designed pieces with highly intricate geometric patterns, including silver earrings that looked like skyscrapers. Gerard Sandoz was only 18 when he started to design jewelry in 1921; he designed many celebrated pieces based on the smooth and polished look of modern machinery. The glass designer René Lalique also entered the field, creating pendants of fruit, flowers, frogs, fairies of mermaids made of sculpted glass in bright colors, hanging on cords of silk with tassels. The jeweler Paul Brandt contrasted rectangular and triangular patterns, and embedded pearls in lines on onyx plaques. Jean Despres made necklaces of contrasting colors by bringing together silver and black lacquer, or gold with lapis lazuli. Many of his designs looked like highly polished pieces of machines. Jean Dunand was also inspired by modern machinery, combined with bright reds and blacks contrasting with polished metal.
The Firebird by René Lalique (1922)
Parrot vase by René Lalique (1922)
A Daum vase with sculpted grapes (1925)
Window for a steel mill office by Louis Majorelle (1928)
Daum vase (1930 -- 35)
Like the Art Nouveau period before it, Art Deco was an exceptional period for fine glass and other decorative objects, designed to fit their architectural surroundings. The most famous producer of glass objects was René Lalique, whose works, from vases to hood ornaments for automobiles, became symbols of the period. He had made ventures into glass before World War I, designing bottles for the perfumes of François Coty, but he did not begin serious production of art glass until after World War I. In 1918, at the age of 58, he bought a large glass works in Combs - la - Ville and began to manufacture both artistic and practical glass objects. He treated glass as a form of sculpture, and created statuettes, vases, bowls, lamps and ornaments. He used demi - crystal rather than lead crystal, which was softer and easier to form, though not as lustrous. He sometimes used colored glass, but more often used opalescent glass, where part or the whole of the outer surface was stained with a wash. Lalique provided the decorative glass panels, lights and illuminated glass ceilings for the ocean liners SS Ile de France in 1927 and the SS Normandie in 1935, and for some of the first - class sleeping cars of the French railroads. At the 1925 Exposition of Decorative Arts, he had his own pavilion, designed a dining room with a table settling and matching glass ceiling for the Sèvres Pavilion, and designed a glass fountain for the courtyard of the Cours des Métier, a slender glass column which spouted water from the sides and was illuminated at night.
Other notable Art Deco glass manufacturers included Marius - Ernest Sabino, who specialized in figurines, vases, bowls, and glass sculptures of fish, nudes, and animals. For these he often used an opalescent glass which could change from white to blue to amber, depending upon the light. His vases and bowls featured molded friezes of animals, nudes or busts of women with fruit or flowers. His work was less subtle but more colorful than that of Lalique.
Other notable Deco glass designers included Edmond Etling, who also used bright opalescent colors, often with geometric patterns and sculpted nudes; Albert Simonet, and Aristide Colotte and Maurice Marinot, who was known for his deeply etched sculptural bottles and vases. The firm of Daum from the city of Nancy, which had been famous for its Art Nouveau glass, produced a line of Deco vases and glass sculpture, solid, geometric and chunky in form. More delicate multicolored works were made by Gabriel Argy - Rousseau, who produced delicately colored vases with sculpted butterflies and nymphs, and Francois Decorchemont, whose vases were streaked and marbled.
The Great Depression ruined a large part of the decorative glass industry, which depended upon wealthy clients. Some artists turned to designing stained glass windows for churches. In 1937, the Steuben glass company began the practice of commissioning famous artists to produce glassware. Louis Majorelle, famous for his Art Nouveau furniture, designed a remarkable Art Deco stained glass window portraying steel workers for the offices of the Aciéries de Longwy, a steel mill in Longwy, France.
A grill with two wings called "The Pheasants '', made by Paul Kiss and displayed at the 1925 Exposition of Decorative and Industrial Arts
Iron and copper grill called "Oasis '' by Edgar Brandt, displayed at the 1925 Paris Exposition
Metal grilles in the lobby of the Palais de la Porte Dorée in Paris by Raymond Subes (1931)
Cocktail set of chrome - plated steel by Norman Bel Geddes (1937)
Art Deco artists produced a wide variety of practical objects in the Art Deco style, made of industrial materials from traditional wrought iron to chrome - plated steel. The American artist Norman Bel Geddes designed a cocktail set resembling a skyscraper made of chrome - plated steel. Raymond Subes designed an elegant metal grille for the entrance of the Palais de la Porte Dorée, the centerpiece of the 1931 Paris Colonial Exposition. The French sculptor Jean Dunand produced magnificent doors on the theme "The Hunt '', covered with gold leaf and paint on plaster (1935).
Art Deco architecture began in Europe, but by 1939 there were examples in large cities on every continent and in almost every country. This is a selection of prominent buildings on each continent. (For a comprehensive of existing buildings by country, see List of Art Deco architecture.)
Cinema Impero in Asmara, Eritrea (1937)
Fiat Tagliero Building in Asmara, Eritrea by Giuseppe Pettazzi (1938)
St. Peter 's Cathedral in Rabat, Morocco (1938)
Most Art Deco buildings in Africa were built during European colonial rule, and often designed by Italian and French architects.
New India Assurance Building in Mumbai, India (1936)
Broadway Mansions in Shanghai, China (1934)
Capitol Theater in Manila, Philippines by Juan Nakpil (1935)
National Diet Building in Tokyo, Japan (1936)
Kologdam Building in Bandung, Indonesia (1920)
The Central Market in Phnom Penh, Cambodia (1937)
Ankara railway station in Ankara, Turkey (1937)
A large number of the Art Deco buildings in Asia were designed by European architects, but in the Philippines local architect Juan Nakpil was preeminent. Many art deco landmarks in Asia were demolished during the great economic expansion of Asia the late 20th century, but some notable enclaves of the architecture still remain, particularly in Shanghai and Mumbai.
The Indian Institute of Architects, founded in Bombay in 1929, played a prominent role in propagating the Art Deco movement. In November 1937, this institute organized the ' Ideal Home Exhibition ' held in the Town Hall in Bombay which spanned over 12 days and attracted about one hundred thousand visitors. As a result, it was declared a success by the ' Journal of the Indian Institute of Architects '. The exhibits displayed the ' ideal ', or better described as the most ' modern ' arrangements for various parts of the house, paying close detail to avoid architectural blunders and present the most efficient and well - thought - out models. The exhibition focused on various elements of a home ranging from furniture, elements of interior decoration as well as radios and refrigerators using new and scientifically relevant materials and methods. Guided by their desire to emulate the west, the Indian architects were fascinated by the industrial modernity that Art Deco offered. The western elites were the first to experiment with the technologically advanced facets of Art Deco, and architects began the process of transformation by the early 1930s.
Streamlining and Rounded Corners
Rounded corners and streamlined designs influenced by the design of airplanes, ships, trains, and automobiles in the early 20th century, made buildings appear aerodynamic, fast, futuristic and sleek. This was done with the intention to make Art Deco buildings appear modern and sophisticated.
Nautical features
Being a port city, Bombay was influenced by the era 's new ocean liners: Bremen (1929), Queen Mary (1936) and Queen Elizabeth (1940). As a result of this enchantment with the luxury and grandeur that these ocean liners brought with them buildings were manifested with nautical features such as porthole windows, ship deck - style railings and observatory towers.
The motif of the frozen fountain, a historical symbol for eternal life was popularized by the French Glass designer Rene Lalique. Some of his best - known works were seen in his designs at the 1926 Paris exposition. This symbol soon became a prevalent feature in building facades and metal grills on Art Deco buildings across Bombay
Influence of Indian Mythology and Tradition:
While Art Deco buildings in Bombay were associated with futurism, as seen in their streamlined and sleek facades, certain buildings also integrated themes of traditional Indian mythology into their design. Depictions of toiling Indian farmers, Hindu gods and goddesses and figures from Indian mythology were often incorporated into facade reliefs. Egyptian and classical Elements The discovery of the tomb of King Tutakhamun in Egypt lead to a worldwide fascination with ancient Egyptian themes and symbols. Sphinxes, hard edged geometry and hieroglyphic styles made their way into the Indian urban Landscape. Influences of the features of traditional Greek and Roman temples could also be seen in buildings across Bombay.
Tropical Imagery:
Influenced by the city 's abundance of tropical vegetation, Bombay 's Art deco buildings are externally decorated with stylized forms of waves, sunburst rays, tropical flora and fauna which can be seen in porch railings, facades, metal balcony grilles, ornamental gates and porch railings.
Eyebrows
Eyebrows are projecting edges or "shelves '' above a structures portico to shade from direct sunlight and keep the interior cool. These also highlighted the rhythmic horizontality of buildings.
Architectural lettering
Art Deco lettering on buildings took on the sleek and streamlined appeal of the structure of these buildings. Typefaces consisted of a combination of straight lines and segments of circles.
Ziggurats and Zigzags
In the 1930s, the height of buildings in Bombay was limited by strict developmental regulations over reclaimed land. In order to evoke allusions to the verticality of skyscrapers whilst being restricted in their height, Art Deco architects used the concept of stepping up and stepping back of roof lines, used to mimic a ziggurat (a temple tower design adopted by Sumerians, Babylonians and Assyrians of ancient Mesopotamia).
Use of new and efficient materials
The Art Deco movement encouraged the replacement of materials such as stone, brick and concrete with steel columns, beams and reinforced concrete. The advent of Reinforced concrete in the early 1900s proved to be a boon in disguise providing a changeover to high - rise buildings to accommodate increasing population density in Bombay.
"In Malabar and Cumbala hills, attractive Art Deco homes were built for the rich ''. Other parts of the city such as Fort, Apollo Bunder, Colaba, Dadar, and Mahim also witnessed the construction of office buildings, homes and apartment buildings created to fit the style of Art Deco. Soon the construction of a forty foot wide road and a ten - foot wide pavement on Marine Drive began. This was accompanied by the construction of Art Deco apartment blocks looking out onto the Arabian Sea. The street behind these apartment blocks was lined with modern buildings of steel and concrete that were separated from the medieval Victorian structures by the Oval Maidan. The centerpieces of the Art Deco glorification of modernity were the grand new Cinema theatres: Regal, Eros and Metro. These were followed by the construction of the New Empire and Liberty cinemas, after the Second World War.
The Bacardi Building in Havana, Cuba (1930)
The Hotel Nacional de Cuba in Havana, Cuba (1930)
Havana art deco building
The Plaza del Mercado de Ponce in Ponce, Puerto Rico (1941)
Art Deco buildings can be found throughout Central America. A particularly rich collection is found in Cuba, built largely for the large number of tourists who came to the island from the United States.
Lacerda Elevator in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil (1930)
Altino Arantes Building, in São Paulo, Brazil (1947)
João Bricola building in São Paulo, Brazil
Viaduto do Chá, São Paulo, Brazil (1938)
Central do Brasil Station in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (1943)
Kavanagh building in Buenos Aires, Argentina (1934)
Palacio Municipal and fountain, Laprida, Buenos Aires, Argentina
The Art Deco in South America is present especially at the countries that received a great wave of immigration on the first half of the 20th century, with notable works at their richest cities, like São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro in Brazil and Buenos Aires in Argentina. The Kavanagh building in Buenos Aires (1934), by Sánchez, Lagos and de la Torre, was the tallest reinforced concrete structure when it was completed, and a notable example of late Art Deco style.
Théâtre des Champs - Élysées in Paris, France (1910 -- 13)
The Mossehaus with Art Deco elements by Erich Mendelsohn in Berlin, Germany (c. 1923)
Basilica of the Sacred Heart in Brussels, Belgium (1925)
Éden Theater in Lisbon, Portugal (1931)
Vytautas the Great War Museum in Kaunas, Lithuania (1936)
Mayakovskaya Station in Moscow, Russia (1938)
Rivoli Theater in Porto, Portugal (1937)
Daily Express Building in Manchester, UK (1939)
The architectural style first appeared in Paris with the Théâtre des Champs - Élysées (1910 -- 13) by Auguste Perret but then spread rapidly around Europe, until examples could be found in nearly every large city, from London to Moscow. In Germany two variations of Art Deco flourished in the 1920s and 30s: The Neue Sachlichkeit style and Expressionist architecture. Notable examples include Erich Mendelsohn 's Mossehaus and Schaubühne theater in Berlin, Fritz Höger 's Chilehaus in Hamburg and his Kirche am Hohenzollernplatz in Berlin, the Anzeiger Tower in Hannover and the Borsig Tower in Berlin.
One of the largest Art Deco buildings in Western Europe is the Basilica of the Sacred Heart in Koekelberg, Brussels. In 1925, architect Albert van Huffel won the Grand Prize for Architecture with his scale model of the basilica at the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes in Paris.
Spain and Portugal have some striking examples of Art Deco buildings, particularly movie theaters. Examples in Portugal are the Capitólio Theater (1931) and the Éden Cine - Theater (1937) in Lisbon, the Rivoli Theater (1937) and the Coliseu (1941) in Porto and the Rosa Damasceno Theater (1937) in Santarém. An example in Spain is the Cine Rialto in Valencia (1939).
During the 1930s, Art Deco had a noticeable effect on house design in the United Kingdom, as well as the design of various public buildings. Straight, white - rendered house frontages rising to flat roofs, sharply geometric door surrounds and tall windows, as well as convex - curved metal corner windows, were all characteristic of that period.
The London Underground is famous for many examples of Art Deco architecture, and there are a number of buildings in the style situated along the Golden Mile in Brentford. Also in West London is the Hoover Building, which was originally built for The Hoover Company and was converted into a superstore in the early 1990s.
The Price Building in Quebec City, Canada (1930)
Vancouver City Hall in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada (1935)
Interior of the Palacio de Bellas Artes in Mexico City, Mexico (1934)
The Verizon Building in New York City, US (1923 -- 27)
Buffalo City Hall in Buffalo, US (1931)
Bullocks Wilshire in Los Angeles, US (1929)
Louisiana State Capitol in Baton Rouge, US (1930 -- 32)
Jefferson County Courthouse in Beaumont, US (1931)
In Canada Art Deco structures that survive are mainly in the major cities; Montreal, Toronto, Hamilton, Ontario, and Vancouver. They range from public buildings like Vancouver City Hall to commercial buildings (College Park) to public works (R.C. Harris Water Treatment Plant).
In Mexico, the most imposing Art Deco example is interior of the Palacio de Bellas Artes (Palace of Fine Arts), finished in 1934 with its elaborate decor and murals. Examples of Art Deco residential architecture can be found in the Condesa neighborhood, many designed by Francisco J. Serrano.
In the United States, Art Deco buildings are found from coast to coast, in all the major cities. It was most widely used for office buildings, train stations, airport terminals, and movie theaters; residential buildings are rare. In the 1930s, the more austere streamline style became popular. Many buildings were demolished between 1945 and the late 1960s, but then efforts began to protect the best examples. The City of Miami Beach established the Miami Beach Architectural District to preserve the colorful collection of Art Deco buildings found there.
Manchester Unity Building in Melbourne (1932)
Sound Shell (1931) in Napier, New Zealand at night
ANZAC War Memorial in Sydney (1934)
Melbourne and Sydney Australia have several notable Art Deco buildings, including the Manchester Unity Building and the former Russell Street Police Headquarters in Melbourne, the Castlemaine Art Museum in Castlemaine, central Victoria and the Grace Building, AWA Tower and ANZAC War Memorial in Sydney.
Several towns in New Zealand, including Napier and Hastings were rebuilt in Art Deco style after the 1931 Hawke 's Bay earthquake, and many of the buildings have been protected and restored. Napier has been nominated for UNESCO World Heritage Site status, the first cultural site in New Zealand to be nominated. Wellington has retained a sizeable number of Art Deco buildings.
The Miami Beach Architectural District protects historic Art Deco buildings
The U-Drop Inn, a roadside gas station and diner on U.S. Highway 66 in Shamrock, Texas (1936), now an historic monument
Art deco neighborhood in Havana, Cuba
Smith Center for the Performing Arts in Las Vegas, Nevada, a Neo-Art Deco building (2012))
In many cities, efforts have been made to protect the remaining Art Deco buildings. In many U.S. cities, historic art deco movie theaters have been preserved and turned into cultural centers. Even more modest art deco buildings have been preserved as part of America 's architectural heritage; an art deco cafe and gas station along Route 66 in Shamrock, Texas is an historic monument. The Miami Beach Architectural District protects several hundred old buildings, and requires that new buildings comply with the style. In Havana, Cuba, a large number of Art Deco buildings have badly deteriorated. Efforts are underway to bring the buildings back to their original color and appearance.
In the 21st century, modern variants of Art Deco, called Neo Art Deco, have appeared in some American cities, inspired by the classic Art Deco buildings of the 1920s and 1930s. Examples include the Smith Center for the Performing Arts in Las Vegas, Nevada, which includes art deco features from Hoover Dam, fifty miles away, and from the Will Rogers Memorial Center in Fort Worth, Texas, an art deco landmark built in 1936.
1941 Packard Custom Super Eight One - Eighty Formal sedan
Pennsylvania RR 's S - 1 locomotive, designed by Raymond Loewy, at the 1939 New York World 's Fair
"Skyscraper Lamp '' designed by Arnaldo dell'Ira, 1929
Guardians of Traffic pylon on Hope Memorial Bridge in Cleveland (1932)
Municipal Auditorium of Kansas City, Missouri: Hoit Price & Barnes, and Gentry, Voskamp & Neville, 1935
U.S. Works Progress Administration poster, John Wagner, artist, ca. 1940
"Beau Brownie '' camera, Walter Dorwin Teague 1930 design for Eastman Kodak
Former Teatro Eden, now Aparthotel Vip Eden in Lisbon, Portugal: Cassiano Branco and Carlo Florencio Dias, 1931
Parker Duofold desk set, c. 1930
1937 Cord automobile model 812, designed in 1935 by Gordon M. Buehrig and staff
Palacio de Bellas Artes, Mexico City, Federico Mariscal, completed 1934
Women 's Smoking Room at the Paramount Theatre, Oakland. Timothy L. Pflueger, architect, 1931
U.S. postage stamp commemorating the 1939 New York World 's Fair, 1939
Henryk Kuna, Rytm ("Rhythm ''), in Skaryszewski Park, Warsaw, Poland, 1925
Disused Snowdon Theatre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Opened 1937, closed 1984. Daniel J. Crighton, architect
Union Terminal in Cincinnati, Ohio; Paul Philippe Cret, Alfred T. Fellheimer, Steward Wagner, Roland Wank, 1933
Lobby, Empire State Building, New York City. William F. Lamb, opened 1931
Federal Art Project poster promoting milk drinking in Cleveland, 1940
Interior drawing, Eaton 's College Street department store, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Niagara Mohawk Building, Syracuse, New York. Melvin L. King and Bley & Lyman, architects, completed 1932
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what is the circle on the indian flag | Flag of India - wikipedia
The National Flag of India is a horizontal rectangular tricolour of India saffron, white and India green; with the Ashoka Chakra, a 24 - spoke wheel, in navy blue at its centre. It was adopted in its present form during a meeting of the Constituent Assembly held on 22 July 1947, and it became the official flag of the Dominion of India on 15 August 1947. The flag was subsequently retained as that of the Republic of India. In India, the term "tricolour '' (Hindi: तिरंगा, translit. Tiraṅgā) almost always refers to the Indian national flag. The flag is based on the Swaraj flag, a flag of the Indian National Congress designed by Pingali Venkayya.
By law, the flag is to be made of khadi, a special type of hand - spun cloth or silk, made popular by Mahatma Gandhi. The manufacturing process and specifications for the flag are laid out by the Bureau of Indian Standards. The right to manufacture the flag is held by the Khadi Development and Village Industries Commission, who allocates it to regional groups. As of 2009, the Karnataka Khadi Gramodyoga Samyukta Sangha has been the sole manufacturer of the flag.
Usage of the flag is governed by the Flag Code of India and other laws relating to the national emblems. The original code prohibited use of the flag by private citizens except on national days such as the Independence day and the Republic Day. In 2002, on hearing an appeal from a private citizen, Naveen Jindal, the Supreme Court of India directed the Government of India to amend the code to allow flag usage by private citizens. Subsequently, the Union Cabinet of India amended the code to allow limited usage. The code was amended once more in 2005 to allow some additional use including adaptations on certain forms of clothing. The flag code also governs the protocol of flying the flag and its use in conjunction with other national and non-national flags.
According to the Flag code of India, the Indian flag has a ratio of two by three (where the length of the flag is 1.5 times that of the width). All three stripes of the flag (saffron, white and green) are to be equal in width and length. The size of the Ashoka Chakra is not specified in the Flag code, but it has twenty - four spokes that are evenly spaced. In section 4.3. 1 of "IS1: Manufacturing standards for the Indian Flag '', there is a chart that details the size of the Ashoka Chakra on the nine specific sizes of the national flag. In both the Flag code and IS1, they call for the Ashoka Chakra to be printed or painted on both sides of the flag in navy blue. Below is the list of specified shades for all colours used on the national flag, with the exception of Navy Blue, from "IS1: Manufacturing standards for the Indian Flag '' as defined in the 1931 CIE Colour Specifications with illuminant C. The navy blue colour can be found in the standard IS: 1803 - 1973.
Note that the values given in the table correspond to CIE 1931 color space. Approximate RGB values for use may be taken to be: India saffron # FF9933, white # FFFFFF, India green # 138808, navy blue # 000080. Pantone values closest to this are 130 U, White, 2258 C and 2735 C.
Gandhi first proposed a flag to the Indian National Congress in 1921. The flag was designed by Pingali Venkayya. In the centre was a traditional spinning wheel, symbolising Gandhi 's goal of making Indians self - reliant by fabricating their own clothing. The design was then modified to include a white stripe in the centre for other religious communities, and provide a background for the spinning wheel. Subsequently, to avoid sectarian associations with the colour scheme, saffron, white and green were chosen for the three bands, representing courage and sacrifice, peace and truth, and faith and chivalry respectively.
A few days before India became independent on 15 August 1947, the specially constituted Constituent Assembly decided that the flag of India must be acceptable to all parties and communities. A modified version of the Swaraj flag was chosen; the tricolour remained the same saffron, white and green. However, the charkha was replaced by the Ashoka Chakra representing the eternal wheel of law. The philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, who later became India 's first Vice President and second President, clarified the adopted flag and described its significance as follows:
A number of flags with varying designs were used in the period preceding the Indian Independence Movement by the rulers of different princely states; the idea of a single Indian flag was first raised by the British rulers of India after the rebellion of 1857, which resulted in the establishment of direct imperial rule. The first flag, whose design was based on western heraldic standards, were similar to the flags of other British colonies, including Canada and Australia; its blue field included the Union Flag in the upper - left quadrant and a Star of India capped by the royal crown in the middle of the right half. To address the question of how the star conveyed "Indianness '', Queen Victoria created the Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India to honour services to the empire by her Indian subjects. Subsequently, all the Indian princely states received flags with symbols based on the heraldic criteria of Europe including the right to fly defaced British red ensigns.
In the early twentieth century, around the coronation of Edward VII, a discussion started on the need for a heraldic symbol that was representative of the Indian empire. William Coldstream, a British member of the Indian Civil Service, campaigned the government to change the heraldic symbol from a star, which he considered to be a common choice, to something more appropriate. His proposal was not well received by the government; Lord Curzon rejected it for practical reasons including the multiplication of flags. Around this time, nationalist opinion within the realm was leading to a representation through religious tradition. The symbols that were in vogue included the Ganesha, advocated by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Kali, advocated by Aurobindo Ghosh and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. Another symbol was the cow, or Gau Mata (cow mother). However, all these symbols were Hindu - centric and did not suggest unity with India 's Muslim population.
The partition of Bengal (1905) resulted in the introduction of a new flag representing the Indian independence movement that sought to unite the multitude of castes and races within the country. The Vande Mataram flag, part of the Swadeshi movement against the British, comprised Indian religious symbols represented in western heraldic fashion. The tricolour flag included eight white lotuses on the upper green band representing the eight provinces, a sun and a crescent on the bottom red band, and the Vande Mataram slogan in Hindi on the central yellow band. The flag was launched in Calcutta bereft of any ceremony and the launch was only briefly covered by newspapers. The flag was not covered in contemporary governmental or political reports either, but was used at the annual session of the Indian National Congress. A slightly modified version was subsequently used by Madam Bhikaji Cama at the second International Socialist Congress in Stuttgart in 1907. Despite the multiple uses of the flag, it failed to generate enthusiasm amongst Indian nationalists.
Around the same time, another proposal for the flag was initiated by Sister Nivedita, a Hindu reformist and disciple of Swami Vivekananda. The flag consisted of a thunderbolt in the centre and a hundred and eight oil lamps for the border, with the Vande Mataram caption split around the thunderbolt. It was also presented at the Indian National Congress meeting in 1906. Soon, many other proposals were initiated, but none of them gained attention from the nationalist movement.
In 1909, Lord Ampthill, former Governor of the Madras Presidency, wrote to The Times of London in the run up to Empire Day pointing out that there existed "no flag representative of India as a whole or any Indian province... Surely this is strange, seeing that but for India there would be no Empire. ''
In 1916, Pingali Venkayya submitted thirty new designs, in the form of a booklet funded by members of the High Court of Madras. These many proposals and recommendations did little more than keep the flag movement alive. The same year, Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak adopted a new flag as part of the Home Rule Movement. The flag included the Union Jack in the upper left corner, a star and crescent in the upper right, and seven stars displayed diagonally from the lower right, on a background of five red and four green alternating bands. The flag resulted in the first governmental initiative against any nationalistic flag, as a magistrate in Coimbatore banned its use. The ban was followed by a public debate on the function and importance of a national flag.
In the early 1920s, national flag discussions gained prominence across most British dominions following the peace treaty between Britain and Ireland. In November 1920, the Indian delegation to the League of Nations wanted to use an Indian flag, and this prompted the British Indian government to place renewed emphasis on the flag as a national symbol.
In April 1921, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi wrote in his journal Young India about the need for an Indian flag, proposing a flag with the charkha or spinning wheel at the centre. The idea of the spinning wheel was put forth by Lala Hansraj, and Gandhi commissioned Pingali Venkayya to design a flag with the spinning wheel on a red and green banner, the red colour signifying Hindus and the green standing for Muslims. Gandhi wanted the flag to be presented at the Congress session of 1921, but it was not delivered on time, and another flag was proposed at the session. Gandhi later wrote that the delay was fortuitous since it allowed him to realise that other religions were not represented; he then added white to the banner colours, to represent all the other religions. Finally, owing to the religious - political sensibilities, in 1929, Gandhi moved towards a more secular interpretation of the flag colours, stating that red stood for the sacrifices of the people, white for purity, and green for hope.
On 13 April 1923, during a procession by local Congress volunteers in Nagpur commemorating the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, the Swaraj flag with the spinning wheel, designed by Pingali Venkayya, was hoisted. This event resulted in a confrontation between the Congressmen and the police, after which five people were imprisoned. Over a hundred other protesters continued the flag procession after a meeting. Subsequently, on the first of May, Jamnalal Bajaj, the secretary of the Nagpur Congress Committee, started the Flag Satyagraha, gaining national attention and marking a significant point in the flag movement. The satyagraha, promoted nationally by the Congress, started creating cracks within the organisation in which the Gandhians were highly enthused while the other group, the Swarajists, called it inconsequential.
Finally, at the All India Congress Committee meeting in July, 1923, at the insistence of Jawaharlal Nehru and Sarojini Naidu, Congress closed ranks and the flag movement was endorsed. The flag movement was managed by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel with the idea of public processions and flag displays by common people. By the end of the movement, over 1500 people had been arrested across all of British India. The Bombay Chronicle reported that the movement drew from diverse groups of society including farmers, students, merchants, labourers and "national servants ''. While Muslim participation was moderate, the movement enthused women, who had hitherto rarely participated in the independence movement.
While the flag agitation got its impetus from Gandhi 's writings and discourses, the movement received political acceptance following the Nagpur incident. News reports, editorials and letters to editors published in various journals and newspapers of the time attest to the subsequent development of a bond between the flag and the nation. Soon, the concept of preserving the honour of the national flag became an integral component of the independence struggle. While Muslims were still wary of the Swaraj flag, it gained acceptance among Muslim leaders of the Congress and the Khilafat Movement as the national flag.
Detractors of the flag movement, including Motilal Nehru, soon hailed the Swaraj flag as a symbol of national unity. Thus, the flag became a significant structural component of the institution of India. In contrast to the subdued responses of the past, the British Indian government took greater cognisance of the new flag, and began to define a policy of response. The British parliament discussed public use of the flag, and based on directives from England, the British Indian government threatened to withdraw funds from municipalities and local governments that did not prevent the display of the Swaraj flag. The Swaraj flag became the official flag of Congress at the 1931 meeting. However, by then, the flag had already become the symbol of the independence movement.
A few days before India gained its independence in August 1947, the Constituent Assembly was formed. To select a flag for independent India, on 23 June 1947, the assembly set up an ad hoc committee headed by Rajendra Prasad and including Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Sarojini Naidu, C. Rajagopalachari, K.M. Munshi and B.R. Ambedkar as its members.
On 14 July 1947, the committee recommended that the flag of the Indian National Congress be adopted as the National Flag of India with suitable modifications, so as to make it acceptable to all parties and communities. It was also resolved that the flag should not have any communal undertones. The spinning wheel of the Congress flag was replaced by the Chakra (wheel) from the Lion Capital of Ashoka. According to Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the chakra was chosen as it was representative of dharma and law. However, Jawaharlal Nehru explained that the change was more practical in nature, as unlike the flag with the spinning wheel, this design would appear symmetrical. Gandhi was not very pleased by the change, but eventually came around to accepting it.
The flag was proposed by Nehru at the Constituent Assembly on 22 July 1947 as a horizontal tricolour of deep saffron, white and dark green in equal proportions, with the Ashoka wheel in blue in the centre of the white band. Nehru also presented two flags, one in Khadi - silk and the other in Khadi - cotton, to the assembly. The resolution was approved unanimously. It served as the national flag of the Dominion of India between 15 August 1947 and 26 January 1950, and has served as the flag of the Republic of India since then.
The design and manufacturing process for the national flag is regulated by three documents issued by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). All of the flags are made out of khadi cloth of silk or cotton. The standards were created in 1968 and were updated in 2008. Nine standard sizes of the flag are specified by law.
In 1951, after India became a republic, the Indian Standards Institute (now the BIS) brought out the first official specifications for the flag. These were revised in 1964 to conform to the metric system which was adopted in India. The specifications were further amended on 17 August 1968. The specifications cover all the essential requirements of the manufacture of the Indian flag including sizes, dye colour, chromatic values, brightness, thread count and hemp cordage. The guidelines are covered under civil and criminal laws and defects in the manufacturing process can result in punishments that include fines or jail terms.
Khadi or hand - spun cloth is the only material allowed to be used for the flag, and flying a flag made of any other material is punishable by law with imprisonment up to three years, besides a fine. Raw materials for khadi are restricted to cotton, silk and wool. There are two kinds of khadi used: The first is the khadi - bunting which makes up the body of the flag, and the second is the khadi - duck, which is a beige - coloured cloth that holds the flag to the pole. The khadi - duck is an unconventional type of weave that meshes three threads into a weave, compared to the two threads used in conventional weaving. This type of weaving is extremely rare, and there are fewer than twenty weavers in India professing this skill. The guidelines also state that there should be exactly 150 threads per square centimetre, four threads per stitch, and one square foot should weigh exactly 205 grams (7.2 oz).
There are four places in the country licensed to make the cloth for the national flag, they are in Karnataka, Marathwada, Barabanki in UP, and Banetha in Rajasthan. The woven khadi is obtained from two handloom units in the Dharwad and Bagalkot districts of northern Karnataka. Currently, Karnataka Khadi Gramodyoga Samyukta Sangha based in Hubli is the only licensed flag production and supply unit in India. Permission for setting up flag manufacturing units in India is allotted by the Khadi Development and Village Industries Commission, though the BIS has the power to cancel the licences of units that flout guidelines. The hand - woven khadi for the National Flag was initially manufactured at Garag, a small village in the Dharwad district. A Centre was established at Garag in 1954 by a few freedom fighters under the banner of Dharwad Taluk Kshetriya Seva Sangh and obtained the Centre 's licence to make flags.
Once woven, the material is sent to the BIS laboratories for testing. After quality testing, the material, if approved, is returned to the factory. It is then separated into three lots which are dyed saffron, white and green. The Ashoka Chakra is screen printed, stencilled or suitably embroidered onto each side of the white cloth. Care also has to be taken that the chakra is completely visible and synchronised on both sides. Three pieces of the required dimension, one of each colour, are then stitched together according to specifications and the final product is ironed and packed. The BIS then checks the colours and only then can the flag be sold.
Display and usage of the flag is governed by the Flag Code of India, 2002 (successor to the Flag Code -- India, the original flag code); the Emblems and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Act, 1950; and the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971. Insults to the national flag, including gross affronts or indignities to it, as well as using it in a manner so as to violate the provisions of the Flag Code, are punishable by law with imprisonment up to three years, or a fine, or both.
Official regulation states that the flag must never touch the ground or water, or be used as a drapery in any form. The flag may not be intentionally placed upside down, dipped in anything, or hold any objects other than flower petals before unfurling. No sort of lettering may be inscribed on the flag. When out in the open, the flag should always be flown between sunrise and sunset, irrespective of the weather conditions. Prior to 2009, the flag could be flown on a public building at night under special circumstances; currently, Indian citizens can fly the flag even at night, subject to the restriction that the flag should be hoisted on a tall flagpole and be well - illuminated.
The flag should never be depicted, displayed or flown upside down. Tradition also states that when draped vertically, the flag should not merely be rotated 90degrees, but also reversed. One "reads '' a flag like the pages of a book, from top to bottom and from left to right, and after rotation the results should be the same. It is considered insulting to display the flag in a frayed or dirty state, and the same rule applies to the flagpoles and halyards used to hoist the flag, which should always be in a proper state of maintenance.
The original flag code of India did not allow private citizens to fly the national flag except on national days such as Independence Day or Republic Day. In 2001, Naveen Jindal, an industrialist used to the more egalitarian use of the flag in the United States where he studied, flew the Indian flag on his office building. The flag was confiscated and he was warned of prosecution. Jindal filed a public interest litigation petition in the High Court of Delhi; he sought to strike down the restriction on the use of the flag by private citizens, arguing that hoisting the national flag with due decorum and honour was his right as a citizen, and a way of expressing his love for the country.
At the end of the appeals process, the case was heard by the Supreme Court of India; the court ruled in Jindal 's favour, asking the Government of India to consider the matter. The Union Cabinet of India then amended the Indian Flag Code with effect from 26 January 2002, allowing private citizens to hoist the flag on any day of the year, subject to their safeguarding the dignity, honour and respect of the flag. It is also held that the code was not a statute and restrictions under the code ought to be followed; also, the right to fly the flag is a qualified right, unlike the absolute rights guaranteed to citizens, and should be interpreted in the context of Article 19 of the Constitution of India.
The original flag code also forbade use of the flag on uniforms, costumes and other clothing. In July 2005, the Government of India amended the code to allow some forms of usage. The amended code forbids usage in clothing below the waist and on undergarments, and forbids embroidering onto pillowcases, handkerchiefs or other dress material.
Disposal of damaged flags is also covered by the flag code. Damaged or soiled flags may not be cast aside or disrespectfully destroyed; they have to be destroyed as a whole in private, preferably by burning or by any other method consistent with the dignity of the flag.
The rules regarding the correct methods to display the flag state that when two flags are fully spread out horizontally on a wall behind a podium, their hoists should be towards each other with the saffron stripes uppermost. If the flag is displayed on a short flagpole, this should be mounted at an angle to the wall with the flag draped tastefully from it. If two national flags are displayed on crossed staffs, the hoists must be towards each other and the flags must be fully spread out. The flag should never be used as a cloth to cover tables, lecterns, podiums or buildings, or be draped from railings.
Whenever the flag is displayed indoors in halls at public meetings or gatherings of any kind, it should always be on the right (observers ' left), as this is the position of authority. So when the flag is displayed next to a speaker in the hall or other meeting place, it must be placed on the speaker 's right hand. When it is displayed elsewhere in the hall, it should be to the right of the audience. The flag should be displayed completely spread out with the saffron stripe on top. If hung vertically on the wall behind the podium, the saffron stripe should be to the left of the onlookers facing the flag with the hoist cord at the top.
The flag, when carried in a procession or parade or with another flag or flags, should be on the marching right or alone in the centre at the front. The flag may form a distinctive feature of the unveiling of a statue, monument, or plaque, but should never be used as the covering for the object. As a mark of respect to the flag, it should never be dipped to a person or thing, as opposed to regimental colours, organisational or institutional flags, which may be dipped as a mark of honour. During the ceremony of hoisting or lowering the flag, or when the flag is passing in a parade or in a review, all persons present should face the flag and stand at attention. Those present in uniform should render the appropriate salute. When the flag is in a moving column, persons present will stand at attention or salute as the flag passes them. A dignitary may take the salute without a head dress. The flag salutation should be followed by the playing of the national anthem.
The privilege of flying the national flag on vehicles is restricted to the President, the Vice-President or the Prime Minister, Governors and Lieutenant Governors of states, Chief Ministers, Union Ministers, members of the Parliament of India and state legislatures of the Indian states (Vidhan Sabha and Vidhan Parishad), judges of the Supreme Court of India and High Courts, and flag officers of the Army, Navy and Air Force. The flag has to be flown from a staff affixed firmly either on the middle front or to the front right side of the car. When a foreign dignitary travels in a car provided by government, the flag should be flown on the right side of the car while the flag of the foreign country should be flown on the left side.
The flag should be flown on the aircraft carrying the President, the Vice-President or the Prime Minister on a visit to a foreign country. Alongside the National Flag, the flag of the country visited should also be flown; however, when the aircraft lands in countries en route, the national flags of the respective countries would be flown instead. When carrying the president within India, aircraft display the flag on the side the president embarks or disembarks; the flag is similarly flown on trains, but only when the train is stationary or approaching a railway station.
When the Indian flag is flown on Indian territory along with other national flags, the general rule is that the Indian flag should be the starting point of all flags. When flags are placed in a straight line, the rightmost flag (leftmost to the observer facing the flag) is the Indian flag, followed by other national flags in alphabetical order. When placed in a circle, the Indian flag is the first point and is followed by other flags alphabetically. In such placement, all other flags should be of approximately the same size with no other flag being larger than the Indian flag. Each national flag should also be flown from its own pole and no flag should be placed higher than another. In addition to being the first flag, the Indian flag may also be placed within the row or circle alphabetically. When placed on crossed poles, the Indian flag should be in front of the other flag, and to the right (observer 's left) of the other flag. The only exception to the preceding rule is when it is flown along with the flag of the United Nations, which may be placed to the right of the Indian flag.
When the Indian flag is displayed with non-national flags, including corporate flags and advertising banners, the rules state that if the flags are on separate staffs, the flag of India should be in the middle, or the furthest left from the viewpoint of the onlookers, or at least one flag 's breadth higher than the other flags in the group. Its flagpole must be in front of the other poles in the group, but if they are on the same staff, it must be the uppermost flag. If the flag is carried in procession with other flags, it must be at the head of the marching procession, or if carried with a row of flags in line abreast, it must be carried to the marching right of the procession.
The flag should be flown at half - mast as a sign of mourning. The decision to do so lies with the President of India, who also decides the period of such mourning. When the flag is to be flown at half mast, it must first be raised to the top of the mast and then slowly lowered. Only the Indian flag is flown half mast; all other flags remain at normal height.
The flag is flown half - mast nationwide on the death of the president, Vice-president or prime minister. It is flown half - mast in New Delhi and the state of origin for the Speaker of the Lok Sabha, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and Union Ministers. On deaths of Governors, Lt. Governors and Chief Ministers, the flag is flown at half - mast in the respective states and union territories.
The Indian flag can not be flown at half - mast on Republic Day (26 January), Independence day (15 August), Gandhi Jayanti (2 October), National Week (6 -- 13 April) or state formation anniversaries, except over buildings housing the body of the deceased dignitary. However, even in such cases, the flag must be raised to full - mast when the body is moved from the building.
Observances of State mourning on the death of foreign dignitaries are governed by special instructions issued from the Ministry of Home Affairs in individual cases. However, in the event of death of either the Head of the State or Head of the Government of a foreign country, the Indian Mission accredited to that country may fly the national flag at half - mast.
On occasions of state, military, central para-military forces funerals, the flag shall be draped over the bier or coffin with the saffron towards the head of the bier or coffin. The flag should not be lowered into the grave or burnt in the pyre.
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what is the cover of joy division unknown pleasures | Unknown Pleasures - wikipedia
Unknown Pleasures is the debut studio album by English rock band Joy Division, released on 15 June 1979 on Tony Wilson 's Factory Records label. The album was recorded and mixed over three successive weekends at Stockport 's Strawberry Studios in April 1979 and was produced by Martin Hannett, who incorporated a number of unconventional recording and production techniques into the group 's sound. The cover artwork was designed by artist Peter Saville. It is the only Joy Division album released during lead singer Ian Curtis 's lifetime.
Factory Records did not release any singles from Unknown Pleasures, and the album did not chart despite the relative success of the group 's non-album debut single "Transmission ''. It has since received sustained critical acclaim as an influential post-punk album, and has been named as one of the best albums of all - time by publications such as NME, AllMusic, Select, and Spin magazine.
Joy Division formed in Salford, Greater Manchester in 1976 during the first wave of punk rock. Bernard Sumner and Peter Hook had separately attended a Sex Pistols show at the Manchester Lesser Free Trade Hall on 4 June 1976 and both embraced that band 's simplicity, speed and aggression. Forming a band with their friend Terry Mason on drums, Sumner on guitar and Hook on bass, they advertised for a singer. Ian Curtis, who Sumner and Hook already knew, applied and, without having to audition, was taken on. After a number of changes of drummer, Stephen Morris joined the band -- at that time called Warsaw -- in August 1977. To avoid confusion with the London punk band Warsaw Pakt, they renamed themselves Joy Division in late 1977.
After signing a recording contract with RCA Records in early 1978, Joy Division recorded some demos; however, they were unhappy with the way their music was mixed and asked to be released from their contract. The band 's first release was the self - produced extended play (EP), An Ideal for Living, which was released in June 1978. They made their television debut on Tony Wilson 's local news show Granada Reports in September 1978. According to Hook, the band received a £ 70,000 offer from Genetic Records in London. However, the band 's manager, Rob Gretton, approached Wilson about releasing an album on his Factory Records label. Wilson explained that Gretton had calculated that given Factory 's 50 / 50 split of profits, the band could make as much money with the indie label as it could by signing to a major. Wilson added that one of Gretton 's main reasons for approaching Factory was so "he would n't have to get on a train to London every week and ' talk to nuggets '. No one could use the word ' cockney ' with as much contempt as Rob ''. Gretton estimated that the album would cost £ 8,000 to produce; however Wilson said in 2006 that the up - front cost ended at £ 18,000.
Unknown Pleasures was recorded at Strawberry Studios in Stockport over three weekends between 1 and 17 April 1979, with Martin Hannett producing. Hannett, who believed that punk rock was sonically conservative because of its refusal to use studio technology to create sonic space, used a number of unusual production techniques and sound effects on the album, including several AMS 15 - 80s digital delays, Marshall Time Modulators, tape echo and bounce, as well as the sound of a bottle smashing, someone eating crisps, backwards guitar and the sound of the Strawberry Studios lift with a Leslie speaker "whirring inside ''. He also used the sound of a basement toilet. Hannett recorded Curtis 's vocals for "Insight '' down a telephone line so he could achieve the "requisite distance ''. Hannett later said, "(Joy Division) were a gift to a producer, because they did n't have a clue. They did n't argue ''. Referring to the recording sessions, Hook remembered, "Sumner started using a kit - built Powertran Transcendent 2000 synthesiser, most notably on ' I Remember Nothing ', where it vied with the sound of Rob Gretton smashing bottles with Steve and his Walther replica pistol. '' During the recording, Morris invested in a syndrum because he thought he saw one on the cover of Can 's 1971 album Tago Mago.
AllMusic wrote that Hannett 's production on Unknown Pleasures was "as much a hallmark as the music itself, '' describing it as "emphasizing space in the most revelatory way since the dawn of dub. '' Describing Hannett 's production techniques, Hook said, "(He) did n't think straight, he thought sideways. He confused you and made you do something you did n't expect. '' Hook went on to say, "Derek Bramwood of Strawberry Studios said that you can take a group that have got on brilliantly for 20 years, put them in a studio with Martin and within five minutes, they 'll be trying to slash each other 's throats. '' However, Hook went on to say that Hannett was only as good as the material he had to work with, "We gave him great songs, and like a top chef, he added some salt and pepper and some herbs and served up the dish. But he needed our ingredients. '' The band members ' opinions differed on the "spacious, atmospheric sound '' of the album, which did not reflect their more aggressive live sound. Sumner said, "The music was loud and heavy, and we felt that Martin had toned it down, especially with the guitars. The production inflicted this dark, doomy mood over the album: we 'd drawn this picture in black and white, and Martin had coloured it in for us. We resented it... '' Hook said, "I could n't hide my disappointment then, it sounded like Pink Floyd. ''
Morris disagreed, saying, "I was happy with Unknown Pleasures. My theory on things at the time was that the two things -- listening to a record and going to a gig -- were quite different. You do n't want to hear a record when you go to a gig: you want something with a bit of energy. '' Curtis was also happy with the production of the album and was impressed with Hannett 's work. Hook conceded in 2006, "It definitely did n't turn out sounding the way I wanted it... But now I can see that Martin did a good job on it... There 's no two ways about it, Martin Hannett created the Joy Division sound. '' Hook also noted that he was able to hear Curtis 's lyrics and Sumner 's guitar parts for the first time on the record, because during gigs the band played too loudly.
Peter Saville, who had previously designed posters for Manchester 's Factory club in 1978, designed the cover of the album. Sumner chose the image used on the cover, which is based on an image of radio waves from pulsar CP 1919, from The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Astronomy. Saville reversed the image from black - on - white to white - on - black and printed it on textured card for the original version of the album. It is not a Fourier analysis, but rather an image of the intensity of successive radio pulses, as stated in the Cambridge Encyclopaedia. The image was originally created by radio astronomer Harold Craft at the Arecibo Observatory for his 1970 PhD thesis.
This image became well - known, featuring on T - shirts (even parodied by a quickly - withdrawn Disney shirt). When reviewing the 2007 remastered version of Unknown Pleasures, Pitchfork critic Joshua Klein described the cover art as "iconic ''. Susie Goldring, reviewing the album for BBC Online said, "The duochrome Peter Saville cover of this first Joy Division album speaks volumes. Its white on black lines reflect a pulse of power, a surge of bass, and raw angst. If the cover does n't draw you in, the music will. ''
In April 2017, the term "joyplot '' was coined as a series of statistical data graphed in such a way that they resemble the album cover artwork.
The inner sleeve features a black - and - white photograph of a door with a hand near the handle. It was some years later before Saville discovered that the photograph was Hand Through a Doorway, a well - known picture by Ralph Gibson. Author Chris Ott suggests that the album title was probably a reference to Marcel Proust 's Remembrance of Things Past.
Unknown Pleasures was initially printed in a run of 10,000 copies, with 5,000 copies being sold within the first two weeks of release, and a further 10,000 copies being sold over the following six months. Initially, sales of Unknown Pleasures were slow until the release of the non-LP single, "Transmission '', and unsold copies occupied the Factory Records office in the flat of label co-founder Alan Erasmus.
Following the release of "Transmission '', Unknown Pleasures sold out of its initial pressing, with this prompting further pressings. Unknown Pleasures created approximately £ 50,000 in profit, to be shared between Factory Records and the band; however, Tony Wilson spent most of these profits on Factory projects. By the conclusion of a critically acclaimed promotional tour supporting Buzzcocks in November 1979, Unknown Pleasures had neared 15,000 copies sold.
Unknown Pleasures failed to chart on the UK Albums Chart. However, following Curtis 's suicide in May 1980 and the release of their second album, Closer, in July, it was reissued and reached number seventy - one that August. It fared better on the UK Indie Chart, placing at number two on the first chart to be published in January 1980 and going on to top the chart following its reissue, spending 136 weeks on the chart in total.
In 2007, remastered versions of both Unknown Pleasures and the posthumous studio album Closer -- plus the 1981 compilation album Still -- were re-released, with the remastered version of Unknown Pleasures including a bonus disc of a live recording of the band playing at The Factory in Manchester on 13 July 1979. The album was also re-released on 180 - gram vinyl with the original track listing in 2007, with this version also being available in a limited edition box set with Closer and Still.
Reviewing the album for Melody Maker, Jon Savage called Unknown Pleasures an "opaque manifesto '' and declared "(leaving) the twentieth century is difficult; most people prefer to go back and nostalgise, Oh boy. Joy Division at least set a course in the present with contrails for the future -- perhaps you ca n't ask for much more. Indeed, Unknown Pleasures may very well be one of the best, white, English, debut LPs of the year. '' Max Bell of NME described the record as "extraordinary, '' writing that "without trying to baffle or overreach itself, this outfit step into a labyrinth that is rarely explored with any smidgeon of real conviction. '' He positively compared it to the work of Strange Days - era Doors and "German experimentalists '' such as Can and Neu!. In Rolling Stone, music journalist Mikal Gilmore described the album as having "a doleful, deep - toned sound that often suggested an elaborate version of the Velvet Underground or an orderly Public Image Ltd. '' By August of that year the album 's stature as a favourite of critics for the year was established.
Other writers were less enthusiastic. Red Starr, writing for Smash Hits, gave the album a generally positive review, describing it as a "bleak nightmare soundtrack ''. Starr described the lyrics as "mysterious '' and "doomy '' which were "amidst intense music of urgent guitar, eerie effects and driving rhythms ''. However, Starr tempered his review by saying not to "expect too much '' as the album was "still pretty raw ''. Writing about Factory for Melody Maker in September 1979, Mary Harron was less impressed: "I found at least half of (Unknown Pleasures) to be turgid and monotonous, and the vocals heavy and melodramatic -- Jim Morrison without flair. '' She went on to say the lyrics and the atmosphere of the album "seemed to hearken back to the late Sixties '' and the songs were "a series of disconnected images ''.
Retrospective critical writing on the album has been virtually unanimous in its praise. In 1994, Jon Savage described the music as "a definitive Northern Gothic statement: guilt - ridden, romantic, claustrophobic ''. Analysing Curtis 's work, music journalist Richard Cook remarked in 1983: "sex has disappeared from these unknown pleasures; it is an aftermath of passion where everything 's (perhaps) lost ''. Stuart Maconie of Select deemed Unknown Pleasures "music without a past or a future but with the muscularity of all great rock '' and "one of the greatest first albums ever. ''
Ned Raggett, reviewing the album for AllMusic, described Unknown Pleasures as "All visceral, all emotional, all theatrical, all perfect -- one of the best albums ever. '' Robert Christgau said that it was Curtis 's "passionate gravity that makes the clumsy, disquieting music so convincing ''. Colin Larkin called the music "distinctive and disturbing '' in his Encyclopedia of Popular Music (2011), while highlighting "She 's Lost Control '', where Curtis was "at his most manically arresting ''. In relation to the remastered re-released album in 2007, the British music magazine NME described the album as "simply one of the best records ever made, and is still powerful enough to floor you 28 years on ''.
The cover art of the album inspired the artwork for Vince Staples ' debut Summertime ' 06.
Peter Hook and The Light have played the Unknown Pleasures album in its entirety on several of their concert tours, and have recorded and released live albums of some of their gigs. Hook also named one of his books Unknown Pleasures: Inside Joy Division in 2012.
(*) designates unordered lists.
All tracks written by Ian Curtis, Peter Hook, Stephen Morris and Bernard Sumner.
Joy Division
Production
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name three places of india which are famous for automobile factories | Automotive industry in India - Wikipedia
The automotive industry in India is one of the largest in the world with an annual production of 23.96 million vehicles in FY (fiscal year) 2015 -- 16, following a growth of 2.57 per cent over the last year. The automobile industry accounts for 7.1 per cent of the country 's gross domestic product (GDP). The Two Wheelers segment, with 81 per cent market share, is the leader of the Indian Automobile market, owing to a growing middle class and a young population. Moreover, the growing interest of companies in exploring the rural markets further aided the growth of the sector. The overall Passenger Vehicle (PV) segment has 13 per cent market share.
India is also a prominent auto exporter and has strong export growth expectations for the near future. In FY 2014 -- 15, automobile exports grew by 15 per cent over the last year. In addition, several initiatives by the Government of India and the major automobile players in the Indian market are expected to make India a leader in the Two Wheeler (2W) and Four Wheeler (4W) market in the world by 2020.
The industry produced a total 14.25 million vehicles including PVs, commercial vehicles (CVs), three wheelers (3W) and 2W in April -- October 2015, as against 13.83 in April -- October 2014, registering a marginal growth of 3.07 per cent, year - to - year.
The sales of PVs grew by 8.51 per cent in April -- October 2015 over the same period in the previous year. The overall CVs segment registered a growth of 8.02 per cent in April -- October 2015 as compared to same period last year. Medium and Heavy Commercial Vehicles (M&HCVs) registered very strong growth of 32.3 per cent while sales of Light Commercial Vehicles (LCVs) declined by 5.24 per cent during April -- October 2015, year - to - year.
In April -- October 2015, overall automobile exports grew by 5.78 per cent. PVs, CVs, 3Ws and 2Ws registered growth of 6.34 per cent, 17.95 per cent, 18.59 per cent and 3.22 per cent, respectively, in April -- October 2015 over April -- October 2014.
In order to keep up with the growing demand, several auto makers have started investing heavily in various segments of the industry during the last few months. The industry has attracted foreign direct investment (FDI) worth US $13.48 billion during the period April 2000 to June 2015, according to data released by Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP).
Some of the major investments and developments in the automobile sector in India are as follows:
The Government of India encourages foreign investment in the automobile sector and allows 100 per cent FDI under the automatic route.
Some of the major initiatives taken by the Government of India are:
In 1897, the first car ran on an Indian road. Through the 1930s, cars were imports only, and in small numbers.
An embryonic automotive industry emerged in India in the 1940s. Hindustan Motors was launched in 1942, long - time competitor Premier in 1944, building Chrysler, Dodge, and Fiat products respectively. Mahindra & Mahindra was established by two brothers in 1945, and began assembly of Jeep CJ - 3A utility vehicles. Following independence in 1947, the Government of India and the private sector launched efforts to create an automotive - component manufacturing industry to supply to the automobile industry. In 1953, an import substitution programme was launched, and the import of fully built - up cars began to be restricted.
In 1952, the government appointed the first Tariff Commission, one of whose purposes was to come out with a feasibility plan for the indigenization of the Indian automobile industry. In 1953, the commission submitted their report, which recommended categorizing existing Indian car companies according to their manufacturing infrastructure, with licensed capacity to manufacture a certain number of vehicles, with capacity increases allowable, as per demands, in the future. The Tariff Commission recommendations were implemented with new policies that would eventually exclude companies that only imported parts for assembly, as well as those with no Indian partner. In 1954, following the Tariff Commission implementation, General Motors, Ford, and Rootes Group, which had assembly - only plants in Mumbai, decided to move out of India.
The Tariff commission policies, including similar restrictions that applied to other industries, came to be known as the "license raj '', which proved to be the greatest undoing of the Indian automotive industry, where bureaucratic red tape ended up causing demand to outstrip supply, with month - long waiting periods for cars, scooters, and motorcycles.
Passenger Cars
Utility and Light Commercial Vehicles
Medium and Heavy Commercial Vehicles
Scooters, Mopeds and Motorcycles
known as Bajaj Chetak, by Bajaj became the largest sold scooter in the world
However, growth was relatively slow in the 1950s and 1960s, due to nationalisation and the license raj, hampered the growth of Indian private sector.
The beginning of the 1970s saw some growth potential and most of the collaboration license agreements came to an end but with option to continue manufacturing with renewed branding. Cars were still meant for the elite and Jeeps were largely used by government organizations and some rural belts. In commercial vehicle segments some developments were made by the end of the decade to cater improved goods movements. The two - wheeler segment remained unchanged except for to increased sales in urban among middle class. But more fillip was target towards farm tractors as India was embarking on a new Green Revolution. More Russian and eastern bloc imports were done to increase the demand.
But after 1970, with restrictions on the import of vehicles set, the automotive industry started to grow; but the growth was mainly driven by tractors, commercial vehicles and scooters. Cars still remained a major luxury item. In the 1970s, price controls were finally lifted, inserting a competitive element into the automobile market. However, by the 1980s, the automobile market was still dominated by Hindustan and Premier, who sold superannuated products in fairly limited numbers. During the eighties, a few competitors began to arrive on the scene.
The OPEC oil crisis saw increase need to installing or redesign some vehicle to fit diesel engines on medium commercial vehicle. Until the early 1970s Mahindra Jeeps were on Petrol and Premier commercial vehicles had Petrol model options. The Defence sector too had most trucks on Pertol engines.
From the end of the 1970s to the beginning of the 1980s saw no new models but the country continued with 2 decade old designs forcing government to encourage and let more manufacturers into fray.
In 1984, the then Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi established the Ordnance Factory Medak, near Hyderabad. It started manufacturing Infantry Combat Vehicles christened as Sarath, the backbone of India 's mechanised infantry. OFMK is still the only manufacturing facility of ICVs in India. To manufacture the high - power engines used in ICVs and main battle tanks, Engine Factory Avadi, near Chennai was set in 1987. In 1986, to promote the auto industry, the government established the Delhi Auto Expo. The 1986 Expo was a showcase for how the Indian automotive industry was absorbing new technologies, promoting indigenous research and development, and adapting these technologies for the rugged conditions of India. The nine - day show was attended by then Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi.
Eventually multinational automakers, such as, Suzuki and Toyota of Japan and Hyundai of South Korea, were allowed to invest in the Indian market, furthering the establishment of an automotive industry in India. Maruti Suzuki was the first, and the most successful of these new entries, and in part the result of government policies to promote the automotive industry beginning in the 1980s. As India began to liberalise its automobile market in 1991, a number of foreign firms also initiated joint ventures with existing Indian companies. The variety of options available to the consumer began to multiply in the nineties, whereas before there had usually only been one option in each price class. By 2000, there were 12 large automotive companies in the Indian market, most of them offshoots of global companies.
Exports were slow to grow. Sales of small numbers of vehicles to tertiary markets and neighbouring countries began early, and in 1987 Maruti Suzuki shipped 480 cars to Europe (Hungary). After some growth in the mid-nineties, exports once again began to drop as the outmoded platforms provided to Indian manufacturers by multinationals were not competitive. This was not to last, and today India manufactures low - priced cars for markets across the globe. As of 18 March 2013, global brands such as Proton Holdings, PSA Group, Kia, Mazda, Chrysler, Dodge and Geely Holding Group were shelving plans for India due to the competitiveness of the market, as well as the global economic crisis.
In 2000, in line with international standards to reduce vehicular pollution, the central government unveiled standards titled "India 2000 '', with later, upgraded guidelines to be known as Bharat Stage emission standards. These standards are quite similar to the stringent European emission standards and have been implemented in a phased manner. Bharat Stage IV (BS - IV), the most stringent so far, was implemented first, in April 2010, in 13 cities -- Delhi (NCR), Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Kanpur, Lucknow, Solapur, and Agra -- and then, as of April 2017, the rest of the nation.
India levies an import tax of 125 % on electric cars, while the import tax on components such as gearboxes, airbags, drive axles, is 10 %. Therefore, the taxes encourage cars to be assembled in India rather than be imported as completely built units.
The majority of India 's car manufacturing industry is evenly divided into three "clusters ''. Around Chennai is the southernmost and largest, with a 35 % revenue share, accounting for 60 % of the country 's automotive exports, and home of the operations of Heavy Vehicles Factory, Engine Factory Avadi, Ford, Hyundai, Renault, Mitsubishi, Nissan, BMW, Hindustan Motors, Daimler, Caparo, Mini, and Datsun.
Near Mumbai, Maharashtra, along the Chakan corridor near Pune, is the western cluster, with a 33 % share of the market. Audi, Volkswagen, and Skoda are located in Aurangabad. Mahindra and Mahindra has an SUV and engine assembly plant at Nashik. General Motors, Tata Motors, Mercedes Benz, Land Rover, Jaguar, Fiat, and Force Motors have assembly plants in the area.
The northern cluster is around the National Capital Region, and contributes 32 %. Gurgaon and Manesar, in Haryana, are where the country 's largest car manufacturer, Maruti Suzuki, is based.
An emerging cluster is the state of Gujarat, with a manufacturing facility of General Motors in Halol, and a facility for Tata Nano at their plant in Sanand. Ford, Maruti Suzuki, and Peugeot - Citroen plants are also planned for Gujarat.
Kolkata with Hindustan Motors (inactive), Noida with Honda, and Bengaluru with Toyota are other automotive manufacturing regions around the country.
Honda Motorcycle & Scooter India -- Tapukara
India 's automobile exports have grown consistently and reached $4.5 billion in 2009, with the United Kingdom being India 's largest export market, followed by Italy, Germany, Netherlands, and South Africa.
According to the New York Times, India 's strong engineering base and expertise in the manufacturing of low - cost, fuel - efficient cars has resulted in the expansion of manufacturing facilities of several automobile companies like Hyundai, Nissan, Toyota, Volkswagen, and Maruti Suzuki.
In 2008, South Korean multinational Hyundai Motors alone exported 240,000 cars made in India. Nissan Motors plans to export 250,000 vehicles manufactured in its India plant by 2011. Similarly, US automobile company, General Motors announced its plans to export about 50,000 cars manufactured in India by 2011.
In September 2009, Ford Motors announced its plans to set up a plant in India with an annual capacity of 250,000 cars, for US $500 million. The cars will be manufactured both for the Indian market and for export. The company said that the plant was a part of its plan to make India the hub for its global production business. Fiat Motors announced that it would source more than US $1 billion worth auto components from India.
In 2009 India (0.23 m) surpassed China (0.16 m) as Asia 's fourth largest exporter of cars after Japan (1.77 m), Korea (1.12 m) and Thailand (0.26 m).
In July 2010, The Economic Times reported that PSA Peugeot Citroën was planning to re-enter the Indian market and open a production plant in Andhra Pradesh that would have an annual capacity of 100,000 vehicles, investing € 700M in the operation. PSA 's intention to utilise this production facility for export purposes however remains unclear as of December 2010.
In recent years, India has emerged as a leading center for the manufacture of small cars. Hyundai, the biggest exporter from the country, now ships more than 250,000 cars annually from India. Apart from Maruti Exports ' shipments to Suzuki 's other markets, Maruti Suzuki also manufactures small cars for Nissan, which sells them in Europe. Nissan will also export small cars from its new Indian assembly line. Tata Motors exports its passenger vehicles to Asian and African markets, and is preparing to sell electric cars in Europe in 2010. The firm is planning to sell an electric version of its affordable car the Tata Nano in Europe and in the U.S. Mahindra & Mahindra is preparing to introduce its pickup trucks and small SUV models in the U.S. market. Bajaj Auto is designing a low - cost car for Renault Nissan Automotive India, which will market the product worldwide. Renault Nissan may also join domestic commercial vehicle manufacturer Ashok Leyland in another small car project. While the possibilities for the Indian automobile industry are impressive, there are challenges that could thwart future growth. Since the demand for automobiles in recent years is directly linked to overall economic expansion and rising personal incomes, industry growth will slow if the economy weakens.
India exported $14.5 billion worth of automobiles in 2014. The 10 countries below imported 47.8 % of that total.
This list is of cars that are officially available and serviced in India. While other cars can be imported to the country at a steep 105 % import duty, car - makers such as Alfa Romeo, McLaren, Pagani, Cadillac, Chrysler, SSC, Lincoln, Zenvo, SEAT, Smart, Daihatsu, Infiniti, Acura, Saab, Spyker, Lotus, Ariel, Caterham, Peugeot - Citroën, Mazda, Kia, GAZ, and Proton are in various stages of official introduction into the Indian automobile industry.
Hyundai, Suzuki, BMW, Volkswagen, Audi, Mercedes Benz, Ford, Fiat, Honda, Chevrolet (of General Motors), Toyota, Lamborghini, Jaguar, and Skoda are the foreign automotive companies that manufacture and market their products in India.
Opel was present in India until 2006. As of 2013, Opel only provides spare parts and vehicle servicing to existing Opel vehicle owners.
During April 2012, the Indian government planned to unveil the road map for the development of domestic electric and hybrid vehicles (xEV) in the country. A discussion between the various stakeholders, including Government, industry, and academia, was expected to take place during 23 -- 24 February. The final contours of the policy would have been formed after this set of discussions. Ministries such as Petroleum, Finance, Road Transport, and Power are involved in developing a broad framework for the sector. Along with these ministries, auto industry executives, such as Anand Mahindra (Vice Chairman and Managing Director, Mahindra & Mahindra) and Vikram Kirloskar (Vice-Chairman, Toyota Kirloskar), were involved in this task. The Government has also proposed to set up a Rs 740 crore research and development fund for the sector in the 12th five - year plan during 2012 - 17. The idea is to reduce the high cost of key imported components such as the battery and electric motor, and to develop such capabilities locally.
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which of the following was a primary method of financing the american war effort during world war i | Financial costs of the American Revolutionary war - Wikipedia
The American Revolutionary War inflicted great financial costs on all of the combatants, including the United States of America, France, Spain and Great Britain. France and Great Britain spent 1.3 billion livres and 250 million pounds, respectively. The United States spent $400 million in wages for its troops. Spain increased its military spending from 454 million reales in 1778 to over 700 million reales in 1779.
The economic warfare between Great Britain and the colonists began well before the colonies declared their independence in 1776. Regulations from the crown were met with fierce opposition from the colonists. After lobbies and petitions proved ineffective, the colonists turned to boycotting imported English goods. Boycotting proved to be successful in crippling British trade. After the first colonial boycott in 1765, Parliament overturned the Sugar and Stamp Acts, and after a second boycott in 1768 Parliament overturned all of the Townshend duties except for the tax on tea. The colonists persisted, and the American boycott on tea ultimately culminated in the Boston Tea Party of 1773. Despite the Revolution 's widespread association with the colonists ' aversion to higher taxes, it has been claimed that the colonists actually paid far less tax compared to their British counterparts.
British efforts to weaken the colonies included isolating their economy from the rest of the world by cutting off trade. With a navy that was many times more powerful than its American counterpart, the English had complete control over the American ports. The British took control of major port cities along the colonial east coast, and as a result British warships were able to drastically reduce the number of ships that could successfully travel from the colonies. Consequently, the U.S. saw a fall in exported goods due to the relentless British blockade. Furthermore, England 's naval strength was great enough to intimidate other nations and scare them away from exporting goods to the colonies, so smuggled and inexpensive imports became costly and rare.
The Continental Army under the direction of George Washington sought to engage in a war of attrition. Because the fight was on colonial soil, Washington aimed to take advantage of the lack of trade with Great Britain by cutting them off from necessary resources, hoping that eventually the redcoat army in North America would grow sick and tired. Under the Articles of Confederation, however, the Continental Congress did not have the power to impose taxes or regulate commerce in the colonies, and thus could not generate the sufficient funds for a war of attrition.
To solve this problem, the Continental Congress sent diplomats including Benjamin Franklin to Europe in search of foreign support for the American cause. For the first two years of war, the colonists received secretive private and public loans from the French, who held a lingering resentment for the British after the Seven Years ' War. After the British defeat at Saratoga, however, foreign support for the Continental Army increased, and in 1778 the colonies signed a treaty with France, officially bringing them into the war with England. By the end of the war, the colonies had received loans from several different European nations, including significant contribution from France, Spain and the Netherlands. In addition, the colonies received much private funding, most notably from the Marquis de Lafayette and the Baron of Kalb, both Frenchmen. This funding ultimately enabled them to fight the war of attrition that General Washington hoped for.
Because the French possessed a powerful navy, their entrance into the war weakened the British blockade on colonial ports and further cut off the British army from its Atlantic supply route. The British forces recognized that they would not last long without shipping in supplies, so in retaliation, the British redeployed some of their forces to the French Caribbean. Their hope was to capture French sugar islands and cut the French financial supply line. The new war in the Caribbean added to England 's already large financial costs, yet unlike the colonies, the British were not successful in their attempts to garner foreign loans or armaments. Without economic assistance from other nations, the financial strain on Parliament and British taxpayers became increasingly burdensome, and ultimately had a hand in wearing down the British forces and ending the war for independence.
As the war progressed, the Americans ' deteriorating financial stability quickly became Britain 's greatest asset. Because it did not possess the power to tax the colonists, the Continental Congress printed money at a rapid rate to fund the army 's expenses and pay off its loans from foreign nations. As a result, the colonies experienced severe inflation and depreciation of the Continental dollar. The colonists also had great difficulty in financing a wartime effort against the British southern campaign, not effectively halting the British destruction until the battle of Yorktown in 1781. When war ended in 1783, American negotiations, monetary policies and government restructuring all contributed to paying off the American national debt.
The American Revolutionary War took a heavy toll on Great Britain. The average cost for the war was £ 12 million a year. The British ended the war with a national debt of £ 250 million, which generated a yearly interest of over £ 9.5 million (3.8 percent). This debt piled on to the already outstanding debt from the Seven Years ' War. Taxes on the British population increased over the years and duties on some items such as glass and lead were also added, the average tax for the British public being four shillings in every pound (20 percent). Furthermore, the Royal Navy was not able to ' rule the waves ' as it had done in the Seven Years ' War.
Great Britain 's trade with the thirteen American colonies fell apart once the American Revolution started, causing British businessmen, especially from the tobacco industry, to suffer. Income from the sale of woolen and metal products dropped sharply and export markets dried up. British merchant sailors also felt the pinch: it is estimated that 3,386 British merchant ships were seized by enemy forces during the war. However, Royal Navy warships did make up these losses somewhat, due to their own privateering efforts on enemy shipping, particularly Spanish and French merchant ships.
During the war, France shouldered a financial burden similar to that of Great Britain, as debt from the American Revolutionary War was piled upon already existing debts from the Seven Years ' War. The French spent 1.3 billion livres on war costs. When the war ended, France had accumulated a debt of 3,315.1 million livres, a fortune at the time.
The debt caused major economic and political problems for France, and, as the country struggled to pay its debts, eventually led to the Financial Crisis of 1786 and the French Revolution in 1789.
Spain 's economic losses were not as great as those of the other belligerents in the American Revolutionary War. This was because Spain paid off her debts quickly and efficiently. However, Spain had nearly doubled her military spending during the war, from 454 million reales in 1778 to over 700 million reales in 1779. Spain 's revenue loss was similar to Britain 's, since she lost a lot of income from her American colonies due to the war. To make up for the shortfall, Spanish governors introduced higher tax rates in the South American colonies, with little success. Spain 's next move was to issue royal bonds to her colonies, also with limited success. Finally, in 1782 the first national bank of Spain -- the Banco San Carlo -- was created to improve and centralize the economic situation.
For more details on the impact on the United States, see Economic history of the US.
The thirteen American states flourished economically at the beginning of the war. The colonies could trade freely with the West Indies and other European nations, instead of just Britain. Due to the abolition of the British Navigation Acts, American merchants could now transport their goods in European and American ships rather than only British ships. British taxes on expensive wares such as tea, glass, lead and paper were forfeit, and other taxes became cheaper. Plus, American privateering raids on British merchant ships provided more wealth for the Continental Army.
As the war went on however, America 's economic prosperity began to fall. British warships began to prey on American shipping, and the increasing upkeep costs of the Continental Army meant that wealth from merchant ships decreased. As cashflow declined, the United States of America had to rely on European loans to maintain the war effort; France, Spain and the Netherlands lent the United States over $10 million during the war, causing major debt problems for the fledgling nation. Coin circulation had also begun to wane. Because of this, the United States began to print paper money and bills of credit to raise income. This proved unsuccessful, inflation skyrocketed, and the new paper money 's value diminished. A popular saying circulated the colonies because of this: anything of little value became "not worth a continental. ''
According to a 2010 Congressional Research Service report on the "Costs of Major U.S. Wars '', the Revolution cost the United States the 2011 equivalent of $2.4 billion.
By 1780, the United States Congress had issued over $400 million in paper money to troops. Eventually, Congress tried to stop the inflation by imposing economic reforms. These failed, and only further devalued the American currency. There is, however, some disagreement over the amount of currency issued. Between 1775 and 1783 the colonies experienced an average annual inflation rate of approximately 4.3 %. The rate of inflation peaked at 29.78 % in 1778. Numerous food riots were recorded as discontent grew over rapidly rising prices. The destruction of property and the continued issuing of Continentals by the Congress was another cause of currency devaluation. In addition, counterfeiting of American dollars was carried out by the British Government as an intentional means of sabotaging the war effort.
Late in the war, Congress asked individual colonies to equip their own troops, and pay upkeep for their own soldiers in the Continental Army. When the war ended, the United States had spent $37 million at the national level and $114 million at the state level. The United States finally solved its debt problems in the 1790s when Alexander Hamilton founded the First Bank of the United States in order to pay off war debts and establish good national credit.
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where does the last name vital come from | Vital (surname) - wikipedia
Vital is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
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why is it 26.2 miles for a marathon | Marathon - wikipedia
The marathon is a long - distance running race with an official distance of 42.195 kilometres (26.219 miles, or 26 miles 385 yards), usually run as a road race. The event was instituted in commemoration of the fabled run of the Greek soldier Pheidippides, a messenger from the Battle of Marathon to Athens, who reported the victory.
The marathon was one of the original modern Olympic events in 1896, though the distance did not become standardized until 1921. More than 800 marathons are held throughout the world each year, with the vast majority of competitors being recreational athletes as larger marathons can have tens of thousands of participants.
The name Marathon comes from the legend of Philippides or Pheidippides, the Greek messenger. The legend states that he was sent from the battlefield of Marathon to Athens to announce that the Persians had been defeated in the Battle of Marathon (in which he had just fought), which took place in August or September, 490 BC. It is said that he ran the entire distance without stopping and burst into the assembly, exclaiming νενικήκαμεν (nenikēkamen, "we have won! ''), before collapsing and dying. The account of the run from Marathon to Athens first appears in Plutarch 's On the Glory of Athens in the 1st century AD, which quotes from Heraclides Ponticus 's lost work, giving the runner 's name as either Thersipus of Erchius or Eucles. Lucian of Samosata (2nd century AD) also gives the story, but names the runner Philippides (not Pheidippides).
There is debate about the historical accuracy of this legend. The Greek historian Herodotus, the main source for the Greco - Persian Wars, mentions Philippides as the messenger who ran from Athens to Sparta asking for help, and then ran back, a distance of over 240 kilometres (150 mi) each way. In some Herodotus manuscripts, the name of the runner between Athens and Sparta is given as Philippides. Herodotus makes no mention of a messenger sent from Marathon to Athens, and relates that the main part of the Athenian army, having fought and won the grueling battle, and fearing a naval raid by the Persian fleet against an undefended Athens, marched quickly back from the battle to Athens, arriving the same day.
In 1879, Robert Browning wrote the poem Pheidippides. Browning 's poem, his composite story, became part of late 19th century popular culture and was accepted as a historic legend.
Mount Pentelicus stands between Marathon and Athens, which means that, if Philippides actually made his famous run after the battle, he had to run around the mountain, either to the north or to the south. The latter and more obvious route matches almost exactly the modern Marathon - Athens highway, which follows the lay of the land southwards from Marathon Bay and along the coast, then takes a gentle but protracted climb westwards towards the eastern approach to Athens, between the foothills of Mounts Hymettus and Penteli, and then gently downhill to Athens proper. This route, as it existed when the Olympics were revived in 1896, was approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) long, and this was the approximate distance originally used for marathon races. However, there have been suggestions that Philippides might have followed another route: a westward climb along the eastern and northern slopes of Mount Penteli to the pass of Dionysos, and then a straight southward downhill path to Athens. This route is considerably shorter, some 35 kilometres (22 mi), but includes a very steep initial climb of more than 5 kilometres (3.1 mi).
When the modern Olympics began in 1896, the initiators and organizers were looking for a great popularizing event, recalling the glory of ancient Greece. The idea of a marathon race came from Michel Bréal, who wanted the event to feature in the first modern Olympic Games in 1896 in Athens. This idea was heavily supported by Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympics, as well as by the Greeks. The Greeks staged a selection race for the Olympic marathon on 22 March 1896 (Gregorian) that was won by Charilaos Vasilakos in 3 hours and 18 minutes (with the future winner of the introductory Olympic Games marathon, Spyridon "Spyros '' Louis, coming in fifth at a second race two weeks later). The winner of the first Olympic marathon, on 10 April 1896 (a male - only race), was Spyridon Louis, a Greek water - carrier, in 2 hours 58 minutes and 50 seconds. The marathon of the 2004 Summer Olympics was run on the traditional route from Marathon to Athens, ending at Panathinaiko Stadium, the venue for the 1896 Summer Olympics. That men 's marathon was won by Italian Stefano Baldini in 2 hours 10 minutes and 55 seconds, a record time for this route until the non-Olympics Athens Classic Marathon of 2014, when Felix Kandie lowered the course record to 2 hours 10 minutes and 37 seconds.
The women 's marathon was introduced at the 1984 Summer Olympics (Los Angeles, USA) and was won by Joan Benoit of the United States with a time of 2 hours 24 minutes and 52 seconds.
It has become a tradition for the men 's Olympic marathon to be the last event of the athletics calendar, on the final day of the Olympics. For many years the race finished inside the Olympic stadium; however, at the 2012 London Olympics, the start and finish were on The Mall, and at the 2016 Rio games, the start and finish were in the Sambódromo, the parade area that serves as a spectator mall for Carnival.
Often, the men 's marathon medals are awarded during the closing ceremony (including the 2004 games, 2012 games and 2016 games).
The Olympic men 's record is 2: 06: 32, set at the 2008 Summer Olympics by Samuel Kamau Wanjiru of Kenya (average speed about 20.01 kilometres per hour or 12.43 miles per hour). The Olympic women 's record is 2: 23: 07, set at the 2012 Summer Olympics by Tiki Gelana of Ethiopia. The men 's London 2012 Summer Olympic marathon winner was Stephen Kiprotich of Uganda (2: 08: 01). Per capita, the Kalenjin ethnic group of Rift Valley Province in Kenya has produced a highly disproportionate share of marathon and track - and - field winners.
Johnny Hayes ' victory at the 1908 Summer Olympics contributed to the early growth of long - distance running and marathoning in the United States. Later that year, races around the holiday season including the Empire City Marathon held on New Year 's Day 1909 in Yonkers, New York, marked the early running craze referred to as "marathon mania ''. Following the 1908 Olympics, the first five amateur marathons in New York City were held on days that held special meanings: Thanksgiving Day, the day after Christmas, New Year 's Day, Washington 's Birthday, and Lincoln 's Birthday.
Frank Shorter 's victory in the marathon at the 1972 Summer Olympics would spur national enthusiasm for the sport more intense than that which followed Hayes ' win 64 years earlier. In 2014, an estimated 550,600 runners completed a marathon within the United States. This can be compared to 143,000 in 1980. Today marathons are held all around the world on a nearly weekly basis.
For a long time after the Olympic marathon started, there were no long - distance races, such as the marathon, for women. Although a few women such as Stamata Revithi had run the marathon distance, they were not included in any official results. Marie - Louise Ledru has been credited as the first woman to complete a marathon, in 1918. Violet Piercy has been credited as the first woman to be officially timed in a marathon, in 1926.
Arlene Pieper became the first woman to officially finish a marathon in the United States when she completed the Pikes Peak Marathon in Manitou Springs, Colorado, in 1959. Kathrine Switzer was the first woman to run the Boston Marathon "officially '' (with a number). However, Switzer 's entry, which was accepted through an "oversight '' in the screening process, was in "flagrant violation of the rules '', and she was treated as an interloper once the error was discovered. Bobbi Gibb had completed the Boston race unofficially the previous year (1966), and was later recognized by the race organizers as the women 's winner for that year, as well as 1967 and 1968.
In 2015 Afghanistan held its first marathon; among those who ran the entire marathon was one woman, Zainab, age 25, who thus became the first Afghan woman to run in a marathon within her own country.
Olympic marathon distances
The length of an Olympic marathon was not precisely fixed at first, but the marathon races in the first few Olympic Games were about 40 kilometres (25 mi), roughly the distance from Marathon to Athens by the longer, flatter route. The exact length depended on the route established for each venue.
The International Olympic Committee agreed in 1907 that the distance for the 1908 London Olympic marathon would be about 25 miles or 40 kilometres. The organisers decided on a course of 26 miles from the start at Windsor Castle to the royal entrance to the White City Stadium, followed by a lap (586 yards 2 feet; 536 m) of the track, finishing in front of the Royal Box. The course was later altered to use a different entrance to the stadium, followed by a partial lap of 385 yards to the same finish.
The modern 42.195 km standard distance for the marathon was set by the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF) in May 1921 directly from the length used at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London.
An official IAAF marathon course is 42.195 km (42 m tolerance only in excess). Course officials add a short course prevention factor of up to one metre per kilometre to their measurements to reduce the risk of a measuring error producing a length below the minimum distance.
For events governed by IAAF rules, it is mandatory that the route be marked so that all competitors can see the distance covered in kilometres. The rules make no mention of the use of miles. The IAAF will only recognise world records that are established at events that are run under IAAF rules. For major events, it is customary to publish competitors ' timings at the midway mark and also at 5 km splits; marathon runners can be credited with world records for lesser distances recognised by the IAAF (such as 20 km, 30 km and so on) if such records are established while the runner is running a marathon, and completes the marathon course.
Annually, more than 800 marathons are organized worldwide. Some of these belong to the Association of International Marathons and Distance Races (AIMS) which has grown since its foundation in 1982 to embrace over 300 member events in 83 countries and territories. The marathons of Berlin, Boston, Chicago, London, New York City and Tokyo form the biennial World Marathon Majors series, awarding $500,000 annually to the best overall male and female performers in the series.
In 2006, the editors of Runner 's World selected a "World 's Top 10 Marathons '', in which the Amsterdam, Honolulu, Paris, Rotterdam, and Stockholm marathons were featured along with the five original World Marathon Majors events (excluding Tokyo). Other notable large marathons include United States Marine Corps Marathon, Los Angeles, and Rome. The Boston Marathon is the world 's oldest annual marathon, inspired by the success of the 1896 Olympic marathon and held every year since 1897 to celebrate Patriots Day, a holiday marking the beginning of the American Revolution, thereby purposely linking Athenian and American struggle for democracy. The oldest annual marathon in Europe is the Košice Peace Marathon, held since 1924 in Košice, Slovakia. The historic Polytechnic Marathon was discontinued in 1996. The Athens Classic Marathon traces the route of the 1896 Olympic course, starting in Marathon on the eastern coast of Attica, site of the Battle of Marathon of 490 B.C.E., and ending at the Panathenaic Stadium in Athens.
The Midnight Sun Marathon is held in Tromsø, Norway at 70 degrees north. Using unofficial and temporary courses, measured by GPS, races of marathon distance are now held at the North Pole, in Antarctica and over desert terrain. Other unusual marathons include the Great Wall Marathon on The Great Wall of China, the Big Five Marathon among the safari wildlife of South Africa, the Great Tibetan Marathon -- a marathon in an atmosphere of Tibetan Buddhism at an altitude of 3,500 metres (11,500 ft), and the Polar Circle Marathon on the permanent ice cap of Greenland.
The Intercontinental Istanbul Eurasia Marathon is the only marathon where participants run over two continents (Europe and Asia) during the course of a single event. In the Detroit Free Press Marathon, participants cross the US / Canada border twice. The Niagara Falls International Marathon includes one international border crossing, via the Peace Bridge from Buffalo, New York, United States to Fort Erie, Ontario, Canada.
Many marathons feature a wheelchair division. Typically, those in the wheelchair racing division start their races earlier than their running counterparts.
The first wheelchair marathon was in 1974 in Toledo, Ohio, won by Bob Hall in 2: 54. Hall competed in the 1975 Boston Marathon and finished in 2: 58, inaugurating the introduction of wheelchair divisions into the Boston Marathon. From 1977 the race was declared the US National Wheelchair championship. The Boston Marathon awards $10,000 to the winning push - rim athlete. Ernst van Dyk has won the Boston Marathon wheelchair division ten times and holds the world record at 1: 18: 27, set in Boston in 2004. Jean Driscoll won eight times (seven consecutively) and holds the women 's world record at 1: 34: 22.
The New York City Marathon banned wheelchair entrants in 1977, citing safety concerns, but then voluntarily allowed Bob Hall to compete after the state Division of Human Rights ordered the marathon to show cause. The Division ruled in 1979 that the New York City Marathon and New York Road Runners club had to allow wheelchair athletes to compete, and confirmed this at appeal in 1980, but the State Supreme Court ruled in 1981 that a ban on wheelchair racers was not discriminatory as the marathon was historically a foot race. However, by 1986 14 wheelchair athletes were competing, and an official wheelchair division was added to the marathon in 2000.
Some of the quickest people to complete a wheel - chair marathon include Thomas Geierpichler (Austria) who won gold in men 's T52 - class marathon (no lower limb function) in 1 hr 49 min 7 sec in Beijing China, on September 17, 2008; and, Heinz Frei (Switzerland) who won the men 's T54 marathon (for racers with spinal cord injuries) in a time of 1 hr 20 min and 14 sec in Oita, Japan, October 31, 1999.
World records were not officially recognized by the IAAF until 1 January 2004; previously, the best times for the marathon were referred to as the ' world best '. Courses must conform to IAAF standards for a record to be recognized. However, marathon routes still vary greatly in elevation, course, and surface, making exact comparisons impossible. Typically, the fastest times are set over relatively flat courses near sea level, during good weather conditions and with the assistance of pacesetters.
The current world record time for men over the distance is 2 hours 2 minutes and 57 seconds, set in the Berlin Marathon by Dennis Kimetto of Kenya on 28 September 2014, an improvement of 26 seconds over the previous record also set in the Berlin Marathon by Wilson Kipsang, also of Kenya on 29 September 2013. The world record for women was set by Paula Radcliffe of Great Britain in the London Marathon on 13 April 2003, in 2 hours 15 minutes and 25 seconds.
Below is a list of all other times equal or superior to 2: 04: 11:
Below is a list of all other times equal or superior to 2: 20: 00:
Fauja Singh, then 100, finished the Toronto Waterfront Marathon, becoming the first centenarian ever to officially complete that distance. Singh, a British citizen, finished the race on 16 October 2011 with a time of 8: 11: 05.9, making him the oldest marathoner. Because Singh could not produce a birth certificate from rural 1911 Colonial India, the place of his birth, his age could not be verified and his record was not accepted by the official governing body World Masters Athletics.
Gladys Burrill, a 92 - year - old Prospect, Oregon woman and part - time resident of Hawaii, previously held the Guinness World Records title of oldest person to complete a marathon with her 9 hours 53 minutes performance at the 2010 Honolulu Marathon. The records of the Association of Road Racing Statisticians, at that time, however, suggested that Singh was overall the oldest marathoner, completing the 2004 London Marathon at the age of 93 years and 17 days, and that Burrill was the oldest female marathoner, completing the 2010 Honolulu Marathon at the age of 92 years and 19 days. Singh 's age was also reported to be 93 by other sources.
In 2015, 92 - yr - old Harriette Thompson of Charlotte, North Carolina, completed the Rock ' n ' Roll San Diego Marathon in 7 hours 24 minutes 36 seconds, thus becoming the oldest woman to complete a marathon. While Gladys Burrill was 92 years and 19 days old when she completed her record - setting marathon, Harriette Thompson was 92 years and 65 days old when she completed hers.
Budhia Singh, a boy from Odisha, India, completed his first marathon at age three. He trained under the coach Biranchi Das, who saw potential in him. In May 2006, Budhia was temporarily banned from running by the ministers of child welfare, as his life could be at risk. His coach was also arrested for exploiting and cruelty to a child. Budhia is now at a state - run sports academy.
In 2016, Running USA estimated that there were approximately 507,600 marathon finishers in the United States, while other sources reported greater than 550,000 finishers. The chart below from Running USA provides the estimated U.S. Marathon Finisher totals going back to 1976.
Finisher Total
Marathon running has become an obsession in China, with 22 marathon races in 2011 increasing to 400 in 2017. In 2015, 75 Chinese runners participated in the Boston Marathon and this increased to 278 in 2017.
As marathon running has become more popular, some athletes have undertaken challenges involving running a series of marathons.
The 100 Marathon Club is intended to provide a focal point for all runners, particularly from the United Kingdom or Ireland, who have completed 100 or more races of marathon distance or longer. At least 10 of these events must be United Kingdom or Ireland Road Marathons. Club chairman Roger Biggs has run more than 700 marathons or ultras. Brian Mills completed his 800th marathon on 17 September 2011.
Steve Edwards, a member of the 100 Marathon Club, set the world record for running 500 marathons in the fastest average finish time of 3 hours 15 minutes, at the same time becoming the first man to run 500 marathons with an official time below 3 hours 30 minutes, on 11 November 2012 at Milton Keynes, England. The records took 24 years to achieve. Edwards was 49 at the time.
Over 350 individuals have completed a marathon in each state of the United States plus Washington, D.C. and some have done it as many as eight times. Beverly Paquin, a 22 - year - old nurse from Iowa, was the youngest woman to run a marathon in all 50 states in 2010. A few weeks later, still in 2010, Morgan Cummings (also 22) became the youngest woman to complete a marathon in all 50 states and DC. In 2004, Chuck Bryant of Miami, Florida, who lost his right leg below the knee, became the first amputee to finish this circuit. Bryant has completed a total of 59 marathons on his prosthesis. Twenty - seven people have run a marathon on each of the seven continents, and 31 people have run a marathon in each of the Canadian provinces. In 1980, in what was termed the Marathon of Hope, Terry Fox, who had lost a leg to cancer and so ran with one artificial leg, attained 5,373 kilometres (3,339 mi) of his proposed cross-Canada cancer fundraising run, maintaining an average of over 37 kilometres (23 mi), close to the planned marathon distance, for each of 143 consecutive days.
On 25 September 2011, Patrick Finney of Grapevine, Texas became the first person with multiple sclerosis to finish a marathon in each state of the United States. In 2004, "the disease had left him unable to walk. But unwilling to endure a life of infirmity, Finney managed to regain his ability to balance on two feet, to walk -- and eventually to run -- through extensive rehabilitation therapy and new medications. ''
In 2003 British adventurer Sir Ranulph Fiennes completed seven marathons on seven continents in seven days. He completed this feat despite suffering from a heart attack and undergoing a double heart bypass operation just four months before. This feat has since been eclipsed by Irish ultramarathon runner Richard Donovan who in 2009 completed seven marathons on seven continents in under 132 hours (five and a half days). Starting 1 February 2012 he improved on this by completing the 7 on 7 in under 120 hours or in less than five days.
On 30 November 2013, 69 - year - old Larry Macon set a Guinness World Record for Most Marathons Run in a Year by Man by running 238 marathons. Larry Macon celebrated his 1,000 th career marathon at the Cowtown Marathon in Ft. Worth on 24 February 2013.
Other goals are to attempt to run marathons on a series of consecutive weekends (Richard Worley on 159 weekends), or to run the most marathons during a particular year or the most in a lifetime. A pioneer in running multiple marathons was Sy Mah of Toledo, Ohio, who ran 524 before he died in 1988. As of 30 June 2007, Horst Preisler of Germany had successfully completed 1214 marathons plus 347 ultramarathons, a total of 1561 events at marathon distance or longer. Sigrid Eichner, Christian Hottas and Hans - Joachim Meyer have also all completed over 1000 marathons each. Norm Frank of the United States is credited with 945 marathons.
Christian Hottas is meanwhile the first runner who ever completed 2000 marathons. He ran his 2000th at TUI Marathon Hannover on 5 May 2013 together with a group of more than 80 friends from 11 countries, including 8 officers from the 100 Marathons Clubs U.K., North - America, Germany, Denmark, Austria and Italy. Hottas completed his 2500th marathon on 4 December 2016.
In 2010, Stefaan Engels, a Belgian, set out to run the marathon distance every day of the year. Because of a foot injury he had to resort to a handbike near the end of January 2010. However, on 5 February he was fully recovered and decided to reset the counter back to zero. By 30 March he broke the existing record of Akinori Kusuda, from Japan, who completed 52 marathons in a row in 2009. On 5 February 2011, Engels had run 365 marathon distances in as many days. Ricardo Abad Martínez, from Spain, later ran 150 marathons in 150 consecutive days in 2009, and subsequently 500 marathons in a row, from October 2010 to February 2012.
Some runners compete to run the same marathons for the most consecutive years. For example, Johnny Kelley completed 61 Boston Marathons. Currently, the longest consecutive streak of Boston Marathon finishes -- 45 in a row -- is held by Bennett Beach, of Bethesda, Maryland.
Most participants do not run a marathon to win. More important for most runners is their personal finish time and their placement within their specific gender and age group, though some runners just want to finish. Strategies for completing a marathon include running the whole distance and a run -- walk strategy. In 2005, the average marathon time in the U.S. was 4 hours 32 minutes 8 seconds for men, 5 hours 6 minutes 8 seconds for women. In 2015, the men 's and women 's median marathon times were 4 hours 20 minutes 13 seconds and 4 hours 45 minutes 30 seconds respectively.
A goal many runners aim for is to break certain time barriers. For example, recreational first - timers often try to run the marathon under four hours; more competitive runners may attempt to finish under three hours. Other benchmarks are the qualifying times for major marathons. The Boston Marathon, the oldest marathon in the United States, requires a qualifying time for all non-professional runners. The New York City Marathon also requires a qualifying time for guaranteed entry, at a significantly faster pace than Boston 's.
Typically, there is a maximum allowed time of about six hours after which the marathon route is closed, although some larger marathons keep the course open considerably longer (eight hours or more). Many marathons around the world have such time limits by which all runners must have crossed the finish line. Anyone slower than the limit will be picked up by a sweeper bus. In many cases the marathon organizers are required to reopen the roads to the public so that traffic can return to normal.
With the growth in popularity of marathoning, many marathons across the United States and the world have been filling to capacity faster than ever before. When the Boston Marathon opened up registration for its 2011 running, the field capacity was filled within eight hours.
The long run is an important element in marathon training. Recreational runners commonly try to reach a maximum of about 32 km (20 mi) in their longest weekly run and a total of about 64 km (40 mi) a week when training for the marathon, but wide variability exists in practice and in recommendations. More experienced marathoners may run a longer distance during the week. Greater weekly training mileages can offer greater results in terms of distance and endurance, but also carry a greater risk of training injury. Most male elite marathon runners will have weekly mileages of over 160 km (100 mi). It is recommended that those new to running should get a checkup from their doctor, as there are certain warning signs and risk factors that should be evaluated before undertaking any new workout program, especially marathon training.
Many training programs last a minimum of five or six months, with a gradual increase in the distance run and finally, for recovery, a period of tapering in the weeks preceding the race. For beginners wishing to merely finish a marathon, a minimum of four months of running four days a week is recommended. Many trainers recommend a weekly increase in mileage of no more than 10 %. It is also often advised to maintain a consistent running program for six weeks or so before beginning a marathon training program, to allow the body to adapt to the new stresses. The marathon training program itself would suppose variation between hard and easy training, with a periodization of the general plan.
Training programs can be found at the websites of Runner 's World, Hal Higdon, Jeff Galloway, and the Boston Athletic Association, and in numerous other published sources, including the websites of specific marathons.
The last long training run might be undertaken up to two weeks prior to the event. Many marathon runners also "carbo - load '' (increase carbohydrate intake while holding total caloric intake constant) during the week before the marathon to allow their bodies to store more glycogen.
Carbohydrates that a person eats are converted by the liver and muscles into glycogen for storage. Glycogen burns rapidly to provide quick energy. Runners can store about 8 MJ or 2,000 kcal worth of glycogen in their bodies, enough for about 30 km / 18 -- 20 miles of running. Many runners report that running becomes noticeably more difficult at that point. When glycogen runs low, the body must then obtain energy by burning stored fat, which does not burn as readily. When this happens, the runner will experience dramatic fatigue and is said to "hit the wall ''. The aim of training for the marathon, according to many coaches, is to maximize the limited glycogen available so that the fatigue of the "wall '' is not as dramatic. This is accomplished in part by utilizing a higher percentage of energy from burned fat even during the early phase of the race, thus conserving glycogen.
Carbohydrate - based "energy gels '' are used by runners to avoid or reduce the effect of "hitting the wall '', as they provide easy to digest energy during the run. Energy gels usually contain varying amounts of sodium and potassium and some also contain caffeine. They need to be consumed with a certain amount of water. Recommendations for how often to take an energy gel during the race range widely.
Alternatives to gels include various forms of concentrated sugars, and foods high in simple carbohydrates that can be digested easily. Many runners experiment with consuming energy supplements during training runs to determine what works best for them. Consumption of food while running sometimes makes the runner sick. Runners are advised not to ingest a new food or medicine just prior to or during a race. It is also important to refrain from taking any of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory class of pain relievers (NSAIDs, e.g., aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen), as these drugs may change the way the kidneys regulate their blood flow and may lead to serious kidney problems, especially in cases involving moderate to severe dehydration. NSAIDS block the COX - 2 enzyme pathway to prevent the production of prostaglandins. These prostaglandins may act as inflammation factors throughout the body, but they also play a crucial role in maintenance of water retention. In less than 5 % of the whole population that take NSAIDS, individuals may be more negatively sensitive to renal prostaglandin synthesis inhibition.
Marathon participation may result in various medical, musculoskeletal, and dermatological complaints. Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) is a common condition affecting runners during the first week following a marathon. Various types of mild exercise or massage have been recommended to alleviate pain secondary to DOMS. Dermatological issues frequently include "jogger 's nipple '', "jogger 's toe '', and blisters.
The immune system is reportedly suppressed for a short time. Changes to the blood chemistry may lead physicians to mistakenly diagnose heart malfunction.
After long training runs and the marathon itself, consuming carbohydrates to replace glycogen stores and protein to aid muscle recovery is commonly recommended. In addition, soaking the lower half of the body for approximately 20 minutes in cold or ice water may force blood through the leg muscles to speed recovery.
Marathon running has various health risks. Training and the races themselves put runners under stress. While rare, even death is a possibility during a race.
Common health risks include injury such as blisters, tendonitis, fatigue, knee or ankle sprain, dehydration (electrolyte imbalance), and other conditions. Many are categorised as overuse injuries.
In 2016, a systematic medical review found that the risk of sudden cardiac death during or immediately after a marathon was between 0.6 and 1.9 deaths per 100,000 participants, varying across the specific studies and the methods used, and not controlling for age or gender. Since the risk is small, cardiac screening programs for marathons are uncommon. However, this review was not an attempt to assess the overall cardiac health impact of marathon running.
A 2006 study of non-elite Boston Marathon participants tested runners for certain proteins that indicate heart damage or dysfunction (see Troponin) and gave them echocardiogram scans, before and after the marathon. The study revealed that, in that sample of 60 people, runners who had done less than 56 km (35 mi) of weekly training before the race were most likely to show some heart damage or dysfunction, while runners who had done more than 72 km (45 mi) of weekly training showed few or no heart problems.
According to a Canadian study presented in 2010, running a marathon can temporarily result in decreased function of more than half the muscle segments in the heart 's main pumping chamber, but neighboring segments are generally able to compensate. Full recovery is reached within one to three months. The fitter the runner, the less the effect. According to one of the researchers: "Regular exercise reduces cardiovascular risk by a factor of two or three in the long run, but while we 're doing vigorous exercise such as marathon running, our cardiac risk increases by seven. ''
Overconsumption is the most significant concern associated with water consumption during marathons. Drinking excessive amounts of fluid during a race can lead to dilution of sodium in the blood, a condition called exercise - associated hyponatremia, which may result in vomiting, seizures, coma and even death. Dr. Lewis G. Maharam, medical director for the New York City Marathon, stated in 2005: "There are no reported cases of dehydration causing death in the history of world running, but there are plenty of cases of people dying of hyponatremia. ''
For example, Dr. Cynthia Lucero died at the age of 28 while participating in the 2002 Boston Marathon. It was Lucero 's second marathon. At mile 22, Lucero complained of feeling "dehydrated and rubber - legged. '' She soon wobbled and collapsed to the ground, and was unconscious by the time the paramedics reached her. Lucero was admitted to Brigham and Women 's Hospital and died two days later.
Lucero 's cause of death was determined to be hyponatremic encephalopathy, a condition that causes swelling of the brain due to an imbalance of sodium in the blood known as exercise - associated hyponatremia (EAH). While EAH is sometimes referred to as "water intoxication, '' Lucero drank large amounts of Gatorade during the race, demonstrating that runners who consume sodium - containing sports drinks in excess of thirst can still develop EAH. Because hyponatremia is caused by excessive water retention, and not just loss of sodium, consumption of sports drinks or salty foods may not prevent hyponatremia.
Women are more prone to hyponatremia than men. A study in the New England Journal of Medicine found that 13 % of runners completing the 2002 Boston Marathon had hyponatremia.
Fluid intake should be adjusted individually as factors such as body weight, sex, climate, pace, fitness (VO max), and sweat rate are just a few variables that change fluid requirements between people and races. The International Marathon Medical Directors Association (IMMDA) advises that runners drink a sports drink that includes carbohydrates and electrolytes instead of plain water and that runners should "drink to thirst '' instead of feeling compelled to drink at every fluid station. Heat exposure leads to diminished thirst drive and thirst may not be a sufficient incentive to drink in many situations. The IMMDA and HSL Harpur Hill give recommendations to drink fluid in small volumes frequently at an approximate rate falling between 100 -- 250 ml (3.4 -- 8.5 US fl oz) every 15 minutes. A patient suffering hyponatremia can be given a small volume of a concentrated salt solution intravenously to raise sodium concentrations in the blood. Some runners weigh themselves before running and write the results on their bibs. If anything goes wrong, first aid workers can use the weight information to tell if the patient had consumed too much water.
Exertional heat stroke is an emergency condition in which thermoregulation fails and the body temperature rises dangerously above 104 ° F (40 ° C). It becomes a greater risk in warm and humid weather, even for young and fit individuals. Treatment requires rapid physical cooling of the body.
Some charities seek to associate with various races. Some marathon organizers set aside a portion their limited entry slots for charity organizations to sell to members in exchange for donations. Runners are given the option to sign up to run particular races, especially when marathon entries are no longer available to the general public.
In some cases, charities organize their own marathon as a fund - raiser (gaining funds via entry fees or through sponsorships).
In 2015 the Mars rover Opportunity attained the distance of a marathon from its starting location on Mars, and the valley where it achieved this distance was called Marathon Valley, which was then explored.
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how many gum trees are there in australia | Eucalyptus - wikipedia
Aromadendron Andrews ex Steud. Eucalypton St. - Lag. Eudesmia R.Br. Symphyomyrtus Schauer
Eucalyptus / ˌjuːkəˈlɪptəs / L'Héritier 1789 (plural eucalypti, eucalyptuses or eucalypts) is a diverse genus of flowering trees and shrubs (including a distinct group with a multiple - stem mallee growth habit) in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. Members of the genus dominate the tree flora of Australia, and include Eucalyptus regnans, the tallest known flowering plant on Earth. Australia is covered by 92,000,000 hectares (227,336,951 acres) of eucalypt forest, comprising three quarters of the area covered by native forest.
There are more than 700 species of eucalyptus and most are native to Australia; a very small number are found in adjacent areas of New Guinea and Indonesia. One species, Eucalyptus deglupta, ranges as far north as the Philippines. Of the 15 species found outside Australia, just nine are exclusively non-Australian. Species of eucalyptus are cultivated widely in the tropical and temperate world, including the Americas, Europe, Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East, China, and the Indian subcontinent. However, the range over which many eucalypts can be planted in the temperate zone is constrained by their limited cold tolerance.
Eucalyptus is one of three similar genera that are commonly referred to as "eucalypts '', the others being Corymbia and Angophora. Many species, though by no means all, are known as gum trees because they exude copious kino from any break in the bark (e.g., scribbly gum). The generic name is derived from the Greek words ευ (eu) "well '' and καλύπτω (kalýpto) "to cover '', referring to the operculum on the calyx that initially conceals the flower.
Some eucalyptus species have attracted attention from horticulturists, global development researchers, and environmentalists because of desirable traits such as being fast - growing sources of wood, producing oil that can be used for cleaning and as a natural insecticide, or an ability to be used to drain swamps and thereby reduce the risk of malaria. Eucalyptus oil finds many uses like in fuels, fragrances, insect repellance and antimicrobial activity. Eucalyptus trees show allelopathic effects; they release compounds which inhibit other plant species from growing nearby. Outside their natural ranges, eucalypts are both lauded for their beneficial economic impact on poor populations and criticised for being "water - guzzling '' aliens, leading to controversy over their total impact.
On warm days, eucalyptus forests are sometimes shrouded in a smog - like mist of vaporised volatile organic compounds (terpenoids); the Australian Blue Mountains take their name from the haze.
A mature eucalyptus may take the form of a low shrub or a very large tree. The species can be divided into three main habits and four size categories.
As a generalisation "forest trees '' are single - stemmed and have a crown forming a minor proportion of the whole tree height. "Woodland trees '' are single - stemmed, although they may branch at a short distance above ground level.
"Mallees '' are multistemmed from ground level, usually less than 10 m (33 ft) in height, often with the crown predominantly at the ends of the branchlets and individual plants may combine to form either an open or closed formation. Many mallee trees may be so low - growing as to be considered a shrub.
Two other tree forms are notable in Western Australia and described using the native names "mallet '' and "marlock ''. The "mallet '' is a small to medium - sized tree that does not produce lignotubers and has a relatively long trunk, a steeply branching habit and often a conspicuously dense terminal crown. This is the normal habit of mature healthy specimens of Eucalyptus occidentalis, E. astringens, E. spathulata, E. gardneri, E. dielsii, E. forrestiana, E. salubris, E. clivicola, and E. ornata. The smooth bark of mallets often has a satiny sheen and may be white, cream, grey, green, or copper.
The term marlock has been variously used; in Forest Trees of Australia, it is defined as a small tree without lignotubers, but with a shorter, lower - branching trunk than a mallet. They usually grow in more or less pure stands. Clearly recognisable examples are stands of E. platypus, E. vesiculosa, and the unrelated E. stoatei.
The term "morrell '' is somewhat obscure in origin and appears to apply to trees of the western Australian wheatbelt and goldfields which have a long, straight trunk, completely rough - barked. It is now used mainly for E. longicornis (red morrell) and E. melanoxylon (black morrell).
Tree sizes follow the convention of:
Nearly all eucalyptus are evergreen, but some tropical species lose their leaves at the end of the dry season. As in other members of the myrtle family, eucalyptus leaves are covered with oil glands. The copious oils produced are an important feature of the genus. Although mature eucalyptus trees may be towering and fully leafed, their shade is characteristically patchy because the leaves usually hang downwards.
The leaves on a mature eucalyptus plant are commonly lanceolate, petiolate, apparently alternate and waxy or glossy green. In contrast, the leaves of seedlings are often opposite, sessile and glaucous, but many exceptions to this pattern exist. Many species such as E. melanophloia and E. setosa retain the juvenile leaf form even when the plant is reproductively mature. Some species, such as E. macrocarpa, E. rhodantha, and E. crucis, are sought - after ornamentals due to this lifelong juvenile leaf form. A few species, such as E. petraea, E. dundasii, and E. lansdowneana, have shiny green leaves throughout their life cycle. E. caesia exhibits the opposite pattern of leaf development to most eucalyptus, with shiny green leaves in the seedling stage and dull, glaucous leaves in mature crowns. The contrast between juvenile and adult leaf phases is valuable in field identification.
Four leaf phases are recognised in the development of a eucalyptus plant: the ' seedling ', ' juvenile ', ' intermediate ', and ' adult ' phases. However, no definite transitional point occurs between the phases. The intermediate phase, when the largest leaves are often formed, links the juvenile and adult phases.
In all except a few species, the leaves form in pairs on opposite sides of a square stem, consecutive pairs being at right angles to each other (decussate). In some narrow - leaved species, for example E. oleosa, the seedling leaves after the second leaf pair are often clustered in a detectable spiral arrangement about a five - sided stem. After the spiral phase, which may last from several to many nodes, the arrangement reverts to decussate by the absorption of some of the leaf - bearing faces of the stem. In those species with opposite adult foliage the leaf pairs, which have been formed opposite at the stem apex, become separated at their bases by unequal elongation of the stem to produce the apparently alternate adult leaves.
The most readily recognisable characteristics of eucalyptus species are the distinctive flowers and fruit (capsules or "gumnuts ''). Flowers have numerous fluffy stamens which may be white, cream, yellow, pink, or red; in bud, the stamens are enclosed in a cap known as an operculum which is composed of the fused sepals or petals, or both. Thus, flowers have no petals, but instead decorate themselves with the many showy stamens. As the stamens expand, the operculum is forced off, splitting away from the cup - like base of the flower; this is one of the features that unites the genus. The name Eucalyptus, from the Greek words eu -, well, and kaluptos, cover, meaning "well - covered '', describes the operculum. The woody fruits or capsules are roughly cone - shaped and have valves at the end which open to release the seeds, which are waxy, rod - shaped, about 1 mm in length, and yellow - brown in colour. Most species do not flower until adult foliage starts to appear; E. cinerea and E. perriniana are notable exceptions.
The appearance of eucalyptus bark varies with the age of the plant, the manner of bark shed, the length of the bark fibres, the degree of furrowing, the thickness, the hardness, and the colour. All mature eucalypts put on an annual layer of bark, which contributes to the increasing diameter of the stems. In some species, the outermost layer dies and is annually deciduous, either in long strips (as in E. sheathiana) or in variably sized flakes (E. diversicolor, E. cosmophylla, or E. cladocalyx). These are the gums or smooth - barked species. The gum bark may be dull, shiny, or satiny (as in E. ornata) or matte (E. cosmophylla). In many species, the dead bark is retained. Its outermost layer gradually fragments with weathering and sheds without altering the essentially rough - barked nature of the trunks or stems -- for example E. marginata, E. jacksonii, E. obliqua, and E. porosa.
E. globulus bark cells are able to photosynthesize in the absence of foliage, conferring an "increased capacity to re-fix internal CO2 following partial defoliation ''. This allows the tree to grow in less - than - ideal climates, in addition to providing a better chance of recovery from damage sustained to its leaves in an event such as a fire.
Many species are ' half - barks ' or ' blackbutts ' in which the dead bark is retained in the lower half of the trunks or stems -- for example, E. brachycalyx, E. ochrophloia, and E. occidentalis -- or only in a thick, black accumulation at the base, as in E. clelandii. In some species in this category, for example E. youngiana and E. viminalis, the rough basal bark is very ribbony at the top, where it gives way to the smooth upper stems. The smooth upper bark of the half - barks and that of the completely smooth - barked trees and mallees can produce remarkable colour and interest, for example E. deglupta.
Different commonly recognised types of bark include:
The oldest definitive Eucalyptus fossils are surprisingly from South America, where eucalypts are no longer endemic, though have been introduced from Australia. The fossils are from the early Eocene (51.9 Mya), and were found in the Laguna del Hunco deposit in Chubut province in Argentina. This shows that the genus had a Gondwanan distribution. Fossil leaves also occur in the Miocene of New Zealand, where the genus is not native today, but again have been introduced from Australia.
Despite the prominence of Eucalyptus in modern Australia, estimated to contribute some 75 % of the modern vegetation, the fossil record is very scarce throughout much of the Cenozoic, and suggests that this rise to dominance is a geologically more recent phenomenon. The oldest reliably dated macrofossil of Eucalyptus is a 21 - million - year - old tree - stump encased in basalt in the upper Lachlan Valley in New South Wales. Other fossils have been found, but many are either unreliably dated or else unreliably identified.
It is useful to consider where Eucalyptus fossils have not been found. Extensive research has gone into the fossil floras of the Paleocene to Oligocene of South - Eastern Australia, and has failed to uncover a single Eucalyptus specimen. Although the evidence is sparse, the best hypothesis is that in the mid-Tertiary, the contintental margins of Australia only supported more mesic noneucalypt vegetation, and that eucalypts probably contributed to the drier vegetation of the arid continental interior. With the progressive drying out of the continent since the Miocene, eucalypts were displaced to the continental margins, and much of the mesic and rainforest vegetation that was once there was eliminated entirely.
The current superdominance of Eucalyptus in Australia may be an artefact of human influence on its ecology. In more recent sediments, numerous findings of a dramatic increase in the abundance of Eucalyptus pollen are associated with increased charcoal levels. Though this occurs at different rates throughout Australia, it is compelling evidence for a relationship between the artificial increase of fire frequency with the arrival of Aboriginals and increased prevalence of this exceptionally fire - tolerant genus.
Over 700 species of Eucalyptus are known; refer to the List of Eucalyptus species for a comprehensive list of species. Some have diverged from the mainstream of the genus to the extent that they are quite isolated genetically and are able to be recognised by only a few relatively invariant characteristics. Most, however, may be regarded as belonging to large or small groups of related species, which are often in geographical contact with each other and between which gene exchange still occurs. In these situations, many species appear to grade into one another, and intermediate forms are common. In other words, some species are relatively fixed genetically, as expressed in their morphology, while others have not diverged completely from their nearest relatives.
Hybrid individuals have not always been recognised as such on first collection and some have been named as new species, such as E. chrysantha (E. preissiana × E. sepulcralis) and E. "rivalis '' (E. marginata × E. megacarpa). Hybrid combinations are not particularly common in the field, but some other published species frequently seen in Australia have been suggested to be hybrid combinations. For example, E. erythrandra is believed to be E. angulosa × E. teraptera and due to its wide distribution is often referred to in texts.
Renantherin, a phenolic compound present in the leaves of some eucalyptus species, allows chemotaxonomic discrimination in the sections renantheroideae and renantherae and the ratio of the amount of leucoanthocyanins varies considerably in certain species.
A small genus of similar trees, Angophora, has also been known since the 18th century. In 1995 new evidence, largely genetic, indicated that some prominent eucalyptus species were actually more closely related to Angophora than to the other eucalypts; they were split off into the new genus Corymbia. Although separate, the three groups are allied and it remains acceptable to refer to the members of all three genera, Angophora, Corymbia and Eucalyptus, as "eucalypts ''.
Several eucalypt species are among the tallest trees in the world. Eucalyptus regnans, the Australian ' mountain ash ', is the tallest of all flowering plants (angiosperms); today, the tallest measured specimen named Centurion is 99.6 m (327 ft) tall. Coast Douglas - fir is about the same height; only coast redwood is taller, and they are conifers (gymnosperms). Six other eucalypt species exceed 80 metres in height: Eucalyptus obliqua, Eucalyptus delegatensis, Eucalyptus diversicolor, Eucalyptus nitens, Eucalyptus globulus and Eucalyptus viminalis.
Most eucalypts are not tolerant of severe cold. Whilst in a wide range of climates mild frost is experienced by eucalypts, they in general only tolerate light frosts down to − 5 ° C (23 ° F); the hardiest are the snow gums, such as Eucalyptus pauciflora, which is capable of withstanding cold and frost down to about − 20 ° C (− 4 ° F). Two subspecies, E. pauciflora subsp. niphophila and E. pauciflora subsp. debeuzevillei in particular are even hardier and can tolerate even quite severe winters. Several other species, especially from the high plateau and mountains of central Tasmania such as Eucalyptus coccifera, Eucalyptus subcrenulata and Eucalyptus gunnii, have also produced extreme cold - hardy forms and it is seed procured from these genetically hardy strains that are planted for ornament in colder parts of the world.
An essential oil extracted from eucalyptus leaves contains compounds that are powerful natural disinfectants and can be toxic in large quantities. Several marsupial herbivores, notably koalas and some possums, are relatively tolerant of it. The close correlation of these oils with other more potent toxins called formylated phloroglucinol compounds (euglobals, macrocarpals and sideroxylonals) allows koalas and other marsupial species to make food choices based on the smell of the leaves. For koalas, these compounds are the most important factor in leaf choice.
Eucalyptus flowers produce a great abundance of nectar, providing food for many pollinators including insects, birds, bats and possums. Although eucalyptus trees are seemingly well - defended from herbivores by the oils and phenolic compounds, they have insect pests. These include the eucalyptus longhorn borer Phoracantha semipunctata and the aphid - like psyllids known as "bell lerps '', both of which have become established as pests throughout the world wherever eucalypts are cultivated.
The eusocial beetle Austroplatypus incompertus makes and defends its galleries exclusively inside Eucalyptus plants.
The trunks and branches of the eucalyptus tree allow the largest known moth, Zelotypia stacyi (the bentwing ghost moth, having a wingspan up to 250 mm) to feed and protect their larva and pupa, respectively.
Eucalypts originated between 35 and 50 million years ago, not long after Australia - New Guinea separated from Gondwana, their rise coinciding with an increase in fossil charcoal deposits (suggesting that fire was a factor even then), but they remained a minor component of the Tertiary rainforest until about 20 million years ago, when the gradual drying of the continent and depletion of soil nutrients led to the development of a more open forest type, predominantly Casuarina and Acacia species.
The aridification of Australia during the mid-tertiary period (25 - 40 million years ago), combined with the annual penetration of tropical convection storms, and associated lightning, deep into the continental interior stimulated the gradual evolution, diversification and geographic expansion of the flammable biota. The absence of great rivers or mountain chains meant that there were no geographic barriers to check the spread of fires. From the monsoonal ' cradle ', fire - promoting species expanded into higher rainfall environments, where lightning was less frequent, gradually displacing the Gondwanan rainforest from all but the most fire - sheltered habitats.
The two valuable timber trees, alpine ash E. delegatensis and Australian mountain ash E. regnans, are killed by fire and only regenerate from seed. The same 2003 bushfire that had little impact on forests around Canberra resulted in thousands of hectares of dead ash forests. However, a small amount of ash survived and put out new ash trees as well. There has been some debate as to whether to leave the stands or attempt to harvest the mostly undamaged timber, which is increasingly recognised as a damaging practice.
The two most common hazards of eucalyptus species to people are fire and falling branches.
Eucalyptus oil is highly flammable; ignited trees have been known to explode. Bushfires can travel easily through the oil - rich air of the tree crowns. Eucalypts obtain long - term fire survivability from their ability to regenerate from epicormic buds situated deep within their thick bark, or from lignotubers, or by producing serotinous fruits.
In seasonally dry climates oaks are often fire - resistant, particularly in open grasslands, as a grass fire is insufficient to ignite the scattered trees. In contrast, a eucalyptus forest tends to promote fire because of the volatile and highly combustible oils produced by the leaves, as well as the production of large amounts of litter high in phenolics, preventing its breakdown by fungi and thus accumulating as large amounts of dry, combustible fuel. Consequently, dense eucalypt plantings may be subject to catastrophic firestorms. In fact, almost thirty years before the Oakland firestorm of 1991, a study of eucalyptus in the area warned that the litter beneath the trees builds up very rapidly and should be regularly monitored and removed. It has been estimated that 70 % of the energy released through the combustion of vegetation in the Oakland fire was due to eucalyptus. In a National Park Service study, it was found that the fuel load (in tons per acre) of non-native eucalyptus woods is almost three times as great as native oak woodland.
Some species of gum trees drop branches unexpectedly. In Australia, Parks Victoria warns campers not to camp under river red gums. Some councils in Australia such as Gosnells, Western Australia, have removed eucalypts after reports of damage from dropped branches, even in the face of lengthy, well publicised protests to protect particular trees. A former Australian National Botanic Gardens director and consulting arborist, Robert Boden, has been quoted referring to "summer branch drop ''. Dropping of branches is recognised in Australia literature through the fictional death of Judy in Seven Little Australians. Although all large trees can drop branches, the density of eucalyptus wood is high due to its high resin content, increasing the hazard.
Eucalypts were introduced from Australia to the rest of the world following the Cook expedition in 1770. Collected by Sir Joseph Banks, botanist on the expedition, they were subsequently introduced to many parts of the world, notably California, Brazil, Ecuador, Colombia, Ethiopia, Morocco, Portugal, South Africa, Uganda, Israel - Palestine, Galicia and Chile. On the order of 250 species are under cultivation in California. In Portugal and also Spain, eucalypts have been planted in plantations for the production of pulpwood. Eucalyptus are the basis for several industries, such as sawmilling, pulp, charcoal and others. Several species have become invasive and are causing major problems for local ecosystems, mainly due to the absence of wildlife corridors and rotations management. Eucalypts have many uses which have made them economically important trees, and have become a cash crop in poor areas such as Timbuktu, Africa and the Peruvian Andes, despite concerns that the trees are invasive in some countries like South Africa. Best - known are perhaps the varieties karri and yellow box. Due to their fast growth, the foremost benefit of these trees is their wood. They can be chopped off at the root and grow back again. They provide many desirable characteristics for use as ornament, timber, firewood and pulpwood. It is also used in a number of industries, from fence posts and charcoal to cellulose extraction for biofuels. Fast growth also makes eucalypts suitable as windbreaks and to reduce erosion.
Eucalypts draw a tremendous amount of water from the soil through the process of transpiration. They have been planted (or re-planted) in some places to lower the water table and reduce soil salination. Eucalypts have also been used as a way of reducing malaria by draining the soil in Algeria, Lebanon, Sicily, elsewhere in Europe, in Caucasus (Western Georgia), and California. Drainage removes swamps which provide a habitat for mosquito larvae, but can also destroy ecologically productive areas. This drainage is not limited to the soil surface, because the eucalyptus roots are up to 2.5 m (8.2 ft) in length and can, depending on the location, even reach the phreatic zone.
Eucalyptus is the most common short fibre source for pulpwood to make pulp. The types most often used in papermaking are Eucalyptus globulus (in temperate areas) and the Eucalyptus urophylla x Eucalyptus grandis hybrid (in the tropics). The fibre length of Eucalyptus is relatively short and uniform with low coarseness compared with other hardwoods commonly used as pulpwood. The fibres are slender, yet relatively thick walled. This gives uniform paper formation and high opacity that are important for all types of fine papers. The low coarseness is important for high quality coated papers. Eucalyptus is suitable for many tissue papers as the short and slender fibres gives a high number of fibres per gram and low coarseness contributes to softness.
Eucalyptus oil is readily steam distilled from the leaves and can be used for cleaning and as an industrial solvent, as an antiseptic, for deodorising, and in very small quantities in food supplements, especially sweets, cough drops, toothpaste and decongestants. It has insect repellent properties (Jahn 1991 a, b; 1992), and is an active ingredient in some commercial mosquito repellents (Fradin & Day 2002). Eucalyptus globulus is the principal source of eucalyptus oil worldwide.
The nectar of some eucalypts produces high - quality monofloral honey.
Eucalypt wood is also commonly used to make didgeridoos, a traditional Australian Aboriginal wind instrument. The trunk of the tree is hollowed out by termites, and then cut down if the bore is of the correct size and shape.
All parts of Eucalyptus may be used to make dyes that are substantive on protein fibres (such as silk and wool), simply by processing the plant part with water. Colours to be achieved range from yellow and orange through green, tan, chocolate and deep rust red. The material remaining after processing can be safely used as mulch or fertiliser.
Eucalyptus trees in the Australian outback draw up gold from tens of metres underground through their root system and deposit it as particles in their leaves and branches. A Maia detector for x-ray elemental imaging at the Australian Synchrotron clearly showed deposits of gold and other metals in the structure of eucalyptus leaves from the Kalgoorlie region of Western Australia that would have been untraceable using other methods. The microscopic leaf - bound "nuggets '' are not worth collecting themselves, but may provide an environmentally benign way of locating subsurface mineral deposits.
In the 20th century, scientists around the world experimented with eucalyptus species. They hoped to grow them in the tropics, but most experimental results failed until breakthroughs in the 1960s - 1980s in species selection, silviculture, and breeding programs "unlocked '' the potential of eucalypts in the tropics. Prior to then, as Brett Bennett noted in a 2010 article, eucalypts were something of the "El Dorado '' of forestry. Today, eucalyptus is the most widely planted type of tree in plantations around the world, in South America (mainly in Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay), South Africa, Australia, India, Galicia, Portugal and many more.
In the 1850s, Eucalyptus trees were introduced to California by Australians during the California Gold Rush. Much of California has a similar climate to parts of Australia. By the early 1900s, thousands of acres of eucalypts were planted with the encouragement of the state government. It was hoped that they would provide a renewable source of timber for construction, furniture making and railroad ties. It was soon found that for the latter purpose eucalyptus was particularly unsuitable, as the ties made from eucalyptus had a tendency to twist while drying, and the dried ties were so tough that it was nearly impossible to hammer rail spikes into them.
They went on to note that the promise of eucalyptus in California was based on the old virgin forests of Australia. This was a mistake, as the young trees being harvested in California could not compare in quality to the centuries - old eucalyptus timber of Australia. It reacted differently to harvest. The older trees did n't split or warp as the infant California crop did. There was a vast difference between the two, and this would doom the California eucalyptus industry.
One way in which the eucalyptus, mainly the blue gum E. globulus, proved valuable in California was in providing windbreaks for highways, orange groves, and farms in the mostly treeless central part of the state. They are also admired as shade and ornamental trees in many cities and gardens.
Eucalyptus plantations in California have been criticised, because they compete with native plants and do not support native animals. Fire is also a problem. The 1991 Oakland Hills firestorm, which destroyed almost 3,000 homes and killed 25 people, was partly fuelled by large numbers of eucalypts close to the houses.
In some parts of California, eucalypt plantations are being removed and native trees and plants restored. Individuals have also illegally destroyed some trees and are suspected of introducing insect pests from Australia which attack the trees.
Certain eucalyptus species may also be grown for ornament in warmer parts of the Pacific Northwest -- western Washington, western Oregon and southwestern British Columbia.
Antonio Lussich introduced Eucalyptus into Uruguay in approximately 1896, throughout what is now Maldonado Department, and it has spread all over the south - eastern and eastern coast. There had been no trees in the area because it consisted of dry sand dunes and stones. Lussich also introduced many other trees, particularly Acacia and pines, but they have not expanded so extensively.
Uruguayan forestry crops using eucalyptus species have been promoted since 1989, when the new National Forestry Law established that 20 % of the national territory would be dedicated to forestry. As the main landscape of Uruguay is grassland (140,000 km, 87 % of the national territory), most of the forestry plantations would be established in prairie regions. The planting of Eucalyptus sp. has been criticised because of concerns that soil would be degraded by nutrient depletion and other biological changes. During the last ten years, in the northwestern regions of Uruguay the Eucalyptus sp. plantations have reached annual forestation rates of 300 %. That zone has a potential forested area of 1,000,000 hectares, approximately 29 % of the national territory dedicated to forestry, of which approximately 800,000 hectares are currently forested by monoculture of Eucalyptus spp. It is expected that the radical and durable substitution of vegetation cover leads to changes in the quantity and quality of soil organic matter. Such changes may also influence soil fertility and soil physical and chemical properties. The soil quality effects associated with Eucalyptus sp. plantations could have adverse effects on soil chemistry; for example: soil acidification, iron leaching, allelopathic activities and a high C: N ratio of litter. Additionally, as most scientific understanding of land cover change effects is related to ecosystems where forests were replaced by grasslands or crops, or grassland was replaced by crops, the environmental effects of the current Uruguayan land cover changes are not well understood. The first scientific publication on soil studies in western zone tree plantations (focused on pulp production) appeared in 2004 and described soil acidification and soil carbon changes, similar to a podzolisation process, and destruction of clay (illite - like minerals), which is the main reservoir of potassium in the soil. Although these studies were carried out in an important zone for forest cultivation, they can not define the current situation in the rest of the land area under eucalyptus cultivation. Moreover, recently Jackson and Jobbagy have proposed another adverse environmental impact that may result from Eucalyptus culture on prairie soils -- stream acidification.
The eucalyptus species most planted are E. grandis, E. globulus and E. dunnii; they are used mainly for pulp mills. Approximately 80,000 ha of E. grandis situated in the departments of Rivera, Tacuarembó and Paysandú is primarily earmarked for the solid wood market, although a portion of it is used for sawlogs and plywood. The current area under commercial forest plantation is 6 % of the total. The main uses of the wood produced are elemental chlorine free pulp mill production (for cellulose and paper), sawlogs, plywood and bioenergy (thermoelectric generation). Most of the products obtained from sawmills and pulp mills, as well as plywood and logs, are exported. This has raised the income of this sector with respect to traditional products from other sectors. Uruguayan forestry plantations have rates of growth of 30 cubic metres per hectare per year and commercial harvesting occurs after nine years.
Eucalypts were introduced to Brazil in 1910, for timber substitution and the charcoal industry. It has thrived in the local environment, and today there are around 7 million hectares planted. The wood is highly valued by the charcoal and pulp and paper industries. The short rotation allows a larger wood production and supplies wood for several other activities, helping to preserve the native forests from logging. When well managed, the plantation soils can sustain endless replanting. Eucalyptus plantings are also used as wind breaks. Brazil 's plantations have world - record rates of growth, typically over 40 cubic metres per hectare per year, and commercial harvesting occurs after years 5. Due to continual development and governmental funding, year - on - year growth is consistently being improved. Eucalyptus can produce up to 100 cubic metres per hectare per year. Brazil has become the top exporter and producer of Eucalyptus round wood and pulp, and has played an important role in developing the Australian market through the country 's committed research in this area. The local iron producers in Brazil rely heavily on sustainably grown Eucalyptus for charcoal; this has greatly pushed up the price of charcoal in recent years. The plantations are generally owned and operated for national and international industry by timber asset companies such as Thomson Forestry, Greenwood Management or cellulose producers such as Aracruz Cellulose and Stora Enso.
Overall, South America was expected to produce 55 % of the world 's Eucalyptus round - wood by 2010. Many environmental NGOs have criticised the use of exotic tree species for forestry in Latin America.
Ethiopia. Eucalypts were introduced to Ethiopia in either 1894 or 1895, either by Emperor Menelik II 's French advisor Mondon - Vidailhet or by the Englishman Captain O'Brian. Menelik II endorsed its planting around his new capital city of Addis Ababa because of the massive deforestation around the city for firewood. According to Richard R.K. Pankhurst, "The great advantage of the eucalypts was that they were fast growing, required little attention and when cut down grew up again from the roots; it could be harvested every ten years. The tree proved successful from the onset ''. Plantations of eucalypts spread from the capital to other growing urban centres such as Debre Marqos. Pankhurst reports that the most common species found in Addis Ababa in the mid-1960s was E. globulus, although he also found E. melliodora and E. rostrata in significant numbers. David Buxton, writing of central Ethiopia in the mid-1940s, observed that eucalyptus trees "have become an integral -- and a pleasing -- element in the Shoan landscape and has largely displaced the slow - growing native ' cedar ' Juniperus procera). ''
It was commonly believed that the thirst of the Eucalyptus "tended to dry up rivers and wells '', creating such opposition to the species that in 1913 a proclamation was issued ordering a partial destruction of all standing trees, and their replacement with mulberry trees. Pankhurst reports, "The proclamation however remained a dead letter; there is no evidence of eucalypts being uprooted, still less of mulberry trees being planted. '' Eucalypts remain a defining feature of Addis Ababa.
Madagascar. Much of Madagascar 's original native forest has been replaced with Eucalyptus, threatening biodiversity by isolating remaining natural areas such as Andasibe - Mantadia National Park.
South Africa. Numerous Eucalyptus species have been introduced into South Africa, mainly for timber and firewood but also for ornamental purposes. They are popular with beekeepers for the honey they provide. However, in South Africa they are considered invasive, with their water - sucking capabilities threatening water supplies. They also release a chemical into the surrounding soil which kills native competitors.
Eucalyptus seedlings are usually unable to compete with the indigenous grasses, but after a fire when the grass cover has been removed, a seed - bed may be created. The following Eucalyptus species have been able to become naturalised in South Africa: E. camaldulensis, E. cladocalyx, E. diversicolor, E. grandis and E. lehmannii.
Zimbabwe. As in South Africa, many Eucalyptus species have been introduced into Zimbabwe, mainly for timber and firewood, and E. robusta and E. tereticornis have been recorded as having become naturalised there.
In continental Portugal, the Azores and continental Spain (especially in Cantabria, Biscay, Asturias and Galicia in the north, and Huelva in Andalusia) farmland has been replaced with eucalypt plantations since their introduction by Rosendo Salvado in the 19th century.
In Italy, the eucalyptus only arrived at the turn of the 19th century and large scale plantations were started at the beginning of the 20th century with the aim of drying up swampy ground to defeat malaria. This, their rapid growth in the Italian climate and excellent function as windbreaks, has made them a common sight in the south of the country, including the islands of Sardinia and Sicily. They are also valued for the characteristic smelling and tasting honey that is produced from them. The variety of eucalyptus most commonly found in Italy is E. camaldulensis.
In Greece, eucalypts are widely found, especially in southern Greece and Crete. They are cultivated and used for various purposes, including as an ingredient in pharmaceutical products (e.g., creams, elixirs and sprays) and for leather production. They were imported in 1862 by botanist Theodoros Georgios Orphanides. The principal species is Eucalyptus globulus.
Eucalyptus has been grown in Ireland since trials in the 1930s and now grows wild in South Western Ireland in the mild climate.
Eucalyptus seeds of the species E. globulus were imported into Palestine in the 1860s, but did not acclimatise well. Later, E. camaldulensis was introduced more successfully and it is still a very common tree in Israel. The use of eucalyptus trees to drain swampy land was a common practice in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The German Templer colony of Sarona had begun planting eucalyptus for this purpose by 1874, though it is not known where the seeds came from. Many Zionist colonies also adopted the practice in the following years under the guidance of the Mikveh Israel Agricultural School.
In India, the Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding, Coimbatore started a eucalyptus breeding program in the 1990s. The organisation released four varieties of conventionally bred, high yielding and genetically improved clones for commercial and research interests in 2010.
Eucalyptus trees were introduced to Sri Lanka in the late 19th century by tea and coffee planters, for wind protection, shade and fuel. Forestry replanting of eucalyptus began in the 1930s in deforested mountain areas, and currently there are about 10 species present in the island. They account for 20 % of major reforestation plantings. They provide railway sleepers, utility poles, sawn timber and fuelwood, but are controversial because of their adverse effect on biodiversity, hydrology and soil fertility. They are associated with another invasive species, the eucalyptus gall wasp, Leptocybe invasa.
Hawaii Some 90 species of eucalyptus have been introduced to the islands, where they have displaced some native species due to their higher maximum height, fast growth and lower water needs. Particularly noticeable is the rainbow eucalyptus (Eucalyptus deglupta), native to Indonesia and the Philippines, whose bark falls off to reveal a trunk that can be green, red, orange, yellow, pink and purple.
Due to similar favourable climatic conditions, Eucalyptus plantations have often replaced oak woodlands, for example in California, Spain and Portugal. The resulting monocultures have raised concerns about loss of biological diversity, through loss of acorns that mammals and birds feed on, absence of hollows that in oak trees provide shelter and nesting sites for birds and small mammals and for bee colonies, as well as lack of downed trees in managed plantations. A study of the relationship between birds and eucalyptus in the San Francisco Bay Area found that bird diversity was similar in native forest vs. eucalyptus forest but the species were different. One way in which the avifauna changes is that cavity nesting birds including woodpeckers, owls, chickadees, wood ducks, etc. are depauperate in eucalyptus groves because the decay - resistant wood of these trees prevents cavity formation by decay or excavation. Also those bird species that glean insects from foliage, such as warblers and vireos, have population declines when eucalyptus replace oak forest. Birds that do well in eucalyptus groves in California like tall vertical habitat like herons and egrets (possibly because redwood trees are less available), or have longer bills, which may play a role in preventing their nostrils from being clogged by eucalyptus resin / pitch. The Point Reyes Bird Observatory observes that sometimes short - billed birds like the ruby - crowned kinglet are found dead beneath eucalyptus trees with their nostrils clogged with pitch.
Monarch butterflies use eucalyptus in California for over-wintering, but in some locations have a preference for Monterey pines.
Although eucalypts must have been seen by the very early European explorers and collectors, no botanical collections of them are known to have been made until 1770 when Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander arrived at Botany Bay with Captain James Cook. There they collected specimens of E. gummifera and later, near the Endeavour River in northern Queensland, E. platyphylla; neither of these species was named as such at the time.
In 1777, on Cook 's third expedition, David Nelson collected a eucalypt on Bruny Island in southern Tasmania. This specimen was taken to the British Museum in London, and was named Eucalyptus obliqua by the French botanist L'Héritier, who was working in London at the time. He coined the generic name from the Greek roots eu and calyptos, meaning "well '' and "covered '' in reference to the operculum of the flower bud which protects the developing flower parts as the flower develops and is shed by the pressure of the emerging stamens at flowering. It was most likely an accident that L'Héritier chose a feature common to all eucalypts.
The name obliqua was derived from the Latin obliquus, meaning "oblique '', which is the botanical term describing a leaf base where the two sides of the leaf blade are of unequal length and do not meet the petiole at the same place.
E. obliqua was published in 1788 - 89, which coincided with the first official European settlement of Australia. Between then and the turn of the 19th century, several more species of Eucalyptus were named and published. Most of these were by the English botanist James Edward Smith and most were, as might be expected, trees of the Sydney region. These include the economically valuable E. pilularis, E. saligna and E. tereticornis.
The first endemic Western Australian Eucalyptus to be collected and subsequently named was the Yate (E. cornuta) by the French botanist Jacques Labillardière, who collected in what is now the Esperance area in 1792.
Several Australian botanists were active during the 19th century, particularly Ferdinand von Mueller, whose work on eucalypts contributed greatly to the first comprehensive account of the genus in George Bentham 's Flora Australiensis in 1867. The account is the most important early systematic treatment of the genus. Bentham divided it into five series whose distinctions were based on characteristics of the stamens, particularly the anthers (Mueller, 1879 -- 84), work elaborated by Joseph Henry Maiden (1903 -- 33) and still further by William Faris Blakely (1934). The anther system became too complex to be workable and more recent systematic work has concentrated on the characteristics of buds, fruits, leaves and bark.
Eucalyptus sideroxylon, showing fruit (capsules) and buds with operculum present.
Eucalyptus forest in East Gippsland, Victoria. Mostly E. albens (white box).
Eucalyptus forest in East Gippsland, Victoria. Mostly E. albens (white box).
Eucalyptus forest in East Gippsland, Victoria. Mostly E. albens (white box).
A Eucalyptus tree with the sun shining through its branches.
Eucalyptus bridgesiana (Apple box) on Red Hill, Australian Capital Territory.
Eucalyptus gunnii planted in southern England. The lower part of the trunk is covered in ivy.
Eucalyptus cinerea x pulverulenta - National Botanical Gardens Canberra
Eucalyptus gall
Eucalyptus grandis. Province of Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Eucalyptus plantation near Viveiro, in Galicia in Northwest Spain. Mostly E. globulus
A snow gum (E. pauciflora), in winter in the Australian Alps
Eucalyptus rubida (candlebark gum) in Burra, New South Wales.
Sydney blue gums west of Port Macquarie, New South Wales
Eucalyptus chapmaniana (bogong gum) in Kew Gardens, London
Eucalyptus regnans trees in Sherbrooke Forest, Victoria
Eucalyptus deanei, Blue Mountains National Park, Australia
Eucalypt woodland area near Prospect Creek in western Sydney. Mostly E. amplifolia and E. tereticornis.
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political behavior and beliefs are passed from one generation to the next through political | Tradition - wikipedia
A tradition is a belief or behavior passed down within a group or society with symbolic meaning or special significance with origins in the past. Common examples include holidays or impractical but socially meaningful clothes (like lawyers ' wigs or military officers ' spurs), but the idea has also been applied to social norms such as greetings. Traditions can persist and evolve for thousands of years -- the word "tradition '' itself derives from the Latin tradere literally meaning to transmit, to hand over, to give for safekeeping. While it is commonly assumed that traditions have ancient history, many traditions have been invented on purpose, whether that be political or cultural, over short periods of time. Various academic disciplines also use the word in a variety of ways.
One way tradition is used more simply, often in academic work but elsewhere also, is to indicate the quality of a piece of information being discussed. The phrase "according to tradition, '' or "by tradition, '' usually means that whatever information follows is known only by oral tradition, but is not supported, (and perhaps may be refuted) by physical documentation, by a physical artifact, or other quality evidence. For example, "According to tradition, Homer was born on Chios, but many other locales have historically claimed him as theirs. '' This tradition may never be proven or disproven. In another example, "King Arthur, by tradition a true British king, has inspired many well loved stories. '' Whether they are documented fact or not does not decrease their value as cultural history and literature.
Aside from this use in describing the quality of information, various scholarly fields define the term differently, as is needed. For example, anthropology and biology have each defined tradition it more precisely than in conventional, as described below, in order to facilitate scholarly discourse.
The concept of tradition, as the notion of holding on to a previous time, is also found in political and philosophical discourse. For example, it is the basis of the political concept of traditionalism, and also strands of many world religions including traditional Catholicism. In artistic contexts, tradition is used to decide the correct display of an art form. For example, in the performance of traditional genres (such as traditional dance), adherence to guidelines dictating how an art form should be composed are given greater importance than the performer 's own preferences. A number of factors can exacerbate the loss of tradition, including industrialization, globalization, and the assimilation or marginalization of specific cultural groups. In response to this, tradition - preservation attempts have now been started in many countries around the world, focusing on aspects such as traditional languages. Tradition is usually contrasted with the goal of modernity and should be differentiated from customs, conventions, laws, norms, routines, rules and similar concepts.
The English word "tradition '' comes from the Latin traditio, the noun from the verb tradere (to transmit, to hand over, to give for safekeeping); it was originally used in Roman law to refer to the concept of legal transfers and inheritance. According to Anthony Giddens and others, the modern meaning of tradition can be seen as having evolved in the European discourse in the last two hundred years, during the Enlightenment period, as philosophers and thinkers counter posed the concept of modernity with the concept of tradition, in the context of progress.
As with many other generic terms, there are many definitions of tradition. The concept includes a number of interrelated ideas; the unifying one is that tradition refers to beliefs, objects or customs performed or believed in the past, originating in it, transmitted through time by being taught by one generation to the next, and are performed or believed in the present.
Tradition can also refer to beliefs or customs that are Prehistoric, with lost or arcane origins, existing from time immemorial. Originally, traditions were passed orally, without the need for a writing system. Tools to aid this process include poetic devices such as rhyme and alliteration. The stories thus preserved are also referred to as tradition, or as part of an oral tradition. Even such traditions, however, are presumed to have originated (been "invented '' by humans) at some point. Traditions are often presumed to be ancient, unalterable, and deeply important, though they may sometimes be much less "natural '' than is presumed. It is presumed that at least two transmissions over three generations are required for a practice, belief or object to be seen as traditional. Some traditions were deliberately invented for one reason or another, often to highlight or enhance the importance of a certain institution. Traditions may also be adapted to suit the needs of the day, and the changes can become accepted as a part of the ancient tradition. Tradition changes slowly, with changes from one generation to the next being seen as significant. Thus, those carrying out the traditions will not be consciously aware of the change, and even if a tradition undergoes major changes over many generations, it will be seen as unchanged.
There are various origins and fields of tradition; they can refer to:
Many objects, beliefs and customs can be traditional. Rituals of social interaction can be traditional, with phrases and gestures such as saying "thank you '', sending birth announcements, greeting cards, etc. Tradition can also refer to larger concepts practiced by groups (family traditions at Christmas), organizations (company 's picnic) or societies, such as the practice of national and public holidays. Some of the oldest traditions include monotheism (three millennia) and citizenship (two millennia). It can also include material objects, such as buildings, works of art or tools.
Tradition is often used as an adjective, in contexts such as traditional music, traditional medicine, traditional values and others. In such constructions tradition refers to specific values and materials particular to the discussed context, passed through generations.
The term "invention of tradition '', introduced by E.J. Hobsbawm, refers to situations when a new practice or object is introduced in a manner that implies a connection with the past that is not necessarily present. A tradition may be deliberately created and promulgated for personal, commercial, political, or national self - interest, as was done in colonial Africa; or it may be adopted rapidly based on a single highly publicized event, rather than developing and spreading organically in a population, as in the case of the white wedding dress, which only became popular after Queen Victoria wore a white gown at her wedding to Albert of Saxe - Coburg.
An example of an invention of tradition is the rebuilding of the Palace of Westminster (location of the British Parliament) in the Gothic style. Similarly, most of the traditions associated with monarchy of the United Kingdom, seen as rooted deep in history, actually date to 19th century. Other examples include the invention of tradition in Africa and other colonial holdings by the occupying forces. Requiring legitimacy, the colonial power would often invent a "tradition '' which they could use to legitimize their own position. For example, a certain succession to a chiefdom might be recognized by a colonial power as traditional in order to favour their own candidates for the job. Often these inventions were based in some form of tradition, but were exaggerated, distorted, or biased toward a particular interpretation.
Invented traditions are a central component of modern national cultures, providing a commonality of experience and promoting the unified national identity espoused by nationalism. Common examples include public holidays (particularly those unique to a particular nation), the singing of national anthems, and traditional national cuisine (see national dish). Expatriate and immigrant communities may continue to practice the national traditions of their home nation.
In science, tradition is often used in the literature in order to define the relationship of an author 's thoughts to that of his or her field. In 1948, philosopher of science Karl Popper suggested that there should be a "rational theory of tradition '' applied to science which was fundamentally sociological. For Popper, each scientist who embarks on a certain research trend inherits the tradition of the scientists before them as he or she inherits their studies and any conclusions that superseded it. Unlike myth, which is a means of explaining the natural world through means other than logical criticism, scientific tradition was inherited from Socrates, who proposed critical discussion, according to Popper. For Thomas Kuhn, who presented his thoughts in a paper presented in 1977, a sense of such a critical inheritance of tradition is, historically, what sets apart the best scientists who change their fields is an embracement of tradition.
Traditions are a subject of study in several academic fields in social sciences -- chiefly anthropology, archaeology, and biology -- with somewhat different meanings in different fields. It is also used in varying contexts in other fields, such as history, psychology and sociology. Social scientists and others have worked to refine the commonsense concept of tradition to make it into a useful concept for scholarly analysis. In the 1970s and 1980s, Edward Shils explored the concept in detail. Since then, a wide variety of social scientists have criticized traditional ideas about tradition; meanwhile, "tradition '' has come into usage in biology as applied to nonhuman animals.
Tradition as a concept variously defined in different disciplines should not be confused with various traditions (perspectives, approaches) in those disciplines.
Tradition is one of the key concepts in anthropology; it can be said that anthropology is the study of "tradition in traditional societies ''. There is however no "theory of tradition '', as for most anthropologists the need to discuss what tradition is seems unnecessary, as defining tradition is both unnecessary (everyone can be expected to know what it is) and unimportant (as small differences in definition would be just technical). There are however dissenting views; scholars such as Pascal Boyer argue that defining tradition and developing theories about it are important to the discipline.
In archaeology, the term tradition is a set of cultures or industries which appear to develop on from one another over a period of time. The term is especially common in the study of American archaeology.
Biologists, when examining groups of non-humans, have observed repeated behaviors which are taught within communities from one generation to the next. Tradition is defined in biology as "a behavioral practice that is relatively enduring (i.e., is performed repeatedly over a period of time), that is shared among two or more members of a group, that depends in part on socially aided learning for its generation in new practitioners '', and has been called a precursor to "culture '' in the anthropological sense.
Behavioral traditions have been observed in groups of fish, birds, and mammals. Groups of orangutans and chimpanzees, in particular, may display large numbers of behavioral traditions, and in chimpanzees, transfer of traditional behavior from one group to another (not just within a group) has been observed. Such behavioral traditions may have evolutionary significance, allowing adaptation at a faster rate than genetic change.
In the field of musicology and ethnomusicology tradition refers to the belief systems, repertoire, techniques, style and culture that is passed down through subsequent generations. Tradition in music suggests a historical context with which one can perceive distinguishable patterns. Along with a sense of history, traditions have a fluidity that cause them to evolve and adapt over time. While both musicology and ethnomusicology are defined by being ' the scholarly study of music ' they differ in their methodology and subject of research. ' Tradition, or traditions, can be presented as a context in which to study the work of a specific composer or as a part of a wide - ranging historical perspective. '
The concept of tradition, in early sociological research (around the turn of the 19th and 20th century), referred to that of the traditional society, as contrasted by the more modern industrial society. This approach was most notably portrayed in Max Weber 's concepts of traditional authority and modern rational - legal authority. In more modern works, One hundred years later, sociology sees tradition as a social construct used to contrast past with the present and as a form of rationality used to justify certain course of action.
Traditional society is characterized by lack of distinction between family and business, division of labor influenced primarily by age, gender, and status, high position of custom in the system of values, self - sufficiency, preference to saving and accumulation of capital instead of productive investment, relative autarky. Early theories positing the simple, unilineal evolution of societies from traditional to industrial model are now seen as too simplistic.
In 1981 Edward Shils in his book Tradition put forward a definition of tradition that became universally accepted. According to Shils, tradition is anything which is transmitted or handed down from the past to the present.
Another important sociological aspect of tradition is the one that relates to rationality. It is also related to the works of Max Weber (see theories of rationality), and were popularized and redefined in 1992 by Raymond Boudon in his book Action. In this context tradition refers to the mode of thinking and action justified as "it has always been that way ''. This line of reasoning forms the basis of the logical flaw of the appeal to tradition (or argumentum ad antiquitatem), which takes the form "this is right because we 've always done it this way. '' In most cases such an appeal can be refuted on the grounds that the "tradition '' being advocated may no longer be desirable, or, indeed, may never have been despite its previous popularity.
The idea of tradition is important in philosophy. Twentieth century philosophy is often divided between an ' analytic ' tradition, dominant in Anglophone and Scandinavian countries, and a ' continental ' tradition, dominant in German and Romance speaking Europe. Increasingly central to continental philosophy is the project of deconstructing what its proponents, following Martin Heidegger, call ' the tradition ', which began with Plato and Aristotle. In contrast, some continental philosophers - most notably, Hans - Georg Gadamer - have attempted to rehabilitate the tradition of Aristotelianism. This move has been replicated within analytic philosophy by Alasdair MacIntyre. However, MacIntyre has himself deconstructed the idea of ' the tradition ', instead posing Aristotelianism as one philosophical tradition in rivalry with others.
The concepts of tradition and traditional values are frequently used in political and religious discourse to establish the legitimacy of a particular set of values. In the United States in the twentieth and twenty - first centuries, the concept of tradition has been used to argue for the centrality and legitimacy of conservative religious values. Similarly, strands of orthodox theological thought from a number of world religions openly identify themselves as wanting a return to tradition. For example, the term "traditionalist Catholic '' refers to those, such as Archbishop Lefebvre, who want the worship and practices of the church to be as they were before the Second Vatican Council of 1962 -- 65. Likewise, Sunni Muslims are referred to as Ahlus Sunnah wa Al - Jamā'ah (Arabic: أهل السنة والجماعة ), literally "people of the tradition (of Muhammad) and the community '', emphasizing their attachment to religious and cultural tradition.
More generally, tradition has been used as a way of determining the political spectrum, with right - wing parties having a stronger affinity to the ways of the past than left - wing ones. Here, the concept of adherence tradition is embodied by the political philosophy of traditionalist conservatism (or simply traditionalism), which emphasizes the need for the principles of natural law and transcendent moral order, hierarchy and organic unity, agrarianism, classicism and high culture, and the intersecting spheres of loyalty. Traditionalists would therefore reject the notions of individualism, liberalism, modernity, and social progress, but promote cultural and educational renewal, and revive interest in the church, the family, the state and local community. This view has been criticised for including in its notion of tradition practices which are no longer considered to be desirable, for example, stereotypical views of the place of women in domestic affairs.
In other societies, especially ones experiencing rapid social change, the idea of what is "traditional '' may be widely contested, with different groups striving to establish their own values as the legitimate traditional ones. Defining and enacting traditions in some cases can be a means of building unity between subgroups in a diverse society; in other cases, tradition is a means of othering and keeping groups distinct from one another.
In artistic contexts, in the performance of traditional genres (such as traditional dance), adherence to traditional guidelines is of greater importance than performer 's preferences. It is often the unchanging form of certain arts that leads to their perception as traditional. For artistic endeavors, tradition has been used as a contrast to creativity, with traditional and folk art associated with unoriginal imitation or repetition, in contrast to fine art, which is valued for being original and unique. More recent philosophy of art, however, considers interaction with tradition as integral to the development of new artistic expression.
In the social sciences, tradition is often contrasted with modernity, particularly in terms of whole societies. This dichotomy is generally associated with a linear model of social change, in which societies progress from being traditional to being modern. Tradition - oriented societies have been characterized as valuing filial piety, harmony and group welfare, stability, and interdependence, while a society exhibiting modernity would value "individualism (with free will and choice), mobility, and progress. '' Another author discussing tradition in relationship to modernity, Anthony Giddens, sees tradition as something bound to ritual, where ritual guarantees the continuation of tradition. Gusfield and others, though, criticize this dichotomy as oversimplified, arguing that tradition is dynamic, heterogeneous, and coexists successfully with modernity even within individuals.
Tradition should be differentiated from customs, conventions, laws, norms, routines, rules and similar concepts. Whereas tradition is supposed to be invariable, they are seen as more flexible and subject to innovation and change. Whereas justification for tradition is ideological, the justification for other similar concepts is more practical or technical. Over time, customs, routines, conventions, rules and such can evolve into traditions, but that usually requires that they stop having (primarily) a practical purpose. For example, wigs worn by lawyers were at first common and fashionable; spurs worn by military officials were at first practical but now are both impractical and traditional.
In many countries, concerted attempts are being made to preserve traditions that are at risk of being lost. A number of factors can exacerbate the loss of tradition, including industrialization, globalization, and the assimilation or marginalization of specific cultural groups. Customary celebrations and lifestyles are among the traditions that are sought to be preserved. Likewise, the concept of tradition has been used to defend the preservation and reintroduction of minority languages such as Cornish under the auspices of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Specifically, the charter holds that these languages "contribute to the maintenance and development of Europe 's cultural wealth and traditions ''. The Charter goes on to call for "the use or adoption... of traditional and correct forms of place - names in regional or minority languages ''. Similarly, UNESCO includes both "oral tradition '' and "traditional manifestations '' in its definition of a country 's cultural properties and heritage. It therefore works to preserve tradition in countries such as Brazil.
In Japan, certain artworks, structures, craft techniques and performing arts are considered by the Japanese government to be a precious legacy of the Japanese people, and are protected under the Japanese Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties. This law also identifies people skilled at traditional arts as "National Living Treasures '', and encourages the preservation of their craft.
For native peoples like the Māori in New Zealand, there is conflict between the fluid identity assumed as part of modern society and the traditional identity with the obligations that accompany it; the loss of language heightens the feeling of isolation and damages the ability to perpetuate tradition.
The phrase "traditional cultural expressions '' is used by the World Intellectual Property Organization to refer to "any form of artistic and literary expression in which traditional culture and knowledge are embodied. They are transmitted from one generation to the next, and include handmade textiles, paintings, stories, legends, ceremonies, music, songs, rhythms and dance. ''
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who are the members of the republican freedom caucus | Freedom Caucus - wikipedia
The Freedom Caucus, also known as the House Freedom Caucus, is a congressional caucus consisting of conservative and libertarian Republican members of the United States House of Representatives. It was formed in 2015 by what member Jim Jordan called a "smaller, more cohesive, more agile and more active '' group of conservative Congressmen.
Many members are also part of the much larger Republican Study Committee. The caucus is sympathetic to the Tea Party movement. The Freedom Caucus is considered the farthest - right grouping within the House Republican Conference.
The origins of the caucus lie at the mid-January 2015 Republican congressional retreat in Hershey, Pennsylvania. Nine conservative active Republican members of the House began planning a new Congressional caucus separate from the Republican Study Committee and apart from the House Republican Conference. The group ultimately became the nine founding members and the first board of directors for the new caucus consisting of Republican Representatives Scott Garrett of New Jersey, Jim Jordan of Ohio, John Fleming of Louisiana, Matt Salmon of Arizona, Justin Amash of Michigan, Raúl Labrador of Idaho, Mick Mulvaney of South Carolina, Ron DeSantis of Florida and Mark Meadows of North Carolina.
The group debated a name for their new caucus eventually settling on "House Freedom Caucus '' (HFC) because, according to founding member Mick Mulvaney, "it was so generic and universally awful that we had no reason to be against it. '' The group of nine founding members in Hershey set as a criterion for new members that they had to be willing to vote against Speaker of the United States House of Representatives John Boehner on legislation that the group opposed.
During the crisis over the funding of the Department of Homeland Security in early 2015, the Caucus offered four plans for resolution, but all were rejected by the Republican leadership. One of the caucus leaders, Labrador of Idaho, said the Caucus will offer an alternative that the most conservative Republican members could support.
The House Freedom Caucus was involved in the resignation of Boehner on September 25, 2015 and the ensuing leadership battle for the new Speaker. Members of the Caucus who had voted against Boehner for Speaker felt unfairly punished, accusing him of cutting them off from positions in the Republican Study Committee and depriving them of key committee assignments. Boehner found it increasingly difficult to manage House Republicans with the fierce opposition of the Freedom Caucus, and he sparred with House Republican members in 2013 over their willingness to shut down the government in order to accomplish goals such as repealing the Affordable Care Act. These members later created and became members of the Freedom Caucus when it was created in 2015.
After Boehner resigned as speaker, Kevin McCarthy, the House Majority Leader, was initially the lead contender to succeed him, but the Freedom Caucus withheld its support. However, McCarthy withdrew from the race on September 28, 2015. On the same day as McCarthy 's withdrawal, Reid Ribble resigned from the Freedom Caucus saying he had joined to promote certain policies and could not support the role that it was playing in the leadership race.
On October 20, 2015, Paul Ryan announced that his bid for the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives was contingent on an official endorsement by the Freedom Caucus. While the group could not reach the 80 % approval that was needed to give an official endorsement, on October 21, 2015, it announced that it had reached a supermajority support for Ryan. On October 29, 2015, Ryan succeeded John Boehner as the Speaker of the House.
On November 16, 2015, Jim Jordan was re-elected chairman of the caucus.
On October 30, 2017, Vanity Fair published an interview with former Speaker Boehner, who said of the Freedom Caucus: "They ca n't tell you what they 're for. They can tell you everything they 're against. They 're anarchists. They want total chaos. Tear it all down and start over. That 's where their mindset is. ''
The group faced backlash from the Republican Party establishment during the 2016 election cycle. One of its members, Congressman Tim Huelskamp, a Tea Party Republican representing Kansas ' First District, was defeated during a primary election on August 2, 2016, by Roger Marshall.
On March 24, 2017, the American Health Care Act (AHCA), the House Republican bill to repeal and replace the Affordable Care Act, was withdrawn by Republican House Speaker Paul Ryan because it lacked the votes to pass, due in large part to opposition from Freedom Caucus Republicans.
Two days later, President Donald Trump publicly criticized the Freedom Caucus and other right - wing groups, such as the Club for Growth and Heritage Action, that opposed the bill. Trump tweeted: "Democrats are smiling in D.C. that the Freedom Caucus, with the help of Club For Growth and Heritage, have saved Planned Parenthood & Obamacare! '' On the same day, Congressman Ted Poe of Texas resigned from the Freedom Caucus. On March 30, 2017, Trump "declared war '' on the Freedom Caucus, sending a tweet urging Republicans to "fight them '' in the 2018 midterm elections "if they do n't get on the team '' (i.e., support Trump 's proposals). Vocal Freedom Caucus member Justin Amash responded by accusing Trump of "succumb (ing) to the D.C. Establishment. ''
Trump has since developed a closer relationship with the caucus chair, Mark Meadows.
The House Freedom Caucus does not disclose the names of its members. In the current (115th) Congress, the group has about three dozen members. A number of members have identified themselves, or have been identified by others, as members of the Freedom Caucus, as of February 2018 including:
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what is considered a common law marriage in canada | Common - law marriage - wikipedia
Common - law marriage, also known as sui iuris marriage, informal marriage, marriage by habit and repute, or marriage in fact, is a legal framework in a limited number of jurisdictions where a couple is legally considered married, without that couple having formally registered their relation as a civil or religious marriage. The original concept of a "common - law marriage '' is a marriage that is considered valid by both partners, but has not been formally recorded with a state or religious registry, or celebrated in a formal religious service. In effect, the act of the couple representing themselves to others as being married, and organizing their relation as if they were married, acts as the evidence that they are married.
The term common - law marriage has wide informal use, often to denote relations that are not legally recognized as common - law marriages. The term common - law marriage is often used colloquially or by the media to refer to cohabiting couples, regardless of any legal rights that these couples may or may not have, which can create public confusion both in regard to the term and in regard to the legal rights of unmarried partners.
The term "common - law marriage '' is often used incorrectly to describe various types of couple relationships, such as cohabitation (whether or not registered), or other legally formalized relations. Although these interpersonal relationships are often called "common - law marriage '' they differ from true common - law marriage, in that they are not legally recognized as "marriages '', but are a parallel interpersonal status, known in most jurisdictions as "domestic partnership '', "registered partnership '', "conjugal union '', "civil union '', etc. In Canada, for instance, while couples in "marriage - like relationships '' may have many of the rights and responsibilities of a marriage (laws vary by province), couples in such partnerships are not legally considered married, although they may be legally defined as "unmarried spouses '' and for many purposes (such as taxes, financial claims, etc.) they are treated as if they were married. In recent years, the term common - law marriage has gained increased use as a generic term for all unmarried couples -- however, this term has a narrow legal meaning. First of all, one can only talk of "common - law marriage '' if such marriage was formed in a jurisdiction which actually applies the common law. A 2008 poll in the UK showed that 51 % of respondents incorrectly believed that cohabitants had the same rights as married couples.
Non-marital relationship contracts are not necessarily recognized from one jurisdiction to another, and neither are de facto couples, whereas common - law marriages, being a legal marriage, are valid marriages worldwide (if the parties complied with the requirements to form a valid marriage while living in a jurisdiction that allows this form of marriage to be contracted).
Common - law and statutory marriage have the following characteristics in common:
Otherwise, common - law marriage differs from statutory marriage as follows:
In ancient Greek and Roman civilization, marriages were private agreements between individuals and families. Community recognition of a marriage was largely what qualified it as a marriage. The state had only limited interests in assessing the legitimacy of marriages. Normally civil and religious officials took no part in marriage ceremonies, nor did they keep registries. There were several more or less formal ceremonies to choose from (partly interchangeable, but sometimes with different legal ramifications) as well as informal arrangements. It was relatively common for couples to cohabit with no ceremony; cohabiting for a moderate period of time was sufficient to make it a marriage. Cohabiting for the purpose of marriage carried with it no social stigma.
In medieval Europe, marriage came under the jurisdiction of canon law, which recognized as a valid marriage one where the parties stated that they took one another as wife and husband, even in absence of any witnesses.
The Catholic Church forbade clandestine marriage at the Fourth Lateran Council (1215), which required all marriages to be announced in a church by a priest. The Council of Trent (1545 -- 1563) introduced more specific requirements, ruling that in the future a marriage would be valid only if witnessed by the pastor of the parish or the local ordinary (i.e., the bishop of the diocese), or by the delegate of one of said witnesses, the marriage being invalid otherwise, even if witnessed by a Catholic priest. The Tridentine canons did not bind the Protestants or the Eastern Orthodox, but clandestine marriage was impossible for the latter, since marriage required the presence of a priest for validity. England abolished clandestine or common - law marriages in the Marriage Act 1753, requiring marriages to be performed by a priest of the Church of England unless the participants in the marriage were Jews or Quakers. The Act applied to Wales. The Act did not apply to Scotland because by the Acts of Union 1707 Scotland retained its own legal system. To get around the requirements of the Marriage Act, such as minimum age requirements, couples would go to Gretna Green in southern Scotland, or other border villages such as Coldstream, to get married under Scots law.
Marriages by Per Verba De Praesenti, sometimes known as common - law marriages, were an agreement to marry, rather than a marriage.
The Marriage Act of 1753 also did not apply to Britain 's overseas colonies of the time, so common - law marriages continued to be recognized in the future United States and Canada. All other European jurisdictions have long abolished "marriage by habit and repute '', Scotland became the last to do so in 2006.
In Australia the term de facto relationship is often used to refer to relationships between any two persons who are not married, but are effectively living in certain domestic circumstances. Since March 1, 2009 de facto relationships have been recognized in the Family Law Act (Commonwealth), applicable in states that have referred their jurisdiction on de facto couples to the Commonwealth 's jurisdiction. In Western Australia, the only state that has not referred its jurisdiction, state legislation is still valid. There is also no federal recognition of de facto relationships existing outside of Australia (see Section 51 (xxxvii) of the Australian Constitution), and so this is also a state matter.
The legal term for such relationships varies by state and territory; however, common - law marriage is not used anywhere in Australia.
Although property aspects of these relationships are dealt with under state law, the law relating to children of such relationships is contained in the federal Family Law Act 1975. Most laws dealing with taxation, social welfare, pensions, etc., treat de facto marriages in the same manner as solemnized marriages.
The Family Law Act states that a de facto relationship can exist between two people of different or the same sex and that a person can be in a de facto relationship even if legally married to another person or in a de facto relationship with someone else. Family property laws, however, are excepted from jurisdiction when a person is both married and in a de facto relationship at the same time. This exception is due to federal polygamy laws. Same - sex de facto relationships have been recognized in New South Wales since 1999. There are a number of methods by which these relationships are recognized in Australian law and they include the same entitlements as de jure marriage.
The federal Marriage Act 1961 provides for marriage, but does not recognize ' common - law marriages '. During the term of the former Howard Government, the Parliament of Australia defined marriage as being between a man and a woman. This allowed for the overriding of marriage laws instituted in the Act but did not impinge on the legal standing of de facto relationships.
Canada does not have true common - law marriage (as in parts of the US), although common - law relationships are recognized for certain purposes across Canada. In Canada, the legal definition and many implications of marriage - like relationships fall under provincial jurisdiction. The term "common law '' appears informally in documents from the federal government.
Citizenship & Immigration Canada states that a common - law partner refers to a person who is living in a conjugal relationship with another person (opposite or same sex), and has done so continuously for a period of at least one year. A conjugal relationship exists when there is a significant degree of commitment between two people. This can be shown with evidence that the couple share the same home, that they support each other financially and emotionally, that they have children together, or that they present themselves in public as a couple. Common - law partners who are unable to live together or appear in public together because of legal restrictions in their home country or who have been separated for reasons beyond their control (for example, civil war or armed conflict) may still qualify and should be included on an application.
Canada Revenue Agency (CRA) states, as of 2007, a common - law relationship is true if at least one of the following applies:
The complete CRA definitions for marital status is available.
In many cases, couples in marriage - like relationships have the same rights as married couples under federal law. Various federal laws include "common - law status, '' which automatically takes effect when two people (of any gender) have lived together in a conjugal relationship for five full years. Common - law partners may be eligible for various federal government spousal benefits. As family law varies between provinces, there are differences between the provinces regarding the recognition of common - law relationship. No province other than Saskatchewan and British Columbia sanctions married persons to be capable in family law of having more than one recognized partner at the same time.
In 1999, after the court case M. v. H., the Supreme Court of Canada decided that same - sex partners would also be included in common - law relationships. In Saskatchewan, Queen 's Bench justices have sanctioned common - law relationships as simultaneously existing in Family law while one or more of the spouses were also civilly married to others.
In Ontario, the Ontario Family Law Act specifically recognizes common - law spouses in section 29, dealing with spousal support issues; the requirements are living together continuously for no less than three years or having a child in common and having "cohabited in a relationship of some permanence ''. The three years must be continuous, although a breakup of a few days during the period will not affect a person 's status as common law.
Married people may also have a recognized common - law spouse even before being divorced from the first spouse.
However, common - law spouses do not have automatic rights under the Family Law Act to their spouses ' property because section 29 of the Act (which extends the definition of spouses beyond those who are married) applies only to the support sections of the Act. Thus, common - law partners do not have a statutory right to divide property in a breakup, and must ask courts to look to concepts such as the constructive or resulting trust to divide property in an equitable manner between partners.
Another difference that distinguishes common - law spouses from married partners is that a common - law partner can be compelled to testify against his or her partner in a court of law.
The Civil Code of Quebec has never recognized a common - law partnership as a form of marriage. However, many laws in Quebec explicitly apply to common - law partners (called conjoints de fait) in "de facto unions '' (marriages being "de jure unions ''), as they do to marriage spouses. Same - sex partners are also recognized as "conjoints de fait '' in de facto unions, for the purpose of social benefit laws. However, common - law partners do not have any legal rights between them, such as alimony, family patrimony, compensatory allowance and matrimonial regime. The Quebec Court of Appeal ruled this restriction to be unconstitutional in 2010; and on January 25, 2013 the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that common - law couples do not have the same rights as married couple.
A 2002 amendment to the Civil Code, recognizes a type of domestic partnership called a civil union that is similar to marriage and is likewise available to same - sex partners.
No citizen of Quebec can be recognized under family law to be in both a civilly married state and a "conjoints de fait '' within the same time frame. Divorce from one conjugal relationship must occur before another conjugal relationship may occur in family law.
Same - sex partners can also marry legally in Quebec, as elsewhere in Canada.
The term "common - law marriage '' does not appear in BC law. A distinction is made between being a spouse and being married. Married couples include only those who have engaged in a legal marriage ceremony and have received a marriage licence. Spouses include married couples as well as those, of same or opposite gender, who satisfy criteria for being in a marriage - like relationship for a time period that depends on the law that is being considered. Hence the meaning of the term unmarried spouse in BC depends on the legal context. The criteria for a relationship being accepted as marriage - like include cohabitation for at least the specified period, unbroken by excessively long intervals that are unexplained by exigent circumstances. If dispute arises about whether the relationship was marriage - like, a court would consider a comprehensive set of further criteria including the domestic and financial arrangements, degree and nature of intimacy, and the sense of the relationship presented to friends and families (especially by each spouse to his / her own family). "Mere roommates will never qualify as unmarried spouses. There needs to be some other dimension to the relationship indicative of a commitment between the parties and their shared belief that they are in a special relationship with each other. '' The criteria do not exclude the existence of a previous marriage to a third person during the period of the marriage - like relationship of the unmarried spouses. Hence a person may have more than one spouse at the same time.
The implications of becoming an unmarried spouse include:
The requirements in some other provinces are as follows:
In Israel, courts and few statutes (such as social security which grants death and disability benefits) have recognized an institute of yeduim batsibur (ידועים בציבור ) meaning a couple who are "known in the public '' (lit. translation) as living together as husband and wife. Generally speaking the couple needs to satisfy two tests which are: 1) "intimate life similar to married couple, relationship based on same emotions of affection and love, dedication and faithfulness, showing they have chosen to share their fate '' (Supreme Court of Israel, judge צבי ברנזון (intimacy test)), and 2) sharing household (economic test). In addition courts usually are more likely to recognize such relationship as marriage for granting benefits if the couple could not get married under the Israeli law.
Ireland does not recognize common - law marriage, but the Civil Partnership and Certain Rights and Obligations of Cohabitants Act 2010 gives some rights to unmarried cohabitants.
The term "common - law marriage '' has been used in England and Wales to refer to unmarried, cohabiting heterosexual relationships. However, this is merely a social usage. The term does not confer on cohabiting parties any of the rights or obligations enjoyed by spouses or civil partners. Unmarried partners are recognized for certain purposes in legislation: e.g., for means - tested benefits. For example, in the Jobseekers Act 1995, "unmarried couple '' was defined as a man and woman who are not married to each other but who are living together in the same household as husband and wife other than in prescribed circumstances. But in many areas of the law cohabitants enjoy no special rights. Thus when a cohabiting relationship ends ownership of any assets will be decided by property law. The courts have no discretion to reallocate assets, as occurs on divorce.
It is sometimes mistakenly claimed that before the Marriage Act 1753 cohabiting couples would enjoy the protection of a "common - law marriage ''. In fact, neither the name nor the concept of "common - law marriage '' was known at this time. Far from being treated as if they were married, couples known to be cohabiting risked prosecution by the church courts for fornication.
It is equally mistakenly claimed that couples who lived together without undergoing a marriage ceremony before the Marriage Act 1753 would be presumed to have undertaken a "contract marriage '' by mutual consent. However, contract marriages (or more strictly contracts per verba de praesenti), were not understood as having the legal status of a valid marriage until the decision in Dalrymple in 1811. This decision affected the subsequent development of English law due to the fact that the Marriage Act 1753 did not apply overseas. English courts later held that it was possible to marry by a simple exchange of consent in the colonies although most of the disputed ceremonies involved the ministrations of a priest or other clergyman.
The English courts also upheld marriages by consent in territories not under British control but only if it had been impossible for the parties to marry according to the requirements of the local law. The late 1950s and early 1960s saw a spate of cases arising out of the Second World War, with marriages in prisoner - of - war camps in German - occupied Europe posing a particular problem for judges. (Some British civilians interned by the Japanese during the Second World War were held to be legally married after contracting marriages under circumstances where the formal requirements could not be met.) To this limited extent, English law does recognize what has become known as a "common - law marriage ''. English legal texts initially used the term to refer exclusively to American common - law marriages. Only in the 1960s did the term "common - law marriage '' begin to be used in its contemporary sense to denote unmarried, cohabiting heterosexual relationships and not until the 1970s and 1980s did the term begin to lose its negative connotations. The use of the term is likely to have encouraged cohabiting couples to believe falsely that they enjoyed legal rights. By the end of the 1970s a myth had emerged that marrying made little difference to one 's legal rights, and this fuelled the subsequent increase in the number of couples living together and having children together outside marriage.
Under Scots law, there have been several forms of "irregular marriage '', among them:
The Marriage (Scotland) Act 1939 provided that the first three forms of irregular marriage could not be formed on or after 1 January 1940. However, any irregular marriages contracted prior to 1940 can still be upheld. This act also allowed the creation of regular civil marriages in Scotland for the first time. (The civil - registration system started in Scotland on 1 January 1855.)
Until this act, the only regular marriage available in Scotland was a religious marriage. Irregular marriages were not socially accepted and many people who decided to contract them did so where they were relatively unknown. In some years up to 60 % of the marriages in the Blythswood Registration District of Glasgow were "irregular ''.
In 2006, "marriage by cohabitation with habit and repute '', the last form of irregular marriage that could still be contracted in Scotland, was abolished in the Family Law (Scotland) Act 2006. Until that act had come into force, Scotland remained the only European jurisdiction never to have totally abolished the old - style common - law marriage. For this law to apply, the minimum time the couple have lived together continuously had to exceed 20 days.
As in the American jurisdictions that have preserved it, this type of marriage can be difficult to prove. It is not enough for the couple to have lived together for several years, but they must have been generally regarded as husband and wife. Their friends and neighbors, for example, must have known them as Mr. and Mrs. So - and - so (or at least they must have held themselves out to their neighbors and friends as Mr. and Mrs. So - and - so). Also, like American common - law marriages, it is a form of lawful marriage, so that people can not be common - law spouses, or husband and wife by cohabitation with habit and repute, if one of them was legally married to somebody else when the relationship began.
It is a testament to the influence of American legal thought and English colloquial usage that, in a study conducted by the Scottish Executive in 2000, 57 % of Scots surveyed believed that couples who merely live together have a "common - law marriage ''. In fact, that term is unknown in Scots law, which uses "marriage by cohabitation with habit and repute ''. "Common - law marriage '' is an American term.
Otherwise, men and women who otherwise behave as husband and wife do not have a common - law marriage or a marriage by habit and repute merely because they set up housekeeping together, but they must hold themselves out to the world as husband and wife. (In many jurisdictions, they must do so for a certain length of time for the marriage to be valid.) The Scottish Survey is not clear on these points. It notes that "common - law marriage '' is not part of Scots law, but it fails to note that "marriage by cohabitation with habit and repute '', which is the same thing but in name, was part of Scots law until 2006.
In the United States, common - law marriage can be contracted in eight states and the District of Columbia. Once they meet the requirements of common - law marriage, couples in those true common - law marriages are considered legally married for all purposes and in all circumstances.
Common - law marriage can still be contracted in Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Montana, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas, Utah, and the District of Columbia. Common law marriage may also be valid under military law for purposes of a bigamy prosecution under the Uniform Code of Military Justice.
All U.S. jurisdictions recognize common - law marriages that were validly contracted in the originating jurisdiction, because they are valid marriages in the jurisdiction where they were contracted. However, absent legal registration or similar notice of the marriage, the parties to a common law marriage or their eventual heirs may have difficulty proving their relationship to be marriage. Some states provide for registration of an informal or common - law marriage based on the declaration of each of the spouses on a state - issued form.
Due to their colonial past, the islands of the English - speaking Caribbean have statutes concerning common - law marriage similar to those in England. However, in the Caribbean, the term "common - law '' marriage is also widely described, by custom as much as by law, to any long term relationship between male and female partners. Indeed, such informal unions are widespread, making up a significant percentage of the families many of which have children and indeed may last for many years. The reasons for these informal but durable units is a matter of considerable debate in sociological literature. Likewise although the acceptance of this type of union varies, men being more inclined to consider them as legitimate than women, there is a high degree of recognition of such unions that they amount to an institution.
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how many times does the ghost appear to hamlet | Ghost (Hamlet) - wikipedia
The ghost of Hamlet 's late father is a character from William Shakespeare 's play Hamlet. In the stage directions he is referred to as "Ghost. '' His name is also Hamlet, and he is referred to as King Hamlet to distinguish him from the Prince.
He is loosely based on a legendary Jutish chieftain, named Horwendill, who appears in Chronicon Lethrense and in Saxo Grammaticus ' Gesta Danorum. According to oral tradition, the Ghost was originally played by Shakespeare himself.
The Ghost appears three times in the play: in Act I, Scene i; in the continuum of Act I, Scenes iv and v; and Act III, Scene iv. The ghost arrives at 1.00 a.m. in at least two of the scenes, and in the other scene all that is known is that it is night.
The Ghost first appears to a duo of soldiers -- Bernardo and Marcellus -- and a visitor to Denmark, Horatio. The men draw their swords and stand in fear, requesting that Horatio, as a scholar, address the ghost. Horatio asks the ghost to speak, and reveal its secret. It is about to do so when the cock crows, signalling morning, and the ghost instead disappears. In this scene, the Ghost is clearly recognised by all present as the King, dressed in his full armour. Marcellus notes that the ghost had appeared to the castle guards twice before. Talk of spectral visitations has unsettled the night watch. Francisco, who Bernardo relieves on guard duty says, "For this relief much thanks; ' t is bitter cold, And I am sick at heart. ''
Seeing the Ghost arrayed in a military aspect, and aware of Fortinbras marshalling his forces on the frontier, Horatio recognises that the appearance of the Ghost must portend something regarding matters of state.
Horatio then persuades Prince Hamlet into staying up with the guards to see if the ghost returns. At midnight, it appears, and beckons Hamlet to follow. Once alone, the ghost describes his wanderings on the earth, and his harrowing life in purgatory, since he died without receiving last rites.
The serpent that did sting thy Fathers life,
He tells the young Hamlet that he was poisoned and murdered by his brother, Claudius, the new King of Denmark, and asks the prince to avenge his death. He also expresses disgust at his wife, Gertrude, for marrying Claudius, but warns Hamlet not to confront her, but to leave that to Heaven. Later, Prince Hamlet returns to his friends and has them swear on his sword to keep what they have seen a secret. When they resist, the ghost utters the words "Swear '' and "Swear on the sword '', from below the stage, until his friends agree.
The prince Hamlet, fearing that the apparition may be a demon pretending to be King Hamlet, decides to put the ghost to the test by staging a play that re-enacts the circumstances that the spirit claims led to his death. Claudius 's reaction is one of guilt and horror, and Prince Hamlet is convinced that the ghost is, in fact, his father. However, due to his over-analytical mind and the complexity of the ghost 's conditions, much time passes before Hamlet can carry out his orders.
In the third appearance, Hamlet is confronted by the ghost in his mother 's closet, and is rebuked for not carrying out his revenge and for disobeying in talking with Gertrude. Hamlet fearfully apologises. Gertrude, however, can not see the ghost, and thinks Hamlet is mad, asking why he stares and talks to nothing. In this scene, the ghost is described as being in his nightgown. He is never mentioned again.
King Hamlet is described by the few who mention him -- and this excludes basically all except Hamlet, Horatio and the guards -- as a warrior, as he led Denmark 's forces to victory against Norway, and personally defeated its King Fortinbras in hand - to - hand combat. Hamlet respects him, saying Claudius pales in comparison to him, and frequently reflecting on him in an endearing manner.
"The Ghost in Hamlet is essential to the plot of the play. '' He has also been the subject of a variety of interpretations. W.W. Greg was of the opinion that the Ghost was a figment of Hamlet 's overwrought imagination. J. Dover Wilson and others have argued that in having the Ghost appear a number of times to others before appearing to Hamlet, Shakespeare makes clear that the apparition is not a mere illusion.
About a hundred years after Shakespeare died, Nicholas Rowe reported that he had heard an anecdote that Shakespeare himself had played the Ghost, starting a story that continues to this day.
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is lily allen's dad in game of thrones | Keith Allen (actor) - wikipedia
Keith Howell Charles Allen (born 2 September 1953) is a Welsh actor, comedian, musician, singer - songwriter, artist, author, and television presenter. He is the father of singer Lily Allen and actor Alfie Allen, and brother of actor and director Kevin Allen.
Allen was born on 2 September 1953 in Llanelli, Carmarthenshire, Wales, the second of three children of Edward Charles Owen, a Royal Navy submariner. His younger brother is actor Kevin Allen. He spent his early years near Swansea and in Malta, and most of his childhood in Gosport, Hampshire, while his father served in Portsmouth. At the age of 11 he was sent to Brentwood boarding school in Essex when his father was posted to Singapore. He was expelled from the school at the age of 13. At the age of 15 he was sent to a borstal after repeatedly being caught stealing, later saying that he "had a great time '' there.
After having several jobs during the 1970s, including a job as a stagehand from which he was sacked after joining Max Bygraves ' chorus line on stage naked, Allen also worked as a stand - up comedian, opening for rock bands such as The Clash.
He appeared in a number of films in the series The Comic Strip Presents... on Channel 4 in the 1980s after becoming one of the breakthrough acts of the Comedy Store in 1979. Notable episodes featuring Allen include The Bullshitters (a parody of The Professionals), and The Yob (a parody of The Fly), which he also co-wrote. Allen has done both straight and comedy acting. In 1985 The Comic Strip hit the big screen with The Supergrass starring Allen, Adrian Edmondson, Peter Richardson, Jennifer Saunders and Robbie Coltrane, directed by Comic Strip actor Peter Richardson.
During the brief period of British Satellite Broadcasting as an alternative satellite broadcaster to Sky, he had a regular comedy show of his own I Love Keith Allen on the Galaxy channel, a mix of stand - up and sketches.
In 1992 he appeared in the revival Carry On film Carry On Columbus where Allen played Pepi The Poisoner. Directed by Gerald Thomas and produced by Peter Rogers this was to be the final film in the Carry On franchise.
In 1993 he appeared as the occultist John Peter Barrie, in the Inspector Morse episode The Day of the Devil. This episode of Granada Television 's long running drama series was written by Danny Boyle. This would prove to be the first of three projects either written or directed by Boyle that Allen would be involved in during the 1990s.
He appeared briefly in a cameo in the black comedy, Twin Town which was directed by his brother Kevin, the Channel 4 adaptation of A Very British Coup and he also played the lodger who dies at the beginning of Danny Boyle 's thriller Shallow Grave (1994). In the same year, he was cast in a BBC adaptation of Martin Chuzzlewit. He was used again by Boyle to play a drug dealer in Trainspotting (1996). Danny Boyle has stated that Allen 's character from Trainspotting is the same one that moves into the shared flat in Shallow Grave -- he wears the same clothes and carries the same bag. He also appeared disguised as a fictional hip - hop star ' Keithski ' to present Top of the Pops on 19 July 1996.
In 2000, Allen appeared in two Harold Pinter plays at the Almeida Theatre, playing Lambert in Celebration and Mr Sands in The Room. These were performed again at The Lincoln Center Festival in July 2001.
In 2001, he played the character of "problem - solver '' Jim Napeworth in an episode of Murder in Mind, and in 2004 cameod in Black Books as poker - player Dave ' Mouse Ears ' Smith.
In 2002 Allen played the London Records executive Roger Ames in 24 Hour Party People, a film about Factory Records and the Manchester music scene.
Allen cameoed in the Channel 4 sitcom Spaced in a short homage to the Stanley Kubrick film, The Shining.
He appeared as the villain in the sequel to 2004 's Agent Cody Banks, Agent Cody Banks 2: Destination London, opposite Frankie Muniz
He also appeared in the hospital drama, Bodies, as Mr Tony Whitman, a sarcastic but somehow likeable consultant obstetrician with an enormous ego. In 2005 he appeared in the Endemol - produced BBC Two television programme Art School alongside Ulrika Jonsson, John Humphrys and Clarissa Dickson Wright where he discovered a passion for painting. From 2006 to 2009, Allen appeared in the BBC 's Robin Hood drama series, as the Sheriff of Nottingham.
His documentary film about the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, Unlawful Killing, which was financed by Mohamed Al - Fayed and Associated - Rediffusion, was screened at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival. It argued that the British and French authorities had covered up uncomfortable facts about the crash, accused Queen Elizabeth and Princess Margaret of being ' gangsters in tiaras ', and alleged that Prince Philip had a ' Nazi background '. Allen said he refused to make 87 cuts asked for by lawyers to enable the film to be seen in Britain. He also told reporters that he thought the crash had been intended only as a warning but that "something went massively wrong ''.
In September 2011 he appeared in the BBC six - part drama series The Body Farm as DI Hale. 2013 saw the release of the Sara Sugarman comedy film Vinyl in which Keith played an ageing rock star who finds himself back in the public eye after his band member fools the music industry into giving them a record deal. In 2013 he played Darren the farmer in episode 1.5 of the comedy drama series Great Night Out.
In April 2013 Allen starred in a revival of Richard Bean 's black comedy "Smack Family Robinson ' '' at The Rose Theatre, Kingston upon Thames.
Allen presented the TV show Whatever You Want in 1982, during the early days of Channel Four and has presented a number of TV documentaries for Victor Lewis - Smith 's Associated - Rediffusion Television Productions: Little Lady Fauntleroy (2004), You 're Fayed (2005) and on Michael Carroll -- King of Chavs (2006). In 2007 his documentary Tourette De France appeared on Channel 4, in which he travelled with a group of Scottish people with Tourette syndrome, most notably John Davidson, on an AEC Routemaster bus from London to the Parisian hospital where this condition was described by Georges Gilles de la Tourette in 1884.
Keith Allen Will Burn in Hell appeared on Channel 4 in June 2007, and showed Allen profiling the controversial Westboro Baptist Church, led by Fred Phelps, and speaking to various members of the church and Phelps 's family.
Allen presented the Manchester Passion, a contemporary retelling of the last few hours in the life of Jesus on Good Friday, 14 April 2006.
Keith Meets Keith, screened on 14 September 2009 on Channel 4, in which Allen tracked down TV chef Keith Floyd. The show contained what turned out to be Floyd 's final interview for television, as he died of a heart attack on the evening the documentary was screened.
Allen was a member of London punk band the Atoms in the late 1970s, and later Fat Les, a band which also featured artist Damien Hirst and Blur bassist Alex James.
In 1980 he starred as the Devil in a short movie called Meteor Madness which featured London Psychobilly band The Meteors. The film played in cinemas as the opening to the Two Tone film Dance Craze which was released in February 1981. That was the only time Meteor Madness was shown, and to this day it has never been released on video or DVD, although very grainy copies have recently appeared on YouTube.
He was also closely associated with the band New Order, directing the video for their 1993 song "Ruined In A Day '', which depicts Allen and the band members immersed in a bizarre game of charades with a group of Buddhist monks. He co-wrote their only UK number one single, "World in Motion '', and occasionally performed with them live, including their headline show at the Reading Festival in 1998. He also appeared in the band 's DVD New Order Story, where he played host to a fictional New Order game show.
Allen appeared as the businessman in the music video to Blur 's 1995 hit "Country House (song) ''
He has been involved in several other football - related records, including "England 's Irie '' by Black Grape and wrote the lyrics for "Vindaloo '' by Fat Les. He also contributed the song "On Me Head, Son '' to the film Mike Bassett: England Manager, credited on the soundtrack album to Sporting Les.
A fan of London - based Championship football club Fulham, Allen has produced a number of official songs for the club with his band Colin and the Cottagers singing with the club 's chairman, Mohamed Al Fayed. These include "We 're Not Real Madrid '' and "Back Home '', a reference to the club 's return in 2004 to its historic home Craven Cottage on the banks of the River Thames.
In the mid-1980s Allen served a 21 - day jail sentence in Pentonville Prison after being found guilty of criminal damage at the Zanzibar club in Covent Garden.
As a guest on Top Gear on 9 December 2007, Allen said that claims he had eight children were not true and that he actually has six children by four different women. His children include pop singer Lily Allen and actor Alfie Allen with his first wife Alison Owen. He was also married to Nira Park and his lovers have included Julia Sawalha and currently the actress Tamzin Malleson (who starred alongside him in Bodies). Their daughter, Teddie, was born in 2006. They live near Stroud, Gloucestershire.
Although a staunch socialist, whose political philosophy was influenced by the Workers ' Revolutionary Party, Allen has expressed grudging admiration for Conservative Party politicians David Cameron and William Hague.
Allen has on his shoulder a tattoo of Rinka the dog, owned by Norman Scott, which was shot dead during the Jeremy Thorpe scandal. He has explained that: "I had the tattoo placed on my arm lest I forget, so I have a history of having suspicions about the establishment and the government and court cases. ''
1986 Comrades as one of the Tolpuddle Martyrs as featured on another wiki page
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who plays the part of the black panther | Black Panther (film) - wikipedia
Black Panther is a 2018 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name. Produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, it is the eighteenth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film is directed by Ryan Coogler, who co-wrote the screenplay with Joe Robert Cole, and stars Chadwick Boseman as T'Challa / Black Panther, alongside Michael B. Jordan, Lupita Nyong'o, Danai Gurira, Martin Freeman, Daniel Kaluuya, Letitia Wright, Winston Duke, Angela Bassett, Forest Whitaker, and Andy Serkis. In Black Panther, T'Challa returns home as king of Wakanda but finds his sovereignty challenged by a new adversary, in a conflict with global consequences.
Wesley Snipes expressed interest in working on a Black Panther film in 1992, but the project did not come to fruition. In September 2005, Marvel Studios announced a Black Panther film as one of ten based on Marvel characters and distributed by Paramount Pictures. Mark Bailey was hired to write a script in January 2011. Black Panther was announced in October 2014, and Boseman made his first appearance as the character in Captain America: Civil War (2016). By 2016, Cole and Coogler had joined; additional cast joined in May, making Black Panther the first Marvel film with a predominantly black cast. Principal photography took place from January to April 2017, at EUE / Screen Gems Studios in the Atlanta metropolitan area, and Busan, South Korea.
Black Panther premiered in Los Angeles on January 29, 2018, and was released theatrically in the United States on February 16, 2018, in 2D, 3D, IMAX and other premium large formats. The film received praise for its screenplay, direction, performances, action, costume design, production merits, and soundtrack, though the CGI effects received some criticism. Critics considered it one of the best films set in the MCU and noted its cultural significance. It has grossed over $1.3 billion worldwide, making it the highest - grossing film of 2018, as well as the third - highest - grossing film ever in the United States and 10th - highest - grossing film of all time. Its four - day opening weekend gross of $242.1 million and its three - day gross of $202 million in the United States were the second - and fifth - highest of all time respectively, and the biggest debut by an African - American director.
Centuries ago, five African tribes war over a meteorite containing vibranium. One warrior ingests a "heart - shaped herb '' affected by the metal and gains superhuman abilities, becoming the first "Black Panther ''. He unites all but the Jabari Tribe to form the nation of Wakanda. The Wakandans use the vibranium to develop advanced technology and isolate themselves from the world by posing as a Third World country.
In 1992, King T'Chaka visits his brother N'Jobu, who is working undercover in Oakland, California. T'Chaka accuses N'Jobu of assisting black - market arms dealer Ulysses Klaue with stealing vibranium from Wakanda. N'Jobu's partner reveals he is Zuri, another undercover Wakandan, and confirms T'Chaka's suspicions.
In the present day, following T'Chaka's death, his son T'Challa returns to Wakanda to assume the throne. He and Okoye, the leader of the Dora Milaje regiment, extract Nakia, T'Challa's ex-lover, from an undercover assignment so she can attend his coronation ceremony with his mother Ramonda and younger sister Shuri. At the ceremony, the Jabari Tribe 's leader M'Baku challenges T'Challa for the crown in ritual combat. T'Challa defeats M'Baku and persuades him to yield rather than die.
After Klaue and Erik Stevens steal a Wakandan artifact from a London museum, W'Kabi, T'Challa's friend and Okoye 's lover, urges him to bring Klaue back dead or alive. T'Challa, Okoye, and Nakia travel to Busan, South Korea, where Klaue plans to sell the artifact to CIA agent Everett K. Ross. A firefight erupts and Klaue attempts to flee but is caught by T'Challa, who reluctantly releases him to Ross ' custody. Klaue tells Ross that Wakanda 's international image is a front for a technologically advanced civilization. Erik attacks and extracts Klaue as Ross is gravely injured protecting Nakia. Rather than pursue Klaue, T'Challa takes Ross to Wakanda, where their technology can save him.
While Shuri heals Ross, T'Challa confronts Zuri about N'Jobu. Zuri explains that N'Jobu planned to share Wakanda 's technology with people of African descent around the world to help them conquer their oppressors. As T'Chaka arrested N'Jobu, N'Jobu attacked Zuri, forcing T'Chaka to kill him. T'Chaka ordered Zuri to lie that N'Jobu had disappeared and left behind N'Jobu's American son, Erik, in order to maintain the lie. Erik became a U.S. black ops soldier, adopting the name "Killmonger ''. Meanwhile, Killmonger kills Klaue and takes his body to Wakanda. He is brought before the tribal elders, revealing his identity and claim to the throne. Killmonger challenges T'Challa to ritual combat; after killing Zuri, he defeats T'Challa and hurls him over a waterfall, where he is presumed dead. After ingesting the heart - shaped herb, Killmonger orders the rest incinerated, but Nakia extracts one first. Killmonger, supported by W'Kabi and his army, prepares to distribute shipments of Wakandan weapons to operatives around the world.
Nakia, Shuri, Ramonda and Ross flee to the Jabari Tribe for aid. They find a comatose T'Challa, rescued by the Jabari in repayment for sparing M'Baku's life. Healed by Nakia 's herb, T'Challa returns to fight Killmonger, who dons his own Black Panther suit and commands W'Kabi and his army to attack T'Challa. Shuri, Nakia, and the Dora Milaje join T'Challa, while Ross remotely pilots a jet and shoots down the planes carrying the vibranium weapons. M'Baku and the Jabari arrive to reinforce T'Challa. Confronted by Okoye, W'Kabi and his army stand down. Fighting in Wakanda 's vibranium mine, T'Challa disrupts Killmonger 's suit and stabs him. Killmonger refuses to be healed, choosing to die a free man rather than be incarcerated.
T'Challa establishes an outreach center at the building where N'Jobu died to be run by Nakia and Shuri. In a mid-credits scene, T'Challa appears before the United Nations to reveal Wakanda 's true nature to the world. In a post-credits scene, Shuri helps Bucky Barnes with his recuperation.
Additionally, John Kani and Florence Kasumba reprise their respective roles of T'Chaka and Ayo from Captain America: Civil War, with Kani 's son Atandwa portraying a young T'Chaka. Sterling K. Brown plays N'Jobu, T'Chaka's brother and Killmonger 's father, who is a War Dog sent to America. Wakandan elders in the film include Isaach de Bankolé for the River Tribe, Connie Chiume for the Mining Tribe, Dorothy Steel for the Merchant Tribe, and Danny Sapani for the Border Tribe. Sydelle Noel appears as Xoliswa, a member of the Dora Milaje, with other members played by Marija Abney, Janeshia Adams - Ginyard, Maria Hippolyte, Marie Mouroum, Jénel Stevens, Zola Williams, Christine Hollingsworth, and Shaunette Renée Wilson. Nabiyah Be initially announced that she was playing criminal Tilda Johnson, but her character was simply named Linda in the final film due to Gabrielle Dennis being cast as Johnson in the second season of Luke Cage. Black Panther co-creator Stan Lee has a cameo in the film as a patron in the South Korean casino, and Sebastian Stan has an uncredited cameo reprising his role as Bucky Barnes in a post-credits scene.
In June 1992, Wesley Snipes announced his intention to make a film about Black Panther. Snipes wanted to highlight the majesty of Africa, which he felt was poorly portrayed in Hollywood films, saying, "I think Black Panther spoke to me because he was noble, and he was the antithesis of the stereotypes presented and portrayed about Africans, African history and the great kingdoms of Africa. '' He had begun work on the film by that August. The next July, Snipes planned to begin The Black Panther after starring in Demolition Man, and the next month he expressed interest in making sequels to the film as well. In January 1994, Snipes entered talks with Columbia Pictures to portray Black Panther, and Black Panther co-creator Stan Lee joined the film by March; it had entered early development by May. Snipes had discussions with several different screenwriters and directors about the project, including Mario Van Peebles and John Singleton. When the film had not progressed by January 1996, Lee explained that he had not been pleased with the scripts for the project. Snipes said that there was confusion among those unfamiliar with the comics, who thought that the film was about the Black Panther Party.
-- Actor Wesley Snipes, who worked on early iterations of Black Panther
In July 1997, Black Panther was listed as part of Marvel Comics ' film slate, and in March 1998, Marvel reportedly hired Joe Quesada and Jimmy Palmiotti, who at the time were editors of the Black Panther comics under the Marvel Knights brand, to work on it. However, Quesada and Palmiotti have denied that this happened. That August, corporate problems at Marvel put the project on hold, while the next August, Snipes was set to produce, and possibly star, in the film. In May 2000, Artisan Entertainment announced a deal with Marvel to co-produce, finance, and distribute a film based on Black Panther. In March 2002, Snipes said he planned to film Blade 3 or Black Panther in 2003, and reiterated his interest five months later. In July 2004, Blade 3 director David S. Goyer said this was unlikely, as Snipes was "already so entrenched as Blade that another Marvel hero might be overkill ''.
In September 2005, Marvel chairman and CEO Avi Arad announced Black Panther as one of the ten Marvel films that would be developed by Marvel Studios and distributed by Paramount Pictures. In June 2006, Snipes said he hoped to have a director for the project soon. In February 2007, Kevin Feige, president of production for Marvel Studios, reiterated that Black Panther was on Marvel 's development slate. By July, John Singleton had been approached to direct the film. In March 2009, Marvel hired writers to help come up with creative ways to launch its lesser - known properties, including Black Panther, with Nate Moore, the head of the writers program, helping to oversee the development of the Black Panther film specifically. In January 2011, Marvel Studios hired documentary filmmaker Mark Bailey to write a script for Black Panther, to be produced by Feige. In October 2013, Feige said "I do n't know when it will be exactly, but we certainly have plans to bring (Black Panther) to life some day '', noting that the Marvel Cinematic Universe had already introduced the metal vibranium, which comes from Black Panther 's home nation Wakanda. There had been discussions of introducing Wakanda to the MCU as early as 2010 's Iron Man 2, but this was put off until Marvel had "a full idea of what exactly that looked like ''.
In October 2014, Feige announced that Black Panther would be released on November 3, 2017, with Chadwick Boseman cast in the title role. Boseman did not audition before he was hired for the role, instead discussing what he wanted to do with the part with Marvel. The actor was set to first portray the character in Captain America: Civil War, before starring in his own film. Feige said that Marvel was considering minority filmmakers for the director and writer, but that they were focused on "looking for the best filmmakers, the best writers, the best directors possible. So I 'm not going to say for sure that we 're going to hire from any one demographic, but we 're meeting a lot of people. '' He added that they had met with former Black Panther comics writer Reginald Hudlin. In January 2015, Boseman said that the film was going through a "brainstorming phase '', and he was looking at the different stories in the comics and how they may be merged for the film. The next month, Marvel pushed back the release date to July 6, 2018. In April 2015, Feige said he would be meeting with directors after the release of Avengers: Age of Ultron at the end of the month, and that further casting was underway.
By May 2015, Marvel had discussions with Ava DuVernay to direct this film or Captain Marvel. In June, Feige confirmed that he had met with DuVernay alongside a number of other directors, and said that he expected a decision to be made by mid - to late 2015. By early July, DuVernay had passed on directing the film, explaining that "Marvel has a certain way of doing things and I think they 're fantastic and a lot of people love what they do. I loved that they reached out to me... (but) we had different ideas about what the story would be... we just did n't see eye to eye. Better for me to realize that now than cite creative differences later. '' Later in the month, DuVernay expanded,
It was a process of trying to figure out, are these people I want to go to bed with? Because it 's really a marriage, and for this it would be three years. It 'd be three years of not doing other things that are important to me. So it was a question of, is this important enough for me to do? At one point, the answer was yes because I thought there was value in putting that kind of imagery into the culture in a worldwide, huge way... a black man as a hero -- that would be pretty revolutionary. These Marvel films go everywhere from Shanghai to Uganda, and nothing that I probably will make will reach that many people, so I found value in that... (but) it 's important to me that (my work) be true to who I was in this moment. And if there 's too much compromise, it really was n't going to be an Ava DuVernay film.
By October 2015, F. Gary Gray and Ryan Coogler had been considered to direct the film, though negotiations with Coogler had cooled, and Gray had chosen to direct Fast & Furious 8 instead. Joe Robert Cole, a member of the Marvel writers program, was in talks to write the screenplay, and Marvel changed the release date once again, moving it to February 16, 2018. By December, discussions with Coogler were reignited after the successful opening of his film Creed. Feige described Black Panther as "a big geopolitical action adventure that focuses on the family and royal struggle of T'Challa in Wakanda, and what it means to be a king '', while calling the film "a very important '' link to Avengers: Infinity War and its sequel. He added that the film would be the first Marvel Studios production to feature a "primarily African - American cast ''.
-- Ryan Coogler, director of Black Panther
In January 2016, Coogler was confirmed as director, and explained that he grew up reading comics, so Black Panther "is just as personal to me as the last couple of films I was able to make. I feel really fortunate to be able to work on something I 'm this passionate about again. '' In agreeing to direct the film after being "wooed '' by Feige for months, Coogler insisted that he bring collaborators from his previous films to work on Black Panther, to differentiate the film from others in the MCU, that are often "shot, composed, and edited by the same in - house people ''. This included Fruitvale Station cinematographer Rachel Morrison, as well as production designer Hannah Beachler and composer Ludwig Göransson, who both worked with Coogler on Fruitvale Station and Creed. Discussing working in with the MCU while still creating "a Ryan Coogler movie '', the director said,
What Marvel 's doing... is making content that exists in a particular universe, where the characters tie in and crossover, and I think that 's a great creative challenge to me -- to make this movie as personal as possible. It 's going to be my most personal movie to date, which is crazy to say, but it 's completely the case. I 'm obsessed with this character and this story right now, and I think it 's going to be very unique and still fit into the overall narrative that they 're establishing. I grew up as a comic book fan, and the same things used to happen in the comic books. You 'd have Wolverine 's books, and they 'd be so much darker and more brutal than the X-Men books, but they 'd still fit in when you open the pages of the X-Men book. It 's new to movies, but it 's not new to storytelling.
In April 2016, Feige said that Coogler was working on the script with Cole, and that filming would begin at the "very beginning of next year ''. Feige noted that Civil War laid "the groundwork '' for T'Challa's morality, and established the "geopolitical landscape '' that he would have to deal with on returning to Wakanda for Black Panther. Civil War also introduced the Wakandan language, based on the Xhosa language. Boseman was taught Xhosa by John Kani, who portrayed T'Challa's father King T'Chaka in that film. Lupita Nyong'o entered negotiations to star as T'Challa's love interest the next month, and Michael B. Jordan also joined, in an undisclosed role, after previously working with Coogler on Fruitvale Station and Creed. Later in the month, Nate Moore, now serving as a producer on the film, stated that filming would occur in Atlanta, Georgia, with Marvel "definitely investigating shooting in Africa '' as well.
At San Diego Comic - Con International 2016, Nyong'o was confirmed for the film, in the role of Nakia, while Jordan 's role was revealed to be Erik Killmonger. Also announced was Danai Gurira as Okoye. Coogler confirmed that filming would begin in January 2017. In September 2016, Winston Duke was cast as M'Baku, a role that Yahya Abdul - Mateen II had also tested for. The following month, Forest Whitaker was cast as Zuri and Daniel Kaluuya as W'Kabi, with Florence Kasumba revealed to be reprising her role as Ayo from Captain America: Civil War. Letitia Wright was also cast in an unspecified role. Angela Bassett was cast as T'Challa's mother, Ramonda, in November, and by January 2017, Sterling K. Brown was cast as N'Jobu. At that time, Marvel received permission from the Oakland, California - based public transit agency AC Transit to use their logo in the film for the opening flashback sequence. The setting was chosen due to Coogler 's Oakland roots. Amandla Stenberg was also considered for a role in the film, before she ultimately declined to appear. Stenberg, who is bi-racial and light skinned, called the decision "really challenging '' as she did not feel comfortable taking a role in the film from a dark - skinned actor saying, "it would have just been off to see me as a bi-racial American with a Nigerian accent (playing a dark - skinned African) just pretending that I 'm the same color as everyone else in the movie. ''
The production team was inspired by Ta - Nehisi Coates ' run on Black Panther, who was writing the comic at the time, including Coates ' poetic dialogue, the art by Brian Stelfreeze, and "some of the questions that it 's asking ''. Other runs of Black Panther in the comics that inspired the film include those by Jack Kirby, Christopher Priest (which Coogler felt most influenced the film), Jonathan Hickman, and Hudlin. Characters for the film were picked from throughout the comics, based on what worked best for the film 's story. Coogler had hoped to include Spider - Man villain Kraven the Hunter early in the process (before being told the character was unavailable to use in the film) because of a scene in Priest 's run that had T'Challa fighting Kraven. Donald Glover and his brother Stephen Glover made some minor contributions to an early draft of the script, which included developing the relationship between T'Challa and his younger sister Shuri.
Cole called the film an historic opportunity to depict a black superhero "at a time when African - Americans are affirming their identities while dealing with vilification and dehumanization ''. He added that it was important to root the themes of the film in the actual cultures of Africa, and that they would be working with experts on the region of Africa that Wakanda is supposed to be located in. Elaborating on this, Cole noted that all the countries in Africa have "different histories, mythologies, and cultures (so) what we tried to do was hone in on some of the history, some of the cultural influences and then extrapolate out in our technology... we wanted to root it in reality first and then build out from there ''. Coogler compared the rarity of vibranium existing only in Wakanda to the real - life mineral coltan that can almost only be found in Congo. He wanted Wakanda to feel like a country rather than just one city by featuring multiple tribes, each with their own cultures, and created a project bible that listed each Wakandan tribe and their origins, which guided the design process. Special care was taken in all aspects of the design to create a futuristic look that was not alien, as some of Jack Kirby 's comic designs appeared.
Beachler wanted to honor the comics with her designs, and then fill in the gaps with research concentrated on Sub-Saharan Africa, pulling inspiration from Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Congo - Kinshasa, and Ethiopia, as well as the designs of Zaha Hadid. Moore described this approach as a love letter to Africa. Beachler looked at the architecture of existing tribes, and then tried to make them technologically advanced in a natural way rather than if Wakanda had been colonized. She said that this combination of old and new was an important theme throughout the film, as well as circular motifs to signify the transmission of energy. Some of the older areas explored in the film include Warrior Falls, the City of the Dead, and the Hall of Kings, which are juxtaposed with the more modern Afro - punk style of the Golden City, the capital. Rondavels were incorporated into the tops of Wakanda 's skyscrapers, inspired by the look of mountains at Blyde River Canyon in South Africa. Beachler created different sigils and architecture for each of the Wakandan tribes, with the Border Tribe inspired by Lesotho, the Merchant Tribe having a sigil based on Nigerian writing, and the Golden Tribe using a symbol for the sun found throughout Africa. Gorilla City, home to the Jabari Tribe, was originally set in a rain forest, but Coogler suggested that it be found up a mountain in snow. Beachler based the written form of the Wakandan language seen throughout the film on an old Nigerian language. Beachler also worked on the vibranium technology used throughout the country, consulting with mining and metallurgy experts. This included the vibranium mine where the substance is depicted as glowing blue rocks, before it is refined into the stainless steel look previously seen in the MCU. The film also adapts the kimoyo bead technology from the comics, and features sand - based technology. Beachler wanted all of the futuristic elements of the film to be consistent with projections of what real world technology may be like in 25 or 30 years, including the maglev and hovercraft technology used in vehicles. The Wakandan vehicles depicted in the film include a maglev train for carrying vibranium; the king 's Royal Talon Fighter, which looks like a mask from the top and bottom; and the Dragon Flyer, inspired by the Congo peafowl.
The majority of Beachler 's sets were constructed on sound stages in Atlanta, including the Tribal Council, Shuri 's design space, and the Hall of Kings. The Tribal Council set was built with a glass floor through which an old ruin can be seen. The exterior set for Warrior Falls was built on a backlot north of Atlanta, and was inspired by the Oribi Gorge. The set was 36 feet (11 m), made up of a 6 feet (1.8 m) high pool, and then 30 feet (9.1 m) high cliff faces that were designed to be extended to 100 feet (30 m) with visual effects. A framework for the cliffs was hand - sculpted from industrial styrofoam, with a system of tunnels built - in to the design to allow extras to climb up to different areas of the cliffs. The framework was then covered with 25,000 cubic feet (710 m) of foam that was sculptured to match rocks found at Oribi Gorge. Six large pumps were used to fill the pool at the base of the set, and create a waterfall over the ledge at the bottom. The base of the pool was made from padding so stunts could safely be carried out on the set, but designed to look like rocks and to have enough grip that the actors would not fall over in the water. The set took four months to complete, and was used for two weeks of filming.
Costume designer Ruth E. Carter referenced the Maasai, Himba, Dogon, Basotho, Tuareg, Turkana, Xhosa, Zulu, Suri and Dinka people in her designs for Wakanda. She also examined appropriate works by Japanese fashion designer Issey Miyake, French fashion designer Yves Saint Laurent and American fashion designer Donna Karan. Winnie Mandela provided inspiration to the costumes Carter created for Angela Bassett, while the Dora Milaje costumes primarily used red to reflect different African cultures, and included beaded tabards that feature talismans for "protection, good spirit, and good luck, and a sense of ownership, as if the costume could be handed down from mother to daughter ''. Carter specifically wanted to avoid the "girls in the bathing suits '' look, and instead have the Dora Milaje wear full armor that they would practically need for battle. She also had to take the stunt work that the actors had to do into consideration. Anthony Francisco, the Senior Visual Development Illustrator, noted the Dora Milaje costumes were based 80 percent on the Maasai, five percent on samurai, five percent on ninjas, and five percent on the Ifugao people from the Philippines. The arm band and neck rings were a reference to the Southern Ndebele people, which denotes stature. As such, Okoye has gold bands and rings to denote she is a general, compared to the other Dora Milaje wearing silver. The costumes for T'Challa combined his role as king and as the head of the military, including combining a kente cloth cloak with military boots. Carter also used distinct colors and patterns for each of Wakanda 's tribes, such as green with shells for the River Tribe based on the Suri, blue with wood for the Border Tribe, and black with royal purple for the Black Panther and the Royal Palace. The Merchant Tribe was clothed in plums and purples for the merchants in reference to the Tuareg, and ochre for the Mining Tribe, inspired by the Himba. Three out of every five people in Wakanda go barefoot, which also influenced the costuming process. When the Wakandan characters are in other countries, their clothing looks "quite normal '' but is intended to be consistent with their respective Wakandan designs. Carter created 700 costumes for the film, working with "an army '' of illustrators, designers, mold makers, fabric dyers, jewelry makers and more. Hair department head Camille Friend referenced traditional African art, fabrics, hair, and textures, and the current - day natural hair movement in her designs. Friend strived to keep the hair natural, using "braids, locs and twists... extensions, (and) wigs ''. As with Carter, each tribe had their own identifiable hair aesthetic, such as the Jabari Tribe having "very straight, clean lines '' with war - paint detail, inspired by Senegalese warriors.
Principal photography had begun by January 21, 2017, at EUE / Screen Gems Studios in the Atlanta metropolitan area, under the working title Motherland. Filming also took place in the Sweet Auburn neighborhood in Atlanta, which doubled as Oakland; the High Museum of Art, which served as the fictional Museum of Great Britain in London; and Atlanta City Hall, which served as a United Nations building. Shortly after filming started, Kani 's son Atandwa stated that he would appear in the film alongside his father, the latter reprising the role of T'Chaka, while on - set photographs revealed that Martin Freeman would reprise his role as Everett K. Ross. Marvel announced the start of production on January 26, along with confirming the casting of Freeman, Wright, and John Kani, and revealing that Andy Serkis would reprise his role as Ulysses Klaue from Avengers: Age of Ultron. Atandwa portrays a younger version of his father 's character, and also served as a cultural consultant during filming, along with dialect coach Beth McGuire who ensured there was continuity between the various actors who had to use "Wakandan accents ''.
Jordan joined the production later than the rest of the core cast. He felt that this aided his performance, since his character is separate from and in conflict with the other characters. Because of this, Jordan kept to himself while he was on set. It was revealed during a press visit to the film 's set that the Dora Milaje would be widely explored in the film, which does not adapt the ceremonial betrothal aspect from the comics. Moore compared the politics and humor of the film to Captain America: The Winter Soldier, saying that the former would be inherent but not "preachy '', and that the latter would be avoiding the tones of Guardians of the Galaxy and Ant - Man. He added that the film does not depend on the plots of any other MCU films -- and the character Bucky Barnes would not come out of cryogenic sleep during Black Panther after being frozen by Wakandan scientists at the end of Civil War -- but the events of this film do affect the wider MCU moving forward. Since Black Panther and Avengers: Infinity War were filming simultaneously in Atlanta, both production teams worked together closely to ensure a unified presentation of Wakanda in the films, as the country also plays a large role in Infinity War.
Additional filming took place in South Korea, with the city of Busan serving as the setting of a car chase scene, involving 150 cars and over 700 people. Filming in Busan began on March 17, 2017, with shooting occurring at the Jagalchi Fish Market, and filming taking place by Gwangalli Beach on March 21. Other filming locations included Marine City in the Haeundae District and at the Gwangandaegyo Bridge. The production crew also hired hundreds of current and former film students from local universities as staff or assistant staff during the South Korea filming. Filming in the country wrapped on March 27. At CinemaCon 2017, Wright was revealed to be portraying Shuri in the film. Location shooting also took place at the Rwenzori Mountains and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda, while Marzano Films provided aerial footage of South Africa, Zambia, Uganda and South Korea. Filming concluded on April 19, 2017.
Cinematographer Rachel Morrison, who was eager to work on Black Panther because of the bond that she formed with Coogler on Fruitvale Station, filmed in 3.4 K ArriRaw with Arri Alexa XT Plus cameras and Panavision Primo lenses. Morrison stated that she primarily used a two - camera set - up with a third or fourth camera on occasion. Morrison also said that lighting was her biggest challenge, the magnitude of which "was much bigger than I 'd experienced before '', and made extensive use of Arri SkyPanel LED light fixtures, which she could preprogram from an iPad. Morrison explained that she surrounded entire sets with SkyPanels and even "built an entire jungle on a sound stage ''.
At the end of June 2017, Sydelle Noel revealed she had been cast in the film as Xoliswa, a member of the Dora Milaje. In July 2017, Moore said Black Panther would be a cross between The Godfather and the James Bond films as a "big, operatic family drama centered around a world of international espionage. So hopefully we 're getting the best of both worlds. '' Coogler added that the film was influenced by "the films of the ' 70s '' such as the works of Francis Ford Coppola in that decade, as well as crime fiction. Coogler also watched the film A Prophet for inspiration. Feige called the film 's story "rich in culturally relevant ideas. These are conversations we were having two years ago because that is inherently the story within the comics. Now it 's going to seem like the most highly fluid thing we could have done. '' Boseman also indicated there were parallels to "pull from '' in the film in relation to Donald Trump becoming President of the United States after Barack Obama. In January 2018, Coogler hinted at the inclusion of post-credit scenes. Two are included, with the second featuring Sebastian Stan reprising his role as Bucky Barnes.
Visual effects for the film were created by: Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) with help from Virtuos, Stereo D, and Scanline VFX; Double Negative; Luma Pictures; Mammal Studios; Method Studios; Perception; Rise Visual Effects Studios; Torm Studios; Trixter; Cantina Creative; Lola VFX; Capital T; Exceptional Minds; Technicolor VFX; Rodeo FX; Imageloom VFX; Anibrain; Method Pune; Bot VFX; Pixstone Images; Futureworks; Vertigo Visual; FX3X; and Yannix Thailand Co. Previsualization was completed by Digital Domain and The Third Floor, while Perception also created the main title sequence for the film.
ILM was primarily responsible for creating the digital urban environments of Wakanda. VFX supervisor Craig Hammack said, "African culture has symbology, color and richness and a certain amount of earthy material qualities that make things difficult to design as a futuristic city, '' which typically use lots of steel and glass. ILM looked to real life examples that blend modern architecture with natural environments like One Central Park in Sydney and modern African architecture like The Pearl of Africa Hotel in Kampala as influences. ILM also worked on some interior shots, extending Beachler 's set, and the initial rhinoceros. For T'Challa's ancestral plane scenes, ILM worked on the nighttime scene first, having the sky reflect the Northern Lights, and worked had to keep the sky visible in the daytime scene. ILM also added additional vibranium sand for the burial sequences to aid in the breathing of Boseman when filming, and added the flames when Killmonger burns the heart - shaped herb. Perception, which also did the main on - end title sequence that referenced the vibranium sand effect that ILM and other companies contributed through the film, also helped create Shuri 's laboratory and the interface designs for the displays.
Method Studios created much of the digital natural environments of Wakanda. Method built a 3,600 square kilometers (1,400 sq mi) landscape that is visible in various aerial shots in the film. VFX Supervisor Andy Brown said, "Looking out from the top of Mount Bashenga, you can see the rich diversity of African landscapes -- it looks lush and jungle - like in one direction, and more like the plains and savannah in the other, so we had multiple ecosystems to tackle, but it really drives home the vastness of these shots. '' Method was also responsible for creating Black Panther 's and Killmonger 's digital suits, and many of the film 's digital characters, vehicles, and weapons. They also worked on the final battle sequence, including crowd simulation. Method worked with the stunt coordinators in their motion capture sessions to give each Dora Milaje or Jabari fighter their unique fighting style. Brown noted that "In addition to randomizing the height, weight, and other characteristics of each fighter to add variance to the crowd, we had to incorporate more specific elements such as unique face tattoos for each Dora Milaje fighter and the signature hairstyles of the Jabari warriors. '' Method also worked on the vibranium mine, animating the gadgets in Shuri 's laboratory.
Luma Pictures worked on the Busan car chase sequence, digitally creating the Lexus cars featured in the sequence. Multiple digital versions of the same car were created, so the production could have the actual cars crash and do various stunts with them, with Luma then inserting the digital versions to augment them. Luma also created the sonic forces from Klaue 's cannon, while Scanline VFX worked on digitally removing Serkis ' left arm for the sonic cannon and the London museum heist sequence.
Ludwig Göransson was hired to compose the film 's score by April 2017. Göransson traveled to Senegal and South Africa to record local musicians to form the "base '' of his soundtrack. Kendrick Lamar produced the film 's curated soundtrack, Black Panther: The Album, along with Top Dawg Entertainment founder Anthony Tiffith. Coogler chose Lamar for the project because his "artistic themes align with those we explore in the film ''. Three singles from the album were released throughout January and February 2018: "All the Stars '', "King 's Dead '', and "Pray for Me ''. Black Panther: The Album was released on February 9, 2018, while a soundtrack of Göransson 's score was released on February 16, 2018.
Black Panther had its world premiere at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles on January 29, 2018. The premiere featured a purple carpet that was flanked by women dressed as the Dora Milaje, and was lit by futuristic lamps. Coogler, the cast members, and other guests wore African clothing, to honor the African roots of the film, at the request of Marvel for attendees to wear "royal attire ''. Ahead of the screening at the premiere, Coogler received an extended standing ovation before he announced the cast of the film. Black Panther was released in the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, and Taiwan on February 13, 2018, in South Korea on February 14, 2018, and the United States on February 16, 2018. In the United States, the film opened in 4,020 theaters, with over 3,200 of those in 3D, 404 in IMAX, over 660 in premium large format, and over 200 D - Box locations. In addition, Black Panther was the first MCU film to be converted to ScreenX, a 270 - degree wraparound format, that played in over 101 locations in eight countries. The film opened in most of its markets in its first weekend of release and had a "cross-nation release '' in Africa, a first for a Disney film. It was originally scheduled to be released on November 3, 2017, before moving in February 2015 to July 6, 2018 to accommodate Spider - Man: Homecoming. In October 2015, it moved again to accommodate Ant - Man and the Wasp.
Black Panther is set to premiere in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia on April 18, 2018. The occasion marks the first public film screening since movie theaters were banned in the kingdom in the early 1980 's, after ultraconservative religious standards were introduced in 1979. The ban was lifted in December 2017 by Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman as part of an effort to revamp Saudi society. The film will premiere in a newly constructed 620 leather seat cinema, owned by AMC Theatres, in Riyadh 's King Abdullah Financial District that was originally intended to be a symphony hall. It will screen for five days before Avengers: Infinity War premieres on April 26 in the kingdom.
Marvel debuted early footage and concept art from the film in April 2017, at a press event for several of the MCU Phase Three films. Kyle Buchanan at Vulture.com praised the cinematography, costume and production design, and focus on dark - skinned actors and characters, saying "Black Panther does n't look like any of the other Marvel movies... If this is what the future of superhero movies looks like, deal me in. '' Feige believed the screened footage was the first time Marvel had shown raw dailies, a decision made because the company wanted to show off the film 's cast (which Feige called "the highest - class cast we 've had on a first movie '') and diversity, even though editing for it had not yet begun.
A teaser poster was released ahead of the first teaser trailer, which premiered during Game 4 of the 2017 NBA Finals. Fans felt the poster was poorly photoshopped, and tweets mentioning it were only 27 percent positive, and 27 percent negative, according to CNBC 's marketing technology firm Amobee. The poster was also compared to a real - life picture of Black Panther Party co-founder Huey P. Newton holding two gun spears. The trailer received a much more positive response, with Peter Sciretta of / Film saying it was "nothing like I was expecting this movie to look like and that 's refreshing ''. io9 's Charles Pulliam - Moore called the teaser "every bit as intense as you were hoping it would be '' and "epic as hell ''. Andrew Husband for Uproxx felt the single teaser "easily outshines Spider - Man: Homecoming 's big - from - the - beginning marketing campaign ''. Forbes 's Scott Mendelson felt that "Black Panther has the chance to be a seminal event in the same way we 're now seeing with Wonder Woman. '' The trailer was viewed 89 million times in 24 hours, and "dominated the conversation on social media for much of the night '' over Game 4, being the top - trending item on Twitter. The Hollywood Reporter noted that the teaser generated 349,000 Twitter mentions in 24 hours, also more than Game 4. The amount of mentions were second to the amount the Star Wars: The Last Jedi teaser received. comScore and its PreAct service noted over 466,000 new social media conversations for the film after the trailer released, the most for the week. For the week ending on June 18, comScore and its PreAct service again noted social media conversations for the film, with over 33,000 new ones, the second-most for the week behind Spider - Man: Homecoming. The service also noted Black Panther produced a total of over 566,000 conversations to date.
Costumes from the film were on display at D23 Expo 2017 and the 2017 San Diego Comic - Con. Also in July, Marvel Studios unveiled a partnership with Lexus, with the 2018 Lexus LC being featured in the film. A graphic novel, Black Panther: Soul of a Machine, was released in December 2017 from writers Fabian Nicieza, Geoffrey Thorne and Chuck Brown, with cover illustrations by Scott "Rahzzah '' Wilson and Szymon Kudranski, in which Black Panther defeats a villain with the help of the Lexus LC 500. Lexus also unveiled the 2018 LC Inspiration Series production car and a concept coupe dubbed the Black Panther Inspired LC. Coogler, Boseman and other members of the cast presented exclusive footage of the film at the 2017 San Diego Comic - Con, which received a standing ovation from the audience. The footage segued into a montage featuring Kendrick Lamar 's song "DNA ''. Coogler called the lyrics "amazing '' and both literally and culturally appropriate for the footage and film. In September 2017, Coogler, Gurira, and Moore participated in a panel at the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation 's Annual Legislative Conference, where exclusive footage from the film was also shown and met with a positive response.
On October 16, 2017, a full trailer was released. Dave Trumbore for Collider felt it was "a killer trailer. It not only shows off a ton of action sequences, outrageous costume design, and comic book goodies for fans out there, it also brings an unmistakable sense of style that 's all Black Panther 's own. '' Graeme McMillan of The Hollywood Reporter said the message of the trailer was clear: "this is n't like the other Marvel movies, this is something else ''. BamSmackPow 's Brendan Day said the trailer "does everything right '', showing "a lot of cool imagery and action scenes without giving us much context or story points '' and having unique music choices, featuring "BagBak '' by Vince Staples and "The Revolution Will Not Be Televised '' by Gil Scott - Heron. Writing for Rolling Stone, Tre Johnson felt the trailer showed T'Challa as "someone with the arrogance of (John) Shaft, the coolness of (Barack) Obama and the hot - headed impulsiveness of Kanye West ''. He continued, "After decades of trying to nail the modern black superhero, we may finally be getting what we 've asked for... Coogler has set out to do something with the modern black superhero that all previous iterations have fallen short of doing: making it respectable, imaginative and powerful. The Afro - punk aesthetic, the unapologetic black swagger, the miniscule appearances from non-black characters -- it 's an important resetting of a standard of what 's possible ''. A few days later, Marvel Comics published a prelude tie - in comic focusing on one of T'Challa's first missions as the Black Panther around the time of Iron Man.
The first College Football Playoff National Championship halftime show was organized by Disney for the 2018 championship game, with Kendrick Lamar performing to promote Black Panther: The Album, to release a new trailer for the film, and to begin selling tickets for the film 's opening weekend. Marvel again partnered with Lexus to create a commercial for Super Bowl LII. Promoting the 2018 Lexus LS 500 F Sport, it featured Boseman and Wright reprising their roles. The commercial was released on January 25, 2018, ahead of its airing during the Super Bowl. According to RelishMix, the Lexus commercial had 4.3 million views on social media after it aired in the Super Bowl. Marvel also partnered with British shoe manufacturer Clarks to create a variant of their Originals ' Trigenic Evo shoe, inspired by the film. By February 12, 2018, Black Panther had amassed more than 5 million tweets on Twitter globally, becoming the most tweeted about film of 2018, after being a top film in 2017 as well. Twitter also launched a custom emoji for the film, that appears when the hashtag # BlackPanther is used. During New York Fashion Week at Industria Studios in lower Manhattan, designers Cushnie et Ochs, Ikiré Jones, Tome, Sophie Theallet, Fear of God, Chromat, and LaQuan Smith created custom pieces that were inspired by the film for an event titled "Welcome to Wakanda: Fashion for the Black Panther Era ''. Nick Barose applied makeup for the event, while Rodney Cutler styled hair. By mid-March 2018, the film became the most - tweeted about film of all time on Twitter, with 35 million tweets. Twitter noted the most used Black Panther - related hashtags were # BlackPanther, # WakandaForever, and # Wakanda, with the most discussed characters Black Panther, Killmonger, and Shuri. Additionally, the most - retweeted tweets about the film were Lamar 's reveal of the soundtrack tracklist he curated, a video of kids trying to buy tickets using a Vincent Adultman - style trench coat disguise, and former First Lady Michelle Obama 's praise for the film.
Other marketing partners included PepsiCo and Unilever, which launched an arts program in urban areas to provide an opportunity for young people interested in film to be mentored by established artists. Brisk created an interactive Black Panther installation at the 2018 NBA All - Star Game weekend, which showcased nine Brisk labels created by emerging artists to promote the Creators Class program. These labels debuted on all Brisk packaging nationwide in late February. Lancôme highlighted a line of makeup that Lupita Nyong'o and Letitia Wright used at the premiere of the film. Synchrony Financial worked with Coogler and Marvel to award the Ghetto Film School Fellows program with a $50,000 grant, with Coogler also visiting the school to speak to the students.
Black Panther had the most expansive advertising budget and biggest line of merchandise of any Marvel non-sequel. Deadline Hollywood estimated the marketing budget globally was $140 million. In order to make the film "feel like a cultural event '', Asad Ayaz, Executive Vice President of Marketing for Marvel films at Disney, said the marketing campaign was about "super-serving black moviegoers while also making it the broadest moviegoing event ''. Disney and Marvel also created a "synergy program '' with the College Football Playoffs on ESPN, the ABC 's television series Black - ish, Grey 's Anatomy, Scandal, and How to Get Away With Murder, the Freeform series Grown - ish, and the Bravo franchise The Real Housewives. Marketing in territories outside the United States by Disney was fairly uniform, with a few exceptions. In the Middle East, the focus was kept on Black Panther, rather than Boseman out of costume, as superhero films "just keep working '' in the territory, according to Gianluca Chakra, Managing Partner of major regional Middle East distributor Front Row. For Asian territories, they also focused on Black Panther as well as the action in the film, a strong selling point for audiences there. A Wakanda exhibit was featured in malls in seven cities in China, along with displays showing Black Panther next to other established MCU characters. A special trailer was also created for the Chinese audience, with Boseman introducing himself and the character 's connection to the other MCU films. Weibo attended the Los Angeles premiere of the film to take pictures and videos with the cast and crew in real time for China, the first time the company has partnered with a foreign studio for this type of engagement.
Black Panther will be released on digital download and Ultra HD Blu - ray by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on May 8, 2018, and on Blu - ray and DVD on May 15.
As of April 8, 2018, Black Panther has grossed $665.6 million in the United States and Canada, and $634.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $1.300 billion. The $370.5 million earned worldwide in its opening weekend was the 15th - largest of all time. It is the highest - grossing solo superhero film, the third - highest - grossing film of the MCU after The Avengers and Age of Ultron, and 10th - highest of all time. By its second weekend, the film earned $54.6 million globally from IMAX, which was the fastest Marvel film to reach the $50 million mark. In its fourth weekend, the film surpassed $1 billion, becoming the fifth MCU film, sixteenth Walt Disney Studios film, and 33rd film overall to do so. In March 2018, five weeks after the film released, Deadline Hollywood estimated the net profit of the film would be $461 million, accounting for production budgets, P&A, talent participations and other costs, with box office grosses and ancillary revenues from home media.
In December 2017, a survey from Fandango indicated that Black Panther was the second most anticipated film of 2018, behind Avengers: Infinity War. Fandango reported that its first 24 hours of ticket pre-sales for the film were the largest ever for a Marvel film, surpassing Captain America: Civil War. Two weeks ahead of its release, Fandango announced that the film outsold all previous superhero films at the same point in the sales cycle, breaking the record previously held by Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. Additionally, Black Panther had the highest number of ticket pre-sales for any superhero film at Alamo Drafthouse Cinema, after 18 days of sales. This was more than Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, the next closest film, which only had 72 % of Black Panther 's ticket sales in the same time frame. AMC Theatres also revealed that the film was out - selling all previous Marvel films, with strong sales in both urban areas and suburban locations.
Four days before its United States opening, IMAX Entertainment CEO Greg Foster revealed that Black Panther had the most advanced IMAX ticket sales of any Marvel film. He added that it did not appear the ticket sales had peaked, stating that a film usually peaks 10 days before it opens, but Black Panther "feels like it 's going to peak the day it opens ''. Atom Tickets also revealed strong pre-sales for the film. On February 15, 2017, Fandango announced that the film had the fourth - highest pre-sale tickets sold, behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens, Star Wars: The Last Jedi, and Rogue One. It also became the top pre-seller for a superhero film, beating Captain America: Civil War and Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, for a film released in February, beating Deadpool, as well as for the first quarter of the year, beating The Hunger Games and Beauty and the Beast.
Black Panther earned $75.8 million on its opening day in the United States and Canada (including $25.2 million from Thursday night previews), and earned $242.1 million over the four - day Presidents ' Day weekend, which was the best Presidents ' Day weekend opening, the second - best four - day opening after Star Wars: The Force Awakens ($288 million) and best ever for an African - American director. The Thursday night gross was the second - best for a MCU film, behind Avengers: Age of Ultron ($27.6 million), the second - best preview night for a non-summer release, behind Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice ($27.7 million), and the best preview night for a February release, beating Deadpool ($12.7 million). $3 million of the Thursday preview gross came from IMAX, which was tied for the most with Age of Ultron and Captain America: Civil War. The total opening day gross was the third - highest for a superhero film, behind Age of Ultron ($84 million) and The Avengers ($80 million), the second - highest pre-summer release, behind Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice ($81 million), and the eighth - highest opening day ever. The $50.6 million earned on Friday was the largest single - day gross for a solo superhero film and the largest single - day gross for a non-sequel film. The $60.1 million earned on Sunday was the best single - day gross for a superhero film and the second best Sunday ever, behind Star Wars: The Last Jedi ($60.5 million). The three - day total weekend gross of $202 million was the fifth - best three - day opening ever and the biggest opening for a pre-summer and February release. The film 's $40.2 million gross on Monday was the best Monday gross of all time. IMAX contributed $23.5 million to the opening weekend gross, which was the best ever for a February release and any Marvel film, and the fourth - best opening ever. Speaking to the success of the film in its opening weekend, Anthony D'Alessandro of Deadline.com said it was "summer box office records during the second month of the year ''.
AMC Theatres also reported that Black Panther became the highest - grossing film in history at 33 of their locations after two days, earning more than other films have earned in an entire weekend. They later stated that the film became the highest - grossing film in an opening weekend for 150 of their theaters, with 15 locations more than doubling their previous record and two tripling their previous record. Black Panther also had the second - largest Saturday and largest Sunday in AMC history, and had the second - largest opening weekend for the chain with 4.4 million admissions. Atom Tickets sold more tickets for Black Panther than any other superhero film. Fandago 's pre-sales accounted for 30 % of the opening weekend gross, one of the largest box office shares for any film in Fandago 's history. The opening weekend gross surpassed early projections for the film. Early projections in December 2017 had it earning between $80 -- 90 million, which increased to $100 -- 120 million by the end of January 2018, and ultimately increasing again closer to the film 's release, projecting it to earn $150 -- 170 million or more. Several other film studios projected the total could be as high as $180 -- 200 million, while Disney initially projected the film to gross around $150 million in its opening weekend.
On the Tuesday after its opening weekend, Black Panther earned an estimated $21.07 million, which was the best pre-summer Tuesday ever, beating Beauty and the Beast ($17.8 million), the best Tuesday ever for an MCU film, beating The Avengers ($17.6 million), and the second - best Tuesday all time, after The Force Awakens ($37.3 million). Its five - day total of $263.2 million was still second to The Force Awakens ($325.4 million). The $14.3 million earned the Thursday after its opening weekend was the best Thursday ever for a MCU film, beating The Avengers ($12.4 million). It also surpassed $300 million on Friday, becoming the fastest MCU film to reach that mark in eight days, once again surpassing The Avengers, which had reached the mark in nine days, and tying The Last Jedi and Jurassic World. It also became the MCU film with the highest first - week gross.
In its second weekend, the film earned $112 million, which was a 45 percent decrease from its opening week. This percentage was the smallest decline in a second weekend for any MCU film and was described by D'Alessandro as "an amazing second - weekend hold ''. It was the second - best second weekend ever after The Force Awakens ($149.2 million) and the best second weekend ever for a Marvel film, beating The Avengers ($103 million). Over its second weekend, the film also surpassed $400 million for its total domestic gross, reaching the mark in ten days; this was the second fastest to reach that milestone, tied with Jurassic World behind The Force Awakens (eight days). It became the highest - grossing film released in the month of February, surpassing The Passion of the Christ ($370.3 million). IMAX also contributed $9 million to the weekend gross, bringing the domestic total to $36 million, which was the most for any MCU film. By surpassing $400 million, Black Panther exceeded initial early projections for its total domestic gross. By February 28, 2018, the film had earned $421.8 million, which made it the highest - grossing superhero origin film, surpassing Wonder Woman ($412.6 million).
The third weekend at the box office saw the film remain the top grossing film, earning $65.7 million and having its total gross surpass $500 million becoming the second - highest - grossing MCU film; the $65.7 million was the third - best third weekend ever, behind The Force Awakens ($90.2 million) and Avatar ($68.5 million). Black Panther remained the top film for the fourth straight weekend with an additional $41.1 million, which was the third - highest fourth weekend of all time, again behind The Force Awakens and Avatar. Black Panther remained number one in its fifth weekend, having the fourth - highest fifth weekend ever with $27 million. It became the first film to hold the number one spot at the box office for at least five weekends since Avatar, which led for seven weeks, and the first February release to hold the top box office spot for five weekends since The Silence of the Lambs in 1991 and Wayne 's World in 1992. By surpassing $600 million, it became the seventh film ever to break that point, and the second fastest film to do so in 31 days, after The Force Awakens (12 days). The film 's sixth weekend saw it fall to number two at the box office, behind Pacific Rim: Uprising, while also becoming the highest - grossing superhero film ever. The next weekend it fell to third, behind Ready Player One and Acrimony, and to fourth in its eighth weekend. The film is the third - highest - grossing film of all time.
Outside the United States and Canada, the film opened in 48 territories in its first weekend and has earned $184 million, opening at number one in most territories (and second in territories where Fifty Shades Freed performed better such as in Germany and Italy), and becoming the top February opening in many as well. The film opened at number one in the United Kingdom, where it had the best single day gross of 2018 so far and the highest - grossing February opening weekend ever. In South Korea, where it also opened at number one, the opening day gross of $4.7 million was the second - best MCU opening and the best ever for February. The $25.3 million it earned in its opening weekend was the fifth - highest Western release in South Korea. The other Asian markets that opened in its first weekend were also number one along with the biggest opening weekend of 2018 to date. The Latin America market also had all territories open at number one, and Black Panther was the best opening of 2018 in all except Argentina and Uruguay. It also was the highest - grossing opening of February of all time in Mexico, Brazil, Colombia, Bolivia, Ecuador, Panama and Paraguay. The African market saw the highest - grossing February opening of all - time in Bahrain, East Africa, Kuwait, Qatar, South Africa, the United Arab Emirates, and West Africa. South Africa also had the highest - grossing Saturday ever and the second highest - grossing opening weekend of all time. The Netherlands had the highest - grossing day ever for a superhero film and the highest - grossing February opening weekend ever.
Other territories opening at number one included Australia, Bosnia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Greece, Israel, Portugal, Serbia, Ukraine, and in France, Belgium, and Switzerland for the remainder of the opening weekend, after Fifty Shades Freed 's top gross on Valentine 's Day. Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines, and Indonesia recorded the largest opening day ever for February, while Malaysia was the third - highest MCU opening of all time and Indonesia had the third - largest opening weekend of all time. In Hong Kong, the opening was the second - largest opening day in February, while Taiwan and Australia had the third - largest February opening. IMAX accounted for $11.5 million of the opening weekend gross on 272 screens, with Nigeria, Kenya, and Indonesia having the best opening weekend ever in the format, South Korea had the second - best opening weekend, and Angola, Belgium, Bahrain, France, Israel, Netherlands, and Argentina and the best IMAX opening ever for a Marvel film. In its second weekend in 55 territories, the film earned $83.5 million and remained number one in most territories, including retaining the top spot in the Latin America market and becoming the top film in Germany. The West Africa region saw a 7 % increase, which resulted in the biggest three - day weekend ever. In South Africa, the second weekend gross became the third - biggest three - day weekend ever, behind the first weekend gross and The Fate of the Furious. The film opened in Russia in IMAX, earning $1.7 million which was a February record in the country, while the opening in Vietnam ($2.5 million, including previews) was the fifth - highest opening weekend, and Trinidad had the biggest opening weekend ever ($700,000).
In its third weekend in 56 territories, the film remained number one in Austria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Singapore, and all markets in Latin America, while its opening in Japan was the top Western film for the weekend, the second overall. IMAX contributed $713,000 to Japan 's opening weekend, which was a record for a March opening and the fourth - highest Marvel IMAX opening ever. Black Panther also became the highest - grossing film of all time in West and East Africa, the fifth - highest - grossing film all time in South Africa, and the top MCU film in the Netherlands. In its fourth weekend, Black Panther opened in China ($66.5 million), which was the fourth - highest MCU and superhero opening ever in the market. $7.3 million came from IMAX, which was the best - ever March opening weekend and the best - ever opening day for March in the territory. The film also remained at number one in the United Kingdom and the Latin America market except Argentina for the fourth straight weekend, as well as number one in South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. The film 's fifth weekend saw it once again be the top film in South Africa for the fifth weekend, where it also became the highest - grossing film ever, along with becoming the highest - grossing film in West, East, and southern Africa. It also became the fifth - highest - grossing MCU film in other territories of all time. Black Panther remained the top film in South Africa for a sixth weekend and became the highest - grossing superhero film ever in the Netherlands. The film continued to be the top film in South Africa for a seventh week, where it also became the fourth best MCU film in the country, and became the second - highest grossing MCU film in the United Kingdom in its eighth weekend. As of April 8, 2018, the film 's largest markets were China ($104.6 million), the United Kingdom ($67.7 million), and South Korea ($42.8 million).
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 97 % based on 366 reviews, with an average rating of 8.2 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Black Panther elevates superhero cinema to thrilling new heights while telling one of the MCU 's most absorbing stories -- and introducing some of its most fully realized characters. '' As of February 18, 2018, it is the best - reviewed live - action superhero film on the site, beating The Dark Knight and Iron Man (both 94 %). Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 88 out of 100, based on 55 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A + '' on an A+ to F scale, the second superhero film to receive that grade after Marvel 's own The Avengers. Filmgoers polled by Screen Engine / comScore 's PostTrak service gave the film a 92 % overall positive score and a 88 % "definite recommend '', with a third of people planning to see the film again. RelishMix reported that Twitter hashtags for # BlackPanther and tagging of the film 's Twitter account from audiences leaving the theater set an all - time film record in its opening weekend, with 559,000 unique posts in one day. This was twice the amount The Last Jedi received in December 2017, with 232,000, while 100,000 posts for a film is average.
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "The actors are all seen to very good advantage. Boseman certainly holds his own, but there are quite a few charismatic supporting players here keen to steal every scene they can -- and they do, notably the physically imposing Jordan, the radiant Nyong'o and especially Wright, who gives her every scene extra punch and humor. '' Peter Debruge of Variety said, "Black Panther celebrates its hero 's heritage while delivering one of Marvel 's most all - around appealing standalone installments to date. '' Manohla Dargis of The New York Times called Black Panther "a jolt of a movie '', and said, "in its emphasis on black imagination, creation and liberation, the movie becomes an emblem of a past that was denied and a future that feels very present. And in doing so opens up its world, and yours, beautifully. '' Kenneth Turan of Los Angeles Times said, "With dialogue that deftly explores serious questions, such as how much if anything do wealthy countries owe the poor and oppressed of the world, Black Panther draws energy from Coogler 's sense of excitement at all he 's attempting. The result is a superhero movie that 's worth seeing twice, and that is a rare sighting indeed. '' Richard Roeper, writing for the Chicago Sun - Times, called the film "one of the best superhero movies of the century '' and said, "If you appreciate finely honed storytelling with a Shakespearean core; winning performances from an enormously talented ensemble; provocative premises touching on isolationism, revolution and cultures of oppression, and oh yeah, tons of whiz - bang action sequences and good humor -- then you should see Black Panther. ''
Brian Truitt of USA Today awarded the film four out of four stars, and called it Marvel Studios ' best origin film since Guardians of the Galaxy. Truitt also praised the "superb cast '' and stated, "While the themes are deep, Black Panther is at the same time a visual joy to behold, with confident quirkiness, insane action sequences and special effects, and the glorious reveal of Wakanda, whose culture is steeped in African influences but which also offers a jaw - dropping look at what a city of the future could be. '' Also giving the film four stars, Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called it "(un) like any other Marvel movie -- an exhilarating triumph on every level from writing, directing, acting, production design, costumes, music, special effects to you name it ''. Natasha Alford of The Grio said, "Black Panther is remarkable because this film is a movement, a revolution in progress, and a joy to experience all wrapped into one '', and called it "a master class in what it means to be proud of who you are, where you have been and where you and your people are going. '' Jamie Broadnax of Black Girl Nerds said Marvel "created a masterpiece with Black Panther '', adding, "it 's afro - futuristic and Blackity - black as hell. It 's everything I 've ever desired in a live - action version of this popular superhero and yet so much more. Quite frankly, the experience is indescribable. '' Jamelle Bouie of Slate said, "it is fair to say that Black Panther is the most political movie ever produced by Marvel Studios, both in its very existence... and in the questions its story raises. '' He added that the film should be included with Superman, Spider - Man 2 and The Dark Knight as a film in the superhero genre that does not "transcend the genre as much as they embrace it in all its respects ''. Bouie concluded, "Black Panther could have been just another Marvel romp -- a fun but ultimately disposable entry in the studio 's catalogue. But Ryan Coogler and company had the power, and perhaps the responsibility, to do much more. And they did. ''
In early January 2018, New York resident Frederick Joseph created a GoFundMe campaign in hopes to raise money to help children of color at the Boys & Girls Club in Harlem see Black Panther. Joseph called the release of Black Panther a "rare opportunity for young students (primarily of color) to see a black major cinematic and comic book character come to life. This representation is truly fundamental for young people, especially those who are often underserved, unprivileged, and marginalized both nationally and globally. '' The campaign exceeded its goal, and given the popularity of its intent, Joseph asked others to create their own campaigns in their own communities to take more children to see the film, which he named the "Black Panther Challenge ''. GoFundMe created a centralized page for anyone wishing to create a campaign for the challenge, and revealed that 10 campaigns created using the sign - up page would receive a $100 donation from GoFundMe. Over 400 additional campaigns were started around the world, with many celebrities offering their support and contributions to the campaigns, such as actress Octavia Spencer, who intended to buy out a theater in Mississippi for underserved members of the community. Obi Umunna, a Jacksonville, Florida - based attorney born to Nigerian immigrants, participated in the challenge, saying, "I just want for kids in my community to have the same opportunity and to see this movie... I think this is an awesome opportunity for them to see themselves represented in a very positive light... compared to some of the negative images that you see on a daily basis. '' The campaign became the largest GoFundMe in history for an entertainment event and raised over $400,000.
Science & Entertainment Exchange Director for the National Academy of Sciences Richard Loverd felt the film would increase interest in science, technology, and Africa for young black Americans, similarly to how The Hunger Games films and Brave sparked girls ' interest in archery. Jamie Broadnax, editor - in - chief and creator of the website Black Girl Nerds, felt Black Panther would "bring in a lot of people (of color) who do n't even really go to comic - book movies... (since) they 're going to see themselves reflected in a huge way that they just have n't been able to see before '', especially since the film avoided black pain, suffering, and poverty, usual topics in films about the black experience. She added that the strong female characters, such as Shuri, would be an inspiration for girls and young people. Gil Robertson, co-founder and president of the African American Film Critics Association, added that the film was "critically important '' and "a gate - opener opportunity for other black - centered projects ''. Child development expert Deborah Gilboa felt the film would make a huge impact on children 's spirits, by offering positive role models and knowing that "not only can they succeed, they need to see that lots of people want to sit in a theater and watch someone like them succeed in a big, big way. That 's how we help build a generation of young people who are engaged in the greater good and courageous in their actions. '' In the film 's opening weekend, 37 % of audiences in the United States were African - American, according to Screen Engine / comScore 's PostTrak service, compared to 35 % Caucasian, 18 % Hispanic, and 5 % Asian. This was the most diverse audience for a superhero film ever, where African - Americans generally make up 15 % of audiences for such films. In its second weekend, demographics were 37 % Caucasian, 33 % African American, 18 % Hispanic and 7 % Asian.
Writing for Time, Jamil Smith felt Black Panther, which he described as a film "about what it means to be black in both America and Africa -- and, more broadly, in the world '', was "poised to prove to Hollywood that African - American narratives have the power to generate profits from all audiences. And, more important, that making movies about black lives is part of showing that they matter. '' He added, "In the midst of a regressive cultural and political moment fueled in part by the white - nativist movement, the very existence of Black Panther feels like resistance. Its themes challenge institutional bias, its characters take unsubtle digs at oppressors, and its narrative includes prismatic perspectives on black life and tradition. '' Discussing why the film was a defining moment for black America in The New York Times Magazine, Carvell Wallace said that in contrast to earlier black superhero films, Black Panther "is steeped very specifically and purposefully in its blackness ''. He continued, "Black Panther is a Hollywood movie, and Wakanda is a fictional nation. But coming when they do, from a director like Coogler, they must also function as a place for multiple generations of black Americans to store some of our most deeply held aspirations. We have for centuries sought to either find or create a promised land where we would be untroubled by the criminal horrors of our American existence. '' Wallace also commented on how the film fits into the larger idea of Afrofuturism, particularly in its presentation of Wakanda. Historian Nathan D.B. Connolly felt Black Panther was "a breakthrough in black cultural representation. It 's a powerful fictional analogy for real - life struggles. And Black Panther owes its very existence to centuries of political and artistic activity, always occurring in real places and under the mortal (but still super -) powers of real people... Black Panther taps a 500 - year history of African - descended people imagining freedom, land and national autonomy. '' Connolly also felt, culturally, the film would be this generation 's A Raisin in the Sun.
A number of writers looked to the film 's subtext and what it said about African history, colonialism (including post-colonialism and neocolonialism), and tensions between African and African - American cultures. Patrick Gathara, writing in The Washington Post, described the film as offering a "regressive, neocolonial vision of Africa '', which -- rather than a "redemptive counter-mythology '' -- offers "the same destructive myths ''. Gathara highlighted the Africa that is portrayed as being divided and tribalized, with Wakanda run by a wealthy and feuding elite, centered upon "royalty and warriors '', whose fortune comes not from its citizens ' endeavors, skill or innate abilities, but from a "lucky meteor strike '', and as a country which, despite its advanced technical abilities, does not evince any great thinkers, nor even a means of succession beyond lethal combat and primeval trials of strength. Gathara continued that the very idea of "Africa '' is essentially of European creation, and concluded that "Despite their centuries of vibranium - induced technological advancement, the Wakandans remain so remarkably unsophisticated that a ' returning ' American can basically stroll in and take over, just as 19th - century Europeans did to the real Africa... (The film) should not be mistaken for an attempt at liberating Africa from Europe. Quite the opposite. Its ' redemptive counter-mythology ' entrenches the tropes that have been used to dehumanize Africans for centuries. The Wakandans, for all their technological progress, still cleanly fit into the Western molds, a dark people in a dark continent ''.
Dwayne Wong (Omowale) writing in HuffPost saw the film and its comic origins as "address (ing) serious political issues concerning Africa 's relationship to the West that is very rarely given the serious attention that it deserves ''. Wakandans are "at times portrayed as being very suspicious towards outsiders, to the point of almost being xenophobic '' and "no outsider can truly be trusted '' with its security. He concludes that while the country is fictional, "the politics... are very real. The end of colonialism did not end Western tampering in Africa 's politics. We see this issue still going on in Africa today... The Black Panther movie offers an opportunity to explore this issue of neo-colonialism and its continued impact on Africa 's development ''. Carlos Rosario Gonzalez of Bam! Smack! Pow!, noting the struggle between T'Challa and Killmonger, saw "two very distinct philosophies collide... what it means to be African and conversely, what Africa means to Afro - minorities today '', and described the film as exploring these themes "through the lens of colonialism ''. In this view, Wakanda represents Africa without Western colonialism, and Killmonger shows us that "we can sometimes inevitably become what we seek to destroy... With Wakanda 's resources in his fingertips, Killmonger want (s) to become the new colonizer; a colonizer of the West... In the end, Wakanda 's conservative ways created the very problem that sought to destroy them, Eric (sic) Killmonger ''. Jelani Cobb, writing in The New Yorker, discussed the divide between Africans and African - Americans, which he called a "fundamental dissonance ''. He felt T'Challa and Killmonger represented "dueling responses to five centuries of African exploitation at the hands of the West. The villain, to the extent that the term applies, is history itself ''. Cobb added, "nothing in Marvel 's collection of films is or could be political in the same way as Black Panther, because, in those other stories, we were at least clear about where the lines of fantasy departed from reality. '' The film "exists in an invented nation in Africa, a continent that has been grappling with invented versions of itself ever since white men first declared it the ' dark continent ' and set about plundering its people and its resources. ''
By contrast, James Wilt, writing for Canadian Dimension, stated that "at its core, Black Panther contains a fundamentally reactionary understanding of black liberation that blatantly advocates respectability politics over revolution, sterilizes the history of real - life anti-colonial struggles in Africa and elsewhere, and allows white folks such as myself to feel extremely comfortable watching it ''. Wilt considered the scene where Ross is portrayed as "the hero '' for shooting down the Wakandan ships attempting to leave as the film 's way of endorsing the crushing of armed revolt against oppression, and in particular, "it helped solidify the message that violence is perfectly fine, so long as it 's not directed against white people. '' Wilt also wrote, concerning the villain Killmonger, that "all the most hideous traits imaginable are downgraded on to (him), making the only major African - American character and agitator for revolution a manic killer consumed by rage and violence '', which is a common trope. Russell Rickford of Africa is a Country agreed with Wilt 's assessment of Killmonger, whose role as a character is "to discredit radical internationalism '' and reproduce "a host of disturbing tropes ''. Faisal Kutty from Middle East Eye felt the film had underlying Islamophobic themes, such as in the beginning of the film where Islamic characters are depicted as villains by showing a group based on Boko Haram that kidnapped several girls and forced them to wear hijab.
Christopher Lebron, in a piece for Boston Review, saw Black Panther as "racist ''. He observed that black Americans who had been left in poverty and oppression, as exemplified by Killmonger, were still being "relegated to the lowest rung of political regard '' in the film, treated as less deserving of empathy and less capable of their acts being deemed heroic, than even Ross ' white spy. Lebron felt that T'Challa could have shown himself a good person by "understand (ing) that Killmonger is in part the product of American racism and T'Chaka's cruelty '' and by "realiz (ing) that Wakanda has been hoarding resources '', and could have agreed that justice sometimes requires violence as a last resort against oppression. He comments rhetorically on this, "After all, what else do comic - book heroes do but dispense justice with their armored fists and laser rifles ''? Instead, T'Challa stays silent despite Killmonger 's description of the oppression suffered by his fellows around the world, until eventually Killmonger allows himself to die. He summed up by commenting that "In 2018, a world home to both the Movement for Black Lives and a president who identifies white supremacists as fine people, we are given a movie about black empowerment where the only redeemed blacks are African nobles. They safeguard virtue and goodness against the threat not of white Americans or Europeans, but a black American ''.
With the release of Black Panther, Feige said "there are many, many stories to tell '' about the character, and that he wanted Coogler to return for any potential sequel. Coogler added that he wanted to see how T'Challa would grow as a king in future films, since his reign only began recently in the MCU, while in the comics, he has been king since childhood. In March 2018, Feige added there was "nothing specific to reveal '' in terms of a sequel, but that there "absolutely '' were "ideas and a pretty solid direction on where we want to head with the second one ''.
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house of cards season 5 episode 1 download free | List of House of Cards episodes - wikipedia
House of Cards is an American political drama web television series created by Beau Willimon for Netflix. The first season, based on the BBC miniseries of the same name and the series of books by Michael Dobbs, premiered exclusively via Netflix 's web streaming service on February 1, 2013.
Kevin Spacey stars as Representative Francis Underwood, the Majority Whip, who, after being passed up for the position of Secretary of State, initiates an elaborate plan to get himself into a position of greater power, aided by his wife, Claire Underwood (Robin Wright). In January 2016, Netflix renewed the series for a fifth season, which premiered on May 30, 2017. As of May 30, 2017, 65 episodes of House of Cards have been released, concluding the fifth season.
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who won the battle of the four tonight | The Four: battle for Stardom (season 2) - wikipedia
The second season of The Four: Battle for Stardom premiered on Fox on June 7, 2018. Fergie hosted the show, while Sean Combs, DJ Khaled and Meghan Trainor were judges.
On August 2, 2018, the winner was announced as James Graham from Chelmsford, United Kingdom.
Key:
Key:
Before the competition began, each original member of The Four performed a solo song.
Note: This is the first time that all four members have been challenged this season and this is the first time on The Four that all four members have defended their seats.
Similar to last season, America voted on which of the eliminated contestants they wanted to return to the competition by tweeting the hashtag # TheFourComeback and the hashtag of the contestant 's name. However, this season, people who challenged The Four and lost were also eligible in addition to previous members. On July 23, @ TheFourOnFox (via Instagram) posted pictures which announced that Carvena Jones, Dylan Jacob, Ebon Lurks, James Graham, Jesse Kramer, Lil Bri, Stephanie Zelaya, and Whitney Reign were the top eight vote - getters, and will be returning to the competition.
During the first part of competition, the comeback artists split into pairs and performed for the favor of the audience. The audience selected one from each pair to immediately challenge one of the members of "The Four ''
After winning their Head - to - Head battles, the four comeback artists each immediately challenged a member of "The Four '' for an opportunity to claim a seat.
In Part 1, the finalists each performed two songs. For the first song, each finalist performed in hopes of winning over the audience. After performing, the audience voted on their favorite performance, and the finalist with the most votes earned the power to choose who they wanted to battle against in the head - to - head challenge. For their second song, each selected pair went head - to - head. The judges picked a winner from each pair to move on to the final battle.
For the final battle, the two finalists performed once more for the votes of the judges. The winner of this battle would be crowned the winner of The Four.
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what does swcc stand for in the navy | Special warfare combatant - craft crewmen - wikipedia
Multinational Force in Lebanon Operation Earnest Will Iraq War
The special warfare combatant - craft crewmen (SWCC, pronounced "Swick '') is a United States Naval Special Warfare Command team that operates and maintains an inventory of small craft used to support special operations missions, particularly those of the U.S. Navy SEALs. Individually, SEALs and SWCC go through separate specialized training programs that emphasize special operations in the maritime environment. SWCC are trained extensively in craft and weapons tactics, techniques, and procedures. Focusing on clandestine infiltration and exfiltration of SEALs and other special operations forces, SWCC provide dedicated, rapid mobility in shallow water areas where large ships can not operate. SWCC must be physically fit, highly motivated, combat - focused, and responsive in high - stress situations.
Special boat teams can trace their history back to World War II. Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Three rescued General Douglas MacArthur (and later the Filipino president Manuel L. Quezon) from the Philippines after the Japanese invasion and then participated in guerilla actions until American resistance ended with the fall of Corregidor. PT boats subsequently participated in most of the campaigns in the Southwest Pacific by conducting and supporting joint / combined reconnaissance, blockade, sabotage, and raiding missions as well as attacking Japanese shore facilities, shipping, and combatants. PT boats were used in the European Theater beginning in April 1944 to support the Office of Strategic Services in the insertion of espionage and French Resistance personnel and for amphibious landing deception. While there is no direct line between organizations, United States Naval Special Warfare Command embracement is predicated on the similarity in craft and mission.
The development of a robust riverine warfare capability during the Vietnam War produced the forerunner of the modern special warfare combatant - craft crewman. In 1966 River Patrol Force (Task Force 116) operated River Patrol Boats (PBR) conducting counterinsurgency operations in the Mekong Delta region of Vietnam. A SEAL Platoon was assigned to each of the five River Squadrons inserted and extracted from their patrol area by PBRs. In July 1968 Light SEAL Support Craft (LSSC) began replacing PBRs as their primary support craft. Mobile Support Teams (MST 1 - 3) provided combat craft support for SEAL operations, as did patrol boat, river (PBR) and patrol craft, fast (PCF) sailors. In February 1964, Boat Support Unit One was established under Naval Operations Support Group, Pacific to operate the newly reinstated patrol torpedo fast (PTF) program and to operate high - speed craft in support of NSW forces. In late 1964 the first PTFs arrived in Da Nang, Vietnam. In 1965, Boat Support Squadron One began training patrol craft fast crews for Vietnamese coastal patrol and interdiction operations. As the Vietnam mission expanded into the riverine environment, additional craft, tactics, and training evolved for riverine patrol and SEAL support.
SWCC detachments have participated in nearly every major conflict since then, particularly in the Persian Gulf theatre during the 1987 -- 1988 period of conflict and the 1991 Gulf War to the more recent War on Terrorism. In August 1996 while attached to USS Sides during counter drug operations in Colombia, Special Boat Squadron 1 (SBS1) came under attack in the Antioquia Valley region by members of FARC, Colombia 's revolutionary movement, while conducting field operations. Six SBS1 members held off a force of approximately 150 rebels. The battle lasted for three days and nights and members of SBS1 found themselves surrounded and cut off from each other on several occasions. Short of ammunition and water, SBS1 held on until first light on day three, regrouped and counter-attacked, punching a hole in the FARC defense line and linking up with Colombian special forces sent there to assist them. An estimated 43 FARC rebels were killed during the battle and four were captured with only one team member being wounded. Members of the team were cited for their heroism and bravery.
The Global War on Terrorism was the impetus for several important changes in the NSW community. One of these many changes was the creation of a new SB rating system for SWCCs, which allows them to focus on their unique skill sets, to avoid limitations and constraints imposed by the old regime of "source ratings '', to reach consensus and unity within the profession, and to allow them to enjoy advancement opportunities on par with the rest of the Navy.
Another important development was the recognition of the knowledge, skills, and training of SWCC crewmen as a warfare specialty, represented by the NEC 5352 and later denoted by the award of a military device or service badge.
For a brief period qualified sailors were awarded no device; boat captain - qualified sailors wore the small craft insignia originally created for and worn by riverine sections during the Vietnam War. Still earlier than this, the small craft pin was worn by those with the 9533 NEC. Many other units within the Navy awarded the small craft badge, and there was controversy regarding the original intent associated with its creation. The matter has been somewhat settled as the small craft badge has recently been awarded only to conventional riverine units under the NECC and SWCC boat captains, who wear it in addition to the SWCC device.
To become a special warfare combatant - craft crewman, a service member must apply and be accepted to special programs, pass SWCC basic crewman training school, and pass other schools. Following this, they undergo crewman qualification training concurrently with a probationary period.
To qualify for SWCC training, one must:
Initial SWCC training consists of the following:
Assignment to basic crewman training depends on passing the physical screening, which requires the following minimal:
Optimum numbers are as follows:
Instructors of the SWCC basic crewman training course train, develop, and assess SWCC candidates in physical conditioning, water competency, teamwork, and mental tenacity. This course starts with a three - week indoctrination. The SWCC basic crewman training is eight weeks long. Physical conditioning with running, swimming, and calisthenics grows harder as the weeks progress. Students abilities, mental fortitude and teamwork skills are tested during an arduous 51 - hour - long evolution involving little sleep, constant exposure to the elements, underway boat and swimming events, and a test of navigational skills and boat tactics. This test is referred to as the "tour ''. SWCC students participate in weekly timed runs, timed obstacle course evolutions, pool, bay and ocean swims, and learn small - boat seamanship. Upon the completion of SWCC basic crewman training, students advance to crewman qualification training.
Instructors of crewman qualification training develop, train and qualify SWCC candidates in basic weapons, seamanship, first aid, and small unit tactics. This phase of training is 21 weeks long. Physical training here is geared to prepare the student to meet the requirements of the operational special boat teams. CQT concentrates on teaching maritime navigation, communications, waterborne patrolling techniques, marksmanship and engineering, as well as close - quarters combat and SERE Level C. The student also receives an introduction to the NSW mission planning cycle, enabling him to participate in the planning, briefing, execution, and debriefing of an NSW mission from their tasking, to launch point, and on to their combat objective, where students apply all the techniques they have acquired during training.
Due to the training and prerequisites involved in qualification, the SWCC is recognized by those within the broader realm of "small boat '' outfits of the armed forces as a comparatively difficult qualification to obtain.
Due in part to the extremely difficult training and operating environment of SWCCs, they are qualified to operate jointly with other armed forces (particularly those within USSOCOM such as SEALs, Special Forces, MARSOC, and AFSOC), operate in inclement weather and sea state, evade and fight on land as a contingency, and perform maritime special operations missions such as direct action, recon, ship boarding or vessel board, search and seizure, and sea - to - land support using a broad array of vessels and armaments.
SWCCs invariably receive broad individual and detachment in - house training and attend schools as needed. Before reporting to a team, all SWCCs must attend a 12 - week language course, where they must learn a language assigned to them according to the needs of their respective teams. After reporting to the teams SWCCs may attend schools related to radio communications, weapons, maritime and land navigation, outboard, diesel, and waterjet engines, desert survival, jungle survival, air assault, special operations combat medic training, and many other U.S. Department of Defense schools according to the needs of their respective team. SWCCs also receive extensive in - house training in these and other areas on an ongoing basis in order to keep skills fresh and synergies alive.
Combat first aid and lifesaving, emergency response, emergency life support, evaluation, water search and rescue, stabilization, packaging, transport, and MEDEVAC skills are of vital importance to all forces within the special operations community, since they operate far from medical assets and rely on their independent capabilities. SWCC platforms provide a unique opportunity to provide a "next layer '' of pre-hospital medical stabilization and MEDEVAC capability between the field and helicopter / air transport. Inbound casualties are a likely scenario, and the nature of their missions places them at a high risk of casualty as well.
Because of this, all SWCCs receive ongoing and repeated in - house training in combat first aid, basic life support, airway management and oxygen administration, trauma care, limited emergency medication administration, and IV therapy -- a set of skills roughly analogous to civilian BLS, BTLS, and EMT - B qualification, and thus quite arguably conferring on every SWCC the unofficial distinction of being a combat lifesaver by the general definition. However, the SWCC community generally recognizes these members as "medic assistants '' to distinguish them from the lead (para) medic, whose primary function as a professional paramedic is continually reinforced by years of training and experience. Every SWCC receives basic medic assistant training.
Many NSW medics originally came from the hospital corpsman rating. Thus, while not all hospital corpsmen are combat medics, and not all combat medics are hospital corpsmen, all SWCCs are by the general definition trained combat medics -- particularly after repeated workup cycles and ongoing training have refined their skills to a level comparable with conventional combat medics and civilian EMTs.
Some SWCCs have attended (and continue to attend) civilian EMT or paramedic courses (either funded or completed through their own ambition); and several of these men have enjoyed an ad - hoc, de facto status as "docs '' serving in their detachments as medics in the past.
A more recent development is that designated SWCC medics attend the Special Operations Combat Medic course of instruction, and attend Naval Special Warfare - specific and Tactical Combat Casualty Control (TCCC) - based courses. As of 2012, most attend Fort Bragg 's special operations medic course.
Within the NSW community, the title of SWCC detachment "medic '' applies to SB (SWCC) members who have completed Special Operations Combat Medic course and been designated as lead medics for a detachment. This training is equivalent or exceeds civilian EMT - P certification, a civilian qualification which they are indeed eligible to test for immediately after training. They are able to initiate and administer IV fluids and medications independently and perform certain minor surgeries and stitches in the field at their own discretion. They can intubate and administer oxygen and other interventions done by paramedics.
These men are among the rare exceptions to the general rule that "all Navy combat medics are hospital corpsmen ''. Because of changes leading to the establishment of the SB rating, non-corpsmen SWCCs attend the course, become qualified NSW combat medics, and serve primarily as medics for the rest of their careers within Naval Special Warfare, in addition to performing the various other roles of a SWCC crewman.
Special warfare combat medics are the primary or lead combat medics in a SWCC detachment. Previously, SEAL corpsmen served as the lead medics in larger SWCC detachments and managed shoreside clinics at special boat teams, managing sick call, training all SWCCs as medic assistants, and rendering emergency medical care to both SWCCs and SEALs while deployed in the field. These SEALs contributed greatly to the special boat teams and the professional development of their SWCC combat medic counterparts. While readiness is still achieved by pooling of crew skills through medic assistant quals, SWCCs are now taking on lead medic roles within their community capitalizing on the benefit of a stable maritime platform, additional medical equipment, and the ability to provide longer - term stabilization of casualties on board their craft.
SWCC personnel are now more frequently trained as parajumpers with the development of the maritime craft aerial deployment system (MCADS).
Serving as a force multiplier, the MCADS capability enables naval special warfare sailors to rapidly deploy anywhere in the world in a maritime environment. The system deploys an 11 - meter RIB (rigid inflatable boat) rigged with four large parachutes from the back of a C - 130 or C - 17 at approximately 3,500 feet. Approximately four SWCCs immediately follow the boat out of the plane and parachute to the immediate proximity of where the boat lands in the water. Within 20 minutes the SWCCs have the boat unpacked and rigged to get underway to deliver an element of SOF (special operations force) operators to any potential target of interest, or to conduct their own mission.
SWCC personnel may also attend the U.S. Army Air Assault School. A common operation the SWCC train for involving helicopters is called maritime external air transportation system (MEATS).
Special boat teams use the MEATS insertion and extraction delivery system. MEATS allows an Army CH - 47 D helicopter to hover over a craft used by SWCC to be rigged to the underbelly of the helicopters with slings. The combatant - craft crewman will then ascend a ladder dropped down from the helicopter into the craft. Once all the SWCC are on board, the CH47D will extract the craft from the water. A SWCC craft can also be inserted into a maritime environment giving the SWCC a longer range on land or at sea.
A variant of the MEATS insertion method was seen in the movies Act of Valor and Apocalypse Now.
The special warfare combatant - craft crewman insignia is a military qualification badge of the United States Navy which was first conceived in 1996, though the design was not approved for wear until 2001. The insignia is authorized for wear by volunteer members of special boat teams (formerly special boat units) under U.S. Naval Special Warfare Command. Candidates must pass the SWCC basic crewman training and crewman qualification training.
On 19 August 2016, the current SWCC qualification insignia was replaced with three separate insignias to denote the level of qualification achieved individually by SWCC sailors. The new insignias are SWCC Basic, SWCC Senior, and SWCC Master. The SWCC Basic Insignia is a two and one - half by one and one - fourth inch silver matte metal pin showing a background of a cocked flintlock pistol, a crossed naval enlisted cutlass, and a Mark V Special Operations Craft atop a bow wave. The SWCC Senior Insignia incorporates an upright anchor in the background of the SWCC Basic Insignia. The SWCC Master Insignia incorporates a banner with three gold stars on the upper portion of the anchor from the SWCC Senior Insignia.
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opinion polling for the next united kingdom general election - wikipedia | Opinion polling for the next United Kingdom general election - wikipedia
In the run up to the next United Kingdom general election, various organisations are expected to carry out opinion polling to gauge voting intention. Results of such polls are displayed in this article. Most of the polling companies listed are members of the British Polling Council (BPC) and abide by its disclosure rules. Opinion polling about attitudes to the leaders of various political parties can be found in a separate article.
The date range for these opinion polls is from the previous general election, held on 8 June 2017, to the present day. Under the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011, the next general election is scheduled to be held no later than 5 May 2022.
Most opinion polls cover only Great Britain, excluding Northern Ireland as its 18 seats are contested by a different set of political parties.
Poll results are listed in the table below in reverse chronological order. Most pollsters only include responses from within Great Britain, excluding Northern Ireland; however, some, such as Survation, do include Northern Ireland. The table below indicates whether a poll is Great Britain (GB) - only or United Kingdom (UK) - wide. The highest percentage figure in each polling survey is displayed in bold, and the background shaded in the leading party 's colour. The ' party lead ' column shows the percentage - point difference between the two parties with the highest figures. In the instance of a tie, no figure is shaded but both are displayed in bold.
The parties with the largest numbers of votes in the 2017 general election are listed here. Other parties are included in the "Other '' column.
Some opinion pollsters ask voters which party leader they think would make the best Prime Minister -- Theresa May (Conservative Party) or Jeremy Corbyn (Labour Party). The questions differ slightly from pollster to pollster:
The following graphs show UK general election polling over a period of the previous 25 years and previous 7 years.
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