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where is the hallmark series good witch filmed | The Good Witch - wikipedia
The Good Witch is a television film that aired on the Hallmark Channel on January 19, 2008. It stars Catherine Bell as Cassandra Nightingale and Chris Potter as Chief of Police Jake Russell. The film has spawned six sequels and a television series.
A mysterious, darkly beautiful woman, who claims to be named "Cassandra Nightingale '', moves into an old, abandoned house which is reputed to be haunted by its original owner, "The Grey Lady. '' The small community is divided in their opinion of her: some want her to stay, especially widowed police chief Jake Russell and his two children, while others want her to leave, especially Martha Tinsdale. Through the course of the story, seemingly magical things happen, and the community attributes these occurrences to her. Everyone begins to wonder if she is really a witch.
On January 15, 2008, Hallmark Channel and Limbo, the mobile entertainment community, teamed up to create and launch the cable network 's first - ever mobile interactive initiative. The campaign "enhanced viewers ' experience of the premiere of the network 's original movie... through ' Limbo Unique ' -- a game played via cell phone or online ''. The grand prize was $2,000 and a portrait of the "Grey Lady '' that was featured in the movie.
Although set in "Middleton, USA '', it was filmed in Hamilton and Niagara on the Lake, Ontario. In the sequel, The Good Witch 's Charm, the map on the wall in the police station shows Middleton north and west of Chicago, in the vicinity of DuPage County. The names of the suburbs and interstates that are west of Chicago can be clearly seen.
The movie had great success on Hallmark Channel on the night of its premiere, making it the second - highest - rated original movie to that date. It premiered with a 3.8 HH (household) rating and was in nearly 3.2 million homes. It also was # 1 in its time period, propelling the channel to the # 4 spot in weekly ranking.
The Good Witch (Region 1) DVD was released on January 5, 2010.
The Good Witch Collection (Region 1) DVD was released October 14, 2014.
On February 7, 2009, the Hallmark Channel aired a sequel, The Good Witch 's Garden. The third installment, The Good Witch 's Gift, aired on November 13, 2010, on Hallmark. The fourth installment, The Good Witch 's Family, aired on October 29, 2011. The fifth installment The Good Witch 's Charm premiered on October 27, 2012. The Good Witch 's Destiny sixth installment premiered on October 26, 2013. A seventh installment, The Good Witch 's Wonder, aired October 25, 2014.
In February 2014, the Hallmark Channel announced that Good Witch had been green - lighted for a ten - episode series, starring Catherine Bell, to premiere on February 28, 2015. Production for the first season began on October 29, 2014, in Toronto, with Sue Tenney as showrunner. Bailee Madison and James Denton also star.
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when was the last pure silver quarter made | Quarter (United States coin) - wikipedia
The quarter, short for quarter dollar, is a United States coin worth 25 cents, one - fourth of a dollar. It has a diameter of. 955 inches (24.26 mm) and a thickness of. 069 inches (1.75 mm). The coin sports the profile of George Washington on its obverse, and its reverse design has changed frequently. It has been produced on and off since 1796 and consistently since 1831.
The choice of ⁄ as a denomination -- as opposed to the ⁄ more common elsewhere -- originated with the practice of dividing Spanish milled dollars into eight wedge - shaped segments. "Two bits '' (that is, two "pieces of eight '') is a common nickname for a quarter.
The current clad version is two layers of cupronickel, 75 % copper and 25 % nickel, on a core of pure copper. The total composition of the coin is 8.33 % nickel, with the remainder copper. It weighs 0.2000 avoirdupois oz, 1 / 80th of a pound, 0.1823 troy oz, (5.670 grams). The diameter is 0.955 inches (24.26 mm), and the width of 0.069 inches (1.75 mm). The coin has a 0.069 - inch (1.75 - mm) reeded (or milled) edge. Owing to the introduction of the clad quarter in 1965, it was occasionally called a "Johnson Sandwich '' after Lyndon B. Johnson, the US President at the time. As of 2011, it cost 11.14 cents to produce each coin. The U.S. Mint began producing silver quarters again in 1992 for inclusion in the annual Silver Proof set. Early quarters (before 1828) were slightly larger in diameter and thinner than the current coin.
The current regular issue coin is the George Washington quarter, showing George Washington on the front. The reverse featured an eagle prior to the 1999 50 State Quarters Program. The Washington quarter was designed by John Flanagan. It was initially issued as a circulating commemorative, but was made a regular issue coin in 1934.
In 1999, the 50 State Quarters program of circulating commemorative quarters began. These have a modified Washington obverse and a different reverse for each state, ending the former Washington quarter 's production completely. On January 23, 2007, the House of Representatives passed H.R. 392 extending the state quarter program one year to 2009, to include the District of Columbia and the five inhabited US territories: Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, the United States Virgin Islands, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. The bill passed through the Senate and was signed into legislation by President George W. Bush as part of the Consolidated Appropriations Act, Pub. L. 110 -- 161, on December 27, 2007. The typeface used in the state quarter series varies a bit from one state to another, but is generally derived from Albertus.
On June 4, 2008, a bill titled America 's Beautiful National Parks Quarter Dollar Coin Act of 2008, H.R. 6184, was introduced to the House of Representatives. On December 23, 2008, President Bush signed the bill into law as Pub. L. 110 -- 456. The America the Beautiful Quarters program began in 2010 and will continue for 12 years.
Non-clad silver quarters weigh 6.25 grams and are composed of 90 % silver, 10 % copper, with a total silver weight of 0.1808479 troy ounce pure silver. They were issued from 1932 through 1964.
The current rarities for the Washington Quarter silver series are:
Branch Mintmarks are D = Denver, S = San Francisco. Coins without mintmarks are all made at the main Mint in Philadelphia. This listing is for Business strikes, not Proofs
The 1940 Denver Mint, 1936 Denver mint and the 1935 Denver Mint coins, as well as many others in the series, are considerably more valuable than other coins. This is not due to their mintages, but rather because they are harder to find in high grades (a situation referred to as "condition rarity ''). Many of these coins are worth only melt value in low grades. Other coins in the above list are expensive because of their extremely low mintages, such as the 1932 Denver and San Francisco issues. The overstruck mintmark issues are also scarce and expensive, especially in the higher grades; even so they may not have the same popularity as overdates found in pre-Washington quarter series.
The 1934 Philadelphia strike appears in two versions: one with a light motto (for "In God We Trust ''), which is the same as that used on the 1932 strikings, and the other a heavy motto seen after the dies were reworked. Except in the highest grades, the difference in value between the two is minor.
The Silver Series of Washington Quarters spans from 1932 to 1964; during many years in the series it will appear that certain mints did not mint Washington Quarters for that year. No known examples of quarters were made in 1933, San Francisco abstained in 1934 and 1949, and stopped after 1955, until it resumed in 1968 by way of making proofs. Denver did not make quarters in 1938. Proof examples from 1936 to 1942 and 1950 to 1967 were struck at the Philadelphia Mint; in 1968 proof production was shifted to the San Francisco Mint.
The mint mark on the coin is located on the reverse beneath the wreath on which the eagle is perched, and will either carry the mint mark "D '' for the Denver Mint, "S '' for the San Francisco Mint, or be blank if minted at the Philadelphia Mint.
The copper - nickel clad Washington Quarter was first issued in 1965 and as part of the switch, the Denver mintmark was added in 1968, which did not reappear on any US coin denomination until 1968. During the early 1960s, the Federal government had been flooding the market with silver to keep the price down, and therefore keep US coins ' intrinsic values from exceeding their face values. This was causing the level of silver in the US Reserves to reach dangerously low levels. Silver was estimated to only last another 3 -- 5 years at the rate the Mint was manufacturing coins, so the US Congress authorized the Mint to research alternative materials for the silver denominations (dime, quarter dollar, half dollar, and dollar). The material chosen was a 75 % copper / 25 % nickel cupronickel alloy (identical to that in the five - cent coin) clad to a core of "commercially pure '' (99.5 %) copper.
For the first three years of clad production, in lieu of proof sets, specimen sets were specially sold as "Special Mint Sets '' minted at the San Francisco mint in 1965, 1966, and 1967 (Deep Cameo versions of these coins are highly valued because of their rarity).
Currently, there are few examples in the clad series that are valued as highly as the silver series but there are certain extraordinary dates or variations. The Deep Cameo versions of proofs from 1965 to 1971 and 1981 Type Two are highly valued because of their scarcity, high grade examples of quarters from certain years of the 1980s (such as 1981 -- 1987) because of scarcity in high grades due to high circulation and in 1982 and 1983 no mint sets were produced making it harder to find mint state examples, and any coin from 1981 -- 1994 graded in MS67 is worth upwards of $1000.
The mint mark on the coin is located on the obverse at the bottom right hemisphere under the supposed date. In 1965 -- 1967 cupro - nickel coins bore no mint mark; quarters minted in 1968 -- 1979 were stamped with a "D '' for the Denver mint, an "S '' for the San Francisco mint (proof coins only), or blank for Philadelphia. Starting in 1980, the Philadelphia mint was allowed to add its mint mark to all coins except the one - cent piece. Twenty - five - cent pieces minted from 1980 onwards are stamped with "P '' for the Philadelphia mint, "D '' for the Denver mint, or "S '' for San Francisco mint. Until 2012 the "S '' mint mark was used only on proof coins, but beginning with the El Yunque (Puerto Rico) design in the America the Beautiful Quarters program, the US Mint began selling (at a premium) uncirculated 40 - coin rolls and 100 - coin bags of quarters with the San Francisco mint mark. These coins were not included in the 2012 or later uncirculated sets or the three - coin ATB quarter sets (which consisted of an uncirculated "P '' and "D '' and proof "S '' specimen) and no "S '' mint - marked quarters are being released into circulation, so that mintages will be determined solely by direct demand for the "S '' mint - marked coins.
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who were racing on the street of heian kyo | Heian - kyō - wikipedia
Heian - kyō (平安京, literally "tranquility and peace capital '') was one of several former names for the city now known as Kyoto. It was the official capital of Japan for over one thousand years, from 794 to 1868 with an interruption in 1180.
Emperor Kanmu established it as the capital in 794, moving the Imperial Court there from nearby Nagaoka - kyō at the recommendation of his advisor Wake no Kiyomaro and marking the beginning of the Heian period of Japanese history. The city was modelled after the Tang dynasty Chinese capital of Chang'an (modern - day Xi'an). It remained the chief political center until 1185, when the samurai Minamoto clan defeated the Taira clan in the Genpei War, moving administration of national affairs to Kamakura and establishing the Kamakura shogunate.
Though political power would be wielded by the samurai class over the course of three different shogunates, Heian remained the site of the Imperial Court and seat of Imperial power, and thus remained the official capital. In fact, even after the seat of Imperial power was moved to Tokyo in 1868, since there is no law which makes Tokyo the capital, there is a view that Kyoto legally or officially remains the capital even today.
In 1994, Kyoto City held various events commemorating the 1200th anniversary.
Heian - kyō was built in what is now the central part of Kyoto city covering an area spanning the Kadono (葛野 郡, Kadono - gun) and Otagi Districts (愛宕 郡, Otagi - gun) of Yamashiro Province. The city boundaries formed a rectangle measuring 4.5 km from east to west and 5.2 km from north to south. The city layout followed Heijō - kyō (Japan 's capital during the Nara period) with the Imperial palace, Daidairi, placed in the centre of the northern city limits and the Suzaku Avenue (Suzaku - ōji), the main thoroughfare extending from the palace down through the centre of the city, dividing it into the Right (Ukyō) and Left Capitals (Sakyō) (the eastern side being the Left and the western side being the Right from the emperor 's viewpoint.) The design followed Sui and Tang dynasty Changan with the exception that Heian - kyō had no city walls. It is thought that the site for the city was selected according to the principles of Shijinsōō (四 神 相応, "Four Gods Suitability '') based on Chinese Feng shui and relating to the Four Symbols of Chinese astrology.
The boundaries of Heian - kyō were smaller than those of modern Kyoto, with Ichijō - ōji (一条 大路) at the northern limit corresponding to present - day Ichijō - dōri (一条 通), between Imadegawa - dōri (今出川 通) and Marutamachi - dōri (丸太町 通), Kyūjō - ōji in the south corresponding to Kujō - dōri (九条 通) slightly to the south of the present - day JR Kyōto Station and Higashi - kyōgoku - ōji in the east corresponding to present - day Teramachi Street (Teramachi - dōri). The location of Nishi - kyōgoku - ōji at the western limit is estimated as a line running north to south from Hanazono Station on the JR San'in Main Line to Nishi - Kyōgoku Station on the Hankyu Kyoto Line.
The layout of Heian - kyō was plotted in accordance with the principles of geomancy as a square city. Jō (丈, about 3.03 m) was the basic unit of measurement. 40 sq. jō made a chō (町, 121.2 meters on each side). The city was further divided by major streets called ōji (大路) and minor streets called koji (小路). Four lines of chō running east to west (excepting the first 2 rows in the north) were together called a jō (条) and four lines of chō running from north to south were called a bō (坊) The Cho which shared the same Jo and Bo were each given a number from 1 to 16. In this way addresses could be identified as follows: "Right Capital, Jō Five, Bō Two, Chō Fourteen '' (右京 五条 二 坊 十 四 町).
The width of even the minor streets was 4 Jō (丈, about 12m) and for the major streets over 8 Jō (丈, about 24m). Almost all of the streets in present - day Kyoto have become considerably narrower. Suzaku - ōji for example was 28 Jō (丈, about 84m) wide. In addition a river ran alongside Horikawa - koji (堀川 小路) and Nishi Horikawa - koji (西 堀川 小路).
In 784 AD emperor Kammu constructed Nagaoka - kyō, moving the capital from Heijō - kyō. It is thought that he wished to build a new, Emperor Tenji faction capital far from Yamato Province which was the power base for the temples and aristocrats who supported the Emperor Tenmu faction. However, only 9 years later in January 793 AD, Emperor Kammu assembled his retainers and announced another relocation of the capital (for the reason see the entry on Nagaoka - kyō.) The location for the new capital was to be Kadono located between two rivers in the north of Yamashiro, ten kilometres to the northeast of Nagaoka - kyō. It is said that the Emperor Kammu had previously looked out on Kadono from the Shogun Tsuka in Higashiyama Ward of Kyoto City, deciding then that it was a suitable location for the capital. Emperor Kammu 's words are recorded in the Nihon Kiryaku as follows: "Kadono has beautiful mountains and rivers as well as good transport links by sea and land making it convenient for people to assemble there from all four corners of the country. ''
It is thought that the construction of Heian - kyō began from the palace, with the construction of the remainder of the city following afterwards. As a display of the emperor 's authority the Daigokuden (main building of the palace) was constructed at the far north of the central thoroughfare, Suzaku - oji, making the building visible from anywhere in the city. Ports such as Yodonotsu (淀 津, now Yodo) and Ōitsu (大井 津) were set up along the river next to the city. These ports acted as a transit base for collecting in goods from all over the country and for forwarding them on to the city. The goods which arrived in Heian - kyō reached the people by way of one of the two large markets (the East market and the West market.) This arrangement provided a stable supply of food and goods which encouraged population growth. Measures were also taken to guard against the flooding which had plagued the residents of Nagaoka - kyō. Although there was no natural river in the centre of Heian - kyō, two artificial canals (the present day Horikawa and Nishi Horikawa) were dug whose water level could be adjusted, simultaneously securing a supply of water and guarding against flooding. It was also permitted to construct Buddhist temples in Heian - kyō, something which had been forbidden in Nagaoka - kyō. It was thought that the power of the East and West temples might protect the city from natural disaster and disease, and priests such as Kūkai were welcomed, being able men, well versed in Buddhist scripture and with no interest in political power. On 22 October 794 AD, Emperor Kammu arrived at the new city and on 8 November proclaimed, "I hereby name this city Heian - kyō. '' On 8 November, he changed the second kanji character of Yamashiro from 背 ("back '') to 城 ("castle '') because the capital looked like a naturally formed "mountain castle '' surrounded by the Eastern (Higashiyama), Northern (Kitayama), and Western (Nishiyama) mountains.
A movement in favour of returning the capital to Heijō - kyō arose in 810 AD, during a standoff over the emperor 's succession. However, Emperor Saga thought that keeping the capital in Heian - kyō would be best for the stability of the country and resisted this movement, naming Heian - kyō "The Eternal City '' (万代 宮, "Yorozuyo no Miya '').
The land of the Right Capital overlapped the wetlands formed by the Katsura River and even by the 9th century little progress had been made in developing the area. By the 10th century when the Ritsuryō system was almost at an end, the district had become so dilapidated that it began to be used as farmland, something which had previously been forbidden within the city limits. With the exception of an area in the north of the Right Capital near to the palace, the residential areas which housed the aristocracy were all situated in the Left Capital, with the highest echelon of aristocrats such as the Fujiwara clan gathering in the northernmost part of the district. The poor of Heian - kyō began to set up home by the Kamo River, beyond the eastern limits of the city, and on the eastern banks of the river temples and country homes sprung up. So started a tendency for the city to extend out to the east. In 980 AD, at the southern tip of Suzaku - oji the Rajōmon (the grandest of the two city gates) collapsed never to be rebuilt. In this way the original borders of Heian - kyō extended out to the east, forming the streets of first medieval and then modern - day Kyoto.
With the advent of the Kanto centred Kamakura and Edo shogunate, Heian - kyō began to lose its significance as a seat of power. The greatest decline was during the Muromachi and Sengoku periods when almost half the city was burnt to the ground during the Onin war. After this Heian - kyo separated into upper (Kamigyō) and lower (Shimogyō) cities each becoming places of little note. However, the two were to be reunited into one city during the Azuchi -- Momoyama period following the ascension of Oda Nobunaga. During the Meiji Revolution Edo was re-christened Tokyo (becoming the new capital of Japan). Although Heian - kyo lost its status as capital city, it became a backup capital while the emperor was away in Tokyo. Since that time the emperor has not returned to Kyoto. However, at the direction of the Emperor Meiji, the imperial residences have been preserved and the takamikura (高 御座) -- a special throne whose location traditionally marked the seat of the emperor -- remains at the palace in Kyoto.
The green areas in the diagram are markets, temples and a garden. There were two large markets, West Market (西 市) and East Market (東 市), facing the seventh street, Shichijō - ōji (七条 大路). Tō - ji (東寺, "East Temple '') and Sai - ji (西寺, "West Temple '') were Buddhist temples built on the southern edge of the capital. An imperial garden called Shinsenen (ja: 神泉苑) was adjacent to the Daidairi.
Note that there were more paths cut short by residences straddling multiple blocks.
In English (major streets and palace only):
The gates of the Daidairi are marked in Japanese Kanji in the above grid, below are the romanization of said gate names alongside the kanji:
Below is a 1696 map of Kyoto, known as Genroku 9 Kyoto Daizu (元禄 九 年 京都 大 絵図) held by the International Research Center for Japanese Studies (Nichibunken).
Coordinates: 35 ° 00 ′ N 135 ° 46 ′ E / 35.000 ° N 135.767 ° E / 35.000; 135.767
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who sings love you more today than yesterday | Spiral Starecase - wikipedia
The Spiral Starecase was an American band, best known for their 1969 single "More Today Than Yesterday ''.
The band, from Sacramento, California, United States, was recognizable for its horns and lead singer / guitarist Pat Upton 's voice. The group also included Harvey Kaye (organ), Dick Lopes (saxophone), Bobby Raymond (bass guitar), Gene Austin (bass guitar), Vinny Parello (drums), Mark Barrett (drums) and Al Sebay (electric guitar).
Starting as the Fydallions, they released that song, one album, and a few more singles including "No One for Me to Turn To '' after signing with Columbia.
The band had hits with More Today Than Yesterday, released in January 1969, and the follow - up "She 's Ready ''. "More Today Than Yesterday '' has been covered by, among others, Sonny and Cher, Diana Ross, and Goldfinger, and was featured in the 1991 film My Girl, on the soundtrack of The Waterboy in 1998, and in an episode of Ally McBeal entitled Silver Bells.
"More Today Than Yesterday '' peaked at number 12 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and number seven on the Cash Box Top 100. It is ranked as the 50th biggest U.S. hit of 1969. In Canada, it reached number six and is ranked as the 63rd biggest hit of the year.
The group evolved from a four - piece instrumental group called the Fydallions, which formed in 1964 in Sacramento, California, for an Air Force talent contest. After leaving the Air Force, the band went on the road, playing five - hour lounge jobs on the Las Vegas circuit. The Fydallions, now a quintet consisting of Dick Lopes (saxophone), Bobby Raymond (bass guitar), Harvey Kaye (keyboards), Vinnie Parello (drums), and Pat Upton (guitar and lead vocals), were noticed by the A&R representative for Columbia Records, Gary Usher, while they were working in El Monte, California. Columbia signed the band, but insisted that they change their name. The band was renamed after the movie The Spiral Staircase, but with a deliberate misspelling.
Their first two singles, produced by Gary Usher, were regional successes in markets like Phoenix, Arizona. At this time, Sonny Knight was brought in to produce their first album. Usher had encouraged Upton to write original material for the group, and Upton had written "More Today Than Yesterday, '' while the band was working the Flamingo Sky Room in Las Vegas.
"Baby What I Mean '' was also released during 1968. It, along with the two hits mentioned above, are on the CD The Very Best Of The Spiral Starecase.
In 1969, "More Today Than Yesterday '' charted # 12 in the Billboard Hot 100, (in Cash Box, it reached # 7) but sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc. About 18 months after the single 's release, after releasing one album and a couple more singles, the group disbanded due to poor management and squabbles over finances.
Upton went back to Los Angeles to work as a session musician, eventually working with Ricky Nelson.
Kaye returned to Las Vegas where he re-formed the band. That line - up featured Mike Caschera (aka. Michael Anthony) (lead vocals), Al Sebay (guitar), Gene Austin (electric bass), and Mark Barrett (drums). The band toured extensively and played every major venue in the United States, Canada, and Mexico in the late 1970s through the mid-1980s with a full horn section to replicate the trademark sound of their biggest hits.
Harvey Kaye died on August 17, 2008 at the age of 69.
Pat Upton died on July 27, 2016, after a long illness at the age of 75.
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when does disney's live action aladdin come out | List of Disney Live - Action reimaginings of animated films - wikipedia
This is a list of Disney live - action reimaginings of animated films. This list does not include remakes of live - action films, or animated movies that were produced by another studio and later reimagined into live - action films by Disney.
Disney announced a live - action film based on One Hundred and One Dalmatians, titled Cruella, focused on the character of Cruella de Vil. Also announced a sequel to the film The Jungle Book.
Other projects of live - action adaptations from animation films include Lady and the Tramp, The Little Mermaid, Peter Pan, Pinocchio, and The Sword in the Stone.
Two live - action projects of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs have been announced, one based on the eponymous animation film, and other on the tale Snow - White and Rose - Red. Also an untitled Chronicles of Prydain film (previously Disney adapted the stories in the animated film The Black Cauldron) has been announced.
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who is the current majority leader of the senate 2017 | Party leaders of the United States Senate - wikipedia
The Senate Majority and Minority Leaders are two United States Senators and members of the party leadership of the United States Senate. These leaders serve as the chief Senate spokespeople for the political parties respectively holding the majority and the minority in the United States Senate, and manage and schedule the legislative and executive business of the Senate. They are elected to their positions in the Senate by their respective party caucuses, the Senate Democratic Caucus and the Senate Republican Conference.
By rule, the Presiding Officer gives the Majority Leader priority in obtaining recognition to speak on the floor of the Senate. The Majority Leader customarily serves as the chief representative of their party in the Senate, and sometimes even in all of Congress if the House of Representatives and thus the office of Speaker of the House is controlled by the opposition party.
The Assistant Majority and Minority Leaders of the United States Senate (commonly called Senate Majority and Minority Whips) are the second - ranking members of each party 's leadership. The main function of the Majority and Minority Whips is to gather votes on major issues. Because they are the second ranking members of the Senate, if there is no floor leader present, the whip may become acting floor leader. Before 1969, the official titles were Majority Whip and Minority Whip.
The Senate is currently composed of 51 Republicans, 47 Democrats, and 2 independents, both of whom caucus with the Democrats.
The current leaders are long - time Senators Mitch McConnell (R) from Kentucky and Chuck Schumer (D) from New York. The current Assistant Leaders / Whips are long - time Senators John Cornyn (R) from Texas and Dick Durbin (D) from Illinois.
The Democrats began the practice of electing floor leaders in 1920 while they were in the minority. John W. Kern was a Democratic Senator from Indiana. While the title was not official, he is considered to be the first Senate party leader from 1913 through 1917 (and in turn, the first Senate Democratic Leader), while serving concurrently as Chairman of the Senate Democratic Caucus. In 1925 the majority (at the time) Republicans also adopted this language when Charles Curtis became the first (official) Majority Leader, although his immediate predecessor Henry Cabot Lodge is considered the first (unofficial) Senate Majority Leader.
The Constitution designates the Vice President of the United States as President of the United States Senate. The Constitution also calls for a President pro tempore to serve as the leader of the body when the President of the Senate (the Vice President) is absent. In practice, neither the Vice President nor the President pro tempore -- customarily the most senior (longest - serving) Senator in the majority party -- actually presides over the Senate on a daily basis; that task is given to junior Senators of the majority party. Since the Vice President may be of a different party than the majority and is not a member subject to discipline, the rules of procedure of the Senate give the presiding officer very little power and none beyond the presiding role. For these reasons, it is the Majority Leader who, in practice, manages the Senate. This is in contrast to the House of Representatives where the elected Speaker of the House has a great deal of discretionary power and generally presides over votes on bills.
The Democratic Party first selected a leader in 1920. The Republican Party first formally designated a leader in 1925.
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why did european explorers want to find a new route to asia | Chronology of European exploration of Asia - wikipedia
This is a chronology of the early European exploration of Asia.
(The true extent of Marco Polo 's travels is open to debate. Some archeologists believe that he only made it as far as Persia, with the rest of his story cobbled together based on tales he was told by others, due to the following reasons: 1) His story has many inconsistencies and inaccuracies. 2) Despite his claim that he was an emissary in the court of Kublai Khan, his name does not crop up in any of the surviving Mongol or Chinese records. 3) Furthermore, despite being an acute observer of daily life and rituals, there is no mention in Marco Polo 's chapters on China of the custom of binding women 's feet, chopsticks, tea drinking, or even the Great Wall. However, other scholars counterclaim using the following explanations: 1) Marco Polo had never claimed to have experienced everything in his story. Rather, he had always made it clear when he was describing his own experiences and when he was describing tales he had heard instead, which is where the inconsistencies and inaccuracies come in. 2) As with most foreigners in a foreign country in pre-modern times, he may have taken up a new name in the language of the new culture. In this case, it would have been either Mongol or Chinese. 3) When Marco Polo visited China, the northern part was ruled by the Mongol Yuan dynasty. As the Great Wall had been built by the Chinese to repel their northern barbarian invaders since the time of the Mongols ' ancestors, the Wall became obsolete once the Mongols ' predecessors, the Jin dynasty, took over Northern China in the early 12th century. By the time Polo arrived in the late 13th century, more than 100 years later, the Wall would have been in ruins, meaning it was no longer noteworthy.)
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which of the following artworks is from northern europe | Northern Renaissance - wikipedia
The Northern Renaissance was the Renaissance that occurred in Europe north of the Alps. Before 1497, Italian Renaissance humanism had little influence outside Italy. From the late 15th century, its ideas spread around Europe. This influenced the German Renaissance, French Renaissance, English Renaissance, Renaissance in the Low Countries, Polish Renaissance and other national and localized movements, each with different characteristics and strengths.
In France, King Francis I imported Italian art, commissioned Venetian artists (including Leonardo da Vinci), and built grand palaces at great expense, starting the French Renaissance. Trade and commerce in cities like Bruges in the 15th century and Antwerp in the 16th increased cultural exchange between Italy and the Low Countries, however in art, and especially architecture, late Gothic influences remained present until the arrival of Baroque even as painters increasingly drew on Italian models.
Universities and the printed book helped spread the spirit of the age through France, the Low Countries and the Holy Roman Empire, and then to Scandinavia and finally Britain by the late 16th century. Writers and humanists such as Rabelais, Pierre de Ronsard and Desiderius Erasmus were greatly influenced by the Italian Renaissance model and were part of the same intellectual movement. During the English Renaissance (which overlapped with the Elizabethan era) writers such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe composed works of lasting influence. The Renaissance was brought to Poland directly from Italy by artists from Florence and the Low Countries, starting the Polish Renaissance.
In some areas the Northern Renaissance was distinct from the Italian Renaissance in its centralization of political power. While Italy and Germany were dominated by independent city - states, most of Europe began emerging as nation - states or even unions of countries. The Northern Renaissance was also closely linked to the Protestant Reformation with the resulting long series of internal and external conflicts between various Protestant groups and the Roman Catholic Church having lasting effects.
Feudalism had dominated Europe for a thousand years, but was on the decline at the beginning of the Renaissance. The reasons for this decline include the post-plague environment, the increasing use of money rather than land as a medium of exchange, the growing number of serfs living as freemen, the formation of nation - states with monarchies interested in reducing the power of feudal lords, the increasing uselessness of feudal armies in the face of new military technology (such as gunpowder), and a general increase in agricultural productivity due to improving farming technology and methods. As in Italy, the decline of feudalism opened the way for the cultural, social, and economic changes associated with the Renaissance in Europe.
Finally, the Renaissance in Europe would also be kindled by a weakening of the Roman Catholic Church. The slow demise of feudalism also weakened a long - established policy in which church officials helped keep the population of the manor under control in return for tribute. Consequently, the early 15th century saw the rise of many secular institutions and beliefs. Among the most significant of these, humanism, would lay the philosophical grounds for much of Renaissance art, music, and science. Desiderius Erasmus, for example, was important in spreading humanist ideas in the north, and was a central figure at the intersection of classical humanism and mounting religious questions. Forms of artistic expression which a century ago would have been banned by the church were now tolerated or even encouraged in certain circles.
The velocity of transmission of the Renaissance throughout Europe can also be ascribed to the invention of the printing press. Its power to disseminate information enhanced scientific research, spread political ideas and generally impacted the course of the Renaissance in northern Europe. As in Italy, the printing press increased the availability of books written in both vernacular languages and the publication of new and ancient classical texts in Greek and Latin. Furthermore, the Bible became widely available in translation, a factor often attributed to the spread of the Protestant Reformation.
One of the most important technological development of the Renaissance was the invention of the caravel. This combination of European and African ship building technologies for the first time made extensive trade and travel over the Atlantic feasible. While first introduced by the Italian states and the early captains, such as Giovanni Caboto, Giovanni da Verrazzano and Columbus, who were Italian explorers, the development would end Northern Italy 's role as the trade crossroads of Europe, shifting wealth and power westwards to Spain, Portugal, France, England, and the Netherlands. These states all began to conduct extensive trade with Africa and Asia, and in the Americas began extensive colonisation activities. This period of exploration and expansion has become known as the Age of Discovery. Eventually European power spread around the globe.
The detailed realism of Early Netherlandish painting was greatly respected in Italy, but there was little reciprocal influence on the North until nearly the end of the 15th century. Despite frequent cultural and artistic exchange, the Antwerp Mannerists (1500 -- 1530) -- chronologically overlapping with but unrelated to Italian Mannerism -- were among the first artists in the Low Countries to clearly reflect Italian formal developments.
Around the same time, Albrecht Dürer made his two trips to Italy, where he was greatly admired for his prints. Dürer, in turn, was influenced by the art he saw there. Other notable painters, such as Hans Holbein the Elder and Jean Fouquet, retained a Gothic influence that was still popular in the north, while highly individualistic artists such as Hieronymus Bosch and Pieter Bruegel the Elder developed styles that were imitated by many subsequent generations. Northern painters in the 16th century increasingly looked and travelled to Rome, becoming known as the Romanists. The High Renaissance art of Michelangelo and Raphael and the late Renaissance stylistic tendencies of Mannerism that were in vogue had a great impact on their work.
Renaissance humanism and the large number of surviving classical artworks and monuments encouraged many Italian painters to explore Greco - Roman themes more prominently than northern artists, and likewise the famous 15th - century German and Dutch paintings tend to be religious. In the 16th century, mythological and other themes from history became more uniform amongst northern and Italian artists. Northern Renaissance painters, however, had new subject matter, such as landscape and genre painting.
As Renaissance art styles moved through northern Europe, they changed and were adapted to local customs. In England and the northern Netherlands the Reformation brought religious painting almost completely to an end. Despite several very talented Artists of the Tudor Court in England, portrait painting was slow to spread from the elite. In France the School of Fontainebleau was begun by Italians such as Rosso Fiorentino in the latest Mannerist style, but succeeded in establishing a durable national style. By the end of the 16th century, artists such as Karel van Mander and Hendrik Goltzius collected in Haarlem in a brief but intense phase of Northern Mannerism that also spread to Flanders.
The Renaissance is one of the most interesting and disputed periods of European history. Many scholars see it as a unique time with characteristics all its own. A second group views the Renaissance as the first two to three centuries of a larger era in European history usually called early modern Europe, which began in the late fifteenth century and ended on the eve of the French Revolution (1789) or with the close of the Napoleonic era (1815). Some social historians reject the concept of the Renaissance altogether. Historians also argue over how much the Renaissance differed from the Middle Ages and whether it was the beginning of the modern world, however defined. It is also said that group views the Renaissance as the first two to three centuries of a larger era in European history usually called early modern Europe.
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drummer in the office season 8 episode 7 | Pam 's Replacement - wikipedia
"Pam 's Replacement '' is the seventh episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office, and the show 's 159th episode overall. The episode aired on NBC in the United States on November 10, 2011. It was written by Allison Silverman and was directed by Matt Sohn. The episode guest stars Lindsey Broad and Steve Moore.
The series -- presented as if it were a real documentary -- depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton, Pennsylvania, branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company. In the episode, Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) trains an attractive temporary worker to take her place while she is on maternity leave, and enlists Dwight Schrute 's (Rainn Wilson) support when she tries to show that Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) finds her replacement attractive. Meanwhile, Robert California (James Spader) surprises Andy Bernard (Ed Helms), Kevin Malone (Brian Baumgartner), and Darryl Philbin (Craig Robinson) when he requests to join their band.
"Pam 's Replacement '' relates to Pam 's pregnancy; Fischer was actually pregnant and her pregnancy was written into the series with Pam and Jim having their second baby. The episode received mixed reviews from critics. According to Nielsen Media Research, the episode received 5.96 million viewers and received a 3.0 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 marking a slight drop in the ratings from the previous episode, "Doomsday ''.
Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) trains a temporary worker Cathy Simms (Lindsey Broad) so that she can take her place when she goes on maternity leave. In the break room, the other workers discuss how attractive Cathy is and how excited they are to have her in the office. Pam, being well into her pregnancy, is sensitive about her looks and so becomes offended by their discussion. Most of them respond by assuring Pam that she is, if anything, more sexually attractive than before she was pregnant. Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson), however, argues that sexual attractiveness is a mostly objective quality and pregnant women can not be sexually attractive, and accuses the others of lying to spare Pam 's feelings. Troubled by Dwight 's comments, Pam asks her husband Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) if he finds the new temp attractive. Not wanting to upset his wife, Jim tells her that he does not find her replacement attractive, even objectively. Though Jim gives no sign of unease, Pam is convinced that he is lying to her, and enlists the help of the harshly honest Dwight to prove it. After a number of unsuccessful attempts to trick Jim into revealing he finds Pam 's replacement attractive, Dwight and Pam convince Jim to submit to a lie detection test in the form of a retail store 's blood pressure tester. At the conclusion of the interview, Dwight triumphantly announces that he recorded hypertension when Jim said he does not find the new temp attractive, but as Jim continues to insist he is telling the truth Dwight admits that he recorded equal hypertension on every question, including Jim 's name. Pam realizes that Jim has unusually high blood pressure, which his father also suffers from, and forgets about the issue in order to focus on her husband 's health.
Meanwhile, CEO Robert California (James Spader) surprises Andy Bernard (Ed Helms), Kevin Malone (Brian Baumgartner), and Darryl Philbin (Craig Robinson) when he asks to join their band after he finds them having a jam session in the warehouse. Soon thereafter, California 's friends, skilled musicians themselves, arrive to join in. Not having brought their own instruments, two of them take over Kevin 's drums and Darryl 's synthesizer, while Andy 's acoustic guitar is drowned out by the newcomer 's electric guitar. The three of them are thus relegated to playing percussion. Andy, Kevin and Darryl, with the help of warehouse worker Val, realize that they were ousted, and after a failed attempt to try getting their original band roles back, they instead satisfyingly jam outside by themselves.
The episode was written by consulting producer Allison Silverman, her first writing credit for the series after joining the writing staff in the eighth season. It was directed by Matt Sohn, one of the series ' cinematographers and camera operators, his third directing credit for the series. The episode features a guest appearance from Lindsey Broad, and her character was described as "Pam 's competent and likable pal, '' Cathy. She appeared in a recurring role in the eighth season. The episode also relates to Pam 's pregnancy. Jenna Fischer was actually pregnant and her pregnancy was written into the series with Pam and Jim having their second baby. The man who played Robert 's skilled drummer friend is Steve Moore, better known as "The Mad Drummer '' for the viral video he featured in, "This drummer is at the wrong gig ''.
In its original American broadcast, "Pam 's Replacement '' was viewed by an estimated 5.96 million viewers and received a 3.0 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. This means that it was seen by 3.0 % of all 18 - to 49 - year - olds, and 7 % of all 18 - to 49 - year - olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. This marked a two - tenths decrease in the ratings from the previous episode, "Doomsday ''. Despite this, however, the episode ranked second in its timeslot, beating Bones which received a 2.7 rating / 7 % share in the 18 -- 49 demographic and Person of Interest which received a 2.0 rating / 2 % share, although both the latter two shows had more viewers. "Pam 's Replacement '' was defeated by Grey 's Anatomy which received a 4.0 rating / 10 % share. Added with DVR viewers, who viewed the episode within seven days of the original broadcast, the episode received a 4.4 rating in the 18 -- 49 demographic, adding a 1.4 rating to the original viewership. A repeat of the episode on January 5, 2012 drew 1.85 million and received a 0.7 rating / 2 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49, ranking third and last in its time slot.
"Pam 's Replacement '' received generally mixed reviews from critics. HitFix writer Alan Sepinwall complimented the episode for staying true to the characters compared to the rest of the season, which he had criticized in an earlier review. He called the episode a "significant step up '' albeit just "decent '' in absolute terms. The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt criticized the Andy -- Kevin -- Darryl subplot for its lack of continuity or any sort of punchlines. He was also critical of the Pam -- Dwight plot for not staying true to the characters, and suggested that the writers needed to write the show as less of "a bland copy of itself ''. He called it one of the laziest half - hours of the show and gave it a C −. Cindy White of IGN said that the episode needed a stronger A-plot writing that the plots "felt like a meal made up of two tasty side dishes ''. She gave it a 7 out of 10. Hanna Lawrence of Hollywood.com praised the episode for being believable and for showing things that happen in real life. She also praised the Jim -- Pam plot for showcasing the couple as not completely "perfect ''. She called the band subplot "weak ''.
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which mountain man rediscovered south pass and brought back important information about this trail | Jedediah Smith - wikipedia
Jedediah Strong Smith (January 6, 1799 -- May 27, 1831), was a clerk, frontiersman, hunter, trapper, author, cartographer, and explorer of the Rocky Mountains, the North American West, and the Southwest during the early 19th century. After 75 years of obscurity following his death, Smith was rediscovered as the American whose explorations led to the use of the 20 - mile (32 km) - wide South Pass as the dominant point of crossing the Continental Divide for pioneers on the Oregon Trail.
Coming from a modest family background, Smith traveled to St. Louis and joined William H. Ashley and Andrew Henry 's fur trading company in 1822. Smith led the first documented exploration from the Salt Lake frontier to the Colorado River. From there, Smith 's party became the first United States citizens to cross the Mojave Desert into what is now the state of California but which at that time was part of Mexico. On the return journey, Smith and his companions were likewise the first U.S. citizens to explore and cross the Sierra Nevada and the treacherous Great Basin Desert. In the following year, Smith and his companions were the first U.S. explorers to travel north from California (on land) to reach the Oregon Country. Surviving three Native American massacres and one bear mauling, Jedediah Smith 's explorations and documented travels were important resources to later American westward expansion.
In March 1831, while in St. Louis, Smith requested of Secretary of War John H. Eaton a federally funded exploration of the West, but to no avail. Smith informed Eaton that he was completing a map of the West derived from his own journeys. In May, Smith and his partners launched a planned para-military trading party to Santa Fe. On May 27, while searching for water in present - day southwest Kansas, Smith went missing. It was learned some weeks later that he had been killed during an encounter with the Comanche -- his body was never recovered.
After his death, Smith 's memory and his accomplishments were mostly forgotten by Americans. At the beginning of the 20th century, scholars and historians made efforts to recognize and study his achievements. In 1918, a book by Harrison Clifford Dale was published covering Ashley - Smith western explorations. In 1935, Smith 's summary autobiography was finally listed in a biographical dictionary. Smith 's first comprehensive biography by Maurice S. Sullivan was published in 1936. A popular Smith biography by Dale Morgan, published in 1953, established Smith as an authentic national hero. Smith 's map of the West in 1831 was used by the U.S. Army, including western explorer John C. Frémont during the early 1840s.
Smith was born in Jericho, now Bainbridge, Chenango County, New York, on January 6, 1799, to Jedediah, 1st and Sally Strong, both of whom were descended entirely from families that came to New England from England during the Puritan emigration between 1620 and 1640. Smith received an adequate English instruction, learned some Latin, and was taught how to write decently. Around 1810, Smith 's father, who owned a general store, was caught up in a legal issue involving counterfeit currency after which the elder Smith moved his family west to Erie County, Pennsylvania. At the age of 13, Smith worked as a clerk on a Lake Erie freighter, where he learned business practices and probably met traders returning from the far west to Montreal. This work gave Smith an ambition for adventurous wilderness trade. According to Dale L. Morgan, Smith 's love of nature and adventure came from his mentor, Dr. Titus G.V. Simons, a pioneer medical doctor who was on close terms with the Smith family. Morgan speculated that Simons gave the young Smith a copy of Meriwether Lewis 's and William Clark 's 1814 book of their 1804 -- 1806 expedition to the Pacific, and according to legend Smith carried this journal on all of his travels throughout the American West. Smith would provide Clark, who had become Superintendant of Indian Affairs, much information from his own expeditions into the West. In 1817, the Smith family moved westward again to Ohio and settled in Green Township in what is present - day Ashland County.
Coming from a family of very modest means, Smith struck out to make his own way. He may have left his family in search of a trade or employment a year prior to their settlement in Green Township. In 1822, Smith was living in St. Louis. The same year Smith responded to an advertisement in the Missouri Gazette placed by Gen. William H. Ashley. General Ashley and Major Andrew Henry, veterans of the War of 1812, had established a partnership to engage in the fur trade and were looking for "One Hundred '' "Enterprising Young Men '' to explore and trap in the Rocky Mountains. Superintendent of Indian Affairs William Clark had granted Ashley - Henry license to trade with Native Americans in the Upper Missouri and he actively encouraged them to compete with the powerful British fur trade in the Pacific Northwest. Smith, now a 6 - foot - tall, blue - eyed 23 - year - old with a commanding presence, impressed General Ashley to hire him. In late spring, Smith started up the Missouri River on the keel boat Enterprize, which sank three weeks into the journey. Smith and the other men waited at the site of the wreck for a replacement boat, hunting and foraging for food. Ashley brought up another boat with an additional 46 men and upon proceeding upriver, Smith got his first glimpse of the western frontier, coming into contact with the Sioux and Arikara. On October 1, Smith finally reached Fort Henry at the mouth of the Yellowstone River, which had just been built by Major Henry and the men that he had led up earlier. Smith and some other men continued up the Missouri to the mouth of the Musselshell River in central Montana, where they built a camp from which to trap through the winter.
The next spring (1823), Major Henry ordered Smith to go back down the Missouri to the Grand River to take a message to Ashley to buy horses from the Arikaras, who due to a recent skirmish with Missouri Fur Company men were antagonistic to the Euro - American traders. Ashley, who was bringing supplies as well as 70 new men upriver by boat, met Smith at the Arikara village on May 30. They negotiated a trade for several horses and 200 buffalo robes and planned to leave as soon as possible to avert trouble, but weather delayed them, and before they could depart, an incident provoked an Arikara attack. Forty Ashley men, including Smith, were caught in a vulnerable position, and 12 were killed in the ensuing battle. Smith 's conduct during the defense was the foundation of his reputation: "When his party was in danger, Mr. Smith was always among the foremost to meet it, and the last to fly; those who saw him on shore, at the Riccaree fight, in 1823, can attest to the truth of this assertion. ''
Smith and another man were selected by Ashley to return to Fort Henry on foot to inform Henry of the defeat. Ashley and the rest of the surviving party rode back down the river, ultimately enlisting aid from Colonel Henry Leavenworth who was the Commander of Fort Atkinson. In August, Leavenworth sent 250 military men along with 80 Ashley - Henry men, 60 men of the Missouri Fur Company and a number of Lakota Sioux warriors to subdue the Arikaras. After a botched campaign, a peace treaty was negotiated. Smith had been appointed commander of one of the two squads of the Ashley - Henry men, and was thereafter known as "Captain Smith. ''
After the campaign, in the fall of 1823, Smith and several other of Ashley 's men traveled downriver to Fort Kiowa. Leaving Fort Kiowa in September, Smith and 10 to 16 men headed west, beginning his first far - western expedition, to make their way overland to the Rocky Mountains. Smith and his party were the first Euro - Americans to explore the southern Black Hills, in present - day South Dakota and eastern Wyoming. While looking for the Crow tribe to obtain fresh horses and get westward directions, Smith was attacked by a large grizzly bear. Smith was tackled to the ground by the grizzly breaking his ribs. Members of his party witnessed him fight the bear, which ripped open his side with its claws and took his head in its mouth. When the bear retreated, Smith 's men ran to help him. They found his scalp and ear ripped off, but he convinced a friend, Jim Clyman, to sew it loosely back on, giving him directions. The trappers fetched water, bound up his broken ribs, and cleaned his wounds. After recuperating from his bloody wounds and broken ribs, Smith wore his hair long to cover the large scar from his eyebrow to his ear. The only known portrait of Jedediah Smith, painted after his death in 1831, showed the long hair he wore over the side of his head, to hide his scars.
The party spent the rest of 1823 wintering in the Wind River Valley. In 1824, Smith sent an expedition to find an expedient route through the Rocky Mountains. Smith was able to retrieve information from Crow natives. When communicating with the Crows, one of Smith 's men made a unique map (buffalo hide and sand), and the Crows were able to show Smith and his men the direction to the South Pass. Smith and his men crossed through this pass from east to west and encountered the Green River near the mouth of the Big Sandy River in what is now Wyoming. The group broke into two parties -- one led by Smith and the other by Thomas Fitzpatrick to trap upstream and downstream on the Green. The two groups met in July on the Sweetwater River, and it was decided that Fitzpatrick and two others would take the furs and the news of the identification of a feasible highway route through the Rockies to Ashley in St. Louis. Canadian trapper Robert Stuart employed by John Jacob Astor 's fur company had previously discovered the South Pass in 1812 while traveling overland back from the Pacific Coast, but this information was kept secret. Smith later wrote a letter to Secretary of War John Eaton in 1830 making the location of the South Pass public information. Major Henry returned to St. Louis on August 30, and Ashley began making plans to lead a caravan back to the Rockies to regroup with his men. Henry declined to return with Ashley, instead choosing to retire from the fur trade.
After Fitzpatrick left, Smith and six others, including William Sublette, again went over South Pass, and in September, 1824 encountered a group of Iroquois freemen trappers who had split off from the Hudson 's Bay Company Snake Country brigade led by Alexander Ross (fur trader). Smith told the Iroquois they could get better prices for their furs by selling to American traders, and accompanied the HBC brigade back to its base at Flathead Post in Montana. Smith then accompanied the HBC Snake Country brigade led by Peter Skene Ogden back southeast, leaving Flathead Post in December, 1824. In April, 1825, on the Bear River in what is now Utah, Smith and his companions split from the HBC brigade and joined a group of Americans that had wintered in the area. In late May, 1825, on the Weber River near present Mountain Green, Utah, 23 freemen trappers deserted from Ogden 's brigade, backed up by a group of American trappers led by Johnson Gardner. Several of the deserters were among the Iroquois trappers Smith had assisted in September, 1824. Smith may have been present at the confrontation, but the extent of his involvement in the desertion of the HBC freemen, if any, is unclear.
Ashley left St. Louis late in 1824 and after an exploring expedition in Wyoming and Utah he and Smith were reunited on July 1, 1825, at what would become the first rendezvous. During the rendezvous, Ashley offered Smith a partnership to replace Henry. Smith returned to St. Louis for a time, where he asked Robert Campbell to join the company as a clerk.
During the second rendezvous in the summer of 1826, Ashley decided no longer to be directly involved in the business of harvesting furs. Smith left a cache near the rendezvous site at what would become known as Cache Valley in northern Utah, and he and Ashley traveled north to meet David E. Jackson (Virginia), and William L. Sublette (Kentucky) at Bear River area near present - day Soda Springs, Idaho. Ashley sold his interest in his and Smith 's partnership to the newly created partnership of Smith, Jackson & Sublette but agreed to continue to send supplies to the rendezvous and broker the sale of furs brought to him in St. Louis.
The new partners were immediately faced with the reality, that beaver were rapidly disappearing from the region the two previous partnerships had traditionally trapped. But contemporaneous maps showed promise of untrapped rivers to the west, most notably the legendary Buenaventura. The Buenaventura was also thought to be a navigable waterway to the Pacific Ocean possibly providing an alternative to packing loads of furs back to St. Louis. The previous spring, Smith had searched for rivers flowing to the Pacific west and northwest of the Great Salt Lake. Although he pushed into eastern Nevada, he failed to find the Humboldt River, the probable source of the legend of the Buenaventura. Having determined the Buenaventura must lie further south, Smith made plans for an exploratory expedition deep into the Mexican territory of Alta California.
Smith and his party of 15 other men left the Bear River on August 7, 1826, and after retrieving the cache he had left earlier headed south through present - day Utah and Nevada to the Colorado River, finding increasingly harsh conditions and difficult travel. Finding shelter in a friendly Mojave village near present - day Needles, California, the men and horses recuperated and Smith hired two runaways from the Spanish missions in California to guide them west. After leaving the river and heading into the Mojave Desert, the guides led them through the desert via the Mohave Trail that would become the western portion of the Old Spanish Trail. Upon reaching the San Bernardino Valley of California, Smith and Abraham LaPlant (who spoke some Spanish) borrowed horses from a rancher and rode to the San Gabriel Mission on November 27, 1826, to present themselves to its director, Father José Bernardo Sánchez, who received them warmly.
The next day, the rest of Smith 's men arrived at the mission, and that night the head of the garrison at the mission confiscated all their guns. On December 8, Smith was summoned to San Diego for an interview with Governor José María Echeandía about his party 's status in the country. Echeandía, surprised and suspicious of the Americans unauthorized entrance into California, had Smith arrested, believing him to be a spy. Accompanied by Abraham LaPlant, Smith 's Spanish interpreter, Smith was taken to San Diego, while the rest of the party remained at the mission. Echeandía detained Smith for about two weeks, demanding that he turn over his journal and maps. Smith asked for permission to travel north to the Columbia River on a coastal route, where known paths could take his party back to United States territory. Upon intercession of American sea Captain W.H. Cunningham of Boston on the ship, Courier, Smith was finally released by Echeandía to reunite with his men. Echeandía ordered Smith and his party to leave California by the same route they entered, forbidding him to travel up the coast to Bodega but giving Smith permission to purchase needed supplies for an eastern overland return journey. Smith boarded the Courier sailing from San Diego to San Pedro, to meet his men.
After waiting for almost another month for an exit visa and then spending at least two more weeks breaking the horses they had purchased for the return trip, Smith 's party left the mission communities of California in mid-February 1827. The party headed out the way it had come, but once outside the Mexican settlements, Smith convinced himself he had complied with Echeandía 's order to leave by the same route he had entered, and the party veered north crossing over into the Central Valley. The party ultimately made its way to the Kings River on February 28 and began trapping beaver. The party kept working its way north, encountering hostile Maidus. By early May 1827, Smith and his men had traveled 350 miles (560 km) north looking for the Buenaventura River, but they found no break in the wall of the Sierra Nevada range through which it could have flowed from the Rocky Mountains. On December 16, 1826, Smith had written in a letter to the United State ambassador plenipotentiary to Mexico his plans to "follow up on of the largest Riv (ers) that emptied into the (San Francisco) Bay cross the mon (mountains) at its head and from thence to our deposit on the Great Salt Lake '' and appeared to be following that plan. They followed the Cosumnes River (the northernmost tributary of the San Joaquin River) upstream, but veered off it to the north and crossed over to the American River, a tributary of the Sacramento that flowed into the Bay. They tried traveling up the canyon of the South Fork of the American to cross the Sierra Nevada, but had to return because the snow was too deep. Unable to find a feasible path for the well - laden party to cross and faced with hostile indigenes, he was forced into a decision: since they did not have time to travel north to the Columbia and make it in time to the 1827 rendezvous, they would backtrack to the Stanislaus River and re-establish a camp there. Smith would take two men and some extra horses to get to the rendezvous as quickly as he could and return to his party with more men later in the year and the group would continue on to the Columbia.
After a difficult crossing of the Sierra Nevada near Ebbets Pass, Smith and his two men passed around the south end of Walker Lake. After meeting with the only mounted natives that they would encounter until they reached the Salt Lake Valley, they continued east across central Nevada, straight across the Great Basin Desert just as the summer heat hit the region. Neither they nor their horses or mules could find adequate food, and as the horses gave out, they were butchered for whatever meat the men could salvage. After two days without water, one man, Robert Evans, collapsed near the Nevada -- Utah border and could go no further, but some natives Smith encountered gave them some food and told him where to find water, which he took back to Evans and revived him. As the three approached the Great Salt Lake, they again were unable to find water, and Evans collapsed again. Smith and Silas Gobel found a spring and again took back water to Evans. Finally, the men came to the top of a ridge from which they saw the Great Salt Lake to the north, a "joyful sight '' to Smith. By this time they only had one horse and one mule remaining. They reached and crossed the Jordan River where local natives told him the whites were gathered farther north at "the Little Lake '' (Bear Lake on the border between present - day Utah and Idaho). Smith borrowed a fresh horse from them and rode ahead of the other two men, reaching the rendezvous on July 3. The mountain men celebrated Smith 's arrival with a cannon salute, for they had given up him and his party for lost.
As agreed, Ashley had sent provisions for the rendezvous, and his men took back 7,400 pounds (3,400 kg) of Smith, Jackson & Sublette furs and a letter from Smith to William Clark, then in the office of the Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the region west of the Mississippi River, describing what he had observed the previous year. Smith left to rejoin the men he had left in California almost immediately after the rendezvous. He was accompanied by 18 men and two French - Canadian women, following much of the same route as the previous year. However, in the ensuing year, the Mojave along the Colorado River who had been so welcoming the previous year had clashed with trappers from Taos and were set on revenge against the whites. While crossing the river, Smith 's party was attacked; 10 men, including Silas Gobel, were killed, and the two women were taken captive. Smith and the eight surviving men, one badly wounded from the fighting, prepared to make a desperate stand on the west bank of the Colorado, having made a makeshift breast work out of trees and fashioned lances by attaching butcher knives to light poles. The men still had five guns among them, and as the Mojave began to approach, Smith ordered his men to fire on those within range. Two Mojaves were shot and killed, one was wounded, and the remaining attackers ran off. Before the Mojave could regroup, Smith and eight other surviving men retreated on foot across the Mojave Desert on the Mohave Trail to the San Bernardino Valley.
Smith and the other survivors were again well received in San Gabriel. The party moved north to meet with the group that had been left in the San Joaquin Valley, reuniting with them on September 19, 1827. Unlike in San Gabriel, they were coolly received by the priests at Mission San José, who had already received warning of Smith 's renewed presence in the area. Smith 's party also visited the settlements at Monterey and Yerba Buena (San Francisco).
Governor Echeandía, who was at the time in Monterey (capital of Alta California), once again arrested Smith, this time along with his men. Yet despite the breach of trust, the governor once again released Smith after several English - speaking residents vouched for him, including John B.R. Cooper and William Edward Petty Hartnell in Monterey. After posting a $30,000 bond, Smith received a passport, on the same promise -- to leave the province immediately and not to return. Also as before, Smith and his party remained in California hunting in the Sacramento Valley for several months. Upon reaching the northern edge of the valley, the party scouted the route to the northeast afforded by the Pit River, but determined it to be impassable, so veered northwest toward the Pacific coast to find the Columbia River and return to the Rocky Mountain region. Jedediah became the first explorer to reach the Oregon Country over land by traveling up the California coast.
When Smith 's party left Mexican Alta California and entered the Oregon Country the Treaty of 1818 allowed joint occupation between Britain and the United States. In the Oregon Country, Smith 's party, then numbering 19, and over 250 horses, came into contact with the Umpqua people. The tribes along the coast had monitored the party 's progress, passing news of conflicts between the group and Indigenes, and the Umpqua were wary. One of them stole an ax, and Smith 's party treated some of the Umpqua very harshly in order to force the thief to return it. On July 14, 1828, while Smith, John Turner and Richard Leland were scouting a trail north, his group was attacked in its camp on the Umpqua River. At about eight o'clock on the night of August 8, 1828, Arthur Black arrived at the gate of Hudson 's Bay Company (HBC) post at Fort Vancouver, badly wounded and almost destitute of clothing. He believed himself to be the only survivor of the men at camp, but did not know of the fate of Smith and the two others. Chief Factor John McLoughlin, superintendent at the fort, sent out word to the local tribes that they would be rewarded if they brought Smith and his men to the fort unharmed, and began organizing a search party for them, but Smith and the two others, having been alerted to the attack and instead of returning to the camp climbed a hill above it and witnessed the massacre, arrived at the fort two days after Black. McLoughlin sent Alexander McLeod south with Smith, Black, Turner and Leland and several HBC men to rescue any other men that had been in camp that had possibly survived, and their goods. After recovering several horses in bad condition, Black and Leland remained with some HBC men to care for them and the HBC horses, and Smith, Turner, and 18 HBC men proceeded to the massacre site. On October 28, they reached it and found 11 decomposed bodies, which they buried. They ultimately confirmed that all 15 of the unaccounted - for men had died, and recovered 700 beaver skins and 39 horses, as well as Harrison Rogers ' journals. George Simpson, Governor - in - Chief of the HBC, paid Smith $2,600 for the horses and furs, and in return, Smith assured that his American fur trade company would confine its operations to the region east of the Great Divide. Smith remained at Fort Vancouver until the spring of 1829, when he and Arthur Black traveled back east to meet up with his partners.
In 1829, Captain Smith personally organized a fur trade expedition into the Blackfeet territory. Smith was able to capture a good cache of beaver before being repulsed by hostile Blackfeet Native Americans. Jim Bridger served as a riverboat pilot on the Powder River during the profitable mountain man expedition. In the four years of western fur trapping, Smith, Jackson, and Sublette were able to make a substantial profit and, at the 1830 rendezvous on the Wind River, they sold their company to Tom Fitzpatrick, Milton Sublette, Jim Bridger, Henry Fraeb, and John Baptiste Gervais who renamed it the Rocky Mountain Fur Company.
After Smith 's return to St. Louis in 1830, he and his partners wrote a letter on October 29 to Secretary of War John H. Eaton, who at the time was involved in a notorious Washington cabinet scandal known as the Petticoat Affair and informed Eaton of the "military implications '' in terms of the British allegedly alienating the Indigene population towards any American trappers in the Pacific Northwest. According to biographer, Dale L. Morgan, Smith 's letter was "a clear sighted statement of the national interest ''. The letter also included a description of Fort Vancouver and described how the British were in the process of making a new fort at the time of Smith 's visit in 1829. Smith believed the British were attempting to establish a permanent settlement in the Oregon Country.
Smith had not forgotten the financial struggles of his family in Ohio. After making a sizable profit from the sale of furs, over $17,000 (approx. $4 million in 2011), Jedediah sent $1,500 to his family in Green Township; whereupon his brother Ralph bought a farm. Smith also bought a house on First Avenue in St. Louis to be shared with his brothers. Smith bought two African slaves to take care of the property in St. Louis.
The partners ' busy schedules in St. Louis also found them and Samuel Parkman making a map of their cartographic discoveries in the West, to which Smith was the major contributor. On March 2, 1831, Smith wrote another letter to Eaton, now a few months away from resigning due to the Petticoat Affair, referencing the map and requesting to launch a federally funded exploration expedition similar to the Lewis & Clark expedition. Smith requested that Reuben Holmes, a West Point graduate and military officer, and himself would lead the expedition.
Smith and his partners were also preparing to join into the supply trade known as the "commerce of the prairies ''. At the request of William H. Ashley, Smith Jackson and Sublette received a passport from Senator Thomas Hart Benton on March 3, 1831, the day after Smith wrote his letter to Eaton and they began forming a company of 74 men, twenty - two wagons, and a "six - pounder '' artillery cannon for protection.
Having no response from Eaton, Smith joined his partners and left St. Louis to trade in Santa Fe on April 10, 1831. Smith was leading the caravan on the Santa Fe Trail on May 27, 1831, when he left the group to scout for water near the Lower Spring on the Cimmaron River in present - day southwest Kansas. He never returned to the group. The remainder of the party proceeded on to Santa Fe hoping Smith would meet up with them, but he never did. They arrived in Santa Fe on July 4, 1831, and shortly thereafter members of the party discovered a comanchero with some of Smith 's personal belongings. It was relayed that Smith had encountered and communicated with a group of comancheros just prior to his approaching a group of Comanche. Smith tried to negotiate with the Comanche, but they surrounded him in preparation for attack.
Most likely, the death of Jedediah Smith occurred in what was then Northern Mexico Territory, south of present - day Ulysses, Grant County, Kansas. According to Smith 's grand - nephew, Ezra Delos Smith, there were 20 Comanches in the group. Smith attempted to conciliate with them, until the Comanches scared his horse and shot him in the left shoulder, with an arrow. Jedediah fought back, ultimately killing the chief of the warriors. The version written by Austin Smith in letter to his brother Ira four months after Smith 's death says that Jedediah killed the "head Chief, '' but nothing about any other Comanche being wounded or killed. Josiah Gregg wrote in 1844, that Smith "struggled bravely to the last; and, as the Indians themselves have since related, killed two or three of their party before he was overpowered. '' Smith stated that his grand - uncle had fought so valiantly that the Comanche believed "he had been more than mortal, and that he could be immortal it would be better to propitiate his spirit; so they did not mutilate his body, but later gave it the same funeral rites they gave its chief '' Austin Smith, Jedediah 's brother, who along with another Smith brother, Peter, was a member of the caravan, was able to retrieve Smith 's rifle and pistols that the Indians had taken and traded to the comancheros.
Jedediah Smith was "no ordinary mountain man. '' He had a dry, not raucous, sense of humor, and was not known to use the profanity common to his peers. Smith 's immediate family were practicing Christians; his younger brother Benjamin was named after a Methodist circuit preacher and his letters indicate his own Christian beliefs. But, although after his death, the legend of him being a "Bible - toter '' and a missionary was widely disseminated, assertions that he carried a Bible with him in the wilderness have no basis in any accounts by him or his companions and the only documentation of any public demonstration of faith was a prayer said at the burial of one of the Arikara massacre victims. However, neither do those accounts speak of him drinking alcohol to excess or bedding Native American women, indicating he had the discipline often associated with a strict moral code. It is known that he owned, at least, two slaves which conflicted with his northern Methodist upbringing and his behavior was not always honorable when dealing with those he considered his antagonists. He was known to be physically strong, cool under pressure, extremely skilled at surviving in the wild and possessed extraordinary leadership skills. Smith 's true character is an enigma still open to interpretation
While traveling throughout the American West, Jedediah 's policy with the Native Americans was to maintain friendly relations with gifts and exchanges, learning from their cultures. As he traveled through Northern California, then part of Mexican territory Alta California, for the first time, he tried to maintain that policy but the situation quickly deteriorated. The Maidu were very fearful and defensive and Smith 's men killed at least seven of them upon his orders when they refused peaceful advances and demonstrated aggressive behaviors. He later wrote that they were "the lowest intermediate link between man and the Brute creation. '' Later, during his trek across the Great Basin, he said the desert indigenes he came upon "children of nature... unintelligent type of beings... They form a connecting link between the animal and intellectual creation... '' Upon returning to Mexican California, even after suffering the Mojave massacre, he continued to try to maintain good relations, punishing two of his men, albeit lightly, who had unnecessarily killed one Native and wounded another. But as the party continued north, the Natives continued the aggressive actions, and Smith 's men wounded at least two more and three were killed. By the time the party reached the Umpqua, in the British - American shared Oregon Country, their tolerance was at an ebb, leading to the ax incident and resulting in disastrous consequences.
Late in 1829, Smith Jackson and Sublette wrote another letter to William Clark. The letter described the altercations the firm had had with the various Native American tribes, and encouraged a military presence and intervention to subdue the natives.
Smith for the most part was forgotten by his countrymen as a historical figure for over 75 years after his death. In 1853, Peter Skene Ogden had written about the Umpqua massacre in Traits of American Indian Life and Character by a Fur Trader, and the Oregon Pioneers Association and Hubert Howe Bancroft wrote versions of it in 1876 and 1886, respectively. There are mentions of him in memoirs by other fur trappers, and mentions by George Gibbs and F.V. Hayden in their reports. Recollection of a Septuagenarian by William Waldo was published by the Missouri Historical Society in 1880 discussed Smith, focusing on hearsay evidence of his piety. There was no mention of Smith in the 1891 volume 5 publication of Appletons ' Cyclopædia of American Biography edited by James Grant Wilson and John Fiske. The first known publication solely about Smith was in the 1896 Annual Publication of the Historical Society of Southern California. In 1902, Hiram M. Chittenden wrote of him extensively in The American Fur Trade of the West The same year Frederick Samuel Dellenbaugh wrote about Smith 's exploits with the Mojave Indians in his book The Romance of the Colorado River: The Story of Its Discovery in 1540 with an Account of Later Explorations. Smith, however, again was not listed in the 1906 volume 9 publication of American Biographical Society 's Biographical Dictionary of America, edited by Rossiter Johnson. It was n't until 1908, when John G. Neihardt and Doane Robinson lamented the obscurity of Smith, that more extensive efforts to publicize his accomplishments were initiated.
In 1912, an article about Smith written by a grand - nephew, Ezra Delos Smith of Meade, Kansas, was published by the Kansas Historical Society. Five years later, Smith 's status as a historical figure was further revived by Harrison Clifford Dale 's book, The Ashley - Smith Explorations and the Discovery of a Central Route to the Pacific, 1822 -- 1829: With the Original Journals, published in 1918. During the 1920s, Maurice S. Sullivan traced descendants of Smith 's siblings, and found two portions of the narrative of Smith 's travels, written in the hand of Samuel Parkman who had been hired to assist in compiling the document after Smith 's return to St. Louis in 1830. The narrative 's impending publication had been announced in a St. Louis newspaper as late as 1840, but never happened. In 1934, Sullivan published the remnants, documenting Smith 's travels in 1821 and 1822 and from June 1827 until the Umpqua massacre a year later, in The Travels of Jedediah Smith, giving a new documented perspective of Smith 's explorations. Along with the narrative, Sullivan published the portion of Alexander McLeod 's journal documenting the search for any surviving members of Smith 's party and the recovery of his property after the Umpquah massacre. The Dictionary of American Biography, Volume 17, edited by Dumas Malone, published in 1935 contains an article on Smith authored by Joseph Schafer. The next year, the first comprehensive biography of Smith: Jedediah Smith: Trader and Trail Breaker by Sullivan was posthumously published, but it was Dale Morgan 's book, Jedediah Smith and the Opening of the West, published in 1953, that established Smith as an authentic American hero whose explorations were overshadowed by the Lewis and Clark Expedition.
According to Maurice S. Sullivan Smith was "the first white man to cross the future state of Nevada, the first to conquer the High Sierra of California, and the first to explore the entire Pacific Slope from Lower California to the banks of the Columbia River ''. He was known for his many systematic recorded observations on nature and topography. His expeditions also raised doubts about the existence of the legendary Buenaventura River. Jedediah Smith 's explorations were the main basis for accurate Pacific - West maps. He and his partners, Jackson and Sublette, produced a map that, in a eulogy for Smith printed in the Illinois Magazine for June 1832, the unknown author claimed "This map is now probably the best extant, of the Rocky Mountains, and the country on both sides, from the States to the Pacific. '' This map has been called "a landmark in mapping of the American West '' The original map is lost, its content was overlaid and annotated by George Gibbs on an 1845 base map by John C. Frémont, which is on file at the American Geographical Society Library, at the University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee. The federally funded overland exploration of the West that Smith had requested in 1831 finally took place starting in 1842 commanded by Lieutenant John C. Frémont. The disputed joint occupancy of Britain and the United States of the Oregon Country where Smith stayed at Fort Vancouver was ended by the 1846 Oregon Treaty. In 1848, Mexico ceded California, where Jedediah had twice been arrested by Governor Echeandía, to the United States under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ending the Mexican -- American War.
Another important piece of the Jedediah Smith story was discovered in 1967, when another portion of the 1830 -- 31 narrative (again in Parkman 's hand) was found amongst other historical papers in an attic in St. Louis. This portion documented Smith 's first California trip (1826 -- 27), and immediately preceded the portion of the narrative found by Sullivan 35 years earlier. George R. Brooks edited and introduced the narrative portion, along with the first "journal '' of Smith companion Harrison Rogers, in 1977.
Smith 's exploration of northwestern California and southern Oregon resulted in two rivers, the Smith River (California) and Smith River (Oregon) being named for him. Smith 's Fork of the Bear River, in southwest Wyoming, is named for him. and Smith 's fork of Blacks Fork of the Green River may also be named for him. The Jedediah Smith Wilderness in Wyoming bears his name
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the number of the edges in a regular graph of degree d and n vertices is | Regular graph - wikipedia
In graph theory, a regular graph is a graph where each vertex has the same number of neighbors; i.e. every vertex has the same degree or valency. A regular directed graph must also satisfy the stronger condition that the indegree and outdegree of each vertex are equal to each other. A regular graph with vertices of degree k is called a k ‐ regular graph or regular graph of degree k. Also, from the Handshaking lemma, a regular graph of odd degree will contain an even number of vertices.
Regular graphs of degree at most 2 are easy to classify: A 0 - regular graph consists of disconnected vertices, a 1 - regular graph consists of disconnected edges, and a 2 - regular graph consists of a disjoint union of cycles and infinite chains.
A 3 - regular graph is known as a cubic graph.
A strongly regular graph is a regular graph where every adjacent pair of vertices has the same number l of neighbors in common, and every non-adjacent pair of vertices has the same number n of neighbors in common. The smallest graphs that are regular but not strongly regular are the cycle graph and the circulant graph on 6 vertices.
The complete graph K m (\ displaystyle K_ (m)) is strongly regular for any m (\ displaystyle m).
A theorem by Nash - Williams says that every k ‐ regular graph on 2 k + 1 vertices has a Hamiltonian cycle.
0 - regular graph
1 - regular graph
2 - regular graph
3 - regular graph
It is well known that the necessary and sufficient conditions for a k (\ displaystyle k) regular graph of order n (\ displaystyle n) to exist are that n ≥ k + 1 (\ displaystyle n \ geq k + 1) and that n k (\ displaystyle nk) is even. In such case it is easy to construct regular graphs by considering appropriate parameters for circulant graphs.
Let A be the adjacency matrix of a graph. Then the graph is regular if and only if j = (1,..., 1) (\ displaystyle (\ textbf (j)) = (1, \ dots, 1)) is an eigenvector of A. Its eigenvalue will be the constant degree of the graph. Eigenvectors corresponding to other eigenvalues are orthogonal to j (\ displaystyle (\ textbf (j))), so for such eigenvectors v = (v 1,..., v n) (\ displaystyle v = (v_ (1), \ dots, v_ (n))), we have ∑ i = 1 n v i = 0 (\ displaystyle \ sum _ (i = 1) ^ (n) v_ (i) = 0).
A regular graph of degree k is connected if and only if the eigenvalue k has multiplicity one. The "only if '' direction is a consequence of the Perron -- Frobenius theorem.
There is also a criterion for regular and connected graphs: a graph is connected and regular if and only if the matrix of ones J, with J i j = 1 (\ displaystyle J_ (ij) = 1), is in the adjacency algebra of the graph (meaning it is a linear combination of powers of A).
Let G be a k - regular graph with diameter D and eigenvalues of adjacency matrix k = λ 0 > λ 1 ≥ ⋯ ≥ λ n − 1 (\ displaystyle k = \ lambda _ (0) > \ lambda _ (1) \ geq \ cdots \ geq \ lambda _ (n - 1)). If G is not bipartite, then
Regular graphs may be generated by the GenReg program.
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where would you go for a great example of initiation of sea floor spreading | Seafloor spreading - wikipedia
Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge. Seafloor spreading helps explain continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics. When oceanic plates diverge, tensional stress causes fractures to occur in the lithosphere. The motivating force for seafloor spreading ridges is tectonic plate pull rather than magma pressure, although there is typically significant magma activity at spreading ridges. At a spreading center basaltic magma rises up the fractures and cools on the ocean floor to form new seabed. Hydrothermal vents are common at spreading centers. Older rocks will be found farther away from the spreading zone while younger rocks will be found nearer to the spreading zone. Additionally spreading rates determine if the ridge is a fast, intermediate, or slow. As a general rule, fast ridges see spreading rate of more than 9 cm / year. Intermediate ridges have a spreading rate of 4 -- 9 cm / year while slow spreading ridges have a rate less than 4 cm / year.
Earlier theories (e.g. by Alfred Wegener and Alexander du Toit) of continental drift postulated that continents "ploughed '' through the sea. The idea that the seafloor itself moves (and also carries the continents with it) as it expands from a central axis was proposed by Harry Hess from Princeton University in the 1960s. The theory is well accepted now, and the phenomenon is known to be caused by convection currents in the asthenosphere, which is ductile, or plastic, and the brittle lithosphere.
In the general case, sea floor spreading starts as a rift in a continental land mass, similar to the Red Sea - East Africa Rift System today. The process starts with heating at the base of the continental crust which causes it to become more plastic and less dense. Because less dense objects rise in relation to denser objects, the area being heated becomes a broad dome (see isostasy). As the crust bows upward, fractures occur that gradually grow into rifts. The typical rift system consists of three rift arms at approximately 120 degree angles. These areas are named triple junctions and can be found in several places across the world today. The separated margins of the continents evolve to form passive margins. Hess ' theory was that new seafloor is formed when magma is forced upward toward the surface at a mid-ocean ridge.
If spreading continues past the incipient stage described above, two of the rift arms will open while the third arm stops opening and becomes a ' failed rift '. As the two active rifts continue to open, eventually the continental crust is attenuated as far as it will stretch. At this point basaltic oceanic crust begins to form between the separating continental fragments. When one of the rifts opens into the existing ocean, the rift system is flooded with seawater and becomes a new sea. The Red Sea is an example of a new arm of the sea. The East African rift was thought to be a "failed '' arm that was opening somewhat more slowly than the other two arms, but in 2005 the Ethiopian Afar Geophysical Lithospheric Experiment reported that in the Afar region last September, a 60 km fissure opened as wide as eight meters. During this period of initial flooding the new sea is sensitive to changes in climate and eustasy. As a result, the new sea will evaporate (partially or completely) several times before the elevation of the rift valley has been lowered to the point that the sea becomes stable. During this period of evaporation large evaporite deposits will be made in the rift valley. Later these deposits have the potential to become hydrocarbon seals and are of particular interest to petroleum geologists.
Sea floor spreading can stop during the process, but if it continues to the point that the continent is completely severed, then a new ocean basin is created. The Red Sea has not yet completely split Arabia from Africa, but a similar feature can be found on the other side of Africa that has broken completely free. South America once fit into the area of the Niger Delta. The Niger River has formed in the failed rift arm of the triple junction.
As new seafloor forms and spreads apart from the mid-ocean ridge it slowly cools over time. Older seafloor is therefore colder than new seafloor, and older oceanic basins deeper than new oceanic basins due to isostasy. If the diameter of the earth remains relatively constant despite the production of new crust, a mechanism must exist by which crust is also destroyed. The destruction of oceanic crust occurs at subduction zones where oceanic crust is forced under either continental crust or oceanic crust. Today, the Atlantic basin is actively spreading at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Only a small portion of the oceanic crust produced in the Atlantic is subducted. However, the plates making up the Pacific Ocean are experiencing subduction along many of their boundaries which causes the volcanic activity in what has been termed the Ring of Fire of the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific is also home to one of the world 's most active spreading centres (the East Pacific Rise) with spreading rates of up to 13 cm / yr. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a "textbook '' slow - spreading centre, while the East Pacific Rise is used as an example of fast spreading. The differences in spreading rates affect not only the geometries of the ridges but also the geochemistry of the basalts that are produced.
Since the new oceanic basins are shallower than the old oceanic basins, the total capacity of the world 's ocean basins decreases during times of active sea floor spreading. During the opening of the Atlantic Ocean, sea level was so high that a Western Interior Seaway formed across North America from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean.
At the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (and in other areas), material from the upper mantle rises through the faults between oceanic plates to form new crust as the plates move away from each other, a phenomenon first observed as continental drift. When Alfred Wegener first presented a hypothesis of continental drift in 1912, he suggested that continents ploughed through the ocean crust. This was impossible: oceanic crust is both more dense and more rigid than continental crust. Accordingly, Wegener 's theory was n't taken very seriously, especially in the United States.
Since then, it has been shown that the motion of the continents is linked to seafloor spreading. In the 1960s, the past record of geomagnetic reversals was noticed by observing the magnetic stripe "anomalies '' on the ocean floor. This results in broadly evident "stripes '' from which the past magnetic field polarity can be inferred by looking at the data gathered from simply towing a magnetometer on the sea surface or from an aircraft. The stripes on one side of the mid-ocean ridge were the mirror image of those on the other side. The seafloor must have originated on the Earth 's great fiery welts, like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise.
The driver for seafloor spreading in plates with active margins is the weight of the cool, dense, subducting slabs that pull them along. The magmatism at the ridge is considered to be "passive upswelling '', which is caused by the plates being pulled apart under the weight of their own slabs. This can be thought of as analogous to a rug on a table with little friction: when part of the rug is off of the table, its weight pulls the rest of the rug down with it.
To first approximation, sea floor global topography in areas without significant subduction can be estimated by the half - space model. In this model, the seabed height is determined by the oceanic lithosphere temperature, due to thermal expansion. Oceanic lithosphere is continuously formed at a constant rate at the mid-ocean ridges. The source of the lithosphere has a half - plane shape (x = 0, z < 0) and a constant temperature T. Due to its continuous creation, the lithosphere at x > 0 is moving away from the ridge at a constant velocity v, which is assumed large compared to other typical scales in the problem. The temperature at the upper boundary of the lithosphere (z = 0) is a constant T = 0. Thus at x = 0 the temperature is the Heaviside step function T 1 ⋅ Θ (− z) (\ displaystyle T_ (1) \ cdot \ Theta (- z)). Finally, we assume the system is at a quasi-steady state, so that the temperature distribution is constant in time, i.e. T = T (x, z).
By calculating in the frame of reference of the moving lithosphere (velocity v), which have spatial coordinate x ' = x-vt, we may write T = T (x ', z, t) and use the heat equation: ∂ T ∂ t = κ ∇ 2 T = κ ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 z + κ ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 x ′ (\ displaystyle (\ frac (\ partial T) (\ partial t)) = \ kappa \ nabla ^ (2) T = \ kappa (\ frac (\ partial ^ (2) T) (\ partial ^ (2) z)) + \ kappa (\ frac (\ partial ^ (2) T) (\ partial ^ (2) x '))) where κ (\ displaystyle \ kappa) is the thermal diffusivity of the mantle lithosphere.
Since T depends on x ' and t only through the combination x = x ′ + v t (\ displaystyle x = x'+ vt), we have: ∂ T ∂ x ′ = 1 v ⋅ ∂ T ∂ t (\ displaystyle (\ frac (\ partial T) (\ partial x ')) = (\ frac (1) (v)) \ cdot (\ frac (\ partial T) (\ partial t)))
Thus: ∂ T ∂ t = κ ∇ 2 T = κ ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 z + κ v 2 ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 t (\ displaystyle (\ frac (\ partial T) (\ partial t)) = \ kappa \ nabla ^ (2) T = \ kappa (\ frac (\ partial ^ (2) T) (\ partial ^ (2) z)) + (\ frac (\ kappa) (v ^ (2))) (\ frac (\ partial ^ (2) T) (\ partial ^ (2) t)))
We now use the assumption that v (\ displaystyle v) is large compared to other scales in the problem; we therefore neglect the last term in the equation, and get a 1 - dimensional diffusion equation: ∂ T ∂ t = κ ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 z (\ displaystyle (\ frac (\ partial T) (\ partial t)) = \ kappa (\ frac (\ partial ^ (2) T) (\ partial ^ (2) z))) with the initial conditions T (t = 0) = T 1 ⋅ Θ (− z) (\ displaystyle T (t = 0) = T_ (1) \ cdot \ Theta (- z)).
The solution for z ≤ 0 (\ displaystyle z \ leq 0) is given by the error function erf (\ displaystyle \ operatorname (erf)):
Due to the large velocity, the temperature dependence on the horizontal direction is negligible, and the height at time t (i.e. of sea floor of age t) can be calculated by integrating the thermal expansion over z:
where α e f f (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (\ mathrm (eff))) is the effective volumetric thermal expansion coefficient, and h is the mid-ocean ridge height (compared to some reference).
Note that the assumption the v is relatively large is equivalently to the assumption that the thermal diffusivity κ (\ displaystyle \ kappa) is small compared to L 2 / T (\ displaystyle L ^ (2) / T), where L is the ocean width (from mid-ocean ridges to continental shelf) and T is its age.
The effective thermal expansion coefficient α e f f (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (\ mathrm (eff))) is different from the usual thermal expansion coefficient α (\ displaystyle \ alpha) due to isostasic effect of the change in water column height above the lithosphere as it expands or retracts. Both coefficients are related by:
where ρ ∼ 3.3 g / c m 3 (\ displaystyle \ rho \ sim 3.3 g / cm ^ (3)) is the rock density and ρ 0 = 1 g / c m 3 (\ displaystyle \ rho _ (0) = 1g / cm ^ (3)) is the density of water.
By substituting the parameters by their rough estimates: κ ∼ 8 ⋅ 10 − 7 (\ displaystyle \ kappa \ sim 8 \ cdot 10 ^ (- 7)) m / s, α ∼ 4 ⋅ 10 − 5 (\ displaystyle \ alpha \ sim 4 \ cdot 10 ^ (- 5)) ° C and T ~ 1220 ° C (for the Atlantic and Indian oceans) or ~ 1120 ° C (for the eastern Pacific), we have:
for the eastern Pacific Ocean, and:
for the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean, where the height is in meters and time is in millions of years. To get the dependence on x, one must substitute t = x / v ~ Tx / L, where L is the distance between the ridge to the continental shelf (roughly half the ocean width), and T is the ocean age.
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which came first in star wars the book or the movie | Star Wars: from the Adventures of Luke Skywalker - wikipedia
Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker is the original title of the novelization of the 1977 film Star Wars. Credited to George Lucas, but ghostwritten by Alan Dean Foster, it was first published on November 12, 1976 by Ballantine Books. In later years, it was republished under the title Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope to reflect the retroactive addition of episodic subtitles to the theatrical film titles.
The book was written by Foster and based upon Lucas 's original screenplay for the first Star Wars film. On how he got the job, Foster said, "My agent got a call from Lucas 's lawyer of the time, Tom Pollock (now one of the most powerful men in Hollywood). Someone had read a book of mine, Icerigger, knew that I had already done novelizations, and thought I might be the writer to do the novelization of Lucas ' new film. I already knew his work through THX 1138 and American Graffiti. I accepted the offer to meet with George, and did so at Industrial Light and Magic, then in a small warehouse in Van Nuys, California (part of greater Los Angeles, and conveniently near my family home). We hit it off well, I got the assignment (for two books), and that 's how it happened. ''
Foster not only adapted the film 's events, but also fleshed out the backstory of time, place, physics, planets, races, languages, history and technology. When asked if it was difficult for him to see Lucas get all the credit for the novelization, Foster said, "Not at all. It was George 's story idea. I was merely expanding upon it. Not having my name on the cover did n't bother me in the least. It would be akin to a contractor demanding to have his name on a Frank Lloyd Wright house. '' Lucas, for his part, has always been open about the fact that Foster ghost - wrote the novel, noting this fact in his introduction to later editions of the book.
The book was first published in the US as Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker in December 1976 by Ballantine Books, six months before the theatrical release of the film. The cover art was by Star Wars conceptual artist Ralph McQuarrie, who was commissioned by Ballantine Books executive Judy Lynn Del Rey while he was working on visualisation work for Lucas 's forthcoming film. The cover depicted Luke Skywalker, Chewbacca, C - 3PO, and R2 - D2 standing in front of an enlarged head of Darth Vader. In the United Kingdom, the novelization was published by Sphere Books, and featured cover art by John Berkey. Sphere reportedly paid $225,000 for the British publishing rights.
By February 1977, still three months before the film was released, the novelization sold out its initial print run of 125,000 copies. In the first three months, Ballantine had sold 3.5 million copies. Some later editions contain sixteen pages of full - color photos from the motion picture.
Later editions of the novelization were published under altered titles to reflect the episodic retitling of the film, such as A New Hope: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker and Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope.
The words that open each Star Wars film, "A long time ago in a galaxy far, far away... '' are absent from this novelization, substituted by the similar, "Another galaxy, another time... ''
The novelization bears a major difference in the form of a prologue explaining the backstory behind the film 's events. It is presented as an entry of the Journal of the Whills. This prologue contains the first - ever reference to the Emperor 's true name, Palpatine. The section dealing with Palpatine says, "Aided and abetted by restless, power - hungry individuals within the government, and the massive organs of commerce, the ambitious Senator Palpatine caused himself to be elected President of the Republic. He promised to reunite the disaffected among the people and to restore the remembered glory of the Republic. Once secure in office he declared himself Emperor, shutting himself away from the populace. Soon he was controlled by the very assistants and boot - lickers he had appointed to high office, and the cries of the people for justice did not reach his ears. '' This implies that the Emperor is merely a victim of manipulation by Imperial bureaucrats rather than the true string - puller, which is at odds with Palpatine 's depiction in later films in the series. This is because George Lucas had not fully developed the character at this point in time, allowing Alan Dean Foster to expand upon the Emperor as he saw fit. Lucas ' conception of the character continued to evolve, until he eventually determined that Palpatine was Darth Vader 's master and the true personification of evil in The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi.
Several other portions of the novel deviate from the film, including scenes that were filmed but not inserted into the final cut of the movie. Most notable of these are scenes with Luke Skywalker and his friends at Tosche Station on Tatooine. Also included is the scene with Jabba that was re-inserted into the Special Edition of the film; however, in this novelization he is written as a fat biped with an ugly, "shaggy skull '' and "jowels '' that shake with his head, and he has scars that are a sign of his ferocious reputation in combat. This differs both from the script 's version of Jabba (which is described as a creature with "eyes on stalks ''), and the version that finally appeared in Return of the Jedi, a giant slug with no ability to partake in combat.
At one point, Han Solo mentions a Corellian friend named Toccnepil (Lippincot backwards). This is a reference to Charles Lippincott, the mastermind of the Star Wars marketing campaign.
There are various small details throughout, such as Luke 's squadron in the Death Star assault being Blue Squadron, thus Luke 's call sign is "Blue Five '' instead of "Red Five ''. The official term for "Droids '' in the novelization is "mechanicals '', and it 's implied that the word "Droids '' is a slang term. "Droid '' is also spelled with an apostrophe in the front, because the term was used as a contraction of the word "android ''. The word "Rebels '' is never capitalized, instead listed as "rebels ''. The Imperial Stormtroopers board the Tantive IV through the ceiling rather than blasting apart a door. Luke 's landspeeder has an enclosed cockpit, unlike the film version 's open cockpit. In the novel, Obi - Wan Kenobi lives in a cave instead of a hut, and he smokes a pipe. The scene in the cantina where Obi - Wan defends Luke involves three aliens, as opposed to two in the film, and Obi - Wan cuts one of them in half before severing the arm of another, unlike in the film where he merely hacks one 's arm off. Chewbacca is described as having bright, yellow eyes. Admiral Motti, the man Darth Vader chokes in the conference room in the movie, is not included in the novel, instead replaced by a character named Romodi, who has severe facial scarring. The call - sign of the Stormtroopers guarding the Millennium Falcon is THX - 1138 (referencing Lucas ' directorial debut), as opposed to TK - 421 in the film. Grand Moff Tarkin is present during Princess Leia 's torture. The destruction of Alderaan is not described in the book, nor does Obi - Wan sense the planet 's destruction.
The death of Obi - Wan Kenobi is also different in the book, in that Darth Vader succeeds in defeating him during their lightsaber duel, while in the film Obi - Wan allows Vader to strike him down, in order to provide Luke and the others a diversion to escape the Death Star. The novel also refers to Darth Vader as a Sith Lord. Although he was referenced as such in various merchandising tie - ins at the time of the original film, he is not referred to as a Sith Lord in the movie. In fact, the term Sith Lord is not mentioned in the films until 1999 's Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace. However, in recently uncovered deleted scenes, General Tagge describes Darth Vader as a Sith Lord during the Death Star meeting.
The order of events in the final dogfight over the Death Star is also somewhat different. In the novel, Blue Leader (whose film equivalent is Red Leader) makes two bombing runs down the trench toward the exhaust port. In the film, he only manages to make one before being shot down. In the film, Wedge 's X-wing fighter is damaged by Darth Vader and his wing men, forcing him to leave the battle, and then Biggs is killed outright by the pursuing Vader and his fighters. In the novelization, Biggs is killed, and then Wedge must retreat, due to a malfunction caused in the battle with the enemy fighters.
At the end of the novel, in addition to Han and Luke receiving medals, Leia also gives Chewbacca a medal, though she must strain to do so.
After the massive success of the film, Alan Dean Foster released a novel called Splinter of the Mind 's Eye, which was originally commissioned by George Lucas for the purpose of being filmed as a low - budget sequel, as a fallback plan in the event that Star Wars did not do well. It was published in 1978, a year after the movie 's release. This made it the first full - length original novel to be published in the Star Wars expanded universe. The next official novelization of a Star Wars movie was The Empire Strikes Back by Donald F. Glut.
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who has held the intercontinental championship the most times | List of WWE Intercontinental Champions - wikipedia
The WWE Intercontinental Championship is a professional wrestling championship contested in and owned by the American promotion WWE on the Raw brand. The title was introduced into WWE in 1979, which was known as the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) at the time. Pat Patterson, holder of the WWF North American Heavyweight Championship, was awarded the title (with the kayfabe explanation that he won a tournament in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and unified the North American and South American titles).
The Intercontinental Championship has been called the second most important championship in the company, after the WWE Championship. It has been active in WWE for the second longest period, but is the third oldest active title, behind the WWE Championship (1963) and the United States Championship (1975), the latter of which was acquired from World Championship Wrestling (WCW) in 2001. In 2002, the WWF was renamed to World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE), and the championship was renamed as the WWE Intercontinental Championship. As a result of the 2017 WWE Superstar Shake - up, it is exclusively contested on the Raw brand.
Overall, there have been 78 different Intercontinental Champions. Chris Jericho holds the record for the most reigns with nine, The Honky Tonk Man holds the longest reign at 454 days. Only three other wrestlers -- Pedro Morales, Don Muraco, and Randy Savage -- have held the championship for a continuous reign of more than a year. The current champion is The Miz, who is in his seventh reign. He won the championship by defeating Dean Ambrose at Extreme Rules in Baltimore, Maryland on June 4, 2017.
As of October 26, 2017.
As of October 26, 2017.
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where was the emperor in a new hope | Palpatine - wikipedia
Sheev Palpatine (also known as Darth Sidious and The Emperor) is a fictional character and one of the primary antagonists of the Star Wars franchise, mainly portrayed by Ian McDiarmid. In the original trilogy, he is depicted as the aged, pale - faced and cloaked Emperor of the Galactic Empire and the master of Darth Vader. In the prequel trilogy, he is portrayed as a charismatic Senator from Naboo who uses deception and political manipulation to rise to the position of Supreme Chancellor of the Galactic Republic, and then reorganizes the Republic into the Galactic Empire, with himself as Emperor.
Though outwardly appearing to be a well - intentioned public servant and supporter of democracy prior to becoming Emperor, he is actually Darth Sidious, the Dark Lord of the Sith -- a cult of practitioners of the dark side of the Force previously thought to have been extinct for a millennium in the Star Wars galaxy. As Sidious, he instigates the Clone Wars, nearly destroys the Jedi, and transforms the Republic into the Empire. He also manipulates Jedi Knight Anakin Skywalker into turning to the dark side and serving at his side as Darth Vader. Palpatine 's reign is brought to an end when Vader kills him to save his son, Luke Skywalker.
Since the initial theatrical run of Return of the Jedi, Palpatine has become a widely recognized popular culture symbol of evil, sinister deception, dictatorship, tyranny, and the subversion of democracy.
The Emperor is briefly mentioned in the original Star Wars, the first film in the original trilogy. Grand Moff Tarkin explains to his fellow Imperials that the Emperor has dissolved the Senate.
The Emperor first appeared in The Empire Strikes Back. He appears in hologram form to address Darth Vader, his Sith apprentice. He tells Vader that Luke Skywalker is becoming a serious threat to the Empire and must not become a Jedi. Vader convinces him that Luke would be a great asset if turned to the dark side.
In 1983 's Return of the Jedi, the Emperor appears in person to oversee the last stages of the second Death Star 's construction. He assures Darth Vader that they will together turn Luke, now revealed to be Vader 's son, to the dark side. Unknown to Vader, the Emperor plans to replace his apprentice with Luke. When Vader brings Luke before his master, the Emperor tempts Luke to join the dark side by appealing to the young Jedi 's fear for his friends, whom he has lured into a trap. This leads to a lightsaber duel in which Luke defeats and nearly kills Vader. The Emperor tells Luke to kill Vader and take his place, but Luke refuses and declares himself a Jedi. Enraged, the Emperor attacks Luke with Force lightning. Moved by his son 's cries for help, Vader throws the Emperor into the Death Star 's reactor shaft, killing him.
In the 1999 prequel Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace, which is set 32 years before Star Wars, Palpatine is depicted as a middle - aged Galactic Senator from the planet Naboo who is secretly the Sith Lord Darth Sidious. As Sidious, he influences the corrupt Trade Federation to blockade and invade Naboo. Queen Padmé Amidala of Naboo flees to the planet Coruscant to receive counsel from Palpatine, unaware that he actually engineered the invasion. After a plea for help from the senate results in bureaucratic delays, Palpatine persuades the queen to call for a motion of no confidence against Supreme Chancellor Finis Valorum.
When Padmé attempts to liberate Naboo, Sidious sends his Sith apprentice Darth Maul there to capture her. The invasion is eventually thwarted and Maul is defeated in a lightsaber duel with Obi - Wan Kenobi. Palpatine uses the crisis to be elected the new Chancellor of the Republic. He then returns to Naboo, where he befriends the young Anakin Skywalker, telling him that, "We will watch your career with great interest ''.
In the 2002 sequel Star Wars: Episode II -- Attack of the Clones, Palpatine exploits constitutional loopholes to remain in office even after the official expiration of his term. Meanwhile, as Darth Sidious, he continues to manipulate events from behind the scenes by having his new Sith apprentice Count Dooku, a former Jedi master, lead a movement of planets in seceding from the Republic to form the Confederacy of Independent Systems.
Since the Separatists are secretly building a battle droid army, Palpatine uses the situation to have himself granted emergency powers. Palpatine feigns reluctance to accept this authority, promising to return it to the Senate once the crisis has ended. His first act is to allow the creation of a clone army to counter the Separatist threat; this results in the opening salvo of the Clone Wars. With the galaxy now at war as Sidious planned, Dooku brings him the secret plans for a new superweapon.
In the 2005 sequel Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith, Palpatine is captured by cyborg Separatist General Grievous, as part of a plan devised by Sidious. Palpatine is rescued by Anakin and Obi - Wan, but not before the Jedi confront Count Dooku again. A duel ensues in which Anakin defeats Dooku. Palpatine orders Anakin to kill the unarmed Dooku; after some hesitance, Anakin kills Dooku in cold blood. Palpatine then escapes with his Jedi rescuers and returns to Coruscant. By this point, Palpatine has become a virtual dictator, able to take any action in the Senate. He makes Anakin his personal representative on the Jedi Council, who deny Anakin the rank of Jedi master and order him to spy on the Chancellor. Palpatine tells Anakin the story of Darth Plagueis, a powerful Sith Lord who was able to manipulate life and death but was killed by his own apprentice. Eventually, Palpatine reveals his secret identity as a Sith Lord to Anakin; he knows that Anakin has been having prophetic visions of Padmé, his pregnant secret wife, dying in childbirth, and offers to teach him Plagueis ' secrets to save her life.
Anakin informs Jedi Master Mace Windu of Palpatine 's treachery. With three other Jedi masters at his side, Windu attempts to arrest Palpatine, but Palpatine produces a lightsaber from his sleeve and quickly dispatches all but Windu. Palpatine engages Windu in a duel and fires Force lightning at him, but Windu deflects the lightning back at its source, deforming Palpatine 's face into the gray, wizened visage seen in the original trilogy. Just as Windu is about to dispatch Palpatine, Anakin appears and intervenes on the Sith lord 's behalf, allowing Palpatine to kill Windu with another blast of lightning. Anakin then pledges himself to the dark side as Palpatine 's new Sith apprentice, Darth Vader.
Palpatine orders the clone troopers to turn on their Jedi generals, while dispatching Vader to kill everyone inside the Jedi Temple and then murder the Separatist leaders on the planet Mustafar. Palpatine then reorganizes the Republic into the Galactic Empire, with himself as Emperor. Jedi Master Yoda confronts him in his Senate office and engages the Sith Lord in a lightsaber duel that ends in a stalemate. Sensing that his new apprentice is in danger, Palpatine travels to Mustafar and finds Vader near death following a duel with Obi - Wan. After returning to Coruscant, he rebuilds Vader 's burned, mutilated body with the black armored suit from the original trilogy. Palpatine then tells Vader that Padmé was killed in the heat of Vader 's anger, breaking what remains of his apprentice 's spirit. Palpatine is last seen watching the original Death Star 's construction, with Vader and Wilhuff Tarkin at his side.
In the 2008 animated film Star Wars: The Clone Wars (also set between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith), Darth Sidious engineers a Separatist plot where Count Dooku turns Jabba the Hutt against the Republic by kidnapping his son Rotta and framing the Jedi for it. Meanwhile, Palpatine suggests that the Republic ally itself with the Hutts. Although Anakin Skywalker and his Padawan Ahsoka Tano foil the plot, the outcome suits Palpatine 's ends: Jabba places Hutt hyperspace routes at the Republic 's disposal.
In the subsequent animated series, Palpatine was voiced by Ian Abercrombie from 2008 to his death in 2012, and by Tim Curry from 2012 to 2014. In the series, Palpatine continues to serve as Supreme Chancellor while his Sith identity remains behind the scenes via holograms. In the second season, Sidious hires bounty hunter Cad Bane to infiltrate the Jedi Temple and steal a holocron. He then takes a valuable Kyber memory crystal that contains the names of thousands of Force - sensitive younglings - the future of the Jedi Order - from around the galaxy. The final stage of the plot: to bring four Force - sensitive children to Sidious 's secret facility on Mustafar. Anakin and Ahsoka again foil the plot, but Bane escapes and all evidence of Sidious ' involvement is lost. In the fifth season, Sidious personally travels to the planet Mandalore to confront his former apprentice Darth Maul after becoming leader of Death Watch, killing Savage Opress before torturing Maul with the intent to make use of him. In the final season, Sidious goes to lengths to conceal the full nature of his plan from the Jedi by attempting to silence the Clone Trooper Fives when he learns of Order 66 and having Dooku wipe out anything tied to Jedi Master Sifo - Dyas.
In Star Wars Rebels, Palpatine is now the Emperor of the Galactic Empire. He briefly appears offscreen at the end of the season 2 premiere, "The Siege of Lothal '', voiced by Sam Witwer. Darth Vader informs Palpatine that the Rebel Alliance cell on Lothal has been broken. However, Vader tells him that Ahsoka Tano, the apprentice of Anakin Skywalker, is alive and is now helping the Rebels. Palpatine sees this as an opportunity to seek out other remaining Jedi (such as Obi - Wan Kenobi). Palpatine then tells Vader to dispatch an Inquisitor to hunt down Ahsoka.
Palpatine returns physically in the 4th and final season of the series, in the episodes "Wolves and a Door '', "A World Between Worlds '', and "Family Reunion - and Farewell '', voiced again by Ian McDiarmid. He appears as a hologram overseeing the excavation of the Lothal Jedi Temple, which contains a portal to a separate dimension of the Force outside of space and time, which Palpatine considers a "conduit between the living and the dead '' and could give him unrivaled power of the Force itself if he can access it. Shortly after Ezra reaches through time and space to rescue Ahsoka from being killed by Vader, Palpatine sets up a portal that shows Kanan Jarrus 's final moments. While Ezra wants to reach through the portal and rescue his master, Ahsoka dissuades him from it. Palpatine then reveals himself through the portal and attempts to gain access to the world by shooting fiery Sith energy that can allow him to gain access if the energy can tie down Ezra for long enough. However, Ahsoka and Ezra manage to evade him and both go their separate ways, thus denying Palpatine full power.
The first appearance of Palpatine in Star Wars literature was in Alan Dean Foster 's (writing as George Lucas) novelization of the script of A New Hope, published as Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker (1976).
Star Wars: Lords of the Sith was subsequently announced as one of the first four canon novels to be released in 2014 and 2015. In Lords of the Sith, Vader and Palpatine find themselves hunted by revolutionaries on the Twi'lek planet Ryloth.
Star Wars Battlefront II adds a canonical tale spanning the destruction of the second Death Star through the events of The Force Awakens. The story takes an Imperial perspective, following an elite squadron known as Inferno Squad, led by protagonist Iden Versio, as they help to execute Operation Cinder following the Emperor 's death. Operation: Cinder was carried out by the Galactic Empire as a means of devastating several Imperial planets in 4 ABY, only a few weeks following the Battle of Endor. The operation was part of the "Contingency '', a plan devised by Emperor Palpatine to ensure that the Empire and its enemies did not outlive him should he perish. The plan was put into action following the Emperor 's death during the Battle of Endor.
In April 2014, most of the licensed Star Wars novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film Star Wars were rebranded as Star Wars Legends and declared non-canon to the franchise by Lucasfilm. Star Wars Legends literature elaborates on Palpatine 's role in Star Wars fiction outside of the films.
Palpatine / Darth Sidious is a central character in Genndy Tartakovsky 's Star Wars: Clone Wars micro-series, which is set between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith. The character 's likeness in the series is based on that in The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones, and he is voiced by Nick Jameson. In the first chapter, Palpatine is informed by Obi - Wan Kenobi that the Jedi have discovered that the InterGalactic Banking Clan has established battle droid factories on the planet Muunilinst. Palpatine agrees to send a strike force that includes Anakin Skywalker, and suggests that Anakin be given "special command '' of Obi - Wan 's fighters. Yoda and Obi - Wan initially speak against the idea, but reluctantly concede. In the seventh chapter, a holographic image of Sidious appears shortly after Dooku trains Dark Jedi Asajj Ventress. Sidious orders Ventress to track down and kill Anakin. He remarks to Dooku that Ventress is certain to be defeated, but that the point of her mission is to test Anakin. In the final chapters, a hologram of Sidious again appears and orders General Grievous to begin an assault on the galactic capital. Later, the Separatist invasion of Coruscant begins and Palpatine watches from his apartment in the 500 Republica. Grievous breaks through the Chancellor 's window and attempts to kidnap him, leading to a long chase while Palpatine is protected by Jedi Shaak Ti, Roron Corobb and Foul Moudama. After Grievous apprehends the Jedi, Palpatine is taken on board the Invisible Hand, setting the stage for Revenge of the Sith.
Palpatine made his first major appearance in Legends in 1991 and 1992, with the Dark Empire series of comic books written by Tom Veitch and illustrated by Cam Kennedy. In the series (set six years after Return of the Jedi), Palpatine is resurrected as the Emperor Reborn or "Palpatine the Undying ''. His spirit returns from the netherworld of the Force with the aid of Sith ghosts on Korriban, the Sith world, and possesses the body of Jeng Droga, one of Palpatine 's elite spies and assassins known as the Emperor 's Hands. Droga flees to a secret Imperial base on the planet Byss, where the Emperor 's advisor Sate Pestage exorcises Palpatine 's spirit and channels it into one of many clones created by Palpatine before his death. Palpatine attempts to resume control of the galaxy, but Luke Skywalker, now a senior Jedi Knight, sabotages his plans. Luke destroys most of Palpatine 's cloning tanks, but is only able to defeat the Emperor with help from Leia Organa Solo, who has received rudimentary Jedi training from Luke. The two repel a Force storm Palpatine had created and turn it back onto him, once again destroying his physical form.
Palpatine 's ultimate fate is further chronicled in the Dark Empire II and Empire 's End series of comics. The Dark Empire II series, published from 1994 to 1995, details how the Emperor is once again reborn on Byss into a clone body. Palpatine tries to rebuild the Empire as the Rebel Alliance grows weak. In Empire 's End (1995), a traitorous Imperial guard bribes Palpatine 's cloning supervisor to tamper with the Emperor 's stored DNA samples. This causes the clones to deteriorate at a rapid rate. Palpatine tries to possess the body of Anakin Solo, the infant son of Leia Organa and Han Solo, before the clone body dies, but is thwarted once again by Luke Skywalker. Palpatine is killed by a blaster shot fired by Han, but his spirit is captured by the mortally wounded Jedi Empatojayos Brand. When Brand dies, he takes Palpatine 's spirit with him into the netherworld of the Force, destroying the Sith Lord once and for all.
Novels and comics published before 1999 focus on Palpatine 's role as Galactic Emperor. Shadows of the Empire (1996) by Steve Perry and The Mandalorian Armor (1998) by K.W. Jeter -- all set between The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi -- show how Palpatine uses crime lords such as Prince Xizor and bounty hunters like Boba Fett to fight his enemies. Barbara Hambly 's novel Children of the Jedi (1995), set eight years after Return of the Jedi, features a woman named Roganda Ismaren who claims that Palpatine fathered her son Irek. The Jedi Prince series of novels introduces an insane, three - eyed mutant named Triclops who is revealed to be Palpatine 's illegitimate son. Created from DNA extracted from Palpatine and placed into a woman, he was born mutated, cast away and forgotten. Triclops had a son named Ken who became known as the "Jedi Prince ''.
Beginning in 1999 with Terry Brooks ' novelization of The Phantom Menace, Star Wars writers chronicled the role of Palpatine prior to A New Hope as a politician and Sith Lord. The comic "Marked '' by Rob Williams, printed in Star Wars Tales 24 (2005), and Michael Reaves ' novel Darth Maul: Shadow Hunter (2001) explain Darth Sidious ' relationship with his apprentice Darth Maul. Cloak of Deception (2001) by James Luceno follows Reaves ' novel and details how Darth Sidious encourages the Trade Federation to build an army of battle droids in preparation for the invasion of Naboo. Cloak of Deception also focuses on Palpatine 's early political career, revealing how he becomes a confidante of Chancellor Finis Valorum and acquainted with Padmé Amidala, newly elected queen of Naboo. Palpatine 's role during the Clone Wars as Chancellor of the Republic and Darth Sidious is portrayed in novels such as Matthew Stover 's Shatterpoint (2003), Steven Barnes ' The Cestus Deception (2004), Sean Stewart 's Yoda: Dark Rendezvous (2004), and Luceno 's Labyrinth of Evil (2005) and Darth Plagueis (2012).
Following the theatrical release of Revenge of the Sith, Star Wars literature focused on Palpatine 's role after the creation of the Empire. John Ostrander 's comic Star Wars Republic 78: Loyalties (2005) chronicles how, shortly after seizing power, Emperor Palpatine sends Darth Vader to assassinate Sagoro Autem, an Imperial captain who plans to defect from the Empire. In Luceno 's novel Dark Lord: The Rise of Darth Vader (2005) (set shortly after Revenge of the Sith), the Emperor sends Darth Vader to the planet Murkhana to discover why clone troopers there refused to carry out Order 66 against their Jedi generals. Palpatine hopes these early missions will teach Vader what it means to be a Sith and crush any remnants of Anakin Skywalker.
In Star Wars fiction, Palpatine is a cunning politician, a ruthless emperor, and an evil Sith Lord. The Star Wars Databank describes him as "the supreme ruler of the most powerful tyrannical regime the galaxy had ever witnessed '' and Stephen J. Sansweet 's Star Wars Encyclopedia calls him "evil incarnate ''.
As a senator, Palpatine is "unassuming, yet ambitious ''. In Cloak of Deception, James Luceno writes that Palpatine carefully guards his privacy and "others found his reclusiveness intriguing, as if he led a secret life ''. Despite this, he has many allies in the government. Luceno writes, "What Palpatine lacked in charisma, he made up for in candor, and it was that directness that had led to his widespread appeal in the senate... For in his heart he judged the universe on his own terms, with a clear sense of right and wrong. '' In Terry Brooks ' novelization of The Phantom Menace, Palpatine claims to embrace democratic principles. He tells Queen Amidala, "I promise, Your Majesty, if I am elected (chancellor of the Republic), I will restore democracy to the Republic. I will put an end to the corruption that has plagued the Senate. '' A Visual Dictionary states that he is a self - proclaimed savior.
As Emperor, however, Palpatine abandons any semblance of democracy, as noted in Star Wars, when he abolishes the Imperial Senate. Sansweet states, "His Empire... is based on tyranny. ''
Revenge of the Sith implies that Palpatine was the apprentice of Darth Plagueis, while later Expanded Universe materials say explicitly that he was. Palpatine is characterized as "the most powerful practitioner of the Sith ways in modern times. '' Palpatine is so powerful that he is able to mask his true identity from the Jedi for decades. In the novel Shatterpoint, Mace Windu remarks to Yoda, "A shame (Palpatine) ca n't touch the Force. He might have been a fine Jedi. ''
The Star Wars Databank explains that the Force "granted him inhuman dexterity and speed, agility enough to quickly kill three Jedi Masters '' (as depicted in Revenge of the Sith). Stover describes the duel between Yoda and Palpatine in his novelization of Revenge of the Sith thus: "From the shadow of a black wing, a small weapon... slid into a withered hand and spat a flame - colored blade (.) When the blades met it was more than Yoda against Palpatine, more the millennia of Sith against the legions of Jedi; this was the expression of the fundamental conflict of the universe itself. Light against dark. Winner take all. '' During the duel, Yoda realizes that Sidious is a superior swordsman, and represents a small but powerful Sith Order that had changed and evolved over the years, while the Jedi had not: "He had lost before he started. He had lost before he was born. ''
According to the Databank and New Essential Guide to Characters, Palpatine possesses great patience and his maneuverings are as a dejarik grandmaster moves pieces on a board. He is depicted as a diabolical genius.
Palpatine was not given a first name in any canonical or "Star Wars Legends '' sources until 2014, when the character 's first name -- Sheev -- was revealed in the novel Tarkin, written by James Luceno. The Lucasfilm Story Group approached Del Rey Books and asked if they wanted to use the name, which was created by George Lucas, in the Tarkin novel, to which Del Rey agreed.
Lucas 's conceptualization of Palpatine and the role the character plays in Star Wars changed over time. From Return of the Jedi onwards, Palpatine became the ultimate personification of evil in Star Wars, replacing Darth Vader as the central villain.
When the original Star Wars trilogy was filmed, the Emperor was unnamed and his throne - world unidentified. The name would not be used in film until the prequel trilogy and the first mention of the name Palpatine came from the prologue of Alan Dean Foster 's 1976 novelization of A New Hope, which detailed the Emperor 's rise to power. Foster writes,
Aided and abetted by restless, power - hungry individuals within the government, and the massive organs of commerce, the ambitious Senator Palpatine caused himself to be elected President of the Republic. He promised to reunite the disaffected among the people and to restore the remembered glory of the Republic. Once secure in office he declared himself Emperor, shutting himself away from the populace. Soon he was controlled by the very assistants and boot - lickers he had appointed to high office, and the cries of the people for justice did not reach his ears.
However, it is unclear whether Lucas intended Palpatine to be the reigning Emperor or just the first of a succession of Emperors. Michael Kaminski, author of The Secret History of Star Wars, claims that Lucas ' initial notes discuss a line of corrupt Emperors, not just one. If Palpatine was the first, Kaminski infers, he would therefore not be the current. Later Lucas would abandon this idea, opting instead to focus on a sole villainous ruler.
During story conferences for The Empire Strikes Back, Lucas and Leigh Brackett decided that "the Emperor and the Force had to be the two main concerns in the Empire Strikes Back; the Emperor had barely been dealt with in the first movie, and the intention in the sequel was to deal with him on a more concrete level. '' Lucas ultimately decided instead to feature the Emperor in Return of the Jedi.
In that film, the initial conception of Palpatine was superseded by his depiction as a dictatorial ruler adept in the dark side of the Force. The Emperor was inspired by the villain Ming the Merciless from the Flash Gordon comic books. The characterization of Palpatine as an ambitious and ruthless politician dismantling a democratic republic to achieve supreme power is in part inspired by the real - world examples of Julius Caesar, Napoleon Bonaparte, Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin, Mao Zedong, Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler. Other elements of the character come from Richard Nixon. Lucas said that Nixon 's presidency "got me to thinking historically about how do democracies get turned into dictatorships. Because the democracies are n't overthrown; they 're given away. '' Lucas also said, "The whole point of the movies, the underlying element that makes the movies work, is that you, whether you go backwards or forwards, you start out in a democracy, and democracy turns into a dictatorship, and then the rebels make it back into a democracy. ''
Lucas wanted to establish the Emperor as the true source of evil in Star Wars. Screenwriter Lawrence Kasdan noted, "My sense of the relationship between Darth Vader and the Emperor is that the Emperor is much more powerful... and that Vader is very much intimidated by him. Vader has dignity, but the Emperor in Jedi really has all the power. '' He explained that the climax of the film is a confrontation between Darth Vader and his master. In the first scene that shows the Emperor, he arrives at the Death Star and is greeted by a host of stormtroopers, technicians, and other personnel. Lucas states he wanted it to look like the military parades on "May Day in Russia. ''
Lucas fleshed out the Emperor in the prequel films. According to Lucas, Palpatine 's role in The Phantom Menace is to explain "how Anakin Skywalker came to be Palpatine 's apprentice '' and the events that lead to his rise to power. The true identity of Darth Sidious -- the phantom menace -- is left a mystery, and his relationship to Palpatine is not clear, though popular consensus agreed that Darth Sidious and Palpatine were one and the same. Film critic Jonathan L. Bowen remarks, "Debates raged on the Internet concerning the relationship between Darth Sidious and Senator Palpatine. Most fans believed the two characters are actually the same person with logic seeming to support their conclusion. '' Bowen notes that the debate was fueled by the fact that "suspiciously Darth Sidious does not appear in the credits. ''
In Star Wars and History published by Lucasfilm, it describes Palpatine 's consolidation of power as being similar to the Roman political figure Augustus, named Octavian before renaming himself. Both legitimized authoritarian rule by saying that corruption in the Senate was hampering the powers of the head of state; both pressured the Senate to grant extraordinary powers to deal with a crisis, falsely claiming that they would rescind those powers once the crisis was over; and both relied on their strong control over military force.
When the Emperor first appeared in The Empire Strikes Back, he was portrayed by Marjorie Eaton under heavy makeup. Chimpanzee eyes were superimposed into darkened eye sockets during post-production "in order to create a truly unsettling image ''. The character was voiced by Clive Revill. The makeup was sculpted by Phil Tippett and applied by Rick Baker, who initially used his own wife, Elaine, for the makeup tests.
"With Kershner, '' Revill said, "you had to keep the reins tight -- you could n't go overboard. It was the perfect example of the old adage ' less is more ' -- the Emperor does n't say very much. But when he finally appears, it 's at a point in the saga when everyone 's waiting to see him. It 's the Emperor, the arch villain of all time, and when he says there 's a great disturbance in the Force, I mean, that 's enough oomph! '' Years later, during production of Revenge of the Sith, Lucas decided to shoot new footage for The Empire Strikes Back to create continuity between the prequels and original trilogy. Thus, in the 2004 DVD release of The Empire Strikes Back Special Edition, the original version of the Emperor was replaced by Scottish Shakespearean actor Ian McDiarmid, and the dialogue between the Emperor and Darth Vader was revised.
Lucas and director Richard Marquand cast McDiarmid to play Emperor Palpatine for Return of the Jedi. He was in his late 30s and had never played a leading role in a feature film, though he had made minor appearances in films like Dragonslayer (1981). After Return of the Jedi, he resumed stage acting in London. In an interview with BackStage, McDiarmid revealed that he "never had his sights set on a film career and never even auditioned for the role of Palpatine. '' He elaborated, "I got called in for the interview after a Return of the Jedi casting director saw me perform in the Sam Shepard play Seduced at a studio theatre at the Royal Court. I was playing a dying Howard Hughes. ''
McDiarmid was surprised when Lucas approached him 16 years after Return of the Jedi to reprise the role of Palpatine. In an interview, he stated, "When we were doing Return of the Jedi there was a rumor that George Lucas had nine films in his head, and he 'd clearly just completed three of them. '' McDiarmid added, "Someone said that, ' Oh, I think what he might do next is go back in time, and show how Vader came to be. ' It never occurred to me in a million years that I would be involved in that, because I thought, ' oh well, then he 'll get a much younger actor to play Palpatine. That would be obvious. '' However, "I was the right age, ironically, for the first prequel when it was made... So I was in the very strange and rather wonderful paradox of playing myself when young at my own age, having played myself previously when 100 - and - I - do n't - know - what. ''
Palpatine 's role in the prequel films required McDiarmid to play two dimensions of the same character. Recalling the initial days of shooting The Phantom Menace, McDiarmid stated, "Stepping onto the set of Episode I for the first time was like going back in time, due to my experience in Jedi. Palpatine 's an interesting character; he 's conventional on the outside, but demonic on the inside -- he 's on the edge, trying to go beyond what 's possible. '' McDiarmid added another layer to the character in Attack of the Clones. He noted, "(Palpatine) is a supreme actor. He has to be even more convincing than somebody who is n't behaving in a schizophrenic fashion, so he 's extra charming, or extra professional -- and for those who are looking for clues, that 's almost where you can see them. '' McDiarmid illuminated on the scene where Padmé Amidala is almost assassinated:
There 's a moment in one scene of the new film where tears almost appear in his eye. These are crocodile tears, but for all those in the movie, and perhaps watching the movie itself, they 'll see he is apparently moved -- and of course, he is. He can just do it. He can, as it were, turn it on. And I suppose for him, it 's also a bit of a turn - on -- the pure exercise of power is what he 's all about. That 's the only thing he 's interested in and the only thing that can satisfy him -- which makes him completely fascinating to play, because it is an evil soul. He is more evil than the devil. At least Satan fell -- he has a history, and it 's one of revenge.
In Revenge of the Sith, McDiarmid played a darker interpretation of the character. He explained that "(...) when you 're playing a character of solid blackness, that in itself is very interesting, in the sense that you have no other motivation other than the accumulation of power. It 's not so much about not having a moral center, it 's just that the only thing that mattered is increasing power. '' He admitted, "I 've been trying to find a redeeming feature to Palpatine, and the only one I 've got so far is that he 's clearly a patron of the arts because he goes to the opera. '' McDiarmid compared the character to Iago from William Shakespeare 's Othello:
Everything he does is an act of pure hypocrisy, and that 's interesting to play. I suppose it 's rather like playing Iago. All the characters in the play -- including Othello until the end -- think that "Honest Iago '' is a decent guy doing his job, and he 's quite liked. But at the same time there 's a tremendous evil subconscious in operation.
McDiarmid noticed that the script for Revenge of the Sith demanded more action from his character than in previous films. Lightsaber combat was a challenge to the 60 - year - old actor, who, like his costars, took fencing lessons. The close - up shots and non-acrobatic sequences of the duel between Palpatine and Mace Windu were performed by McDiarmid. Advanced fencing and acrobatic stunts were executed by McDiarmid 's doubles, Michael Byrne, Sebastian Dickins, and Bob Bowles.
McDiarmid 's performance as Palpatine was generally well received by critics. Todd McCarthy of Variety commented, "Entertaining from start to finish and even enthralling at times, ' Sith ' has some acting worth writing home about, specifically McDiarmid 's dominant turn as the mastermind of the evil empire. '' Ed Halter of The Village Voice wrote that "Ian McDiarmid 's unctuous Emperor turns appropriately vampiric as he attempts to draw Anakin into the Sith fold with promises of eternal life. '' Still, his performance was not without detractors; David Edelstein of Slate critiqued, "McDiarmid is n't the subtlest of satanic tempters. With his lisp and his clammy little leer, he looks like an old queen keen on trading an aging butt - boy (Count Dooku) for fresh meat -- which leaves Anakin looking more and more like a 15 - watt bulb. '' McDiarmid had expressed interest in reprising the role of Palpatine in the planned Star Wars: Underworld TV series, which remains un-produced.
Ian McDiarmid required little make - up in The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones. He recalled, "I 'm... slightly aged (in Attack of the Clones). In the last film, I had a fairly standard make - up on, but now, they 're starting to crinkle my face. '' Transforming McDiarmid into Emperor Palpatine in Return of the Jedi and Revenge of the Sith, however, required extensive make - up. McDiarmid remarked in an interview with Star Wars Insider magazine, "Yes -- that was a four - hour job, initially, although we got it down to about two - and - a-half in the end. But this was just a little bit of latex here and there, a little bit of skin - scrunching. '' He told the Homing Beacon newsletter, "When my face changes in the film, my mind went back to the early silent movie of The Phantom of the Opera with Lon Chaney, Sr. '' Film critic Roger Ebert wrote that he "looks uncannily like Death in The Seventh Seal '' (1957) and film historian Robin Wood compares him to the hag from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937).
Palpatine 's wardrobe, tailored by costume designer Trisha Biggar, played an important part in the development of the character throughout the films. In Attack of the Clones, explained McDiarmid, "The costumes... have got much more edge to them, I think, than the mere senator had in The Phantom Menace. So we see the trappings of power. '' In the next episode, McDiarmid remarked, "To wear the costumes as the character I play is wonderfully empowering. '' McDiarmid 's favorite costume in Revenge of the Sith was a high - collared jacket that resembles snake or lizard skin. He stated that "it just feels reptilian, which is exactly right for (Palpatine). '' According to Trisha Biggar, Palpatine 's costumes proved the most daunting challenge. She said, "His six costumes get progressively darker and more ornately decorated throughout the movie. He wears greys and browns, almost going to black, taking him toward the dark side. ''
With the premiere of Return of the Jedi and the prequel films and the accompanying merchandising campaign, Palpatine became an icon in American popular culture. Kenner / Hasbro produced and marketed a series of action figures of the character from 1983 to 2005. According to John Shelton Lawrence and Robert Jewett, "These action figures allow children (' 4 & up ') to handle the symbols of the Force. ''
Academics have debated the relationship of Palpatine to modern culture. Religion scholars Ross Shepard Kraemer, William Cassidy, and Susan Schwartz compare Palpatine and Star Wars heroes to the theological concept of dualism. They insist, "One can certainly picture the evil emperor in Star Wars as Satan, complete with his infernal powers, leading his faceless minions such as his red - robed Imperial Guards. '' Lawrence and Jewett argue that Vader killing Palpatine in Return of the Jedi represented "the permanent subduing of evil ''.
Since Return of the Jedi and the prequel films, Palpatine 's name has been invoked as a caricature in politics. A Seattle Post-Intelligencer editorial noted that anti-pork bloggers were caricaturing West Virginia Senator Robert Byrd as "the Emperor Palpatine of pork '', with Senator Ted Stevens of Alaska having "clear aspirations to be his Darth Vader. '' The charge followed a report that linked a secret hold on the Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act of 2006 to the two senators. Politicians have made comparisons as well. In 2005, Democratic Senator Frank Lautenberg of New Jersey compared Republican Majority Leader Bill Frist of Tennessee to Palpatine in a speech on the Senate floor, complete with a visual aid.
A Fox News editorial stated "no cultural icon can exist without someone trying to stuff it into a political ideology. The Star Wars saga, the greatest pop culture icon of the last three decades, is no exception... Palpatine 's dissolution of the Senate in favor of imperial rule has been compared to Julius Caesar 's marginalization of the Roman Senate, Hitler 's power - grab as chancellor, and FDR 's court - packing scheme and creation of the imperial presidency. ''
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how did the u.s. first attempt to acquire mexico’s northern territories | Mexican -- American war - wikipedia
American victory
The Mexican -- American War, also known as the Mexican War in the United States and in Mexico as the American intervention in Mexico, was an armed conflict between the United States of America and the United Mexican States (Mexico) from 1846 to 1848. It followed in the wake of the 1845 American annexation of the independent Republic of Texas, which Mexico still considered its northeastern province and a part of its territory after its de facto secession in the 1836 Texas Revolution a decade earlier.
Mexico obtained independence from the Kingdom of Spain and the Spanish Empire with the Treaty of Córdoba in 1821, and briefly experimented with monarchy, becoming a republic in 1824. It was characterized by considerable instability, leaving it ill - prepared for international conflict only two decades later, when war broke out in 1846. In the decades preceding the war, Native American raids in Mexico 's sparsely settled north prompted the Mexican government to sponsor migration from the United States to the Mexican province of Texas to create a buffer. However, the newly named "Texians '' revolted against the Mexican government of President / dictator Antonio López de Santa Anna, who had usurped the Mexican Constitution of 1824, in the subsequent 1836 Texas Revolution, creating a republic not recognized by Mexico, which still claimed it as part of its national territory. In 1845, the Texan Republic agreed to an offer of annexation by the U.S. Congress and became the 28th state in the Union on December 29 that year.
In 1845, newly elected U.S. President James K. Polk made a proposition to the Mexican government to purchase the disputed lands between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande river further south. When that offer was rejected, President Polk moved U.S. troops commanded by Major General Zachary Taylor further south into the disputed territory. Mexican forces attacked an American Army outpost ("Thornton Affair '') in the occupied territory, killing 12 U.S. soldiers and capturing 52. These same Mexican troops later laid siege to an American fort along the Rio Grande. Polk cited this attack as an invasion of U.S. territory and requested that the Congress declare war.
U.S. forces quickly occupied the capital town of Santa Fe de Nuevo México along the upper Rio Grande and the Pacific coast territory province of Alta California (Upper California). They then invaded to the south into parts of central Mexico (modern - day northeastern Mexico and northwest Mexico). Meanwhile, the Pacific Squadron of the United States Navy conducted a blockade and took control of several garrisons on the Pacific coast farther south in lower Baja California Territory. The U.S. Army, under the command of Major General Winfield Scott, after several fierce battles of stiff resistance from the Mexican Army outside of the capital, Mexico City, eventually captured the city, having marched west from the port of Veracruz, where the Americans staged their first amphibious landing on the Gulf of Mexico coast.
The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, forced onto the remnant Mexican government, ended the war and specified its major consequence, the Mexican Cession of the northern territories of Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México to the United States. The U.S. agreed to pay $15 million compensation for the physical damage of the war. In addition, the United States assumed $3.25 million of debt already owed earlier by the Mexican government to U.S. citizens. Mexico acknowledged the loss of their province, later the Republic of Texas (and now the State of Texas), and thereafter cited and acknowledged the Rio Grande as its future northern national border with the United States. Mexico had lost over one - third of its original territory from its 1821 independence.
The territorial expansion of the United States toward the Pacific coast had been the goal of Polk, the leader of the Democratic Party. At first, the war was highly controversial in the United States, with the Whig Party, anti-imperialists, and anti-slavery elements strongly opposing. Critics in the United States pointed to the heavy casualties suffered by U.S. forces compared to earlier American wars, and the conflict 's high monetary cost. The war intensified the debate over slavery in the United States, contributing to bitter debates that culminated in the American Civil War (1861 -- 1865).
In Mexico, the war came in the middle of continued domestic political turmoil, which increased into chaos during the conflict. The military defeat and loss of territory was a disastrous blow, causing Mexico to enter "a period of self - examination... as its leaders sought to identify and address the reasons that had led to such a debacle. '' In the immediate aftermath of the war, some prominent Mexicans wrote that the war had resulted in "the state of degradation and ruin '' in Mexico, further claiming, for "the true origin of the war, it is sufficient to say that the insatiable ambition of the United States, favored by our weakness, caused it. '' The shift in the Mexico - U.S. border left many Mexican citizens separated from their national government. For the indigenous peoples who had never accepted Spanish or Mexican rule, the change in border meant conflicts with a new outside power.
The northern area of Mexico was sparsely settled and not well controlled politically by the government based in Mexico City. After independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico contended with internal struggles that sometimes verged on civil war and the northern frontier was not a high priority. In the sparsely settled interior of northern Mexico, the end of Spanish rule was marked by the end of financing for presidios and for subsidies to indigenous Americans to maintain the peace. There were conflicts between indigenous people in the northern region as well. The Comanche were particularly successful in expanding their territory in the Comanche -- Mexico Wars and garnering resources. The Apache -- Mexico Wars also made Mexico 's north a violent place, with no effective political control.
The Apache raids left thousands of people dead throughout northern Mexico. When the United States Army entered northern Mexico in 1846 they found demoralized Mexican settlers. There was little resistance to US forces from the civilian population.
Hostile activity from indigenous people also made communications and trade between the interior of Mexico and provinces such as Alta California and New Mexico difficult. As a result, New Mexico was dependent on the overland Santa Fe Trail trade with the United States at the outbreak of the Mexican -- American War.
Mexico 's military and diplomatic capabilities declined after it attained independence and left the northern half of the country vulnerable to the Comanche, Apache, and Navajo. The indigenous people, especially the Comanche, took advantage of the weakness of the Mexican state to undertake large - scale raids hundreds of miles into the country to acquire livestock for their own use and to supply an expanding market in Texas and the US.
The Mexican government 's policy of settlement of US citizens in its province of Tejas was aimed at expanding control into Comanche lands, the Comancheria. Instead of settlement occurring in the central and west of the province, people settled in East Texas, where there was rich farmland and which was contiguous to southern US slave states. As settlers poured in from the US, the Mexican government took steps to discourage further settlement, including its 1829 abolition of slavery.
In 1836, Mexico was relatively united in refusing to recognize the independence of Texas. Mexico threatened war with the United States if it annexed the Republic of Texas. Meanwhile, U.S. President Polk 's assertion of Manifest Destiny was focusing United States interest on westward expansion beyond its existing national borders.
During the Spanish colonial era, the Californias (i.e., the Baja California peninsula and Alta California) were sparsely settled. After Mexico became independent, it shut down the missions and reduced its military presence. In 1842, the US minister in Mexico, Waddy Thompson Jr., suggested Mexico might be willing to cede Alta California to settle debts, saying: "As to Texas, I regard it as of very little value compared with California, the richest, the most beautiful, and the healthiest country in the world... with the acquisition of Upper California we should have the same ascendency on the Pacific... France and England both have had their eyes upon it. ''
US President John Tyler 's administration suggested a tripartite pact that would settle the Oregon boundary dispute and provide for the cession of the port of San Francisco from Mexico. Lord Aberdeen declined to participate but said Britain had no objection to U.S. territorial acquisition there. The British minister in Mexico, Richard Pakenham, wrote in 1841 to Lord Palmerston urging "to establish an English population in the magnificent Territory of Upper California '', saying that "no part of the World offering greater natural advantages for the establishment of an English colony... by all means desirable... that California, once ceasing to belong to Mexico, should not fall into the hands of any power but England... daring and adventurous speculators in the United States have already turned their thoughts in this direction. '' But by the time the letter reached London, Sir Robert Peel 's Tory government, with its Little England policy, had come to power and rejected the proposal as expensive and a potential source of conflict.
A significant number of influential Californios were in favor of annexation, either by the United States or by the United Kingdom. Pío de Jesús Pico IV, the last governor of Alta California, was in favor of British annexation.
In 1800, the colonial province of Texas was sparsely populated, with only about 7,000 non-Indian settlers. The Spanish crown developed a policy of colonization to more effectively control the territory. After independence, the Mexican government implemented the policy, granting Moses Austin, a banker from Missouri, a large tract of land in Texas. Austin died before he could bring his plan of recruiting American settlers for the land to fruition, but his son, Stephen F. Austin, brought over 300 American families into Texas. This started the steady trend of migration from the United States into the Texas frontier. Austin 's colony was the most successful of several colonies authorized by the Mexican government. The Mexican government intended the new settlers to act as a buffer between the Tejano residents and the Comanches, but the non-Hispanic colonists tended to settle where there was decent farmland and trade connections with American Louisiana, which the United States had acquired in the Louisiana Purchase, rather than further west where they would have been an effective buffer against the Indians.
In 1829, as a result of the large influx of American immigrants, the non-Hispanic outnumbered native Spanish speakers in the Texas territory. President Vicente Guerrero, a hero of Mexican independence, moved to gain more control over Texas and its influx of southern non-Hispanic colonists and discourage further immigration by abolishing slavery in Mexico. The Mexican government also decided to reinstate the property tax and increase tariffs on shipped American goods. The settlers and many Mexican businessmen in the region rejected the demands, which led to Mexico closing Texas to additional immigration, which continued from the United States into Texas illegally.
In 1834, General Antonio López de Santa Anna became the centralist dictator of Mexico, abandoning the federal system. He decided to quash the semi-independence of Texas, having succeeded in doing so in Coahuila (in 1824, Mexico had merged Texas and Coahuila into the enormous state of Coahuila y Tejas). Finally, Stephen F. Austin called Texians to arms, and they declared independence from Mexico in 1836. After Santa Anna defeated the Texians in the Battle of the Alamo, he was defeated by the Texian Army commanded by General Sam Houston and captured at the Battle of San Jacinto; he signed a treaty recognizing the independence of Texas.
Texas consolidated its status as an independent republic and received official recognition from Britain, France, and the United States, which all advised Mexico not to try to reconquer the new nation. Most Texians wanted to join the United States of America, but annexation of Texas was contentious in the US Congress, where Whigs were largely opposed. In 1845 Texas agreed to the offer of annexation by the US Congress and became the 28th state on December 29, 1845.
The border of Texas as an independent state was originally never settled. The Republic of Texas claimed land up to the Rio Grande based on the Treaties of Velasco, but Mexico refused to accept these as valid, claiming that the Rio Grande in the treaty was the Nueces, and referred to the Rio Grande as the Rio Bravo. The ill - fated Texan Santa Fe Expedition of 1841 attempted to realize the claim to New Mexican territory East of the Rio Grande, but its members were captured and imprisoned.
Reference to the Rio Grande boundary of Texas was omitted from the US Congress 's annexation resolution to help secure passage after the annexation treaty failed in the Senate. President Polk claimed the Rio Grande boundary, and when Mexico sent forces over the Rio Grande, this provoked a dispute.
In July 1845, Polk sent General Zachary Taylor to Texas, and by October 3,500 Americans were on the Nueces River, ready to take by force the disputed land. Polk wanted to protect the border and also coveted for the U.S. the continent clear to the Pacific Ocean. At the same time Polk wrote to the American consul in the Mexican territory of Alta California, disclaiming American ambitions in California, but offering to support independence from Mexico or voluntary accession to the United States, and warning that the United States would oppose a British or French takeover.
To end another war scare with the United Kingdom over the Oregon Country, Polk signed the Oregon Treaty dividing the territory, angering northern Democrats who felt he was prioritizing Southern expansion over Northern expansion.
In the Winter of 1845 -- 46, the federally commissioned explorer John C. Frémont and a group of armed men appeared in Alta California. After telling the Mexican governor and the American Consul Larkin he was merely buying supplies on the way to Oregon, he instead went to the populated area of California and visited Santa Cruz and the Salinas Valley, explaining he had been looking for a seaside home for his mother. Mexican authorities became alarmed and ordered him to leave. Frémont responded by building a fort on Gavilan Peak and raising the American flag. Larkin sent word that Frémont 's actions were counterproductive. Frémont left California in March but returned to California and took control of the California Battalion following the outbreak of the Bear Flag Revolt in Sonoma.
In November 1845, Polk sent John Slidell, a secret representative, to Mexico City with an offer to the Mexican government of $25 million for the Rio Grande border in Texas and Mexico 's provinces of Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México. US expansionists wanted California to thwart British ambitions in the area and to gain a port on the Pacific Ocean. Polk authorized Slidell to forgive the $3 million owed to US citizens for damages caused by the Mexican War of Independence and pay another $25 to $30 million in exchange for the two territories.
Mexico was not inclined nor able to negotiate. In 1846 alone, the presidency changed hands four times, the war ministry six times, and the finance ministry sixteen times. Mexican public opinion and all political factions agreed that selling the territories to the United States would tarnish the national honor. Mexicans who opposed direct conflict with the United States, including President José Joaquín de Herrera, were viewed as traitors. Military opponents of de Herrera, supported by populist newspapers, considered Slidell 's presence in Mexico City an insult. When de Herrera considered receiving Slidell to settle the problem of Texas annexation peacefully, he was accused of treason and deposed. After a more nationalistic government under General Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga came to power, it publicly reaffirmed Mexico 's claim to Texas; Slidell, convinced that Mexico should be "chastised '', returned to the US.
The Mexican Army emerged from the war of independence (1810 -- 1821) as a weak and divided force. Before the war with the United States, the military faced both internal and foreign challenges. The Spanish still occupied the coastal fortress of San Juan de Ulúa, and Spain did not recognize Mexico 's independence, so that the new nation was at risk for invasion. In 1829, the Spanish attempted to reconquer their former colony and Antonio López de Santa Anna became a national hero defending the homeland. The army had a set of privileges (fueros), established in the colonial era, that gave it jurisdiction over many aspects of its affairs. In general, the military supported conservative positions, advocating for a strong central government and upholding privileges of the military and the Catholic Church.
Some military men exercised power in local areas as caudillos and resisted central command. Liberal politicians, such as Valentín Gómez Farías, sought to rein in the military 's power. The military faced insurrections and separatist movements in Tabasco, Yucatán, and Texas. The French blockaded in Veracruz in 1838 to collect debts, a conflict known to history as the Pastry War. Compounding the demands on the Mexican military, there were continuing Indian challenges to power in the northern region.
On the Mexican side, only 7 of the 19 states that formed the Mexican federation sent soldiers, armament, and money for the war effort, as the young Republic had not yet developed a sense of a unifying, national identity.
Mexican soldiers were not easily melded into an effective fighting force. Santa Anna said "the leaders of the army did their best to train the rough men who volunteered, but they could do little to inspire them with patriotism for the glorious country they were honored to serve. '' According to leading conservative politician Lucas Alamán, the "money spent on arming Mexican troops merely enabled them to fight each other and ' give the illusion ' that the country possessed an army for its defense. '' However, an officer criticized Santa Anna 's training of troops, "The cavalry was drilled only in regiments. The artillery hardly ever maneuvered and never fired a blank shot. The general in command was never present on the field of maneuvers, so that he was unable to appreciate the respective qualities of the various bodies under his command... If any meetings of the principal commanding officers were held to discuss the operations of the campaign, it was not known, nor was it known whether any plan of campaign had been formed. ''
At the beginning of the war, Mexican forces were divided between the permanent forces (permanentes) and the active militiamen (activos). The permanent forces consisted of 12 regiments of infantry (of two battalions each), three brigades of artillery, eight regiments of cavalry, one separate squadron and a brigade of dragoons. The militia amounted to nine infantry and six cavalry regiments. In the northern territories of Mexico, presidial companies (presidiales) protected the scattered settlements there.
One of the contributing factors to loss of the war by Mexico was the inferiority of their weapons. The Mexican army was using surplus British muskets (e.g. Brown Bess) from the Napoleonic Wars period. While at the beginning of the war the majority of American soldiers were still equipped with the very similar Springfield 1816 flintlock muskets, more reliable caplock models gained large inroads within the rank and file as the conflict progressed. Some US troops carried radically modern weapons that gave them a significant advantage over their Mexican counterparts, such as the Springfield 1841 rifle of the Mississippi Rifles and the Colt Paterson revolver of the Texas Rangers. In the later stages of the war, the US Mounted Rifles were issued Colt Walker revolvers, of which the US Army had ordered 1,000 in 1846. Most significantly, throughout the war the superiority of the US artillery often carried the day. While technologically Mexican and American artillery operated on the same plane, US army training as well as the quality and reliability of their logistics gave US guns and cannoneers a significant edge.
Desertion was a major problem for the Mexican army, depleting forces on the eve of battle. Most soldiers were peasants who held loyalty to their village and family, but not to the generals who had conscripted them. Often hungry and ill, under - equipped, only partially trained, and never well paid, the soldiers were held in contempt by their officers and had little reason to fight the invading US forces. Looking for their opportunity, many slipped away from camp to find their way back to their home village.
Women who traveled with the men in the Mexican army where known as soldaderas. While they only carried their packs, there were recorded instances where the soldaderas would join in the battle alongside the men. These women were involved in street fighting during the defence of Mexico City and Monterey. Some women such as Dos Amandes and Maria Josefa Zozaya would be remembered as heroes.
Political divisions inside Mexico were another factor in the US victory. Inside Mexico, the centralistas and republicanos vied for power, and at times these two factions inside Mexico 's military fought each other rather than the invading US Army. Another faction called the monarchists, whose members wanted to install a monarch (some advocated rejoining Spain), further complicated matters. This third faction would rise to predominance in the period of the French intervention in Mexico. The ease of the American landing at Veracruz was in large part due to civil warfare in Mexico City, which made any real defense of the port city impossible. As Gen. Santa Anna said, "However shameful it may be to admit this, we have brought this disgraceful tragedy upon ourselves through our interminable in - fighting. ''
On the U.S. side, the war was fought by regiments of regulars and various regiments, battalions, and companies of volunteers from the different states of the Union as well as Americans and some Mexicans in the California and New Mexico territories. On the West Coast, the US Navy fielded a battalion of sailors, in an attempt to recapture Los Angeles. Although the US Army and Navy were not large at the outbreak of the war, the officers were generally well trained and the numbers of enlisted men fairly large compared to Mexico 's. At the beginning of the war, the US Army had eight regiments of infantry (three battalions each), four artillery regiments and three mounted regiments (two dragoons, one of mounted rifles). These regiments were supplemented by 10 new regiments (nine of infantry and one of cavalry) raised for one year of service by the act of Congress from February 11, 1847.
State volunteers were raised in various sized units and for various periods of time, mostly for one year. Later some were raised for the duration of the war as it became clear it was going to last longer than a year.
US soldiers ' memoirs describe cases of looting and murder of Mexican civilians, mostly by State Volunteers. One officer 's diary records:
We reached Burrita about 5 pm, many of the Louisiana volunteers were there, a lawless drunken rabble. They had driven away the inhabitants, taken possession of their houses, and were emulating each other in making beasts of themselves.
John L. O'Sullivan, a vocal proponent of Manifest Destiny, later recalled:
The regulars regarded the volunteers with importance and contempt... (The volunteers) robbed Mexicans of their cattle and corn, stole their fences for firewood, got drunk, and killed several inoffensive inhabitants of the town in the streets.
Many of the volunteers were unwanted and considered poor soldiers. The expression "Just like Gaines 's army '' came to refer to something useless, the phrase having originated when a group of untrained and unwilling Louisiana troops were rejected and sent back by Gen. Taylor at the beginning of the war.
1,563 US soldiers are buried in the Mexico City National Cemetery, which is maintained by the American Battle Monuments Commission.
President Polk ordered General Taylor and his forces south to the Rio Grande, entering the territory that Mexicans disputed. Mexico laid claim to all the lands as far north as the Nueces River -- about 150 mi (240 km) north of the Rio Grande. The U.S. claimed that the border was the Rio Grande, citing the 1836 Treaties of Velasco. However, Mexico rejected the treaties and refused to negotiate, instead still claiming all of Texas. Taylor ignored Mexican demands to withdraw to the Nueces. He constructed a makeshift fort (later known as Fort Brown / Fort Texas) on the banks of the Rio Grande opposite the city of Matamoros, Tamaulipas.
The Mexican forces under General Santa Anna immediately prepared for war. On April 25, 1846, a 2,000 - man Mexican cavalry detachment attacked a 70 - man U.S. patrol under the command of Captain Seth Thornton, which had been sent into the contested territory north of the Rio Grande and south of the Nueces River. In the Thornton Affair, the Mexican cavalry routed the patrol, killing 11 American soldiers.
Regarding the beginning of the war, Ulysses S. Grant, who had opposed the war but served as an army lieutenant in Taylor 's Army, claims in his Personal Memoirs (1885) that the main goal of the U.S. Army 's advance from Nueces River to Rio Grande was to provoke the outbreak of war without attacking first, to debilitate any political opposition to the war.
The presence of United States troops on the edge of the disputed territory farthest from the Mexican settlements, was not sufficient to provoke hostilities. We were sent to provoke a fight, but it was essential that Mexico should commence it. It was very doubtful whether Congress would declare war; but if Mexico should attack our troops, the Executive could announce, "Whereas, war exists by the acts of, etc., '' and prosecute the contest with vigor. Once initiated there were but few public men who would have the courage to oppose it...
Mexico showing no willingness to come to the Nueces to drive the invaders from her soil, it became necessary for the "invaders '' to approach to within a convenient distance to be struck. Accordingly, preparations were begun for moving the army to the Rio Grande, to a point near Matamoras (sic). It was desirable to occupy a position near the largest centre of population possible to reach, without absolutely invading territory to which we set up no claim whatever.
A few days after the defeat of the U.S. troops by General Arista, the Siege of Fort Texas began on May 3, 1846. Mexican artillery at Matamoros opened fire on Fort Texas, which replied with its own guns. The bombardment continued for 160 hours and expanded as Mexican forces gradually surrounded the fort. Thirteen U.S. soldiers were injured during the bombardment, and two were killed. Among the dead was Jacob Brown, after whom the fort was later named.
On May 8, Zachary Taylor and 2,400 troops arrived to relieve the fort. However, General Arista rushed north and intercepted him with a force of 3,400 at Palo Alto. The U.S. Army employed "flying artillery '', their term for horse artillery, a type of mobile light artillery that was mounted on horse carriages with the entire crew riding horses into battle. It had a devastating effect on the Mexican army. In contrast to the "flying artillery '' of the Americans, the Mexican cannons at the Battle of Palo Alto fired at such slow velocities that it was possible for American soldiers to dodge artillery rounds. The Mexicans replied with cavalry skirmishes and their own artillery. The U.S. flying artillery somewhat demoralized the Mexican side, and seeking terrain more to their advantage, the Mexicans retreated to the far side of a dry riverbed (resaca) during the night. It provided a natural fortification, but during the retreat, Mexican troops were scattered, making communication difficult.
During the Battle of Resaca de la Palma the next day, the two sides engaged in fierce hand to hand combat. The U.S. Cavalry managed to capture the Mexican artillery, causing the Mexican side to retreat -- a retreat that turned into a rout. Fighting on unfamiliar terrain, his troops fleeing in retreat, Arista found it impossible to rally his forces. Mexican casualties were heavy, and the Mexicans were forced to abandon their artillery and baggage. Fort Brown inflicted additional casualties as the withdrawing troops passed by the fort. Many Mexican soldiers drowned trying to swim across the Rio Grande. Both these engagements were fought before war was declared.
In 1846, relations between the two countries had deteriorated considerably and on April 23, 1846, the president of Mexico issued a proclamation, declaring Mexico 's intent to fight a "defensive war '' against the encroachment of the United States. On April 25, 1846, two thousand Mexican cavalry crossed into the disputed territory and routed a small detachment of American soldiers, sparking the "Thornton Affair ''. Polk received word of the Thornton Affair, which, added to the Mexican government 's rejection of Slidell, Polk believed, constituted a casus belli (cause for war). His message to Congress on May 11, 1846, claimed that "Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon American soil. ''
The U.S. Congress approved the declaration of war on May 13, 1846, after a few hours of debate, with southern Democrats in strong support. Sixty - seven Whigs voted against the war on a key slavery amendment, but on the final passage only 14 Whigs voted no, including Rep. John Quincy Adams.
In Mexico, although President Paredes issued a manifesto on May 23, 1846 and a declaration of a defensive war on April 23, both of which are considered by some the de facto start of the war, Mexico officially declared war by Congress on July 7, 1846.
Once the U.S. declared war on Mexico, Antonio López de Santa Anna wrote to the Mexican government, saying he no longer had aspirations to the presidency but would eagerly use his military experience to fight off the foreign invasion of Mexico as he had before. President Valentín Gómez Farías, a civilian, was desperate enough to accept the offer and allowed Santa Anna to return. Meanwhile, Santa Anna had secretly been dealing with representatives of the U.S., pledging that if he were allowed back into Mexico through the U.S. naval blockades, he would work to sell all contested territory to the United States at a reasonable price. Once back in Mexico at the head of an army, Santa Anna reneged on both agreements. He declared himself president once again and unsuccessfully tried to fight off the U.S. invasion.
In the United States, increasingly divided by sectional rivalry, the war was a partisan issue and an essential element in the origins of the American Civil War. Most Whigs in the North and South opposed it; most Democrats supported it. Southern Democrats, animated by a popular belief in Manifest Destiny, supported it in hope of adding slave - owning territory to the South and avoiding being outnumbered by the faster - growing North. John L. O'Sullivan, editor of the Democratic Review, coined this phrase in its context, stating that it must be "our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions. ''
Northern antislavery elements feared the expansion of the Southern Slave Power; Whigs generally wanted to strengthen the economy with industrialization, not expand it with more land. Among the most vocal opposing the war in the House of Representatives was John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts. Adams had first voiced concerns about expanding into Mexican territory in 1836 when he opposed Texas annexation. He continued this argument in 1846 for the same reason. War with Mexico would add new slavery territory to the nation. When the vote to go to war with Mexico came to a vote on May 13, Adams spoke a resounding "NO '' in the chamber. Only 13 others followed his lead.
Ex-slave Frederick Douglass opposed the war and was dismayed by the weakness of the anti-war movement. "The determination of our slave holding president, and the probability of his success in wringing from the people, men and money to carry it on, is made evident by the puny opposition arrayed against him. None seem willing to take their stand for peace at all risks. ''
Democrats wanted more land; northern Democrats were attracted by the possibilities in the far northwest. Joshua Giddings led a group of dissenters in Washington D.C. He called the war with Mexico "an aggressive, unholy, and unjust war '', and voted against supplying soldiers and weapons. He said:
In the murder of Mexicans upon their own soil, or in robbing them of their country, I can take no part either now or hereafter. The guilt of these crimes must rest on others. I will not participate in them.
Fellow Whig Abraham Lincoln contested Polk 's causes for the war. Polk had said that Mexico had "shed American blood upon American soil ''. Lincoln submitted eight "Spot Resolutions '', demanding that Polk state the exact spot where Thornton had been attacked and American blood shed, and clarify whether or not that location was actually American soil, or in fact had been claimed by Spain and Mexico.
Whig Senator Thomas Corwin of Ohio gave a long speech indicting presidential war in 1847. Whig leader Robert Toombs of Georgia declared:
This war is nondescript... We charge the President with usurping the war - making power... with seizing a country... which had been for centuries, and was then in the possession of the Mexicans... Let us put a check upon this lust of dominion. We had territory enough, Heaven knew.
Northern abolitionists attacked the war as an attempt by slave - owners to strengthen the grip of slavery and thus ensure their continued influence in the federal government. Acting on his convictions, Henry David Thoreau was jailed for his refusal to pay taxes to support the war, and penned his famous essay Civil Disobedience.
Democratic Representative David Wilmot introduced the Wilmot Proviso, which would prohibit slavery in new territory acquired from Mexico. Wilmot 's proposal passed the House but not the Senate, and it spurred further hostility between the factions.
Besides alleging that the actions of Mexican military forces within the disputed boundary lands north of the Rio Grande constituted an attack on American soil, the war 's advocates viewed the territories of New Mexico and California as only nominally Mexican possessions with very tenuous ties to Mexico. They saw the territories as actually unsettled, ungoverned, and unprotected frontier lands, whose non-aboriginal population, where there was any at all, represented a substantial -- in places even a majority -- American component. Moreover, the territories were feared to be under imminent threat of acquisition by America 's rival on the continent, the British.
President Polk reprised these arguments in his Third Annual Message to Congress on December 7, 1847. He scrupulously detailed his administration 's position on the origins of the conflict, the measures the U.S. had taken to avoid hostilities, and the justification for declaring war. He also elaborated upon the many outstanding financial claims by American citizens against Mexico and argued that, in view of the country 's insolvency, the cession of some large portion of its northern territories was the only indemnity realistically available as compensation. This helped to rally congressional Democrats to his side, ensuring passage of his war measures and bolstering support for the war in the U.S.
The Mexican - American War was the first American war that was covered by mass media, primarily the penny press and was the first foreign war covered primarily by American correspondents. Press coverage in the United States was characterized by support for the war and widespread public interest and demand for coverage of the conflict. Mexican coverage of the war (both written by Mexicans and Americans based in Mexico) was affected by press censorship, first by the Mexican government and later by the American military.
The coverage of the war was an important development in the U.S., with journalists as well as letter - writing soldiers giving the public in the U.S. "their first - ever independent news coverage of warfare from home or abroad. '' During the war, inventions such as the telegraph created new means of communication that updated people with the latest news from the reporters, who were on the scene. The most important of these was George Wilkins Kendall, a Northerner who wrote for the New Orleans Picayune, and whose collected Dispatches from the Mexican War constitute an important primary source for the conflict. With more than a decade 's experience reporting urban crime, the "penny press '' realized the public 's voracious demand for astounding war news. Moreover, Shelley Streetby demonstrates that the print revolution (1830s - 1840s), which preceded the U.S. - Mexican War, made it possible for the distribution of cheap newspapers throughout the country. This was the first time in American history that accounts by journalists, instead of opinions of politicians, had great influence in shaping people 's opinions about and attitudes toward a war. Along with written accounts of the war, there were war artists giving a visual dimension to the war at the time and immediately afterward. Carl Nebel 's visual depictions of the war are well known.
By getting constant reports from the battlefield, Americans became emotionally united as a community. News about the war always caused extraordinary popular excitement. In the Spring of 1846, news about Zachary Taylor 's victory at Palo Alto brought up a large crowd that met in a cotton textile town of Lowell, Massachusetts. New York celebrated the twin victories at Veracruz and Buena Vista in May 1847. Among fireworks and illuminations, they had a "grand procession '' of about 400,000 people. Generals Taylor and Scott became heroes for their people and later became presidential candidates.
After the declaration of war on May 13, 1846, U.S. forces invaded Mexican territory on two main fronts. The U.S. War Department sent a U.S. Cavalry force under Stephen W. Kearny to invade western Mexico from Jefferson Barracks and Fort Leavenworth, reinforced by a Pacific fleet under John D. Sloat. This was done primarily because of concerns that Britain might also try to seize the area. Two more forces, one under John E. Wool and the other under Taylor, were ordered to occupy Mexico as far south as the city of Monterrey.
United States Army General Stephen W. Kearny moved southwest from Fort Leavenworth, Kansas with about 1,700 men in his Army of the West. Kearny 's orders were to secure the territories Nuevo México and Alta California.
In Santa Fe, Governor Manuel Armijo wanted to avoid battle, but on August 9, Catholic priests, Diego Archuleta (the young regular - army commander), and the young militia officers Manuel Chaves and Miguel Pino forced him to muster a defense. Armijo set up a position in Apache Canyon, a narrow pass about 10 miles (16 km) southeast of the city. However, on August 14, before the American army was even in view, he decided not to fight. (An American named James Magoffin claimed he had convinced Armijo and Archuleta to follow this course; an unverified story says he bribed Armijo.) When Pino, Chaves, and some of the militiamen insisted on fighting, Armijo ordered the cannon pointed at them. The New Mexican army retreated to Santa Fe, and Armijo fled to Chihuahua.
Kearny and his troops encountered no Mexican forces when they arrived on August 15. Kearny and his force entered Santa Fe and claimed the New Mexico Territory for the United States without a shot being fired. Kearny declared himself the military governor of the New Mexico Territory on August 18 and established a civilian government. American officers with a background in law drew up a temporary legal system for the territory called the Kearny Code.
Kearny then took the remainder of his army west to Alta California. When he departed with his forces for California, he left Colonel Sterling Price in command of U.S. forces in New Mexico. He appointed Charles Bent as New Mexico 's first territorial governor.
Following Kearny 's departure, dissenters in Santa Fe plotted a Christmas uprising. When the plans were discovered by the U.S. authorities, the dissenters postponed the uprising. They attracted numerous Indian allies, including Puebloan peoples, who also wanted to push the Americans from the territory. On the morning of January 19, 1847, the insurrectionists began the revolt in Don Fernando de Taos, present - day Taos, New Mexico, which later gave it the name the Taos Revolt. They were led by Pablo Montoya, a New Mexican, and Tomás Romero, a Taos pueblo Indian also known as Tomasito (Little Thomas).
Romero led an Indian force to the house of Governor Charles Bent, where they broke down the door, shot Bent with arrows, and scalped him in front of his family. They moved on, leaving Bent still alive. With his wife Ignacia and children, and the wives of friends Kit Carson and Thomas Boggs, the group escaped by digging through the adobe walls of their house into the one next door. When the insurgents discovered the party, they killed Bent, but left the women and children unharmed.
The next day a large armed force of approximately 500 New Mexicans and Pueblo attacked and laid siege to Simeon Turley 's mill in Arroyo Hondo, several miles outside of Taos. Charles Autobees, an employee at the mill, saw the men coming. He rode to Santa Fe for help from the occupying U.S. forces. Eight to ten mountain men were left at the mill for defense. After a day - long battle, only two of the mountain men survived, John David Albert and Thomas Tate Tobin, Autobees ' half brother. Both escaped separately on foot during the night. The same day New Mexican insurgents killed seven American traders who were passing through the village of Mora. At most, 15 Americans were killed in both actions on January 20.
The U.S. military moved quickly to quash the revolt; Col. Price led more than 300 U.S. troops from Santa Fe to Taos, together with 65 volunteers, including a few New Mexicans, organized by Ceran St. Vrain, the business partner of the brothers William and Charles Bent. Along the way, the combined forces beat back a force of some 1,500 New Mexicans and Pueblo at Santa Cruz de la Cañada at Embudo Pass. The insurgents retreated to Taos Pueblo, where they took refuge in the thick - walled adobe church.
During the ensuing battle, the U.S. breached a wall of the church and directed cannon fire into the interior, inflicting many casualties and killing about 150 rebels. They captured 400 more men after close hand - to - hand fighting. Only seven Americans died in the battle.
A separate force of U.S. troops under captains Israel R. Hendley and Jesse I. Morin campaigned against the rebels in Mora. The First Battle of Mora ended in a New Mexican victory. The Americans attacked again in the Second Battle of Mora and won, which ended their operations against Mora. New Mexican rebels engaged U.S. forces three more times in the following months. The actions are known as the Battle of Red River Canyon, the Battle of Las Vegas, and the Battle of Cienega Creek. After the U.S. forces won each battle, the New Mexicans and Indians ended open warfare.
Although the U.S. declared war against Mexico on May 13, 1846, it took almost three months (until early August 1846) for definitive word of Congress ' declaration of war to get to California. American consul Thomas O. Larkin, stationed in Monterey, worked successfully during the events in that vicinity to avoid bloodshed between Americans and the Mexican military garrison commanded by General José Castro, the senior military officer in California.
Captain John C. Frémont, leading a U.S. Army topographical expedition to survey the Great Basin, entered the Sacramento Valley in December 1845. Frémont 's party was at Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon Territory, when it received word that war between Mexico and the U.S. was imminent; the party then returned to California.
Mexico had issued a proclamation that unnaturalized foreigners were no longer permitted to have land in California and were subject to expulsion. With rumors swirling that General Castro was massing an army against them, American settlers in the Sacramento Valley banded together to meet the threat. On June 14, 1846, 34 American settlers seized control of the undefended Mexican government outpost of Sonoma to forestall Castro 's plans. One settler created the Bear Flag and raised it over Sonoma Plaza. Within a week, 70 more volunteers joined the rebels ' force, which grew to nearly 300 in early July. This event, led by William B. Ide, became known as the Bear Flag Revolt.
On June 25, Frémont 's party arrived to assist in an expected military confrontation. San Francisco, then called Yerba Buena, was occupied by the Bear Flaggers on July 2. On July 5 Frémont 's California Battalion was formed by combining his forces with many of the rebels.
Commodore John D. Sloat, commander of the U.S. Navy 's Pacific Squadron, near Mazatlan, Mexico, had received orders to seize San Francisco Bay and blockade California ports when he was positive that war had begun. Sloat set sail for Monterey, reaching it on July 1. Sloat, upon hearing of the events in Sonoma and Frémont 's involvement, erroneously believed Frémont to be acting on orders from Washington and ordered his forces to occupy Monterey on July 7 and raise the American flag.
On July 9, 70 sailors and marines landed at Yerba Buena and raised the American flag. Later that day in Sonoma, the Bear Flag was lowered and the American flag was raised in its place.
On Sloat 's orders, Frémont brought 160 volunteers to Monterey, in addition to the California Battalion. On July 15, Sloat transferred his command of the Pacific Squadron to Commodore Robert F. Stockton, who was more militarily aggressive. He mustered the willing members of the California Battalion into military service with Frémont in command. Stockton ordered Frémont to San Diego to prepare to move northward to Los Angeles. As Frémont landed, Stockton 's 360 men arrived in San Pedro. General Castro and Governor Pío Pico wrote farewells and fled separately to the Mexican state of Sonora.
Stockton 's army entered Los Angeles unopposed on August 13, whereupon he sent a report to the Secretary of State that "California is entirely free from Mexican dominion. '' Stockton, however, left a tyrannical officer in charge of Los Angeles with a small force. The Californios under the leadership of José María Flores, acting on their own and without federal help from Mexico, in the Siege of Los Angeles, forced the American garrison to retreat on September 29. They also forced small U.S. garrisons in San Diego and Santa Barbara to flee.
Captain William Mervine landed 350 sailors and Marines at San Pedro on October 7. They were ambushed and repulsed at the Battle of Dominguez Rancho by Flores ' forces in less than an hour. Four Americans died, with 8 severely injured. Stockton arrived with reinforcements at San Pedro, which increased the American forces there to 800. He and Mervine then set up a base of operations at San Diego.
Meanwhile, U.S. Colonel Stephen W. Kearny and his force of about 100 men, who had performed a grueling march across New Mexico and the Sonoran Desert, crossed the Colorado River in late November, 1846. Stockton sent a 35 - man patrol from San Diego to meet them. On December 7, 100 lancers under General Andrés Pico (brother of the governor), tipped off and lying in wait, fought Kearny 's army of about 150 at the Battle of San Pasqual, where 22 of Kearny 's men (one of whom later died of wounds), including three officers, were killed in 30 minutes of fighting. The wounded Kearny and his bloodied force pushed on until they had to establish a defensive position on "Mule Hill ''. However, General Pico kept the hill under siege for four days until a 215 - man American relief force arrived.
Frémont and the 428 - man California Battalion arrived in San Luis Obispo on December 14 and Santa Barbara on December 27. On December 28, a 600 - man American force under Kearny began a 150 - mile march to Los Angeles. Flores then moved his ill - equipped 500 - man force to a 50 - foot - high bluff above the San Gabriel River. On January 8, 1847, the Stockton - Kearny army defeated the Californio force in the two - hour Battle of Rio San Gabriel. That same day, Frémont 's force arrived at San Fernando. The next day, January 9, the Stockton - Kearny forces fought and won the Battle of La Mesa. On January 10, the U.S. Army entered Los Angeles to no resistance.
On January 12, Frémont and two of Pico 's officers agreed to terms for a surrender. Articles of Capitulation were signed on January 13 by Frémont, Andrés Pico and six others at a rancho at Cahuenga Pass (modern - day North Hollywood). This became known as the Treaty of Cahuenga, which marked the end of armed resistance in California.
USS Independence assisted in the blockade of the Mexican Pacific coast, capturing the Mexican ship Correo and a launch on May 16, 1847. She supported the capture of Guaymas, Sonora, on October 19, 1847, and landed bluejackets and Marines to occupy Mazatlán, Sinaloa, on November 11, 1847. After upper California was secure, most of the Pacific Squadron proceeded down the California coast, capturing all major cities of the Baja California Territory and capturing or destroying nearly all Mexican vessels in the Gulf of California. Other ports, not on the peninsula, were taken as well. The objective of the Pacific Coast Campaign was to capture Mazatlán, on the Mexican mainland, which was a major supply base for Mexican forces. Numerous Mexican ships were also captured by this squadron, with the USS Cyane given credit for 18 ships captured and numerous destroyed.
Entering the Gulf of California, Independence, Congress, and Cyane seized La Paz, then captured and burned the small Mexican fleet at Guaymas. Within a month, they cleared the Gulf of hostile ships, destroying or capturing 30 vessels. Later, their sailors and Marines captured the port of Mazatlán on November 11, 1847. A Mexican campaign under Manuel Pineda Muñoz to retake the various captured ports resulted in several small clashes (Battle of Mulege, Battle of La Paz, Battle of San José del Cabo) and two sieges (Siege of La Paz, Siege of San José del Cabo) in which the Pacific Squadron ships provided artillery support. U.S. garrisons remained in control of the ports.
Following reinforcement, Lt. Col. Henry S. Burton marched out. His forces rescued captured Americans, captured Pineda, and, on March 31, defeated and dispersed remaining Mexican forces at the Skirmish of Todos Santos, unaware that the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo had been signed in February 1848 and a truce agreed to on March 6. When the American garrisons were evacuated to Monterey following the treaty ratification, many Mexicans went with them: those who had supported the American cause and had thought Lower California would also be annexed along with Upper California.
The Mexican Army 's defeats at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma caused political turmoil in Mexico, turmoil which Antonio López de Santa Anna used to revive his political career and return from self - imposed exile in Cuba in mid-August 1846. It was President Polk 's plan to bring back the exiled dictator who had defeated the Texans at the Alamo and Goliad. On 4 August 1846, "Polk negotiated a deal to not only bring Santa Anna back, but to pay him $2 million -- ostensibly a bribe as an advance payment on the cession of California. ''
Santa Anna promised the U.S. that if he was allowed to pass through the blockade, he would negotiate a peaceful conclusion to the war and sell the New Mexico and Alta California territories to the U.S. Once Santa Anna arrived in Mexico City, however, he reneged on his deal with the U.S. and offered his services to the Mexican government. Then, after being appointed commanding general, he reneged again and seized the presidency.
Led by Zachary Taylor, 2,300 U.S. troops crossed the Rio Grande after some initial difficulties in obtaining river transport. His soldiers occupied the city of Matamoros, then Camargo (where the soldiery suffered the first of many problems with disease) and then proceeded south and besieged the city of Monterrey. The hard - fought Battle of Monterrey resulted in serious losses on both sides. The American light artillery was ineffective against the stone fortifications of the city. The Mexican forces were under General Pedro de Ampudia and repulsed Taylor 's best infantry division at Fort Teneria.
American soldiers, including many West Pointers, had never engaged in urban warfare before and they marched straight down the open streets, where they were annihilated by Mexican defenders well - hidden in Monterrey 's thick adobe homes. Two days later, they changed their urban warfare tactics. Texan soldiers had fought in a Mexican city before (the Siege of Béxar in December 1835) and advised Taylor 's generals that the Americans needed to "mouse hole '' through the city 's homes. In other words, they needed to punch holes in the side or roofs of the homes and fight hand to hand inside the structures. Mexicans called the Texas soldiers the Diabólicos Tejanos (the Devil Texans). This method proved successful. Eventually, these actions drove and trapped Ampudia 's men into the city 's central plaza, where howitzer shelling forced Ampudia to negotiate. Taylor agreed to allow the Mexican Army to evacuate and to an eight - week armistice in return for the surrender of the city. Under pressure from Washington, Taylor broke the armistice and occupied the city of Saltillo, southwest of Monterrey. Santa Anna blamed the loss of Monterrey and Saltillo on Ampudia and demoted him to command a small artillery battalion.
On February 22, 1847, Santa Anna personally marched north to fight Taylor with 20,000 men. Taylor, with 4,600 men, had entrenched at a mountain pass called Buena Vista. Santa Anna suffered desertions on the way north and arrived with 15,000 men in a tired state. He demanded and was refused surrender of the U.S. Army; he attacked the next morning. Santa Anna flanked the U.S. positions by sending his cavalry and some of his infantry up the steep terrain that made up one side of the pass, while a division of infantry attacked frontally along the road leading to Buena Vista. Furious fighting ensued, during which the U.S. troops were nearly routed, but managed to cling to their entrenched position, thanks to the Mississippi Rifles, a volunteer regiment led by Jefferson Davis, who formed them into a defensive V formation. The Mexicans had inflicted considerable losses but Santa Anna had gotten word of upheaval in Mexico City, so he withdrew that night, leaving Taylor in control of part of Northern Mexico.
Polk mistrusted Taylor, who he felt had shown incompetence in the Battle of Monterrey by agreeing to the armistice. Taylor later used the Battle of Buena Vista as the centerpiece of his successful 1848 presidential campaign.
The Bear Springs Treaty ended a large scale insurrection by the Ute, Zuni, Moquis, and Navajo tribes. After the successful conquest of New Mexico, American troops moved into modern - day northwest Mexico.
On March 1, 1847, Alexander W. Doniphan occupied Chihuahua City. British consul John Potts did not want to let Doniphan search Governor Trias 's mansion, and unsuccessfully asserted it was under British protection. American merchants in Chihuahua wanted the American force to stay in order to protect their business. Major William Gilpin advocated a march on Mexico City and convinced a majority of officers, but Doniphan subverted this plan. Then in late April, Taylor ordered the First Missouri Mounted Volunteers to leave Chihuahua and join him at Saltillo. The American merchants either followed or returned to Santa Fe. Along the way, the townspeople of Parras enlisted Doniphan 's aid against an Indian raiding party that had taken children, horses, mules, and money.
The civilian population of northern Mexico offered little resistance to the American invasion, possibly because the country had already been devastated by Comanche and Apache Indian raids. Josiah Gregg, who was with the American army in northern Mexico, said that "the whole country from New Mexico to the borders of Durango is almost entirely depopulated. The haciendas and ranchos have been mostly abandoned, and the people chiefly confined to the towns and cities. ''
Southern Mexico had a large indigenous population and was geographically distant from the capital. Yucatán in particular had closer ties to Cuba and to the United States than it did to central Mexico. On a number of occasions in the early era of the Mexican Republic, Yucatán seceded from the federation. There were also rivalries between regional elites, with one faction based in Mérida and the other in Campeche. These issues factored into the Mexican -- American War.
The U.S. Navy contributed to the war by controlling the coast and clearing the way for U.S. troops and supplies, especially to Mexico 's main port of Veracruz. Even before hostilities began in the disputed northern region, the U.S. Navy created a blockade. Given the shallow waters of that portion of the Gulf coast, the U.S. Navy needed ships with a shallow draft rather than large frigates. Since the Mexican Navy was almost non-existent, the U.S. Navy could operate unimpeded in Gulf waters.
Commodore Matthew C. Perry led a detachment of seven vessels along the northern coast of Tabasco state. Perry arrived at the Tabasco River (now known as the Grijalva River) on October 22, 1846, and seized the town Port of Frontera along with two of their ships. Leaving a small garrison, he advanced with his troops towards the town of San Juan Bautista (Villahermosa today). Perry arrived in the city of San Juan Bautista on October 25, seizing five Mexican vessels. Colonel Juan Bautista Traconis, Tabasco Departmental commander at that time, set up barricades inside the buildings. Perry realized that the bombing of the city would be the only option to drive out the Mexican Army, and to avoid damage to the merchants of the city, withdrew its forces preparing them for the next day.
On the morning of October 26, as Perry 's fleet prepared to start the attack on the city, the Mexican forces began firing at the American fleet. The U.S. bombing began to yield the square, so that the fire continued until evening. Before taking the square, Perry decided to leave and return to the port of Frontera, where he established a naval blockade to prevent supplies of food and military supplies from reaching the state capital.
On June 13, 1847, Commodore Perry assembled the Mosquito Fleet and began moving towards the Grijalva River, towing 47 boats that carried a landing force of 1,173. On June 15, 12 miles (19 km) below San Juan Bautista, the fleet ran through an ambush with little difficulty. Again at an "S '' curve in the river known as the "Devil 's Bend '', Perry encountered Mexican fire from a river fortification known as the Colmena redoubt, but the fleet 's heavy naval guns quickly dispersed the Mexican force.
On June 16, Perry arrived at San Juan Bautista and commenced bombing the city. The attack included two ships that sailed past the fort and began shelling it from the rear. David D. Porter led 60 sailors ashore and seized the fort, raising the American flag over the works. Perry and the landing force arrived and took control of the city around 14: 00.
The U.S. was concerned with the extension of British power in the Caribbean, especially Spanish Cuba, as well as the strategic Yucatán peninsula. In 1847 Maya revolted against the white elites of the peninsula in a racial war known as the Caste War of Yucatan. Jefferson Davis, then a senator from Mississippi, argued in congress that the president needed no further powers to intervene in Yucatan since the war with Mexico was underway. Davis 's concern was strategic and part of his vision of Manifest Destiny, considering the Gulf of Mexico "a basin of water belonging to the United States '' and continuing "the cape of Yucatan and the island of Cuba must be ours '' rather than under British influence. In the end, the U.S. did not intervene in Yucatán, but it had figured in congressional debates about the Mexican -- American War. At one point, the government of Yucatán petitioned the U.S. for protection during the Caste War, but the U.S. did not respond.
Desertion was a major problem for the Mexican Army, depleting forces on the eve of battle. Most soldiers were peasants who had a loyalty to their village and family, but not to the generals who had conscripted them. Often hungry and ill, under - equipped, only partially trained, and never well paid, the soldiers were held in contempt by their officers and had little reason to fight the Americans. Looking for their opportunity, many slipped away from camp to find their way back to their home village.
The desertion rate in the U.S. Army was 8.3 % (9,200 out of 111,000), compared to 12.7 % during the War of 1812 and usual peacetime rates of about 14.8 % per year. Many men deserted to join another U.S. unit and get a second enlistment bonus. Some deserted because of the miserable conditions in camp. It has been suggested that others used the army to get free transportation to California, where they deserted to join the gold rush; this, however, is unlikely as gold was only discovered in California on January 24, 1848, less than two weeks before the war concluded. By the time word reached the eastern U.S. that gold had been discovered, word also reached it that the war was over.
Several hundred U.S. deserters went over to the Mexican side. Nearly all were recent immigrants from Europe with weak ties to the U.S.. The Mexicans issued broadsides and leaflets enticing U.S. soldiers with promises of money, land bounties, and officers ' commissions. Mexican guerrillas shadowed the U.S. Army and captured men who took unauthorized leave or fell out of the ranks. The guerrillas coerced these men to join the Mexican ranks. The generous promises proved illusory for most deserters, who risked being executed if captured by U.S. forces.
The most famous group of deserters from the U.S. Army, was the Saint Patrick 's Battalion or (San Patricios), composed primarily of several hundred immigrant soldiers, the majority Catholic Irish and German immigrants, who deserted the U.S. Army because of ill - treatment or sympathetic leanings to fellow Mexican Catholics and joined the Mexican army. The battalion also included Canadians, English, French, Italians, Poles, Scots, Spaniards, Swiss, and Mexican people, many of whom were members of the Catholic Church.
Most of the battalion were killed in the Battle of Churubusco; about 100 were captured by the U.S. and roughly half of the San Patricios were tried and were hanged as deserters following their capture at Churubusco in August 1847.. The leader, Jon Riley, was merely branded since he had deserted before the war started.
Rather than reinforce Taylor 's army for a continued advance, President Polk sent a second army under General Winfield Scott, which was transported to the port of Veracruz by sea, to begin an invasion of the Mexican heartland. On March 9, 1847, Scott performed the first major amphibious landing in U.S. history in preparation for the Siege of Veracruz. A group of 12,000 volunteer and regular soldiers successfully offloaded supplies, weapons, and horses near the walled city using specially designed landing crafts. Included in the invading force were Robert E. Lee, George Meade, Ulysses S. Grant, James Longstreet, and Thomas "Stonewall '' Jackson.
The city was defended by Mexican General Juan Morales with 3,400 men. Mortars and naval guns under Commodore Matthew C. Perry were used to reduce the city walls and harass defenders. After a bombardment on March 24, 1847, the walls of Veracruz had a thirty - foot gap. The city replied the best it could with its own artillery. The effect of the extended barrage destroyed the will of the Mexican side to fight against a numerically superior force, and they surrendered the city after 12 days under siege. U.S. troops suffered 80 casualties, while the Mexican side had around 180 killed and wounded, about half of whom were civilian. During the siege, the U.S. side began to fall victim to yellow fever.
Scott then marched westward on April 2, 1847, toward Mexico City with 8,500 healthy troops, while Santa Anna set up a defensive position in a canyon around the main road about 50 miles (80 km) north - west of Veracruz, near the hamlet of Cerro Gordo. Santa Anna had entrenched with 12,000 troops, and artillery that were trained on the road, where he expected Scott to appear. However, Scott had sent 2,600 mounted dragoons ahead and they reached the pass on April 12. The Mexican artillery prematurely fired on them and therefore revealed their positions, beginning the Battle of Cerro Gordo.
Instead of taking the main road, Scott 's troops trekked through the rough terrain to the north, setting up his artillery on the high ground and quietly flanking the Mexicans. Although by then aware of the positions of U.S. troops, Santa Anna and his troops were unprepared for the onslaught that followed. In the battle fought on April 18, the Mexican army was routed. The U.S. Army suffered 400 casualties, while the Mexicans suffered over 1,000 casualties and 3,000 were taken prisoner. In August 1847, Captain Kirby Smith, of Scott 's 3rd Infantry, reflected on the resistance of the Mexican army:
They can do nothing and their continued defeats should convince them of it. They have lost six great battles; we have captured six hundred and eight cannon, nearly one hundred thousand stands of arms, made twenty thousand prisoners, have the greatest portion of their country and are fast advancing on their Capital which must be ours, -- yet they refuse to treat (i.e., negotiate terms)!
In May, Scott pushed on to Puebla, the second largest city in Mexico. Because of the citizens ' hostility to Santa Anna, the city capitulated without resistance on May 1. During the following months, Scott gathered supplies and reinforcements at Puebla and sent back units whose enlistments had expired. Scott also made strong efforts to keep his troops disciplined and treat the Mexican people under occupation justly, so as to prevent a popular rising against his army.
With guerrillas harassing his line of communications back to Veracruz, Scott decided not to weaken his army to defend Puebla but, leaving only a garrison at Puebla to protect the sick and injured recovering there, advanced on Mexico City on August 7 with his remaining force. The capital was laid open in a series of battles around the right flank of the city defenses, the Battle of Contreras and Battle of Churubusco. After Churubusco, fighting halted for an armistice and peace negotiations, which broke down on September 6, 1847. With the subsequent battles of Molino del Rey and of Chapultepec, and the storming of the city gates, the capital was occupied. Scott became military governor of occupied Mexico City. His victories in this campaign made him an American national hero.
The Battle of Chapultepec was an encounter between the Mexican Army and the United States on the castle of Chapultepec in Mexico City. At this time, this castle was a renowned military school in Mexico City. After the battle, which ended in an American victory, the legend of "Los Niños Héroes '' was born. Although not confirmed by historians, six military cadets between the ages of 13 and 17 stayed in the school instead of evacuating. They decided to stay and fight for Mexico. These Niños Héroes (hero children) became icons in Mexico 's pantheon of heroes. Rather than surrender to the U.S. Army, some military cadets leaped from the castle walls. A cadet named Juan Escutia wrapped himself in the Mexican flag and jumped to his death.
In late September 1847, Santa Anna made one last attempt to defeat the Americans, by cutting them off from the coast. General Joaquín Rea began the Siege of Puebla, soon joined by Santa Anna, but they failed to take it before the approach of a relief column from Veracruz under Brig. Gen. Joseph Lane prompted Santa Anna to stop him. Puebla was relieved by Gen. Lane October 12, 1847, following his defeat of Santa Anna at the Battle of Huamantla on October 9, 1847. The battle was Santa Anna 's last. Following the defeat, the new Mexican government led by Manuel de la Peña y Peña asked Santa Anna to turn over command of the army to General José Joaquín de Herrera.
Following his capture and securing of the capital, General Scott sent about a quarter of his strength to secure his line of communications to Veracruz from the Light Corps of General Joaquín Rea and other Mexican guerrilla forces that had been harassing it since May. He strengthened the garrison of Puebla and by November had added a 1200 - man garrison at Jalapa, established 750 - man posts along the National Road, the main route between the port of Veracruz and the capital, at the pass between Mexico City and Puebla at Rio Frio, at Perote and San Juan on the road between Jalapa and Puebla, and at Puente Nacional between Jalapa and Veracruz. He had also detailed an anti guerrilla brigade under Brig. Gen. Joseph Lane to carry the war to the Light Corps and other guerrillas. He ordered that convoys would travel with at least 1,300 - man escorts. Victories by General Lane over the Light Corps at Atlixco (October 18, 1847), at Izucar de Matamoros (November 23, 1847), and at Galaxara Pass (November 24, 1847) ended the threat of General Rea.
Later a raid against the guerrillas of Padre Jarauta at Zacualtipan (February 25, 1848) further reduced guerrilla raids on the American line of communications. After the two governments concluded a truce to await ratification of the peace treaty, on March 6, 1848, formal hostilities ceased. However some bands continued in defiance of the Mexican government until the American evacuation in August. Some were suppressed by the Mexican Army or, like Padre Jarauta, executed.
Outnumbered militarily and with many of its large cities occupied, Mexico could not defend itself; the country was also faced with many internal divisions, including the Caste War of Yucatán. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, by American diplomat Nicholas Trist and Mexican plenipotentiary representatives Luis G. Cuevas, Bernardo Couto, and Miguel Atristain, ended the war. The treaty gave the U.S. undisputed control of Texas, established the U.S. - Mexican border of the Rio Grande, and ceded to the United States the present - day states of California, Nevada, and Utah, most of New Mexico, Arizona and Colorado, and parts of Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Wyoming. In return, Mexico received $ 15 million ($424 million today) -- less than half the amount the U.S. had attempted to offer Mexico for the land before the opening of hostilities -- and the U.S. agreed to assume $3.25 million ($92 million today) in debts that the Mexican government owed to U.S. citizens. The treaty was ratified by the U.S. Senate by a vote of 38 to 14 on March 10, and by Mexico through a legislative vote of 51 - 34 and a Senate vote of 33 - 4, on May 19. News that New Mexico 's legislative assembly had passed an act for organization of a U.S. territorial government helped ease Mexican concern about abandoning the people of New Mexico.
The acquisition was a source of controversy, especially among U.S. politicians who had opposed the war from the start. A leading antiwar U.S. newspaper, the Whig National Intelligencer, sardonically concluded that "We take nothing by conquest... Thank God. ''
Jefferson Davis introduced an amendment giving the U.S. most of northeastern Mexico, which failed 44 -- 11. This amendment was supported by both senators from Texas (Sam Houston and Thomas Jefferson Rusk), Daniel S. Dickinson of New York, Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, Edward A. Hannegan of Indiana, and one each from Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Ohio, Missouri, and Tennessee. Most of the leaders of the Democratic party -- Thomas Hart Benton, John C. Calhoun, Herschel V. Johnson, Lewis Cass, James Murray Mason of Virginia, and Ambrose Hundley Sevier -- were opposed. An amendment by Whig Senator George Edmund Badger of North Carolina to exclude New Mexico and Upper California lost 35 -- 15, with three Southern Whigs voting with the Democrats. Daniel Webster was bitter that four New England senators made deciding votes for acquiring the new territories.
The acquired lands west of the Rio Grande are traditionally called the Mexican Cession in the U.S., as opposed to the Texas Annexation two years earlier, though division of New Mexico down the middle at the Rio Grande never had any basis either in control or Mexican boundaries. Mexico never recognized the independence of Texas before the war, and did not cede its claim to territory north of the Rio Grande or Gila River until this treaty.
Before ratifying the treaty, the U.S. Senate made two modifications: changing the wording of Article IX (which guaranteed Mexicans living in the purchased territories the right to become U.S. citizens) and striking out Article X (which conceded the legitimacy of land grants made by the Mexican government). On May 26, 1848, when the two countries exchanged ratifications of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, they further agreed to a three - article protocol (known as the Protocol of Querétaro) to explain the amendments. The first article claimed that the original Article IX of the treaty, although replaced by Article III of the Treaty of Louisiana, would still confer the rights delineated in Article IX. The second article confirmed the legitimacy of land grants under Mexican law. The protocol was signed in the city of Querétaro by A.H. Sevier, Nathan Clifford, and Luis de la Rosa.
Article XI offered a potential benefit to Mexico, in that the US pledged to suppress the Comanche and Apache raids that had ravaged northern Mexico and pay restitutions to the victims of raids it could not prevent. However, the Indian raids did not cease for several decades after the treaty, although a cholera epidemic reduced the numbers of the Comanche in 1849. Robert Letcher, U.S. Minister to Mexico in 1850, was certain "that miserable 11th article '' would lead to the financial ruin of the US if it could not be released from its obligations. The US was released from all obligations of Article XI five years later by Article II of the Gadsden Purchase of 1853.
Before the secession of Texas, Mexico comprised almost 1,700,000 sq mi (4,400,000 km), but by 1849 it was just under 800,000 square miles (2,100,000 km). Another 30,000 square miles (78,000 km) were sold to the U.S. in the Gadsden Purchase of 1853, so the total reduction of Mexican territory was more than 55 %, or 900,000 square miles (2,300,000 km).
Though the annexed territory was about the size of Western Europe, it was sparsely populated. The land contained about 14,000 non-indigenous people in Alta California and about 60,000 in Nuevo México, as well as large Indian nations, such as the Papago, Pima, Puebloan, Navajo, Apache and many others. Although some native people relocated farther south in Mexico, the great majority remained in the U.S. territory.
The American settlers surging into the newly conquered Southwest were openly contemptuous of Mexican law (a civil law system based on the law of Spain) as alien and inferior and disposed of it by enacting reception statutes at the first available opportunity. However, they recognized the value of a few aspects of Mexican law and carried them over into their new legal systems. For example, most of the southwestern states adopted community property marital property systems, as well as water law.
Mexicans and Indians in the annexed territories faced a loss of civil and political rights, even though the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo promised American citizenship to all Mexican citizens living in the territory of the Mexican Cession. The U.S. government withheld citizenship from Indians in the southwest until the 1930s, despite the fact that they were citizens under Mexican law.
In much of the United States of America, victory and the acquisition of new land brought a surge of patriotism. Victory seemed to fulfill Democrats ' belief in their country 's Manifest Destiny. While Whig Ralph Waldo Emerson rejected war "as a means of achieving America 's destiny, '' he accepted that "most of the great results of history are brought about by discreditable means. '' Although the Whigs had opposed the war, they made Zachary Taylor their presidential candidate in the election of 1848, praising his military performance while muting their criticism of the war.
Has the Mexican War terminated yet, and how? Are we beaten? Do you know of any nation about to besiege South Hadley (Massachusetts)? If so, do inform me of it, for I would be glad of a chance to escape, if we are to be stormed. I suppose (our teacher) Miss (Mary) Lyon would furnish us all with daggers and order us to fight for our lives...
A month before the end of the war, Polk was criticized in a United States House of Representatives amendment to a bill praising Major General Zachary Taylor for "a war unnecessarily and unconstitutionally begun by the President of the United States. '' This criticism, in which Congressman Abraham Lincoln played an important role with his Spot Resolutions, followed congressional scrutiny of the war 's beginnings, including factual challenges to claims made by President Polk. The vote followed party lines, with all Whigs supporting the amendment. Lincoln 's attack won lukewarm support from fellow Whigs in Illinois but was harshly counter-attacked by Democrats, who rallied pro-war sentiments in Illinois; Lincoln 's Spot resolutions haunted his future campaigns in the heavily Democratic state of Illinois, and were cited by enemies well into his presidency.
Many of the military leaders on both sides of the American Civil War were trained at the U.S. Military Academy at West Point and had fought as junior officers in Mexico. This list includes military men fighting for the Union: Ulysses S. Grant, George B. McClellan, William T. Sherman, George Meade, William Rosecrans, and Ambrose Burnside. Military men who joined the Southern secessionists of the Confederate States of America were Robert E. Lee, Stonewall Jackson, James Longstreet, Joseph E. Johnston, Braxton Bragg, Sterling Price, and the future Confederate President Jefferson Davis. Both sides had leaders with significant experience in active combat in strategy and tactics, likely shaping ways the Civil War conflict played out.
President Ulysses S. Grant, who as a young army lieutenant had served in Mexico under General Taylor, recalled in his Memoirs, published in 1885, that:
Generally, the officers of the army were indifferent whether the annexation was consummated or not; but not so all of them. For myself, I was bitterly opposed to the measure, and to this day regard the war, which resulted, as one of the most unjust ever waged by a stronger against a weaker nation. It was an instance of a republic following the bad example of European monarchies, in not considering justice in their desire to acquire additional territory.
Grant also expressed the view that the war against Mexico had brought punishment on the United States in the form of the American Civil War:
The Southern rebellion was largely the outgrowth of the Mexican war. Nations, like individuals, are punished for their transgressions. We got our punishment in the most sanguinary and expensive war of modern times.
This view was shared by the philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson, who towards the end of the war wrote that "The United States will conquer Mexico, but it will be as the man swallows the arsenic, which brings him down in turn. Mexico will poison us. ''
Veterans of the war were often broken men. "As the sick and wounded from Taylor 's and Scott 's campaigns made their way back from Mexico to the United States, their condition shocked the folks at home. Husbands, sons, and brothers returned in broken health, some with missing limbs. '' As late as 1880, the "Republican Campaign Textbook '' by the Republican Congressional Committee described the war as "Feculent, reeking Corruption '' and "one of the darkest scenes in our history -- a war forced upon our and the Mexican people by the high - handed usurpations of Pres 't Polk in pursuit of territorial aggrandizement of the slave oligarchy. ''
General Robert E. Lee, leader of the Confederate forces through the end of the American Civil War, began building his reputation as a military officer in America 's war against Mexico. At the start of the Mexican -- American War, Captain Lee invaded Mexico with General Wool 's engineering department from the North. By early 1847, he helped take the Mexican cities of Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Churubusco, Molino del Rey, and Chapultepec. Lee was wounded in Chapultepec. By September, Mexico City surrendered and the United States was victorious.
General Scott was the ranking officer in the army during the Mexican -- American campaign. He described Robert E. Lee as "gallant and indefatigable, '' saying that Lee had displayed the "greatest feat of physical and moral courage performed by any individual in (his) knowledge during the campaign. '' Robert E. Lee 's humility and professionalism was apparent early on in his career when gave credit to General Scott for the victories. He said that "It was his stout heart... his bold self reliance... his indomitable courage that... ressed us forward to this capital. '' It is important to note that although Lee is remembered for his valor during the Mexican -- American War, he was only a junior officer "who had never commanded a regiment in the field ''.
In 1861, it was General Scott who advised Abraham Lincoln to ask Lee to command the union forces. Lee declined, and later recounted "I declined the offer he made me to take command of the army that was brought into the field, stating candidly and as courteously as I could that though opposed to secession and deprecating war, I could take no part in the invasion of the southern states. '' On 9 April 1865, it was General Robert E. Lee who had surrendered to President Lincoln 's Union Forces.
Despite initial objections from the Whigs and abolitionists, the war nevertheless united the U.S. in a common cause and was fought almost entirely by volunteers. The army swelled from just over 6,000 to more than 115,000. The majority of 12 - month volunteers in Scott 's army decided that a year 's fighting was enough and returned to the U.S.
Anti-slavery elements fought for the exclusion of slavery from any territory absorbed by the U.S. In 1847, the House of Representatives passed the Wilmot Proviso, stipulating that none of the territory acquired should be open to slavery. The Senate avoided the issue, and a late attempt to add it to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was defeated.
The war was a decisive event for the U.S., marking a significant waypoint for the nation as a growing military power, and a milestone in the U.S. narrative of Manifest Destiny. The war did not resolve the issue of slavery in the U.S. but rather in many ways inflamed it, as potential westward expansion of the institution took an increasingly central and heated theme in national debates preceding the American Civil War. By extending the nation from coast to coast, the Mexican -- American War was a next step in the huge migrations to the West of Americans, which culminated in transcontinental railroads and the Indian wars later in the same century.
The obvious impact of the war for Mexico was the loss of its northern regions and the defeat of its military. The war remains a painful historical event for Mexicans. In the immediate aftermath of the war, a group of prominent Mexicans wrote an assessment of the reasons for the war and Mexico 's defeat, edited by Ramón Alcaraz and including contributions by Ignacio Ramírez, Guillermo Prieto, José María Iglesias, and Francisco Urquidi. The work was translated to English by Col. Albert Ramsey, a veteran of the Mexican -- American War, and published in 1850.
In Mexico City 's Chapultepec Park, the Niños Héroes (Monument to the Heroic Cadets) commemorates the heroic sacrifice of six teenaged military cadets who fought to their deaths rather than surrender to American troops during the Battle of Chapultepec Castle on September 13, 1847. The monument is an important patriotic site in Mexico. On March 5, 1947, nearly one hundred years after the battle, U.S. President Harry S. Truman placed a wreath at the monument and stood for a moment of silence.
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what is the average income for a household | Household income in the United States - Wikipedia
Household income is an economic measure that can be applied to one household, or aggregated across a large group such as a county, city, or the whole country. It is commonly used by the United States government and private institutions to describe a household 's economic status or to track economic trends in the US.
One key measure is the real median level, meaning half of households have income above that level and half below, adjusted for inflation. According to the Census, this measure was $59,039 in 2016, a record high. This was the largest two year percentage increase on record.
The distribution of U.S. household income has become more unequal since around 1980, with the income share received by the top 1 % trending upward from around 10 % or less over the 1953 -- 1981 period to over 20 % by 2007. After falling somewhat due to the Great Recession in 2008 and 2009, inequality rose again during the economic recovery, a typical pattern historically.
A household 's income can be calculated various ways but the US Census as of 2009 measured it in the following manner: the income of every resident of that house that is over the age of 15, including wages and salaries, as well as any kind of governmental entitlement such as unemployment insurance, disability payments or child support payments received, along with any personal business, investment, or other recurring sources of income.
The residents of the household do not have to be related to the head of the household for their earnings to be considered part of the household 's income. As households tend to share a similar economic context, the use of household income remains among the most widely accepted measures of income. That the size of a household is not commonly taken into account in such measures may distort any analysis of fluctuations within or among the household income categories, and may render direct comparisons between quintiles difficult or even impossible.
The U.S. Census Bureau reported in September 2017 that real median household income was $59,039 in 2016, exceeding any previous year. This was the fourth consecutive year with a statistically significant increase by their measure.
Changes in median income reflect several trends: the aging of the population, changing patterns in work and schooling, and the evolving makeup of the American family, as well as long - and short - term trends in the economy itself. For instance, the retirement of the Baby Boom generation should push down overall median income, as more persons enter lower - income retirement. However, analysis of different working age groups indicate a similar pattern of stagnating median income as well.
Journalist Annie Lowrey wrote in September 2014: "The root causes (of wage stagnation) include technological change, the decline of labor unions, and globalization, economists think, though they disagree sharply on how much to weight each factor. But foreign - produced goods became sharply cheaper, meaning imports climbed and production moved overseas. And computers took over for humans in many manufacturing, clerical, and administrative tasks, eroding middle - class jobs growth and suppressing wages. ''
Another line of analysis, known as "total compensation, '' presents a more complete picture of real wages. The Kaiser Family Foundation conducted a study in 2013 which shows that employer contributions to employee healthcare costs went up 78 % from 2003 to 2013. The marketplace has made a trade - off: expanding benefits packages vs. increasing wages.
Measured relative to GDP, total compensation and its component wages and salaries have been declining since 1970. This indicates a shift in income from labor (persons who derive income from hourly wages and salaries) to capital (persons who derive income via ownership of businesses, land and assets). This trend is common across the developed world, due in part to globalization. Wages and salaries have fallen from approximately 51 % GDP in 1970 to 43 % GDP in 2013. Total compensation has fallen from approximately 58 % GDP in 1970 to 53 % GDP in 2013.
However, as indicated by the charts below, household income has still increased significantly since the late 1970s and early 80s in real terms, partly due to higher individual median wages, and partly due to increased opportunities for women.
According to the CBO, between 1979 and 2011, gross median household income, adjusted for inflation, rose from $59,400 to $75,200, or 26.5 %. However, once adjusted for household size and looking at taxes from an after - tax perspective, real median household income grew 46 %, representing significant growth.
Use of individual household income: The government and organizations may look at one particular household 's income to decide if a person is eligible for certain programs, such as nutrition assistance or need - based financial aid, among many others.
Use at the aggregate level: Summaries of household incomes across groups of people - often the entire country - are also studied as part of economic trends like standard of living and distribution of income and wealth. Household income as an economic measure can be represented as a median, a mean, a distribution, and other ways. Household income can be studied across time, region, education level, race / ethnicity, and many other dimensions. As an indicator of economic trends, it may be studied along with related economic measures such as disposable income, debt, household net worth (which includes debt and investments, durable goods like cars and houses), wealth, and employment statistics.
Median inflation - adjusted ("real '') household income generally increases and decreases with the business cycle, declining in each year during the periods 1979 through 1983, 1990 through 1993, 2000 through 2004 and 2008 through 2012, while rising in each of the intervening years. Extreme poverty in the United States, meaning households living on less than $2 per person per day before government benefits, more than doubled from 636,000 to 1.46 million households (including 2.8 million children) between 1996 and 2011, with most of this increase occurring between late 2008 and early 2011.
The nonpartisan Congressional Budget Office conducted a study analyzing household income throughout the income distribution, by combining the Census and IRS income data sources. Unlike the Census measure of household income, the CBO showed income before and after taxes, and by also taking into account household size. Also, the CBO definition of income is much broader, and includes in kind transfers as well as all monetary transfers from the government. The Census ' official definition of money income excludes food stamps and the EITC, for example, while CBO includes it.
Between 1979 and 2011, gross median household income, adjusted for inflation, rose from $59,400 to $75,200, or 26.5 %. This compares with the Census ' growth of 10 %. However, once adjusted for household size and looking at taxes from an after - tax perspective, real median household income grew 46 %, representing significant growth.
While median gross household income showed much stronger growth than depicted by the Census, inequality was shown to still have increased. The top 10 % saw gross household income grow by 78 %, versus 26.5 % for the median. The bottom 10 %, using the same measure, saw higher growth than the median (40 %).
Another common measurement of personal income is the mean household income. Unlike the median household income, which divides all households in two halves, the mean income is the average income earned by American households. In the case of mean income, the income of all households is divided by the number of all households. The mean income is usually more affected by the relatively unequal distribution of income which tilts towards the top. As a result, the mean tends to be higher than the median income, with the top earning households boosting it. Overall, the mean household income in the United States, according to the US Census Bureau 2014 Annual Social and Economic Supplement, was $72,641.
The US Census Bureau also provides a breakdown by self - identified ethnic groups as follows (as of March 2014):
Median income is the amount which divides the income distribution into two equal groups, half having income above that amount, and half having income below that amount. Mean income (average) is the amount obtained by dividing the total aggregate income of a group by the number of units in that group. The means and medians for households and families are based on all households and families. Means and medians for people are based on people 15 years old and over with income.
The aggregate income measures the combined income earned by all persons in a particular income group. In 2007, all households in the United States earned roughly $7.723 trillion. One half, 49.98 %, of all income in the US was earned by households with an income over $100,000, the top twenty percent. Over one quarter, 28.5 %, of all income was earned by the top 8 %, those households earning more than $150,000 a year. The top 3.65 %, with incomes over $200,000, earned 17.5 %. Households with annual incomes from $50,000 to $75,000, 18.2 % of households, earned 16.5 % of all income. Households with annual incomes from $50,000 to $95,000, 28.1 % of households, earned 28.8 % of all income. The bottom 10.3 % earned 1.06 % of all income.
White Americans made up roughly 75.1 % of all people in 2000, 87.93 % of all households in the top 5 % were headed by a person who identified as being White alone. Only 4.75 % of all household in the top 5 % were headed by someone who identified as Hispanic or Latino of any race, versus 12.5 % of persons identifying themselves as Hispanic or Latino in the general population.
Overall, 86.01 % of all households in the top two quintiles with upper - middle range incomes of over $55,331 were headed by someone identifying as White alone, while 7.21 % were being headed by someone who identified as Hispanic and 7.37 % by someone who identified as African American or Black. Overall, households headed by Hispanics and African Americans were underrepresented in the top two quintiles and overrepresented in the bottom two quintiles. Households headed by people who identified as being Asian alone were also overrepresented among the top two quintiles. In the top five percent the percentage of Asians was nearly twice as high as the percentage of Asians among the general population. Whites were relatively even distributed throughout the quintiles only being underrepresented in the lowest quintile and slightly overrepresented in the top quintile and the top five percent.
In terms of race in 2010 data, Asian American households had the highest median household income of $57,518, European - American households ranked second with $48,977, Hispanic or Latino households ranked third with $34,241. African - American or Black households had the lowest median household income of all races with $30,134.
Source: US Census Bureau, 2004
Household income as well as per capita income in the United States rise significantly as the educational attainment increases. In 2005 graduates with a Master 's in Business Administration (MBA) who accepted job offers were expected to earn a base salary of $88,626. They were also expected to receive an "average signing bonus of $17,428. ''
According to the US Census Bureau persons with doctorates in the United States had an average income of roughly $81,400. The average for an advanced degree was $72,824, with men averaging $90,761 and women averaging $50,756 annually. Year - round full - time workers with a professional degree had an average income of $109,600 while those with a master 's degree had an average income of $62,300. Overall, "... (a) verage earnings ranged from $18,900 for high school dropouts to $25,900 for high school graduates, $45,400 for college graduates and $99,300 for workers with professional degrees (M.D., D.P.T., D.P.M., D.O., J.D., Pharm. D., D.D.S., or D.V.M.).
Individuals with graduate degrees have an average per capita income exceeding the median household income of married couple families among the general population ($63,813 annually). Higher educational attainment did not, however, help close the income gap between the genders as the life - time earnings for a male with a professional degree were roughly forty percent (39.59 %) higher than those of a female with a professional degree. The lifetime earnings gap between males and females was the smallest for those individuals holding an associate degrees with male life - time earnings being 27.77 % higher than those of females. While educational attainment did not help reduce the income inequality between men and women, it did increase the earnings potential of individuals of both sexes, enabling many households with one or more graduate degree householders to enter the top household income quintile. These data were not adjusted for preferential differences among men and women whom attend college. For example, men often study fields of engineering while women often pursue social sciences.
Household income also increased significantly with the educational attainment of the householder. The US Census Bureau publishes educational attainment and income data for all households with a householder who was aged twenty - five or older. The biggest income difference was between those with some college education and those who had a Bachelor 's degree, with the latter making $23,874 more annually. Income also increased substantially with increased post-secondary education. While the median annual household income for a household with a householder having an associate degree was $51,970, the median annual household income for householders with a bachelor 's degree or higher was $73,446. Those with doctorates had the second highest median household with a median of $96,830; $18,289 more than that for those at the master 's degree level, but $3,170 lower than the median for households with a professional degree holding householder.
SOURCE: US Census Bureau, 2003
The change in median personal and household since 1991 also varied greatly with educational attainment. The following table shows the median household income according to the educational attainment of the householder. All data is in 2003 dollars and only applies to householders whose householder is aged twenty - five or older. The highest and lowest points of the median household income are presented in bold face. Since 2003, median income has continued to rise for the nation as a whole, with the biggest gains going to those with associate degrees, bachelor 's degree or more, and master 's degrees. High - school dropouts fared worse with negative growth.
SOURCE: US Census Bureau, 2003
Household income in the United States varies substantially with the age of the person who heads the household. Overall, the median household income increased with the age of householder until retirement age when household income started to decline. The highest median household income was found among households headed by working baby - boomers.
Households headed by persons between the ages of 45 and 54 had a median household income of $61,111 and a mean household income of $77,634. The median income per member of household for this particular group was $27,924. The highest median income per member of household was among those between the ages of 54 and 64 with $30,544 (The reason this figure is lower than the next group is because pensions and Social Security add to income while a portion of older individuals also have work - related income.).
The group with the second highest median household income, were households headed by persons between the ages 35 and 44 with a median income of $56,785, followed by those in the age group between 55 and 64 with $50,400. Not surprisingly the lowest income group was composed of those households headed by individuals younger than 24, followed by those headed by persons over the age of 75. Overall, households headed by persons above the age of seventy - five had a median household income of $20,467 with the median household income per member of household being $18,645. These figures support the general assumption that median household income as well as the median income per member of household peaked among those households headed by middle aged persons, increasing with the age of the householder and the size of the household until the householder reaches the age of 64. With retirement income replacing salaries and the size of the household declining, the median household income decreases as well.
While median household income has a tendency to increase up to four persons per household, it declines for households beyond four persons. For example, in the state of Alabama in 2004, two - person households had a median income of $39,755, with $48,957 for three - person households, $54,338 for four - person households, $50,905 for five - person households, $45,435 for six - person households, with seven - or - more - person households having the second lowest median income of only $42,471.
Considering other racial and geographical differences in regards to household income, it should come as no surprise that the median household income varies with race, size of household and geography. The state with the highest median household income in the United States as of the US Census Bureau 2009 is Maryland with $69,272, followed by New Jersey, Connecticut and Alaska, making the Northeastern United States the wealthiest area by income in the entire country.
Regionally, in 2010, the Northeast reached a median income of $53,283, the West, $53,142, the South, $45,492, and the Midwest, $48,445. Each figure represents a decline from the previous year.
In 2010, the median household income by state ranged from $35,693 in Mississippi to $66,334 in Maryland. Despite having the highest median home price in the nation and home prices that far outpaced incomes, California ranked only ninth in income, with a median household income of $61,021. While California 's median income was not near enough to afford the average California home or even a starter home, West Virginia, which had one of the nation 's lowest median household incomes, also had the nation 's lowest median home price.
By Census Bureau Region, of the 15 states with the highest median household income, only Minnesota is located in the Mid-West, while eight are in the Northeast (New Jersey, Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, and New York) and the other six (Alaska, Hawaii, California, Washington, Colorado and Utah) are in the West.
The southern states had, on average, the lowest median household income, with nine of the country 's fifteen poorest states located in the South. However, most of the poverty in the South is located in rural areas. Metropolitan areas such as Atlanta, Nashville, Charlotte, Raleigh, Birmingham, Dallas, Houston, and Miami are areas within the southern states that have above average income levels. Overall, median household income tended to be the highest in the nation 's most urbanized northeastern, upper midwestern and west coast states, while rural areas, mostly in the southern and mountain states (like New Mexico, Montana and Idaho), had the lowest median household income.
As of 2015, the median household income ranged from $40,037 in Mississippi to $76,805 in Maryland.
The median personal income per person, after adjusting for costs of living with local regional price parities and the national PCE price index, averaged $44,255 in 2015 (in 2009 chained dollars). Median adjusted personal income per capita varied from $36,814 in Mississippi to $57,520 in Connecticut (and $57,943 in the District of Columbia). The states closest to the national average were California and Texas, at $44,269 and $44,173 respectively.
Household income is one of the most commonly used measures of income and, therefore, also one of the most prominent indicators of social class. Household income and education do not, however, always reflect perceived class status correctly. Sociologist Dennis Gilbert acknowledges that "... the class structure... does not exactly match the distribution of household income '' with "the mismatch (being) greatest in the middle... '' (Gilbert, 1998: 92) As social classes commonly overlap, it is not possible to define exact class boundaries.
According to Leonard Beeghley a household income of roughly $95,000 would be typical of a dual - earner middle class household while $60,000 would be typical of a dual - earner working class household and $18,000 typical for an impoverished household. William Thompson and Joseph Hickey see common incomes for the upper class as those exceeding $500,000 with upper middle class incomes ranging from the high 5 - figures to most commonly in excess of $100,000. They claim the lower middle class ranges from $35,000 to $75,000; $16,000 to $30,000 for the working class and less than $2,000 for the lower class.
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where was the workd cup held in 2002 | 2002 FIFA World Cup final - wikipedia
The 2002 FIFA World Cup Final was a football match that took place on 30 June 2002 at the International Stadium in Yokohama to determine the winner of the 2002 FIFA World Cup. The final was contested by Germany and Brazil. It was the first World Cup meeting between the two sides. Brazil won the match 2 -- 0, winning a record fifth title. Ronaldo, who became the record World Cup goalscorer at the 2006 tournament, scored two of his fifteen World Cup goals in the second half of the match, leading Brazil to the title and winning the Golden Boot award. It also marked Brazilian captain Cafu 's third consecutive appearance in a World Cup Final, a feat that has yet to be accomplished by any other player in the history of the tournament. Both teams had won their respective groups before advancing to the knockout stage, where Germany shut out all of their opponents to reach the final, while Brazil only allowed a single goal from England. Germany overcame United States and co-host South Korea, while Brazil knocked out England and Turkey.
The title marked Brazil 's fifth World Cup championship, which is more than any other team has achieved. They also became the first team to win all seven matches in the current 32 - team format (Brazil had previously achieved a similar feat in the 16 - team 1970 tournament with six wins), and the first to win all their knockout matches without any extra time or penalty shoot - out (later equaled by France in 2018). Brazil also became the first team to win the World Cup outside Europe and the Americas. Germany lost the World Cup Final for its fourth time, another tournament record. They were attempting to equal Brazil for most World Cup wins, as they already had three.
Until the 2018 tournament, this was the last World Cup final that ended in regulation time. It is also the most recent World Cup won by a non-European team.
Prior to the tournament, Germany were plagued by a series of injuries to key players. Sebastian Deisler, a star player, would not be able to play in the tournament due to a knee injury suffered in a friendly match against Austria, only two days before the team left for Japan. The team 's medical staff was at first confident that Deisler would be able to play, but later pulled him out due to fears of his safety. "At first we had a glimmer of hope, but now the most important thing to think about is the health of Sebastian rather than the World Cup, '' said team manager Rudi Völler. In addition, midfielder Mehmet Scholl and defenders Christian Wörns and Jens Nowotny all missed the tournament due to injury.
Germany was drawn into Group E, along with Republic of Ireland and the low - ranking Saudi Arabia and Cameroon. In their opening match at the Sapporo Dome against Saudi Arabia they showed dominance, defeating them 8 -- 0. Miroslav Klose scored a hat - trick, one of six players on the German team to score a goal. In their next game against Ireland, Germany held a 1 -- 0 lead throughout much of the game. However, with only a few seconds left in stoppage time, Irish player Robbie Keane, scored the equalising goal against German goalkeeper Oliver Kahn. The goal held and the match ended in a 1 -- 1 draw, awarding Germany only one point in the standings. Needing a win to finish first in their group, Germany entered their final match against Cameroon one point ahead of the Irish in the group. However, Germany easily beat Cameroon in a 2 -- 0 game at Shizuoka Stadium, with Klose scoring his fifth goal of the tournament. Germany finished first place in Group E with seven points (two wins and a draw), and advanced into the first stage of the knockout round.
In the first stage of the knockout round, Germany faced Paraguay, the runner - up in Group B, at Jeju World Cup Stadium. The game remained a very defensive one, as there were no goals scored in the first half and well into the second half. In the 88th minute, first - time, Oliver Neuville scored, winning the game for Germany. In the quarter - finals, Germany faced United States, who had surprisingly made it far into the tournament. Although they were significantly outshot 11 to 6, the Germans were still able to pull away with a 1 -- 0 win. The single goal scored in the match came from Michael Ballack in the 38th minute.
In the semi-final, Germany faced the co-host nation South Korea at the Seoul World Cup Stadium. Like the game against Paraguay, it was a defensive struggle throughout the first half and into the second half. However, before any goals were scored, a key moment in the tournament occurred. In the 71st minute, Ballack picked up his second yellow card of the knockout round, therefore disqualifying him from the next game. However, just four minutes later into the game, Ballack came through for Germany and scored, which turned out to be the only goal of the game. With the 1 -- 0 win, the Germans moved into the final to face Brazil, the first World Cup meeting between the two.
Brazil was drawn into Group C, along with China PR, Costa Rica, and Turkey. In the previous World Cup in 1998, Brazil had made it to the finals but then lost 3 -- 0 to the host nation France. In an interview, Brazilian midfielder Juninho Paulista stated that both the team and the people in Brazil were both somewhat pessimistic about the upcoming World Cup squad due to the loss to France. Following the 1998 loss, the team hired a new head coach, Luiz Felipe Scolari, following tenures by Vanderlei Luxemburgo (whose contract was terminated after elimination at the quarter finals of the football tournament at the 2000 Summer Olympics) and Emerson Leão (who experienced a short, disastrous stint, in which the underpowered Brazilian team risked not getting through the qualifiers). Felipe preferred a more different style of football than previous coaches, which he called "bullyboy soccer ''. In this style of play emphasis is placed on aggressive play and hard tackling, which was in contrast to the more finesse play of previous Brazilian teams.
On 3 June, Brazil played its first match of the group stage against eventual group runner - up Turkey. In stoppage time at the end of the first half, Turkey 's Hasan Şaş scored, leaving Brazil down 1 -- 0 at half time. In the second half, Brazil 's Ronaldo responded quickly by levelling the scores at 1 -- 1 in the 50th minute. The score remained tied until well late into the game. In the 86th minute, Turkish defender Alpay Özalan brought down Brazilian striker Luizão in the penalty area, prompting a red card for Alpay and a penalty kick that Rivaldo converted. The match score finished at 2 -- 1, Brazil victorious. The game was also notable for an incident, where Turkish defender Hakan Ünsal kicked a ball towards Rivaldo which struck his thigh, but Rivaldo fell to the ground clutching his face. The referee sent the Turkish player off with a second yellow card, while Rivaldo was fined 11,670 Swiss francs by FIFA following a video review. In their second game against China at Ulsan Munsu Football Stadium, the Brazilians fared much more easily. Roberto Carlos, Rivaldo, Ronaldinho, and Ronaldo all scored for Brazil, the first three goals being in the first half. With this win, Brazil also knocked the Chinese team out of the World Cup with their second loss. In their final game against Costa Rica, Brazil was very strong offensively. In a 5 -- 2 win, Ronaldo scored two goals, one of four Brazilian players to score in the match. Brazil finished in first place in their group with nine points and scoring eleven goals, advancing to the round of 16 with ease.
Entering the elimination round with a perfect record, Brazil faced Group H runner - up Belgium in the first stage. The game remained scoreless at half time, as both teams had good goalkeeping. In the 67th minute, striker Rivaldo scored for Brazil. Ronaldo added on a second goal in the 87th minute, solidifying the win for Brazil at 2 -- 0. England faced Brazil in the quarterfinals, and got ahead early with a goal by forward Michael Owen in the 23rd minute. The scores were levelled in the first half 's stoppage time, when Rivaldo scored in his second straight match just before the half was called. Following half time, forward Ronaldinho scored for Brazil, putting them in the lead. Only seven minutes later, Ronaldinho was red - carded by referee Felipe Ramos Rizo of Mexico and therefore suspended for the next match. Although they played with only 10 men, the Brazilians were able to prevent a second goal from their English opponents and advanced into the semi-finals to face Turkey.
In the semi-final, the sans - Ronaldinho Brazil faced Turkey for the second time, at Saitama Stadium. The game, unlike the first meeting between the teams, had a strong showing of defense by both sides. The game was a scoreless tie at half - time, but this soon changed. Only four minutes after the half in the 49th minute, Ronaldo again came through for Brazil, scoring what ended up being the only goal of the match. With this low - scoring victory, the Brazilians moved on to attempt to win a record fifth World Cup title, against the aforementioned German squad.
Over 200 nations and territories broadcast the final over radio and television. In totality, 232 television channels broadcast the match, which was a new record for a World Cup Final (only later to be broken in 2006). The final had the highest television audience of the entire tournament, attracting over 63 million viewers in Nielsen - measured countries. The Germany - South Korea match was a close second, as much of the host nation viewed the game to support their team. It was the highest - viewed non-finals match in World Cup history.
The game was played at International Stadium Yokohama, where three other matches in the World Cup were previously held. The stadium was the largest in the tournament as well as the largest in the entire nation of Japan, seating over 70,000 spectators. In all, about 260,000 people attended matches in this stadium throughout the World Cup, which, at the time, was a new record.
The match ball for this game was the Adidas Fevernova, a ball specifically made for the World Cup. The ball 's design was different from the normal "Tango '' type of three - pointed shapes connecting each hexagon, instead introducing a different, triangle - like shape on four hexagons. This look and color usage was entirely based on Asian culture. It also featured a refined syntactic foam layer, to give the ball superior performance characteristics, and a three - layer knitted chassis, allowing for a more precise and predictable flight path. However, this ball was notoriously criticised for being too light, yet some spectacular goals were scored with it during the tournament. The ball was also blamed for a number of upsets that happened in the knockout stages. Italian goalkeeper Gianluigi Buffon called the ball "a ridiculous kiddy 's bouncing ball, '' while Brazil 's Edilson criticised the ball as being "too big and too light ''.
Coming into the match, Germany looked to have an uphill task to beat Brazil, as although they had scored fourteen goals by the time of the final, eight of those goals were scored against Saudi Arabia, and the Europeans were coming off back to back to back 1 - 0 wins. Adding to the German hardship, midfielder Michael Ballack who scored the winning goals in both the Quarterfinal against the United States and the Semi Final against South Korea, would miss the game due to a suspension. Still, the Germans could take solace in their shot stopper Oliver Kahn who was in the midst of what is considered one of the greatest individual World Cup performances of all time. Kahn had only conceded one goal, to Robbie Keane of Ireland, up to this point in the tournament.
Brazil would claim their fifth, World Cup title; over the resilient German side. Ronaldo missed a chance in the 19th minute when he was put through on Oliver Kahn by Ronaldinho, putting his shot wide of the target. The next big chance of the game would fall to the legs Ronaldo in the 30th minute, as he was once again put through by Ronaldinho, this time he was unable to put much power on the shot as he was put under pressure by Thomas Linke, and Kahn saved his effort. Kléberson would have the next chances of the match, putting the first wide in the 42nd minute, and hitting the bar from long range in 45th. Ronaldo missed his third scoring chance in stoppage time, when a Roberto Carlos pass evaded all the German defenders, this time Ronaldo hit the shot well, but Kahn saved it with his outstretched foot. Germany had their first major chance of the evening a minute into the second half, when a corner found an unmarked Jens Jeremies, but his header was blocked by the foot of Edmílson. In the 50th minute, Germany almost scored when Oliver Neuville struck a free kick from long range, Marcos tipped the brilliant strike onto the post. For the majority of the match, Brazil 's dominance in the middle of the pitch forced attacking midfielder Bernd Schneider to spend most of his time helping the German defense. This left Neuville, and the man who would one day become the World Cup 's record goalscorer, Miroslav Klose, isolated against the three Brazilian central defenders Edmílson, Roque Júnior, and future Captain Lúcio. Save from his brilliant free kick, Neuville had little impact on the game, and Klose was unable to make any notable impact against the tight marking of the Brazilians. Brazil would open the scoring in the 67th minute in a sequence that started with Ronaldo winning the ball from Dietmar Hamann in the German half of the pitch. Ronaldo passed to Rivaldo who struck a low shot towards goal. Kahn attempted to catch the shot, but he was unable to, and in doing so spilled a rebound. Ronaldo, who had followed Rivaldo 's shot, and despite the rebound being relatively short, took advantage of Kahn being off balance, scoring the rebound into the bottom corner before Kahn could recover. Brazil got their second twelve minutes later, after a mazy run from Kléberson from just beyond the halfway line caused confusion in the German defense, this run lead to Brazil having a four attackers against Germany 's three defenders. Kléberson passed towards Rivaldo, who was in the center of the pitch and a yard outside the German penalty area, and Linke came from covering Ronaldo to pressure Rivaldo, but Rivaldo let the ball pass through his legs, and the pace on Kléberson 's pass found Ronaldo, who now had a chance from the center edge of the German penalty area. German forward Gerald Asamoah tracked back well, and he was almost able to block the shot, but Ronaldo used his first touch to take the ball away from Asamoah, and passed the ball into the bottom corner of Kahn 's net with his second. Germany had their best chance of the game in the 83rd minute when Oliver Bierhoff hit a first time shot towards goal from the penalty spot, but Marcos got down brilliantly to save the shot, and Germany were unable to threaten for the rest of the match.
Man of the Match: Ronaldo (Brazil)
Assistant referees: Leif Lundberg (Sweden) Philip Sharp (England) Fourth official: Hugh Dallas (Scotland)
Match rules
Despite being present, the Japanese Emperor Akihito did not join the ceremony of presenting the winners the World Cup trophy as it was against Japanese customs. FIFA president Sepp Blatter and former Brazilian World Cup winner Pelé handed the trophy to Brazilian captain Cafu on the pitch stage.
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soundtrack to don't be a menace to south central | Do n't Be a Menace to South Central While Drinking Your Juice in the Hood - wikipedia
Do n't Be a Menace to South Central While Drinking Your Juice in the Hood (or simply Do n't Be a Menace) is a 1996 American comedy film directed by Paris Barclay in his feature film directorial debut, and produced by Keenen Ivory Wayans, and also written by Wayans brothers Shawn and Marlon Wayans, who also both starred in the lead roles. The film was released in the United States on January 12, 1996.
Similar to I 'm Gonna Git You Sucka, the film spoofs a number of African - American, coming - of - age, hood films such as Juice, Jungle Fever, South Central, Higher Learning, Do the Right Thing, Poetic Justice, New Jack City, Dead Presidents, Friday, and most prominently Boyz n the Hood, Menace II Society and Above the Rim. The film 's title borrows phrases from some of those films, and some of the actors who starred in those movies appear in the film, in some cases appearing in similar roles or scenes as the films being parodied.
Ashtray (Shawn Wayans), Tray for short, is sent to the inner city to live with his father. Tray gets an education about life on the streets from his psychotic, gun - toting cousin Loc Dog (Marlon Wayans), Preach (Chris Spencer), and Crazy Legs (Suli McCullough). At a picnic Tray falls for the infamous Dashiki (Tracey Cherelle Jones) much to the distaste of ex-convict Toothpick (Darrell Heath). While Ashtray and Loc Dog head to buy some snacks, Toothpick and his posse confront Ashtray and hold him at gunpoint, until Loc Dog threatens them and they flee.
Loc Dog and Ashtray get harassed in a Korean store by the owners and Loc Dog shoots at the owners when a remark is made about his mother. The two are then confronted by ' The Man ' (a mysterious white, government figure) who kills the Koreans and tosses them his gun to frame them and leaves.
Meanwhile, Ashtray and Loc Dog 's Grandma ride to church and another elderly woman disses her, resulting in a breakdancing contest that Grandma wins.
Ashtray visits Dashiki where they engage in sexual intercourse and Tray impregnates Dashiki. Feeling like he 's not responsible enough to be the father, Dashiki kicks him out. Someone from Toothpick 's posse threatens Ashtray, Loc Dog, Preach, and Crazy Legs. Loc Dog knocks him out as he and Preach proceed to stomp him, flattening him (literally). The quartet decides to get protection from their friend Old School (Antonio Fargas). This tactic fails as Toothpick performs another drive - by and Crazy Legs is injured. With Crazy Legs hospitalized, himself and Loc Dog being arrested, and the Korean store shooting, Tray decides to confront Dashiki and be the father. Dashiki agrees to give Tray another try and they decide to leave the hood as planned. Ashtray and Loc Dog talk about Ashtray 's departure as Toothpick and his posse prepare for another drive - by and he and Loc Dog clash as Ashtray flees and trips and is knocked out as Loc and Toothpick continue to shoot at each other. They are saved when Grandma pops out of the dumpster and shoots Toothpick 's car as Toothpick is flung out and he lands on a cop car. Preach and Dashiki find Ashtray hurt and he regains consciousness and kisses Dashiki. A woman finds Toothpick (who turns out to be his mother) and beats him with his shoe for stealing from her in the past.
Afterwards, everyone goes their separate ways: Ashtray and Dashiki marry and enjoy their lives, Loc Dog becomes a host and introduces himself with extreme profanity, Preach and his crush settle down and perform sexual intercourse, Crazy Legs becomes a dancer as he had dreamed of, and Grandma is, as Ashtray puts it, "still Grandma '' (showing her smoking marijuana).
Do n't Be a Menace to South Central While Drinking Your Juice in the Hood collected $8,112,884 from 1,010 theatres its opening weekend, opening at # 2 at the box office, averaging $8,032 per theatre. By the end of its theatrical run, the film domestically grossed $20,109,115.
The movie was met with a negative response from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 32 % based on 25 reviews.
The soundtrack was released on January 9, 1996 by Island Records. It peaked at # 18 on the Billboard 200 and # 3 on the Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums. Allmusic rated this soundtrack three out of five stars. On March 14, 1996, The RIAA certified the album Gold for selling over 500,000 copies in the United States of America.
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highest score in a lords one day final | 1965 Gillette Cup - wikipedia
The 1965 Gillette Cup was the third Gillette Cup, an English limited overs county cricket tournament. It was held between 23 April and 4 September 1965. The tournament was won by Yorkshire, following Geoff Boycott 's 146 runs in the final at Lord 's. Boycott 's innings remained the highest ever scored in a Lord 's county limited - overs final. until 2017.
The seventeen first - class counties, were joined by five Minor Counties: Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, Cambridgeshire, Norfolk and Wiltshire. Teams who won in the first round progressed to the second round. The winners in the second round then progressed to the quarter - final stage. Winners from the quarter - finals then progressed to the semi-finals from which the winners then went on to the final at Lord 's which was held on 4 September 1965.
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when was the last time california had a republican governor | List of Governors of California - wikipedia
The Governor of California is the chief executive of the California state government, whose responsibilities include making annual State of the State addresses to the California State Legislature, submitting the budget, and ensuring that state laws are enforced. The governor is also the commander - in - chief of the state 's military forces.
There have been 38 governors; many have been influential nationwide in areas far - flung from politics. Leland Stanford founded Stanford University in 1891. Earl Warren, later Chief Justice of the United States, won an election with the nominations of the three major parties -- the only person ever to run essentially unopposed for governor of California. Ronald Reagan, who was president of the Screen Actors Guild and later President of the United States, and Arnold Schwarzenegger both came to prominence through acting. Gray Davis, the 37th governor of California, was the second governor in American history to be recalled by voters. The shortest tenure was that of Milton Latham, who served only five days before being elected by the legislature to fill a vacant United States Senate seat. The longest tenure is that of the current governor, Edmund Gerald "Jerry '' Brown, Jr., who previously served as governor from 1975 to 1983 and has been serving again since 2011. He is the son of former governor Edmund Gerald "Pat '' Brown, Sr. who served from 1959 to 1967.
California was obtained by the United States in the Mexican Cession following the Mexican -- American War. Unlike most other states, it was never organized as a territory, and was admitted as the 31st state on September 9, 1850.
The original California Constitution of 1849 called for elections every two years, with no set start date for the term. An amendment ratified in 1862 increased the term to four years, and the 1879 constitution set the term to begin on the first Monday in January following an election. In 1990, Proposition 140 led to a constitutional amendment implementing a term limit of two terms; prior to this limit, only one governor, Earl Warren, served more than two terms. Jerry Brown was able to be elected to a third term in 2010 because his previous terms were before the term limit was enacted. The 1849 constitution also created the office of lieutenant governor, who, in cases of vacancy in the office of governor, becomes governor. The governor and lieutenant governor are not elected on the same ticket.
There are three living former governors, the oldest being Pete Wilson, born 1933. The most recent death of a former governor was that of George Deukmejian (served 1983 -- 1991, born June 6, 1928) on May 8, 2018. Jerry Brown, who served as governor from 1975 to 1983, is currently serving and thus is not included on this list.
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she's got a way about her song | She 's Got a Way - wikipedia
"She 's Got a Way '' is a song by American singer - songwriter Billy Joel, originally released on his first solo album, Cold Spring Harbor (1971) and as a single from that album in some countries. It was also featured as a single from the 1981 live album Songs in the Attic, peaking at number 23 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in early 1982.
"She 's Got a Way '' is a love ballad. The lyrics to "She 's Got a Way '' have the singer describing how various characteristics of a particular woman, such as her laugh, make him love her, even though he ca n't understand why. To music critic Mark Bego it 's a song about a woman who has "mesmerized '' him. Joel biographer Fred Schruers describes the lyrics as a "plainspoken, never - quite - corny adoration of a loved one. ''
According to a friend of the couple, Bruce Gentile, the song was written about Joel 's first wife Elizabeth. Joel 's liner notes for Songs In The Attic seem to agree with this, commenting, "Written in 1970, I still feel the same way. ''
Schruers describes the song 's melody as alternating between "surging '' and "relenting. '' The original studio version has minimal instrumentation. The most prominent instruments are Joel 's piano and some cymbal crashes. Schruers describes Joel 's piano playing as "stately. '' On the 1983 reissue of Cold Spring Harbor, "She 's Got a Way '' also incorporated strings, which may have been inspired by a live performance at Carnegie Hall in New York City at which strings were included in the instrumentation. Schruers attributes some of the poignance of the song to the way Joel sings the final word of the final phrase "I do n't know what it is / But there does n't have to be a reason anyway. '' Schruers describes the last word "anyway '' as hanging in the air, "trailing off '' and "disrupting the tempo '' and thus "seemingly giving in to the emotion '' of love.
In a 1981 interview, Joel expressed mixed feelings about the song: "I thought it was cornball for years. I had trouble singing it at first. Then I got into it and decided everybody has a corny side, I suppose ''.
Joel originally included "She 's Got a Way '' on a five - song demo tape that also included other songs that would appear on Cold Spring Harbor such as "Everybody Loves You Now '' and "Tomorrow Is Today '' which Joel made in an unsuccessful attempt to secure his first solo recording contract with Paramount Records.
AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine described the studio version as being "lovely '' and rated it as one of Joel 's "finest songs. '' Bego described it as a "beautiful love ballad '' and one of Joel 's "most serious and adult compositions. '' Joel biographer Hank Bordowitz called it a "remarkable composition that, while not great, at least indicate (d) a rising talent. '' Billboard Magazine 's Roy Waddell similarly described it as a "chestnut '' that did n't get its "proper due '' until the live version was released on Songs in the Attic. Joel biographer Fred Schruers described as the one "gem '' from Cold Spring Harbor. According to Rolling Stone Album Guide critic Paul Evans, "She 's Got a Way '' "set the pattern for the ballads Joel would soon turn out effortlessly. ''
The version released on Songs in the Attic was recorded at a live performance in Boston in 1980. Joel performs the song with only his piano accompanying him. Ken Bielen describes the performance as being influenced by Paul McCartney 's style and says that the small venue with its "attentive audience '' provides an "intense intimacy. '' Schruers describes this version as being "a technically better performance much more in a chest register '' but does not consider it as poignant as the original version. AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine calls this version "richer and warmer '' than the studio version. Joel also performed this song on live TV on Saturday Night Live on November 14, 1981.
Michael Sweet covered this song on 2007 's Touched. Phil Keaggy covered the song on 2007 's Acoustic Café, accompanied only by acoustic guitar. Ken Bielen described this version as being "sweet, gentle and simple. '' Don Henley sang "She 's Got a Way '' as a tribute to Joel when Joel was awarded a Kennedy Center Honor in 2013.
Margie Joseph recorded a femme version of the song, titled "He 's Got a Way, '' in 1974. Her version uses electric piano as the primary instrument, and adds a Hammond B - 3 organ in the third verse to add a touch of gospel music influence. She also adds a gospel choir for background vocals which, in Bielen 's opinion gives the impression that her interpretation may be directed towards God rather than a human lover. Bernadette Peters covered "He 's Got a Way '' on her 1996 album I 'll Be Your Baby Tonight, accompanied only on piano. Bielen described this version as being "technically perfect albeit emotion - filled. '' Erlewine says that she is "well - suited '' to its "pseudo-show tune stylings. ''
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who sang it's a new day originally | Feeling Good - wikipedia
"Feeling Good '' (also known as "Feelin ' Good '') is a song written by English composers Anthony Newley and Leslie Bricusse for the musical The Roar of the Greasepaint -- The Smell of the Crowd. It was first performed on stage in 1964 by Cy Grant on the UK tour and by Gilbert Price in 1965 with the original Broadway cast.
Nina Simone recorded "Feeling Good '' for her 1965 album I Put a Spell on You. The song has also been covered by Traffic, Michael Bublé, John Coltrane, George Michael, and the rock band Muse.
Although Bricusse and Newley shared songwriting credits, the words of the song are usually attributed to Bricusse, with the music by Newley. The song was first performed in public by the Guyanese - British singer and actor Cy Grant on the opening night of The Roar of the Greasepaint -- The Smell of the Crowd at the Theatre Royal in Nottingham on 3 August 1964; Elaine Paige played the part of one of the "Urchins '' in the chorus. The show, directed by Newley, toured British provincial theatres, and was then taken to the US by theatre producer David Merrick. It opened on 16 May 1965 at the Shubert Theatre in New York City, where the role of "the Negro '', who sings "Feeling Good '', was taken by Gilbert Price.
In the show, Price 's character is asked to perform a game against the show 's hero "Cocky ''; but, as "Cocky '' and his master "Sir '' argue over the rules, "the Negro '' reaches the centre of the stage and "wins '', singing the song at his moment of triumph. It was described as a "booming song of emancipation '', and a Billboard review said it was "the kind of robust number that should have strong appeal. '' The original cast recording of the show, featuring Price 's version of the song, was released by RCA Victor in early 1965, before the show reached New York.
A version by Cy Grant with pianist Bill Le Sage -- much jazzier than the original stage version -- appeared on their 1965 album Cy & I. Anthony Newley 's own recording appeared on his 1965 album "Who Can I Turn To '' and other songs from "The Roar of the Greasepaint ''. One of the earliest recorded versions was a jazz treatment by saxophonist John Coltrane, which appeared on his album The John Coltrane Quartet Plays... Recorded on 18 February 1965, it also features Art Davis, Elvin Jones and McCoy Tyner. Versions were also released in 1965 by Nina Simone, Jean DuShon, Julie London, Chris Connor, Billy Eckstine, and Sammy Davis Jr...
Nina Simone 's version, arranged and produced by Hal Mooney, was recorded in New York in January 1965 and appeared on her album I Put a Spell on You. It was not released as a single at the time. In 1994, Simone 's recording was used in a British TV commercial for Volkswagen, and became popular. Released as a single, it reached no. 40 on the UK Singles Chart in July 1994.
Simone 's version was remixed by Joe Claussell in 2002 for the first volume of the Verve Remixed series.
The vocal track by Nina Simone and the music of "Feeling Good '' have been sampled in numerous songs. In 1997, it was sampled in "Feeling Good '' by Huff & Herb and the following year in "The Twister '' by Viper. Other uses include "How I Feel '' by Wax Tailor, from the 2005 album Tales of the Forgotten Melodies; "New Day '' from the debut collaborative studio album Watch the Throne by American rappers Jay - Z and Kanye West in 2011; "How I Feel '' by Flo Rida, from the 2013 album The Perfect 10; and, also in 2013, in the beginning of Bassnectar 's Immersive Music Mixtape Side One.
The track "About You '' on Mary J. Blige 's 2005 album The Breakthrough features an unusual take on the song. The bulk of the recording consists of new lyrics, composed by Mary J. Blige, will.i.am and Keith Harris; however, the chorus samples several lines from "Feeling Good '' as performed by Nina Simone. Nina 's original vocals are distorted so much that her voice is almost unrecognisable. For this reason, Simone receives a credit as a featured artist, and Newley and Bricusse receive credit as co-writers. "About You '' is produced by will.i.am. The original instrumental track to Nina Simone 's "Feeling Good '' was also used in Avicii 's song of the same name, used by Volvo.
Simone 's recording was used in the film Point of No Return, and it appears on soundtracks for the movies Repo Men (2010), Last Holiday (2006), and the TV soundtrack Six Feet Under, Vol. 2: Everything Ends. The song was used in "Chapter 6 '', a first - season episode of the television series Legion.
The rock band Muse recorded a version for their 2001 album Origin of Symmetry. It was released as a single also featuring the song "Hyper Music ''.
In a poll by Total Guitar about best cover songs, Muse 's version was fifth. In September 2010, NME readers voted it the greatest cover song of all time over "Twist and Shout '' by The Beatles and "Hurt '' by Johnny Cash 's A BBC poll in 2014 placed it ninth.
The song appeared in the movie Seven Pounds (2008), one episode of the TV series Queer as Folk, and during the end credits of an episode of the TV series Luther. It was used by Nestlé without the band 's permission, so Nestlé replaced it with the Nina Simone version and paid Muse settlement money, which the band donated to Oxfam. Virgin Atlantic used the Muse version for a global television commercial which debuted in October 2010. The ad featured the song accompanying surreal vignettes of Virgin Atlantic cabin crew members. This sequence included imagery of flying people, a nod to the artwork of Muse 's album Absolution.
Muse 's version reached No. 137 on the singles chart in France and No. 24 on the singles chart in the UK.
"Feeling Good '' was covered by Canadian singer Michael Bublé as the lead single from his album, It 's Time. The single was released on 4 April 2005. The song was the opening track on his live album, Caught in the Act, and has appeared in television commercials, ESPN 's 2005 World Series of Poker Tournament, and the 2010 NBA Draft broadcast.
The single peaked at No. 162 in the United Kingdom, No. 70 in Australia, No. 36 in Germany, No. 66 in Austria, and No. 14 in Poland. The song has become one of his most popular singles and became a hit in May 2010 when it reached No. 69 on the UK Singles Chart after it was featured in British commercials.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
American girl group The Pussycat Dolls recorded "Feeling Good '' for their debut studio album, PCD (2005). It charted at number 23 on the Billboard Smooth Jazz Songs.
The Pussycat Dolls ' version of "Feeling Good '' received mostly negative reviews from critics. Nick Butler of Sputnikmusic criticised all four of the covers featured on the album. He singled out "Feeling Good '', writing that the song 's inclusion on the album serves as "a pretty pointless vocal workout for Nicole. '' He added that "None of them stand up to other covers of the same tracks, let alone the originals. '' John Murphy from musicOMH gave a negative review writing, "All the emotion and melodrama of the original is ripped out of the heart of the song and we 're left with a pointless, faux - jazz version. They may as well have strutted over to (Nina) Simone 's grave and performed a stiletto clad dance upon it. '' Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine commented that the "rendition of ' Feelin ' Good ' (...) is misguided at best. '' However, in contrast, Spence D. of IGN wrote that "Feeling Good '' "comes too late in the game to really save the album from spiraling into a melange of innocuous pop - cum - R&B studio crafted fluff. '' Spence D. praised the song for returning to the "retro vibe with wondrous results. '' On the Billboard Jazz Songs chart, the song peaked at number 23, becoming The Pussycat Dolls ' only song to appear on that chart.
The song is included on their 2006 Live from London as the fourth track of the DVD. The song is performed solely by Scherzinger. The song was also included on their first headlining tour, PCD World Tour. While delivering an a cappella version of the songs Scherzinger wears a "virginal hoodie - cum - headscarf. '' Helen Pidd of The Guardian while reviewing their show in Manchester commented that "she sure can sing. ''. It was additionally included the 2006 DVD Live from London as the fourth track.
George Michael performed "Feeling Good '' during his 2011 -- 12 Symphonica Tour and included it on the Symphonica album (2014). The music video was released on 6 May 2014 and "Feeling Good '' was sent to radio on 11 August 2014. The release of "Feeling Good '' coincided with the issue of Symphonica on the vinyl format. It became his final single before his death in 2016.
The studio version of "Feeling Good '' was recorded by Michael in 2008 and included on the US edition of his Twenty Five compilation. He also performed it during the 2008 legs of his 25 Live tour and the 2010 George Michael Live in Australia concerts.
Lauryn Hill covered "Feeling Good '' as a part of an album of covers in tribute to Nina Simone, which features various Black artists, entitled Nina Revisited: A Tribute to Nina Simone (2015). With Hill being considered one of the "second generation of contemporary soul stirrers '', she describes Simone 's music as a music she "fed on '' and states that "(Simone 's) example is clearly a form of sustenance to a generation needing to find theirs '', describing the great influence Simone has had on Black artists as the food that continues to give to their music. The Netflix film that featured the album, entitled "What Happened, Miss Simone? '' received critiques for its depiction of Nina Simone, with it failing to give Simone the credit as "one of America 's greatest geniuses '' being able to "(survive) America and (create) such searingly beautiful music ''. With the film blaming Simone 's "descent '' in the music industry on the idea that she "disappears in the Civil Rights Movement '', there is a lack of clear understanding on the significance that Simone 's music posed for the Black community during this time. The amount of times that "Feeling Good '' has been sampled alludes to the significance that Simone 's music had before, during, and after her involvement in the Civil Rights movement, displaying how the "assimilation of radical new material is the core practice around which a deeply conservative tradition has been built '', allowing for new artists to reassess how traditional styles of music can be applied to the experiences of today. Lauryn Hill 's reinvention of the classic "Feeling Good '' reminds us of the genius of the original, showing how a "sensitive soul felt and conveyed in music, the trauma of the Black experience ''.
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who takes the iowa test of basic skills | Iowa Assessments - wikipedia
The Iowa Assessments (previously the Iowa Test of Basic Skills and originally Iowa Every Pupil Test of Basic Skills) also known informally as the Iowa Tests or colloquially as ITBS tests, are standardized tests provided as a service to schools by the College of Education of the University of Iowa. Developers Everett Franklin Lindquist, Harry Greene, Ernest Horn, Maude McBroom, and Herbert Spitzer first designed and administered the tests in 1935 as a tool for improving student instruction. The tests are administered to students in kindergarten through eighth grade as part of the Iowa Statewide Testing Programs, a division of the Iowa Testing Programs (ITP). Over decades, participation expanded and currently nearly all school districts in Iowa participate annually in the program, as do many other school districts across the United States. In a cooperative relationship, participating schools receive ITBS test materials, scoring and reporting services and consultation in the use of ITBS for instructional purposes, and ITP utilizes participation by schools in research and test development. Both the ITBS and Iowa Tests of Educational Development (ITED) were revised in the 2011 -- 2012 school year. They were rebranded the Iowa Assessments. In 2016 - 2017, Iowa Assessments will roll out their new testing program, Next Generation Iowa Assessments.
ITBS are written in levels 5 - 14. Each test level consists of a series of tests administered in content sections with each section designed to measure specific skills. Test levels 5 - 8 are administered to students from kindergarten through second grade (K - 2). School districts employ the series of tests in primary grades to gain information about classes and students for instructional planning, to supplement teacher observations regarding student abilities, and to establish a basis for subsequent annual evaluation of student progress. Sections for levels 5 - 8 include: Vocabulary, Word Analysis, Reading Comprehension, Listening, Language, Mathematics, Social Studies (Levels 7 and 8 only), Science (Levels 7 and 8 only), and Sources of Information.
Test levels 9 - 14 are administered to students from third grade through twelfth grade. Like test levels 5 - 8, the primary purpose of levels 9 - 14 is instructional development. School districts use the standardized achievement battery to learn supplementary information useful in choosing curriculum and lesson planning. Teachers may use ITP testing batteries to suggest areas where the skills of individual students are most and least developed. Sections for levels 9 - 14 include: Vocabulary, Reading Comprehension, Spelling, Capitalization, Punctuation, Usage and Expression, Math Concepts and Estimation, Math Problem Solving and Data Interpretation, Math Computation, Social Studies, Maps and Diagrams, Reference Materials, Word Analysis (Level 9 only), and Listening (Level 9 only).
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who sings i heard it in a love song | Heard It in a Love Song - Wikipedia
4: 55 (album version)
"Heard It in a Love Song '' is a song by The Marshall Tucker Band, written by Toy Caldwell off their 1977 album Carolina Dreams.
It was the highest charting single by The Marshall Tucker Band, reaching number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart on June 11, 1977.. It also reached number 51 on the Country chart and number 25 on the Adult Contemporary chart.
"Heard It in a Love Song '' was also recorded by Mark Chesnutt on his 2006 album of the same name and by country band Crossfire on its album, Bullistik.
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where did the name buzz lightyear come from | Buzz Lightyear - wikipedia
Buzz Lightyear is a fictional character in the Toy Story franchise. He is a toy Space Ranger hero according to the movies and an action figure in the franchise. Along with Sheriff Woody, he is one of the two lead characters in all three Toy Story movies. He also appeared in the movie Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins and the television series spin - off Buzz Lightyear of Star Command.
He is voiced by Tim Allen in the Toy Story films, few video games, the upcoming video game Kingdom Hearts III, and the Buzz Lightyear movie, Patrick Warburton in the TV series, and by Pat Fraley for the video games and the attractions in Disney Parks.
Buzz Lightyear 's name was inspired by Apollo 11 astronaut Edwin "Buzz '' Aldrin, the second person to walk on the Moon. According to an interview with Pixar producers in Entertainment Weekly, the character was provisionally named Lunar Larry, but it sounded "too wacky '', so while trying to rechristen him "we went through some space terms and the word light - year came up, and the coolest astronaut name was Buzz Aldrin. '' Aldrin acknowledged the tribute when he pulled a Buzz Lightyear doll out during a speech at NASA, to rapturous cheers. A clip of this can be found on the Toy Story 10th Anniversary DVD. Aldrin did not, however, receive any endorsement fees for the use of his first name.
Regarding the design of Lightyear, his creator, John Lasseter, is on record as saying he wanted to create an action figure in the line of G.I. Joe for Toy Story and decided upon a spaceman figure. He attributes his design to the influence of Apollo astronauts, in particular their clear helmets, skullcaps, communication devices and white suits.
The purple and fluorescent green color scheme were his and his wife 's own favorite colors respectively. The looks of television actor Ed Kemmer are also believed to be a prototype for Lightyear. Kemmer played Commander Buzz Corry in Space Patrol, one of the first science - fiction series on US TV.
In Toy Story, Buzz Lightyear is given to a boy named Andy Davis from his mother as a birthday present. He also believes that he is a real space ranger, rather than a toy. Buzz Lightyear quickly becomes Andy 's favorite toy, making Andy 's original favorite toy, a cowboy doll named Sheriff Woody, feel jealous. The effects of Woody 's jealousy eventually leads both him and Buzz Lightyear them to be captured by Sid Phillips, the toy - torturing boy who lives next door to Andy 's house. While imprisoned in Sid 's house, Buzz Lightyear sees his own television ad, and realizes that he is a toy and not a space ranger. But when he tries to fly out of the window, he falls, causing him to break his arm. Upon understanding this, Buzz Lightyear becomes depressed, but Woody eventually convinces him that it is a good thing. Buzz Lightyear regains hope, and working together, the two escape Sid, return to Andy, and become friends.
In Toy Story 2, After Woody is kidnapped by a greedy toy collector named Al McWhiggin, who is intent on selling him to a toy museum in Japan, Buzz Lightyear leads Andy 's toys -- Mr. Potato Head, Slinky Dog, Rex, Hamm -- on a daring mission to rescue him. On the journey, Buzz Lightyear accidentally comes across a newer Buzz Lightyear toy with a Utility Belt. When he tries to take the Utility Belt, the newer Buzz Lightyear (who, like Andy 's Buzz Lightyear in the first film, believes he is a real Space Ranger) attacks him, believing that he is a disobedient Space Ranger. The two Buzzes Lightyears fight and Utility Belt Buzz Lightyear traps Andy 's Buzz Lightyear in a cardboard rocket ship similar to the one he originally came in. Soon the other toys find Utility Belt Buzz Lightyear and mistake him for Andy 's Buzz Lightyear, despite Buzz Lightyear 's cries of "You 've got the wrong Buzz, YOU 'VE GOT THE WRONG BUZZ! ''. Utility Belt Buzz Lightyear joins the gang after Rex tells him that he knows how to defeat Evil Emperor Zurg (in a video game.) Andy 's Buzz Lightyear eventually breaks free from his cardboard prison and tracks down Utility Belt Buzz Lightyear and the rest of the toys. After arguing with Utility Belt Buzz Lightyear over who the real Buzz Lightyear is, he eventually convinces them that he is the real Buzz Lightyear by showing them the bottom of his boot, which has Andy 's name written on it. Although he manages to convince Woody to return home, Stinky Pete stops him, as he wants to go to Japan. After Buzz Lightyear and the gang fight Evil Emperor Zurg in the elevator shaft, they use a Pizza Planet truck to chase after Al to the airport (while Utility Belt Buzz Lightyear stays behind to play with an amnesiac Evil Emperor Zurg), with Buzz Lightyear controlling the steering wheel as well as moving a pizza box on the driver 's seat to help him reach it. Eventually, they manage to rescue Woody and his new friends Jessie the cowgirl and Bullseye. At the end of the film, we see that Buzz Lightyear has developed a crush on Jessie.
In Toy Story 3, Woody, Buzz Lightyear, and the other toys accidentally end up in a daycare center after a mistake when Andy is packing for college. The daycare center toys are led by the teddy bear Lotso, who is later revealed as manipulative, untruthful, misunderstood, and some might say "evil ''. Buzz Lightyear is caught spying on one of his secret meetings. To stop Buzz Lightyear, Lotso switches Buzz Lightyear back to "demo mode '' causing him to again believe he is a Space Ranger and turn against his friends. When escaping, Woody and the other toys accidentally switch Buzz Lightyear to "Spanish mode '' causing confusion for many characters and comedic character changes and opportunities for the audience. Buzz Lightyear turns back to his normal self after he nearly gets crushed by a television set in a garbage truck. After making their way back to Andy 's house, Buzz Lightyear, Woody, Jessie, and the other toys are given by Andy to a little girl named Bonnie. The end shows the toys embracing their new life with Bonnie.
In Toy Story 4, Buzz Lightyear will return where he and the others will help Woody reunite with Bo Peep.
In Buzz Lightyear of Star Command, Buzz Lightyear is a Space Ranger working for Star Command, protecting the universe from Evil Emperor Zurg. He works in a team alongside Mira Nova, a Tangean princess with phasing powers, Booster, a janitor from the planet Jo - Ad, and XR, a robot created by the Little Green Men (the aliens from the movies, LGM for short). This version of Buzz Lightyear is completely different from the one in Toy Story, in looks and personality. Buzz Lightyear also has had many love interests on the show. He once had a friend and partner named Warp Darkmatter, however, he later joined Evil Emperor Zurg and became his primary agent. Buzz Lightyear also seems to never take off the purple headwear that he has with his Space Ranger uniform. Aside from his regular catch phrase, he has a habit of telling villains that "Evil never wins! ''
Buzz Lightyear also appears in Pixar 's 2003 film Finding Nemo. He also appeared as a car in Pixar 's 2006 movie, Cars, along with Woody and Hamm. He is also seen in the Toy Story Toons episodes Hawaiian Vacation (released with Cars 2), Small Fry (released with The Muppets) and Partysaurus Rex (released during the 2012 3D re-release of Finding Nemo), and the two specials: Toy Story of Terror! and Toy Story That Time Forgot. Buzz Lightyear also appeared in two episodes of Family Guy both times in cutaway gags set up by Stewie Griffin. In the 2013 episode Chris Cross, after Stewie has seriated Brian Griffin with You Needed Me, he complains that he invited Buzz Lightyear to watch and he did not show up. This cuts to Buzz Lightyear talking with a woman at a bar. In the 2017 episode The Finer Strings, when Brain insists that Carter is his friend, Stewie says "That 's what Woody thought about Buzz Lightyear. '' This leads to a cutaway gag where Woody catches Buzz Lightyear making out with Bo Peep. Buzz has also been referenced on The Simpsons. In the 2005 episode The Italian Bob, Lisa Simpson mentions both Buzz Lightyear and his voice actor Tim Allen. In The Simpsons, in the 2010 episode, The Color Yellow, probably as a promotion for the theatrical release of Toy Story 3, Ralph Wiggum holds on a picture where he is with Buzz Lightyear and Elmo from Sesame Street, "saying Martin Luther King had a dream. Dreams are where Elmo and Toy Story had a party, and I went there ''. In the 2011 episode Flaming Moe, Bart Simpson is playing with a toy parodying Buzz Lightyear. Buzz Lightyear was also in the 2008 Disney film Bedtime Stories and the Disney film The Sorcerer 's Apprentice which was released the same year as Toy Story 3. Buzz Lightyear is slated to appear in the upcoming Kingdom Hearts III, in which Tim Allen will voice him.. Buzz Lightyear and Woody recently appeared as Pinatas in Pixar 's newest movie Coco, along with Mike from the Monsters, Inc. series
Buzz Lightyear is known for his bravery and courage. Buzz Lightyear believes that following rules is the way people should live their life. Though a great leader, at times he exhibits rather unemotional, erratic, and impulsive behavior, a triumvirate of his biggest character flaws. Buzz Lightyear is trained in several forms of martial arts and is a highly skilled warrior in hand - to - hand combat. Being in peak physical condition, Buzz Lightyear makes a perfect space ranger and is an example to many. Perhaps unexpectedly, Buzz Lightyear the space ranger toy enjoys his closest personal relationships with two cowboy dolls: his best friend in the trilogy is Sheriff Woody Pride and by the end of Toy Story 2, he has developed a crush on Jessie the Cowgirl, which is actualized with their mild romance in Toy Story 3.
Buzz Lightyear wears a high - tech space suit, similar to those of modern - day astronauts though more streamlined and iconic. The suit chest features a control panel. On his green torso consist of a light blue sticker that has the words "SPACE RANGER '' and the Star Command symbol. On the left hand side of the suit, a large red button activates the suit 's flight system, which are two purple wings with candy cane lining, and green and red wing tips. Above a red button that pops out his purple high - pressure space wings is a yellow nametag that says "LIGHTYEAR ''. The three buttons (one red, one green and one blue) on the right of the suit have numerous functions such as contacting Star Command, shooting grappling hooks, and activating full throttle. As the toy Buzz Lightyear of movies however, all they do is make Buzz Lightyear say different catch phrases. Buzz Lightyear 's suit also protects against the vacuum and cold of space. It can also translate all he says into any language even an outer space dialect. A retractable helmet, when activated, covers Buzz Lightyear 's head and allows him to breath in space or on planets lacking a sufficient supply of oxygen. His left arm of the suit has a Space Ranger symbol sticker on his uppon arm and panel that flips open to reveal a display that contains a mission log in the wrist area to record history and provide records. His right arm has a yellow with black striped sticker that says "LASER '' on his upper arm, and contains the weapon system which projects an unusually strong and powerful red - colored laser out of the small cannon on the back of the wrist. Buzz Lightyear has a utility belt as an upgrade to suit. It has various things such as anti-gravity servos, magnets for climbing purposes, and a grappling hook.
Toy figure, Buzz Lightyear, with packaging, licensed from the film Toy Story, plastic / cardboard, made for Thinkway Toys in China, 1995 -- 1999. The Buzz Lightyear figure was manufactured by Thinkway Toys, New York between 1995 -- 1999. An enhanced, newer model was released in 2009 to coincide with the Toy Story 3 - D Double Feature. Originally, Tim Allen 's voice was on the action figure. The newer models feature a voice actor who sounds similar to Tim Allen.
The Toy Story Action Figure, Buzz Lightyear was subject to mass sales in the Christmas after the film 's release, mainly in the United States of America and United Kingdom of the Great Britain and Northern Ireland. In 1995, Thinkway did n't think that Toy Story would be that popular hence did n't make enough dolls to meet demand, as referenced in Toy Story 2. When Toy Story 3 came out they made 2 more Buzz Lightyear action figures for the Toy Story Collection, one normal one and an extra one with the utility belt from Toy Story 2. Produced by Thinkway Toys also with the spaceship box from the movies.
In May 2008, NASA and Disney announced that an original Thinkway Toys ' Buzz Lightyear action figure would fly aboard the space shuttle Discovery on mission STS - 124. The 12 - inch toy was to remain on the International Space Station for six months, where it would take part in an experiment and appear in a video downlink from space. The flight was arranged as part of the Toys in Space program that began in 1985.
The mission launched with Buzz Lightyear aboard the NASA space shuttle Discovery (STS - 124) on May 31, 2008, to celebrate the opening of Toy Story Midway Mania at Disney 's Hollywood Studios and Disney California Adventure Park theme parks, with the ultimate destination of the International Space Station (ISS). The action figure "ate '' dinner with the 10 astronauts and cosmonauts and was seen peering out a window aboard the ISS. The action figure stayed aboard the space station for a period of six months as part of a NASA toys - in - space educational program.
The Buzz Lightyear action figure returned from the space station on September 11, 2009 aboard mission STS - 128.
In October 2009, Thinkway Toys released a replica Buzz Lightyear figure based on the figure in the Toy Story movies as part of their Toy Story Collection series of toys. This Buzz Lightyear was much more accurately detailed than the other Buzz Lightyear figures and it has features similar to the figure seen in the movie with similar pop - out wings complete with blinking lights at the wing tips, laser, wrist communicator and the figure has over 65 phrases with original voice. However, the figure lacks the karate chop action. The figure also comes with a Certificate of Authenticity and comes packaged in the spaceship packaging as seen in the movies.
In 2010, Lego created a Buzz Lightyear action figure. The LEGO set is number 7592 and has 205 pieces. When the figure is completely built it has articulating head, arms, hands, torso, legs, feet, wings and visor.
In 2010 Lego created a Buzz Lightyear mini-figure it was released in two variants. Both variants featured the same molded elements with different printing both mini-figures had a total of five new molded elements for the minifigure being the head, the two winged pieces, the head cover and the torso of his spacesuit. One being the standard variant to represent the "clean '' Buzz Lightyear. This minifigure was featured in 7 sets: 30073, 7593, 7598, 7597, 7590, 9002700 (watch set) and a magnet set (852949) featuring Buzz Lightyear, Woody and a pizza planet alien. The other variant was the "dirty '' version of Buzz Lightyear as seen in Toy Story 3. This mini-figure was featured in 1 set which was 7599. This variant featured the same Buzz Lightyear mini-figure with printed on dirt stains. In 2016 a new version of Buzz Lightyear was created for the LEGO mini-figures Disney series. This mini-figure featured new prints for legs and arms of the minifigure and removed the Star Command logo from the chest of the torso piece. The most noticeable difference between this mini-figure and the 2010 release was the mini-figure head which is now a classic styled mini-figure head and not a molded piece.
On October 2007, readers of Empire voted him No. 1 of the Top 20 Greatest Pixar Characters. They also rated him the 94th greatest movie character of all time.
Buzz Lightyear 's classic line "To Infinity... and Beyond! '' has seen usage not only on T - shirts, but among philosophers and mathematical theorists as well. A book about the history of infinity from 1991 (4 years before Toy Story), by Eli Maor Lucia uses the phrase for its title. Hall of The Humanist linked the film 's plot to an interpretation of humanism. She compared the phrase to "All this and heaven, too! '', indicating one who is happy with a life on Earth as well as having an afterlife. The 2008 quadruple platinum song "Single Ladies '' by Beyoncé includes the lyric "... and delivers me to a destiny, to infinity and beyond. '' Also in 2008, astronauts took an action figure of Buzz Lightyear into space on the Space Shuttle "Discovery '' as part of an educational experience for students while stressing the catchphrase. The action figure was used for experiments in zero - g. Also in 2008, the phrase made international news when it was reported that a father and son had continually repeated the phrase to help them keep track of each other while treading water for 15 hours in the Atlantic Ocean.
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who was appointed to draft the declaration of independence | Committee of Five - wikipedia
The Committee of Five of the Second Continental Congress was a team of five men who drafted and presented to the Congress what would become America 's Declaration of Independence of July 4, 1776. This Declaration committee operated from June 11, 1776 until July 5, 1776, the day on which the Declaration was published.
The members of this group were:
The delegates of the United Colonies in Congress resolved to postpone until Monday, July 1, the final consideration of whether or not to declare the several sovereign independencies of the United Colonies, which had been proposed by the North Carolina resolutions of April 12 and the Virginia resolutions of May 15. The proposal, known as the Lee Resolution, was moved in Congress on June 7 by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia. During these allotted three weeks Congress agreed to appoint a committee to draft a broadside statement to proclaim to the world the reasons for taking America out of the British Empire, if the Congress were to declare the said sovereign independencies. The actual declaration of "American Independence '' is precisely the text comprising the final paragraph of the published broadside of July 4. The broadside 's final paragraph repeated the text of the Lee Resolution as adopted by the declaratory resolve voted on July 2.
On June 11, the Committee of Five was appointed: John Adams of Massachusetts, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, Robert Livingston of New York, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, and Thomas Jefferson of Virginia. Because the committee left no minutes, there is some uncertainty about how the drafting process proceeded -- accounts written many years later by Jefferson and Adams, although frequently cited, are contradictory and not entirely reliable.
Certainly the committee, after discussing the general outline that the document should follow, decided that Jefferson would write the first draft. With Congress 's busy schedule, Jefferson had limited time to write the draft over the ensuing 17 days. He then consulted with the others on the committee, who reviewed the draft and made extensive changes. Jefferson then produced another copy incorporating these alterations.
Among the changes was the simplification of the phrase Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness, which Jefferson had phrased "preservation of life, & liberty, & the pursuit of happiness ''. This was a return to wording closer to John Locke 's original description of private property as a natural right, in the phrase "life, liberty, and estate ''.
On June 28, 1776, the committee presented this copy to the "Committee of the Whole '' Congress, which was commemorated by one of the most famous paintings in US history (shown). The title of the document was "A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled. ''
Although not officially noted, the estimated time was 18: 26 LMT (6: 26pm local) for the recording of this historic vote. The Congress then heard the report of the Committee of the Whole and declared the sovereign status of the United Colonies the following day, during the afternoon of July 2. The Committee of the Whole then turned to the Declaration, and it was given a second reading before adjournment.
On Wednesday, July 3, the Committee of the Whole gave the Declaration a third reading and commenced scrutiny of the precise wording of the proposed text. Two passages in the Committee of Five 's draft were rejected by the Committee of the Whole. One was a critical reference to the English people and the other was a denunciation of the slave trade and of slavery itself. The text of the Declaration was otherwise accepted without any other major changes.
Jefferson wrote in his autobiography, of the two deleted passages:
As John Adams recalled many years later, this work of editing the proposed text was largely completed by the time of adjournment on July 3. However, the text 's formal adoption was deferred until the following morning, when the Congress voted its agreement during the late morning of July 4.
The draft document as adopted was then referred back to the Committee of Five in order to prepare a "fair copy, '' this being the redrafted - as - corrected document prepared for delivery to the broadside printer, John Dunlap. And so the Committee of Five convened in the early evening of July 4 to complete its task.
Historians have had no documentary means by which to determine the identity of the authenticating party. It is unclear whether the Declaration was authenticated by the Committee of Five 's signature or the Committee submitted the fair copy to President Hancock for his authenticating signature, or the authentication awaited President John Hancock 's signature on the printer 's finished proof - copy of what became known as the Dunlap broadside Either way, upon the July 5 release of the Dunlap broadside of the Declaration, the Committee of Five 's work was done.
Upon the July 5 release of the Dunlap broadside, the public could read who had signed the Declaration. Just one signature as attested by Secretary Charles Thomson. Memories of the participants proved to be very short on this particular historic moment. Not three decades had elapsed by which time the prominent members of the Committee of Five could no longer recollect in detail what actually took place, and by their active participation, on July 4 and 5 of 1776. And so during these early decades was born the myth of a one grand ceremonial general signing on July 4, by all the delegates to Congress. The myth continues to have a very long life.
President of Pennsylvania (1785 -- 1788), Ambassador to France (1779 -- 1785)
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who produced tupac movie all eyez on me | All Eyez on Me (film) - Wikipedia
All Eyez on Me is a 2017 American biographical drama film about hip - hop artist Tupac Shakur, directed by Benny Boom and written by Jeremy Haft, Eddie Gonzalez and Steven Bagatourian. Titled after Shakur 's 1996 fourth studio album of the same name, the film stars Demetrius Shipp Jr. as Shakur with Kat Graham, Lauren Cohan, Hill Harper and Danai Gurira in supporting roles.
Principal photography began in mid-December 2015 in Atlanta, Georgia. All Eyez on Me premiered on June 14, 2017, in Los Angeles and was released in the United States on June 16, 2017, on what would have been Shakur 's 46th birthday. The film received negative reviews from critics but a positive response from audiences, and grossed $54 million worldwide.
At the Clinton Correctional Facility in 1995, a documentary filmmaker shows up with his crew and equipment to sit down with Tupac Shakur.
In 1971, Tupac 's mother, Afeni Shakur, is released from prison along with her fellow Black Panther Party following her acquittal of several charges. She is pregnant with Tupac and voices her complaints to a reporter over the unfair treatment of black individuals in the country from not only society, but the system sworn to protect its citizens.
From an early age, Tupac is taught about black pride, and is witness to multiple injustices in his neighborhood. His stepfather, Mutulu, is a revolutionary who has influenced Afeni, who in turn influences her son and Tupac 's sister Set. Mutulu is wanted by the FBI for a robbery of an armored truck, and the murder of two officers and a guard. FBI agents follow Afeni and her children. Mutulu is eventually caught during a raid when cops burst into the Shakurs ' apartment, with cops violently pinning Tupac and his sister to the ground.
As Tupac gets older, he distances himself more and more from his mother 's ideals and behavior. He attends the Baltimore School for the Arts, where he becomes close friends with Jada Pinkett.
Tupac 's music career begins when he joins Digital Underground for their hit "Same Song ''. Under his manager, Leila Steinberg, he begins to have hip - hop albums produced. Although his music becomes popular, he gets into hot water with record producers for songs like "Brenda 's Got a Baby '', which is about a young girl who is raped by her cousin, has a baby on the bathroom floor, turns to prostitution and selling drugs for money, and how she is ultimately murdered on the streets. Tupac argues that the song comes from real stories in the streets of the impoverished and how nobody is willing to help people like the subject of the song.
Tupac also begins acting in movies such as Juice, as well as collaborating with other artists like Biggie Smalls, both performing to excited crowds at venues. He generates as much praise as he does controversy in what he does outside of music, such as donating money to poor black citizens.
Outside of his performances, Tupac has run - ins with officers when he is caught jaywalking, and is beaten by two officers. On another occasion, he and one of his friends catch two white men assaulting a black man. When they try to intervene, one man pulls a gun on Tupac. He goes back to his limo and gets his own gun. It soon reveals that the two men were off - duty cops, and Tupac is arrested for shooting at them.
Tupac becomes involved with a dealer named Nigel, and they do business together in music. When things go awry, Tupac and Nigel have a quarrel. Nigel 's guys want to retaliate against Tupac, but Nigel says that nobody touches Tupac unless he says so. The other guys appear to go against Nigel 's orders.
In 1993, Tupac meets a young woman named Briana, and she is with Tupac along with other men in a hotel room one night. Briana barges into his room hours later crying and screaming, indicating that the other men raped her. Tupac is later on trial for rape and harassment charges.
On November 30, 1994, Tupac is attacked by three men in the lobby of Quad Recording Studios. Tupac is shot five times before the men flee. Biggie and other guys in Tupac 's entourage rush to him before he is taken to the hospital. When Biggie tries to visit Tupac, he is turned down for not being a family member. Tupac checks himself out of the hospital early against doctors ' orders.
The following day, Tupac 's sentence is declared in his trial. He is found not guilty of rape, but is found guilty of illegal touching, and is thus sentenced to eighteen months in prison.
While in prison, Tupac hears Biggie 's song "Who Shot Ya? '', and interprets it as a diss track bragging about Biggie 's alleged involvement in his shooting. Tupac encounters Mutulu in there, who encourages him to work after he gets out. Mutulu later murders another inmate by stabbing him to death. Tupac is also assaulted by two guards while in prison.
Following his release, Tupac signs to Death Row Records under Suge Knight, who also collaborates with other artists, like Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg. Tupac and Dre work on the hit song "California Love ''. He releases the track "Hit Em Up '' as a response to "Who Shot Ya? '' in which Tupac brags about supposedly having an affair with Biggie 's wife Faith Evans.
In Tupac 's final months, he decides to part ways with Death Row Records to start his own company to produce more music, movies, and TV shows. Suge reminds Tupac that he is still in debt from other business dealings. Later, however, Suge offers Tupac a chance to become partners, with Suge taking over the West Coast part of Death Row, and Tupac taking over the East Coast. Tupac agrees to it.
On September 7, 1996, Tupac, Suge, and the rest of their group are leaving the Mike Tyson vs. Bruce Seldon boxing match at the MGM Grand Las Vegas. One of the Death Row guys alerts Tupac and Suge to a gang member that jumped him and stole his chain. Tupac and company confront the gang member, and Tupac attacks him, knocking him to the ground. Suge and his guys start assaulting the man as Tupac is pulled off of him. Tupac stops by his hotel to change his clothes. He tells Kidada about the situation. She tries to go with him, but Tupac assures her he will only be gone for an hour.
Tupac and Suge drive from the hotel with the rest of his guys following them. At the intersection of Flamingo Road and Koval Lane, a Cadillac pulls alongside Tupac 's BMW and Tupac is shot multiple times before the Cadillac flees the scene.
The ending text states that six days later, Tupac was pronounced dead. To this day, his murder remains unsolved. By the age of 25, he released 15 albums, seven posthumous albums, 713 songs, and seven movies.
On February 10, 2011, it was announced that Morgan Creek Productions had developed and would finance and produce the rap legend Tupac Amaru Shakur 's biopic titled Tupac, which would follow his life from growing up to his death. Antoine Fuqua was attached as the director of the film, and the script was from Steven Bagatourian, Stephen J. Rivele, and Christopher Wilkinson. James G. Robinson and David C. Robinson would produce the film along with Program Pictures ' L.T. Hutton, and Tupac 's mother Afeni Shakur as executive producer, with production scheduled to begin that summer. On September 19, 2013, Emmett / Furla / Oasis Films came on board to co-finance and co-produce the $45 million budgeted film along with Morgan Creek. Ed Gonzalez and Jeremy Haft were writing the latest draft of the film. On February 12, 2014, John Singleton again signed on to rewrite, direct and produce the film. On April 16, 2014, Open Road Films acquired the United States distribution rights to the film. Gonzalez, Haft, and Singleton wrote the latest draft of the script for the film, about Tupac 's life from his growing up in East Harlem to becoming a legendary songwriter and hip - hop artist, to his death in Las Vegas at the age of 25. On April 7, 2015, it was revealed that Singleton exited the film due to some major creative differences, while Carl Franklin was being eyed to hold the direction duties. On October 28, 2015, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Emmett / Furla / Oasis had sued Morgan Creek over $10 million for breaking the companies co-production agreement signed in September 2013. In the agreement, terms were not to exceed the production budget above $30 million, mutual approval for the lead actor 's selection, filming schedule, and distribution and sales agreements. Randall Emmett and George Furla also claimed that they all first signed a distribution deal with Open Road, which Morgan Creek rejected, and then Morgan Creek inked a new deal with Open Road without mutual approval.
On November 30, 2015, it was reported that music director Benny Boom would be directing the film now replacing Franklin. Early - December 2015, the film 's title was confirmed to be All Eyez On Me On December 24, 2015, newcomer Demetrius Shipp, Jr. was cast in the film to play the role of Tupac. Jamal Woolard also joined the film to play the role of The Notorious B.I.G., Tupac 's former friend turned rival, reprising the role Woolard portrayed in the 2009 film Notorious. On January 11, 2016, Danai Gurira was added to the film 's cast to play Tupac 's mother Afeni Shakur, a political activist and member of the Black Panthers. Following Gurira 's casting, Variety reported on the next day that Kat Graham had signed on to play Jada Pinkett, a friend of Tupac from the Baltimore School for the Arts. It was revealed later that Dominic L. Santana had been cast as record producer Suge Knight.
On January 13, Jamie Hector signed on to star as Mutulu Shakur, Tupac 's stepfather. On January 15, Lauren Cohan joined the film 's cast to play the role of Leila Steinberg, a key figure in Tupac 's life as his mentor. Money B would appear in the film as himself, Tupac 's coworker at Digital Underground, Clifton Powell as Floyd, inmate at Clinton Correctional Facility, and Johnell Young as a Tupac 's close friend, Ray Luv. On January 19, TheWrap confirmed that Grace Gibson was cast in the film to play Biggie Smalls ' wife, Faith Evans, who was reportedly in an adulterous affair with Shakur. On January 22, 2016, Keith Robinson was cast as Atron Gregory, TNT Records founder who first helped Tupac becoming a dancer and then a solo artist. Annie Ilonzeh was added to the cast in February 2016 to play the role of Kidada Jones, engaged to Tupac at the time of his death.
Principal photography on the film began in mid-December 2015 in Atlanta, Georgia. Filming wrapped on April 12, 2016, in Las Vegas, Nevada.
On June 16, 2016, on what would have been Shakur 's 45th birthday, a teaser trailer for the film was released. On September 13, 2016, the 20th anniversary of Shakur 's death, a second teaser trailer was released. It was announced that the film will be released on June 16, 2017. On February 10, 2017, a third teaser trailer was released, confirming Summit, Morgan Creek, Program Pictures, and Codeblack Films as producers and distributors. On April 6, 2017, a fourth trailer was released.
No official soundtrack album was released to accompany the movie 's release.
All Eyez on Me grossed $44.8 million in the United States and Canada and $10 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $54.8 million, against a production budget of $40 million.
In North America, All Eyez on Me was released on June 16, 2017, alongside Rough Night, 47 Meters Down and Cars 3, and was originally projected to gross $17 -- 20 million from 2,471 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $12.8 million on Friday (including $3.1 million from Thursday night previews), increasing weekend estimates to $31 million. It ended up debuting to $26.4 million, finishing 3rd at the box office behind Cars 3 ($53.7 million) and Wonder Woman ($41.3 million). Deadline.com attributed the film 's success to the release corresponding with Tupac 's birthday, as well as audience interest on the subject matter following the success of Straight Outta Compton in 2015.
Despite its surprising opening weekend success, the film experienced a historic drop in its second weekend, dropping 78 % to $5.8 million, the 16th largest such decline in history. In its third weekend the film was pulled from 1,213 theaters and dropped another 68.6 % to $1.8 million, finishing 11th at the box office.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 17 % based on 77 reviews, with an average rating of 4.3 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Despite Demetrius Shipp Jr. 's fine lead performance, All Eyez on Me is mostly a surface - skimming, by - the - numbers biopic of a larger - than - life icon. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score of 38 out of 100, based on 20 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
Glenn Kenny of The New York Times gave the film a negative review, saying: "Almost all the dialogue is that flat - footed. It 's a stark contrast to the almost always vivid power of Shakur 's own words, which could be profoundly empathetic and pettily profane. '' Owen Gleiberman of Variety wrote: "Comprehensive but sketchy, richly atmospheric but often under - dramatized, it is not, in the end, a very good movie (there are a few scenes, like Tupac 's initial meeting with Ted Field of Interscope Records, that are embarrassingly bad). Yet it 's highly worth seeing because in its volatility and hunger, and the desperation of its violence, it captures something about the space in which Tupac Shakur lived: a place that wanted to be all about pride and power, but was really about flying over the abyss. ''
On her Twitter account, Jada Pinkett Smith stated that the film contained many inaccuracies about her relationship with Tupac and why he left for Los Angeles. Smith claimed that Tupac never read the poem he read to her character in the film and that she had no knowledge that it even existed until it was published in his book. She also stated that she never attended one of Tupac 's shows at his request and that there was no backstage argument. She did, however, praise the performances of Shipp and Graham. Both Sean Combs and Suge Knight gave blessings to the film, praising their respective portrayals.
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taylor swift look what you made me do views | Look What You Made Me Do - wikipedia
"Look What You Made Me Do '' is a song recorded by American singer - songwriter Taylor Swift, released on August 24, 2017 by Big Machine Records as the lead single from her sixth studio album Reputation (2017). Swift wrote the song with her producer Jack Antonoff. "Look What You Made Me Do '' is an electroclash and pop song, with lyrics about various issues that built Swift 's reputation. Right Said Fred band members Fred Fairbrass, Richard Fairbrass, and Rob Manzoli are also credited as songwriters, as it interpolates the melody of their song "I 'm Too Sexy '' (1991).
The song broke a string of records, including the record for the most plays in a single day on Spotify. Commercially, "Look What You Made Me Do '' has topped the charts in Australia, Canada, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Greece, Ireland, Israel, Japan, Lebanon, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Slovakia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It has also received Platinum certifications in Australia, Canada, Italy, Sweden and the United States. It also received Diamond certification in Brazil.
The song received a mixed response from music critics. Its music video was directed by Joseph Kahn and upon its release on YouTube, it attained the most views in its first 24 hours of release, more than any other music video on the site, later surpassed by the K - pop band BTS with "Idol '' in August 2018.
On August 23, 2017, Swift announced that the first single from her upcoming sixth album, titled Reputation, would come out the following night. The song was released to streaming services on August 24, and earned over eight million streams within twenty - four hours of its Spotify release, breaking the record for the highest first - day streaming for a single track. The record was surpassed in 2018 by Drake 's "God 's Plan ''. "Look What You Made Me Do '' was then released the next day onto iTunes for digital download through Big Machine Records and onto Italian contemporary hit radio before a United Kingdom radio release on August 26, 2017. It impacted American contemporary hit radio three days afterwards. A CD single release followed in Germany on October 27, 2017.
A lyric video heavily based on the Saul Bass imagery used in the film Vertigo was released through Swift 's official Vevo account on August 25, 2017. The video was produced by Swift and Joseph Kahn. It gained more than 19 million views during its first 24 hours on YouTube, surpassing "Something Just like This '' by The Chainsmokers and Coldplay as the most viewed lyric video within that time period. As of October 2018, the lyric video on YouTube has amassed over 100 million views.
"Look What You Made Me Do '' runs for 3 minutes and 31 seconds. Music critics have described the track as a hybrid of electroclash and pop, as well as a dance - pop and an electro - pop song. It emphasizes the blame that is placed on an enemy, in particular the line "I 've got a list of names and yours is in red, underlined ''. The middle eight of the song features Swift saying, "I 'm sorry, the old Taylor ca n't come to the phone right now / Why? / Oh, ' cause she 's dead! '' "Look What You Made Me Do '' is performed in the key of A minor with a tempo of 128 beats per minute. Swift 's vocals span from G to F. Brittany Spanos of Rolling Stone noted a "nightmarish aesthetic '' present in the song, and believed it to be a continuation of the "antagonistic persona '' from "Bad Blood ''. Richard Fairbrass, Fred Fairbrass and Rob Manzoli, the members of the British dance - pop group Right Said Fred, are credited as songwriters because the song interpolates the melody of their song "I 'm Too Sexy ''. According to Fred Fairbrass, he and his brother were contacted one week before the release of "Look What You Made Me Do '' and were asked whether a "big, contemporary female artist who has n't released anything for a while '' -- whose identity they were not told -- would be able to use a portion of their song for her latest single. Although the brothers agreed to a deal, they did not officially find out that the artist in question was Swift until the morning after the song was released, but had deduced that it was her based on the description they were given. Both of the Fairbrass brothers said that they enjoyed "Look What You Made Me Do ''; Fred Fairbrass told Rolling Stone, "I like the cynical aspect of the lyric, because ' I 'm Too Sexy ' is a cynical song, and I think she channeled that quite well. '' A representative for Swift confirmed that the song interpolated the melody from "I 'm Too Sexy '', but did not include sampled audio from the earlier song.
"Look What You Made Me Do '' received mixed reviews from critics. USA Today said that the polarizing reaction to the song illustrated Swift 's position as a "ubiquitous cultural force ''. The Telegraph Randy Lewis praised the song, deeming Swift and Antonoff 's work as "blow (ing) past the production clichés of clap tracks and hiccuped syllabic hooks that have proliferated across Top 40 fare in recent years with boldly inventive textures and fresh melodic, rhythmic and sonic accents ''. He also added how the track musically and sonically shifted alongside the lyrics. Sarah Carson of the Los Angeles Times wrote a positive review of the song, saying: "The reverberating crescendo builds and ever more delicious is the wickedness of Swift 's menacing protagonist '', praising Swift for her successful embrace of the villain character the media has portrayed her as previous to the song 's release. Variety 's Chris Willman also praised Swift 's embrace of a darker - styled pop music and the stylistic conflict between the song 's pre-chorus and chorus. Mark Harris, in New York magazine 's pop culture blog, thought of Swift 's song as a pop art anthem for the Trump era in how she reappropriates her public feuds as empowering badges of honor without acknowledging her own responsibility or blame.
However, the single received more criticism than her previous lead singles. Maura Johnston of The Guardian wrote a negative review of the song, faulting the "sloppy '' lyrics and blaming Swift for not giving a clear context in the lyrics. Lindsay Zolad of The Ringer said "Unleashed on a deeply confused public late Thursday night, the song is a strange collage of retro reference points: mid-aughts Gossip Girl placement pop, the soundtrack to Disney 's live - action Maleficent, and -- yes, really -- Right Said Fred 's I 'm Too Sexy, except devoid of the self - effacing humor and wit. Yes, the new Taylor Swift song just made me compliment Right Said Fred. '' Brittany Spanos of Rolling Stone believed that the song marked a continuation of the feud between Swift and rapper Kanye West; the latter had previously name - dropped Swift in his song "Famous '' by using the line, "I feel like me and Taylor might still have sex / Why? / I made that bitch famous ''. The single was noted as being a darker, angrier work than what Swift had done before. Hugh McIntye of Forbes was critical of the change in style, saying that it "did n't sound like (Swift) '' and that it "may have some kinks to work out ''. Meaghan Garvey from Pitchfork referred to it in a review as "a hardcore self - own '' track.
In the United States, "Look What You Made Me Do '' debuted at number seventy - seven on the Billboard Hot 100, powered by its first three days of airplay. It also sold slightly under 200,000 digital copies within its first day of sales in the country, where it became the fastest selling download since Ed Sheeran 's "Shape of You ''. One week later, the song ascended from No. 77 to No. 1 on the Hot 100 after its first full week of tracking, becoming the fifth largest rise to the top position and Swift 's fifth number - one single in the United States. It ended the 16 - week reign of Despacito. It also topped the nation 's Streaming Songs chart with 84.4 million streams, becoming its most streamed song within a week by a female artist and second overall behind the 103 million that Baauer 's "Harlem Shake '' gained in 2013. The track also had more weekly streams in the US than any other song in 2017. The song stayed atop the charts for three consecutive weeks, tying with American rapper Cardi B 's "Bodak Yellow '' as the longest running female at the number one spot on the charts in 2017. With 353,000 copies sold in its first week, "Look What You Made Me Do '' opened atop the US Digital Songs chart and had the country 's biggest sales opening since Justin Timberlake 's "Ca n't Stop the Feeling! '' in 2016 as well as the best weekly sales for a song by a female artist since Adele 's "Hello '' in 2015. The track also became the country 's first number - one song with a female artist since Halsey was featured on "Closer '' by The Chainsmokers and the first song with a female lead artist since Sia 's "Cheap Thrills '' with Sean Paul (both in 2016). It additionally was the first solo song by a female to top the US charts since Adele 's "Hello ''. It remained atop the Hot 100 and Streaming Songs charts for a second week with 114,000 copies sold and 61.2 million streams, though descended to number two on the Digital Songs chart when another Reputation track titled "... Ready for It? '' debuted at number one with 135,000 digital copies sold and opened at number four on the Hot 100. As a result, Swift became the first artist to have two tracks sell over 100,000 digital copies in the nation within a week since Sheeran with "Shape of You '' and "Castle on the Hill ''. It also became the first time a female had two songs within the top five of the Hot 100 since 2015 when Swift 's previous tracks "Blank Space '' and "Shake It Off '' respectively were at numbers four and five on the chart. The single also topped the Mainstream Top 40 chart, becoming Swift 's eighth single to do so. However, a week after reaching number one on the Mainstream Top 40, it moved to number 7, being the largest fall from the top in the chart 's history; and from number 5 to number 20 on the all - format Radio Songs chart, the biggest drop from the top five in that chart 's 27 - year history.
In the United Kingdom, "Look What You Made Me Do '' sold 20,000 copies and was streamed 2.4 million times in less than a week. The song debuted at the top the UK Singles Chart on September 1, 2017 -- for the week ending date September 7, 2017 -- with opening sales of 30,000 copies and 5.3 million streams within the week and becoming Swift 's first chart - topping song in Britain. After two weeks at the top spot, it was displaced by Sam Smith 's "Too Good at Goodbyes ''.
"Look What You Made Me Do '' also debuted at number one in the Republic of Ireland on September 1, 2017 and became Swift 's first song to top the Irish Singles Chart. In doing so, it surpassed the number three peaks of her singles "Love Story '' (in 2009) and "Shake It Off '' (in 2014).
"Look What You Made Me Do '' opened at number one in Australia on September 2, 2017, becoming her fifth track to top the ARIA Charts. It spent another week at the nation 's summit before "Too Good at Goodbyes '' took the top position there as well. The song has been certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of 70,000 units. After debuting at number one on the Canadian Hot 100, "Look What You Made Me Do '' was also certified Platinum by Music Canada for shipments of 80,000 units on September 14, 2017.
In New Zealand, "Look What You Made Me Do '' entered at the number one spot on September 1, 2017, becoming Swift 's fourth chart - topping single there.
In the Philippines, "Look What You Made Me Do '' debuted at number 7 spot on the Philippine Hot 100 on its first week. A week later, it soared to the number 1 spot, ending the 10 - week reign of "Despacito '' by Luis Fonsi & Daddy Yankee featuring Justin Bieber. It descended to the runner - up position the following week, as the latter song reclaimed the top spot for an 11th week.
Preparation for the music video began in January 2017, while the shooting took place in May. The dance was choreographed by Tyce Diorio, who had worked with Swift on "Shake It Off '' before. Swift 's make - up as a zombie was done by Bill Corso. Post-production of the video lasted until the morning of its release. A 20 - second music video teaser was released on Good Morning America on August 25.
The song 's music video premiered on August 27, 2017 at the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards. The video broke the record for most - watched video within 24 hours by achieving 43.2 million views on YouTube in its first day. It topped the 27.7 million Vevo views Adele 's "Hello '' attracted in that timeframe, as well as the 36 million YouTube views of Psy 's "Gentleman '' video. It was viewed at an average 30,000 times per minute in its first 24 hours, with views reaching over 3 million views per hour. As of October 2018, it has over 970 million views, making it the 86th most - viewed Vevo video of all time and has reached 7.9 million likes on YouTube, making it the 24th most - liked YouTube video of all time.
It was also reported that the diamonds used in a scene were authentic. The diamonds, loaned from celebrity jeweler Neil Lane, were said to be worth over $10 million, hence triggering tight security measures. The video was named the fifth best music video by Rolling Stone and the sixth best music video by Billboard.
Swift has said that part of the premise of the video is rooted in the idea that, "If everything you write about me was true, this is how ridiculous it would look. '' It is a satirical send - up of media theories about her true intentions that have little validity. The video begins with a zombie Swift crawling out of a grave, where the headstone reads "Here Lies Taylor Swift 's reputation '', and digging another grave for her Met Gala 2014 self. The next scene shows Swift in a bathtub filled with diamonds. She is then seen seated on a throne while snakes surround her and serve tea. Swift later crashes her golden Bugatti Veyron on a post and sings the song 's chorus holding a Grammy as the paparazzi take photos. She is also seen swinging inside a cage, robbing a streaming company in a cat mask, and leading a motorcycle gang. Afterwards, she gathers a group of women at "Squad U '' and dances with a group of men in another room. At the video 's climax, Swift is seen standing in a T - shaped throne while clones of herself (from her past music videos), struggle and fight against each other trying to reach her. At the end of the video, the clones bicker with one another, describing each other as "so fake '' and "playing the victim '', ending with 2009 VMA Taylor saying "I would very much like to be excluded from this narrative '' and the other Taylors yell at her to "shut up! '' in unison, while the version of Swift in the background watches in silence.
The video contains numerous hidden meanings and references. In the opening scene, there is a subtle "Nils Sjöberg '' tombstone shown when Swift is digging up a grave, referencing the pseudonym she used for a songwriting credit on Calvin Harris ' 2016 single "This Is What You Came For ''. Similarly, Swift -- masked as a cadaveric version of herself in the "Out of the Woods '' music video -- was shown digging a grave for herself in a 2014 Met Gala gown, an event that characterized her first public appearance with short hair. A single dollar bill in the bathtub full of diamonds that she bathes in was also speculated to symbolize the dollar she was awarded for winning a sexual assault trial earlier in 2017. Interpretations for the bathtub scene were contrasting. Some believe that it is a response to media statements teasing that she "cries in a marble bathtub surrounded by pearls. '' Others speculate that the bathtub scene is a jibe at Kim Kardashian, wife of Swift 's long - time feuding partner, Kanye West. Some viewers took the scene as a reference to Kardashian 's 2016 robbery, in which she was robbed jewelry worth over $10 million while held at gunpoint at a hotel in Paris, France. Others argued the claim was unfounded, as Kardashian was not in a bathtub during the robbery.
In a separate scene, Swift is shown sitting atop a golden throne, where a carving of a phrase "Et tu, Brute? '' could be seen on the armrest, a reference to Shakespeare 's drama Julius Caesar. Swift 's infamous title as a "snake '' during her hiatus was also represented when a snake slithers onto the throne to serve Swift some tea. When Swift 's car crashes, some speculated that it may be a jab at Katy Perry, as Swift 's hairdo is similar to Perry 's in the scene and the car crash resembles one in Perry 's music video for "Unconditionally '' (2013). The sports car is also reminiscent of a car in Perry 's "Waking Up in Vegas '' (2009) video, which Kahn also directed. However, given the theme of making fun of the media, it is likely making fun of the media theory that Swift 's real fall - out with Perry was simply for publicity and album material. Swift is mocking the idea that she would damage her friendships for the sake of her business, with the car crash being a metaphor for the fall out between her and Perry and her holding the Grammy Award after the crash within sight of the photographers ' cameras referring to the song inspired by their feud winning awards, which the media claimed was Swift 's ulterior motive. Swift 's withdrawal of her entire music catalog from streaming services and the media theory that she was truly doing this to start her own streaming company were hinted when Swift and her crew robbed a streaming company in the video.
Swift gathering at "Squad U '' was also said to be a reply to the media dubbing her close "squad '' friends as artificial. During the second chorus, Swift can be seen with eight men, each of which revealed an "I Heart TS '' crop top after unbuttoning a jacket on her commands. This scene is mocking the idea that Swift forced her then - boyfriend Tom Hiddleston to wear an "I Heart TS '' tank top when they were a couple. Swift was also seen standing on a pile of clones of herself from the past, reiterating the idea that she is leaving her past self behind and mocking the idea that she was not genuine during these phases of her life. The shirt that her "You Belong with Me '' clone wears is slightly different from the one in the original music video, with her close friends ' names scribbled on it this time.
In June 2016, discussing the relationship between her and Kanye West after West 's song "Famous '' (2016) was released, Swift wrote on Instagram, "I would very much like to be excluded from this narrative. '' The same line is spoken by the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards Taylor clone at the end of the video. She is wearing the same outfit Swift had worn during the actual 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, when West interrupted her award - winning speech for Best Female Video.
Swift performed "Look What You Made Me Do '' live for the first time as part of the KIIS - FM 's Jingle Ball 2017 on December 1, 2017 in Inglewood, California. Two days later, Swift returned onstage to perform the song again as part of 99.7 Now! 's Poptopia in San Jose, California with the same setlist. The next week Swift sang the song on three other occasions; the B96 Chicago and Pepsi Jingle Bash 2017 in Chicago, the Z100 Jingle Ball 2017 in New York City and Jingle Bell Ball 2017 in London.
The song is also a regular part of her setlist for the Reputation Stadium Tour, with a tilted throne and golden snakes; while there are snakes on the high screen in the back during the part, "I do n't trust nobody and nobody trust me, I 'll be the actress starring in your bad dreams '', a big cobra floating appears on stage with the line from the bridge announcing the death of the "Old Taylor '' spoken by comedian Tiffany Haddish.
ABC used the song in a promotional video for its Shonda Rhimes ' Thursday line - up an hour after its release. Sister network ESPN used it in its college football telecast advertisements for the season opening game between Alabama and Florida State, which was aired on ABC on September 2 along with her other song "... Ready for It? ''. In the South Park episode "Moss Piglets '' the water - bears in Timmy and Jimmy 's experiment for the science fair dance to the song in response to Swift 's singing.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who has been on the cover of rolling stone the most | List of people on the United States cover of Rolling Stone - wikipedia
The United States cover of Rolling Stone magazine has featured various celebrities. Many are musicians, but politicians, actors, actresses, comedians, sports figures, or fictional characters are also sometimes included. The Beatles, as individuals or as the band, have appeared over 30 times. Madonna has appeared on more covers than any other female, either alone or in a "collage '' cover.
This is a portal to a series of articles, separated by decades, listing the people who have appeared on issue covers of Rolling Stone magazine since it premiered in 1967.
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who is the top ranked tennis player in the world | List of ATP number 1 ranked Singles Tennis players - wikipedia
The ATP Rankings are the Association of Tennis Professionals ' (ATP) merit - based method for determining the rankings in men 's tennis. The top - ranked player is the player who, over the previous 52 weeks, has garnered the most ATP ranking points. Points are awarded based on how far a player advances in tournaments and the category of those tournaments. The ATP has used a computerized system for determining the rankings since 23 August 1973. Starting in 1979, an updated rankings list is released at the beginning of each week.
Since 1973, 26 men have been ranked number 1 by the ATP, of which 17 have been year - end number 1. The current world number one is Rafael Nadal.
Since the introduction of the ATP rankings the method used to calculate a player 's ranking points has changed several times. As of 2011, the rankings are calculated by totaling the points a player wins in his best eighteen tournaments, subject to certain restrictions. For top players the counting tournaments are the four Grand Slam tournaments, the eight mandatory ATP World Tour Masters 1000 tournaments, the player 's best four eligible ATP World Tour 500 series tournaments (the non-mandatory ATP Masters 1000 event in Monte Carlo may be substituted for one of these), and his best two results from ATP World Tour 250 series. Lower - ranked players who are not eligible for some or all of the top tournaments may include additional ATP 500 and ATP 250 events, and also ATP Challenger Series, and Futures Series tournaments. The ranking points of players who qualify for the year - end ATP World Tour Finals also include any points gained at that tournament, increasing their counting tournament total to nineteen.
Roger Federer holds the records for both the most total weeks at No. 1 (302) and most consecutive weeks at No. 1 (237). Pete Sampras holds the record for the most year - end No. 1 (six, all consecutive). Patrick Rafter spent the fewest weeks at No. 1 (one week).
Lleyton Hewitt is both the youngest world No. 1 (20 years, 268 days) and youngest year - end No. 1, while Ivan Lendl is the oldest year - end No. 1 (29 years, 299 days). Andre Agassi is the oldest No. 1 (33 years, 131 days).
Only four players have regained the year end No. 1 ranking after having lost it - Lendl in 1989, Federer in 2009, Nadal in 2010, and Djokovic in 2014. Only one player regained the year end No. 1 ranking a second time, Nadal in 2013.
Rafael Nadal became the ATP player with the longest time span between first and most recent dates at world No. 1 in the history of the ATP Tour. He did so on August 21, 2017 9 years after first becoming No. 1 on August 18, 2008.
Two players, Ivan Lendl and Marcelo Ríos, have reached No. 1 without previously having won a Grand Slam tournament. Lendl reached No. 1 on February 21, 1983, but did not win his first Grand Slam title until the 1984 French Open. Rios reached No. 1 on March 30, 1998 and is the only No. 1 player who never won a Grand Slam singles title.
Since 1973 when the ATP ranking started, there have been twelve years when one player held the top spot for the entire year. In contrast, 1999 had the most No. 1 players of any year since the rankings started. There were five players who were No. 1 sometime during that year - Sampras, Carlos Moya, Yevgeny Kafelnikov, Agassi and Rafter. John McEnroe held the No. 1 ranking on a record 14 different occasions and Pete Sampras was the only other player to hold it on 10 or more occasions with 11 different stints.
On 11 September 2017, Rafa Nadal and Garbiñe Muguruza made Spain the first country since the United States 14 years ago to simultaneously top both the ATP and the WTA rankings, with Muguruza making her debut in the No. 1 spot. The first such pair were Andre Agassi and Serena Williams, 28 April to 11 May 2003.
The table on the left shows the total number of weeks that each player has been ranked No. 1 in their career by the ATP.
The table on the right shows the number of consecutive weeks that each indicated player has been ranked No. 1 by the ATP.
as of September 25, 2017
The ATP year - end No. 1 ranked player is determined as the player at the head of the ATP rankings following the completion of the final tournament of the calendar year, usually in November or December. Pete Sampras holds the record of six year - end No. 1 rankings, which were in consecutive years from 1993 through 1998.
Only 4 players, Ivan Lendl, Roger Federer, Novak Djokovic, and Rafael Nadal, have ever held, lost, and regained the year - end No. 1 ranking. Lendl held it in 1987, lost it in 1988, and regained it in 1989, while Federer held it in 2007, lost it in 2008, and regained it in 2009, and Djokovic held it in 2012, lost it in 2013, and regained it in 2014. Only Nadal has done it twice, he held it in 2008, lost it in 2009, regained it in 2010, lost it in 2011, and regained it again in 2013.
Six players have stayed at ATP No. 1 in the rankings every week of a calendar year. Federer is the only player to have been ranked No. 1 every week for three consecutive calendar years.
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who plays nikki's mom on switched at birth | List of switched at birth characters - wikipedia
Switched at Birth is an American television drama series centering on Bay Kennish and Daphne Vasquez, who at the age of 15 learn that they were switched at birth. The wealthy Kennish family must struggle with the fact that their biological daughter is deaf from having meningitis as a child and must accept the character of working - class, recovering alcoholic Regina Vasquez, Daphne 's single "mother. '' Bay and Daphne attempt to find out how their lives would have been if they had n't been switched. The one - hour - long series premiered on June 6, 2011.
Played by Vanessa Marano, Bay Madeline Kennish - Vasquez (born Daphne Paloma Vasquez) is the rebellious legal daughter of John and Kathryn Kennish; and biological daughter of Regina Vasquez and Angelo Sorrento. Bay is often bratty, which tends to lead to most of the conflicts within the series, especially with her boyfriends and Daphne. She is shown to be a talented graffiti artist. In the pilot episode, Bay, upon learning that she does not share the same blood type as either of her parents, visits a geneticist with her parents. It is then that they are informed that there was a mix up with two babies at the hospital, and that John and Kathryn are not her biological parents. The discovery of the switch leads Bay to question her entire upbringing, resulting in her breaking up with her boyfriend, Liam and getting arrested for attempting to buy beer with a fake ID.
She becomes attracted to Ty, who is an old friend of Daphne, and briefly dates him in the first season before he leaves for the army. They continue their relationship in the second season when he returns. The relationship ends again when Ty pretends to have cheated on Bay then soon after leaves for the army again. Upon being caught sneaking around with Ty, her parents invite him around for dinner, during which, Ty accidentally lets slip that he has enlisted in the army. On his last night in town, the two almost sleep together, but Bay refuses and departs in tears.
Curious about her biological father, Bay sets out to search for him with help from Emmett. They are eventually reunited. She grows closer with her biological mother and father, even moving in with the two of them at one point. Bay is the first to find out that Angelo got another woman pregnant and now has another daughter as a result of a one - night stand.
After Ty 's departure, Bay begins a relationship with Daphne 's deaf best friend, Emmett, after he assists her in her search for Angelo. The two have a turbulent relationship due to their differences, but remain together, even after experiencing a number of setbacks including Bay 's past relationship with Ty, Emmett 's disapproving mother and the language barrier between them. Toward the end of the first season, Bay breaks up with Emmett after she finds out at prom that he slept with Simone her old friend. Following her break up with Emmett, Bay comes home from her summer trip with a new boyfriend. However, things do not last long between them after it becomes clear that Bay is still not over Emmett. Her feelings become more complicated when she sees a mural Emmett painted depicting their relationship, leading to her breaking it off with Alex.
After her initial break up with Emmett, Bay finds that she is immersing herself more and more in her street art, resulting in an unlikely friendship with a fellow artist by the name of Zarra. This friendship causes Bay to rebel against John and Kathryn to the point of her almost running away with Zarra to Mexico. She is stopped before leaving and brought home by Emmett and John. In the second season, Bay meets Noah, a fellow hearing student at Carlton. A short romance ensues, but Bay breaks up with Noah when she realizes that he has feelings for Daphne.
Ty returns in the second half of season two, resulting in their resuming their relationship. Bay expresses concern for Ty 's mental well being following his time serving in Afghanistan. The two eventually reconnect, sleeping together for the first time. Bay lose her virginity to Ty. However, in the season two finale, Ty, about to be recalled to the army, lies to Bay about sleeping with someone else after she finds girl 's underwear on his bedroom floor, in an effort to save her from further hurt. In season three, Ty is shown to not be responding to any of Bay 's efforts to contact him. However, when he finally does message her, Bay, determined to move on, deletes the message without responding. Bay eventually discovers Ty 's lie, but remains adamant to move on with her life.
In the second - season finale, upon learning that Ty had cheated on her, Bay turns to Emmett for comfort and support. In the third season, Emmett asks Bay 's help on an astronomy project, where it is revealed that he is dating a new girl, Mandy, whom he met online. Despite responding to Bay 's kiss, Emmett soon pulls away. He confesses to Bay that the reason they can not be together is because she can not let go of the past and forgive him for sleeping with Simone. Bay, however, apologizes and promises not to bring it up again, leaving some hope for the future.
In the third - season premiere, Bay starts her senior year and her first day at a new college art class. She makes a new friend named Tank. During a class assignment in which they have to draw a partner, Bay, in search of Tank, finds herself going to a frat party. In an effort to forget about Ty, she winds up heavily intoxicated. In her drunk state, she and Tank have a heart to heart regarding her broken heart and about why Ty cheated on her. Later on, Toby and Daphne pick up Bay from the party. After noticing the hockey sticks in the back seat, Toby informs Bay that she will be joining the Carlton field hockey team.
Bay begins dating frat boy and college football player, Tank, in the episode ' The Scream ', despite having only having thought of him as a friend in the past. After Mary - Beth reveals to Bay that Ty had lied to her about cheating, she begins to question her relationship with Tank. Tank becomes even more irritated when he learns that Bay turned to Emmett for advice before consulting him. Things later take a turn for the worse when Bay accidentally reveals that Tank was the one who blew the whistle on a frat event, leading him to be blackballed from the fraternity.
Later in the season, Bay faces a number of challenges. She injures her hand at a party and is later revealed to have snapped a tendon in her hand. This leaves her unable to paint or sign during her months of recovery. As a result, she is moody and takes it out on everyone in her family.
In the spring finale, Bay researches online after having suspicions about Emmett 's new girlfriend, Mandy. Despite her warnings, Emmett chooses to meet with her anyway. Mandy is shown to be nothing more than a fake profile designed to set up by Matthew, a classmate wanting to get back at Emmett. Emmett is subsequently beaten up. Realizing this, Bay rushes to find Emmett. After a heartfelt conversation, Bay and Emmett finally admit that they still love each other before sharing a kiss and proceeding to sleep together, resulting in Bay cheating on Tank, and later breaking up with him to return to Emmett.
Later, Bay experiences the loss of Angelo, her biological father and expresses regret that she did not spend more time with him. After Angelo 's cause of death is discovered, it is feared that she may share the same biological trait that lead to Angelo 's brain aneurysm.
Ending season 3, and starting season 4, Bay is on probation after taking the fall for Daphne when she vandalized her mom 's (Regina Vasquez) worksite out of anger. Due to this, Bay and Emmett 's plan to move to L.A. has been postponed. While Emmett leaves for L.A. Bay starts her community service. However, after giving a convicted criminal on probation a sandwich that had heroin in it, she is given another 100 days and house arrest. During season 4, Bay and Tank get drunk at a dorm party and wake up in bed together, with Bay unable to remember many events of the evening. This causes problems for her relationship with Emmett. in the end, this causes them to break up.
In the season 4 episode "Borrowing Your Enemy 's Arrows '' Bay tries to get over Emmett by moving on. Bay sees a guy walking with Travis walk past her at work and finds him attractive. She keeps her eye on him so she goes to their table and takes their order and they introduce each other. Garrett asks Bay if she was deaf, and she responds no but that her sister Daphne is deaf. Bay acknowledges that she knows how to sign really well. Bay asks Travis about Garret. Bay meets Daphne after work to find a new outfit; Daphne asks for what. Bay tells her she met a guy and her plan is to ask him out with that top that she is going to wear. Daphne asks who he is because he is a few years older. When Daphne learns it 's Garrett, she says that he is a player and Bay said she can roll with that. Bay tells Daphne its time for her to move on. She asks him on a date.
Bay gets a call to have her own gallery, only to find out that Travis paid for everything and asked the people who actually own the gallery to pretend for her. Travis admits that he loves her and kisses her outside the gallery. She ends up going to China with Daphne for the summer but months later she gets a call that brings her back home.
Travis later follows her to China where they start dating. They live together in China for a year before moving back home. When they get home, Bay and Daphne move in together but Travis and Bay still date. Bay becomes a tattoo artist. In the finale, Bay and Emmett remain friends but nothing more. Travis asks Bay to move to Japan with him where he got a job as a professional baseball player but she decides to stay home because she is just starting a new career but that she knows they will survive a long distance relationship and that she loves him.
Played by Katie Leclerc, Daphne Paloma Vasquez - Kennish (born Bay Madeline Kennish) is the legal daughter of Regina Vasquez and Angelo Sorrento and biological daughter of John and Kathryn Kennish. Daphne lost her hearing at a young age due to a bad case of meningitis. It is mentioned in the episode "Portrait of My Father '' that Daphne 's father abandoned her and Regina when she was little. It is later revealed that Angelo left upon learning that Daphne was not his biological daughter. She was raised by Regina, a single mother, with help from Regina 's mother Adriana. In the pilot episode, Daphne and her mother learn of the switch and move into the Kennishes ' guest house after experiencing financial difficulty. Daphne, like her biological father, shows a strong interest in athletics and sports throughout the series. She is also shown to be a vegetarian. At age eight, Daphne became best friends with future classmate Emmett Bledsoe after he defended her from school yard bullies...
Daphne has many love interests throughout the series, including Bay 's ex-boyfriend Liam Lupo (with whom she breaks up with on Bay 's request), Toby 's friend Wilke, former employer Jeff Reycraft, Travis, Jace, Jorge, Campbell and her current love interest, Mingo.
In the second season, after learning that her high school is being faced with closure, Daphne organizes a rally and succeeds in keeping Carlton 's doors open. Later, Daphne 's relationship with her mother struggles after Regina reveals her preference to live with Bay, over her. Frustrated at her mother 's decision to live with Bay and Angelo, Daphne jumps into a relationship with Jace, a guy who works in John 's office. Together, they get caught up in the blackmailing of a United States Senator, ending the Senator 's career and marriage. After breaking up with Jace, Daphne finds herself charged with blackmail and facing potential jail time.
In the opening of the third season, it is shown that Daphne escaped prison, instead being ordered to serve out her time at a local free clinic. At the clinic, she befriends Campbell, a wheelchair - bound pre-med student paralyzed from a snowboarding accident. She also runs into trouble at school, facing conflict with a new - hearing girl named Sharee, who was taken on as part of Carlton 's bid to stay open by opening its doors to hearing kids.
After taking up field hockey to impress John (with whom she feels she has grown apart since being charged with blackmail), Daphne befriends Sharee. There is tension between the two at first, but after bonding over field hockey the two become friends. After finding out that Sharee 's mother is severely mentally ill, they conspire to bring her into the clinic to be diagnosed under the pretense of Sharee getting a flu shot. After the psychologist is late to arrive, Sharee 's mother lashes out, stabbing Daphne 's boss with a pair of scissors. Daphne successfully saves Doctor Jay, leading her to consider a career in medicine.
While working at the clinic, Daphne finds herself the focus of the attentions of Campbell and her supervisor Jorge. After talking to Bay, Daphne decides not to act on her feelings for Campbell as he already has a girlfriend. She instead, accepts a date with Jorge, which turns awry when she faces criticism from his sister over her blackmailing of Senator Coto. After walking out of her date, she meets Campbell to shoot hoops, where he confesses his feelings for her, in spite of him being involved with someone else. Daphne, although admitting that she likes him, rebuffs his advances. Later, Daphne is seen kissing Jorge by Campbell, who then informs her that he has broken up with his girlfriend for her, leaving Daphne conflicted. Daphne, upon learning it is Campbell 's 21st birthday, decides to throw him a surprise party. Upon seeing how much attention Daphne pays Campbell, Jorge ends their relationship, causing tension in their working relationship.
After much deliberation, Daphne finally decides it is Campbell she wants to be with. Despite initial tension, the two finally get together. However, after Daphne is offered a paid position in the Clinic, her relationship with Campbell starts to deteriorate. He is jealous over the fact that he has been in the Clinic longer, but he was never offered a paid position. After following through with Daphne 's suggestion to ask Dr. J for a paid position, Campbell obtains a paid position. However, this position is in another clinic on the other side of town, so Campbell tells Daphne that they might not be seeing each other often.
Throughout season 3, the relationship between Angelo and Daphne improved as father and daughter, significantly after Daphne asked him to learn sign language as to be able to communicate to each other more effectively. Due to Regina 's project at East Riverside, Daphne and Angelo became increasingly worried for her safety. One night, after learning to shoot using a gun by Wes, Regina almost shot Daphne when she heard some noises at her store. That resulted in a heated argument between Angelo and Regina at the store. Angelo left the store full of anger and drove off. Then, Angelo swirled off the road, ending up in the hospital. The next day, Daphne was to retake her SAT examination to improve her score to get into a better medical school. She was unable to focus and left before she finished her exam as Angelo 's condition was deteriorating. Unfortunately, Angelo was pronounced brain dead. The family decided to pull the plug on his life support after reading his will stating that if he were to be in a vegetative state, he wished to be let off life support. After learning that Angelo suffered a brain aneurysm while driving which may have occurred due to stress and anger, Daphne blamed Regina for his death.
Currently Daphne is studying to become a doctor at UMKC. In the episode "Borrowing Your Enemy 's Arrows '' Daphne Introduce Mingo to John and Kathryn. His full name is Greg Shimingo, and John and Kathryn are in shock to find out that Greg 's dad is Larry Shimingo.
Mingo starts learning ASL to communicate with Daphne better and it increases their close bond but after Daphne kisses another guy in Mexico things start to spiral downwards and they end up breaking up so Daphne can go to China.
After living in China for a year with Bay and Travis they come home. Once home Daphne returns to school to find out that Mingo is now in a relationship. Daphne struggles a bit in school and thinks about quitting trying to be a Doctor as she know that being deaf will make it extra hard but after talking with family and friends she decides that she will still try to be a Doctor. In the end Daphne and Mingo get back together.
Played by Constance Marie, Regina Lourdes Vasquez is the legal mother of Daphne Vasquez and the biological mother of Bay Kennish. Before moving into the Kennishes ' guest house, she, Daphne, and her mother Adriana lived in fictional working - class neighborhood East Riverside, Missouri, where she worked as a hair stylist. Prior to the beginning of the series, Regina had been raising Daphne as a single mother. Daphne 's legal father, Angelo, abandoned their family after finding out that Daphne was not his daughter. After Angelo 's leaving, Regina had Daphne tested again, only for the tests to reveal that Daphne was not her biological daughter either. In spite of this revelation, Regina chooses to keep the information to herself for fear of Daphne being taken away from her. This fact comes to light when photos of Bay are discovered, Regina having had a Private Investigator keep tabs on her biological daughter throughout the years.
After running into financial troubles, Regina and her family move into the Kennish 's guest house so that the two families might get to know each other better. She is also shown to be a talented artist, indicating that Bay inherited her skills as an artist from her biological mother.
At first, there is tension between Regina and Kathryn and John, particularly regarding the way in which their daughters are raised. Despite these personality clashes, Regina and Kathryn become close friends. Regina later assists Kathryn in writing her book. John and Regina are even seen to get along, despite John 's longstanding resentment toward Regina over her keeping quiet about Daphne 's true parentage. Regina 's best friend is Melody Bledsoe, the mother of Daphne 's best friend Emmett. Throughout the first season, Regina enters into a short - lived casual relationship with Bruce, the ex-husband of Kathryn 's friend and Patrick, an art gallery owner.
Angelo, Bay 's father, reenters her life after reading an article about the switch, wanting to get to know Bay. He indicates to Regina that he wishes for them to get back together, but she refuses. Later, Angelo flees the Kennish household and it is revealed that he is under threat of being deported for an outstanding warrant for arrest in Italy. When he first returns, Regina wants nothing to do with him, but eventually she relents, even marrying him in order for him to avoid deportation. Her relationship with Patrick is effectively ended by this marriage. She later gets half of Angelo 's money as a result of the marriage.
In "The Awakening Conscience '', Angelo tells Regina that he got a woman named Lana pregnant, and upset, Regina walks out. Even though it happened before they married, Regina goes to tell Kathryn and tries to figure out how to tell Bay. Later however, when she 's having lunch with Bay, she finds out Bay already knows and that Bay had gotten into a quarrel with him about it. Regina then realizes that Angelo told her about the pregnancy simply because he was afraid Bay might tell her first. Later, however, Lana decides to give the child up for adoption.
In the second season, Regina finds out that she can no longer cut hair or sign anymore, due to a medical problem with her wrists. She gets a new job, but is fired after the first day, because she oversleeps due to being drunk from a celebratory glass of Champagne. After this, and through the influence of Zane, a friend from her past, she starts drinking again. Bay, after finding out about Regina 's drinking, confronts her about it and the two get into fight. Regina realize what she said to Bay she later apologize and asks her to forgive her and keep it a secret with the promise of returning to AA. Daphne later discovers her mother 's alcohol problem when she finds her passed out on the sofa, smelling of alcohol. This further strains their relationship, which had already been suffering due to Regina 's inability to sign. In "Introducing the Miracle '', Regina 's drinking is discovered on all sides and she 's sent to rehab.
Regina returns early from rehab, only to find that Daphne has grown closer to the Kennish family. Feeling left out, she decides to move in with Angelo. Hours later, Bay also moves with Angelo, leading to her and Regina developing a stronger mother - daughter bond, and form a strong mother - daughter relationship. Daphne and Regina begin to grow apart, culminating in Regina confessing to Daphne that she finds easier to live with Bay. However the two eventually patch things up and move back in together. Regina later supports Daphne when she is charged with blackmail.
Angelo and Regina eventually reevaluate their relationship, deciding to get back together. However, Regina insists that they do n't move in together until after Bay and Daphne graduate from high school and leave for college.
Regina eventually gets a second chance at the job that she was fired from and begins to enjoy her work. However, in the third season premiere, her boss announces that she is selling the business and Regina will lose her job. After getting advice from Bay, Regina decides to open her own business as an interior decorator with Angelo as chief investor. She is later hired by a property developer named Wes and her business begins to expand, unfortunately she finds out that Wes is scamming the people of East Riverside. As a result of this, the community retaliates and a brick is thrown through the window of Regina 's store. After she begins carrying a gun in order to defend herself, Regina accidentally pulls the gun on Daphne after she enters Regina 's store unannounced. This causes Angelo and Regina to get into a big fight during which Angelo storms off. He is later shown to have suffered a brain aneurysm and died. As a result of this fight, Daphne blames her mother for Angelo 's sudden death.
Played by D.W. Moffett, John is the biological father of Toby Kennish and Daphne Vasquez, and the adopted father of Bay Kennish. He used to play professional baseball, and he and Daphne share a love for athletics. John later becomes friends with Daphne 's basketball coach, Melody Bledsoe. Toward the end of the first season, John announces his intention to run for office.
John 's relationship with his children, although close, is often strained. He and Bay clash repeatedly over her choices regarding her street art, particularly after his car wash gets tagged by graffiti artists. John and Toby find themselves at odds when Toby reveals his decision to get married, despite only being nineteen. His relationship with Daphne comes under strain when he finds out that she was charged with blackmailing a United States Senator. Despite this, John remains a dedicated father to all three of his children and husband to Kathryn.
Throughout the first two seasons, John frequently finds himself at loggerheads with Regina. The two strong personalities often clash over how to raise their children. For example, they run into conflict when John attempts to buy Daphne a car for her sixteenth birthday, much to Regina 's disapproval. Their biggest argument, however, comes after John revealing his longstanding resentment toward Regina from keeping Daphne from him for thirteen years. The strain of the fight causes John to have a heart attack, Regina in effect, saving his life. While in an altered state, John has a dream in which he sees how different and dark their lives would have been had Regina told the hospital of the switch after learning about it. In the dream, Regina has lost her life due to alcoholism and the girls did not get along. John see now how the switch was better for everyone. He comes to appreciate Regina and her place in their lives.
The third season sees John and Kathryn run into marriage troubles. A confused John struggles to understand the plight of an unhappy Kathryn, who is beginning to feel a little lost. Eventually, the situation becomes so desperate that John, in a drunken haze, kisses Nikki 's mother Jennyne, for which Kathryn kicks him out of the house. In turn, John finds out that Kathryn plans on writing an erotic novel based on the sex lives of their friend 's from John 's baseball days. She finally tells him how unhappy she is, stating that they have nothing in common anymore and that they have fallen into a repetitive rut.
John, determined to make things work with his wife, does not give up. An argument with Renzo leads him to the realization that their biggest blunder may be his inability to change. After a failed attempt at winning Kathryn back, he finally gives her the ' adventure ' she so longs for, staging a full scale dance number involving the whole family.
After Angelo 's death, John feels guilt over denying Angelo a loan. He feels that this may have contributed to the stress that caused Angelo 's brain aneurysm and subsequent death.
Played by Lea Thompson, Kathryn is the mother of Bay and Toby Kennish and the biological mother of Daphne Vasquez. At first, she was n't too excited about telling her friends that Bay and Daphne were switched at birth for the sake of maintaining her reputation, but after some pressing from Regina, she finally comes clean at a fundraiser.
Despite initial tension and disagreement, Kathryn forms a close relationship with Regina. Kathryn helps get Regina a job at a local salon and, in turn, Regina helps Kathryn write her book based around the switch. Kathryn is committed to caring and looking after her children. She finds a way to get a mopey Toby out of the house after his break - up with Simone and consults with Regina about how to tell Bay about Angelo 's baby. Kathryn later finds out from Bay that Regina has begun drinking again and was sent to rehab.
In the third season, Kathryn going to therapy, stating that she has been feeling ' lost ' since the switch. Her psychiatrist proves to be unhelpful, cutting her short to prescribe her drugs and send her on her way. While wandering the streets, Kathryn decides, on impulse, to attend a tap dancing class. Here, she befriends Renzo.
Kathryn also comes to realise that she is unhappy with herself and in her marriage. Even after confessing her unhappiness to John, he fails to understand her emotions and situation. Eventually, the situation becomes so desperate that John, in a drunken haze, kisses Nikki 's mother Jennyne, for which Kathryn kicks him out of the house. In turn, John finds out that Kathryn plans on writing an erotic novel based on the sex lives of their friends from John 's baseball days. She finally tells him how unhappy she is, stating that they have nothing in common anymore and that they have fallen into a repetitive rut. After John tried to win her back by unintentionally buying her a piece of jewelry identical to one he had given her years before, Kathryn tells him that she wants adventure in their lives and that they have just grown apart.
However, John, intent on winning his wife back, finally decides give her the ' adventure ' she so longs for, staging a full scale dance number involving the whole family. After realising that John had gone to the effort to plan the entire event and was willing to do anything to make their marriage work, the two reconcile.
Played by Lucas Grabeel, Toby Christopher Kennish is the older brother of Bay and the biological brother of Daphne. Toby plays guitar in a band called Guitar Face with his best friend Wilkie and Daphne 's best friend, Emmett, who joins the band in "Dance Amongst Daggers. ''
Toby is an avid poker player, and it has gotten him into some trouble in the past. He tells his parents that he 's playing miniature golf with his friends when, in reality, he is gambling. He has Daphne and Emmett help him win several poker games to help him get out of debt with Wilkie, but after Daphne misreads Wilkie 's intentions, he loses a lot of money and is furious with Daphne. He subsequently sells his band equipment to help pay off the debt.
He begins dating Simone, an ex-friend of Bay 's with a known reputation. She ultimately ends up cheating on him with Bay 's boyfriend, Emmett. Toby breaks up with Simone upon learning about the affair.
Toby soon begins to consider starting a new band after another hanging out with Nikki, a girl he meets while performing gospel music, at his mother 's request. As a result of his time with Nikki, he has a change of heart about Emmett and rekindles their friendship. Nikki eventually becomes his girlfriend. Their relationship is rocky as Nikki refuses to have sex with Toby because of a pledge she took. Emmett shows Toby a picture of Nikki at a party topless. Toby questions her about it and she explains that she is a changed person and owes him no explanation. Toby later realizes that he was wrong and surprises her at her youth group to apologize.
When Nikki then tells Toby that she is leaving for to work in Peru, Toby proposes, and she accepts. Later, when the man who killed Nikki 's father is imprisoned, Toby decides to arrange a visit with him for Nikki in hopes that she will find closure over her father 's death. After Nikki walks away from the man in the visiting center, Toby begins to chastise the killer. During the conversation, Toby is told that Nikki 's father was a meth dealer and was killed as part of a deal gone bad. He eventually tells Nikki and the two then find that Nikki 's mother had known all along.
Wedding plans for the two are made during the second half of Season two. Upon realizing the resistance to their nuptials by Toby 's parents and Nikki 's mother, the two call off the ceremony on the actual day, after sleeping together the night before, and they choose to elope instead. Nikki and Toby later separate as she is offered a permanent job in Peru. Determined to find himself, Toby subsequently packs up and leaves the country for his own adventure. He returns home in "In And We Bring the Light ''
During season three Toby begins to date a Carlton teacher named Lily. The two date for the first half of season four, but break up after Lily develops a crush on a teacher at UMKC. It was revealed during the mid-season premiere of season four that Lily is expecting Toby 's baby. After Lily finds out she is having a baby, she discovers the baby has Down Syndrome. After many bumps in the road they decide to keep the baby. Lily gives birth in the last episode and the child is named Carlton after the school at which Toby and Lily met.
Played by Sean Berdy, Emmett is Bay 's ex-boyfriend, and the longtime best friend of Daphne. He is deaf and rarely speaks verbally, preferring to communicate through American Sign Language. He rides a motorcycle and drives Daphne to their school, much to the dismay of the Kennishes. Despite their concerns and his being deaf, Emmett is proven to be a good driver. He is very protective of Daphne and has had a long - time crush on her, but does n't make his feelings known to her. He is the only child in an all - deaf family, and for this reason has grown up having trouble relating to people who hear.
In the first season, despite of the language barrier, Bay and Emmett form a bond after he assists her in finding her father. The two eventually begin a relationship. When they first get together, Daphne realises her feelings for her long - time best friend, culminating in them kissing in a car wash. Emmett, however, reaffirms his loyalty to Bay. He reassures Bay of their relationship by communicating with her verbally for the first time. This relationship, however, runs into a multitude of troubles throughout its course, including Emmett 's family troubles and the interference of third parties.
Throughout his relationship with Bay, Emmett faces difficulties at home. He learns that his parents are getting a divorce and that his father has moved in with another woman. Bay, concerned for Emmett 's well - being, goes behind his back to confide in his mother about her fears regarding Emmett living with her father. Emmett learns about their discussion and a fight ensues, resulting in Emmett sleeping with Simone, Bay 's former friend and Toby 's girlfriend. He does not reveal his actions to Bay until the night of prom, after which she promptly breaks up with him and leaves in tears. Emmett, however, is determined to win her back.
Months later, in an effort to win Bay back, Emmett paints their relationship in a timeline on a brick wall. Bay and Emmett meet and Emmett tells Bay that he is deeply sorry about what happened between him and Simone, and that it meant nothing to either him or Simone. However, Bay does n't think they will ever be the same. Despite this, Emmett tells Bay he 's going to keep trying to win her back no matter how long it takes, which is later confirmed by Daphne, who tells Bay that if Emmett has as so much as a sliver of hope, he 'll wait forever. After Bay attempts to run away from home, it is Emmett who helps John find her. Bay and Emmett share a moment where he tells her that he will ' always come and find her '. They almost kiss but are interrupted by Bay 's father.
At the beginning of the second season, a nervous Bay tells Emmett that she has begun a new relationship with Noah, in response, Emmett kisses her and asks her whether she has really moved on from him before he walking away. Later, Emmett tells Bay about the kiss between Noah and Daphne. He also meets a deaf girl (Ashley Fiolek) who is a fellow motorcycle enthusiast. Daphne, who is eager for Emmett to simply move on from Bay for the sake of his happiness, tells him that the new girl is perfect for him because she 's deaf and into motorcycles, but Emmett tells her that he already has found his perfect girl in Bay.
Over the course of the second season, Emmett and Toby reconnect, with Toby even forgiving Emmett for sleeping with Simone. The two renew their friendship and form another band. Emmett even stands as best man at Toby 's wedding. At which he makes a toast (appearing to subtly be directed at Bay) saying that He and Bay are meant to be together saying that she is the one he found. In the final episode of season 2, Emmett comforts a crying Bay after finding out about the end of her relationship with Ty.
The third season sees Emmett dealing with the integration of hearing kids into Carlton. He finds himself somewhat of an outcast among his peers after revealing the identity of a friend who had been slashing tires in order to make the new kids look bad.
Emmett asks Bay 's help on an astronomy project, where it is revealed that he is dating a new girl, Mandy, whom he met online. Despite responding to Bay 's kiss, Emmett soon pulls away. He confesses to Bay that the reason they can not be together is because she can not let go of the past and forgive him for sleeping with Simone. Bay, however, apologizes and promises not to bring it up again, leaving some hope for a future for the two of them. In a later episode, after seeing Bay struggle to paint with a hand injury, Emmett helps inspire her by taking her to a replica of 1950 's Las Vegas built by a millionaire for his dying wife. He also helps her create the project and submit it to her class.
In the spring finale Emmett goes to meet Mandy for the first time. However, Mandy is revealed to be Matthew, a classmate wanting to get back at Emmett for having him suspended earlier in the season. Bay later finds him and after admitting their love for each other, the two sleep together After some initial apprehension due to the two of them having unprotected sex, Bay reaffirms her commitment to Emmett and promises to break things off with Tank. He also runs into some trouble with Matthew, who is now blackmailing him into staying quiet about the beating.
In ' Oh, Future ' Emmett 's father surprises his guests at a housewarming party with a wedding and the revelation that Emmett is to become a big brother. Emmett is initially angry with his father, but after some advice from Bay and his mother, he warms up to the idea of a new sibling.
In the beginning of season four Emmett decides to go to film school in LA after much persuasion by Bay which leads them to have a long distance relationship. He does n't make friends at first but then meets Skye. Skye instantly become fast friends with Emmett and accidentally kisses Emmett on a movie set. Emmett discovers the hardships of the long distance with Bay and wants Bay to come to LA despite her on probation. Emmett finds out about Tank and disconnects with Bay in anger. She flies down to LA only to find out Emmett made a script about personal things in their relationship. Emmett admits he feels that they have changed too much and he wants to break up with Bay. She says it 's forever if he does this now and they end up going separate ways.
After the breakup, Emmett decides to start dating Skye as they have common interests but when Travis comes to visit he thinks that she is only hurting him. Emmett also comes to visit on the Mexico trip to help deaf kids there which ultimately leads to Bay finding out about Skye. Bay tries to make Emmett jealous out of anger and in the end the two come to an understanding to not hurt each other anymore.
Later on, in season 5 "-- The Call '', he said to Bay that he never should let Bay go meaning that he still has feelings for Bay.
Played by Gilles Marini, Angelo Sorrento is Bay 's biological father, Daphne 's legal father and Regina 's husband. When Daphne was three, he became suspicious that she was n't his daughter due to her fair skin, red hair, and green eyes. When Daphne contracted meningitis, he has a DNA test done and discovers the Daphne is not biologically his. Believing that Regina had an affair and not wanting to raise another man 's child, he leaves Regina and Daphne. After learning about the switch, Angelo returns looking for Bay in "The Homecoming '', surprising her at her art show. Despite resistance from the rest of her family, Bay forms a relationship with him, while Daphne and Regina want nothing to do with him. Angelo later implies to Regina that he would like to get back together with her and that had the girls not been switched, they would still be together.
When it comes out that Regina knew about the switch, Angelo is furious with her and felt that she kept him away from his daughter. They later reconcile and end up sleeping together, much to the dismay of Regina 's mother. Angelo is arrested due to an outstanding warrant in Italy and faces deportation. When he was drunk, he beat a man for having an affair with his ex-fiancee. Regina 's mother contacts the police so that Angelo would be arrested, and he is ordered back to Italy. In order to keep him in the country, Regina marries him so that he can gain US citizenship.
He sues the hospital for switching the girls and is awarded $5 million. Right after that, it is revealed that he got a woman, Lana, pregnant in a one - night stand. Regina is furious with him at first but they later reconcile. Lana wants to give the baby up for adoption, but Angelo convinces her not to at first.
After Regina relapsed with her alcoholism, she shows up at Angelo 's apartment drunk. Angelo contacts Bay, who then gets Daphne, and they go to retrieve Regina. Angelo instead promises he will take care of Regina and asks Bay to go to the hospital with Lana, who is in labor. Lana gives birth to Bay 's half sister.
In the third season, Angelo and Regina continue their relationship, having decided to wait until Bay and Daphne go off to college before moving in together. Daphne asks him to learn ASL and to move in with them since Regina has been in danger due to her job.
Angelo dies following a car accident as a result of a brain aneurysm. After doctors attempt to save his life, he is declared brain dead and the decision to take him off life support rests with the family. While searching his apartment for a way to contact Angelo 's mother, Bay and Emmett discover Angelo 's Last Will and Testament, which states that he should be taken off life support. Bay calls Angelo 's mother who also is Bay 's biological grandmother and speaks to her in French for the first time and gives his mother the opportunity to say goodbye to him over the phone. The family decides to have Angelo 's organs donated.
Played by Max Adler. He is a fraternity pledge and ex-boyfriend of Bay Kennish in season three. The two met in an art class and bonded after he gave Bay advice on handling her break up with Ty. After taking care of an injured Bay at a party, the two get together. Despite many tensions in their relationship, Tank de-pledges his fraternity for Bay. The two break up after Bay cheats on him with Emmett. Tank is next seen running into Travis, Toby, Mary Beth and Emmett at a club. Emmett initially conceals his identity from Tank, but after he is discovered an intoxicated Tank attempts to swing a punch at Emmett. He is shown to still have feelings for Bay. In season four, Bay and Tank get drunk at a dorm party and wake up in bed together. Bay does n't remember parts of the evening, and during her attempt to figure out what exactly happened, the situation is reported to the college against her wishes. Despite Bay not remembering the night or coming to any conclusion as to what happened, the school ignores Bay 's request not to punish anyone, and Tank is expelled. His fate after that is working at a restaurant revealed awkwardly on a date as he expresses that it is hard to get a job now that rape is on his record and Bay wants to fix it but comes to peace that she can not.
Played by Marlee Matlin, Melody Bledsoe is the mother of Emmett Bledsoe and the best friend of Regina Vasquez. She is divorced from her ex-husband, Cameron, her polar opposite when it comes to parenting. Like her son, Melody is deaf although she can speak on some occasions due to being forced to attend speech therapy when she was young. She is overprotective and judgmental. Melody is upset when Emmett initially tells her that he wants to date Bay, believing that hearing and deaf relationships can not succeed. This leads her to humiliate Bay at a dinner night with Emmett, Bay, and Regina. She gets into a dispute with Regina, but they reconcile and Melody eventually opens up to Bay when she realizes that Bay had good intentions. She also dates Daphne 's boss Jeff but he breaks it off after realizing he loves Daphne.
In the second season, Melody and Emmett welcome Travis into their home after his father kicked him out. Melody now sees Travis as another son, even helping him with college applications and interviews. Later, in season 3 Melody endangers her job after getting rough with a student, Matthew, who had beaten up her son. She is dating Gabel and they soon get engaged. Gabe expresses wanting to adopt another deaf kid and after lots of thinking she finally agrees.
Played by Ryan Lane, Travis is a deaf student who attends Carlton with Daphne and Emmett. His hearing parents do not sign and are said to be uninterested in his progress at school.
After losing his job as a janitor at Carlton, Daphne helps him get a job at John Kennish 's carwash. Feeling isolated and lonely due to his inability to communicate fluently with his family at home, and fearing that his parents will soon kick him out when he turns 18, Travis sometimes secretly sleeps in the offices of the Kennish Carwash before moving in with Melody and Emmett. He is shown to have romantic feelings for Daphne. The two date briefly before breaking up. Mary - Beth and Travis started dating in the second season finale. They broke up in season 4. In the Episodes "Instead of Damning the Darkness '', and "It 's Better to Light a little lantern '' Travis and Bay hang out at a bar in Mexico both and after getting drinks, Bay insisted that they both do body shots which made Emmett mad. Both Travis and Emmett get into a fight but in the end they made up. Emmett asked Travis if he liked Bay, in which he just looked at Emmett, which proves that he likes Bay. He ends up paying for the gallery Bay believed was her big break and kisses her outside.
Bay latter decides to go to China with Daphne for the summer but after going to visit Bay in China Travis decides to stay there with her and they begin to date. After living there for a year they move back home. Travis go to college and joins the baseball team. Emmett and Travis have a falling out because Travis is with Bay.
Travis gets in a fight after a guy makes fun of people with disabilities and Travis hits him. This causes Travis to get kicked off the baseball team but he is offered to join a baseball team in Japan. Travis asks Bay to move with him but Bay decides to stay as she has just started a new career but that she knows they will survive a long distance relationship and that she loves him. In the end Emmett and Travis make up and Emmett is going to go with him to Japan.
Played by B.K. Cannon, is a friend of Bay and Ty and ex-girlfriend of Travis. Mary Beth works a summer job alongside Bay and Ty. She lost her brother, a former soldier, by way of suicide. As a result, she and Ty, who was stationed with her brother overseas, have a close relationship. In season two she also grows close to Ty 's then - girlfriend, Bay. In the second season finale, Ty makes her promise not to tell Bay that he did not really cheat on her. However, this information is revealed early in the following season. At the end of the second season she begins dating Travis. She then breaks up with him in season 4.
Played by Ivonne Coll, Adriana Vasquez is the mother of Regina Vasquez, the grandmother of Daphne Vasquez, and the biological grandmother of Bay Kennish. she had no idea that Regina knew about the switched but she was curious about why Daphne did not look like Regina. She had lived with Regina and Daphne for quite some time and is living with the two in the Kennishes ' guest house. She had taken a huge disliking to Regina 's ex-husband Angelo and ends up reporting him to the police. Regina told Adriana that she married Angelo and Adriana was not happy about it, and moved out of the guest house after she found out, but she later moved back into the guest house after she and Regina patched things up.
Played by Maiara Walsh, Simone Sinclair is a classmate of Toby, Bay, and Wilkie at Buckner Hall. She used to be in a relationship with Wilkie Wilkerson and used to be best friends with Bay Kennish. They broke off their friendship when Bay figured out Simone 's mean streak. She is described as the "school slut. '' She later starts a relationship with Toby, despite warnings given to him by Bay and Wilkie. During Daphne 's time at Buckner, she becomes friends with Simone, but their friendship ends when Simone insults a Latina girl from Daphne 's old neighborhood. At a basketball tournament, Simone had sex with Emmett. Despite constantly apologizing, Bay and Daphne have both refused to forgive her, thus dissolving both their friendships. When she is trying to have a conversation with Toby, he ignores her as well. She is last seen picking up an AA pamphlet, before bumping into Regina and quickly storming out of the room. Regina then finds Simone asking someone to buy her alcohol. Regina then goes up to Simone and talks to her in her car about why she was trying to buy alcohol. Simone told her that Bay and Daphne did not tell her what happened. Regina assures her that she knows what happened and Simone is frustrated that everyone hates her. Later on she lends Bay money to replace the money Bay got from her dad 's safe to try to make amends.
Simone returns in the alternate reality episode, where she is shown to be Daphne 's best friend.
Played by Blair Redford, Tyler "Ty '' Mendoza is the older ex-boyfriend of Bay Kennish. He is an old friend of Regina and Daphne. Daphne considers him her older brother. In the episode "Dogs Playing Poker, '' Ty admits he has enlisted in the army. He calls Bay later and she tells him she is dating Emmett. In "Mother and Daughter Divide '' Ty returns home and hopes that he and Bay will start back up where they left off, but struggles to readjust to life after war. When he 's scheduled to return to combat, Bay tries to get him to stay in Mission Hills. Later, at Toby and Nikki 's wedding rehearsal dinner, Bay tells Ty about her plans to graduate early and go to art school in Berlin so they might still be together. Ty appears less than excited about Bay 's plan and tells her no one knows what will happen.
Ty makes it appear that he is cheating on her in order for him to return to fighting in the war. Ty later explains to Mary Beth that he did it because the area he is being deployed to is even more dangerous than before and it would be easier to have Bay hate him now and move on with her life, rather than suffer his death overseas.
Played by Charles Michael Davis, he is Bay Kennish 's ex-boyfriend and Daphne 's ex-boyfriend. He goes to Buckner Hall with Bay and Toby. His family owns a restaurant called Fondo Di Lupo. In the episode "American Gothic, '' he takes Daphne to a music store, and all goes well until a couple of his friends show up and begin ridiculing Daphne. This leads Daphne to leave. Liam later brings fried zucchini to Daphne, knowing it 's her favorite, but she takes the zucchini without any signs of forgiveness. However, she comes to Liam, and they get together. Daphne ends things with Liam a short time later as Bay is uncomfortable with the two of them dating.
Played by Austin Butler, Wilkie is the best friend of Toby Kennish and the ex-boyfriend of Daphne Vasquez. He had scoliosis when he was 10 (as said in the episode 15) and had spinal fusion surgery, afterwards he wore a brace. He used to be in a relationship with Simone, but she was too controlling. Wilkie and Daphne begin their relationship after much pursuing on his part and were together until Wilkie was sent away to boarding school at the end of the first season.
Played by Annie Ilonzeh, Lana is the mother of Angelo 's baby. She becomes friends with Toby when he gives her a ride home from the mechanic and she tells him that her family lives in Boston and they are n't aware that she 's pregnant. After giving birth to her daughter, she puts the baby up for adoption and leaves for the airport.
Played by Stephanie Nogueras, Natalie is a deaf student at Carlton who dislikes the idea of the pilot program due to the amount of funding having been cut from multiple programs at Carlton to fund the pilot program. As such, Natalie and some of her friends torment the hearing students, particularly Bay. When Bay and Natalie 's rivalry appears to get out of hand, Melody hosts a mandatory retreat in the woods in order to bring the hearing and deaf students closer and dispel any animosity. At the end of the retreat, Bay and Natalie declare a truce. It is later revealed that Natalie is a lesbian.
Portrayed by Matthew Kane. Jace is from Britain and is a coffee shop barista as well as Daphne 's ex-boyfriend. He grew up geocaching & he explains to Daphne that geocaching 's like a treasure hunt. Jace decides he 'd like to learn how to use sign language for a month & he learns quickly. Jace was a temporary love interest of Daphne. In "The Departure Of Summer '' He and Daphne expose Senator Chip Coto as corrupt and a shameless womanizer ending his career and marriage. Jace was subsequently deported, although he was happy he got the truth about the corrupt Senator out.
Played by Cassi Thomson, Nikki was married to Toby Kennish. She is a Christian musician and begins a new band with Toby and Emmett, soon after which she and Toby begin dating, however she quickly realizes that she does n't think it would work out to be dating someone who does not believe in God.
She later reconciles with Toby, and they then become engaged. On the night before the wedding, they have sex and the next day call off the ceremony and elope to the courthouse. At the start of the third season, Nikki and Toby are in a long distance relationship as Nikki is doing aid work overseas. Nikki and Toby later separate after Nikki is offered a permanent job in Peru.
Played by Anthony Natale, Cameron Bledsoe is the father of Emmett Bledsoe. He is the ex-husband of Melody Bledsoe. Unlike Melody, he takes a carefree approach to parenting his son, while causes problems between him and his ex-wife, as she believes that he is not a good influence on Emmett. Emmett moves in with him in due to Melody 's disapproval of Bay. After his divorce Cameron dated a younger woman named Olivia. Concern for Emmett 's wellbeing is raised by Bay after the discovery of Olivia 's bongs around the house and her use of marijuana. He subsequently breaks up with Olivia. Later on, he marries a woman named Debbie. They are expecting their first child.
Played by RJ Mitte is a pre-med student and fellow volunteer at the free clinic where Daphne is ordered to serve out her hours at community service. Campbell is a former snowboarder and became a wheelchair user after an accident he suffered on the slopes. Despite having a girlfriend, he displays interest in Daphne, even ending his relationship for her. Despite initial tension, the two begin dating. However their romance comes to an end when Daphne is promoted over Campbell, simultaneously causing him to seek a position at another clinic across town and end their relationship.
Played By Nyle DiMarco, Garrett is a deaf friend of Travis in season 4. He is a few years older than Travis and the other guys; in fact, he is in his early or mid twenties. It is said that he attended Carlton School. In ' Borrowing Your Enemy 's Arrows ', he first meets Bay and instantly finds her attractive. They start dating, even though Travis does not like the idea.
Played by Samuel Page, Craig Tebbe is the newly appointed lawyer for the Kennishes ' case against the hospital for the switch of Bay and Daphne. He is shown to have an affinity for redheads and tries to kiss Kathryn before she pulls away.
Played by Christopher Wiehl, Patrick is the ex-boyfriend of Regina Vasquez. He is an art gallery owner and first met Regina at the hair salon that she worked at. She later tells him to look at Bay 's artwork, but he ends up commending her on her own art, eventually placing one of her pieces on exhibition, much to Bay 's dismay. Patrick broke up with Regina after Regina told him she married Angelo in order for him to stay in the country.
Played by Meeghan Holaway, Amanda Burke is the former lawyer of John and Kathryn Kennish. She was the first lawyer that the Kennishes appointed to help them with their case against the hospital, but they later fire her when they find out that she was in a relationship with one of the hospital board members. While she denied that her relationship would have any effect on how she 'd perform for them in the case but John and Kathryn did not want to take any chances.
Played by TL Forsberg, Olivia is the ex-girlfriend of Cameron Bledsoe. She is a bad influence on Emmett, as she encouraged him to drink away his stress. And she is very sex - crazed, always sharing details about her sex life. She is revealed to be a drug dealer, working out of Cameron 's home.
Played by Max Lloyd - Jones, Noah is a hearing student at Carlton as part of the pilot program. He becomes friends with Bay and reveals to her that he has lost 60 percent of the hearing in his right ear due to Meniere 's disease, and that he will eventually go deaf. He has begins a relationship with Bay, but Bay soon ends their relationship after she finds out from Emmett that Noah and Daphne kissed. Theoretically, it was rehearsing for the school play of Romeo and Juliet, but Noah admitted to Bay that he felt a connection with Daphne.
Played by Tania Raymonde, Zarra is a street artist who works under the pseudonym "Medusa. '' Bay initially gets angry at Zarra for finishing Bay 's piece on a van without permission, but eventually Bay befriends Zarra, feeling that she gets Bay 's artistic way of life that she feels no one else understands. John and Kathryn disapprove of this friendship.
Zarra encourages Bay to join her on her hunt for an artist named "Smak '' who ruins other people 's street art by marking his name on the pieces. Eventually this lands her in jail. Zarra asks Bay to post a $1,500 bail without telling her that her friend was also jailed for the same reason, driving Bay to steal it from John 's safe at the carwash. Zarra and Bay and some friends of Zarra 's were caught by the police while doing street art in an alleyway. They were let go due to Bay 's Dad being John Kennish, the former baseball player.
After John yells at her, Bay temporarily moves in with Zarra in her trailer, where the two make plans to drive to Mexico with. when it becomes clear that Zarra has no idea where they are going, Bay begins to realize that Zarra is n't exactly the greatest friend. She later bails on Bay and runs away to Mexico.
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what episode do sara and michael make love | Sara Tancredi - wikipedia
Dr. Sara Scofield (nee Tancredi) is a fictional character from the American television series, Prison Break. She is played by Sarah Wayne Callies. Her role in the first season of the series is a prison physician.
Raised in Chicago, Sara Tancredi 's ambitions to be a doctor began when she was very young. While at Northwestern University, where she was a Phi Beta Kappa, she was introduced to the works of Mahatma Gandhi and decided to become a humanitarian, which later influenced her decision to work at Fox River State Penitentiary. Another factor which contributed to her occupational choice was her past morphine addiction, culminating in being unable to help a boy after he was run over, because she was high, which was revealed in a flashback episode of the first season, "Brother 's Keeper ''. At 29 years old, Dr. Sara Tancredi was one of the few doctors working at Fox River. Her chosen occupation became a constant source of stress for her father. Sara is the only child of the Governor of Illinois, Frank Tancredi (portrayed by John Heard). Due to her father 's hectic political career and vastly differing beliefs, she did not have a close relationship with him. In episode "Buried '', it was revealed that her mother has already died.
In the first season, Sara is mostly featured in scenes with Michael Scofield, while in the second season, Sara has mainly appeared in scenes with Frank Tancredi, Paul Kellerman or by herself. She has appeared in every episode of seasons 1, 2 and 4 except for second season episodes, "Otis '' and "John Doe ''. Her death was faked early in the third season, apparently beheaded by Gretchen Morgan, and her "head '' was delivered in a box to Lincoln Burrows. In season 4 it is discovered that the head was a ploy and that Sara is alive.
Sara is introduced to the series when Michael Scofield first visits the infirmary in the pilot episode. In the first and second episode, their interactions are cordial but formal. However, Sara 's curiosity is awakened when he attempts to charm her, and after she checks his academic record, she is surprised that he had graduated with a master 's degree. In "Allen '', she notices his nervousness as she tests for his glucose count to confirm his diabetes. However, she dismisses it after his test apparently passed (but only because Michael had taken insulin blockers to raise his blood sugar). Michael 's regular visits to the infirmary becomes an important plot point, as it represents a major step in his plan. Sara treats Michael after two of his toes are cut off in the episode "Cell Test '', and the subsequent bonding between them turns their relationship into a more personal one. Most episodes feature Sara interacting with Michael during these visits, initially careful to deflect all his attempts to charm her. However, after Michael rescues Sara from inmates ' intent to rape and kill her in "Riots, Drills, and the Devil '', she begins to grow more comfortable around him. This is not without duality, though, as another plot point includes Sara discovering that Michael lied about a PI assignment. However, she is strengthened in her belief that Michael is different from the other prisoners, and several episodes has her trying to obtain information about him, such as when she is required to conduct a medical check - up on Michael 's brother Lincoln Burrows (Dominic Purcell), and questions him on Michael 's background. She also visits Michael 's former psychiatrist in "Tweener ''. As Sara 's character searches for clues about Michael, and though she knows that something is very suspicious, she ca n't stop herself from being attracted to him.
In later episodes, though, Sara attempts to distance herself from Michael. After she discovers that he is married and had a conjugal visit in the episode "And Then There Were 7 '', she announces that they will now be doctor - patient only. In the following episodes, her tone with Michael is more distant, though she continues to help him in subsequent episodes despite their relationship. After meeting with Lincoln Burrows ' lawyers on his execution day in episode "The Rat '', Sara becomes convinced that Lincoln is innocent and attempts to persuade her father to ask him to review Lincoln 's case after Michael pleads with her. Her father denies the appeal, but additional information emerges to postpone the execution. Sara 's character plays a critical role in the episode "The Key '', where Michael must take possession of a key to the infirmary door. He ultimately kisses her as a distraction to steal her keys, but is caught up in the moment and unable to go through with it. Instead, he has his wife meet Sara and steal the keys. His plan backfires when she discovers that Michael 's wife has stolen the keys from her, and becomes very cold towards him. At the end of the episode, she has the locks to the infirmary door changed, thwarting his efforts. Michael is then forced to come clean in "Tonight '' and reveals to her his intent to break Lincoln out of prison. Sara is confronted with the decision whether she should help Michael or not. Eventually, Sara returns to Fox River and unlocks the infirmary door. Horribly distressed at what she has done, Sara injects herself with morphine from the infirmary. Suspected for being an accessory to the escape, police officers charge into her apartment with an emergency warrant in the Season Finale to find her nearly dead from a morphine overdose. The character 's fate is left unresolved at the end of the first season.
After recovering from her drug overdose in "Manhunt '', Sara loses her medical license and becomes a target of The Company - the mysterious organization behind Lincoln 's murder setup. Posing as Lance, a homosexual addict at a Narcotics Anonymous meeting, Agent Kellerman (Paul Adelstein) attempts to befriend Sara to find out the whereabouts of Michael Scofield. Learning that six other convicts joined Michael 's escape, Sara feels betrayed by him, and the two characters initially have a strained relationship. After her father alerts her of Kellerman 's suspicious identity and her father 's subsequent death in episode "Buried '', Sara becomes part of the show 's conspiracy plot as she holds the key (left by her father) to information that may exonerate Lincoln. Following this, several attempts on Sara 's life are made by The Company, which force her to find Michael via his coded messages. She meets with Michael in the episode "Rendezvous '' at Gila, New Mexico but their reunion is short - lived when Kellerman and Agent Mahone (William Fichtner) find out about their rendezvous point. At first, Sara is reluctant to leave with Michael to Panama but is captured by Kellerman shortly after. Kellerman proceeds to torture Sara in episode "Bolshoi Booze '', in an effort to obtain information about a USB drive he thinks her father gave her. Sara escapes from Kellerman and decides to change her appearance and throws her wallet and ID away.
Two episodes later, Sara returns in "The Message ''. She reunites with Michael in Evansville, Indiana in "Chicago ''. Together with the brothers, Sara travels to Chicago where her father has hidden the audio file that can help prove Lincoln 's innocence. On the train to Chicago, Sara admits to Michael that she has fallen in love with him, and they kiss. Later in the episode, Michael admits he has fallen in love with her. Michael, Sara and Lincoln eventually retrieve the audio file but discover that it 's not legally valid as evidence. They decide to use it to blackmail President Reynolds for a presidential pardon instead. When this fails, Michael and Lincoln are forced to leave the country. When Sara realizes she is being tailed by the FBI, she surrenders herself in order to let the brothers escape. Sara is then faced with a 12 - year prison sentence but as she is about to plead guilty, Kellerman comes forward to testify on her behalf. His testimony exonerates Sara and Lincoln in "Sona '', and Sara reunites with the brothers in Panama and tells them of the news. However, when Agent Kim suddenly appears and tries to kill Lincoln and capture Michael, Sara shoots Kim in the chest. With nowhere to run, Michael and Sara surrender themselves to the Panamanian police but to Sara 's surprise, Michael confesses to Kim 's killing instead of her. She is last seen in a crowd by Lincoln.
In this season, standbys are used to portray the character, including Katie A. Keane in the photographs for the episode "Call Waiting ''. She is revealed to have been kidnapped by The Company, and is said in "Good Fences '' to have been murdered in response to a failed rescue attempt. She was decapitated and her head was sent to Lincoln Burrows in a box. Michael swears to avenge her death.
In Season 4, Sara 's death is retconned and she returns as a main cast member for all 24 episodes. After Gretchen reveals to Michael in the season premiere that Sara 's death was faked, Michael contacts Bruce Bennett, the former aide of Governor Tancredi (Sara 's father) and asks him for help tracking down Sara. The two are reunited later in the episode. Much of Sara 's plotline in the fourth season focuses on the character processing what happened to her in Panama and making a new life with Michael. After they are tracked down by the Company hitman Wyatt, Sara escapes with Michael and Lincoln and accompanies them as they strike a deal with, they must get their hands on Scylla, The Company 's little black book. Sara joins the rest of team as they work to copy the cards, such as in "Breaking and Entering '' where she slips, most notably in "Eagles and Angels '' where Sara is informed that Bruce Bennett was found dead and goes out to a bar. She manages not to drink, and instead tells the bartender stories from her childhood and the importance Bruce had for her. In the next episode, she realizes that Wyatt is following her back from the bar and manages to lose him. In "Five the Hard Way '' Sara 's character takes part in holding the general 's daughter, Lisa, hostage. The team is then betrayed by Self, who takes Scylla for himself to sell it to a buyer. Other homeland security agents chase after them to arrest them for the murder of Trishanne and Self (Self murdered Trishanne, faked his own death and framed the Scylla team for all of it). Michael offers Sara and Sucre to take a bus back to Chicago, although they decided to stay and help. In the next episode, Sara finds it increasingly difficult to watch as Michael neglects his health to continue chasing after Scylla. Sara urges him to get medical attention, but he resists despite her insistence, and refuses to have the necessary operation until Scylla has been acquired. She is forced to provide temporary relief from his condition through a series of injections. However she warns him that he is developing a tolerance, and that they are no substitute for proper medical attention. Nevertheless, Sara helps the team to track down Gretchen and Self. Despite their best efforts, they are unsuccessful and lose both the missing piece of Scylla, and Michael, who is captured by The Company at the end of "Just Business ''.
In the last third of the season, Sara becomes Michael 's only remaining ally, as Lincoln makes a deal with The Company to get Scylla back in exchange for Michael 's surgery. Michael refuses to accept this deal, and escapes from The Company 's clutches after the surgery with Sara 's help. The plot of the next few episodes see Michael and Lincoln 's teams working against each other to acquire Scylla. Sara 's character gives critical help to Michael, such as distracting a guard at the airport where they capture Vincent Sandinsky, a scientist that appears to have ties to The Company. Sara also attempts to comfort Michael after he learns that his mother, Christina Rose Scofield, is still alive and a Company operative and the buyer of Scylla. In the same episode it is revealed that Sara is pregnant with Michael 's child. In "Cowboys and Indians '', Michael and Lincoln put their differences aside and work together to steal Scylla from Christina. Meanwhile, Sara is kidnapped by The Company to hold Michael at ransom. In this and the next episode "Rate of Exchange '', Sara shares screen - time with T - Bag for the first time. She is almost raped by him, but is rescued by Michael at the last minute. In the series finale, they hand Scylla over to the UN and are all exonerated. Their happiness is short - lived when it is revealed that Michael 's tumor is back. In the epilogue of the series set four years later, Sara is shown living in Panama with her son, Michael Scofield Jr. (presumably she is forced to relocate there after her escape from prison as documented in the Final Break). She then appears at Michael 's grave with her son at the reunion of many of the series ' principal characters - Lincoln, Mahone and Sucre. She lays flowers on Michael 's grave and the series ends with all the characters walking towards the seaside in the sun.
Sara is shown in the series as a compassionate yet introverted doctor who treated each one of them with the same cordiality and respect. Given this fact, she has little sense of humour and is incorruptible. In the episode "The Rat '', Sara 's father questions her motive for helping Lincoln Burrows, to which she replies, "It 's my job to advocate for (my patients). '' Sarah Wayne Callies, who portrays Sara Tancredi, remarks that the character "feels a certain level of responsibility to these guys. Partly because who her father is... she 's the kind of person who would rather take a stand and sleep well at night than have a peaceful family. ''
In the second season, Sara becomes part of the conspiracy plot of the show after her involvement in Michael and Lincoln 's escape, and her father 's later pursuit of information concerning Lincoln 's case. She is continuously chased by covert agents after the death of her father in "Buried ''. Sara later confides in Michael in episode "Chicago '' that the two things keeping her going are her feelings for him and that she wants to seek justice for her father 's death. The character is described by Jay Bobbin from Zap2it.com as "gutsy '', while TV Guide 's Maya Schechter remarks that Sara is "one tough cookie ''. Regarding her character 's change in the second season, Callies says, "She 's just someone who has really rushed at life and absorbed experience with real enthusiasm. She 's getting a lot more than she bargained for right now, and I certainly do n't think she 'll be the same person after this. ''
Sara Tancredi was introduced to the series as the daughter of the Illinois governor and the prison doctor who the protagonist frequently visits to obtain his insulin shot. The background story of the character, revealed in the sixteenth episode of the first season, was not actually conceived along with the original conception of the series. Callies commented in an interview that it was the "very first inkling '' that she had about the character 's past. Also in the same interview, the actress mentioned that during the production of the series pilot, she had suggested to Prison Break creator Paul Scheuring that "it would be interesting to play her as a recovering alcoholic ''.
The character 's continuation as a major role in the second season was a "surprise '' to Callies since the second season revolves around the lives of the eight fugitives outside the prison. The actress states that it is "some of the most creative storytelling for women on TV right now '' and that she was given "lot of latitude in establishing a sense of who (the character) is ''. As the characterization of Sara continues to develop, Scheuring describes the character as "one of (the series ') strongest components ''.
Towards the end of the production of the second season of Prison Break, Callies ' pregnancy was announced. With the pregnancy not incorporated into the show, the story was written in such a way to account for Sara 's disappearance during Callies ' maternity leave. At the time Paul Scheuring commented, "It actually fits into what we were already planning. '' He also claimed that the original treatment would have included "explanations for why she was n't in the first (batch) of episodes '' of the third season, later revealing that it would set up a planned 13 - episode story arc that would ultimately culminate with her character 's death.
However, due to Callies and the show 's producers being unable to agree on a new contract, the character was suddenly "killed off '' in the fourth episode, much earlier than planned. Her sparse appearances during the season (including the use of stand - ins with their faces obscured) and her gruesome, off screen death was the result of working around the inability to film additional scenes with the actress, as well as for dramatic and emotional impact.
However, Sara 's fate was retconned due to "fan backlash '' and she returned to the series with an active role in Season 4.
The character Sara Tancredi was portrayed by Sarah Wayne Callies who was the first actress the producers saw at the audition for the role. Incidentally, Callies was also the first to become a principal cast member. In season 3, other actresses were used to portray the role, though their faces were never shown on screen.
A newspaper article about Sara Tancredi is visible and readable in the Pilot episode of the series (as one of the many that Michael tears off the walls of his apartment). The article gives Sara 's middle name as "Wayne '' (the same as that of the actress portraying her). It also says that she is the "second - eldest daughter of Frank Tancredi '' (later retconned in the episode "Buried '').
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who does gandalf fight in the fellowship of the ring | Balrog - wikipedia
Balrogs / ˈbælrɒɡz / are fictional creatures who appear in J.R.R. Tolkien 's Middle - earth legendarium. Such creatures first appeared in print in his novel The Lord of the Rings, where the Fellowship of the Ring encounter one known as Durin 's Bane in the Mines of Moria. Balrogs figured in Tolkien 's earlier writings that appeared posthumously in The Silmarillion and other books.
Balrogs are described as tall and menacing beings that can shroud themselves in fire, darkness, and shadow. They frequently appeared armed with fiery whips "of many thongs '', and occasionally used long swords. In Tolkien 's later conception, they could not be readily vanquished -- a certain stature was required by the would - be hero. Only dragons rivalled their capacity for ferocity and destruction, and during the First Age of Middle - earth, they were among the most feared of Morgoth 's forces.
According to The Silmarillion, the evil Vala Melkor corrupted lesser Maiar (angelic beings) to his service in the days of his splendor before the making of Arda. These became known as "Demons of Might '': Valaraukar in Quenya, and Belryg in Sindarin; Balrogs is an Anglicised plural of singular Balrog.
Upon the awakening of the Elves, the Valar captured Melkor and destroyed his fortresses Utumno and Angband. But they overlooked the deepest pits, where, with many of Melkor 's other allies, the Balrogs fled into hiding. When Melkor returned to Middle - earth from Valinor, now bearing the epithet Morgoth, he was attacked by Ungoliant, a spider - like creature; his piercing scream drew the Balrogs out of hiding to his rescue.
When the Noldor arrived in Beleriand in pursuit of Morgoth, they won a swift victory over his Orcs in the Dagor - nuin - Giliath. Fëanor pressed on towards Angband, but the Balrogs came against him, and Fëanor was mortally wounded by Gothmog, Lord of Balrogs. Fëanor 's sons fought off the Balrogs, but Fëanor died of his wounds shortly afterward.
In The Lays of Beleriand, The Lay of Leithian mentions Balrog captains leading Orcs: "the Orcs went forth to rape and war, and Balrog captains marched before ''.
Tolkien tells of two Balrogs slain by Elves in the fall of Gondolin. During the assault on the city, Ecthelion of the Fountain fought Gothmog, and "each slew the other. '' Glorfindel fought a Balrog who waylaid an escape party from the fallen city; both fell from the mountainside in the struggle and perished.
In the War of Wrath that ended the First Age, most of the Balrogs were destroyed, although some including the Balrog known as Durin 's Bane, managed to escape and hide in "caverns at the roots of the earth ''.
In The Fellowship of the Ring, the Fellowship ventured through Moria and were attacked in the Chamber of Mazarbul by Orcs and the Balrog. Gandalf faced the Balrog at the Bridge of Khazad - dûm and broke the Bridge, but was dragged down by the Balrog. He slew the Balrog but perished himself at the same time -- to be sent back as the more powerful Gandalf the White.
Tolkien 's conception of Balrogs changed over time. In all his early writing, they are numerous. A host of a thousand of them is mentioned in the Quenta Silmarillion, while at the storming of Gondolin Balrogs in the hundreds ride on the backs of the Dragons. They are roughly of twice human size, and were occasionally killed in battle by Elves and Men. They were fierce demons, associated with fire, armed with fiery whips of many thongs and claws like steel, and Morgoth delighted in using them to torture his captives. They were loyal to Morgoth, and once came out of hiding to save him from capture.
In the published version of The Lord of the Rings, however, Balrogs became altogether more sinister and more powerful. Christopher Tolkien notes the difference, saying that in earlier versions they were "less terrible and certainly more destructible ''. He quotes a very late margin note that was not incorporated into the text saying "at most seven '' ever existed; though in the Annals of Aman, written as late as 1958, after the publication of The Lord of the Rings, Melkor still commands "a host of Balrogs ''. In later writings they ceased to be creatures, but are instead Maiar, lesser Ainur like Gandalf or Sauron, spirits of fire whom Melkor had corrupted before the creation of the World. Power of the order of Gandalf 's was necessary to destroy them, and as Maiar, only their physical forms could be destroyed.
Tolkien says of the Valar (including the Maiar) that they can change their shape at will, and move unclad in the raiment of the world, meaning invisible and without form. But it seems that Morgoth, Sauron, and their associated Maiar could lose this ability: Morgoth, for example, was unable to heal his burns from the Silmarils or wounds from Fingolfin and Thorondor; and Sauron lost his ability to assume a fair - seeming form after his physical body was destroyed in the downfall of Númenor.
Tolkien does not address this specifically for Balrogs though at least in his later conception they are Maiar. In "the Bridge of Khazad - dûm '' in The Fellowship of the Ring, the Balrog appears "like a great shadow, in the middle of which was a dark form, of man - shape maybe, yet greater ''. Though previously the Balrog had entered the "large square chamber '' of Mazarbul, at the Bridge of Khazad - dûm it "drew itself to a great height, and its wings spread from wall to wall '' in what was a vast hall.
The Balrog 's size and shape, therefore, are not given precisely. When Gandalf threw it from the peak of Zirakzigil, the Balrog "broke the mountain - side where he smote it in his ruin ''.
Whether Balrogs have wings (and if so, whether they can fly) is unclear. This is due partly to Tolkien 's changing conception of Balrogs, but mostly to his imprecise but suggestive and possibly figurative description of the Balrog that confronted Gandalf in Moria.
The three key quotations:
His enemy halted again, facing him, and the shadow about it reached out like two vast wings.
... suddenly it drew itself up to a great height, and its wings were spread from wall to wall...
With a terrible cry the Balrog fell forward, and its shadow plunged down and vanished.
The argument hinges on whether the "wings '' are physical wings or simply figurative wings of shadow. Many additional facts are adduced to the argument, but there is not enough firm description in Tolkien 's writing to settle the matter definitively.
The Balrog of Moria used a flaming sword ("From out of the shadow a red sword leapt flaming '') and a many - thonged whip that "whined and cracked '' in its battle with Gandalf. In The Silmarillion, they also used black axes and maces. Earlier writings also speak of steel claws and iron mail.
In earlier drafts of The Lord of the Rings, some further indications of Tolkien 's evolving conceptions appear. Notably,
A figure strode to the fissure, no more than man - high yet terror seemed to go before it. They could see the furnace - fire of its eyes from afar; its arms were very long; it had a red (? tongue).
At this writing Tolkien contemplated an edict of the Valar concerning Balrogs, having Gandalf challenge the Balrog by saying:
It is forbidden for any Balrog to come beneath the sky since Fionwe son of Manwe overthrew Thangorodrim.
The name "Balrog '', but not the meaning, emerges early in Tolkien 's work: it appears in the Fall of Gondolin, one of the earliest texts Tolkien wrote (ca. 1918). An early list of names described Balrog as "an Orc - word with no pure equivalent in Tolkien 's invented language of Quenya: ' borrowed Malaroko - ' ".
In Gnomish (another of Tolkien 's invented languages) Balrog is parsed as balc ' cruel ' + graug ' demon ', with a Quenya equivalent Malkarauke. Variant forms of the latter include Nalkarauke and Valkarauke.
By the 1940s, when Tolkien began writing The Lord of the Rings, he had come to think of Balrog as Noldorin balch ' cruel ' + rhaug ' demon ', with a Quenya equivalent Malarauko (from nwalya - ' to torture ' + rauko ' demon ').
The last etymology, appearing in the invented languages Quendi and Eldar, derives Balrog as the Sindarin translation of the Quenya form Valarauko (Demon of Might). This etymology was published in The Silmarillion.
The Sindarin plural for Balrog is not known. Tolkien consistently used Balrogs, but this is generally considered an anglicization because Sindarin does not form plurals that way. In one case Tolkien used Balrogath, similar to Periannath ' Halflings ' and Dagorath ' battles '. However, the - ath suffix was often used as a ' class plural ' (cf. giliath ' all stars of the firmament '), and thus Balrogath might mean ' Balrogkind ' rather than simply ' Balrogs '. Linguists disagree about how a simple Sindarin plural would be formed. The historically justified form would likely be * Balroeg. This takes into account the fact that the older singular would have been * Balraug (compare the Quenya cognate Valarauko): The Sindarin umlaut product of au is known to be oe. If analogy prevailed in later Sindarin, the plural form * Belryg might however have replaced the historically justified plural. Compare, for instance, annon "gate '' having the plural form ennyn.
The plural of Quenya Valarauko (also Valarauka) is attested as Valaraukar.
Gandalf on the bridge of Khazad - dûm calls the Balrog "flame of Udûn '' (Udûn being the Sindarin name of Morgoth 's fortress Utumno).
An etymon existing before Tolkien 's languages (of which he surely would have known): the Norse ' bál ' means ' fire, ' and an epithet of Odin, likely referring to his warlike nature, was ' Báleygr, ' or ' fire - eyed. '
Gothmog appears in various versions of Silmarillion material. He is physically massive and strong, and in one version he is some 12 feet tall. He wields a black axe and whip of flame as his weapons.
He holds the titles of the Lord of the Balrogs (but see Lungorthin below), the High Captain of Angband, and Marshal of the Hosts.
In the Second Battle, Dagor - nuin - Giliath, he leads a force that ambushes Fëanor and wounds him mortally. He leads Balrogs, Orc - hosts, and Dragons as Morgoth 's commander in the field in the Fifth Battle, Nírnaeth Arnoediad, and slays Fingon, High King of the Noldor. In that same battle, he captures Húrin of Dor - lómin, who had slain his personal guard of Battle - trolls, and brings him to Angband. As Marshal of the Hosts, he is in command of the Storming of Gondolin. He is about to kill Tuor when Ecthelion of the Fountain, a Noldorin Elf - lord, intervenes. Gothmog fights Ecthelion in single combat, and they kill each other.
In The Book of Lost Tales, Tolkien describes Kosomot, the original version of Gothmog, as a son of Morgoth and the ogress Fluithuin or Ulbandi.
Gothmog is Sindarin and means ' Dread Oppressor '.
Kosomot is often considered Gothmog 's Quenya name; however, in the Quenya name - list of The Fall of Gondolin another version appears, Kosomoko.
In The Lord of the Rings, a different character bears the name "Gothmog ''; see Gothmog (Third Age).
Lungorthin appears in Tolkien 's early Lay of the Children of Húrin as "Lungorthin, Lord of Balrogs ''. This might be another name for Gothmog (above), though Christopher Tolkien thought it more likely that Lungorthin was simply "a Balrog lord ''.
This Balrog appears in The Lord of the Rings, encountered by the Fellowship of the Ring in the Mines of Moria.
It survived the defeat of Morgoth in the War of Wrath and escaped to hide beneath the Misty Mountains. For more than five millennia, the Balrog remained in its deep hiding place at the roots of Caradhras, one of the Mountains of Moria, until in the Third Age, the mithril - miners of the Dwarf - kingdom of Khazad - dûm disturbed it (or released it from its prison) in T.A. 1980. The Balrog promptly killed Durin VI, the King of Khazad - dûm, whereafter it was called Durin 's Bane by the Dwarves.
The Dwarves attempted to fight the Balrog, but its power was far too great. In their efforts to hold Khazad - dûm against it, many Dwarves were killed: Durin 's successor King Náin only a year after his father. The survivors were forced to flee. This disaster also reached the Silvan Elves of Lórien, many of whom also fled the "Nameless Terror '' (it was not recognized as a Balrog at the time). The Elves called the place Moria, the "Black Pit '' or "Black Chasm '' (though the name Moria also appears on the West Gate of Moria, constructed thousands of years earlier in the Second Age).
For another 500 years, Moria was left to the Balrog; though according to Unfinished Tales, Orcs crept in almost immediately after the Dwarves were driven out, leading to Nimrodel 's flight. Around T.A. 2480, Sauron began to put his plans for war into effect, and he sent Orcs and Trolls to the Misty Mountains to bar all of the passes: Some of these creatures came to Moria, and the Balrog allowed them to remain.
During the reign of Thráin II, the Dwarves attempted to retake Moria in the War of the Dwarves and Orcs, culminating in the Battle of Azanulbizar before the eastern gate of Moria, in T.A. 2799. This was a victory for the Dwarves, but the presence of the Balrog prevented them from reoccupying Moria. Dáin Ironfoot, having slain the Orc Azog near the gate, perceived the terror of the Balrog within and warned Thráin that Moria was unachievable until some force could change the world and remove the Balrog. The Dwarves thus departed and resumed their exile. In T.A. 2989, despite Dáin 's warning, Balin made another attempt to retake Moria. Though his party was initially successful in starting a colony, they were massacred a few years later.
In ' January ' T.A. 3019, the Fellowship of the Ring travelled through Moria on the way to Mount Doom. They were attacked in the Chamber of Mazarbul by Orcs. The Fellowship fled through a side door, but when the wizard Gandalf the Grey tried to place a "shutting spell '' on the door to block the pursuit behind them, the Balrog entered the chamber on the other side and cast a "terrible '' counterspell. Gandalf spoke a word of Command to stay the door, but the door shattered and the chamber collapsed. Gandalf was severely weakened by this encounter. The company fled with him, but the Orcs and the Balrog, taking a different route, caught up with them at the bridge of Khazad - dûm. The Elf Legolas instantly recognized the Balrog and Gandalf tried to hold the bridge against it. As Gandalf faced the Balrog, he proclaimed, "You can not pass, flame of Udûn! '', and broke the bridge beneath the Balrog. As it fell, the Balrog wrapped its whip about Gandalf 's knees, dragging him to the brink. As the Fellowship looked on in horror, Gandalf cried "Fly, you fools! '' and plunged into the darkness below.
After a long fall, the two crashed into a deep subterranean lake, which extinguished the flames of the Balrog 's body; however it remained "a thing of slime, stronger than a strangling snake ''. They fought in the water, with the Balrog clutching at Gandalf to strangle him, and Gandalf hewing the Balrog with his sword, until finally the Balrog fled into ancient tunnels of unknown origin. Gandalf pursued the creature for eight days, until they climbed to the peak of Zirakzigil, where the Balrog was forced to turn and fight once again, its body erupting into new flame. Here they fought for two days and nights. In the end, the Balrog was defeated and cast down, breaking the mountainside where it fell "in ruin ''. Gandalf himself died shortly afterwards, but he was later sent back to Middle - earth with even greater powers, as Gandalf the White, "until his task was finished ''.
As there are no known dimensions for a Balrog, there are differing representations in the various film adaptations, some of which are capable of flight.
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when was the last time the broncos lost at home | List of Denver Broncos seasons - wikipedia
This is a list of seasons completed by the Denver Broncos, an American football franchise based in Denver, Colorado. The Broncos are members of the West division of the American Football Conference (AFC) of the National Football League (NFL). The list documents their season - by - season records from 1960 to the present day, including post-season records, and league awards for individual players and head coaches. As of the end of the 2016 season, the team has completed 57 seasons (playing in over 900 combined regular season and playoff games), and after winning the AFC West the previous five consecutive seasons (2011 - 15), Denver missed the playoffs, finishing third in the division, with a 9 -- 7 record.
The Broncos franchise was founded on August 14, 1959, by Bob Howsam and played their first season in 1960, in Denver, Colorado as part of the original American Football League (AFL). The team joined the NFL in 1970 as a result of the AFL -- NFL merger.
The franchise has experienced three major periods of success. The first was from 1976 to 1981, when the Broncos did not have a losing season (a season when the team has more losses than wins), and won two AFC West division titles, and one AFC championship. The second began in 1983 and ended in 1998. During this period, the Broncos had just two losing seasons, were AFC champions five times and were Super Bowl champions for two consecutive years. This second period of success is best remembered for John Elway being the team 's quarterback. The most recent run of success, began in 2011, through their current reign as Super Bowl Champions. The five - year stretch has included five AFC West titles, two AFC championships, and in 2015, a 24 -- 10 victory in Super Bowl 50 over the Carolina Panthers. The Broncos have also experienced one notable period of deterioration. From their inaugural season in 1960 until 1975, they did not make either the AFL playoffs or NFL playoffs and had just two winning seasons. The Broncos were the only charter AFL franchise to never have a winning season during the AFL 's ten years of existence (although the team finished with at 7 - 7 in 1962), with their first winning season not occurring until 1973, their fourth year as a member of the NFL 's AFC. They also experienced their two seasons with the fewest wins ever, winning just two of 14 games in both 1963 and 1964.
The Broncos have been AFC West champions 15 times, having won the division the last five consecutive seasons (2011 to 2015) prior to 2016, and have also earned wild card berths into the playoffs seven times, for a total of 22 playoff appearances. They have been conference champions eight times (tied with the Pittsburgh Steelers, and one behind the New England Patriots who have the most AFC championships) and Super Bowl champions thrice.
Note: The finish, wins, losses, and ties columns list regular season results and exclude any post-season play.
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return to the 36th chamber of shaolin full movie | Return to the 36th Chamber - Wikipedia
Return to the 36th Chamber (少林 搭 棚 大師, Shao Lin ta peng hsiao tzu, Return of the Master Killer or Master Killer II) is a 1980 Shaw Brothers Studio Hong Kong martial arts comedy film starring Gordon Liu. It was directed by Lau Kar - Leung and written by Ni Kuang. The film is the second in a loosely connected trilogy, following The 36th Chamber Of Shaolin (1978) and preceding Disciples Of The 36th Chamber (1985). In the first and third films in the series, Liu portrays the Shaolin monk San Te, but in Return, he portrays an imposter monk.
The story opens at a fabric dyeing mill. The quality of the dyes has noticeably worsened, and the factory owner, Wang, and his subordinate chief, Boss Wa, decide to hire some Manchu overseers to improve the work. Wang decides to cut the workers ' salary to pay the mercenaries, and when the workers protest they are viciously thrashed.
When sitting in a tea house discussing their problems, the workers are joined by Chu Jen - chieh, a good - hearted small - time con man and the foreman 's younger brother who is posing as a monk. He offers to help, but since he can not actually do kung fu, he and the foreman 's assistant, Ah Chao, devise a plan to trick the Manchu into reinstating the full salary pay, with Jen - chieh posing as the Shaolin 's head abbot of 36th Chamber, San Te.
At first the scheme works, but Wang quickly works out that this man is an impostor, and has him driven away and his Manchu hirelings retaliate against the workers. Feeling guilty about what has happened, Jen - chieh leaves and heads for the Shaolin temple to learn the real fighting arts. His first attempts to enter by stealth are thwarted by the vigilant monks and his own bumbling, but eventually he manages to sneak his way in, just to run into the real San Te. He, too, realizes that Jen - chieh is not what he claims to be, but he announces that he wants to give him a chance: Jen - chieh is to build a set of scaffolds all around the temple and renovate the entire complex.
Somewhat reluctantly, Jen - chieh goes to work, but he is constantly distracted by the monks practicing martial arts in the 36th Chamber, which he can overlook from his high vantage point. Eventually, he begins to train himself in kung fu by using the conditions of his assignment to improvise training facilities. However, this causes him to lag behind in his work, and it takes him more than a year to finish the gantry. As soon as Jen - chieh announces that he is finished, San Te wants him to dismantle the structure and leave the monastery. Rebelling against this decision, Jen - chieh lands himself inside the chamber, and while trying to evade the abbot chasing him, he inadvertently manages to pass all hazards set in the chamber with ease. San Te finally corners him and forces him to leave, with a strange smile on his lips.
Jen - chieh returns to town to find that the conditions of the workers have worsened: Their salary has been cut by nearly half, and any who have protested had been laid off to eke out a meager existence. Elated by his return, some of the ex-workers begin to pester Jen - chieh with their high expectations, which leads to Jen - chieh instinctively and to his own surprise fighting them off with his newly acquired kung fu skills. The next morning, Jen - chieh appears at the dye mill and thrashes the overseers, using bamboo fibers (like the ones he used when building the scaffolds) to tie them up and incapacitate them, introducing his style as "scaffolding kung fu ''.
Once the overseers are dealt with, Wang and his bodyguards appear at the scene. Jen - chieh lures them out of the city to a mansion under construction, where he uses the building equipment and the tight quarters to his advantage. Finally overpowering Wang, he forces him to pay his workers their full wages again. Wang admits defeat, and Jen - chieh continues his training on the half - finished grounds.
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who said don't let the bastards get you down | Illegitimi non carborundum - wikipedia
Illegitimi non carborundum is a mock - Latin aphorism meaning "Do n't let the bastards grind you down ''.
The word illegitimi (i.e., the plural of illegitimus, actually translates to "unlawful '' or "outlaw '' but resembles the English "illegitimate '') is sometimes given in the plural dative case (that is, illegitimīs), a case that follows the Latin gerundive and denotes agency. Non negates activity. Carborundum is an industrial abrasive material also known as silicon carbide, but its name resembles a Latin gerundive, a grammatical construct that expresses desirability of whatever the verb denotes. So carborundum can be mock - translated to mean "fit to be ground ''. Thus "illegitimi (s) non carborundum '' would mean "not fit to be ground by the illegitimate '', or "Do n't let the bastards grind you down ''.
The phrase originated during World War II. Lexicographer Eric Partridge attributes it to British army intelligence very early in the war (using the plural dative / ablative illegitimis). The phrase was adopted by US Army General "Vinegar '' Joe Stilwell as his motto during the war. It was later further popularized in the US by 1964 presidential candidate Barry Goldwater.
The phrase is also used as the first line of one of the extra cod Latin verses added in 1953 to an unofficial school song at Harvard University, "Ten Thousand Men of Harvard ''. This most frequently played fight song of the Harvard University Band, is, to some extent, a parody of more solemn school songs like "Fair Harvard thy Sons to your Jubilee Throng ''. The first verse goes:
The phrase is also used as part of a student painted crest on the bottom floor of Hodge Hall at Princeton Theological Seminary.
A wooden plaque bearing the phrase sat prominently on the desk of former Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives John Boehner.
There are many variants of the phrase, such as Illegitimis non carborundum, Noli illegitimi carborundum and Nil illegitimi carborundum. No version using carborundum as a verb is legitimate Latin, as carborundum is a noun and not a gerundive of any verb, although it does look like a gerundive. Also the word bastard in Latin is spurius or, much less commonly, nothus. The two most common variations translate as follows: illegitimi non carborundum = the unlawful are not silicon carbide, illegitimis non carborundum = the unlawful do n't have silicon carbide.
Bastards is often used in English as a generic derogatory term, not necessarily relating to the marital status of one 's parents.
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all the animals that live in the artic | Arctic - wikipedia
The Arctic (/ ˈɑːrktɪk / or / ˈɑːrtɪk /) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Alaska (United States), Northern Canada (Canada), Finland, Greenland (Denmark), Iceland, Norway, Russia and Sweden. Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost - containing tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places.
The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth 's ecosystems. For example, the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions. In recent years, Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming. Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice, zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants and human societies. Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic.
The word Arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός (arktikos), "near the Bear, northern '' and that from the word ἄρκτος (arktos), meaning bear. The name refers either to the constellation Ursa Major, the "Great Bear '', which is prominent in the northern portion of the celestial sphere, or to the constellation Ursa Minor, the "Little Bear '', which contains Polaris, the Pole star, also known as the North Star.
There are a number of definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle (66 ° 33'N), the approximate southern limit of the midnight sun and the polar night. Another definition of the Arctic is the region where the average temperature for the warmest month (July) is below 10 ° C (50 ° F); the northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region.
The Arctic 's climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers. Its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm (20 in). High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall. Average winter temperatures can be as low as − 40 ° C (− 40 ° F), and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately − 68 ° C (− 90 ° F). Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures and heavier snowfalls than the colder and drier interior areas. The Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to Arctic sea ice shrinkage, diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet, and Arctic methane release as the permafrost thaws.
Due to the poleward migration of the planet 's isotherms (about 35 mi (56 km) per decade during the past 30 years as a consequence of global warming), the Arctic region (as defined by tree line and temperature) is currently shrinking. Perhaps the most alarming result of this is arctic sea ice shrinkage. There is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near - complete to complete loss in September from 2040 to some time well beyond 2100. About half of the analyzed models show near - complete to complete sea ice loss in September by the year 2100.
Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, and to cold, dark, snow - covered winter conditions.
Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens, and mosses, which all grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. As one moves northward, the amount of warmth available for plant growth decreases considerably. In the northernmost areas, plants are at their metabolic limits, and small differences in the total amount of summer warmth make large differences in the amount of energy available for maintenance, growth and reproduction. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity and variety of plants to decrease. Trees can not grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in height; sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare; non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses and forbs (like the Arctic poppy).
Herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and caribou. They are preyed on by the snowy owl, Arctic fox, Grizzly bear, and wolf. The polar bear is also a predator, though it prefers to hunt for marine life from the ice. There are also many birds and marine species endemic to the colder regions. Other terrestrial animals include wolverines, moose, Dall sheep, ermines, and Arctic ground squirrels. Marine mammals include seals, walrus, and several species of cetacean -- baleen whales and also narwhals, killer whales, and belugas. An excellent and famous example of a ring species exists and has been described around the arctic circle in the form of the Larus gulls.
The Arctic includes sizable natural resources (oil, gas, minerals, fresh water, fish and if the subarctic is included, forest) to which modern technology and the economic opening up of Russia have given significant new opportunities. The interest of the tourism industry is also on the increase.
The Arctic contains some of the last and most extensive continuous wilderness areas in the world, and its significance in preserving biodiversity and genotypes is considerable. The increasing presence of humans fragments vital habitats. The Arctic is particularly susceptible to the abrasion of groundcover and to the disturbance of the rare breeding grounds of the animals that are characteristic to the region. The Arctic also holds 1 / 5 of the Earth 's water supply.
During the Cretaceous time period, the Arctic still had seasonal snows, though only a light dusting and not enough to permanently hinder plant growth. Animals such as the Chasmosaurus, Hypacrosaurus, Troodon, and Edmontosaurus may have all migrated north to take advantage of the summer growing season, and migrated south to warmer climes when the winter came. A similar situation may also have been found amongst dinosaurs that lived in Antarctic regions, such as the Muttaburrasaurus of Australia.
However, others claim that dinosaurs lived year - round at very high latitudes, such as near the Colville River, which is now at about 70 ° N but at the time (70 million years ago) was 10 ° further north.
The earliest inhabitants of North America 's central and eastern Arctic are referred to as the Arctic small tool tradition (AST) and existed c. 2500 BC. AST consisted of several Paleo - Eskimo cultures, including the Independence cultures and Pre-Dorset culture. The Dorset culture (Inuktitut: Tuniit or Tunit) refers to the next inhabitants of central and eastern Arctic. The Dorset culture evolved because of technological and economic changes during the period of 1050 -- 550 BC. With the exception of the Quebec / Labrador peninsula, the Dorset culture vanished around 1500 AD. Supported by genetic testing, evidence shows that descendants of the Dorset culture, known as the Sadlermiut, survived in Aivilik, Southampton and Coats Islands, until the beginning of the 20th century.
The Dorset / Thule culture transition dates around the 9th -- 10th centuries. Scientists theorize that there may have been cross-contact of the two cultures with sharing of technology, such as fashioning harpoon heads, or the Thule may have found Dorset remnants and adapted their ways with the predecessor culture. Others believe the Thule displaced the Dorset. By 1300, the Inuit, present - day Arctic inhabitants and descendants of Thule culture, had settled in west Greenland, and moved into east Greenland over the following century. Over time, the Inuit have migrated throughout the Arctic regions of Canada, Greenland, Russia, and the United States.
Other Circumpolar North indigenous peoples include the Buryat, Chukchi, Evenks, Inupiat, Khanty, Koryaks, Nenets, Sami, Yukaghir, Gwich'in, and Yupik. The Yupik still refer to themselves as Eskimo, which means "snowshoe netters '', not "raw meat eaters '' as it is sometimes mistakenly translated.
The eight Arctic nations (Canada, Denmark (Greenland & The Faroe Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and USA) are all members of the Arctic Council, as are organizations representing six indigenous populations. The Council operates on consensus basis, mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not addressing boundary or resource disputes.
Though Arctic policy priorities differ, every Arctic nation is concerned about sovereignty / defense, resource development, shipping routes, and environmental protection. Much work remains on regulatory agreements regarding shipping, tourism, and resource development in Arctic waters.
Research in the Arctic has long been a collaborative international effort, evidenced by the International Polar Year. The International Arctic Science Committee, hundreds of scientists and specialists of the Arctic Council, and the Barents Euro - Arctic Council are more examples of collaborative international Arctic research.
No country owns the geographic North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The surrounding six Arctic states that border the Arctic Ocean -- Canada, Denmark (via Greenland), Iceland, Norway, Russia, and the United States -- are limited to a 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) exclusive economic zone (EEZ) off their coasts. Two Arctic states (Finland and Sweden) do not have direct access to the Arctic Ocean.
Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a country has ten years to make claims to an extended continental shelf beyond its 200 nautical mile zone. Due to this, Norway (which ratified the convention in 1996), Russia (ratified in 1997), Canada (ratified in 2003) and Denmark (ratified in 2004) launched projects to establish claims that certain sectors of the Arctic seabed should belong to their territories.
On 2 August 2007, two Russian bathyscaphes, MIR - 1 and MIR - 2, for the first time in history descended to the Arctic seabed beneath the North Pole and placed there a Russian flag made of rust - proof titanium alloy. The mission was a scientific expedition, but the flag - placing during Arktika 2007 generated commentary on and concern for a race for control of the Arctic 's vast hydrocarbon resources.
Foreign ministers and other officials representing Canada, Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the United States met in Ilulissat, Greenland on 28 May 2008 at the Arctic Ocean Conference and announced the Ilulissat Declaration, blocking any "new comprehensive international legal regime to govern the Arctic Ocean, '' and pledging "the orderly settlement of any possible overlapping claims. ''
As of 2012, Denmark is claiming the continental shelf between Greenland and the North Pole. The Russian Federation is claiming a large swath of seabed along the Lomonosov Ridge but confined to its sector of the Arctic.
Since 1937, the larger portion of the Asian - side Arctic region has been extensively explored by Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations. Between 1937 and 1991, 88 international polar crews established and occupied scientific settlements on the drift ice and were carried thousands of kilometers by the ice flow.
The Arctic is comparatively clean, although there are certain ecologically difficult localized pollution problems that present a serious threat to people 's health living around these pollution sources. Due to the prevailing worldwide sea and air currents, the Arctic area is the fallout region for long - range transport pollutants, and in some places the concentrations exceed the levels of densely populated urban areas. An example of this is the phenomenon of Arctic haze, which is commonly blamed on long - range pollutants. Another example is with the bioaccumulation of PCB 's (polychlorinated biphenyls) in Arctic wildlife and people.
There have been many proposals to preserve the Arctic over the years. Most recently a group of stars at the Rio Earth Summit, on 21 June 2012, proposed protecting the Arctic, similar to the Antarctic protection. The initial focus of the campaign will be a UN resolution creating a global sanctuary around the pole, and a ban on oil drilling and unsustainable fishing in the Arctic.
The effects of global warming in the Arctic include rising temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet. Potential methane release from the region, especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates, is also a concern. Because of the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming, it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming. The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification.
The Arctic is especially vulnerable to the effects of any climate change, as has become apparent with the reduction of sea ice in recent years. Climate models predict much greater warming in the Arctic than the global average, resulting in significant international attention to the region. In particular, there are concerns that Arctic shrinkage, a consequence of melting glaciers and other ice in Greenland, could soon contribute to a substantial rise in sea levels worldwide.
The current Arctic warming is leading to fears of ancient carbon being released from thawing permafrost, leading to methane and carbon dioxide production by micro-organisms. Release of methane and carbon dioxide stored in permafrost could cause abrupt and severe global warming, as they are potent greenhouse gases.
Climate change is also predicted to have a large impact on Tundra vegetation, causing an increase of shrubs, and having a negative impact on bryophytes and lichens.
Apart from concerns regarding the detrimental effects of warming in the Arctic, some potential opportunities have gained attention. The melting of the ice is making the Northwest Passage, the shipping routes through the northernmost latitudes, more navigable, raising the possibility that the Arctic region will become a prime trade route. One harbinger of the opening navigability of the Arctic took place in the summer of 2016 when the Crystal Serenity successfully navigated the Northwest Passage, a first for a large cruise ship. In addition, it is believed that the Arctic seabed may contain substantial oil fields which may become accessible if the ice covering them melts. These factors have led to recent international debates as to which nations can claim sovereignty or ownership over the waters of the Arctic.
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who built the mission san carlos borromeo de carmelo | Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo - wikipedia
Mission San Carlos Borromeo del río Carmelo, also known as the Carmel Mission or Mission Carmel, first built in 1797, is one of the most authentically restored Roman Catholic mission churchs in California. Located in Carmel - by - the - Sea, California, it is on the National Register of Historic Places and is a National Historic Landmark. The mission was the headquarters of all Alta California missions from 1797 until 1833. It was headed by Saint Junípero Serra from 1770 until his death in 1784. It was also the seat of the second presidente, Father Fermin Francisco de Lasuen, who was in charge of completing nine more mission churches.
The mission buildings and lands were secularized by the Mexican government in 1833. They fell into disrepair by the mid-19th century. The chapel was saved from total destruction when the roof was rebuilt in 1884. In 1886, ownership of the mission was transferred from a group of Franciscans to the Diocese of Monterey. The mission has been a parish within that diocese ever since. Beginning in 1931, Harry Downie began restoring the mission and worked continuously on the project for the next 50 years. It is the only Spanish mission in California that has its original bell and bell tower.
Mission Carmel was the second mission built by Franciscan missionaries in Upper California. It was first established as Mission San Carlos Borromeo in Monterey, California near the native village of Tamo on June 3, 1770. It was named for Carlo Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan, Italy, and was the site of the first Christian confirmation in Alta California. When the mission moved, the original building continued to operate as the Royal Presidio chapel and later became the current Cathedral of San Carlos Borromeo.
Pedro Fages, who served as military governor of Alta California from 1770 to 1774, kept his headquarters in the polity 's capitol, at the Presidio of Monterey. Fages worked his men very harshly and was seen as a tyrant. Serra intervened on behalf of Fages ' soldiers, and the two men did not get along. Fages regarded the Spanish installations in California as military institutions first, and religious outposts second. The soldiers raped the Indian woman and kept them as concubines. Serra wanted to put some distance between the missions neophytes and Fages ' soldiers.
Serra found that the land near the mouth of the Carmel River (named Río del Carmelo by Vizcaíno in 1603) was better suited for farming. In May 1771, Spain 's viceroy approved Serra 's petition to relocate the mission. The mission was established in the new location on August 1, 1771; the first mass was celebrated on August 24, and Serra officially took up residence in the newly constructed buildings on December 24.
The name of the relocated mission was extended to Mission San Carlos Borromeo del Río Carmelo. It was within a short distance of the Rumsen Ohlone villages of Tucutnut and Achasta. The latter village may have been founded after Mission San Carlos was relocated to Carmel. The mission was about 10 miles (16 km) from the nearest Esselen territory, Excelen.
After the Carmel mission was moved to Carmel Valley, the Franciscans began to baptize some natives. By the end of 1771, the population of mission was 15 with an additional 22 baptized Indians, out of a total population of northern California of 60.
Farming was not very productive and for several years the mission was dependent upon the arrival of supply ships. Historian Jame Culleton wrote in 1950, "The summer of ' 73 came without bringing the supply ship. Neither Carmel nor Monterey was anything like self - supporting. ''
To improve baptismal rates, they sought to convert key members of the Esselen and Rumsen tribes, including chiefs. On May 9, 1775, Junípero Serra baptized what appears to be the first Esselen, Pach - hepas, who was the 40 - year - old chief of the Excelen. His baptism took place at Xasáuan, 10 leagues (about 26 miles (42 km)) southeast of the mission, in an area now named Cachagua, a close approximation of the Esselen name. This persuaded some Indians to follow them to the mission.
The Esselen and Ohlone Indians who lived near the mission were baptized and then forcibly relocated and conscripted as forced laborers. Neophytes were taught to be farmers, shepherds, cowboys, blacksmiths, carpenters, bricklayers, furniture makers, tanners, weavers and candle makers. Disease, starvation, overwork, and torture decimated these tribes. In 1794, the population reached its peak of 927, but by 1823 the total had dwindled to 381. There was extensive "comingling of the Costanoan with peoples of different linguistic and cultural background during the mission period. ''
In the beginning, the mission relied on bear meat from Mission San Antonio de Padua and supplies brought by ship from Mission San Diego de Alcalá.
In 1779, the natives Americans at Carmel Mission harvested 1660 bushels of wheat, 700 bushels of barley, 165 bushels of beans, and 85 bushels of maize. Four years later, the native laborers produced enough crops to support 700 people. The mission had more than 500 cattle and sheep.
Carmel mission continued to grow during most of the 18th century. The largest population was neophytes was 876 in 1795. By 1800, agriculture production at Carmel Mission was near its peak. The Mission reported to Mexico that it had 2180 horses and cattle, and 4160 smaller livestock including sheep. The total grain harvested was about 3700 bushels per year with a high of 7400 in 1797.
In December 1832, the mission reported to Mexico that it had 2,100 cattle, 3,300 sheep, 410 horses, and 8 mules.
"Mission Carmel '', as it came to be known, was Serra 's favorite and, because it was close to Monterey, the capital of Alta California, he chose it as his headquarters. When he died on August 28, 1784, he was interred beneath the chapel floor. After Serra 's death, Father Fermin Lasuén replaced the adobe structure with one made of stone quarried from the nearby Santa Lucia Mountains.
Eight months later, in August 1833, the newly independent Mexican government secularized the mission and all its lands. It stipulated that half the mission lands should be awarded to the native people, but this purpose was never accomplished. Most mission property was bought by government officials or their wealthy friends. The priests could not maintain the missions without the Indians ' forced labor and the mission and lands were soon abandoned. The Indians were forced from the mission. Some attempted to return to their native ways, and others found work as ranch hands or servants on farms and ranches.
By 1850, the mission was nearly a ruin. The stone chapel building was deteriorating while most of the adobe buildings were eroding away. The roof collapsed in 1852. The U.S. federal government returned the mission and its lands to the Catholic Church in 1859.
When Mexico ceded California to the United States following the Mexican -- American War, the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided that the land grants would be honored, but required that the owners provide legal proof of their title. As required by the Land Act of 1851, Archbishop Joseph Sadoc Alemany filed a claim on February 19, 1853 on behalf of the Roman Catholic Church. He sought return of all former mission lands in the State. The state agreed to return the original mission buildings, cemeteries, and gardens to the church.
When the Roman Catholic Church gained full control of the buildings on October 19, 1859, the mission was in ruins. In 1884 Father Angel Casanova was able to gather enough private funds to replace the roof on the chapel sufficient to preserve it until the 1930s. In 1931 Monsignor Philip Scher hired master cabinet maker Henry John ("Harry '') Downie who had a excellent reputation for restoring Spanish antiques. Scher initially asked Downie to restore some statues at the Carmel Mission but his job quickly expanded and he was put in charge of restoring the entire mission. Two years later, the church transferred the mission from the Franciscans to the local diocese and it became a regular parish church. Downie lived nearby in Carmel and worked almost daily for almost 50 years to restore the mission, ancillary buildings, walls, and grounds. He painstakingly researched the church 's architecture and site, often relying on original Spanish sources, and gathered genuine artifacts from across California.
He first restored the padres ' quarters, then the roof of the chapel in 1936, and over the next five years the interior of the basilica. In 1941, he oversaw restoration of the former soldiers ' quarters on the east side of the quadrangle. In 1943 he began restoration of a building that had been on the south side of the quadrangle, although nothing was left but the eroded adobe foundation and a few ruined walls. The building was originally a segregated, locked dormitory for girls called the monjero (nunnery). They were separated from their families at age 8. The boys and unmarried men also had their own dormitory, though it was less confining.
The building was reconstructed and made into classrooms for Junipero Serra Elementary School. In 1946, the ruin on the east side of the quadrangle that had been the original padre 's kitchen and a blacksmith shop was rebuilt. It is used today as a chapel. Downie also consulted on the restoration of the missions that are considered the most authentic, including San Luis Obispo, San Juan Bautista, and San Buenaventura. He also helped the Native Daughters of the Golden West to reconstruct Mission Soledad. He was knighted by Pope Pius and by King Juan Carlos of Spain.
In 1960, the mission was designated as a minor basilica by Pope John XXIII. In 1987, Pope John Paul II visited the mission as part of his U.S. tour.
The original bell nicknamed Ave Maria was made in Mexico City in 1807. It was placed at the Mission in 1820. When the mission was secularized in 1834, the bell was removed and held onto by local Native Americans for safekeeping. It was finally lost and relocated once again during restoration. It was re-installed in the mission bell tower in 1925.
As a result of Downie 's dedicated efforts to restore the buildings, the Carmel mission church is one of the most authentically restored of all the mission churches in California. Mission Carmel has been designated a National Historic Landmark by the National Park Service. It is an active parish church of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Monterey.
In addition to its activity as a place of worship, Mission Carmel also hosts concerts, art exhibits, lectures and numerous other community events. In 1986, then - pastor Monsignor Eamon MacMahon acquired a Casavant Frères organ with horizontal trumpets. Its hand - painted casework is decorated with elaborate carvings and statuary reflecting the Spanish decorative style seen on the main altar.
The mission also serves as a museum, preserving its own history and the history of the area. There are four specific museum galleries: the Harry Downie Museum, describing restoration efforts; the Munras Family Heritage Museum, describing the history of one of the most important area families; the Jo Mora Chapel Gallery, hosting rotating art exhibits as well as the monumental bronze and travertine cenotaph (1924) sculpted by Jo Mora; and the Convento Museum, which holds the cell Serra lived and died in, as well as interpretive exhibits. At one end of the museum is a special chapel room containing some of the vestments used by Serra.
The mission grounds are also the location of the Junipero Serra School, a private Catholic school for kindergartners through 8th grade.
In 2012, the Carmel Mission Foundation began a project to restore the roof of the basilica installed during a restoration in 1937. The project was the third major reconstruction of the basilica since it was built in 1797. The contractor installed additional wood and steel beams to reinforce and tie the roof structure together. To strengthen the walls, they drilled over 300 center - cored vertical and horizontal holes in the 5 feet (1.5 m) thick walls, into which they inserted steel rods that were grouted in place. The project also updated the electrical system and added a fire suppression system. The interior lighting was replaced and custom - made chandeliers were added. The project upgraded the radiant heating system and included construction of an Americans with Disabilities Act - compliant restroom. The project was funded by the Carmel Mission Foundation, which raised about $6.2 million.
In 2016, the foundation funded reconstruction of the Quadrangle Courtyard at a cost of $2.0 million. The uneven, cracked concrete surface was a hazard. It was removed and new water and fire lines, drains, sewer, electrical, and communications lines were installed before a new concrete, durable concrete surface was poured.
The foundation is planning a larger $20 million dollar project in time for the 250th anniversary of the basilica in 2020. It includes seismic retrofits, infrastructure improvements, and restoration of the several historic structures, including the Downie Museum and Orientation Center, Mora Chapel Museum, Convento Museum (including the museum store), and Blessed Sacrament Chapel.
On September 27, 2015, in response to Serra 's canonization, the San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo Mission was vandalized. The statue of Serra was toppled and splattered with paint, and the cemetery, the mission doors, a fountain, and a crucifix were as well. The message "Saint of Genocide '' was put on Serra 's tomb, and similar messages were painted elsewhere in the mission courtyard.
Several notable people are buried in the church and churchyard.
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who said the feature of unity in diversity for india | Unity in diversity - wikipedia
Unity in diversity (Latin: unitas in varetite) is a political motto advocating federalism multiculturalism. The phrase is a deliberate oxymoron, the rhetorical combination of two antonyms, unitas "unity, oneness '' and varietas "variety, variousness ''.
The phrase can be traced to Leibniz, who uses it as a definition of "harmony '' (Harmonia est unitas in varietate) in his Elementa verae pietatis, sive de amore dei super omnia (1677 / 8). In modern politics it was first used, as In varietate unitas, by Ernesto Teodoro Moneta in the context of Italian Unification. In 1943 it invoked by Adélard Godbout, Premier of Quebec, in the context of the situation of French Canadians within Canada. The variant In varietate concordia was adopted as the motto of the European Union in 2000.
In 1938, in his book The World Order of Bahá'u'lláh, Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith, said that "unity in diversity '' was the "watchword '' for the religion.
Adélard Godbout, while Premier of Quebec, published an article entitled "Canada: Unity in Diversity '' (1943) in the Council on Foreign Relations journal. He asked,
The phrase has since become somewhat of a staple of Canadian multiculturalism in general. The phrase was invoked in the Interdisciplinary Research Seminar at Wilfrid Laurier University in the 1970s. Ervin Laszlo presented his paper entitled "Framework for a General Systems Theory of World Order '' (1974) as one of the first seminar Papers that led to the establishment of the IRS in 1975. The motto of the province of Saskatchewan, adopted in 1986, is a variation, Multis e gentibus vires (from many peoples, strength).
When the Apartheid of Republic of South Africa celebrated 20 years of independence on 31 May 1981, the theme of the celebrations was "unity in diversity ''. Anti-apartheid campaigners denounced the motto as a cynical attempt to explain away the inequalities in South African life and called on runners of the Comrades Marathon to protest at the co-option of the event by wearing a black armband. The winner of the race, Bruce Fordyce, was one of those wearing a black armband. The term has since been incorporated into the preamble of the 1996 Constitution of South Africa as a central tenet of post-Apartheid South Africa.
In 2000, the European Union adopted ' United in Diversity ' (Latin: In varietate concordia) as official motto, a reference to the many and diverse member states of the Union in terms of culture. Apart from its English form, the European Union 's motto is also official in 23 other languages. "Unity in diversity '' was selected by means of a competition involving students from member nations. According to the European Union official website
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european languages and religions in sub saharan africa primarily result from | Sub-Saharan Africa - wikipedia
Sub-Saharan Africa is, geographically, the area of the continent of Africa that lies south of the Sahara. According to the UN, it consists of all African countries that are fully or partially located south of the Sahara. It contrasts with North Africa, whose territories are part of the League of Arab states within the Arab world. Somalia, Djibouti, Comoros and Mauritania are geographically in Sub-Saharan Africa, but are likewise Arab states and part of the Arab world.
The Sahel is the transitional zone in between the Sahara and the tropical savanna of the Sudan region and farther south the forest - savanna mosaic of tropical Africa.
Since probably 3500 BCE, the Saharan and Sub-Saharan regions of Africa have been separated by the extremely harsh climate of the sparsely populated Sahara, forming an effective barrier interrupted by only the Nile in Sudan, though the Nile was blocked by the river 's cataracts. The Sahara pump theory explains how flora and fauna (including Homo sapiens) left Africa to penetrate the Middle East and beyond. African pluvial periods are associated with a "wet Sahara '' phase during which larger lakes and more rivers existed.
The use of the term has been criticized because it refers to the South only by cartography conventions and projects a connotation of inferiority; a vestige of colonialism, which some say, divided Africa into European terms of homogeneity.
Geographers historically divided the region into several distinct ethnographic sections based on each area 's respective inhabitants.
Commentators in Arabic in the medieval period used the general term bilâd as - sûdân ("Land of the Blacks '') for the vast Sudan region (an expression denoting West and Central Africa), or sometimes extending from the coast of West Africa to Western Sudan. Its equivalent in Southeast Africa was Zanj ("Country of the Blacks ''), which was situated in the vicinity of the Great Lakes region.
The geographers drew an explicit ethnographic distinction between the Sudan region and its analogue Zanj, from the area to their extreme east on the Red Sea coast in the Horn of Africa. In modern - day Ethiopia and Eritrea was Al - Habash or Abyssinia, which was inhabited by the Habash or Abyssinians, who were the forebears of the Habesha. In northern Somalia was Barbara or the Bilad al - Barbar ("Land of the Berbers ''), which was inhabited by the Eastern Baribah or Barbaroi, as the ancestors of the Somalis were referred to by medieval Arab and ancient Greek geographers, respectively.
Sub-Saharan Africa has a wide variety of climate zones or biomes. South Africa and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in particular are considered Megadiverse countries.
According to paleontology, early hominid skull anatomy was similar to that of their close cousins, the great African forest apes, gorilla and chimpanzee, but they had adopted a bipedal locomotion and freed hands, giving them a crucial advantage enabling them to live in both forested areas and on the open savanna at a time when Africa was drying up, with savanna encroaching on forested areas. This occurred 10 million to 5 million years ago.
By 3 million years ago several australopithecine hominid species had developed throughout southern, eastern and central Africa. They were tool users rather than tool manufacturers. The next major evolutionary step occurred around 2.3 million BCE, when primitive stone tools were used to scavenge the carcasses of animals killed by other predators, both for their meat and their marrow. In hunting, H. habilis was most likely not capable of competing with large predators and was more prey than hunter, although H. habilis probably did steal eggs from nests and may have been able to catch small game and weakened larger prey such as cubs and older animals. The tools were classed as Oldowan.
Roughly 1.8 million years ago, Homo ergaster first appeared in the fossil record in Africa. From Homo ergaster, Homo erectus (upright man) evolved 1.5 million years ago. Some of the earlier representatives of this species were small - brained and used primitive stone tools, much like H. habilis. The brain later grew in size, and H. erectus eventually developed a more complex stone tool technology called the Acheulean. Potentially the first hominid to engage in hunting, H. erectus mastered the art of making fire. They were the first hominids to leave Africa, going on to colonize the entire Old World, and perhaps later on giving rise to Homo floresiensis. Although some recent writers suggest that H. georgicus, a H. habilis descendant, was the first and most primitive hominid to ever live outside Africa, many scientists consider H. georgicus to be an early and primitive member of the H. erectus species.
The fossil record shows Homo sapiens living in southern and eastern Africa anywhere from 100,000 to 150,000 years ago. Between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago, their expansion out of Africa launched the colonization of the planet by modern humans. By 10,000 BCE, Homo sapiens had spread to all corners of the world. This dispersal of the human species is suggested by linguistic, cultural and genetic evidence.
After the Sahara became a desert, it did not present a totally impenetrable barrier for travelers between north and south because of the application of animal husbandry towards carrying water, food, and supplies across the desert. Prior to the introduction of the camel, the use of oxen, mule, and horses for desert crossing was common, and trade routes followed chains of oases that were strung across the desert. The trans - saharan trade was in full motion by 500 BCE with Carthage being a major economic force for its establishment. It is thought that the camel was first brought to Egypt after the Persian Empire conquered Egypt in 525 BCE, although large herds did not become common enough in North Africa for camels to be the pack animal of choice for the trans - saharan trade.
Archaeological finds in Central Africa provide evidence of human settlement that may date back over 10 000 years. According to Zangato and Holl, there is evidence of iron - smelting in the Central African Republic and Cameroon that may date back to 3000 to 2500 BCE. Extensive walled sites and settlements have recently been found in Zilum, Chad. The area is located approximately 60 km (37 mi) southwest of Lake Chad, and has been radiocarbon dated to the first millennium BCE.
Trade and improved agricultural techniques supported more sophisticated societies, leading to the early civilizations of Sao, Kanem, Bornu, Shilluk, Baguirmi, and Wadai.
Following the Bantu Migration into Central Africa, during the 14th century, the Luba Kingdom in southeast Congo came about under a king whose political authority derived from religious, spiritual legitimacy. The kingdom controlled agriculture and regional trade of salt and iron from the north and copper from the Zambian / Congo copper belt.
Rival kingship factions which split from the Luba Kingdom later moved among the Lunda people, marrying into its elite and laying the foundation of the Lunda Empire in the 16th century. The ruling dynasty centralised authority among the Lunda under the Mwata Yamyo or Mwaant Yaav. The Mwata Yamyo 's legitimacy, like the Luba king, came from being viewed as a spiritual religious guardian. This imperial cult or system of divine kings was spread to most of central Africa by rivals in kingship migrating and forming new states. Many new states received legitimacy by claiming descent from the Lunda dynasties.
The Kingdom of Kongo existed from the Atlantic west to the Kwango river to the east. During the 15th century, the Bakongo farming community was united with its capital at M'banza - Kongo, under the king title, Manikongo. Other significant states and peoples included the Kuba Kingdom, producers of the famous raffia cloth, the Eastern Lunda, Bemba, Burundi, Rwanda, and the Kingdom of Ndongo.
The Axumite Empire spanned the southern Sahara, south Arabia and the Sahel along the western shore of the Red Sea. Located in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, Aksum was deeply involved in the trade network between India and the Mediterranean. Growing from the proto - Aksumite Iron Age period circa the 4th century BCE, it rose to prominence by the 1st century CE. The Aksumites constructed monolithic stelae to cover the graves of their kings, such as King Ezana 's Stele. The later Zagwe dynasty, established in the 12th century, built churches out of solid rock. These rock - hewn structures include the Church of St. George at Lalibela.
In ancient Somalia, city - states flourished such as Opone, Mosyllon and Malao that competed with the Sabaeans, Parthians and Axumites for the wealthy Indo -- Greco -- Roman trade.
In the Middle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade including the Ajuran Sultanate, which excelled in hydraulic engineering and fortress building, the Sultanate of Adal, whose General Ahmed Gurey was the first African commander in history to use cannon warfare on the continent during Adal 's conquest of the Ethiopian Empire, and the Geledi Sultanate, whose military dominance forced governors of the Omani empire north of the city of Lamu to pay tribute to the Somali Sultan Ahmed Yusuf. In the late 19th century after the Berlin conference had ended, European empires sailed with their armies to the Horn of Africa. The imperial armies in Somalia alarmed the Dervish leader Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, who gathered Somali soldiers from across the Horn of Africa and began one of the longest anti-colonial wars known as the Somaliland Campaign.
Settlements of Bantu - speaking peoples, who were iron - using agriculturists and herdsmen, were already present south of the Limpopo River by the 4th or 5th century displacing and absorbing the original Khoisan speakers. They slowly moved south, and the earliest ironworks in modern - day KwaZulu - Natal Province are believed to date from around 1050. The southernmost group was the Xhosa people, whose language incorporates certain linguistic traits from the earlier Khoisan people, reaching the Fish River in today 's Eastern Cape Province.
Monomotapa was a medieval kingdom (c. 1250 -- 1629), which existed between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers of Southern Africa in the territory of modern - day Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Its old capital was located at Great Zimbabwe.
In 1487, Bartolomeu Dias became the first European to reach the southernmost tip of Africa. In 1652, a victualling station was established at the Cape of Good Hope by Jan van Riebeeck on behalf of the Dutch East India Company. For most of the 17th and 18th centuries, the slowly expanding settlement was a Dutch possession.
Great Britain seized the Cape of Good Hope area in 1795, ostensibly to prevent it from falling into the hands of the French but also to use Cape Town in particular as a stop on the route to Australia and India. It was later returned to the Dutch in 1803, but soon afterwards the Dutch East India Company declared bankruptcy, and the British annexed the Cape Colony in 1806.
The Zulu Kingdom was a Southern African tribal state in what is now Kwa - Zulu Natal in southeastern South Africa. The small kingdom gained world fame during and after the Anglo - Zulu War.
During the 1950s and early 1960s, most Sub-Saharan African nations achieved independence from colonial rule.
According to the theory of recent African origin of modern humans, the mainstream position held within the scientific community, all humans originate from either Southeast Africa or the Horn of Africa. During the first millennium CE, Nilotic and Bantu - speaking peoples moved into the region, and the latter now account for three - quarters of Kenya 's population.
On the coastal section of Southeast Africa, a mixed Bantu community developed through contact with Muslim Arab and Persian traders, leading to the development of the mixed Arab, Persian and African Swahili City States. The Swahili culture that emerged from these exchanges evinces many Arab and Islamic influences not seen in traditional Bantu culture, as do the many Afro - Arab members of the Bantu Swahili people. With its original speech community centered on the coastal parts of Tanzania (particularly Zanzibar) and Kenya -- a seaboard referred to as the Swahili Coast -- the Bantu Swahili language contains many Arabic loan - words as a consequence of these interactions.
The earliest Bantu inhabitants of the Southeast coast of Kenya and Tanzania encountered by these later Arab and Persian settlers have been variously identified with the trading settlements of Rhapta, Azania and Menouthias referenced in early Greek and Chinese writings from 50 CE to 500 CE, ultimately giving rise to the name for Tanzania. These early writings perhaps document the first wave of Bantu settlers to reach Southeast Africa during their migration.
Between the 14th and 15th centuries, large medieval Southeast African kingdoms and states emerged, such as the Buganda and Karagwe kingdoms of Uganda and Tanzania.
During the early 1960s, the Southeast African nations achieved independence from colonial rule.
Nubia in present - day Northern Sudan and Southern Egypt, was referred to as "Aethiopia '' ("land of the burnt face '') by the Greeks.
Nubia at her greatest phase is considered Sub-Saharan Africa 's oldest urban civilisation. Nubia was a major source of gold for the ancient world. Nubians built famous structures and numerous pyramids. Sudan, the site of ancient Nubia, has more pyramids than anywhere in the world.
The Bantu expansion is a major migration movement originating in West Africa around 2500 BCE, reaching East and Central Africa by 1000 BCE and Southern Africa by the early centuries CE.
The Nok culture is known from a type of terracotta figure found in Nigeria, dating to between 500 BCE and 200 CE.
There were a number of medieval empires of the southern Sahara and the Sahel, based on trans - Saharan trade, including the Ghana Empire and the Mali Empire, Songhai Empire, the Kanem Empire and the subsequent Bornu Empire. They built stone structures like in Tichit, but mainly constructed in adobe. The Great Mosque of Djenne is most reflective of Sahelian architecture and is the largest adobe building in the world.
In the forest zone, several states and empires emerged. The Ashanti Empire arose in the 16th century in modern - day Ghana and Ivory Coast. The Kingdom of Nri, was established by the Igbo in the 11th century. Nri was famous for having a priest - king who wielded no military power. Nri was a rare African state which was a haven for freed slaves and outcasts who sought refuge in their territory. Other major states included the kingdoms of Ifẹ and Oyo in the western block of Nigeria which became prominent about 700 -- 900 and 1400 respectively, and center of Yoruba culture. The Yoruba 's built massive mud walls around their cities, the most famous being Sungbo 's Eredo. Another prominent kingdom in southwestern Nigeria was the Kingdom of Benin 9th - 11th century whose power lasted between the 15th and 19th century and was one of the greatest Empires of African history documented all over the world. Their dominance reached as far as the well - known city of Eko which was named Lagos by the Portuguese traders and other early European settlers. The Edo speaking people of Benin are known for their famous bronze casting and rich coral, wealth, ancient science and technology and the Walls of Benin, which is the largest man - made structure in the world.
In the 18th century, the Oyo and the Aro confederacy were responsible for most of the slaves exported from Nigeria, with Great Britain, France and Portugal shipping the majority of the slaves. Following the Napoleonic Wars, the British expanded trade with the Nigerian interior. In 1885, British claims to a West African sphere of influence received international recognition, and in the following year the Royal Niger Company was chartered under the leadership of Sir George Taubman Goldie. In 1900, the company 's territory came under the control of the British Government, which moved to consolidate its hold over the area of modern Nigeria. On 1 January 1901, Nigeria became a British protectorate, part of the British Empire, the foremost world power at the time.
By 1960, most of the region achieved independence from colonial rule.
According to the 2017 revision of the World Population Prospects, the population of sub-Saharan Africa was 995,694,907 in 2016. The current growth rate is 2.3 %. The UN predicts for the region a population between 1.5 and 2 billion by 2050 with a population density of 80 per km compared to 170 for Western Europe, 140 for Asia and 30 for the Americas.
Sub-Saharan African countries top the list of countries and territories by fertility rate with 40 of the highest 50, all with TFR greater than 4 in 2008. All are above the world average except South Africa and Seychelles. More than 40 % of the population in sub-Saharan countries is younger than 15 years old, as well as in Sudan, with the exception of South Africa.
GDP per Capita (2006 in dollars (US $)), Life (Exp.) (Life Expectancy 2006), Literacy (Male / Female 2006), Trans (Transparency 2009), HDI (Human Development Index), EODBR (Ease of Doing Business Rank June 2008 through May 2009), SAB (Starting a Business June 2008 through May 2009), PFI (Press Freedom Index 2009)
Sub-Saharan Africa displays the most linguistic diversity of any region in the world. This is apparent from the number of languages spoken. The region contains over 1,000 languages, which is around 1 / 6 of the world 's total.
With the exception of the extinct Sumerian (a language isolate) of Mesopotamia, Afro - Asiatic has the oldest documented history of any language family in the world. Egyptian was recorded as early as 3200 BCE. The Semitic branch was recorded as early as 2900 BCE in the form of the Akkadian language of Mesopotamia (Assyria and Babylonia) and circa 2500 BCE in the form of the Eblaite language of north eastern Syria.
The distribution of the Afroasiatic languages within Africa is principally concentrated in North Africa and the Horn of Africa. Languages belonging to the family 's Berber branch are mainly spoken in the north, with its speech area extending into the Sahel (northern Mauritania, northern Mali, northern Niger). The Cushitic branch of Afroasiatic is centered in the Horn, and is also spoken in the Nile Valley and parts of the African Great Lakes region. Additionally, the Semitic branch of the family, in the form of Arabic, is widely spoken in the parts of Africa that are within the Arab world. South Semitic languages are also spoken in parts of the Horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea). The Chadic branch is distributed in Central and West Africa. Hausa, its most widely spoken language, serves as a lingua franca in West Africa (Niger, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Cameroon, and Chad).
The several families lumped under the term Khoi - San include languages indigenous to Southern Africa and Tanzania, though some, such as the Khoi languages, appear to have moved to their current locations not long before the Bantu expansion. In Southern Africa, their speakers are the Khoikhoi and San (Bushmen), in Southeast Africa, the Sandawe and Hadza.
The Niger -- Congo family is the largest in the world in terms of the number of languages (1,436) it contains. The vast majority of languages of this family are tonal such as Yoruba, and Igbo, However, others such as Fulani and Wolof are not. A major branch of Niger -- Congo languages is the Bantu family, which covers a greater geographic area than the rest of the family put together. Bantu speakers represent the majority of inhabitants in southern, central and southeastern Africa, though San, Pygmy, and Nilotic groups, respectively, can also be found in those regions. Bantu - speakers can also be found in parts of Central Africa such as the Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and southern Cameroon. Swahili, a Bantu language with many Arabic, Persian and other Middle Eastern and South Asian loan words, developed as a lingua franca for trade between the different peoples in southeastern Africa. In the Kalahari Desert of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as Bushmen (also "San '', closely related to, but distinct from "Hottentots '') have long been present. The San evince unique physical traits, and are the indigenous people of southern Africa. Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of Central Africa.
The Nilo - Saharan languages are concentrated in the upper parts of the Chari and Nile rivers of Central Africa and Southeast Africa. They are principally spoken by Nilotic peoples and are also spoken in Sudan among the Fur, Masalit, Nubian and Zaghawa peoples and in West and Central Africa among the Songhai, Zarma and Kanuri. The Old Nubian language is also a member of this family.
Major languages of Africa by region, family and number of primary language speakers in millions:
In the mid-2010s, private capital flows to Sub-Saharan Africa -- primarily from the BRICs, private - sector investment portfolios, and remittances -- began to exceed official development assistance.
As of 2011, Africa is one of the fastest developing regions in the world. Six of the world 's ten fastest - growing economies over the previous decade were situated below the Sahara, with the remaining four in East and Central Asia. Between 2011 and 2015, the economic growth rate of the average nation in Africa is expected to surpass that of the average nation in Asia. Sub-Saharan Africa is by then projected to contribute seven out of the ten fastest growing economies in the world. According to the World Bank, the economic growth rate in the region had risen to 4.7 % in 2013, with a rate of 5.2 % forecasted for 2014. This continued rise was attributed to increasing investment in infrastructure and resources as well as steady expenditure per household.
As of 2009, fifty percent of Africa is rural with no access to electricity. Africa generates 47 GW of electricity, less than 0.6 % of the global market share. Many countries are affected by power shortages.
Because of rising prices in commodities such as coal and oil, thermal sources of energy are proving to be too expensive for power generation. Sub-Saharan Africa is expected to build additional hydropower generation capacity of at least 20,165 MW by 2014. The region has the potential to generate 1,750 TWh of energy, of which only 7 % has been explored. The failure to exploit its full energy potential is largely due to significant underinvestment, as at least four times as much (approximately $23 billion a year) and what is currently spent is invested in operating high cost power systems and not on expanding the infrastructure.
African governments are taking advantage of the readily available water resources to broaden their energy mix. Hydro Turbine Markets in Sub-Saharan Africa generated revenues of $120.0 million in 2007 and is estimated to reach $425.0 million. Asian countries, notably China, India, and Japan, are playing an active role in power projects across the African continent. The majority of these power projects are hydro - based because of China 's vast experience in the construction of hydro - power projects and part of the Energy & Power Growth Partnership Services programme.
With electrification numbers, Sub-Saharan Africa with access to the Sahara and being in the tropical zones has massive potential for solar photovoltaic electrical potential. Six hundred million people could be served with electricity based on its photovoltaic potential. China is promising to train 10,000 technicians from Africa and other developing countries in the use of solar energy technologies over the next five years. Training African technicians to use solar power is part of the China - Africa science and technology cooperation agreement signed by Chinese science minister Xu Guanhua and African counterparts during premier Wen Jiabao 's visit to Ethiopia in December 2003.
The New Partnership for Africa 's Development (NEPAD) is developing an integrated, continent - wide energy strategy. This has been funded by, amongst others, the African Development Bank (AfDB) and the EU - Africa Infrastructure Trust Fund. These projects must be sustainable, involve a cross-border dimension and / or have a regional impact, involve public and private capital, contribute to poverty alleviation and economic development, involve at least one country in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Radio is the major source of information in Sub-Saharan Africa. Average coverage stands at more than a third of the population. Countries such as Gabon, Seychelles, and South Africa boast almost 100 % penetration. Only five countries -- Burundi, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia -- still have a penetration of less than 10 %. Broadband penetration outside of South Africa has been limited where it is exorbitantly expensive. Access to the internet via cell phones is on the rise.
Television is the second major source of information. Because of power shortages, the spread of television viewing has been limited. Eight percent have television, a total of 62 million. But those in the television industry view the region as an untapped green market. Digital television and pay for service are on the rise.
According to researchers at the Overseas Development Institute, the lack of infrastructure in many developing countries represents one of the most significant limitations to economic growth and achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Less than 40 % of rural Africans live within two kilometers of an all - season road, the lowest level of rural accessibility in the developing world. Spending on roads averages just below 2 % of GDP with varying degree among countries. This compares with 1 % of GDP that is typical in industrialised countries, and 2 -- 3 % of GDP found in fast - growing emerging economies. Although the level of effort is high relative to the size of Africa 's economies, it remains little in absolute terms, with low - income countries spending an average of about US $7 per capita per year. Infrastructure investments and maintenance can be very expensive, especially in such as areas as landlocked, rural and sparsely populated countries in Africa.
Infrastructure investments contributed to Africa 's growth, and increased investment is necessary to maintain growth and tackle poverty. The returns to investment in infrastructure are very significant, with on average 30 -- 40 % returns for telecommunications (ICT) investments, over 40 % for electricity generation and 80 % for roads.
In Africa, it is argued that in order to meet the MDGs by 2015 infrastructure investments would need to reach about 15 % of GDP (around $93 billion a year). Currently, the source of financing varies significantly across sectors. Some sectors are dominated by state spending, others by overseas development aid (ODA) and yet others by private investors. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the state spends around $9.4 billion out of a total of $24.9 billion. In irrigation, SSA states represent almost all spending; in transport and energy a majority of investment is state spending; in ICT and water supply and sanitation, the private sector represents the majority of capital expenditure. Overall, aid, the private sector and non-OECD financiers between them exceed state spending. The private sector spending alone equals state capital expenditure, though the majority is focused on ICT infrastructure investments. External financing increased from $7 billion (2002) to $27 billion (2009). China, in particular, has emerged as an important investor.
The region is a major exporter to the world of gold, uranium, chrome, vanadium, antimony, coltan, bauxite, iron ore, copper and manganese. South Africa is a major exporter of manganese as well as Chromium. A 2001 estimate is that 42 % of the world 's reserves of chromium may be found in South Africa. South Africa is the largest producer of platinum, with 80 % of the total world 's annual mine production and 88 % of the world 's platinum reserve. Sub-Saharan Africa produces 33 % of the world 's bauxite with Guinea as the major supplier. Zambia is a major producer of copper. Democratic Republic of Congo is a major source of coltan. Production from Congo is very small but has 80 % of proven reserves. Sub-saharan Africa is a major producer of gold, producing up to 30 % of global production. Major suppliers are South Africa, Ghana, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Guinea, and Mali. South Africa had been first in the world in terms of gold production since 1905, but in 2007 it moved to second place, according to GFMS, the precious metals consultancy. Uranium is major commodity from the region. Significant suppliers are Niger, Namibia, and South Africa. Namibia was the number one supplier from Sub-Saharan Africa in 2008. The region produces 49 % of the world 's diamonds.
By 2015, it is estimated that 25 % of North American oil will be from Sub-Saharan Africa, ahead of the Middle East. Sub-Saharan Africa has been the focus of an intense race for oil by the West, China, India, and other emerging economies, even though it holds only 10 % of proven oil reserves, less than the Middle East. This race has been referred to as the second Scramble for Africa. All reasons for this global scramble come from the reserves ' economic benefits. Transportation cost is low and no pipelines have to be laid as in Central Asia. Almost all reserves are offshore, so political turmoil within the host country will not directly interfere with operations. Sub-Saharan oil is viscous, with a very low sulfur content. This quickens the refining process and effectively reduces costs. New sources of oil are being located in Sub-Saharan Africa more frequently than anywhere else. Of all new sources of oil, 1⁄3 are in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Sub-Saharan Africa has more variety of grains than anywhere in the world. Between 13,000 and 11,000 BCE wild grains began to be collected as a source of food in the cataract region of the Nile, south of Egypt. The collecting of wild grains as source of food spread to Syria, parts of Turkey, and Iran by the eleventh millennium BCE. By the tenth and ninth millennia southwest Asians domesticated their wild grains, wheat, and barley after the notion of collecting wild grains spread from the Nile.
Numerous crops have been domesticated in the region and spread to other parts of the world. These crops included sorghum, castor beans, coffee, cotton okra, black - eyed peas, watermelon, gourd, and pearl millet. Other domesticated crops included teff, enset, African rice, yams, kola nuts, oil palm, and raffia palm.
Domesticated animals include the guinea fowl and the donkey.
Agriculture represents 20 % to 30 % of GDP and 50 % of exports. In some cases, 60 % to 90 % of the labor force are employed in agriculture. Most agricultural activity is subsistence farming. This has made agricultural activity vulnerable to climate change and global warming. Biotechnology has been advocated to create high yield, pest and environmentally resistant crops in the hands of small farmers. The Bill and Melinda Gates foundation is a strong advocate and donor to this cause. Biotechnology and GM crops have met resistance both by natives and environmental groups.
Cash crops include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar, and tobacco.
The OECD says Africa has the potential to become an agricultural superbloc if it can unlock the wealth of the savannahs by allowing farmers to use their land as collateral for credit. There is such international interest in Sub-Saharan agriculture, that the World Bank increased its financing of African agricultural programs to $1.3 billion in the 2011 fiscal year. Recently, there has been a trend to purchase large tracts of land in Sub-Sahara for agricultural use by developing countries. Early in 2009, George Soros highlighted a new farmland buying frenzy caused by growing population, scarce water supplies and climate change. Chinese interests bought up large swathes of Senegal to supply it with sesame. Aggressive moves by China, South Korea and Gulf states to buy vast tracts of agricultural land in Sub-Saharan Africa could soon be limited by a new global international protocol.
Forty percent of African scientists live in OECD countries, predominantly in Europe, the United States and Canada. This has been described as an African brain drain. According to Naledi Pandor, the South African Minister of Science and Technology, even with the drain enrollments in Sub-Saharan African universities tripled between 1991 and 2005, expanding at an annual rate of 8.7 %, which is one of the highest regional growth rates in the world. In the last 10 to 15 years interest in pursuing university level degrees abroad has increased. In some OECD countries, like the United States, Sub-Saharan Africans are the most educated immigrant group.
According to the CIA, low global literacy rates are concentrated in Sub-Saharan Africa, West Asia and South Asia. However, the literacy rates in Sub-Saharan Africa vary significantly between countries. The highest registered literacy rate in the region is in Zimbabwe (90.7 %; 2003 est.), while the lowest literacy rate is in South Sudan (27 %).
Sub-Saharan African countries spent an average of 0.3 % of their GDP on science and technology on in 2007. This represents an increase from US $1.8 billion in 2002 to US $2.8 billion in 2007, a 50 % increase in spending.
In 1987, the Bamako Initiative conference organised by the World Health Organization was held in Bamako, the capital of Mali, and helped reshape the health policy of Sub-Saharan Africa. The new strategy dramatically increased accessibility through community - based healthcare reform, resulting in more efficient and equitable provision of services. A comprehensive approach strategy was extended to all areas of health care, with subsequent improvement in the health care indicators and improvement in health care efficiency and cost.
In 2011, Sub-Saharan Africa was home to 69 % of all people living with HIV / AIDS worldwide. In response, a number of initiatives have been launched to educate the public on HIV / AIDS. Among these are combination prevention programmes, considered to be the most effective initiative, the abstinence, be faithful, use a condom campaign, and the Desmond Tutu HIV Foundation 's outreach programs. According to a 2013 special report issued by the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV / AIDS (UNAIDS), the number of HIV positive people in Africa receiving anti-retroviral treatment in 2012 was over seven times the number receiving treatment in 2005, with an almost 1 million added in the last year alone. The number of AIDS - related deaths in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2011 was 33 percent less than the number in 2005. The number of new HIV infections in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2011 was 25 percent less than the number in 2001.
Malaria is an endemic illness in Sub-Saharan Africa, where the majority of malaria cases and deaths worldwide occur. Routine immunization has been introduced in order to prevent measles. Onchocerciasis ("river blindness ''), a common cause of blindness, is also endemic to parts of the region. More than 99 % of people affected by the illness worldwide live in 31 countries therein. In response, the African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control (APOC) was launched in 1995 with the aim of controlling the disease. Maternal mortality is another challenge, with more than half of maternal deaths in the world occurring in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, there has generally been progress here as well, as a number of countries in the region have halved their levels of maternal mortality since 1990. Additionally, the African Union in July 2003 ratified the Maputo Protocol, which pledges to prohibit female genital mutilation (FGM).
National health systems vary between countries. In Ghana, most health care is provided by the government and largely administered by the Ministry of Health and Ghana Health Services. The healthcare system has five levels of providers: health posts which are first level primary care for rural areas, health centers and clinics, district hospitals, regional hospitals and tertiary hospitals. These programs are funded by the government of Ghana, financial credits, Internally Generated Fund (IGF), and Donors - pooled Health Fund.
African countries below the Sahara are largely Christian, while those above the Sahara, in North Africa, are predominantly Islamic. There are also Muslim majorities in parts of the Horn of Africa (Djibouti and Somalia) and in the Sahel and Sudan regions (the Gambia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Mali, Niger and Senegal), as well as significant Muslim communities in Ethiopia and Eritrea, and on the Swahili Coast (Tanzania and Kenya). Mauritius is the only country in Africa to have a Hindu majority.
Traditional African religions can be broken down into linguistic cultural groups, with common themes. Among Niger -- Congo - speakers is a belief in a creator God; ancestor spirits; territorial spirits; evil caused by human ill will and neglecting ancestor spirits; priest of territorial spirits. New world religions such as Santería, Vodun, and Candomblé, would be derived from this world view. Among Nilo - Saharan speakers is the belief in Divinity; evil is caused by divine judgement and retribution; prophets as middlemen between Divinity and man. Among Afro - Asiatic - speakers is henotheism, the belief in one 's own gods but accepting the existence of other gods; evil here is caused by malevolent spirits. The Semitic Abrahamic religion of Judaism is comparable to the latter world view. San religion is non-theistic but a belief in a Spirit or Power of existence which can be tapped in a trance - dance; trance - healers.
Traditional religions in Sub-Saharan Africa often display complex ontology, cosmology and metaphysics. Mythologies, for example, demonstrated the difficulty fathers of creation had in bringing about order from chaos. Order is what is right and natural and any deviation is chaos. Cosmology and ontology is also neither simple or linear. It defines duality, the material and immaterial, male and female, heaven and earth. Common principles of being and becoming are widespread: Among the Dogon, the principle of Amma (being) and Nummo (becoming), and among the Bambara, Pemba (being) and Faro (becoming).
Sub-Saharan traditional divination systems display great sophistication. For example, the bamana sand divination uses well established symbolic codes that can be reproduced using four bits or marks. A binary system of one or two marks are combined. Random outcomes are generated using a fractal recursive process. It is analogous to a digital circuit but can be reproduced on any surface with one or two marks. This system is widespread in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Sub-Saharan Africa is diverse, with many communities and villages, each with their own beliefs and traditions. Traditional African Societies are communal, they believe that the needs of the many far out weigh an individual needs and achievements. Basically, an individual 's keep must be shared with other extended family members. Extended families are made up of various individuals and families who have shared responsibilities within the community. This extended family is one of the core aspects of every African community. "An African will refer to an older person as auntie or uncle. Siblings of parents will be called father or mother rather than uncle and aunt. Cousins will be called brother or sister ''. This system can be very difficult for outsiders to understand; however, it is no less important. "Also reflecting their communal ethic, Africans are reluctant to stand out in a crowd or to appear different from their neighbors or colleagues, a result of social pressure to avoid offense to group standards and traditions. '' Women also have a very important role in African culture because they take care of the house and children. Traditionally "men do the heavy work of clearing and plowing the land, women sow the seeds, tend the fields, harvest the crops, haul the water, and bear the major burden for growing the family 's food ''. Despite their work in the fields women are expected to be subservient to men in some African cultures. "When young women migrate to cities, this imbalance between the sexes, as well as financial need, often causes young women of lower economic status, who lack education and job training, to have sexual relationships with older men who are established in their work or profession and can afford to support a girlfriend or two ''.
Traditional Sub-Saharan African music is as diverse as the region 's various populations. The common perception of Sub-Saharan African music is that it is rhythmic music centered around the drums. It is partially true. A large part of Sub-Saharan music, mainly among speakers of Niger -- Congo and Nilo - Saharan languages, is rhythmic and centered around the drum. Sub-Saharan music is polyrhythmic, usually consisting of multiple rhythms in one composition. Dance involves moving multiple body parts. These aspect of Sub-Saharan music has been transferred to the new world by enslaved Sub-Saharan Africans and can be seen in its influence on music forms as Samba, Jazz, Rhythm and Blues, Rock & Roll, Salsa, Reggae and Rap music.
But Sub-Saharan music involves a lot of music with strings, horns, and very little poly - rhythms. Music from the eastern sahel and along the nile, among the Nilo - Saharan, made extensive use of strings and horns in ancient times. Among the Afro - Asiatics, we see extensive use of string instruments. Dancing involve swaying body movements and footwork. Among the San is extensive use of string instruments with emphasis on footwork.
Modern Sub-Saharan African music has been influence by music from the New World (Jazz, Salsa, Rhythm and Blues etc.) vice versa being influenced by enslaved Sub-Saharan Africans. Popular styles are Mbalax in Senegal and Gambia, Highlife in Ghana, Zoblazo in Ivory Coast, Makossa in Cameroon, Soukous in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kizomba in Angola, and Mbaqanga in South Africa. New World styles like Salsa, R&B / Rap, Reggae, and Zouk also have widespread popularity.
The oldest abstract art in the world is a shell necklace, dated to 82,000 years in the Cave of Pigeons in Taforalt, eastern Morocco. The second oldest abstract form of art and the oldest rock art is found in the Blombos Cave at the Cape in South Africa, dated 77,000 years. Sub-Saharan Africa has some of the oldest and most varied style of rock art in the world.
Although Sub-Saharan African art is very diverse there are some common themes. One is the use of the human figure. Second, there is a preference for sculpture. Sub-Saharan African art is meant to be experienced in three dimensions, not two. A house is meant to be experienced from all angles. Third, art is meant to be performed. Sub-Saharan Africans have specific name for masks. The name incorporates the sculpture, the dance, and the spirit that incorporates the mask. The name denotes all three elements. Fourth, art that serves a practical function, utilitarian. The artist and craftsman are not separate. A sculpture shaped like a hand can be used as a stool. Fifth, the use of fractals or non-linear scaling. The shape of the whole is the shape of the parts at different scales. Before the discovery of fractal geometry), Leopold Sedar Senghor, Senegal 's first president, referred to this as "dynamic symmetry. '' William Fagg, the British art historian, compared it to the logarithmic mapping of natural growth by biologist D'Arcy Thompson. Lastly, Sub-Saharan African art is visually abstract, instead of naturalistic. Sub-Saharan African art represents spiritual notions, social norms, ideas, values, etc. An artist might exaggerated the head of a sculpture in relations to the body not because he does not know anatomy but because he wants to illustrate that the head is the seat of knowledge and wisdom. The visual abstraction of African art was very influential in the works of modernist artist like Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and Jacques Lipchitz.
Sub-Saharan African cuisine like everything about Africa is very diverse. A lot of regional overlapping occurs, but there are dominant elements region by region.
West African cuisine can be described as starchy, flavorfully spicey. Dishes include fufu, kenkey, couscous, garri, foutou, and banku. Ingredients are of native starchy tubers, yams, cocoyams, and cassava. Grains include millet, sorghum, and rice, usually in the sahel, are incorporated. Oils include palm oil and shea butter (sahel). One finds recipes that mixes fish and meat. Beverages are palm wine (sweet or sour) and millet beer. Roasting, baking, boiling, frying, mashing, and spicing are all cooking techniques.
Southeast African cuisine especially those of the Swahilis reflects its Islamic, geographical Indian Ocean cultural links. Dishes include ugali, sukumi wiki, and halva. Spices such as curry, saffron, cloves, cinnamon, pomegranate juice, cardamon, ghee, and sage are used, especially among Muslims. Meat includes cattle, sheep, and goats, but is rarely eaten since its viewed as currency and wealth.
In the Horn of Africa, pork and non-fish seafood is avoided by Christians and Muslims. Dairy products and all meats are avoided during lent by Ethiopians. Maize (corn) is a major staple. Cornmeal is used to make ugali, a popular dish with different names. Teff is used to make injera or canjeero (Somali) bread. Other important foods include enset, noog, lentils, rice, banana, leafy greens, chiles, peppers, coconut milk and tomatoes. Beverages are coffee (domesticated in Ethiopia), chai tea, fermented beer from banana or millet. Cooking techniques include roasting and marinating.
Central African cuisine connects with all major regions of Sub-Saharan Africa: Its cuisine reflects that. Ugali and fufu are eaten in the region. Central African cuisine is very starchy and spicy hot. Dominant crops include plantains, cassava, peanuts, chillis, and okra. Meats include beef, chicken, and sometimes exotic meats called bush meat (antelope, warthog, crocodile). Widespread spicy hot fish cuisine is one of the differentiating aspects. Mushroom is sometimes used as a meat substitute.
Traditional Southern African cuisine surrounds meat. Traditional society typically focused on raising, sheep, goats, and especially cattle. Dishes include braai (barbecue meat), sadza, bogobe, pap (fermented cornmeal), milk products (buttermilk, yoghurt). Crops utilised are sorghum, maize (corn), pumpkin beans, leafy greens, and cabbage. Beverages include ting (fermented sorghum or maize), milk, chibuku (milky beer). Influences from the Indian and Malay community can be seen its use of curries, sambals, pickled fish, fish stews, chutney, and samosa. European influences can be seen in cuisines like biltong (dried beef strips), potjies (stews of maize, onions, tomatoes), French wines, and crueler or koeksister (sugar syrup cookie).
Like most of the world, Sub-Saharan Africans have adopted Western - style clothing. In some country like Zambia, used Western clothing has flooded markets, causing great angst in the retail community. Sub-Saharan Africa boasts its own traditional clothing style. Cotton seems to be the dominant material.
In East Africa, one finds extensive use of cotton clothing. Shemma, shama, and kuta are types of Ethiopian clothing. Kanga are Swahili cloth that comes in rectangular shapes, made of pure cotton, and put together to make clothing. Kitenges are similar to kangas and kikoy, but are of a thicker cloth, and have an edging only on a long side. Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and South Sudan are some of the African countries where kitenge is worn. In Malawi, Namibia and Zambia, kitenge is known as Chitenge. One of the unique materials, which is not a fiber and is used to make clothing is barkcloth, an innovation of the Baganda people of Uganda. It came from the Mutuba tree (Ficus natalensis). On Madagascar a type of draped cloth called lamba is worn.
In West Africa, again cotton is the material of choice. In the Sahel and other parts of West Africa the boubou and kaftan style of clothing are featured. Kente cloth is created by the Akan people of Ghana and Ivory Coast, from silk of the various moth species in West Africa. Kente comes from the Ashanti twi word kenten which means basket. It is sometimes used to make dashiki and kufi. Adire is a type of Yoruba cloth that is starch resistant. Raffia cloth and barkcloth are also utilised in the region.
In Central Africa, the Kuba people developed raffia cloth from the raffia plant fibers. It was widely used in the region. Barkcloth was also extensively used.
In Southern Africa one finds numerous uses of animal hide and skins for clothing. The Ndau in central Mozambique and the Shona mix hide with barkcloth and cotton cloth. Cotton cloth is referred to as machira. Xhosa, Tswana, Sotho, and Swazi also made extensive use of hides. Hides come from cattle, sheep, goat, and elephant. Leopard skins were coveted and were a symbol of kingship in Zulu society. Skins were tanned to form leather, dyed, and embedded with beads.
Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sub-Saharan men are its main patrons. Major competitions include the African Champions League, a competition for the best clubs on the continent and the Confederation Cup, a competition primarily for the national cup winner of each African country. The Africa Cup of Nations is a competition of 16 national teams from various African countries held every two years. South Africa hosted the 2010 FIFA World Cup, a first for a Sub-Saharan country. In 2010, Cameroon played in the World Cup for the sixth time, which is the current record for a Sub-Saharan team. In 1996 Nigeria won the Olympic gold for football. In 2000 Cameroon maintained the continent 's supremacy by winning the title too. Momentous achievements for Sub-Saharan African football. Famous Sub-Saharan football stars include Abedi Pele, Emmanuel Adebayor, George Weah, Michael Essien, Didier Drogba, Roger Milla, Nwankwo Kanu, Jay - Jay Okocha, Bruce Grobbelaar, Samuel Eto'o, Kolo Touré, Yaya Touré, Sadio Mané and Pierre - Emerick Aubameyang. The most talented Sub-Saharan African football players find themselves courted and sought after by European leagues. There are currently more than 1000 Africans playing for European clubs. Sub-Saharan Africans have found themselves the target of racism by European fans. FIFA has been trying hard to crack down on racist outburst during games.
Rugby is also popular in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Confederation of African Rugby governs rugby games in the region. South Africa is a major force in the game and won the Rugby World Cup in 1995 and in 2007. Africa is also allotted one guaranteed qualifying place in the Rugby World Cup.
Boxing is also a popular sport. Battling Siki the first world champion to come out of Sub-Saharan Africa. Countries such as Nigeria, Ghana and South Africa have produced numerous professional world champions such as Dick Tiger, Hogan Bassey, Gerrie Coetzee, Samuel Peter, Azumah Nelson and Jake Matlala.
Cricket has a following. The African Cricket Association is an international body which oversees cricket in African countries. South Africa and Zimbabwe have their own governing bodies. In 2003 the Cricket World Cup was held in South Africa, first time it was held in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Over the years, Ethiopia and Kenya have produced many notable long - distance athletes. Each country has federations that identify and cultivate top talent. Athletes from Ethiopia and Kenya hold, save for two exceptions, all the men 's outdoor records for Olympic distance events from 800m to the marathon. Famous runners include Haile Gebrselassie, Kenenisa Bekele, Paul Tergat, and John Cheruiyot Korir.
The development of tourism in this region has been identified as having the ability to create jobs and improve the economy. South Africa, Namibia, Mauritius, Botswana, Ghana, Cape Verde, Tanzania, and Kenya have been identified as having well developed tourism industries. Cape Town and the surrounding area is very popular with tourists.
Only seven African countries are not geopolitically a part of Sub-Saharan Africa: Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, Western Sahara (claimed by Morocco) and Sudan, they form the UN subregion of Northern Africa which also makes up the largest bloc of the Arab World. Nevertheless, some international organisations include Sudan as part of Sub-Saharan Africa. Although a long - standing member of the Arab League, Sudan has around 30 % non-Arab populations in the west (Darfur, Masalit, Zaghawa), far north (Nubian) and south (Kordofan, Nuba). Mauritania and Niger only include a band of the Sahel along their southern borders. All other African countries have at least significant portions of their territory within Sub-Saharan Africa.
Depending on classification Sudan is often not considered part of Sub-Saharan Africa, as it is considered part of North Africa.
"UNESCO - Arab States ''. UNESCO.
Infosamak. "Centre for Marketing, Information and Advisory Services for Fishery Products in the Arab Region ''. Infosamak.
Halim Barakat, The Arab World: Society, Culture, and State, (University of California Press: 1993), p. 80
Khair El - Din Haseeb et al., The Future of the Arab Nation: Challenges and Options, 1 edition (Routledge: 1991), p. 54
John Markakis, Resource conflict in the Horn of Africa, (Sage: 1998), p. 39
Ḥagai Erlikh, The struggle over Eritrea, 1962 -- 1978: war and revolution in the Horn of Africa, (Hoover Institution Press: 1983), p. 59
Randall Fegley, Eritrea, (Clio Press: 1995), p. mxxxviii
Michael Frishkopf, Music and Media in the Arab World, (American University in Cairo Press: 2010), p. 61
"Sahara 's Abrupt Desertification Started By Changes In Earth 's Orbit, Accelerated By Atmospheric And Vegetation Feedbacks ''. Science Daily. Science Daily. 12 July 1999.
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powers and functions of national people's congress of china | National People 's Congress - wikipedia
Wan Exiang, RCKMT
Since 24 February 2018: Government (2119):
United Front, and Independent (861):
Since 18 March 2018: Government (121):
United Front, and Independent (54):
The National People 's Congress (usually abbreviated NPC) is the national legislature of the People 's Republic of China. With 2,980 members in 2018, it is the largest parliamentary body in the world.
Under China 's Constitution, the NPC is structured as a unicameral legislature, with the power to legislate, the power to oversee the operations of the government, and the power to elect the major officers of state. However, the NPC has been described as a "rubber stamp, '' having "never rejected a government proposal '' in its history.
The NPC is elected for a term of five years. It holds annual sessions every spring, usually lasting from 10 to 14 days, in the Great Hall of the People on the west side of Tiananmen Square in Beijing. The NPC 's sessions are usually timed to occur with the meetings of the National Committee of the People 's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), a consultative body whose members represent various social groups. As the NPC and the CPPCC are the main deliberative bodies of China, they are often referred to as the Lianghui (Two Assemblies).
According to the NPC, its annual meetings provide an opportunity for the officers of state to review past policies and present future plans to the nation.
In theory, the NPC is the highest organ of state power in China, and all four PRC constitutions have vested it with great lawmaking powers. However, in practice it usually acts as a rubber stamp for decisions already made by the state 's executive organs and the Communist Party of China. One of its members, Hu Xiaoyan, told the BBC in 2009 that she has no power to help her constituents. She was quoted as saying, "As a parliamentary representative, I do n't have any real power. '' In 2014, the CPC pledged to protect the NPC 's right to "supervise and monitor the government, '' provided that the NPC continue to "unswervingly adhere '' to the party 's leadership. Since the 1990s, the NPC has become a forum for mediating policy differences between different parts of the Party, the government, and groups of society.
There are mainly four functions and powers of the NPC:
1. To amend the Constitution and oversee its enforcement
Only the NPC has the power to amend the Constitution. Amendments to the Constitution must be proposed by the NPC Standing Committee or 1 / 5 or more of the NPC deputies. In order for the Amendments to become effective, they must be passed by 2 / 3 majority vote of all deputies.
2. To enact and amend basic law governing criminal offences, civil affairs, state organs and other matters
3. To elect and appoint members to the central state organs
The NPC elects the Chairman, Vice Chairmen, Secretary - General and other members of its Standing Committee. It also elects the President of the People 's Republic of China and the Vice President of the People 's Republic of China. NPC also appoints the Premier of the State Council and many other crucial officials to the central state organs. The NPC also has the power to remove the above - mentioned officials from the office.
4. To determine major state issues
This includes examining and approving the report on the plan for national economic and social development and on its implementation, report and central budget, and more. The establishment of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, the Macao Special Administrative Region, Hainan Province and Chongqing Municipality and the building of the Three Gorges Project on the Yangtze River were all decided by the NPC.
The drafting process of NPC legislation is governed by the Organic Law of the NPC (1982) and the NPC Procedural Rules (1989). It begins with a small group, often of outside experts, who begin a draft. Over time, this draft is considered by larger and larger groups, with an attempt made to maintain consensus at each step of the process. By the time the full NPC or NPCSC meets to consider the legislation, the major substantive elements of the draft legislation have largely been agreed to. However, minor wording changes to the draft are often made at this stage. The process ends with a formal vote by the Standing Committee of the NPC or by the NPC in a plenary session.
The NPC mainly exists to give legal sanction to decisions already made at the highest levels of the government. However, it is not completely without influence. It functions as a forum in which legislative proposals are drafted and debated with input from different parts of the government and outside technical experts. However, there are a wide range of issues for which there is no consensus within the Party and over which different parts of the party or government have different opinions. Over these issues the NPC has often become a forum for debating ideas and for achieving consensus.
In practice, although the final votes on laws of the NPC often return a high affirmative vote, a great deal of legislative activity occurs in determining the content of the legislation to be voted on. A major bill such as the Securities Law can take years to draft, and a bill sometimes will not be put before a final vote if there is significant opposition to the measure.
One important constitutional principle which is stated in Article 8 of the Legislation Law of the People 's Republic of China is that an action can become a crime only as a consequence of a law passed by the full NPC and that other organs of the Chinese government do not have the power to criminalize activity. This principle was used to overturn police regulations on custody and repatriation and has been used to call into question the legality of re-education through labor. In practice, there is no mechanism to verify constitutionality of statute laws, meaning that local administrations could bypass the constitution through Administrative laws.
The NPC meets for about two weeks each year at the same time as the Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference, usually in the Spring. The combined sessions have been known as the two meetings. Between these sessions, power is exercised by the Standing Committee of the National People 's Congress which contains about 150 members.
The sessions have become media events because it is at the plenary sessions that the Chinese leadership produces work reports. Although the NPC has thus far never failed to approve a work report or candidate nominated by the Party, these votes are no longer unanimous. It is considered extremely embarrassing for the approval vote to fall below 70 %, which occurred several times in the mid-1990s. More recently, work reports have been vetted with NPC delegates beforehand to avoid this embarrassment.
In addition, during NPC sessions the Chinese leadership holds press conferences with foreign reporters, and this is one of the few opportunities Western reporters have of asking unscripted questions of the Chinese leadership.
A major bill often takes years to draft, and a bill sometimes will not be put before a final vote if there is significant opposition to the measure. An example of this is the Property Law of the People 's Republic of China which was withdrawn from the 2006 legislative agenda after objections that the law did not do enough to protect state property. China 's laws are usually submitted for approval after at most three reviews at the NPC Standing Committee. However, the debate of the Property Law has spanned nine years, receiving a record seven reviews at the NPC Standing Committee and stirring hot debates across the country. The long - awaited and highly contested Property Law was finally approved at the Fifth Session of the Tenth National People 's Congress (NPC) on 16 March. Among the 2,889 deputies attending the closing session, 2,799 voted for it, 52 against it, 37 abstained and one did n't vote.
The NPC consists of about 3,000 delegates. Delegates to the National People 's Congress are elected for five - year terms via a multi-tiered representative electoral system. Delegates are elected by the provincial people 's assemblies, who in turn are elected by lower level assemblies, and so on through a series of tiers to the local people 's assemblies which are directly elected by the electorate.
There is a limit on the number of candidates in proportion to the number of seats available. At the national level, for example, a maximum of 110 candidates are allowed per 100 seats; at the provincial level, this ratio is 120 candidates per 100 seats. This ratio increases for each lower level of people 's assemblies, until the lowest level, the village level, has no limit on the number of candidates for each seat. However, the Congress website says "In an indirect election, the number of candidates should exceed the number to be elected by 20 % to 50 %. ''
Sources:
Hong Kong has had a separate delegation since the 9th NPC in 1998, and Macau since the 10th NPC in 2003. The delegates from Hong Kong and Macau are elected via an electoral college rather than by popular vote, but do include significant political figures who are residing in the regions. The electoral colleges which elect Hong Kong and Macau NPC members are largely similar in composition to the bodies which elect the chief executives of those regions. The current method of electing SAR delegations began after the handovers of sovereignty to the PRC. Between 1975 and the handovers, both Hong Kong and Macau were represented by delegations elected by the Guangdong Provincial Congress.
The NPC has included a "Taiwan '' delegation since the 4th NPC in 1975, in line with the PRC 's position that Taiwan is a province of China. Prior to the 2000s, the Taiwan delegates in the NPC were mostly Taiwanese members of the Chinese Communist Party who fled Taiwan after 1947. They are now either deceased or extremely old, and in the last three Congresses, only one of the "Taiwan '' delegates was actually born in Taiwan (Chen Yunying, wife of economist Justin Yifu Lin); the remainder are "second - generation Taiwan compatriots '', whose parents or grandparents came from Taiwan. The current NPC Taiwan delegation was elected by a "Consultative Electoral Conference '' (协商 选举 会议) chosen at the last session of the 11th NPC.
The People 's Liberation Army has had a large delegation since the founding of the NPC, making up anywhere from 4 percent of the total delegates (3rd NPC), to 17 percent (4th NPC). Since the 5th NPC, it has usually held about 9 percent of the total delegate seats, and is consistently the largest delegation in the NPC. In the 12th NPC, for example, the PLA delegation has 268 members; the next largest delegation is Shandong, with 175 members.
For the first three NPCs, there was a special delegation for returned overseas Chinese, but this was eliminated starting in the 4th NPC, and although overseas Chinese remain a recognized group in the NPC, they are now scattered among the various delegations. The PRC also recognizes 55 minority ethnic groups in China, and there is at least one delegate belonging to each of these groups in the current (12th) NPC. These delegates frequently belong to delegations from China 's autonomous regions, such as Tibet and Xinjiang, but delegates from some groups, such as the Hui people (Chinese Muslims) belong to many different delegations.
A permanent organ of the NPC and elected by the NPC deputies consisting of:
In addition to the Standing Committee, nine special committees have been established under the NPC to study issues related to specific fields. These committees include:
A number of administrative bodies have also been established to provide support for the work of the NPC. These include:
The Presidium of the NPC is a 178 - member body of the NPC. It is composed of senior officials of the Communist Party of China (CPC), the state, non-Communist parties and All - China Federation of Industry and Commerce, those without party affiliation, heads of central government agencies and people 's organizations, leading members of all the 35 delegations to the NPC session including those from Hong Kong and Macao and the People 's Liberation Army. It nominates the President and Vice President of China, the Chairman, Vice-Chairman, and Secretary - General of the Standing Committee of the NPC, the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, and the President of the Supreme People 's Court for election by the NPC. Its functions are defined in the Organic Law of the NPC, but not how it is composed.
The ruling Communist Party of China maintains control over the composition of people 's congresses at various levels, especially the National People 's Congress. At the local level, there is a considerable amount of decentralization in the candidate preselection process, with room for local in - party politics and for participation by non-Communist candidates. The structure of the tiered electoral system makes it difficult for a candidate to become a member of the higher level people 's assemblies without the support from politicians in the lower tier, while at the same time making it impossible for the party bureaucracy to completely control the election process.
One such mechanism is the limit on the number of candidates in proportion to the number of seats available. At the national level, for example, a maximum of 110 candidates are allowed per 100 seats; at the provincial level, this ratio is 120 candidates per 100 seats. This ratio increases for each lower level of people 's congresses, until the lowest level, the village level, has no limit on the number of candidates for each seat. However, the Congress website says "In an indirect election, the number of candidates should exceed the number to be elected by 20 % to 50 %. '' The practice of having more candidates than seats for NPC delegate positions has become standard, and it is different from Soviet practice in which all delegates positions were selected by the Party center. Although the limits on member selection allows the Party leadership to block unacceptable candidates, it also causes unpopular candidates to be removed in the electoral process. Direct and explicit challenges to the rule of the Communist Party are not tolerated, but are unlikely in any event due to the control the party center has on delegate selection.
Furthermore, the constitution of the National People 's Congress provides for most of its power to be exercised on a day - to - day basis by its Standing Committee. Due to its overwhelming majority in the Congress, the Communist Party has total control over the composition of the Standing Committee, thereby controlling the actions of the National People 's Congress.
Although Party approval is in effect essential for membership in the NPC, approximately a third of the seats are by convention reserved for non-Communist Party members. This includes technical experts and members of the smaller allied parties. While these members do provide technical expertise and a somewhat greater diversity of views, they do not function as a political opposition.
Coordinates: 39 ° 54 ′ 12 '' N 116 ° 23 ′ 15 '' E / 39.90333 ° N 116.38750 ° E / 39.90333; 116.38750
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which one of the following traveller visited india during the gupta period | Gupta empire - Wikipedia
The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire founded by Chandra Gupta 1. The empire existed at its zenith from approximately 319 to 485 CE and covered much of the Indian subcontinent. This period is called the Golden Age of India, an idea contested by some scholars. Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II were the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty. The 5th - century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits the Guptas with having conquered about twenty - one kingdoms, both in and outside India, including the kingdoms of Parasikas, the Hunas, the Kambojas, tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys, the Kinnaras, Kiratas, and others.
The high points of this period are the great cultural developments which took place during the reign of Chandragupta II. All literary sources, such as Mahabharata and Ramayana, were canonised during this period. The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields. Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. The period gave rise to achievements in architecture, sculpture, and painting that "set standards of form and taste (that) determined the whole subsequent course of art, not only in India but far beyond her borders ''. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and established the region as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia. The Puranas, earlier long poems on a variety of subjects, are also thought to have been committed to written texts around this period.
The empire gradually declined because of many factors such as substantial loss of territory and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories, as well as the invasion by the Huna peoples (Kidarites and Alchon Huns) from Central Asia. After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms. A minor line of the Gupta clan continued to rule Magadha after the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by the Vardhana ruler Harsha, who established his empire in the first half of the 7th century.
According to many historians, the Gupta dynasty was a Jat or Vaishya dynasty. Historian Ram Sharan Sharma asserts that the Vaishya Guptas "appeared as a reaction against oppressive rulers ''. A.S. Altekar, a historian and archaeologist, who has written several books on Gupta coinage, also regarded the caste of the Guptas as Vaishya on the basis of the ancient Indian texts on law, which associate the Gupta name suffix with a member of the Vaishya caste. According to historian Michael C. Brannigan, the rise of the Gupta Empire was one of the most prominent violations of the caste system in ancient India.
Most of historians justify Gupta 's as Dharan gotra Jats. KP Jaiswal (most important historian of gupta dynasty) refer Gupta 's as Jat. Dashrath sharma, Tejram Sharma, BG Gokhale and many other historians are agree with him. Chandragiri Vyakaran, Arya Manju shri Kalp mool grantha also refers Guptas as Jat.. Furthermore, it is not yet discovered whether the term Gupta indicated a surname of a specific family or referred to a clan. But Gupta 's inscription now stated them clearly Dharan gotri. So Jat origin is most justifiable. However Gupta Empire records and Chinese records provided by the later I - Tsing, furnished the names of the first three rulers of the Gupta Dynasty: Maharaja Sri Gupta, Maharaja Sri Ghatotkacha and Ghatotokacha 's son, and Maharajadhiraja Sri Chandragupta, who is considered the first Gupta emperor. Recently, the historian Ashvini Agarwal, on the basis of the matrimonial alliances of the Guptas with the Vakataka, assumed that they belong to the Brahmin caste. Another modern historian, S. Chattopaddhyaya, has put forth a different theory about the ancestry of the Guptas. According to him, in the Panchobh Copper Plate, some kings bearing the title Guptas and related to the imperial Gupta Dynasty, claimed themselves as Vaishyas. Nepalese historian D.R. Regmi says that the imperial Guptas were descendants of Abhira Guptas who had ruled the Kathmandu valley in present - day Nepal.
There is controversy among scholars about the original homeland of the Guptas. Jayaswal has pointed out that the Guptas were originally inhabitants of Prayaga (Allahabad), Uttar Pradesh, in north India, as the vassal of the Nagas or Bhaarshivas. Thereafter they rose in prominence. Another scholar, Gayal supported the theory of Jayaswal, suggesting that the original home of the Guptas was Antarvedi and embracing the regions of Oudh and Prayag. These historians have derived their theory from several Gupta Dynasty coins found in those regions, and this study of numismatic evidence led to the theory that the Guptas were the original inhabitants of that region of northeastern India. However, another historian of this time in Indian history, D.K. Ganguly, has offered a different view about the original Gupta homeland. According to him the Guptas ' homeland is further south, the Murshidabad region of Bengal, and not Magadha in Bihar. He based his theory on the statement of the Chinese Buddhist monk, Yijing (I - Tsing), who visited India during 675 and 695 CE. J.F. Fleet and other historians, however, criticize Ganguly 's theory because Sri Gupta ruled during the end of the 3rd century, but Yijing placed him at the end of the 2nd century. Hence the theory of historians, who have provided their views based on the accounts of Yijing, are considered less valid than theories based on other sources such as coinage.
From these theories, several conflicting opinions about the original homeland and the Empire of the Guptas are available. According to John Allan and a few other scholars, the Guptas were initially concentrated in the region of Magadha and from there they extended their sway to Bengal. According to other groups, the original homeland of the Guptas was Varendri or the Varendra Bhumi in Bengal, wherefrom they extended their Empire to Magadha. Whatever the theory is, the rule of the Guptas initiated the Golden Age in history of ancient India and with passage of time they became the sole authority of entire Northern India.
Bengali historians like HC Raychoudhuri the Guptas originated from the Varendri region which is now part of Rangpur and Rajshahi Division of modern - day Bangladesh. D.C. Ganguly, on the other hand, considers the surrounding region of Murshidabad as the original home of the Guptas.
The most likely time for the reign of Sri Gupta is c. 240 -- 280. The Murundas, who were feudal lords of Kushans, provided or granted land to Sri Gupta. He can be considered the first person of Gupta 's empire, but not the founder of the empire. His son and successor Ghatotkacha ruled presumably from c. 280 -- 319. He challenged other feudal lords and conquered their lands. In contrast to his successor, Chandragupta I, who is mentioned as Maharajadhiraja, he and his son Ghatotkacha are referred to in inscriptions as Maharaja. At the beginning of the 4th century, the Guptas established and ruled a few small Hindu kingdoms in Magadha and around modern - day Bihar.
Yijing also mentioned Sri Gupta in his writings. He was succeeded by his son Ghatotkacha.
Ghatotkacha reigned from about 280 CE to 319 CE, and had a son named Chandragupta (reigned c. 320 -- 335 CE) His son is not to be confused with Chandragupta Maurya (322 -- 298 BCE), founder of the Mauryan Empire. In a breakthrough deal, Chandragupta was married to Kumaradevi, a Lichchhavi princess -- the main power in Magadha. With a dowry of the kingdom of Magadha (capital Pataliputra) and an alliance with the Licchavis of Nepal, Chandragupta set about expanding his power, conquering much of Magadha, Prayaga, and Saketa. He established a realm stretching from the Ganges River to Prayaga (modern - day Allahabad) by 321. He assumed the imperial title of Maharajadhiraja. He expanded his empire through marriage alliances.
Samudragupta, Parakramanka succeeded his father in 335, and ruled for about 45 years, until his death in 380. He took the kingdoms of Ahichchhatra and Padmavati early in his reign. He then attacked the Malwas, the Yaudheyas, the Arjunayanas, the Maduras and the Abhiras, all of which were tribes in the area. By his death in 380, he had incorporated over twenty kingdoms into his realm and his rule extended from the Himalayas to the river Narmada and from the Brahmaputra to the Yamuna. He gave himself the titles King of Kings and World Monarch. Historian Vincent Smith described him as the "Indian Napoleon ''. He performed Ashwamedha Yajna in which a horse with an army is sent to all the nearby territories of friends and foes. These territorial kings on arrival either accept the king 's alliance, who is performing this Yajna, or fight if they do not. The stone replica of the horse, then prepared, is in the Lucknow Museum. The Samudragupta Prashasti inscribed on the Ashokan Pillar, now in Akbar 's Fort at Allahabad, is an authentic record of his exploits and his sway over most of the continent.
Samudragupta was not only a talented military leader but also a great patron of art and literature. He conquered what is now Kashmir and Afghanistan, enlarging the empire. The critical scholars present in his court were Harishena, Vasubandhu, and Asanga. He was a poet and musician himself. He was a firm believer in Hinduism and is known to have worshipped Lord Vishnu. He was considerate of other religions and allowed Sri Lanka 's Buddhist king Sirimeghvanna to build a monastery at Bodh Gaya. That monastery was called by Xuanzang as the Mahabodhi Sangharama. He provided a gold railing around the Bodhi Tree.
Although, the narrative of the Devichandragupta is not supported by any contemporary epigraphical evidence, the historicity of Rama Gupta is proved by his Durjanpur inscriptions on three Jaina images, where he is mentioned as the Maharajadhiraja. A large number of his copper coins also have been found from the Eran - Vidisha region and classified in five distinct types, which include the Garuda, Garudadhvaja, lion and border legend types. The Brahmi legends on these coins are written in the early Gupta style. In the opinion of art historian Dr. R.A. Agarawala, D. Litt., Rama Gupta may be the eldest son of Samudragupta. He became king because of being the eldest. It is possible that he was dethroned because of being considered unfit to rule, and his younger brother Chandragupta II took over.
According to the Gupta records, amongst his sons, Samudragupta nominated prince Chandragupta II, born of queen Dattadevi, as his successor. Chandragupta II, Vikramaditya (the Sun of Power), ruled from 375 until 415. He married a Kadamba princess of Kuntala and of Naga lineage (Nāgakulotpannnā), Kuberanaga. His daughter Prabhavatigupta from this Naga queen was married to Rudrasena II, the Vakataka ruler of Deccan. His son Kumaragupta I was married to a Kadamba princess of the Karnataka region. Chandragupta II expanded his realm westwards, defeating the Saka Western Kshatrapas of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra in a campaign lasting until 409. His main opponent Rudrasimha III was defeated by 395, and he crushed the Bengal chiefdoms. This extended his control from coast to coast, established a second capital at Ujjain and was the high point of the empire.
Despite the creation of the empire through war, the reign is remembered for its very influential style of Hindu art, literature, culture and science, especially during the reign of Chandragupta II. Some excellent works of Hindu art such as the panels at the Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh serve to illustrate the magnificence of Gupta art. Above all it was the synthesis of elements that gave Gupta art its distinctive flavour. During this period, the Guptas were supportive of thriving Buddhist and Jain cultures as well, and for this reason there is also a long history of non-Hindu Gupta period art. In particular, Gupta period Buddhist art was to be influential in most of East and Southeast Asia. Many advances were recorded by the Chinese scholar and traveller Faxian (Fa - hien) in his diary and published afterwards.
The court of Chandragupta was made even more illustrious by the fact that it was graced by the Navaratna (Nine Jewels), a group of nine who excelled in the literary arts. Amongst these men was the immortal Kālidāsa whose works dwarfed the works of many other literary geniuses, not only in his own age but in the years to come. Kalidasa was mainly known for his subtle exploitation of the shringara (romantic) element in his verse.
The 4th century Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits Chandragupta Vikramaditya with conquering about twenty one kingdoms, both in and outside India. After finishing his campaign in East and West India, Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) proceeded northwards, subjugated the Parasikas, then the Hunas and the Kambojas tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys respectively. Thereafter, the king proceeded into the Himalaya mountains to reduce the mountain tribes of the Kinnaras, Kiratas, as well as India proper.
The Brihatkathamanjari of the Kashmiri writer Kshemendra states, King Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) had "unburdened the sacred earth of the Barbarians like the Sakas, Mlecchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Tusharas, Parasikas, Hunas, and others, by annihilating these sinful Mlecchas completely ''.
Faxian (or Fa Hsien etc), a Chinese Buddhist, was one of the pilgrims who visited India during the reign of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II. He started his journey from China in 399 and reached India in 405. During his stay in India up to 411, he went on a pilgrimage to Mathura, Kannauj, Kapilavastu, Kushinagar, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashi, and Rajagriha, and made careful observations about the empire 's conditions. Faxian was pleased with the mildness of administration. The Penal Code was mild and offenses were punished by fines only. From his accounts, the Gupta Empire was a prosperous period. And until the Rome - China trade axis was broken with the fall of the Han dynasty, the Guptas ' did indeed prosper. His writings form one of the most important sources for the history of this period.
Chandragupta II was succeeded by his second son Kumaragupta I, born of Mahadevi Dhruvasvamini. Kumaragupta I assumed the title, Mahendraditya. He ruled until 455. Towards the end of his reign a tribe in the Narmada valley, the Pushyamitras, rose in power to threaten the empire. The Kidarites as well probably confronted the Gupta Empire towards the end of the rule of Kumaragupta I, as his son Skandagupta mentions in the Bhitari pillar inscription his efforts at reshaping a country in disarray, through reorganization and military victories over the Pushyamitras and the Hunas.
He was the founder of Nalanda University which on July 15, 2016 was declared as a UNESCO world heritage site.
Skandagupta, son and successor of Kumaragupta I is generally considered to be the last of the great Gupta rulers. He assumed the titles of Vikramaditya and Kramaditya. He defeated the Pushyamitra threat, but then was faced with invading Kidarites (sometimes described as the Hephthalites or "White Huns '', known in India as the Sweta Huna), from the northwest.
He repelled a Huna attack around 455 CE, but the expense of the wars drained the empire 's resources and contributed to its decline. The Bhitari Pillar inscription of Skandagupta, the successor of Chandragupta, recalls the near - annihilation of the Gupta Empire following the attacks of the Kidarites. The Kidarites seem to have retained the western part of the Gupta Empire.
Skandagupta died in 467 and was succeeded by his agnate brother Purugupta.
Following Skandagupta 's death, the empire was clearly in decline. He was followed by Purugupta (467 -- 473), Kumaragupta II (473 -- 476), Budhagupta (476 -- 495), Narasimhagupta (495 --?), Kumaragupta III (530 -- 540), Vishnugupta (540 -- 550), two lesser known kings namely, Vainyagupta and Bhanugupta.
In the 480 's the Alchon Huns under Toramana and Mihirakula broke through the Gupta defenses in the northwest, and much of the empire in the northwest was overrun by the Huns by 500. The empire disintegrated under the attacks of Toramana and his successor Mihirakula. It appears from inscriptions that the Guptas, although their power was much diminished, continued to resist the Huns. The Hun invader Toramana was defeated by Bhanugupta in 510. The Huns were defeated and driven out of India in 528 by king Yashodharman from Malwa, and possibly Gupta emperor Narasimhagupta.
These invasions, although only spanning a few decades, had long term effects on India, and in a sense brought an end to Classical Indian civilization. Soon after the invasions, the Gupta Empire, already weakened by these invasions and the rise of local rulers such as Yashodharman, ended as well. Following the invasions, northern India was left in disarray, with numerous smaller Indian powers emerging after the crumbling of the Guptas. The Huna invasions are said to have seriously damaged India 's trade with Europe and Central Asia. In particular, Indo - Roman trade relations, which the Gupta Empire had greatly benefited from. The Guptas had been exporting numerous luxury products such as silk, leather goods, fur, iron products, ivory, pearl, and pepper from centers such as Nasik, Paithan, Pataliputra, and Benares. The Huna invasion probably disrupted these trade relations and the tax revenues that came with them.
Furthermore, Indian urban culture was left in decline, and Buddhism, gravely weakened by the destruction of monasteries and the killing of monks, started to collapse. Great centers of learning were destroyed, such as the city of Taxila, bringing cultural regression. During their rule of 60 years, the Alchons are said to have altered the hierarchy of ruling families and the Indian cast system. For example, the Hunas are often said to have become the precursors of the Rajputs.
The succession of the 6th - century Guptas is not entirely clear, but the tail end recognized ruler of the dynasty 's main line was king Vishnugupta, reigning from 540 to 550. In addition to the Hun invasion, the factors, which contribute to the decline of the empire include competition from the Vakatakas and the rise of Yashodharman in Malwa.
The last known inscription by a Gupta emperor is from the reign of Vishnugupta (the Damodarpur copper - plate inscription), in which he makes a land grant in the area of Kotivarsha (Bangarh in West Bengal) in 542 / 543 CE. This follows the occupation of most of northern and central India by the Aulikara ruler Yashodharman circa 532 CE.
The Imperial Guptas could n't have achieved their successes through force of arms without an efficient martial system. Historically, the best accounts of this come not from the Hindus themselves but from Chinese and Western observers. However, a contemporary Indian document, regarded as a military classic of the time, the Siva - Dhanur - veda, offers some insight into the military system of the Guptas.
The Guptas seem to have relied heavily on infantry archers, and the bow was one of the dominant weapons of their army. The Hindu version of the longbow was composed of metal, or more typically bamboo, and fired a long bamboo cane arrow with a metal head. Unlike the composite bows of Western and Central Asian foes, bows of this design would be less prone to warping in the damp and moist conditions often prevalent to the region. The Indian longbow was reputedly a powerful weapon capable of great range and penetration and provided an effective counter to invading horse archers. Iron shafts were used against armored elephants and fire arrows were not part of the bowmen 's arsenal, contrary to popular belief. India historically has had a prominent reputation for its steel weapons. One of these was the steel bow. Because of its high tensility, the steel bow was capable of long range and penetration of exceptionally thick armor. These were less common weapons than the bamboo design and found in the hands of noblemen rather than in the ranks. Archers were frequently protected by infantry equipped with shields, javelins, and longswords. The Guptas also had knowledge of siegecraft, catapults, and other sophisticated war machines.
The Guptas apparently showed little predilection for using horse archers, despite the fact these warriors were a primary component in the ranks of their Scythian, Parthian, and Hepthalite (Huna) enemies. However, the Gupta armies were probably better disciplined. Able commanders such as Samudragupta and Chandragupta II would have likely understood the need for combined armed tactics and proper logistical organization. Gupta military success likely stemmed from the concerted use of elephants, armored cavalry, and foot archers in tandem against both Hindu kingdoms and foreign armies invading from the Northwest. The Guptas also maintained a navy, allowing them to control regional waters.
The collapse of the Gupta Empire in the face of the Huna onslaught was due not directly to the inherent defects of the Gupta army, which after all had initially defeated these people under Skandagupta. More likely, internal dissolution sapped the ability of the Guptas to resist foreign invasion, as was simultaneously occurring in Western Europe and China.
During the reign of Chandragupta II, Gupta Empire maintained a large army consisting of 500,000 infantry, 50,000 cavalry, 20,000 charioteers and 10,000 elephants along with a powerful navy with more than 1200 ships. Chandragupta II controlled the whole of the Indian subcontinent; the Gupta empire was the most powerful empire in the world during his reign, at a time when the Roman Empire in the West was in decline.
The Guptas were traditionally a baniya dynasty. They were orthodox Hindus, but did not force their beliefs on the rest of the population, as Buddhism and Jainism also were encouraged. Sanchi remained an important center of Buddhism. Kumaragupta I (c. 414 -- c. 455 CE) is said to have founded Nalanda.
Some later rulers however seem to have especially favoured Buddhism. Narasimhagupta Baladitya (c. 495 -?), according to contemporary writer Paramartha, was brought up under the influence of the Mahayanist philosopher, Vasubandhu. He built a sangharama at Nalanda and also a 300 ft (91 m) high vihara with a Buddha statue within which, according to Xuanzang, resembled the "great Vihara built under the Bodhi tree ''. According to the Manjushrimulakalpa (c. 800 CE), king Narasimhsagupta became a Buddhist monk, and left the world through meditation (Dhyana). The Chinese monk Xuanzang also noted that Narasimhagupta Baladitya 's son, Vajra, who commissioned a sangharama as well, "possessed a heart firm in faith ''.
A study of the epigraphical records of the Gupta empire shows that there was a hierarchy of administrative divisions from top to bottom. The empire was called by various names such as Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, Mandala, Prithvi and Avani. It was divided into 26 provinces, which were styled as Bhukti, Pradesha and Bhoga. Provinces were also divided into Vishayas and put under the control of the Vishayapatis. A Vishayapati administered the Vishaya with the help of the Adhikarana (council of representatives), which comprised four representatives: Nagarasreshesthi, Sarthavaha, Prathamakulike and Prathama Kayastha. A part of the Vishaya was called Vithi. There were also trade links of Gupta business with the Roman empire.
Scholars of this period include Varahamihira and Aryabhata, who is believed to be the first to come up with the concept of zero, postulated the theory that the Earth moves round the Sun, and studied solar and lunar eclipses. Kalidasa, who was a great playwright, who wrote plays such as Shakuntala, and marked the highest point of Sanskrit literature is also said to have belonged to this period. The Sushruta Samhita, which is a Sanskrit redaction text on all of the major concepts of ayurvedic medicine with innovative chapters on surgery, dates to the Gupta period.
Chess is said to have originated in this period, where its early form in the 6th century was known as caturaṅga, which translates as "four divisions (of the military) '' -- infantry, cavalry, elephantry, and chariotry -- represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn, knight, rook, and bishop, respectively. Doctors also invented several medical instruments, and even performed operations. The Indian numerals which were the first positional base 10 numeral systems in the world originated from Gupta India. The ancient Gupta text Kama Sutra by the Indian scholar Vatsyayana is widely considered to be the standard work on human sexual behavior in Sanskrit literature. Aryabhata, a noted mathematician - astronomer of the Gupta period proposed that the earth is round and rotates about its own axis. He also discovered that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight. Instead of the prevailing cosmogony in which eclipses were caused by pseudo-planetary nodes Rahu and Ketu, he explained eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on Earth.
The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of North Indian art for all the major religious groups. Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving works are almost all religious sculpture. The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art, as well as the Buddha figure and Jain tirthankara figures, the latter often on a very large scale. The two great centres of sculpture were Mathura and Gandhara, the latter the centre of Greco - Buddhist art. Both exported sculpture to other parts of northern India. Unlike the preceding Kushan Empire there was no artistic depiction of the monarchs, even in the very fine Guptan coinage, with the exception of some coins of the Western Satraps, or influenced by them.
The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves at Ajanta, Elephanta, and Ellora (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, and mixed including Jain) were in fact produced under later dynasties, but primarily reflect the monumentality and balance of Guptan style. Ajanta contains by far the most significant survivals of painting from this and the surrounding periods, showing a mature form which had probably had a long development, mainly in painting palaces. The Hindu Udayagiri Caves actually record connections with the dynasty and its ministers, and the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh is a major temple, one of the earliest to survive, with important sculpture.
Vishnu reclining on the serpent Shesha (Ananta), Dashavatara Temple 5th century
Buddha from Sarnath, 5 -- 6th century CE
The Colossal trimurti at the Elephanta Caves
Rock - cut temples at Ellora
Painting of Padmapani Cave 1 at Ajanta
cultural period
(Punjab - Sapta Sindhu)
(Kuru - Panchala)
(Central Gangetic Plain)
(Northeast India)
(Brahmin ideology)
Painted Grey Ware culture
(Kshatriya / Shramanic culture)
Northern Black Polished Ware
Rise of Shramana movements Jainism - Buddhism - Ājīvika - Yoga
Nanda empire
Early Pandyan Kingdom
Satavahana dynasty
Cheras
46 other small kingdoms in Ancient Thamizhagam
(continued) (300 BC -- 200 AD)
Maha - Meghavahana Dynasty
Early Pandyan Kingdom
Satavahana dynasty
Cheras
46 other small kingdoms in Ancient Thamizhagam
Indo - Scythians Indo - Parthians
Pandyan Kingdom (Under Kalabhras)
Varman dynasty
Pandyan Kingdom (Under Kalabhras)
Kadamba Dynasty
Western Ganga Dynasty
Pandyan Kingdom (Under Kalabhras)
Vishnukundina
Kabul Shahi
Kalabhra dynasty
Pandyan Kingdom (Under Kalabhras)
Pandyan Kingdom (Revival)
Pallava
Kalachuri
Pandyan Kingdom
Medieval Cholas
Pandyan Kingdom (Under Cholas)
Chera Perumals of Makkotai
Kamboja - Pala dynasty
Medieval Cholas
Pandyan Kingdom (Under Cholas)
Chera Perumals of Makkotai
Rashtrakuta
References
Sources
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how many miles is the garden route in south africa | Garden Route - wikipedia
The Garden Route (Afrikaans: Tuinroete) is a 300 - kilometre (190 mi) stretch of the south - western coast of South Africa which extends from Mossel Bay in the Western Cape to the Storms River in the Eastern Cape. The name comes from the verdant and ecologically diverse vegetation encountered here and the numerous lagoons and lakes dotted along the coast. It includes towns such as Knysna, Plettenberg Bay, Mossel Bay, Little Brak River and Nature 's Valley; with George, the Garden Route 's largest city and main administrative centre.
It has an oceanic climate, with mild to warm summers, and mild to cool winters. It has the mildest climate in South Africa and the second mildest climate in the world, after Hawaii, according to the Guinness Book of Records. Temperatures rarely fall below 10 ° C in winter and rarely climb beyond 28 ° C in summer. Rain occurs year - round, with a slight peak in the spring months, brought by the humid sea - winds from the Indian Ocean rising and releasing their precipitation along the Outeniqua and Tsitsikamma Mountains just inland of the coast.
The Route is sandwiched between the aforementioned mountains and the Indian Ocean. The Outeniqua and Tsitsikamma indigenous forests are a unique mixture of Cape Fynbos and Temperate Forest and offer hiking trails and eco-tourism activities. Nearly 300 species of bird life are to be found in a variety of habitats ranging from fynbos to forest to wetlands.
Ten nature reserves embrace the varied ecosystems of the area as well as unique marine reserves, home to soft coral reefs, dolphins, seals and a host of other marine life. Various bays along the Garden Route are nurseries to the endangered Southern Right Whale which go there to calve in the winter and spring (July to December).
A river mouth in the Tsitsikamma National Park, situated on the Garden Route
Fairy Knowe station
A tranquil scene at a lake on the Garden Route
A vineyard on the Garden Route in winter
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how many home depot stores are there in the us | The Home Depot - wikipedia
The Home Depot, Inc. or Home Depot is an American home improvement supplies retailing company that sells tools, construction products, and services. The company is headquartered at the Atlanta Store Support Center in Cobb County of Atlanta, Georgia.
It operates many big - box format stores across the United States (including all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Guam), all 10 provinces of Canada, and the country of Mexico. The MRO company Interline Brands is also owned by The Home Depot with 70 distribution centers across the United States.
The Home Depot is the largest home improvement retailer in the United States, ahead of rival Lowe 's.
The Home Depot was co-founded by Bernard Marcus, Arthur Blank, Ron Brill, and Pat Farrah in 1978. The Home Depot 's proposition was to build home - improvement superstores, larger than any of their competitors ' facilities. Investment banker Ken Langone helped Marcus and Blank to secure the necessary capital.
In 1979, the first two stores, built in spaces leased from J.C. Penney that were originally Treasure Island "hypermarket '' (discount department and grocery) stores, opened in metro Atlanta (in Doraville and on Memorial Drive in Decatur, both near I - 285) on June 21. On September 22, 1981 The Home Depot went public on the NASDAQ and raised $4.093 million. The Home Depot joined the New York Stock Exchange on April 19, 1984.
The Home Depot began to branch out of Georgia to Florida in 1981 with stores opening in Hollywood and Ft. Lauderdale. By 1984 The Home Depot was operating 19 stores with sales of over $256 million. To enter the Dallas market The Home Depot acquired Bowater Home Center from Bowater Inc. on October 31, 1984 for $40 million. The increased expansion of The Home Depot in the mid-1980s created financial difficulties with earnings falling at 42 % and debt rising to $200 million. The financial difficulties of The Home Depot also caused the stock price to fall. To curb The Home Depot difficulties it opened only 10 stores in 1986 with a stock offering 2.99 million shares at $17 per share that helped The Home Depot to restructure its debts.
In 1989 The Home Depot became the largest home improvement store in the United States surpassing Lowe 's. In the 1990s The Home Depot searched for ways to redefine its marketplace. An installation program for quality home improvement items such as windows or carpets was launched in 1991 called the EXPO with success. A 480 - page book Home Improvement 1 - 2 - 3 was published in 1995. The Canadian hardware chain Aikenhead 's Hardware was acquired by The Home Depot in 1994 for $150 million with a 75 % share. All of the Aikenhead 's Hardware stores were later converted to The Home Depot stores. By 1995 sales reached $10 billion in sales while operating 350 stores.
Former General Electric CEO Robert Nardelli became CEO and President of The Home Depot in 2000.
Atlanta - based company Apex Supply was acquired by The Home Depot in 1999. Apex Supply is a wholesale distributor of plumbing, HVAC, industrial pipe and fittings. San Diego maintenance and repair supplies company Maintenance Warehouse was purchased by The Home Depot in 2000 for $130 million. Maintenance Warehouse was purchased because it was a leading direct - mail marketer of maintenance, repair and operations supplies that can reach customers out of reach by The Home Depot. Apex Supply and Maintenance Warehouse were rebranded in 2004 as The Home Depot Supply.
In 2004, Home Depot employees at a suburban Detroit store in Harper Woods, Michigan, rejected a bid to be represented by a labor union, voting 115 to 42 against joining the United Food and Commercial Workers. If the union had won, the Michigan store would have been the first Home Depot to have union representation.
Your Other Warehouse, a large plumbing distributor with a focus on special order fulfillment, was acquired by The Home Depot in 2001. Your Other Warehouse also supplied two divisions of The Home Depot and the EXPO Design Centers. The EXPO Design Center division was reorganized in 2001 with three divisions based in the Northeast at South Plainfield, New Jersey, the West at Orange, California, and the Southeast at Atlanta, Georgia.
The Home Depot entered the Mexican market in 2002 with the acquisition of the home improvement chain Del Norte. In addition, The Home Depot had begun construction of stores in Mexicali and Tijuana. In the same year the Home Depot Landscape Supply was launched to integrate professional landscapers and upscale plants into a plant nursery retail chain. Home Depot Landscape Supply lasted only five years with only a few stores each in metro Atlanta and Dallas / Fort Worth. The Home Depot decided to close all Home Depot Landscape Supply stores in late 2007.
In September 2005, Home Depot Direct launched its online home - furnishings store, 10 Crescent Lane, shortly followed by the launch of Paces Trading Company, its online lighting store. In mid 2006, the Home Depot acquired Home Decorators Collection, which was placed as an additional brand under its Home Depot Direct division.
In 2006, the Home Depot acquired Hughes Supply the largest home retailer in the United States for $3.2 billion. Hughes Supply was integrated into The Home Depot Supply to better serve business - to - business customers. The Home Depot Supply rebranded under the new name HD Supply in January 2007. Five months later The Home Depot sold HD Supply to a consortium of three private equity firms, The Carlyle Group, Bain Capital and Clayton, Dubilier and Rice (with each agreeing to buy a one - third stake in the division).
On January 2, 2007, the Home Depot and Robert Nardelli mutually agreed on Nardelli 's resignation as CEO after a six - year tenure. Nardelli resigned amid complaints over his heavy - handed management and whether his pay package of $123.7 million (excluding stock option grants) over the previous five years was excessive, considering the stock 's poor performance versus its competitor Lowe 's. His severance package of $210 million was criticized because when the stock went down, his pay went up.
His successor, Frank Blake, previously served as the company 's vice chairman of the board and executive vice president. Blake agreed to a much more conservative compensation package than Nardelli, that is very heavily dependent upon the success of the company. Although a longtime deputy to Nardelli at GE and Home Depot, Blake was said to lack Nardelli 's hard edge and instead preferred to make decisions by consensus. Indeed, Blake repudiated many of his predecessor 's strategies, and it has been reported that the two men have not spoken since Nardelli departed Home Depot.
In 2008 and 2009, with the downturn in the housing market, The Home Depot announced the layoff of several thousand associates, as well as the closing of 54 stores nationwide, including the entire EXPO Design Center chain. Associates at EXPO were allowed to re-apply for Home Depot jobs after the layoffs, and did not lose any tenure if hired back. In the year of February 2009, sales totaled $71.288 billion, more than $20 billion down from the peak of two years earlier due to the sale of HD Supply and falling revenue at the retained business. In 2012, they proceeded to close the big - box style stores that they had in China, however smaller stores that specialized in custom products and focused on more intimate interactions between customers and associates remain open there.
In 2013 The Home Depot established two large distribution centers in Atlanta and Los Angeles.
In August 2014 it was announced that Frank Blake would step down as CEO and would be replaced by 57 - year - old Craig Menear. The change occurred on November 1, 2014. Blake would continue with the company as chairman. Menear joined The Home Depot in 1997, and served in various management and vice-presidential positions, until 2003, including merchandising vice president of hardware, merchandising vice president of the Southwest Division, and divisional merchandise manager of the Southwest Division. He subsequently served as senior vice president of merchandising from August 2003 to April 2007. He then served as an executive vice president of merchandising from April 2007 to February 2014. Until becoming CEO, Menear served as president of U.S. Retail from February 2014 to November 1, 2014.
The company had a data breach in September 2014. One major reason for the data breach was the practice of entering credit card numbers directly into computers at the service - desk and pro-desk, and in specialty departments including flooring, kitchen cabinets, appliances, and millwork, rather than using POS credit card terminals directly. The practice was stopped, and Home Depot offered a year of free credit monitoring through AllClearID for any customers who requested it. There were also reports of credit card numbers being stolen when used to make purchases on Homedepot.com.
On July 22, 2015, Home Depot acquired Interline Brands from P2 Capital Partners, Goldman Sachs ' private equity arm, and the management of Interline Brands for $1.6 billion. Interline Brands became fully integrated with The Home Depot in August 2016 with the Interline Brands website merging with The Home Depot website. The subsidiaries of Interline Brands are now companies of The Home Depot.
The Home Depot 's mascot has been Homer D. Poe since 1981, when it was first used in advertising. Gwyn Raker, the illustrator says, "I designed him to be a funny guy next door who was n't intimidating. '' The Homer Fund, a for - associate charity, is named after the mascot, who since its creation, has been a part of Home Depot culture ever since. This includes signage, advertising, awards and even a life - size costume for stores to rent out. Homer has a wife, named Daisy.
Home Depot stores average 105,000 ft (9,755 m) in size and are organized warehouse - style, stocking a large range of supplies. Home Depot 's two largest stores are located in Union, New Jersey, which encompasses 217,000 ft of space, and in Anaheim Hills, California where it encompasses 204,000 ft. The company color is a bright orange (PMS 165, CMYK 60M100Y, HEX FF6600), on signs, equipment and employee aprons. It was announced in August 2014 that Craig Menear will take over for Frank Blake as CEO while Blake will remain the chairman of the board.
The slogan "More saving. More doing. '' was introduced by The Home Depot in the March 18, 2009 circular, replacing "You can do it. We can help. '' which had been used since 2003. Other slogans used in the past 25 years include "The Home Depot, Low prices are just the beginning '' in the early 1990s and "When you 're at the Home Depot, You 'll feel right at home '' in the late 1990s and "The Home Depot: First In Home Improvement! '' from 1999 to 2003.
Long - time employee Marc Powers became the head of Home Depot 's US stores division in 2014. He took the place of Marvin Ellison, who left to become the chief executive of J.C. Penney. In January, 2016 Home Depot announced the departure of Powers as division head, to be replaced by another veteran employee, Ann - Marie Campbell, one of Powers ' deputies. The change in leadership is effective as of February 1, 2016. Ms. Campbell has been employed by Home Depot for over 30 years, beginning as a cashier in a branch in South Florida. Her most recent role was as president of Home Depot 's Southern division.
The Home Depot has over 90 distribution centers throughout the United States to serve over 2,000 The Home Depot stores.
Interline Brands has over 90 distribution centers throughout the United States, Canada and Puerto Rico that serves customer needs for MRO supplies.
The brands of Interline Brands includes:
The domain homedepot.com attracted at least 120 million visitors annually by 2008 according to a Compete.com survey. In the US HomeDepot.com has 5 Call centers located in Kennesaw, GA; Atlanta, GA; Marietta, GA; Ogden, Utah and Tempe, AZ.
The Home Depot exclusively carries several major brands, including:
Additionally, the retailer has its own house brands:
In 2006, the Home Depot started testing fuel centers at some of its stores. The first such "Home Depot Fuel '' convenience store (C - Store) was located in Brentwood, Tennessee followed a month later by a center about 20 miles (32 km) away in Hermitage, both suburbs of Nashville. Four additional prototype stores were built within the year at Acworth, Georgia; Smyrna, Tennessee; Greensboro, Georgia; and then Winchester, Tennessee in that order. The centers were expected to earn $5 -- $7 million per year, though the actual number was reported to be much higher. The fuel centers sell beer, hot food, and snacks along with providing diesel fuel and gas at a separate island. This allows contractors with large trucks to be able to fill their vehicles. The fuel centers offer car washes, which are large enough to accommodate full - size pickup trucks and other large commercial vehicles.
Current members of the board of directors of the Home Depot are: F. Duane Ackerman, David H. Batchelder, Frank Blake, Ari Bousbib, Gregory D. Brenneman, Albert P. Carey, Armando Codina, Bonnie G. Hill, and Karen Katen. The Home Depot 's board consists of 9 members, with 8 of them being independent directors.
The Home Depot Foundation is the philanthropic arm of the company created in 2002. It has contributed over $200 million in time, labor, money, and supplies to a number of causes, including Habitat for Humanity, California - based City of Hope National Medical Center, and playground construction organization KaBOOM! Home Depot supports the U.S. Military community with a 10 % military discount.
The Home Depot has partnered with the Georgia Emergency Management Agency 's Ready Georgia campaign, leading both supplies and facility use to this statewide effort to increase emergency preparedness among Georgia 's children. The company also provided ready kits and other prizes for an art and essay contest for Georgia elementary school students.
In 2005, The Home Depot was among 53 entities that contributed the maximum of $250,000 to the second inauguration of President George W. Bush.
The Home Depot has stated on their website that they have a commitment "we continue to lead by example, demonstrating to the world that sustainability business practices are not only possible, they are good for business ''. The Home Depot introduced a label on nearly 3,000 products in 2007. The label promotes energy conservation, sustainable forestry and clean water. Home Depot executives said that as the world 's - largest buyer of construction material, their company had the power to persuade thousands of suppliers, homebuilders and consumers to follow its lead on environment sustainability. "Who in the world has a chance to have a bigger impact on this sector than Home Depot? '' asked Ron Jarvis, vice president for environmental innovation at Home Depot. This program is following The Home Depot 's promise in the late 1990s to eliminate the number of sales of lumber from endangered forests in countries including Chile and Indonesia. Home Depot has since worked with environmental groups to create a variety of green programs. For example, Home Depot planted thousands of trees at its headquarters in Atlanta to offset carbon emissions. In 2007, The Home Depot Foundation (the company 's charitable foundation) committed to investing $100 million over the next decade to build over 100,000 green affordable homes and plant 3,000,000 trees.
Additionally, The Home Depot promotes compact fluorescent light bulbs in its stores. As part of this effort, the company created the largest recycling program in the United States for the bulbs. In March 2013, Home Depot locations in Canada stopped accepting compact fluorescent light bulbs for recycling.
In 2002, The Home Depot joined PBS as a sponsor of This Old House and Ask This Old House.
In 2003, The Home Depot became a sponsor for Trading Spaces.
Company co-founder Arthur Blank also purchased the Atlanta Falcons franchise of the National Football League in February 2002, although The Home Depot made no association with the team until April 2017, when The Home Depot acquired the naming rights to a 13 - acre park to be built adjacent to the Falcons ' new stadium, Mercedes - Benz Stadium. The Home Depot Backyard is set to be built once the former Georgia Dome is demolished.
Since 1991, the company has become a large supporter of athletics, sponsoring the United States and Canadian Olympic teams, and launching a program which offered employment to athletes that accommodates their training and competition schedules. The Home Depot ceased to be a sponsor of the Canadian Olympic Team in 2005.
The Home Depot has been a major sponsor for Joe Gibbs Racing in NASCAR since 1999. Their arrival into the series coincided with Tony Stewart leaving the Indy Racing League to join what is now the Sprint Cup Series. Stewart drove The Home Depot - sponsored # 20 car for Joe Gibbs Racing until 2008, winning 2 of his 3 series championships in the car, and was succeeded by Joey Logano, who took the car to victory lane twice. After Matt Kenseth joined the team, The Home Depot 's status as the # 20 's primary sponsor was taken over by Dollar General, but the company still served as its most frequent secondary sponsor through its Husky Tools division. On June 23, 2014, the company announced it would end its NASCAR sponsorship after 2014.
The Home Depot was the title sponsor of The Home Depot Center in Carson, California, home to both the Los Angeles Galaxy and Chivas USA of Major League Soccer, and Los Angeles Riptide (Major League Lacrosse), and many past major sporting events. The venue is now called StubHub Center.
In 2006, The Home Depot partnered with Duke University 's Edmund T. Pratt Jr. School of Engineering to create "The Home Depot Smart Home ''. The smart home is a live - in laboratory for ten upper - class engineering students that allows them to immerse themselves in the work. The goal of the project is to help provide innovative solutions for the home in areas such as security and home monitoring, communications, energy efficiency, entertainment, environment and health.
In January 2007, The Home Depot became the official home improvement sponsor of ESPN 's College Gameday.
Seventy - three percent of The Home Depot 's campaign contributions went to Republican candidates in the 2005 -- 2006 US elections. "Home Depot 's PAC gives money based on a candidate 's voting record, committee assignment and leadership position, '' said company spokesman Jerry Shields. The CEO in this period was Bob Nardelli, a friend of U.S. President George W. Bush. Nardelli hosted a garden reception / fundraiser for Bush at his Atlanta home on May 20, 2004.
Home Depot Canada is the Canadian unit of the Home Depot and one of Canada 's top home improvement retailers. The Canadian operation consists of 182 stores and employs over 28,000 people in Canada. Home Depot Canada has stores in all ten Canadian provinces and serves territorial Nunavut, Northwest Territories, and Yukon through electronic means (Online Sales). The Canadian head office is located in Toronto.
The Canadian unit was created with the purchase of Aikenhead 's Hardware. Home Depot management has an ambitious plan to overtake its biggest competitor, RONA, which has about four times as many stores. However, some of RONA 's stores are smaller than the typical Home Depot store. In terms of big box stores, the Home Depot has more stores than RONA, (not including other Rona banners such as Réno Dépôt or Cashway). As of 2007, RONA pulled ahead of The Home Depot in total retail sales, due to aggressive consolidation efforts by RONA, combined with the loss of The Home Depot 's industrial supply division, HD Supply, in July 2007. The Home Depot now faces competition from Lowe 's as they have moved into the Canadian market effective the end of 2007; Lowe 's now has 35 outlets in Canada.
In Quebec, where it has 22 stores, The Home Depot is branded simply "Home Depot '' (using English words but without the definite article "the '').
The Home Depot operates 106 stores in Mexico and has become one of the largest retailers in Mexico since it entered the market in 2001. The Home Depot increased its presence in Mexico in 2004, with the acquisition of Home Mart, the second largest Mexican home improvement retailer.
The Home Depot Mexico employs more than 11,000 associates throughout the country and has an annual growth rate of 10 percent.
In December 2006, the Home Depot announced its acquisition of the Chinese home improvement retailer The Home Way. The acquisition gave the Home Depot an immediate presence in China, with 12 stores in six cities.
In April, 2011, Home Depot shut its last Beijing store, the fifth Home Depot to close in China in the previous two years. In September 2012, The Home Depot announced it was closing all big box stores in China. The Home Depot retained two specialty stores in China, a Home Decorators Collection Store and a paint and flooring store.
As of September 16, 2012, all seven of the box stores in China had been shut down. The Home Depot has no immediate plans to further expand its specialty stores in China. The company is taking a "wait - and - see '' attitude towards the Chinese market, but does not want to completely pull out because re-entry into the market would be very costly.
The Home Depot 's lack of success in China has been attributed to the disconnect between The Home Depot 's do - it - yourself ethos and Chinese culture. In 2012, the Home Depot conceded that it misread the country 's appetite for do - it - yourself products. As a spokeswoman for the company said in an interview with the Wall Street Journal, "The market trend says this is more of a do - it - for - me culture ''. Culturally, manual labor is seen as an activity for lower - class citizens, and some have speculated that The Home Depot could have capitalized on this by offering a do - it - for - me model to Chinese consumers. Chinese consumers prefer to see a finished product, such as a renovated room, rather than light bulbs and lumber. The same issue does not exist outside of China, especially in Canada, where Chinese Home Depot advertisements and store signage can be found in areas with large Chinese demographics.
There were reports that the Home Depot was interested in acquiring B&Q, the largest DIY retailer in the United Kingdom, Ireland and China. Speculation of a takeover began in 1999 when the retailer Asda was purchased by Walmart. The Home Depot would have to acquire Kingfisher plc, B&Q 's parent company, to acquire B&Q. Kingfisher consists of several European DIY chains; however, the Home Depot was only interested in B&Q operations and says that it would dispose of the Castorama chain which operates in France, Italy, Poland and Russia. Talks ending in 2005 did not result in any takeover deal.
In 1997, Home Depot entered the Chilean and Argentine markets. While the venture was viewed with great optimism by founders Bernard Marcus and Arthur Blank, it eventually proved unprofitable. In October 2001, Chilean partners Falabella bought out Home Depot 's share of the five Chilean Home Center stores and rebranded them Home Store. In 2003, after merging with Sodimac, all stores adopted that brand. The company has since expanded across Latin America very profitably and successfully. It 's currently the N ° 1 Home Improvement company in South America. In 2002, Argentina 's Home Depots were bought out by Chilean company Cencosud and rebranded Easy stores, a company that has also expanded across South America. It 's currently the N ° 2 Home Improvement company in South America.
The Home Depot was embroiled in whistleblower litigation brought under the Sarbanes - Oxley Act (SOX) law. In July 2005, former employee Michael Davis, represented by attorney Mark D. Schwartz filed a whistleblower lawsuit against the Home Depot, alleging that his discharge was in retaliation for refusing to make unwarranted backcharges against vendors. Davis alleges that the Home Depot forced its employees to meet a set quota of backcharges to cover damaged or defective merchandise, forcing employees to make chargebacks to vendors for merchandise that was undamaged and not defective. The Home Depot alleges that it fired Davis for repeatedly failing to show up for work.
The trial initially was concluded in June 2006, but in April 2007, U.S. Department of Labor Judge Pamela Lakes Wood ordered the case reopened after the Home Depot 's law firm Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld revealed that the retail giant 's in - house counsel had told them that two Home Depot employees who testified at the trial had lied. Akin Gump sent Wood a letter on September 29, 2006, in which the law firm requested that the testimony be stricken. In response to Akin Gump 's revelation, Davis ' attorney Mark D. Schwartz asked for the case to be reopened to permit further questioning of the witnesses. On April 6, 2007, Wood ordered the case to be reopened.
Schwartz was quoted by the New York Post as saying, "I have reason to believe these witnesses were intimidated into giving false testimony. '' The Home Depot called Schwartz 's allegations "meritless ''.
Home Depot has settled the dispute in a stipulation of settlement dated March 28, 2008. In the settlement, Home Depot changed some of its corporate governance provisions. Home Depot also agreed to pay the plaintiff 's counsel $6 million in cash and $8.5 million in common stock.
Powell v. Home Depot USA, Inc. (2008cv61862) (2011) was a decision by the United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida concerning patent infringement on a "safe hands '' device that Michael Powell, an independent contractor for Home Depot, created in response to injuries to the hands of associates using in - store radial arm saws. The District Court jury returned a verdict in favor of Powell.
In 2011, Home Depot appealed against the decision to the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, challenging the district court 's denial of its renewed motion for judgment as a matter of law on the issues of infringement, willfulness, and damages. They also challenged the district court 's claim construction, inequitable conduct, and attorney fees determinations. The appellate court found no inequitable conduct and insufficiently egregious misconduct on the part of Powell 's attorney.
In the wake of the 2011 Joplin tornado in which the walls of a Home Depot collapsed in Joplin after being hit by an EF5 tornado, The Kansas City Star, citing engineers, criticized Home Depot 's practice of using tilt - up construction in hundreds of its big - box stores (other nearby big - box stores in Joplin, including a Walmart and Academy Sports, which had concrete block construction, lost their roofs but the walls remained intact). In tilt - up construction the concrete is poured onsite, lifted into place, and then attached to the roof. The engineers told the Star that the practice, while normally safe and efficient, is dangerous in major storms because once the roof is lifted (as happened in Joplin) the walls collapse in a domino effect. Seven people were killed in the front of the store when the 100,000 - pound walls collapsed on them, while 28 people in the back of the store survived when those walls collapsed outward. Only two of the slab walls in the Home Depot survived. In contrast, 3 people died in the Walmart but 200 survived. Engineers noted that when concrete block construction fails, structural elements break in pieces and usually not in huge slabs. Home Depot said it fundamentally disagreed with the engineers quoted by the Star and said it would use tilt - up construction when it rebuilds the Joplin store.
On September 2, 2014, security news reporter Brian Krebs reported that he was seeing evidence of credit card numbers linked to Home Depot purchases being sold online, which he concluded to suggest that The Home Depot 's payment systems were breached by hackers. On September 8, 2014, Home Depot confirmed that their payment systems were compromised. According to their press release, this breach affected any customers who made purchases at any Home Depot store from April 2014 to September 2014. Home Depot offered their affected customers free one - year credit monitoring service from AllClear ID. Also in their press release, they made sure to emphasize that there was no evidence to suggest that online customers were affected by the breach. On September 18, 2014, Home Depot released a statement saying that the hackers obtained a total of 56 million credit card numbers as a result of the breach. Since the breach, Home Depot has rolled out new encryption technology for their cash registers and self - checkout systems to protect customers. A class action lawsuit was filed against the company.
In March 2016 Home Depot agreed to pay at least $19.5 million to compensate the more than 50 million consumers affected. The settlement terms included a $13 million fund to reimburse shoppers and a $6.5 million fund for cardholder identity protection services.
In September 2012, Home Depot agreed to pay $100,000 and furnish other relief to settle a disability discrimination lawsuit filed by the U.S Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, for the alleged failure to provide a reasonable accommodation for a cashier with cancer at its Towson, Maryland, store and then for purportedly firing her because of her condition.
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which part of the world is the uk in | United Kingdom - wikipedia
-- in Europe (green & dark grey) -- in the European Union (green)
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a sovereign country lying off the north - western coast of the European mainland. The United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, the north - eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state -- the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border, the United Kingdom is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to its east, the English Channel to its south and the Celtic Sea to its south - south - west, giving it the 12th - longest coastline in the world. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland. With an area of 242,500 square kilometres (93,600 sq mi), the United Kingdom is the 78th - largest sovereign state in the world. It is also the 22nd-most populous country, with an estimated 66.0 million inhabitants in 2017.
The sovereign state is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 1952, making her the longest - serving current head of state. The United Kingdom 's capital and largest city is London, a global city and financial centre with an urban area population of 10.3 million. Other major urban areas in the UK include the conurbations centred on Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow and Liverpool.
The United Kingdom consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Their capitals are London, Belfast, Edinburgh, and Cardiff respectively. Apart from England, the countries have devolved administrations, each with varying powers. The nearby Isle of Man, Bailiwick of Guernsey and Bailiwick of Jersey are not part of the UK, being Crown dependencies with the British Government responsible for defence and international representation. The medieval conquest and subsequent annexation of Wales by the Kingdom of England, followed by the union between England and Scotland in 1707 to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, and the union in 1801 of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five - sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. There are fourteen British Overseas Territories, the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, encompassed almost a quarter of the world 's land mass and was the largest empire in history. British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies.
The United Kingdom is a developed country and has the world 's fifth - largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth - largest economy by purchasing power parity. It has a high - income economy and has a "very high '' Human Development Index, ranking 14th in the world. It was the world 's first industrialised country and the world 's foremost power during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The United Kingdom remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a recognised nuclear weapons state and is sixth in military expenditure in the world. It has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946. It has been a leading member state of the European Union (EU) and its predecessor, the European Economic Community (EEC), since 1973; however, a referendum in 2016 resulted in 51.9 % of UK voters favouring leaving the European Union, and the country 's exit is being negotiated. The United Kingdom is also a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Council of Europe, the G7, the G20, NATO, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Interpol and the World Trade Organization (WTO).
The 1707 Acts of Union declared that the kingdoms of England and Scotland were "United into One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain '', though the new state is also described in the Acts as the "Kingdom of Great Britain '', "United Kingdom of Great Britain '' and "One Kingdom ''. The term "United Kingdom '' is found in use as a description, but not a name, during the 18th century, and the country has occasionally been referred to in later centuries as the "United Kingdom of Great Britain '' although its full official name, from 1707 to 1800, was simply "Great Britain '', without a "long form ''. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland in 1801, forming the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Following the partition of Ireland and the independence of the Irish Free State in 1922, which left Northern Ireland as the only part of the island of Ireland within the United Kingdom, the name "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland '' was adopted.
Although the United Kingdom, as a sovereign state, is a country, England, Scotland, Wales and, to a lesser degree, Northern Ireland are also regarded as countries, though they are not sovereign states. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self - government. The British Prime Minister 's website has used the phrase "countries within a country '' to describe the United Kingdom. Some statistical summaries, such as those for the twelve NUTS 1 regions of the United Kingdom, also refer to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland as "regions ''. Northern Ireland is also referred to as a "province ''. With regard to Northern Ireland, the descriptive name used "can be controversial, with the choice often revealing one 's political preferences ''.
The term "Great Britain '' refers conventionally to the island of Great Britain, or politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination. However, it is sometimes used as a loose synonym for the United Kingdom as a whole. GB and GBR are the standard country codes for the United Kingdom (see ISO 3166 - 2 and ISO 3166 - 1 alpha - 3) and are consequently used by international organisations to refer to the United Kingdom. Additionally, the United Kingdom 's Olympic team competes under the name "Great Britain '' or "Team GB ''.
The term "Britain '' is used both as a synonym for Great Britain, and as a synonym for the United Kingdom. Usage is mixed, with the BBC preferring to use Britain as shorthand only for Great Britain and the British Government, although accepting that both terms refer to the United Kingdom, preferring, in most cases, to use the term UK rather than Britain. While the UK Permanent Committee on Geographical Names (whose definitions are the "authoritative geographical names of the United Kingdom '') lists "United Kingdom '' and "UK or U.K. '' as shortened and abbreviated geopolitical terms for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, but does not list "Britain '', it has been used "informally '' by government websites.
The adjective "British '' is commonly used to refer to matters relating to the United Kingdom. The term has no definite legal connotation, but is used in law to refer to United Kingdom citizenship and matters to do with nationality. People of the United Kingdom use a number of different terms to describe their national identity and may identify themselves as being British; or as being English, Scottish, Welsh, Northern Irish, or Irish; or as being both.
In Welsh, the long form name of the state is "Teyrnas Unedig Prydain Fawr a Gogledd Iwerddon '', with "Teyrnas Unedig '' being used as a short form name on government websites. However, it is usually abbreviated to "DU '' for the mutated form "Y Deyrnas Unedig ''. In Scottish Gaelic, the long form is "Rìoghachd Aonaichte Bhreatainn is Èireann a Tuath '' and the short form "Rìoghachd Aonaichte ''.
Settlement by anatomically modern humans of what was to become the United Kingdom occurred in waves beginning by about 30,000 years ago. By the end of the region 's prehistoric period, the population is thought to have belonged, in the main, to a culture termed Insular Celtic, comprising Brittonic Britain and Gaelic Ireland. The Roman conquest, beginning in 43 AD, and the 400 - year rule of southern Britain, was followed by an invasion by Germanic Anglo - Saxon settlers, reducing the Brittonic area mainly to what was to become Wales, Cornwall and, until the latter stages of the Anglo - Saxon settlement, the Hen Ogledd (northern England and parts of southern Scotland). Most of the region settled by the Anglo - Saxons became unified as the Kingdom of England in the 10th century. Meanwhile, Gaelic - speakers in north - west Britain (with connections to the north - east of Ireland and traditionally supposed to have migrated from there in the 5th century) united with the Picts to create the Kingdom of Scotland in the 9th century.
In 1066, the Normans and their Breton allies invaded England from northern France and after its conquest, seized large parts of Wales, conquered much of Ireland and were invited to settle in Scotland, bringing to each country feudalism on the Northern French model and Norman - French culture. The Anglo - Norman ruling class greatly influenced, but eventually assimilated with, each of the local cultures. Subsequent medieval English kings completed the conquest of Wales and made an unsuccessful attempt to annex Scotland. Following the Declaration of Arbroath, Scotland maintained its independence, albeit in near - constant conflict with England. The English monarchs, through inheritance of substantial territories in France and claims to the French crown, were also heavily involved in conflicts in France, most notably the Hundred Years War, while the Kings of Scots were in an alliance with the French during this period.
The early modern period saw religious conflict resulting from the Reformation and the introduction of Protestant state churches in each country. Wales was fully incorporated into the Kingdom of England, and Ireland was constituted as a kingdom in personal union with the English crown. In what was to become Northern Ireland, the lands of the independent Catholic Gaelic nobility were confiscated and given to Protestant settlers from England and Scotland.
In 1603, the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland were united in a personal union when James VI, King of Scots, inherited the crowns of England and Ireland and moved his court from Edinburgh to London; each country nevertheless remained a separate political entity and retained its separate political, legal, and religious institutions.
In the mid-17th century, all three kingdoms were involved in a series of connected wars (including the English Civil War) which led to the temporary overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the short - lived unitary republic of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. During the 17th and 18th centuries, British sailors were involved in acts of piracy (privateering), attacking and stealing from ships off the coast of Europe and the Caribbean.
Although the monarchy was restored, the Interregnum ensured (along with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the subsequent Bill of Rights 1689, and the Claim of Right Act 1689) that, unlike much of the rest of Europe, royal absolutism would not prevail, and a professed Catholic could never accede to the throne. The British constitution would develop on the basis of constitutional monarchy and the parliamentary system. With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660, science was greatly encouraged. During this period, particularly in England, the development of naval power (and the interest in voyages of discovery) led to the acquisition and settlement of overseas colonies, particularly in North America.
Though previous attempts at uniting the two kingdoms within Great Britain in 1606, 1667, and 1689 had proved unsuccessful, the attempt initiated in 1705 led to the Treaty of Union of 1706 being agreed and ratified by both parliaments
On 1 May 1707, the united Kingdom of Great Britain came into being, the result of Acts of Union being passed by the parliaments of England and Scotland to ratify the 1706 Treaty of Union and so unite the two kingdoms.
In the 18th century, cabinet government developed under Robert Walpole, in practice the first prime minister (1721 -- 1742). A series of Jacobite Uprisings sought to remove the Protestant House of Hanover from the British throne and restore the Catholic House of Stuart. The Jacobites were finally defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746, after which the Scottish Highlanders were brutally suppressed. The British colonies in North America that broke away from Britain in the American War of Independence became the United States of America, recognised by Britain in 1783. British imperial ambition turned towards Asia, particularly to India.
During the 18th century, Britain was involved in the Atlantic slave trade. British ships transported an estimated two million slaves from Africa to the West Indies. Parliament banned the trade in 1807, banned slavery in the British Empire in 1833, and Britain took a leading role in the movement to abolish slavery worldwide through the blockade of Africa and pressing other nations to end their trade with a series of treaties. The world 's oldest international human rights organisation, Anti-Slavery International, was formed in London in 1839.
The term "United Kingdom '' became official in 1801 when the parliaments of Britain and Ireland each passed an Act of Union, uniting the two kingdoms and creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
In the early 19th century, the British - led Industrial Revolution began to transform the country. Gradually political power shifted away from the old Tory and Whig landowning classes towards the new industrialists. An alliance of merchants and industrialists with the Whigs would lead to a new party, the Liberals, with an ideology of free trade and laissez - faire. In 1832 Parliament passed the Great Reform Act, which began the transfer of political power from the aristocracy to the middle classes. In the countryside, enclosure of the land was driving small farmers out. Towns and cities began to swell with a new urban working class. Few ordinary workers had the vote, and they created their own organisations in the form of trade unions.
After the defeat of France at the end of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1792 -- 1815), Great Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century (with London the largest city in the world from about 1830). Unchallenged at sea, British dominance was later described as Pax Britannica ("British Peace ''), a period of relative peace among the Great Powers (1815 -- 1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon and adopted the role of global policeman. By the time of the Great Exhibition of 1851, Britain was described as the "workshop of the world ''. The British Empire was expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, British dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many regions, such as Asia and Latin America. Domestically, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez - faire policies and a gradual widening of the voting franchise. During the century, the population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, causing significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, and elsewhere. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self - governing dominions. After the turn of the century, Britain 's industrial dominance was challenged by Germany and the United States.
Social reform and home rule for Ireland were important domestic issues after 1900. The Labour Party emerged from an alliance of trade unions and small socialist groups in 1900, and suffragettes campaigned for women 's right to vote before 1914.
Britain fought alongside France, Russia and (after 1917) the United States, against Germany and its allies in the First World War (1914 -- 1918). British armed forces were engaged across much of the British Empire and in several regions of Europe, particularly on the Western front. The high fatalities of trench warfare caused the loss of much of a generation of men, with lasting social effects in the nation and a great disruption in the social order.
After the war, Britain received the League of Nations mandate over a number of former German and Ottoman colonies. The British Empire reached its greatest extent, covering a fifth of the world 's land surface and a quarter of its population. However, Britain had suffered 2.5 million casualties and finished the war with a huge national debt.
The rise of Irish nationalism, and disputes within Ireland over the terms of Irish Home Rule, led eventually to the partition of the island in 1921. The Irish Free State became independent, initially with Dominion status in 1922, and unambiguously independent in 1931. Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom. A wave of strikes in the mid-1920s culminated in the General Strike of 1926. Britain had still not recovered from the effects of the war when the Great Depression (1929 -- 1932) occurred. This led to considerable unemployment and hardship in the old industrial areas, as well as political and social unrest in the 1930s, with rising membership in communist and socialist parties. A coalition government was formed in 1931.
Britain entered the Second World War by declaring war on Nazi Germany in 1939 after Germany had invaded Poland. Winston Churchill became prime minister and head of a coalition government in 1940. Despite the defeat of its European allies in the first year of the war, Britain and its Empire continued the fight alone against Germany. In 1940, the Royal Air Force defeated the German Luftwaffe in a struggle for control of the skies in the Battle of Britain. Urban areas suffered heavy bombing during the Blitz. There were also eventual hard - fought victories in the Battle of the Atlantic, the North Africa campaign and the Burma campaign. British forces played an important role in the Normandy landings of 1944, achieved with its United States ally.
After the end of the Second World War in 1945, the UK was one of the Big Four powers (along with the U.S., the Soviet Union, and China) who met to plan the post-war world; it was an original signatory to the Declaration of the United Nations. The UK became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council and worked closely with the United States to establish the IMF, World Bank and NATO. However, the war left the UK severely weakened and depending financially on the Marshall Plan. In the immediate post-war years, the Labour government initiated a radical programme of reforms, which had a significant effect on British society in the following decades. Major industries and public utilities were nationalised, a welfare state was established, and a comprehensive, publicly funded healthcare system, the National Health Service, was created. The rise of nationalism in the colonies coincided with Britain 's now much - diminished economic position, so that a policy of decolonisation was unavoidable. Independence was granted to India and Pakistan in 1947. Over the next three decades, most colonies of the British Empire gained their independence. Many became members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
The UK was the third country to develop a nuclear weapons arsenal (with its first atomic bomb test in 1952), but the new post-war limits of Britain 's international role were illustrated by the Suez Crisis of 1956. The international spread of the English language ensured the continuing international influence of its literature and culture. As a result of a shortage of workers in the 1950s, the government encouraged immigration from Commonwealth countries. In the following decades, the UK became a more multi-ethnic society than before. Despite rising living standards in the late 1950s and 1960s, the UK 's economic performance was less successful than many of its main competitors such as France, West Germany and Japan.
In the decade - long process of European integration, the UK was a founding member of the alliance called the Western European Union, established with the London and Paris Conferences in 1954. In 1960 the UK was one of the seven founding members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), but in 1973 it left to join the European Communities (EC). When the EC became the European Union (EU) in 1992, the UK was one of the 12 founding members. The Treaty of Lisbon was signed in 2007, which forms the constitutional basis of the European Union since then.
From the late 1960s, Northern Ireland suffered communal and paramilitary violence (sometimes affecting other parts of the UK) conventionally known as the Troubles. It is usually considered to have ended with the Belfast "Good Friday '' Agreement of 1998.
Following a period of widespread economic slowdown and industrial strife in the 1970s, the Conservative government of the 1980s under Margaret Thatcher initiated a radical policy of monetarism, deregulation, particularly of the financial sector (for example, Big Bang in 1986) and labour markets, the sale of state - owned companies (privatisation), and the withdrawal of subsidies to others. This resulted in high unemployment and social unrest, but ultimately also economic growth, particularly in the services sector. From 1984, the economy was helped by the inflow of substantial North Sea oil revenues.
Around the end of the 20th century there were major changes to the governance of the UK with the establishment of devolved administrations for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. The statutory incorporation followed acceptance of the European Convention on Human Rights. The UK is still a key global player diplomatically and militarily. It plays leading roles in the EU, UN and NATO. However, controversy surrounds some of Britain 's overseas military deployments, particularly in Afghanistan and Iraq.
The 2008 global financial crisis severely affected the UK economy. The coalition government of 2010 introduced austerity measures intended to tackle the substantial public deficits which resulted. In 2014 the Scottish Government held a referendum on Scottish independence, with 55.3 % of voters rejecting the independence proposal and opting to remain within the United Kingdom. In 2016, 51.9 % of voters in the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union. The legal process of leaving the EU began on 29 March 2017, with the UK 's invocation of Article 50 of the Treaty of Lisbon, formally notifying the EU of the UK 's intention to leave. The article stipulates that the negotiations to leave will last at least two years. The UK remains a full member of the EU during this time.
The total area of the United Kingdom is approximately 243,610 square kilometres (94,060 sq mi). The country occupies the major part of the British Isles archipelago and includes the island of Great Britain, the north - eastern one - sixth of the island of Ireland and some smaller surrounding islands. It lies between the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea with the south - east coast coming within 22 miles (35 km) of the coast of northern France, from which it is separated by the English Channel. In 1993 10 % of the UK was forested, 46 % used for pastures and 25 % cultivated for agriculture. The Royal Greenwich Observatory in London is the defining point of the Prime Meridian.
The United Kingdom lies between latitudes 49 ° and 61 ° N, and longitudes 9 ° W and 2 ° E. Northern Ireland shares a 224 - mile (360 km) land boundary with the Republic of Ireland. The coastline of Great Britain is 11,073 miles (17,820 km) long. It is connected to continental Europe by the Channel Tunnel, which at 31 miles (50 km) (24 miles (38 km) underwater) is the longest underwater tunnel in the world.
England accounts for just over half (53 %) of the total area of the UK, covering 130,395 square kilometres (50,350 sq mi). Most of the country consists of lowland terrain, with mountainous terrain north - west of the Tees - Exe line; including the Cumbrian Mountains of the Lake District, the Pennines, Exmoor and Dartmoor. The main rivers and estuaries are the Thames, Severn and the Humber. England 's highest mountain is Scafell Pike (978 metres (3,209 ft)) in the Lake District.
Scotland accounts for just under a third (32 %) of the total area of the UK, covering 78,772 square kilometres (30,410 sq mi) and including nearly eight hundred islands, predominantly west and north of the mainland; notably the Hebrides, Orkney Islands and Shetland Islands. Scotland is the most mountainous country in the UK and its topography is distinguished by the Highland Boundary Fault -- a geological rock fracture -- which traverses Scotland from Arran in the west to Stonehaven in the east. The fault separates two distinctively different regions; namely the Highlands to the north and west and the lowlands to the south and east. The more rugged Highland region contains the majority of Scotland 's mountainous land, including Ben Nevis which at 1,345 metres (4,413 ft) is the highest point in the British Isles. Lowland areas -- especially the narrow waist of land between the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth known as the Central Belt -- are flatter and home to most of the population including Glasgow, Scotland 's largest city, and Edinburgh, its capital and political centre, although upland and mountainous terrain lies within the Southern Uplands.
Wales accounts for less than a tenth (9 %) of the total area of the UK, covering 20,779 square kilometres (8,020 sq mi). Wales is mostly mountainous, though South Wales is less mountainous than North and mid Wales. The main population and industrial areas are in South Wales, consisting of the coastal cities of Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and the South Wales Valleys to their north. The highest mountains in Wales are in Snowdonia and include Snowdon (Welsh: Yr Wyddfa) which, at 1,085 metres (3,560 ft), is the highest peak in Wales. Wales has over 2,704 kilometres (1,680 miles) of coastline. Several islands lie off the Welsh mainland, the largest of which is Anglesey (Ynys Môn) in the north - west.
Northern Ireland, separated from Great Britain by the Irish Sea and North Channel, has an area of 14,160 square kilometres (5,470 sq mi) and is mostly hilly. It includes Lough Neagh which, at 388 square kilometres (150 sq mi), is the largest lake in the British Isles by area. The highest peak in Northern Ireland is Slieve Donard in the Mourne Mountains at 852 metres (2,795 ft).
The United Kingdom has a temperate climate, with plentiful rainfall all year round. The temperature varies with the seasons seldom dropping below − 11 ° C (12 ° F) or rising above 35 ° C (95 ° F). The prevailing wind is from the south - west and bears frequent spells of mild and wet weather from the Atlantic Ocean, although the eastern parts are mostly sheltered from this wind since the majority of the rain falls over the western regions the eastern parts are therefore the driest. Atlantic currents, warmed by the Gulf Stream, bring mild winters; especially in the west where winters are wet and even more so over high ground. Summers are warmest in the south - east of England, being closest to the European mainland, and coolest in the north. Heavy snowfall can occur in winter and early spring on high ground, and occasionally settles to great depth away from the hills.
The geographical division of the United Kingdom into counties or shires began in England and Scotland in the early Middle Ages and was complete throughout Great Britain and Ireland by the early Modern Period. Administrative arrangements were developed separately in each country of the United Kingdom, with origins which often pre-dated the formation of the United Kingdom. Modern local government by elected councils, partly based on the ancient counties, was introduced separately: in England and Wales in a 1888 act, Scotland in a 1889 act and Ireland in a 1898 act, meaning there is no consistent system of administrative or geographic demarcation across the United Kingdom. Until the 19th century there was little change to those arrangements, but there has since been a constant evolution of role and function.
The organisation of local government in England is complex, with the distribution of functions varying according to local arrangements. The upper - tier subdivisions of England are the nine regions, now used primarily for statistical purposes. One region, Greater London, has had a directly elected assembly and mayor since 2000 following popular support for the proposal in a referendum. It was intended that other regions would also be given their own elected regional assemblies, but a proposed assembly in the North East region was rejected by a referendum in 2004. Below the regional tier, some parts of England have county councils and district councils and others have unitary authorities; while London consists of 32 London boroughs and the City of London. Councillors are elected by the first - past - the - post system in single - member wards or by the multi-member plurality system in multi-member wards.
For local government purposes, Scotland is divided into 32 council areas, with wide variation in both size and population. The cities of Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Dundee are separate council areas, as is the Highland Council, which includes a third of Scotland 's area but only just over 200,000 people. Local councils are made up of elected councillors, of whom there are 1,223; they are paid a part - time salary. Elections are conducted by single transferable vote in multi-member wards that elect either three or four councillors. Each council elects a Provost, or Convenor, to chair meetings of the council and to act as a figurehead for the area.
Local government in Wales consists of 22 unitary authorities. These include the cities of Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, which are unitary authorities in their own right. Elections are held every four years under the first - past - the - post system.
Local government in Northern Ireland has since 1973 been organised into 26 district councils, each elected by single transferable vote. Their powers are limited to services such as collecting waste, controlling dogs and maintaining parks and cemeteries. In 2008 the executive agreed on proposals to create 11 new councils and replace the present system.
The United Kingdom has sovereignty over seventeen territories which do not form part of the United Kingdom itself: fourteen British Overseas Territories and three Crown dependencies.
The fourteen British Overseas Territories are: Anguilla; Bermuda; the British Antarctic Territory; the British Indian Ocean Territory; the British Virgin Islands; the Cayman Islands; the Falkland Islands; Gibraltar; Montserrat; Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha; the Turks and Caicos Islands; the Pitcairn Islands; South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands; and Akrotiri and Dhekelia on the island of Cyprus. British claims in Antarctica are not universally recognised, mainly by Argentina, whose claims cover a majority of the British sector. Collectively Britain 's overseas territories encompass an approximate land area of 1,727,570 square kilometres (667,018 sq mi) and a population of approximately 260,000 people.
They are the last remaining remnants of the British Empire and a 1999 UK government white paper stated that: "(The) Overseas Territories are British for as long as they wish to remain British. Britain has willingly granted independence where it has been requested; and we will continue to do so where this is an option. '' Self - determination is also enshrined into the constitutions of several overseas territories and three have specifically voted to remain under British sovereignty (Bermuda in 1995, Gibraltar in 2002 and the Falkland Islands in 2013).
The Crown dependencies are possessions of the Crown, as opposed to overseas territories of the UK. They comprise three independently administered jurisdictions: the Channel Islands of Jersey and Guernsey in the English Channel, and the Isle of Man in the Irish Sea. By mutual agreement, the British Government manages the islands ' foreign affairs and defence and the UK Parliament has the authority to legislate on their behalf. However, internationally, they are regarded as "territories for which the United Kingdom is responsible ''. The power to pass legislation affecting the islands ultimately rests with their own respective legislative assemblies, with the assent of the Crown (Privy Council or, in the case of the Isle of Man, in certain circumstances the Lieutenant - Governor). Since 2005 each Crown dependency has had a Chief Minister as its head of government.
The British dependencies use a varied assortment of currencies. These include the British pound, US dollar, New Zealand dollar, euro or their own currencies, which may be pegged to either.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state under a constitutional monarchy. Queen Elizabeth II is the monarch and head of state of the UK, as well as fifteen other independent countries. These sixteen countries are sometimes referred to as "Commonwealth realms ''. The monarch has "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn ''. The Constitution of the United Kingdom is uncodified and consists mostly of a collection of disparate written sources, including statutes, judge - made case law and international treaties, together with constitutional conventions. As there is no technical difference between ordinary statutes and "constitutional law '', the UK Parliament can perform "constitutional reform '' simply by passing Acts of Parliament, and thus has the political power to change or abolish almost any written or unwritten element of the constitution. However, no Parliament can pass laws that future Parliaments can not change.
The UK has a parliamentary government based on the Westminster system that has been emulated around the world: a legacy of the British Empire. The parliament of the United Kingdom meets in the Palace of Westminster and has two houses: an elected House of Commons and an appointed House of Lords. All bills passed are given Royal Assent before becoming law.
The position of prime minister, the UK 's head of government, belongs to the person most likely to command the confidence of the House of Commons; this individual is typically the leader of the political party or coalition of parties that holds the largest number of seats in that chamber. The prime minister chooses a cabinet and its members are formally appointed by the monarch to form Her Majesty 's Government. By convention, the monarch respects the prime minister 's decisions of government.
The cabinet is traditionally drawn from members of the prime minister 's party or coalition and mostly from the House of Commons but always from both legislative houses, the cabinet being responsible to both. Executive power is exercised by the prime minister and cabinet, all of whom are sworn into the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, and become Ministers of the Crown. The current Prime Minister is Theresa May, who has been in office since 13 July 2016. May is also the leader of the Conservative Party. For elections to the House of Commons, the UK is divided into 650 constituencies, each electing a single member of parliament (MP) by simple plurality. General elections are called by the monarch when the prime minister so advises. Prior to the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011, the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 required that a new election must be called no later than five years after the previous general election.
The Conservative Party, the Labour Party and the Liberal Democrats (formerly as the Liberal Party) have, in modern times, been considered the UK 's three major political parties, representing the British traditions of conservatism, socialism and liberalism, respectively. However, in both the 2015 and 2017 general elections, the Scottish National Party was the third - largest party by number of seats won, ahead of the Liberal Democrats. Most of the remaining seats were won by parties that contest elections only in one part of the UK: Plaid Cymru (Wales only); and the Democratic Unionist Party and Sinn Féin (Northern Ireland only). In accordance with party policy, no elected Sinn Féin members of parliament have ever attended the House of Commons to speak on behalf of their constituents because of the requirement to take an oath of allegiance to the monarch.
Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland each have their own government or executive, led by a First Minister (or, in the case of Northern Ireland, a diarchal First Minister and deputy First Minister), and a devolved unicameral legislature. England, the largest country of the United Kingdom, has no such devolved executive or legislature and is administered and legislated for directly by the UK 's government and parliament on all issues. This situation has given rise to the so - called West Lothian question, which concerns the fact that members of parliament from Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland can vote, sometimes decisively, on matters that affect only England. The 2013 McKay Commission on this recommended that laws affecting only England should need support from a majority of English members of parliament.
The Scottish Government and Parliament have wide - ranging powers over any matter that has not been specifically reserved to the UK Parliament, including education, healthcare, Scots law and local government. In 2012, the UK and Scottish governments signed the Edinburgh Agreement setting out the terms for a referendum on Scottish independence in 2014, which was defeated 55.3 % to 44.7 %.
The Welsh Government and the National Assembly for Wales have more limited powers than those devolved to Scotland. The Assembly is able to legislate on devolved matters through Acts of the Assembly, which require no prior consent from Westminster.
The Northern Ireland Executive and Assembly have powers similar to those devolved to Scotland. The Executive is led by a diarchy representing unionist and nationalist members of the Assembly. Devolution to Northern Ireland is contingent on participation by the Northern Ireland administration in the North - South Ministerial Council, where the Northern Ireland Executive cooperates and develops joint and shared policies with the Government of Ireland. The British and Irish governments co-operate on non-devolved matters affecting Northern Ireland through the British -- Irish Intergovernmental Conference, which assumes the responsibilities of the Northern Ireland administration in the event of its non-operation.
The UK does not have a codified constitution and constitutional matters are not among the powers devolved to Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland. Under the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty, the UK Parliament could, in theory, therefore, abolish the Scottish Parliament, Welsh Assembly or Northern Ireland Assembly. Indeed, in 1972, the UK Parliament unilaterally prorogued the Parliament of Northern Ireland, setting a precedent relevant to contemporary devolved institutions. In practice, it would be politically difficult for the UK Parliament to abolish devolution to the Scottish Parliament and the Welsh Assembly, given the political entrenchment created by referendum decisions. The political constraints placed upon the UK Parliament 's power to interfere with devolution in Northern Ireland are even greater than in relation to Scotland and Wales, given that devolution in Northern Ireland rests upon an international agreement with the Government of Ireland.
The United Kingdom does not have a single legal system as Article 19 of the 1706 Treaty of Union provided for the continuation of Scotland 's separate legal system. Today the UK has three distinct systems of law: English law, Northern Ireland law and Scots law. A new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom came into being in October 2009 to replace the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, including the same members as the Supreme Court, is the highest court of appeal for several independent Commonwealth countries, the British Overseas Territories and the Crown Dependencies.
Both English law, which applies in England and Wales, and Northern Ireland law are based on common - law principles. The essence of common law is that, subject to statute, the law is developed by judges in courts, applying statute, precedent and common sense to the facts before them to give explanatory judgements of the relevant legal principles, which are reported and binding in future similar cases (stare decisis). The courts of England and Wales are headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice (for civil cases) and the Crown Court (for criminal cases). The Supreme Court is the highest court in the land for both criminal and civil appeal cases in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and any decision it makes is binding on every other court in the same jurisdiction, often having a persuasive effect in other jurisdictions.
Scots law is a hybrid system based on both common - law and civil - law principles. The chief courts are the Court of Session, for civil cases, and the High Court of Justiciary, for criminal cases. The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom serves as the highest court of appeal for civil cases under Scots law. Sheriff courts deal with most civil and criminal cases including conducting criminal trials with a jury, known as sheriff solemn court, or with a sheriff and no jury, known as sheriff summary Court. The Scots legal system is unique in having three possible verdicts for a criminal trial: "guilty '', "not guilty '' and "not proven ''. Both "not guilty '' and "not proven '' result in an acquittal.
Crime in England and Wales increased in the period between 1981 and 1995, though since that peak there has been an overall fall of 66 % in recorded crime from 1995 to 2015, according to crime statistics. The prison population of England and Wales has increased to 86,000, giving England and Wales the highest rate of incarceration in Western Europe at 148 per 100,000. Her Majesty 's Prison Service, which reports to the Ministry of Justice, manages most of the prisons within England and Wales. The murder rate in England and Wales has stabilised in the first half of the 2010s with a murder rate around 1 per 100,000 which is half the peak in 2002 and similar to the rate in the 1980s Crime in Scotland fell slightly in 2014 / 2015 to its lowest level in 39 years in with 59 killings for a murder rate of 1.1 per 100,000. Scotland 's prisons are overcrowded but the prison population is shrinking.
The UK is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, a member of NATO, the Commonwealth of Nations, the G7 finance ministers, the G7 forum (previously the G8 forum), the G20, the OECD, the WTO, the Council of Europe, the OSCE. It is also a member state of the European Union in the process of withdrawal. The UK is said to have a "Special Relationship '' with the United States and a close partnership with France -- the "Entente cordiale '' -- and shares nuclear weapons technology with both countries; the Anglo - Portuguese Alliance is considered to be the oldest currently binding military alliance in the world. The UK is also closely linked with the Republic of Ireland; the two countries share a Common Travel Area and co-operate through the British - Irish Intergovernmental Conference and the British - Irish Council. Britain 's global presence and influence is further amplified through its trading relations, foreign investments, official development assistance and military engagements.
The armed forces of the United Kingdom -- officially, Her Majesty 's Armed Forces -- consist of three professional service branches: the Royal Navy and Royal Marines (forming the Naval Service), the British Army and the Royal Air Force. The forces are managed by the Ministry of Defence and controlled by the Defence Council, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The Commander - in - Chief is the British monarch, to whom members of the forces swear an oath of allegiance. The Armed Forces are charged with protecting the UK and its overseas territories, promoting the UK 's global security interests and supporting international peacekeeping efforts. They are active and regular participants in NATO, including the Allied Rapid Reaction Corps, as well as the Five Power Defence Arrangements, RIMPAC and other worldwide coalition operations. Overseas garrisons and facilities are maintained in Ascension Island, Belize, Brunei, Canada, Cyprus, Diego Garcia, the Falkland Islands, Germany, Gibraltar, Kenya, Qatar and Singapore.
The British armed forces played a key role in establishing the British Empire as the dominant world power in the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries. By emerging victorious from conflicts, Britain has often been able to decisively influence world events. Since the end of the British Empire, the UK has remained a major military power. Following the end of the Cold War, defence policy has a stated assumption that "the most demanding operations '' will be undertaken as part of a coalition. UK military operations in Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq and Libya, have followed this approach. Setting aside the intervention in Sierra Leone in 2000, the last occasion on which the British military fought alone was the Falklands War of 1982.
According to various sources, including the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute and the International Institute for Strategic Studies, the United Kingdom has the fourth - or fifth - highest military expenditure in the world. Total defence spending amounts to 2.0 % of national GDP.
The UK has a partially regulated market economy. Based on market exchange rates, the UK is today the fifth - largest economy in the world and the second - largest in Europe after Germany. HM Treasury, led by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, is responsible for developing and executing the government 's public finance policy and economic policy. The Bank of England is the UK 's central bank and is responsible for issuing notes and coins in the nation 's currency, the pound sterling. Banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland retain the right to issue their own notes, subject to retaining enough Bank of England notes in reserve to cover their issue. The pound sterling is the world 's third - largest reserve currency (after the US dollar and the euro). Since 1997 the Bank of England 's Monetary Policy Committee, headed by the Governor of the Bank of England, has been responsible for setting interest rates at the level necessary to achieve the overall inflation target for the economy that is set by the Chancellor each year.
The UK service sector makes up around 79 % of GDP. London is one of the three "command centres '' of the global economy (alongside New York City and Tokyo), it is the world 's largest financial centre alongside New York, and it has the largest city GDP in Europe. Tourism is very important to the British economy; with over 27 million tourists arriving in 2004, the United Kingdom is ranked as the sixth major tourist destination in the world and London has the most international visitors of any city in the world. The creative industries accounted for 7 % GVA in 2005 and grew at an average of 6 % per annum between 1997 and 2005.
The Industrial Revolution started in the UK with an initial concentration on the textile industry, followed by other heavy industries such as shipbuilding, coal mining and steelmaking. British merchants, shippers and bankers developed overwhelming advantage over those of other nations allowing the UK to dominate international trade in the 19th century. As other nations industrialised, coupled with economic decline after two world wars, the United Kingdom began to lose its competitive advantage and heavy industry declined, by degrees, throughout the 20th century. Manufacturing remains a significant part of the economy but accounted for only 16.7 % of national output in 2003.
The automotive industry is a significant part of the UK manufacturing sector and employs around 800,000 people, with a turnover in 2015 of £ 70 billion, generating £ 34.6 billion of exports (11.8 % of the UK 's total export goods). In 2015, the UK produced around 1.6 million passenger vehicles and 94,500 commercial vehicles. The UK is a major centre for engine manufacturing: in 2015 around 2.4 million engines were produced. The UK motorsport industry employs around 41,000 people, comprises around 4,500 companies and has an annual turnover of around £ 6 billion.
The aerospace industry of the UK is the second - or third - largest national aerospace industry in the world depending upon the method of measurement and has an annual turnover of around £ 30 billion. The wings for the Airbus A380 and the A350 XWB are designed and manufactured at Airbus UK 's Broughton facility, whilst over a quarter of the value of the Boeing 787 comes from UK manufacturers including Eaton, Messier - Bugatti - Dowty and Rolls - Royce.
BAE Systems plays a critical role in some of the world 's biggest defence aerospace projects. In the UK, the company makes large sections of the Typhoon Eurofighter and assembles the aircraft for the Royal Air Force. It is also a principal subcontractor on the F35 Joint Strike Fighter -- the world 's largest single defence project -- for which it designs and manufactures a range of components. It also manufactures the Hawk, the world 's most successful jet training aircraft. Airbus UK also manufactures the wings for the A400 m military transporter. Rolls - Royce is the world 's second - largest aero - engine manufacturer. Its engines power more than 30 types of commercial aircraft and it has more than 30,000 engines in service in the civil and defence sectors.
The UK space industry was worth £ 9.1 bn in 2011 and employed 29,000 people. It is growing at a rate of 7.5 % annually, according to its umbrella organisation, the UK Space Agency. In 2013, the British Government pledged £ 60 m to the Skylon project: this investment will provide support at a "crucial stage '' to allow a full - scale prototype of the SABRE engine to be built.
The pharmaceutical industry plays an important role in the UK economy and the country has the third - highest share of global pharmaceutical R&D expenditures.
Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanised and efficient by European standards, producing about 60 % of food needs with less than 1.6 % of the labour force (535,000 workers). Around two - thirds of production is devoted to livestock, one - third to arable crops. Farmers are subsidised by the EU 's Common Agricultural Policy. The UK retains a significant, though much reduced fishing industry. It is also rich in a number of natural resources including coal, petroleum, natural gas, tin, limestone, iron ore, salt, clay, chalk, gypsum, lead, silica and an abundance of arable land.
In the final quarter of 2008, the UK economy officially entered recession for the first time since 1991. Following the likes of the United States, France and many major economies, in 2013, the UK lost its top AAA credit rating for the first time since 1978 with Moodys and Fitch credit agency, but, unlike the other major economies, retained its triple A rating with Standard & Poor 's. By the end of 2014, UK growth was the fastest in both the G7 and in Europe, and by September 2015, the unemployment rate was down to a seven - year low of 5.3 %.
Since the 1980s, UK economic inequality, like Canada, Australia and the United States, has grown faster than in other developed countries. The poverty line in the UK is commonly defined as being 60 % of the median household income. The Office for National Statistics has estimated that in 2011, 14 million people were at risk of poverty or social exclusion, and that one person in 20 (5.1 %) was experiencing "severe material depression '', up from 3 million people in 1977.
The UK has an external debt of $9.6 trillion dollars, which is the second highest in the world after the US. As a percentage of GDP, external debt is 408 %, which is the third highest in the world after Luxembourg and Iceland.
The combination of the UK 's relatively lax regulatory regime and London 's financial institutions providing sophisticated methods to launder proceeds from criminal activity around the world, including those from drug trade, makes the City of London a global hub for illicit finance and the UK a safe haven for the world 's major - league tax dodgers, according to research papers and reports published in the mid-2010s. The reports on the Panama papers published in April 2016 singled out the UK as being "at the heart of super-rich tax - avoidance network. ''
England and Scotland were leading centres of the Scientific Revolution from the 17th century. The United Kingdom led the Industrial Revolution from the 18th century, and has continued to produce scientists and engineers credited with important advances. Major theorists from the 17th and 18th centuries include Isaac Newton, whose laws of motion and illumination of gravity have been seen as a keystone of modern science; from the 19th century Charles Darwin, whose theory of evolution by natural selection was fundamental to the development of modern biology, and James Clerk Maxwell, who formulated classical electromagnetic theory; and more recently Stephen Hawking, who has advanced major theories in the fields of cosmology, quantum gravity and the investigation of black holes.
Major scientific discoveries from the 18th century include hydrogen by Henry Cavendish; from the 20th century penicillin by Alexander Fleming, and the structure of DNA, by Francis Crick and others. Famous British engineers and inventors of the Industrial Revolution include James Watt, George Stephenson, Richard Arkwright, Robert Stephenson and Isambard Kingdom Brunel. Other major engineering projects and applications by people from the UK include the steam locomotive, developed by Richard Trevithick and Andrew Vivian; from the 19th century the electric motor by Michael Faraday, the incandescent light bulb by Joseph Swan, and the first practical telephone, patented by Alexander Graham Bell; and in the 20th century the world 's first working television system by John Logie Baird and others, the jet engine by Frank Whittle, the basis of the modern computer by Alan Turing, and the World Wide Web by Tim Berners - Lee.
Scientific research and development remains important in British universities, with many establishing science parks to facilitate production and co-operation with industry. Between 2004 and 2008 the UK produced 7 % of the world 's scientific research papers and had an 8 % share of scientific citations, the third and second highest in the world (after the United States and China, respectively). Scientific journals produced in the UK include Nature, the British Medical Journal and The Lancet.
A radial road network totals 29,145 miles (46,904 km) of main roads, 2,173 miles (3,497 km) of motorways and 213,750 miles (344,000 km) of paved roads. The M25, encircling London, is the largest and busiest bypass in the world. In 2009 there were a total of 34 million licensed vehicles in Great Britain.
The UK has a railway network of 10,072 miles (16,209 km) in Great Britain and 189 miles (304 km) in Northern Ireland. Railways in Northern Ireland are operated by NI Railways, a subsidiary of state - owned Translink. In Great Britain, the British Rail network was privatised between 1994 and 1997, which was followed by a rapid rise in passenger numbers following years of decline, although the factors behind this are disputed. Network Rail owns and manages most of the fixed assets (tracks, signals etc.). About 20 privately owned Train Operating Companies operate passenger trains, which carried 1.68 billion passengers in 2015. There are also some 1,000 freight trains in daily operation. The British Government is to spend £ 30 billion on a new high - speed railway line, HS2, to be operational by 2026. Crossrail, under construction in London, is Europe 's largest construction project with a £ 15 billion projected cost.
In the year from October 2009 to September 2010 UK airports handled a total of 211.4 million passengers. In that period the three largest airports were London Heathrow Airport (65.6 million passengers), Gatwick Airport (31.5 million passengers) and London Stansted Airport (18.9 million passengers). London Heathrow Airport, located 15 miles (24 km) west of the capital, has the most international passenger traffic of any airport in the world and is the hub for the UK flag carrier British Airways, as well as Virgin Atlantic.
In 2006, the UK was the world 's ninth - largest consumer of energy and the 15th - largest producer. The UK is home to a number of large energy companies, including two of the six oil and gas "supermajors '' -- BP and Royal Dutch Shell. In 2011, 40 % of the UK 's electricity was produced by gas, 30 % by coal, 19 % by nuclear power and 4.2 % by wind, hydro, biofuels and wastes.
In 2013, the UK produced 914 thousand barrels per day (bbl / d) of oil and consumed 1,507 thousand bbl / d. Production is now in decline and the UK has been a net importer of oil since 2005. In 2010 the UK had around 3.1 billion barrels of proven crude oil reserves, the largest of any EU member state.
In 2009, the UK was the 13th - largest producer of natural gas in the world and the largest producer in the EU. Production is now in decline and the UK has been a net importer of natural gas since 2004.
Coal production played a key role in the UK economy in the 19th and 20th centuries. In the mid-1970s, 130 million tonnes of coal were produced annually, not falling below 100 million tonnes until the early 1980s. During the 1980s and 1990s the industry was scaled back considerably. In 2011, the UK produced 18.3 million tonnes of coal. In 2005 it had proven recoverable coal reserves of 171 million tons. The UK Coal Authority has stated there is a potential to produce between 7 billion tonnes and 16 billion tonnes of coal through underground coal gasification (UCG) or ' fracking ', and that, based on current UK coal consumption, such reserves could last between 200 and 400 years. However, environmental and social concerns have been raised over chemicals getting into the water table and minor earthquakes damaging homes.
In the late 1990s, nuclear power plants contributed around 25 % of total annual electricity generation in the UK, but this has gradually declined as old plants have been shut down and ageing - related problems affect plant availability. In 2012, the UK had 16 reactors normally generating about 19 % of its electricity. All but one of the reactors will be retired by 2023. Unlike Germany and Japan, the UK intends to build a new generation of nuclear plants from about 2018.
The total of all renewable electricity sources provided for 14.9 % of the electricity generated in the United Kingdom in 2013, reaching 53.7 TWh of electricity generated. The UK is one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy, and wind power production is its fastest growing supply, in 2014 it generated 9.3 % of the UK 's total electricity.
Access to improved water supply and sanitation in the UK is universal. It is estimated that 96.7 % of households are connected to the sewer network. According to the Environment Agency, total water abstraction for public water supply in the UK was 16,406 megalitres per day in 2007. Drinking water standards and wastewater discharge standards in the UK, as in other countries of the European Union, are determined by the EU (see Water supply and sanitation in the European Union).
In England and Wales water and sewerage services are provided by 10 private regional water and sewerage companies and 13 mostly smaller private "water only '' companies. In Scotland water and sewerage services are provided by a single public company, Scottish Water. In Northern Ireland water and sewerage services are also provided by a single public entity, Northern Ireland Water.
A census is taken simultaneously in all parts of the UK every ten years. In the 2011 census the total population of the United Kingdom was 63,181,775. It is the third - largest in the European Union, the fifth - largest in the Commonwealth and the 22nd - largest in the world. In mid-2014 and mid-2015 net long - term international migration contributed more to population growth. In mid-2012 and mid-2013 natural change contributed the most to population growth. Between 2001 and 2011 the population increased by an average annual rate of approximately 0.7 %. This compares to 0.3 % per year in the period 1991 to 2001 and 0.2 % in the decade 1981 to 1991. The 2011 census also confirmed that the proportion of the population aged 0 -- 14 has nearly halved (31 % in 1911 compared to 18 in 2011) and the proportion of older people aged 65 and over has more than tripled (from 5 to 16 %).
England 's population in 2011 was 53 million. It is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, with 420 people resident per square kilometre in mid-2015. with a particular concentration in London and the south - east. The 2011 census put Scotland 's population at 5.3 million, Wales at 3.06 million and Northern Ireland at 1.81 million.
In 2012 the average total fertility rate (TFR) across the UK was 1.92 children per woman. While a rising birth rate is contributing to current population growth, it remains considerably below the ' baby boom ' peak of 2.95 children per woman in 1964, below the replacement rate of 2.1, but higher than the 2001 record low of 1.63. In 2011, 47.3 % of births in the UK were to unmarried women. The Office for National Statistics published a bulletin in 2015 showing that, out of the UK population aged 16 and over, 1.7 % identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual (2.0 % of males and 1.5 % of females). 4.5 % of respondents responded with "other '', "I do n't know '', or did not respond.
Greater Manchester Urban Area
West Yorkshire Urban Area
Historically, indigenous British people were thought to be descended from the various ethnic groups that settled there before the 12th century: the Celts, Romans, Anglo - Saxons, Norse and the Normans. Welsh people could be the oldest ethnic group in the UK. A 2006 genetic study shows that more than 50 % of England 's gene pool contains Germanic Y chromosomes. Another 2005 genetic analysis indicates that "about 75 % of the traceable ancestors of the modern British population had arrived in the British isles by about 6,200 years ago, at the start of the British Neolithic or Stone Age '', and that the British broadly share a common ancestry with the Basque people.
The UK has a history of small - scale non-white immigration, with Liverpool having the oldest Black population in the country dating back to at least the 1730s during the period of the African slave trade. During this period it is estimated the Afro - Caribbean population of Great Britain was 10,000 to 15,000 which later declined due to the abolition of slavery. The UK also has the oldest Chinese community in Europe, dating to the arrival of Chinese seamen in the 19th century. In 1950 there were probably fewer than 20,000 non-white residents in Britain, almost all born overseas. In 1951 there were an estimated 94,500 people living in Britain who had been born in South Asia, China, Africa and the Caribbean, just under 0.2 % of the UK population. By 1961 this number had more than quadrupled to 384,000, just over 0.7 % of the United Kingdom population.
Since 1948 substantial immigration from Africa, the Caribbean and South Asia has been a legacy of ties forged by the British Empire. Migration from new EU member states in Central and Eastern Europe since 2004 has resulted in growth in these population groups, although some of this migration has been temporary. Since the 1990s, there has been substantial diversification of the immigrant population, with migrants to the UK coming from a much wider range of countries than previous waves, which tended to involve larger numbers of migrants coming from a relatively small number of countries.
Academics have argued that the ethnicity categories employed in British national statistics, which were first introduced in the 1991 census, involve confusion between the concepts of ethnicity and race. In 2011, 87.2 % of the UK population identified themselves as white, meaning 12.8 % of the UK population identify themselves as of one of number of ethnic minority groups. In the 2001 census, this figure was 7.9 % of the UK population.
Because of differences in the wording of the census forms used in England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, data on the Other White group is not available for the UK as a whole, but in England and Wales this was the fastest growing group between the 2001 and 2011 censuses, increasing by 1.1 million (1.8 percentage points). Amongst groups for which comparable data is available for all parts of the UK level, the Other Asian category increased from 0.4 to 1.4 % of the population between 2001 and 2011, while the Mixed category rose from 1.2 % to 2 %.
Ethnic diversity varies significantly across the UK. 30.4 % of London 's population and 37.4 % of Leicester 's was estimated to be non-white in 2005, whereas less than 5 % of the populations of North East England, Wales and the South West were from ethnic minorities, according to the 2001 census. In 2016, 31.4 % of primary and 27.9 % of secondary pupils at state schools in England were members of an ethnic minority. The 1991 census was the first UK census to have a question on ethnic group. In the 1991 UK census 94.1 % of people reported themselves as being White British, White Irish or White Other with 5.9 % of people reporting themselves as coming from other minority groups
(92.14 %)
(87.1 %)
The UK 's de facto official language is English. It is estimated that 95 % of the UK 's population are monolingual English speakers. 5.5 % of the population are estimated to speak languages brought to the UK as a result of relatively recent immigration. South Asian languages, including Punjabi, Hindi, Bengali and Gujarati, are the largest grouping and are spoken by 2.7 % of the UK population. According to the 2011 census, Polish has become the second - largest language spoken in England and has 546,000 speakers.
Four Celtic languages are spoken in the UK: Welsh, Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Cornish. All are recognised as regional or minority languages, by the European Union, under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. As it is an EU member state, this therefore obliges the UK government to provide them specific measures of protection and promotion. In the 2001 Census over a fifth (21 %) of the population of Wales said they could speak Welsh, an increase from the 1991 Census (18 %). In addition it is estimated that about 200,000 Welsh speakers live in England. In the same census in Northern Ireland 167,487 people (10.4 %) stated that they had "some knowledge of Irish '' (see Irish language in Northern Ireland), almost exclusively in the nationalist (mainly Catholic) population. Over 92,000 people in Scotland (just under 2 % of the population) had some Gaelic language ability, including 72 % of those living in the Outer Hebrides. The number of schoolchildren being taught through Welsh, Scottish Gaelic and Irish is increasing. Among emigrant - descended populations some Scottish Gaelic is still spoken in Canada (principally Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Island), and Welsh in Patagonia, Argentina.
Scots, a language descended from early northern Middle English, has limited recognition alongside its regional variant, Ulster Scots in Northern Ireland, without specific commitments to protection and promotion.
It is compulsory for pupils to study a second language up to the age of 14 in England. French and German are the two most commonly taught second languages in England and Scotland. All pupils in Wales are taught Welsh as a second language up to age 16, or are taught in Welsh.
Forms of Christianity have dominated religious life in what is now the United Kingdom for over 1400 years. Although a majority of citizens still identify with Christianity in many surveys, regular church attendance has fallen dramatically since the middle of the 20th century, while immigration and demographic change have contributed to the growth of other faiths, most notably Islam. This has led some commentators to variously describe the UK as a multi-faith, secularised, or post-Christian society.
In the 2001 census 71.6 % of all respondents indicated that they were Christians, with the next largest faiths being Islam (2.8 %), Hinduism (1.0 %), Sikhism (0.6 %), Judaism (0.5 %), Buddhism (0.3 %) and all other religions (0.3 %). 15 % of respondents stated that they had no religion, with a further 7 % not stating a religious preference. A Tearfund survey in 2007 showed only one in ten Britons actually attend church weekly. Between the 2001 and 2011 census there was a decrease in the number of people who identified as Christian by 12 %, whilst the percentage of those reporting no religious affiliation doubled. This contrasted with growth in the other main religious group categories, with the number of Muslims increasing by the most substantial margin to a total of about 5 %. The Muslim population has increased from 1.6 million in 2001 to 2.7 million in 2011, making it the second - largest religious group in the United Kingdom.
In a 2016 survey conducted by BSA (British Social Attitudes) on religious affiliation; 53 % of respondents indicated ' no religion ', while 41 % indicated they were Christians, followed by 6 % who affiliated with other religions (e.g. Islam, Hinduism, Judaism, etc.). Among Christians, adherents to the Church of England constituted 15 %, Roman Catholic Church -- 9 %, other Christians (including Presbyterians, Methodists, other Protestants, as well as Eastern Orthodox) -- 17 %. 71 % of young people aged 18 -- 24 said they had no religion.
The Church of England is the established church in England. It retains a representation in the UK Parliament and the British monarch is its Supreme Governor. In Scotland, the Church of Scotland is recognised as the national church. It is not subject to state control, and the British monarch is an ordinary member, required to swear an oath to "maintain and preserve the Protestant Religion and Presbyterian Church Government '' upon his or her accession. The Church in Wales was disestablished in 1920 and, as the Church of Ireland was disestablished in 1870 before the partition of Ireland, there is no established church in Northern Ireland. Although there are no UK - wide data in the 2001 census on adherence to individual Christian denominations, it has been estimated that 62 % of Christians are Anglican, 13.5 % Catholic, 6 % Presbyterian, 3.4 % Methodist with small numbers of other Protestant denominations such as Plymouth Brethren, and Orthodox churches.
The United Kingdom has experienced successive waves of migration. The Great Famine in Ireland, then part of the United Kingdom, resulted in perhaps a million people migrating to Great Britain. Throughout the 19th century a small population of German immigrants built up, numbering 28,644 in England and Wales in 1861. London held around half of this population, and other small communities existed in Manchester, Bradford and elsewhere. The German immigrant community was the largest group until 1891, when it became second to Russian Jews. England has had small Jewish communities for many centuries, subject to occasional expulsions, but British Jews numbered fewer than 10,000 at the start of the 19th century. After 1881 Russian Jews suffered bitter persecutions, and, out of some 2,000,000 who left Russia by 1914, around 120,000 settled permanently in Britain, overtaking the Germans to be the largest ethnic minority from outside the British Isles. The population had increased to 370,000 by 1938. Unable to return to Poland at the end of the Second World War, over 120,000 Polish veterans remained in the UK permanently. After the Second World War, there was significant immigration from the colonies and newly independent former colonies, many from the Caribbean and Indian subcontinent, partly as a legacy of empire and partly driven by labour shortages. In 1841, 0.25 % of the population of England and Wales was born in a foreign country. In 1901, 1.5 % of the population was foreign born. By 1931, this figure had risen to 2.6 %, and by 1951 it was 4.4 %.
In 2014 the net increase was 318,000: immigration was 641,000, up from 526,000 in 2013, while the number of people emigrating (for more than 12 months) was 323,000. One of the more recent trends in migration has been the arrival of workers from the new EU member states in Eastern Europe, known as the A8 countries. Citizens of the European Union, including those of the UK, have the right to live and work in any EU member state. The UK applied temporary restrictions to citizens of Romania and Bulgaria, which joined the EU in January 2007. Research conducted by the Migration Policy Institute for the Equality and Human Rights Commission suggests that, between May 2004 and September 2009, 1.5 million workers migrated from the new EU member states to the UK, two - thirds of them Polish, but that many subsequently returned home, resulting in a net increase in the number of nationals of the new member states in the UK of some 700,000 over that period. The late - 2000s recession in the UK reduced the economic incentive for Poles to migrate to the UK, the migration becoming temporary and circular. In 2009, for the first time since enlargement, more nationals of the eight central and eastern European states that had joined the EU in 2004 left the UK than arrived. In 2011, citizens of the new EU member states made up 13 % of the immigrants entering the country. In 2010, there were 7.0 million foreign - born residents in the UK, corresponding to 11.3 % of the total population. Of these, 4.76 million (7.7 %) were born outside the EU and 2.24 million (3.6 %) were born in another EU Member State. The proportion of foreign - born people in the UK remains slightly below that of many other European countries.
Immigration is now contributing to a rising population with arrivals and UK - born children of migrants accounting for about half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001. Over a quarter (27.0 %) of live births in 2014 were to mothers born outside the UK, according to official statistics released in 2015. Analysis of Office for National Statistics (ONS) data shows that a net total of 2.3 million migrants moved to the UK in the 15 years from 1991 to 2006. The ONS reported that net migration rose from 2009 to 2010 by 21 % to 239,000.
In 2013, approximately 208,000 foreign nationals were naturalised as British citizens, the highest number since records began in 1962. This figure fell to around 125,800 in 2014. Between 2009 and 2013, the average number of people granted British citizenship per year was 195,800. The main countries of previous nationality of those naturalised in 2014 were India, Pakistan, the Philippines, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Nepal, China, South Africa, Poland and Somalia. The total number of grants of settlement, which confers permanent residence in the UK without granting British citizenship, was approximately 154,700 in 2013, compared to 241,200 in 2010 and 129,800 in 2012.
The British Government has introduced a points - based immigration system for immigration from outside the European Economic Area to replace former schemes, including the Scottish Government 's Fresh Talent Initiative. In June 2010 the government introduced a temporary limit of 24,000 on immigration from outside the EU, aiming to discourage applications before a permanent cap was imposed in April 2011.
Emigration was an important feature of British society in the 19th century. Between 1815 and 1930 around 11.4 million people emigrated from Britain and 7.3 million from Ireland. Estimates show that by the end of the 20th century some 300 million people of British and Irish descent were permanently settled around the globe. Today, at least 5.5 million UK - born people live abroad, mainly in Australia, Spain, the United States and Canada.
Education in the United Kingdom is a devolved matter, with each country having a separate education system.
Considering the four systems together, about 38 percent of the United Kingdom population has a university or college degree, which is the highest percentage in Europe, and among the highest percentages in the world. The United Kingdom trails only the United States in terms of representation on lists of top 100 universities.
A government commission 's report in 2014 found that privately educated people comprise 7 % of the general population of the UK but much larger percentages of the top professions, the most extreme case quoted being 71 % of senior judges.
England
Whilst education in England is the responsibility of the Secretary of State for Education, the day - to - day administration and funding of state schools is the responsibility of local authorities. Universally free of charge state education was introduced piecemeal between 1870 and 1944. Education is now mandatory from ages five to sixteen, and in England youngsters must stay in education or training until they are 18. In 2011, the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) rated 13 -- 14 - year - old pupils in England and Wales 10th in the world for maths and 9th for science. The majority of children are educated in state - sector schools, a small proportion of which select on the grounds of academic ability. Two of the top ten performing schools in terms of GCSE results in 2006 were state - run grammar schools. In 2010, over half of places at the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge were taken by students from state schools, while the proportion of children in England attending private schools is around 7 % which rises to 18 % of those over 16. England has the two oldest universities in English - speaking world, Universities of Oxford and Cambridge (jointly known as "Oxbridge '') with history of over eight centuries.
Since the establishment of Bedford College (London), Girton College (Cambridge) and Somerville College (Oxford) in the 19th century, women also can obtain a university degree.
Scotland
Education in Scotland is the responsibility of the Cabinet Secretary for Education and Lifelong Learning, with day - to - day administration and funding of state schools the responsibility of Local Authorities. Two non-departmental public bodies have key roles in Scottish education. The Scottish Qualifications Authority is responsible for the development, accreditation, assessment and certification of qualifications other than degrees which are delivered at secondary schools, post-secondary colleges of further education and other centres. Learning and Teaching Scotland provides advice, resources and staff development to education professionals. Scotland first legislated for compulsory education in 1496. The proportion of children in Scotland attending private schools is just over 4 % in 2016, but it has been falling slowly in recent years. Scottish students who attend Scottish universities pay neither tuition fees nor graduate endowment charges, as fees were abolished in 2001 and the graduate endowment scheme was abolished in 2008.
Wales
The Welsh Government has responsibility for education in Wales. A significant number of Welsh students are taught either wholly or largely in the Welsh language; lessons in Welsh are compulsory for all until the age of 16. There are plans to increase the provision of Welsh - medium schools as part of the policy of creating a fully bilingual Wales.
Northern Ireland
Education in Northern Ireland is the responsibility of the Minister of Education, although responsibility at a local level is administered by the Education Authority which is further sub-divided into five geographical areas. The Council for the Curriculum, Examinations & Assessment (CCEA) is the body responsible for advising the government on what should be taught in Northern Ireland 's schools, monitoring standards and awarding qualifications.
Healthcare in the United Kingdom is a devolved matter and each country has its own system of private and publicly funded health care, together with alternative, holistic and complementary treatments. Public healthcare is provided to all UK permanent residents and is mostly free at the point of need, being paid for from general taxation. The World Health Organization, in 2000, ranked the provision of healthcare in the United Kingdom as fifteenth best in Europe and eighteenth in the world. Since 1979 expenditure on healthcare has been increased significantly to bring it closer to the European Union average. The UK spends around 8.4 % of its gross domestic product on healthcare, which is 0.5 percentage points below the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development average and about one percentage point below the average of the European Union.
Regulatory bodies are organised on a UK - wide basis such as the General Medical Council, the Nursing and Midwifery Council and non-governmental - based, such as the Royal Colleges. However, political and operational responsibility for healthcare lies with four national executives; healthcare in England is the responsibility of the UK Government; healthcare in Northern Ireland is the responsibility of the Northern Ireland Executive; healthcare in Scotland is the responsibility of the Scottish Government; and healthcare in Wales is the responsibility of the Welsh Government. Each National Health Service has different policies and priorities, resulting in contrasts.
The culture of the United Kingdom has been influenced by many factors including: the nation 's island status; its history as a western liberal democracy and a major power; as well as being a political union of four countries with each preserving elements of distinctive traditions, customs and symbolism. As a result of the British Empire, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies including Australia, Canada, India, Ireland, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa and the United States. The substantial cultural influence of the United Kingdom has led it to be described as a "cultural superpower ''. A global opinion poll for the BBC saw the United Kingdom ranked the third most positively viewed nation in the world (behind Germany and Canada) in 2013 and 2014.
' British literature ' refers to literature associated with the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. Most British literature is in the English language. In 2005, some 206,000 books were published in the United Kingdom and in 2006 it was the largest publisher of books in the world.
The English playwright and poet William Shakespeare is widely regarded as the greatest dramatist of all time, and his contemporaries Christopher Marlowe and Ben Jonson have also been held in continuous high esteem. More recently the playwrights Alan Ayckbourn, Harold Pinter, Michael Frayn, Tom Stoppard and David Edgar have combined elements of surrealism, realism and radicalism.
Notable pre-modern and early - modern English writers include Geoffrey Chaucer (14th century), Thomas Malory (15th century), Sir Thomas More (16th century), John Bunyan (17th century) and John Milton (17th century). In the 18th century Daniel Defoe (author of Robinson Crusoe) and Samuel Richardson were pioneers of the modern novel. In the 19th century there followed further innovation by Jane Austen, the gothic novelist Mary Shelley, the children 's writer Lewis Carroll, the Brontë sisters, the social campaigner Charles Dickens, the naturalist Thomas Hardy, the realist George Eliot, the visionary poet William Blake and romantic poet William Wordsworth. 20th century English writers include the science - fiction novelist H.G. Wells; the writers of children 's classics Rudyard Kipling, A.A. Milne (the creator of Winnie - the - Pooh), Roald Dahl and Enid Blyton; the controversial D.H. Lawrence; the modernist Virginia Woolf; the satirist Evelyn Waugh; the prophetic novelist George Orwell; the popular novelists W. Somerset Maugham and Graham Greene; the crime writer Agatha Christie (the best - selling novelist of all time); Ian Fleming (the creator of James Bond); the poets T.S. Eliot, Philip Larkin and Ted Hughes; the fantasy writers J.R.R. Tolkien, C.S. Lewis and J.K. Rowling; the graphic novelists Alan Moore and Neil Gaiman.
Scotland 's contributions include the detective writer Arthur Conan Doyle (the creator of Sherlock Holmes), romantic literature by Sir Walter Scott, the children 's writer J.M. Barrie, the epic adventures of Robert Louis Stevenson and the celebrated poet Robert Burns. More recently the modernist and nationalist Hugh MacDiarmid and Neil M. Gunn contributed to the Scottish Renaissance. A more grim outlook is found in Ian Rankin 's stories and the psychological horror - comedy of Iain Banks. Scotland 's capital, Edinburgh, was UNESCO 's first worldwide City of Literature.
Britain 's oldest known poem, Y Gododdin, was composed in Yr Hen Ogledd (The Old North), most likely in the late 6th century. It was written in Cumbric or Old Welsh and contains the earliest known reference to King Arthur. From around the seventh century, the connection between Wales and the Old North was lost, and the focus of Welsh - language culture shifted to Wales, where Arthurian legend was further developed by Geoffrey of Monmouth. Wales 's most celebrated medieval poet, Dafydd ap Gwilym (fl. 1320 -- 1370), composed poetry on themes including nature, religion and especially love. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest European poets of his age. Until the late 19th century the majority of Welsh literature was in Welsh and much of the prose was religious in character. Daniel Owen is credited as the first Welsh - language novelist, publishing Rhys Lewis in 1885. The best - known of the Anglo - Welsh poets are both Thomases. Dylan Thomas became famous on both sides of the Atlantic in the mid-20th century. He is remembered for his poetry -- his "Do not go gentle into that good night; Rage, rage against the dying of the light '' is one of the most quoted couplets of English language verse -- and for his "play for voices '', Under Milk Wood. The influential Church in Wales "poet - priest '' and Welsh nationalist R.S. Thomas was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1996. Leading Welsh novelists of the twentieth century include Richard Llewellyn and Kate Roberts.
Authors of other nationalities, particularly from Commonwealth countries, the Republic of Ireland and the United States, have lived and worked in the UK. Significant examples through the centuries include Jonathan Swift, Oscar Wilde, Bram Stoker, George Bernard Shaw, Joseph Conrad, T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound and more recently British authors born abroad such as Kazuo Ishiguro and Sir Salman Rushdie.
Various styles of music are popular in the UK from the indigenous folk music of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland to heavy metal. Notable composers of classical music from the United Kingdom and the countries that preceded it include William Byrd, Henry Purcell, Sir Edward Elgar, Gustav Holst, Sir Arthur Sullivan (most famous for working with the librettist Sir W.S. Gilbert), Ralph Vaughan Williams and Benjamin Britten, pioneer of modern British opera. Sir Harrison Birtwistle is one of the foremost living composers. The UK is also home to world - renowned symphonic orchestras and choruses such as the BBC Symphony Orchestra and the London Symphony Chorus. Notable conductors include Sir Simon Rattle, Sir John Barbirolli and Sir Malcolm Sargent. Some of the notable film score composers include John Barry, Clint Mansell, Mike Oldfield, John Powell, Craig Armstrong, David Arnold, John Murphy, Monty Norman and Harry Gregson - Williams. George Frideric Handel became a naturalised British citizen and wrote the British coronation anthem, while some of his best works, such as Messiah, were written in the English language. Andrew Lloyd Webber is a prolific composer of musical theatre. His works have dominated London 's West End since the late 20th century and have also been a commercial success worldwide.
The Beatles have international sales of over one billion units and are the biggest - selling and most influential band in the history of popular music. Other prominent British contributors to have influenced popular music over the last 50 years include The Rolling Stones, Pink Floyd, Queen, Led Zeppelin, the Bee Gees, and Elton John, all of whom have worldwide record sales of 200 million or more. The Brit Awards are the BPI 's annual music awards, and some of the British recipients of the Outstanding Contribution to Music award include; The Who, David Bowie, Eric Clapton, Rod Stewart and The Police. More recent UK music acts that have had international success include Coldplay, Radiohead, Oasis, Arctic Monkeys, Spice Girls, Robbie Williams, Amy Winehouse and Adele.
A number of UK cities are known for their music. Acts from Liverpool have had 54 UK chart number one hit singles, more per capita than any other city worldwide. Glasgow 's contribution to music was recognised in 2008 when it was named a UNESCO City of Music, one of only three cities in the world to have this honour.
As of 2016, pop remains the most popular music genre in the UK with 33.4 % of unit sales, followed by hip - hop and R&B at 24.5 % of unit sales. Rock is not far behind at 22.6 % of unit sales. The modern UK is known to produce some of the most prominent world rappers along with the United States, including Stormzy, Kano, Yxng Bane, Ramz and Skepta. The sharp increase of hip - hop and R&B listeners in the UK in the last three years is often explained by an easier access to the genre due to the higher usage of streaming platforms such as Spotify and SoundCloud where hip - hop and R&B is the most popular genre, and also by the rising of new hip - hop and R&B sub-genres popular among the Millennials and the Generation Z (post-Millennials), mainly developed in the US with artists popular in the UK, such as phonk rap (e.g. A $ AP Rocky, Lil Uzi Vert, Chance the Rapper, Lil Skies) and alternative R&B (e.g. The Weeknd, Beyoncé, Janelle Monáe, SZA).
The history of British visual art forms part of western art history. Major British artists include: the Romantics William Blake, John Constable, Samuel Palmer and J.M.W. Turner; the portrait painters Sir Joshua Reynolds and Lucian Freud; the landscape artists Thomas Gainsborough and L.S. Lowry; the pioneer of the Arts and Crafts Movement William Morris; the figurative painter Francis Bacon; the Pop artists Peter Blake, Richard Hamilton and David Hockney; the pioneers of Conceptual art movement Art & Language; the collaborative duo Gilbert and George; the abstract artist Howard Hodgkin; and the sculptors Antony Gormley, Anish Kapoor and Henry Moore. During the late 1980s and 1990s the Saatchi Gallery in London helped to bring to public attention a group of multi-genre artists who would become known as the "Young British Artists '': Damien Hirst, Chris Ofili, Rachel Whiteread, Tracey Emin, Mark Wallinger, Steve McQueen, Sam Taylor - Wood and the Chapman Brothers are among the better - known members of this loosely affiliated movement.
The Royal Academy in London is a key organisation for the promotion of the visual arts in the United Kingdom. Major schools of art in the UK include: the six - school University of the Arts London, which includes the Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design and Chelsea College of Art and Design; Goldsmiths, University of London; the Slade School of Fine Art (part of University College London); the Glasgow School of Art; the Royal College of Art; and The Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art (part of the University of Oxford). The Courtauld Institute of Art is a leading centre for the teaching of the history of art. Important art galleries in the United Kingdom include the National Gallery, National Portrait Gallery, Tate Britain and Tate Modern (the most - visited modern art gallery in the world, with around 4.7 million visitors per year).
The United Kingdom has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema. The British directors Alfred Hitchcock, whose film Vertigo is considered by some critics as the best film of all time, and David Lean are among the most critically acclaimed of all - time. Other important directors including Charlie Chaplin, Michael Powell, Carol Reed, Edgar Wright, Christopher Nolan, and Ridley Scott. Many British actors have achieved international fame and critical success, including: Julie Andrews, Richard Burton, Michael Caine, Colin Firth, Gary Oldman, Ben Kingsley, Ian McKellen, Liam Neeson, Charlie Chaplin, Sean Connery, Vivien Leigh, David Niven, Laurence Olivier, Peter Sellers, Kate Winslet, Anthony Hopkins, and Daniel Day - Lewis. Some of the most commercially successful films of all time have been produced in the United Kingdom, including two of the highest - grossing film franchises (Harry Potter and James Bond). Ealing Studios has a claim to being the oldest continuously working film studio in the world.
Despite a history of important and successful productions, the industry has often been characterised by a debate about its identity and the level of American and European influence. British producers are active in international co-productions and British actors, directors and crew feature regularly in American films. Many successful Hollywood films have been based on British people, stories or events, including Titanic, The Lord of the Rings, and Pirates of the Caribbean.
In 2009, British films grossed around $2 billion worldwide and achieved a market share of around 7 % globally and 17 % in the United Kingdom. UK box - office takings totalled £ 944 million in 2009, with around 173 million admissions. The British Film Institute has produced a poll ranking of what it considers to be the 100 greatest British films of all time, the BFI Top 100 British films. The annual British Academy Film Awards are hosted by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts.
British cuisine developed from various influences reflective of its land, settlements, arrivals of new settlers and immigrants, trade and colonialism. Celtic agriculture and animal breeding produced a wide variety of foodstuffs for indigenous Celts and Britons. Anglo - Saxon England developed meat and savoury herb stewing techniques before the practice became common in Europe. The Norman conquest introduced exotic spices into England in the Middle Ages. The British Empire facilitated a knowledge of Indian cuisine with its "strong, penetrating spices and herbs ''. British cuisine has absorbed the cultural influence of those who have settled in Britain, producing many hybrid dishes, such as the Anglo - Indian chicken tikka masala.
The BBC, founded in 1922, is the UK 's publicly funded radio, television and Internet broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest and largest broadcaster in the world. It operates numerous television and radio stations in the UK and abroad and its domestic services are funded by the television licence. Other major players in the UK media include ITV plc, which operates 11 of the 15 regional television broadcasters that make up the ITV Network, and News Corporation, which owns a number of national newspapers through News International such as the most popular tabloid The Sun and the longest - established daily "broadsheet '' The Times, as well as holding a large stake in satellite broadcaster British Sky Broadcasting. London dominates the media sector in the UK: national newspapers and television and radio are largely based there, although Manchester is also a significant national media centre. Edinburgh and Glasgow, and Cardiff, are important centres of newspaper and broadcasting production in Scotland and Wales respectively. The UK publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover of around £ 20 billion and employs around 167,000 people.
In 2009, it was estimated that individuals viewed a mean of 3.75 hours of television per day and 2.81 hours of radio. In that year the main BBC public service broadcasting channels accounted for an estimated 28.4 % of all television viewing; the three main independent channels accounted for 29.5 % and the increasingly important other satellite and digital channels for the remaining 42.1 %. Sales of newspapers have fallen since the 1970s and in 2010 41 % of people reported reading a daily national newspaper. In 2010, 82.5 % of the UK population were Internet users, the highest proportion amongst the 20 countries with the largest total number of users in that year.
The United Kingdom is famous for the tradition of ' British Empiricism ', a branch of the philosophy of knowledge that states that only knowledge verified by experience is valid, and ' Scottish Philosophy ', sometimes referred to as the ' Scottish School of Common Sense '. The most famous philosophers of British Empiricism are John Locke, George Berkeley and David Hume; while Dugald Stewart, Thomas Reid and William Hamilton were major exponents of the Scottish "common sense '' school. Two Britons are also notable for a theory of moral philosophy utilitarianism, first used by Jeremy Bentham and later by John Stuart Mill in his short work Utilitarianism. Other eminent philosophers from the UK and the states and countries that preceded it include Duns Scotus, John Lilburne, Mary Wollstonecraft, Sir Francis Bacon, Adam Smith, Thomas Hobbes, William of Ockham, Bertrand Russell and A.J. "Freddie '' Ayer. Foreign - born philosophers who settled in the UK include Isaiah Berlin, Karl Marx, Karl Popper and Ludwig Wittgenstein.
Major sports, including association football, tennis, rugby union, rugby league, golf, boxing, netball, rowing and cricket, originated or were substantially developed in the UK and the states that preceded it. With the rules and codes of many modern sports invented and codified in late 19th century Victorian Britain, in 2012, the President of the IOC, Jacques Rogge, stated; "This great, sports - loving country is widely recognised as the birthplace of modern sport. It was here that the concepts of sportsmanship and fair play were first codified into clear rules and regulations. It was here that sport was included as an educational tool in the school curriculum ''.
In most international competitions, separate teams represent England, Scotland and Wales. Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland usually field a single team representing all of Ireland, with notable exceptions being association football and the Commonwealth Games. In sporting contexts, the English, Scottish, Welsh and Irish / Northern Irish teams are often referred to collectively as the Home Nations. There are some sports in which a single team represents the whole of United Kingdom, including the Olympics, where the UK is represented by the Great Britain team. The 1908, 1948 and 2012 Summer Olympics were held in London, making it the first city to host the games three times. Britain has participated in every modern Olympic Games to date and is third in the medal count.
A 2003 poll found that football is the most popular sport in the United Kingdom. England is recognised by FIFA as the birthplace of club football, and The Football Association is the oldest of its kind, with the rules of football first drafted in 1863 by Ebenezer Cobb Morley. Each of the Home Nations has its own football association, national team and league system. The English top division, the Premier League, is the most watched football league in the world. The first international football match was contested by England and Scotland on 30 November 1872. England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland usually compete as separate countries in international competitions.
In 2003, rugby union was ranked the second most popular sport in the UK. The sport was created in Rugby School, Warwickshire, and the first rugby international took place on 27 March 1871 between England and Scotland. England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, France and Italy compete in the Six Nations Championship; the premier international tournament in the northern hemisphere. Sport governing bodies in England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland organise and regulate the game separately.
Cricket was invented in England, and its laws were established by Marylebone Cricket Club in 1788. The England cricket team, controlled by the England and Wales Cricket Board, and the Irish cricket team, controlled by Cricket Ireland are the only national teams in the UK with Test status. Team members are drawn from the main county sides, and include both English and Welsh players. Cricket is distinct from football and rugby where Wales and England field separate national teams, although Wales had fielded its own team in the past. Irish and Scottish players have played for England because neither Scotland nor Ireland have Test status and have only recently started to play in One Day Internationals and Ireland is yet to play their first test match. Scotland, England (and Wales), and Ireland (including Northern Ireland) have competed at the Cricket World Cup, with England reaching the finals on three occasions. There is a professional league championship in which clubs representing 17 English counties and 1 Welsh county compete.
The modern game of tennis originated in Birmingham, England, in the 1860s, before spreading around the world. The world 's oldest tennis tournament, the Wimbledon championships, first occurred in 1877, and today the event takes place over two weeks in late June and early July.
Thoroughbred racing, which originated under Charles II of England as the "sport of kings '', is popular throughout the UK with world - famous races including the Grand National, the Epsom Derby, Royal Ascot and the Cheltenham National Hunt Festival (including the Cheltenham Gold Cup). The UK has proved successful in the international sporting arena in rowing.
The UK is closely associated with motorsport. Many teams and drivers in Formula One (F1) are based in the UK, and the country has won more drivers ' and constructors ' titles than any other. The UK hosted the first F1 Grand Prix in 1950 at Silverstone, the current location of the British Grand Prix held each year in July. The UK hosts legs of the Grand Prix motorcycle racing, World Rally Championship and FIA World Endurance Championship. The premier national auto racing event is the British Touring Car Championship. Motorcycle road racing has a long tradition with races such as the Isle of Man TT and the North West 200.
Golf is the sixth most popular sport, by participation, in the UK. Although The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews in Scotland is the sport 's home course, the world 's oldest golf course is actually Musselburgh Links ' Old Golf Course. In 1764, the standard 18 - hole golf course was created at St Andrews when members modified the course from 22 to 18 holes. The oldest golf tournament in the world, and the first major championship in golf, The Open Championship, is played annually on the weekend of the third Friday in July.
Rugby league originated in Huddersfield, West Yorkshire in 1895 and is generally played in Northern England. A single ' Great Britain Lions ' team had competed in the Rugby League World Cup and Test match games, but this changed in 2008 when England, Scotland and Ireland competed as separate nations. Great Britain is still retained as the full national team. Super League is the highest level of professional rugby league in the UK and Europe. It consists of 11 teams from Northern England, 1 from London, 1 from Wales and 1 from France.
The ' Queensberry rules ', the code of general rules in boxing, was named after John Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry in 1867, and formed the basis of modern boxing. Snooker is another of the UK 's popular sporting exports, with the world championships held annually in Sheffield. In Northern Ireland Gaelic football and hurling are popular team sports, both in terms of participation and spectating, and Irish expatriates in the UK and the US also play them. Shinty (or camanachd) is popular in the Scottish Highlands. Highland games are held in spring and summer in Scotland, celebrating Scottish and celtic culture and heritage, especially that of the Scottish Highlands.
The flag of the United Kingdom is the Union Flag (also referred to as the Union Jack). It was created in 1606 by the superimposition of the Flag of England on the Flag of Scotland and updated in 1801 with the addition of Saint Patrick 's Flag. Wales is not represented in the Union Flag, as Wales had been conquered and annexed to England prior to the formation of the United Kingdom. The possibility of redesigning the Union Flag to include representation of Wales has not been completely ruled out. The national anthem of the United Kingdom is "God Save the Queen '', with "Queen '' replaced with "King '' in the lyrics whenever the monarch is a man.
Britannia is a national personification of the United Kingdom, originating from Roman Britain. Britannia is symbolised as a young woman with brown or golden hair, wearing a Corinthian helmet and white robes. She holds Poseidon 's three - pronged trident and a shield, bearing the Union Flag. Sometimes she is depicted as riding on the back of a lion. Since the height of the British Empire in the late 19th century, Britannia has often been associated with British maritime dominance, as in the patriotic song "Rule, Britannia! ''. Up until 2008, the lion symbol was depicted behind Britannia on the British fifty pence coin and on the back of the British ten pence coin. It is also used as a symbol on the non-ceremonial flag of the British Army.
A second, less used, personification of the nation is the character John Bull. The bulldog is sometimes used as a symbol of the United Kingdom and has been associated with Winston Churchill 's defiance of Nazi Germany.
United Kingdom -- Wikipedia book
The full title of this country is ' the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland '. Great Britain is made up of England, Scotland and Wales. The United Kingdom (UK) is made up of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. ' Britain ' is used informally, usually meaning the United Kingdom. The Channel Islands and the Isle of Man are not part of the UK.
Click on a coloured area to see an article about English in that country or region
Coordinates: 55 ° N 3 ° W / 55 ° N 3 ° W / 55; - 3
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where is the women's world curling this year | 2018 Ford World Women 's Curling Championship - wikipedia
The 2018 World Women 's Curling Championship (branded as the 2018 Ford World Women 's Curling Championship for sponsorship reasons) was held from March 17 - 25 at the North Bay Memorial Gardens in North Bay, Ontario, Canada. The format of the tournament was changed this year, with 13 teams qualifying for the tournament (as opposed to 12 in previous years), and the top 6 teams from round - robin play will qualify for the playoffs (rather than 4). The playoff system were single - knockout, where the top two teams received a bye while the remaining four played the first round.
The event was won by Canada 's Jennifer Jones rink from Winnipeg, which was her second world championship for the 2014 Olympic gold medalists.
Off the ice, the event was a success and set an attendance record for a women 's world championship held in Canada. Jennifer Jones was complimentary of the fans, saying she had never played in a louder arena.
The following nations are qualified to participate in the 2018 World Women 's Curling Championship:
The teams are as follows:
Skip: Jennifer Jones Third: Kaitlyn Lawes Second: Jill Officer Lead: Dawn McEwen Alternate: Shannon Birchard
Skip: Jiang Yilun Third: Wang Rui Second: Jiang Xindi Lead: Yan Hui Alternate: Yao Mingyue
Skip: Anna Kubešková Third: Alžběta Baudyšová Second: Tereza Plíšková Lead: Klára Svatoňová Alternate: Ezhen Kolchevskaia
Skip: Angelina Jensen Third: Christine Grønbech Second: Camilla Skårberg Jensen Lead: Lina Knudsen Alternate: Ivana Bratic
Skip: Daniela Jentsch Third: Emira Abbes Second: Analena Jentsch Lead: Pia - Lisa Schöll Alternate Josephine Obermann
Skip: Diana Gaspari Third: Veronica Zappone Second: Stefania Constantini Lead: Angela Romei Alternate: Chiara Olivieri
Skip: Tori Koana Third: Kaho Onodera Second: Mao Ishigaki Lead: Arisa Kotani Alternate: Yuna Kotani
Skip: Victoria Moiseeva Third: Yulia Portunova Second: Galina Arsenkina Lead: Julia Guzieva Alternate: Anna Sidorova
Skip: Hannah Fleming Third: Jennifer Dodds Second: Alice Spence Lead: Vicky Wright Alternate: Sophie Jackson
Skip: Kim Eun - jung Third: Kim Kyeong - ae Second: Kim Seon - yeong Lead: Kim Yeong - mi Alternate: Kim Cho - hi
Skip: Anna Hasselborg Third: Sara McManus Second: Agnes Knochenhauer Lead: Sofia Mabergs Alternate: Jennie Wåhlin
Skip: Binia Feltscher Third: Irene Schori Second: Franziska Kaufmann Lead: Carole Howald Alternate: Raphaela Keiser
Skip: Jamie Sinclair Third: Alexandra Carlson Second: Vicky Persinger Lead: Monica Walker Alternate: Jenna Martin
Final Round Robin Standings
Year to date World Curling Tour order of merit ranking for each team prior to the event.
All draw times are listed in Eastern Daylight Time (UTC − 4: 00).
Saturday, March 17, 14: 00
Saturday, March 17, 19: 00
Sunday, March 18, 09: 00
Sunday, March 18, 14: 00
Sunday, March 18, 19: 00
Monday, March 19, 09: 00
Monday, March 19, 14: 00
Monday, March 19, 19: 00
Tuesday, March 20, 09: 00
Tuesday, March 20, 14: 00
Tuesday, March 20, 19: 00
Wednesday, March 21, 09: 00
Wednesday, March 21, 14: 00
Wednesday, March 21, 19: 00
Thursday, March 22, 09: 00
Thursday, March 22, 14: 00
Thursday, March 22, 19: 00
Friday, March 23, 09: 00
Friday, March 23, 14: 00
Friday, March 23, 19: 00
Saturday, March 24, 09: 00
Saturday, March 24, 14: 00
Saturday, March 24, 19: 00
Sunday, March 25, 10: 00
Sunday, March 25, 15: 00
After Round Robin; minimum 5 games
The awards and all - star team are as follows:
All - Star Team
Frances Brodie Sportsmanship Award
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who built the pantheon and what was its function | Pantheon, Rome - wikipedia
The Pantheon (UK: / ˈpænθiən /, US: / - ɒn /; Latin: Pantheum, from Greek Πάνθειον Pantheion, "(temple) of all the gods '') is a former Roman temple, now a church, in Rome, Italy, on the site of an earlier temple commissioned by Marcus Agrippa during the reign of Augustus (27 BC -- 14 AD). It was completed by the emperor Hadrian and probably dedicated about 126 AD. Its date of construction is uncertain, because Hadrian chose not to inscribe the new temple but rather to retain the inscription of Agrippa 's older temple, which had burned down.
The building is circular with a portico of large granite Corinthian columns (eight in the first rank and two groups of four behind) under a pediment. A rectangular vestibule links the porch to the rotunda, which is under a coffered concrete dome, with a central opening (oculus) to the sky. Almost two thousand years after it was built, the Pantheon 's dome is still the world 's largest unreinforced concrete dome. The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same, 142 feet (43 m).
It is one of the best - preserved of all Ancient Roman buildings, in large part because it has been in continuous use throughout its history, and since the 7th century, the Pantheon has been used as a church dedicated to "St. Mary and the Martyrs '' (Latin: Sancta Maria ad Martyres) but informally known as "Santa Maria Rotonda ''. The square in front of the Pantheon is called Piazza della Rotonda. The Pantheon is a state property, managed by Italy 's Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities and Tourism through the Polo Museale del Lazio; in 2013 it was visited by over 6 million people.
The Pantheon 's large circular domed cella, with a conventional temple portico front, was unique in Roman architecture. Nevertheless, it became a standard exemplar when classical styles were revived, and has been copied many times by later architects.
The name "Pantheon '' is from the Ancient Greek "Pantheion '' (Πάνθειον) meaning "of, relating to, or common to all the gods '': (pan - / "παν - '' meaning "all '' + theion / "θεῖον '' = meaning "of or sacred to a god ''). Cassius Dio, a Roman senator who wrote in Greek, speculated that the name comes either from the statues of so many gods placed around this building, or from the resemblance of the dome to the heavens. His uncertainty strongly suggests that "Pantheon '' (or Pantheum) was merely a nickname, not the formal name of the building. In fact, the concept of a pantheon dedicated to all the gods is questionable. The only definite pantheon recorded earlier than Agrippa 's was at Antioch in Syria, though it is only mentioned by a sixth - century source. Ziegler tried to collect evidence of panthea, but his list consists of simple dedications "to all the gods '' or "to the Twelve Gods, '' which are not necessarily true panthea in the sense of a temple housing a cult that literally worships all the gods.
Godfrey and Hemsoll point out that ancient authors never refer to Hadrian 's Pantheon with the word aedes, as they do with other temples, and the Severan inscription carved on the architrave uses simply "Pantheum, '' not "Aedes Panthei '' (temple of all the gods). It seems highly significant that Dio does not quote the simplest explanation for the name -- that the Pantheon was dedicated to all the gods. In fact, Livy wrote that it had been decreed that temple buildings (or perhaps temple cellae) should only be dedicated to single divinities, so that it would be clear who would be offended if, for example, the building were struck by lightning, and because it was only appropriate to offer sacrifice to a specific deity (27.25. 7 - 10). Godfrey and Hemsoll maintain that the word Pantheon "need not denote a particular group of gods, or, indeed, even all the gods, since it could well have had other meanings.... Certainly the word pantheus or pantheos, could be applicable to individual deities.... Bearing in mind also that the Greek word θεῖος (theios) need not mean "of a god '' but could mean "superhuman, '' or even "excellent. ''
Since the French Revolution, when the church of Sainte - Geneviève in Paris was deconsecrated and turned into the secular monument called the Panthéon of Paris, the generic term pantheon has sometimes been applied to other buildings in which illustrious dead are honoured or buried.
In the aftermath of the Battle of Actium (31 BC), Marcus Agrippa started an impressive building program: the Pantheon was a part of the complex created by him on his own property in the Campus Martius in 29 -- 19 BC, which included three buildings aligned from south to north: the Baths of Agrippa, the Basilica of Neptune, and the Pantheon. It seems likely that the Pantheon and the Basilica of Neptune were Agrippa 's sacra privata, not aedes publicae (public temples). This less solemn designation would help explain how the building could have so easily lost its original name and purpose (Ziolkowski contends that it was originally the Temple of Mars in Campo) in such a relatively short period of time.
It had long been thought that the current building was built by Agrippa, with later alterations undertaken, and this was in part because of the Latin inscription on the front of the temple which reads:
or in full, "M (arcus) Agrippa L (ucii) f (ilius) co (n) s (ul) tertium fecit, '' meaning "Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, made (this building) when consul for the third time. '' However, archaeological excavations have shown that the Pantheon of Agrippa had been completely destroyed except for the façade. Lise Hetland argues that the present construction began in 114, under Trajan, four years after it was destroyed by fire for the second time (Oros. 7.12). She reexamined Herbert Bloch 's 1959 paper, which is responsible for the commonly maintained Hadrianic date, and maintains that he should not have excluded all of the Trajanic - era bricks from his brick - stamp study. Her argument is particularly interesting in light of Heilmeyer 's argument that, based on stylistic evidence, Apollodorus of Damascus, Trajan 's architect, was the obvious architect.
The form of Agrippa 's Pantheon is debated. As a result of excavations in the late 19th century, archaeologist Rodolfo Lanciani concluded that Agrippa 's Pantheon was oriented so that it faced South, in contrast with the current layout that faces North, and that it had a shortened T - shaped plan with the entrance at the base of the "T ''. This description was widely accepted until the late 20th century. While more recent archaeological diggings have suggested that Agrippa 's building might have had a circular form with a triangular porch, and it might have also faced North, much like the later rebuildings, Ziolkowski complains that their conclusions were based entirely on surmise; according to him, they did not find any new datable material, yet they attributed everything they found to the Agrippan phase, failing to account for the fact that Domitian, known for his enthusiasm for building and known to have restored the Pantheon after 80 AD, might well have been responsible for everything they found. Ziolkowski argues that Lanciani 's initial assessment is still supported by all of the finds to date, including theirs; furthermore he expresses skepticism because the building they describe, "a single building composed of a huge pronaos and a circular cella of the same diameter, linked by a relatively narrow and very short passage (much thinner than the current intermediate block), has no known parallels in classical architecture and would go against everything we know of Roman design principles in general and of Augustan architecture in particular. ''
The only passages referring to the decoration of the Agrippan Pantheon written by an eyewitness are in Pliny 's Natural History. From him we know that "the capitals, too, of the pillars, which were placed by M. Agrippa in the Pantheon, are made of Syracusan bronze '', that "the Pantheon of Agrippa has been decorated by Diogenes of Athens, and the Caryatides, by him, which form the columns of that temple, are looked upon as masterpieces of excellence: the same, too, with the statues that are placed upon the roof, '' and that one of Cleopatra 's pearls was cut in half so that each half "might serve as pendants for the ears of Venus, in the Pantheon at Rome ''.
The Augustan Pantheon was destroyed along with other buildings in a huge fire in the year 80 AD. Domitian rebuilt the Pantheon, which was burnt again in 110 AD.
The degree to which the decorative scheme should be credited to Hadrian 's architects is uncertain. Finished by Hadrian but not claimed as one of his works, it used the text of the original inscription on the new façade (a common practice in Hadrian 's rebuilding projects all over Rome; the only building on which Hadrian put his own name was the Temple to the Deified Trajan). How the building was actually used is not known. The Historia Augusta says that Hadrian dedicated the Pantheon (among other buildings) in the name of the original builder (Hadr. 19.10), but the current inscription could not be a copy of the original; it provides no information as to who Agrippa 's foundation was dedicated to, and, in Ziolkowski 's opinion, it was highly unlikely that in 25 BC Agrippa would have presented himself as "consul tertium. '' On coins, the same words, "M. Agrippa L.f cos. tertium, '' were the ones used to refer to him after his death; consul tertium serving as "a sort of posthumous cognomen ex virtute, a remembrance of the fact that, of all the men of his generation apart from Augustus himself, he was the only one to hold the consulship thrice. '' Whatever the cause of the alteration of the inscription might have been, the new inscription reflects the fact that there was a change in the building 's purpose.
Cassius Dio, a Graeco - Roman senator, consul and author of a comprehensive History of Rome, writing approximately 75 years after the Pantheon 's reconstruction, mistakenly attributed the domed building to Agrippa rather than Hadrian. Dio appears to be the only near - contemporaneous writer to mention the Pantheon. Even by the year 200, there was uncertainty about the origin of the building and its purpose:
Agrippa finished the construction of the building called the Pantheon. It has this name, perhaps because it received among the images which decorated it the statues of many gods, including Mars and Venus; but my own opinion of the name is that, because of its vaulted roof, it resembles the heavens.
In 202, the building was repaired by the joint emperors Septimius Severus and his son Caracalla (fully Marcus Aurelius Antoninus), for which there is another, smaller inscription on the architrave of the façade, under the aforementioned larger text. This now - barely legible inscription reads:
In English, this means:
In 609, the Byzantine emperor Phocas gave the building to Pope Boniface IV, who converted it into a Christian church and consecrated it to St. Mary and the Martyrs on 13 May 609: "Another Pope, Boniface, asked the same (Emperor Phocas, in Constantinople) to order that in the old temple called the Pantheon, after the pagan filth was removed, a church should be made, to the holy virgin Mary and all the martyrs, so that the commemoration of the saints would take place henceforth where not gods but demons were formerly worshipped. '' Twenty - eight cartloads of holy relics of martyrs were said to have been removed from the catacombs and placed in a porphyry basin beneath the high altar.
The building 's consecration as a church saved it from the abandonment, destruction, and the worst of the spoliation that befell the majority of ancient Rome 's buildings during the early medieval period. However, Paul the Deacon records the spoliation of the building by the Emperor Constans II, who visited Rome in July 663:
Remaining at Rome twelve days he pulled down everything that in ancient times had been made of metal for the ornament of the city, to such an extent that he even stripped off the roof of the church (of the blessed Mary), which at one time was called the Pantheon, and had been founded in honour of all the gods and was now by the consent of the former rulers the place of all the martyrs; and he took away from there the bronze tiles and sent them with all the other ornaments to Constantinople.
Much fine external marble has been removed over the centuries - for example, capitals from some of the pilasters are in the British Museum. Two columns were swallowed up in the medieval buildings that abutted the Pantheon on the east and were lost. In the early 17th century, Urban VIII Barberini tore away the bronze ceiling of the portico, and replaced the medieval campanile with the famous twin towers (often wrongly attributed to Bernini) called "the ass 's ears, '' which were not removed until the late 19th century. The only other loss has been the external sculptures, which adorned the pediment above Agrippa 's inscription. The marble interior has largely survived, although with extensive restoration.
Since the Renaissance the Pantheon has been the site of several important burials. Among those buried there are the painters Raphael and Annibale Carracci, the composer Arcangelo Corelli, and the architect Baldassare Peruzzi. In the 15th century, the Pantheon was adorned with paintings: the best - known is the Annunciation by Melozzo da Forlì. Filippo Brunelleschi, among other architects, looked to the Pantheon as inspiration for their works.
Pope Urban VIII (1623 to 1644) ordered the bronze ceiling of the Pantheon 's portico melted down. Most of the bronze was used to make bombards for the fortification of Castel Sant'Angelo, with the remaining amount used by the Apostolic Camera for various other works. It is also said that the bronze was used by Bernini in creating his famous baldachin above the high altar of St. Peter 's Basilica, but, according to at least one expert, the Pope 's accounts state that about 90 % of the bronze was used for the cannon, and that the bronze for the baldachin came from Venice. Concerning this, an anonymous contemporary Roman satirist quipped in a pasquinade (a publicly posted poem) that quod non fecerunt barbari fecerunt Barberini ("What the barbarians did not do the Barberinis (Urban VIII 's family name) did '').
In 1747, the broad frieze below the dome with its false windows was "restored, '' but bore little resemblance to the original. In the early decades of the 20th century, a piece of the original, as could be reconstructed from Renaissance drawings and paintings, was recreated in one of the panels.
Two kings of Italy are buried in the Pantheon: Vittorio Emanuele II and Umberto I, as well as Umberto 's Queen, Margherita.
The Pantheon is in use as a Catholic church. Masses are celebrated there on Sundays and holy days of obligation. Weddings are also held there from time to time.
On 23 July 1725, the Pantheon was established as Cardinal - deaconry of S. Maria ad Martyres, i.e. a titular church for a cardinal - deacon.
On 26 May 1929, this deaconry was suppressed to establish the Cardinal Deaconry of S. Apollinare alle Terme Neroniane - Alessandrine.
The building was originally approached by a flight of steps. Later construction raised the level of the ground leading to the portico, eliminating these steps.
The pediment was decorated with relief sculpture, probably of gilded bronze. Holes marking the location of clamps that held the sculpture suggest that its design was likely an eagle within a wreath; ribbons extended from the wreath into the corners of the pediment.
Mark Wilson Jones has attempted to explain the design adjustments carried out in relating the porch to the dome, arguing that the Pantheon 's porch was originally designed for monolithic granite columns with shafts 50 Roman feet tall (weighing about 100 tons) and capitals 10 Roman feet tall in the Corinthian style. The taller porch would have hidden the second pediment visible on the intermediate block. Instead, after the intended columns failed to arrive, the builders made many awkward adjustments in order to use shafts 40 Roman feet tall and capitals eight Roman feet tall. This substitution was probably a result of logistical difficulties at some stage in the construction. Alternatively, it has also been argued that the scale of the portico related to the urban design of the space in front of the temple. The grey granite columns that were actually used in the Pantheon 's pronaos were quarried in Egypt at Mons Claudianus in the eastern mountains. Each was 39 feet (11.9 m) tall, 5 feet (1.5 m) in diameter, and 60 tons in weight. These were dragged more than 100 km (62 miles) from the quarry to the river on wooden sledges. They were floated by barge down the Nile River when the water level was high during the spring floods, and then transferred to vessels to cross the Mediterranean Sea to the Roman port of Ostia. There, they were transferred back onto barges and pulled up the Tiber River to Rome. After being unloaded near the Mausoleum of Augustus, the site of the Pantheon was still about 700 metres away. Thus, it was necessary to either drag them or to move them on rollers to the construction site.
In the walls at the back of the Pantheon 's portico are niches, perhaps intended for statues of Julius Caesar, Augustus Caesar, and Agrippa, or for the Capitoline Triad, or another set of gods.
The large bronze doors to the cella, once plated with gold, are not the original ones of the Pantheon. The current doors -- manufactured too small for the door frames -- have been there since about the 15th century.
The 4,535 metric tons (4,999 short tons) weight of the Roman concrete dome is concentrated on a ring of voussoirs 9.1 metres (30 ft) in diameter that form the oculus, while the downward thrust of the dome is carried by eight barrel vaults in the 6.4 metres (21 ft) thick drum wall into eight piers. The thickness of the dome varies from 6.4 metres (21 ft) at the base of the dome to 1.2 metres (3.9 ft) around the oculus. The materials used in the concrete of the dome also varies. At its thickest point, the aggregate is travertine, then terracotta tiles, then at the very top, tufa and pumice, both porous light stones. At the very top, where the dome would be at its weakest and vulnerable to collapse, the oculus actually lightens the load.
No tensile test results are available on the concrete used in the Pantheon; however, Cowan discussed tests on ancient concrete from Roman ruins in Libya, which gave a compressive strength of 20 MPa (2,900 psi). An empirical relationship gives a tensile strength of 1.47 MPa (213 psi) for this specimen. Finite element analysis of the structure by Mark and Hutchison found a maximum tensile stress of only 128 kPa (18.5 psi) at the point where the dome joins the raised outer wall.
The stresses in the dome were found to be substantially reduced by the use of successively less dense aggregate stones, such as small pots or pieces of pumice, in higher layers of the dome. Mark and Hutchison estimated that, if normal weight concrete had been used throughout, the stresses in the arch would have been some 80 % greater. Hidden chambers engineered within the rotunda form a sophisticated structural system. This reduced the weight of the roof, as did the elimination of the apex by means of the oculus.
The top of the rotunda wall features a series of brick relieving arches, visible on the outside and built into the mass of the brickwork. The Pantheon is full of such devices -- for example, there are relieving arches over the recesses inside -- but all these arches were hidden by marble facing on the interior and possibly by stone revetment or stucco on the exterior.
The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same, 43.3 metres (142 ft), so the whole interior would fit exactly within a cube (also, the interior could house a sphere 43.3 metres (142 ft) in diameter). These dimensions make more sense when expressed in ancient Roman units of measurement: The dome spans 150 Roman feet; the oculus is 30 Roman feet in diameter; the doorway is 40 Roman feet high. The Pantheon still holds the record for the world 's largest unreinforced concrete dome. It is also substantially larger than earlier domes.
Though often drawn as a free - standing building, there was a building at its rear into which it abutted. While this building helped buttress the rotunda, there was no interior passage from one to the other.
The interior of the dome was possibly intended to symbolize the arched vault of the heavens. The oculus at the dome 's apex and the entry door are the only natural sources of light in the interior. Throughout the day, the light from the oculus moves around this space in a reverse sundial effect. The oculus also serves as a cooling and ventilation method. During storms, a drainage system below the floor handles the rain that falls through the oculus.
The dome features sunken panels (coffers), in five rings of 28. This evenly spaced layout was difficult to achieve and, it is presumed, had symbolic meaning, either numerical, geometric, or lunar. In antiquity, the coffers may have contained bronze stars, rosettes, or other ornaments.
Circles and squares form the unifying theme of the interior design. The checkerboard floor pattern contrasts with the concentric circles of square coffers in the dome. Each zone of the interior, from floor to ceiling, is subdivided according to a different scheme. As a result, the interior decorative zones do not line up. The overall effect is immediate viewer orientation according to the major axis of the building, even though the cylindrical space topped by a hemispherical dome is inherently ambiguous. This discordance has not always been appreciated, and the attic level was redone according to Neoclassical taste in the 18th century.
The present high altars and the apses were commissioned by Pope Clement XI (1700 -- 1721) and designed by Alessandro Specchi. Enshrined on the apse above the high altar is a 7th - century Byzantine icon of the Virgin and Child, given by Phocas to Pope Boniface IV on the occasion of the dedication of the Pantheon for Christian worship on 13 May 609. The choir was added in 1840, and was designed by Luigi Poletti.
The first niche to the right of the entrance holds a Madonna of the Girdle and St Nicholas of Bari (1686) painted by an unknown artist. The first chapel on the right, the Chapel of the Annunciation, has a fresco of the Annunciation attributed to Melozzo da Forlì. On the left side is a canvas by Clement Maioli of St Lawrence and St Agnes (1645 -- 1650). On the right wall is the Incredulity of St Thomas (1633) by Pietro Paolo Bonzi.
The second niche has a 15th - century fresco of the Tuscan school, depicting the Coronation of the Virgin. In the second chapel is the tomb of King Victor Emmanuel II (died 1878). It was originally dedicated to the Holy Spirit. A competition was held to decide which architect should design it. Giuseppe Sacconi participated, but lost -- he would later design the tomb of Umberto I in the opposite chapel.
Manfredo Manfredi won the competition, and started work in 1885. The tomb consists of a large bronze plaque surmounted by a Roman eagle and the arms of the house of Savoy. The golden lamp above the tomb burns in honor of Victor Emmanuel III, who died in exile in 1947.
The third niche has a sculpture by Il Lorenzone of St Anne and the Blessed Virgin. In the third chapel is a 15th - century painting of the Umbrian school, The Madonna of Mercy between St Francis and St John the Baptist. It is also known as the Madonna of the Railing, because it originally hung in the niche on the left - hand side of the portico, where it was protected by a railing. It was moved to the Chapel of the Annunciation, and then to its present position sometime after 1837. The bronze epigram commemorated Pope Clement XI 's restoration of the sanctuary. On the right wall is the canvas Emperor Phocas presenting the Pantheon to Pope Boniface IV (1750) by an unknown. There are three memorial plaques in the floor, one conmmemorating a Gismonda written in the vernacular. The final niche on the right side has a statue of St. Anastasio (1725) by Bernardino Cametti.
On the first niche to the left of the entrance is an Assumption (1638) by Andrea Camassei. The first chapel on the left, is the Chapel of St Joseph in the Holy Land, and is the chapel of the Confraternity of the Virtuosi at the Pantheon. This refers to the confraternity of artists and musicians that was formed here by a 16th - century Canon of the church, Desiderio da Segni, to ensure that worship was maintained in the chapel.
The first members were, among others, Antonio da Sangallo the younger, Jacopo Meneghino, Giovanni Mangone, Zuccari, Domenico Beccafumi, and Flaminio Vacca. The confraternity continued to draw members from the elite of Rome 's artists and architects, and among later members we find Bernini, Cortona, Algardi, and many others. The institution still exists, and is now called the Academia Ponteficia di Belle Arti (The Pontifical Academy of Fine Arts), based in the palace of the Cancelleria. The altar in the chapel is covered with false marble. On the altar is a statue of St Joseph and the Holy Child by Vincenzo de Rossi.
To the sides are paintings (1661) by Francesco Cozza, one of the Virtuosi: Adoration of the Shepherds on left side and Adoration of the Magi on right. The stucco relief on the left, Dream of St Joseph, is by Paolo Benaglia, and the one on the right, Rest during the flight from Egypt, is by Carlo Monaldi. On the vault are several 17th - century canvases, from left to right: Cumean Sibyl by Ludovico Gimignani; Moses by Francesco Rosa; Eternal Father by Giovanni Peruzzini; David by Luigi Garzi; and Eritrean Sibyl by Giovanni Andrea Carlone.
The second niche has a statue of St Agnes, by Vincenzo Felici. The bust on the left is a portrait of Baldassare Peruzzi, derived from a plaster portrait by Giovanni Duprè. The tomb of King Umberto I and his wife Margherita di Savoia is in the next chapel. The chapel was originally dedicated to St Michael the Archangel, and then to St. Thomas the Apostle. The present design is by Giuseppe Sacconi, completed after his death by his pupil Guido Cirilli. The tomb consists of a slab of alabaster mounted in gilded bronze. The frieze has allegorical representations of Generosity, by Eugenio Maccagnani, and Munificence, by Arnaldo Zocchi. The royal tombs are maintained by the National Institute of Honour Guards to the Royal Tombs, founded in 1878. They also organize picket guards at the tombs. The altar with the royal arms is by Cirilli.
The third niche holds the mortal remains -- his Ossa et cineres, "Bones and ashes '', as the inscription on the sarcophagus says -- of the great artist Raphael. His fiancée, Maria Bibbiena is buried to the right of his sarcophagus; she died before they could marry. The sarcophagus was given by Pope Gregory XVI, and its inscription reads ILLE HIC EST RAPHAEL TIMUIT QUO SOSPITE VINCI / RERUM MAGNA PARENS ET MORIENTE MORI, meaning "Here lies Raphael, by whom the mother of all things (Nature) feared to be overcome while he was living, and while he was dying, herself to die ''. The epigraph was written by Pietro Bembo.
The present arrangement is from 1811, designed by Antonio Munoz. The bust of Raphael (1833) is by Giuseppe Fabris. The two plaques commemorate Maria Bibbiena and Annibale Carracci. Behind the tomb is the statue known as the Madonna del Sasso (Madonna of the Rock) so named because she rests one foot on a boulder. It was commissioned by Raphael and made by Lorenzetto in 1524.
In the Chapel of the Crucifixion, the Roman brick wall is visible in the niches. The wooden crucifix on the altar is from the 15th century. On the left wall is a Descent of the Holy Ghost (1790) by Pietro Labruzi. On the right side is the low relief Cardinal Consalvi presents to Pope Pius VII the five provinces restored to the Holy See (1824) made by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen. The bust is a portrait of Cardinal Agostino Rivarola. The final niche on this side has a statue of St. Evasius (Sant'Evasio) (1727) by Francesco Moderati.
The dome photographed with a fisheye lens in 2016
South east view of the Pantheon from Piazza della Minerva, 2006.
View of the Pantheon in Rome
The dome of the Pantheon seen from the hill of Janiculum
The Pantheon by night
Pantheon 2013
Dome by Night
As the best - preserved example of an Ancient Roman monumental building, the Pantheon has been enormously influential in Western architecture from at least the Renaissance on; starting with Brunelleschi 's 42 - metre dome of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence, completed in 1436.
Among the most notable versions are the church of Santa Maria Assunta in Ariccia by Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1664), which followed his work restoring the Roman original, Belle Isle House (1774) in England and Thomas Jefferson 's library at the University of Virginia, The Rotunda (1817 -- 26). Others include the Rotunda of Mosta in Malta (1833). Other notable replicas, such as The Rotunda (New York) (1818), do not survive.
The style of the Pantheon can be detected in many buildings of the 19th and 20th centuries; numerous government and public buildings, city halls, university buildings, and public libraries echo its portico - and - dome structure.
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how many nuclear missles does the us have | Nuclear weapons of the United States - Wikipedia
The United States was the first country to manufacture nuclear weapons and is the only country to have used them in combat, with the separate bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in World War II. Before and during the Cold War, it conducted over a thousand nuclear tests and tested many long - range nuclear weapons delivery systems.
Between 1940 and 1996, the U.S. government spent at least $9.08 trillion in present - day terms on nuclear weapons, including platforms development (aircraft, rockets and facilities), command and control, maintenance, waste management and administrative costs. It is estimated that, since 1945, the United States produced more than 70,000 nuclear warheads, which is more than all other nuclear weapon states combined. The Soviet Union / Russia has produced approximately 55,000 nuclear warheads since 1949, France built 1,110 warheads since 1960, the United Kingdom built 835 warheads since 1952, China built about 600 warheads since 1964, and other nuclear powers built fewer than 500 warheads all together since they developed their first nuclear weapons. Until November 1962, the vast majority of U.S. nuclear tests were above ground. After the acceptance of the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, all testing was relegated underground, in order to prevent the dispersion of nuclear fallout.
By February 2006 over $ 1.2 billion in compensation had been paid to U.S. citizens exposed to nuclear hazards as a result of the U.S. nuclear weapons program, and by 1998 at least $759 million had been paid to the Marshall Islanders in compensation for their exposure to U.S. nuclear testing.
The U.S. and Russia possess comparable numbers of nuclear warheads; together, these two nations possess more than 90 % of the world 's nuclear warheads. As of 2017, the U.S. has an inventory of 6,800 nuclear warheads; of these, 2,800 are retired and awaiting dismantlement and 4,018 are part of the U.S. stockpile. Of the stockpiled warheads, the U.S. stated in its April 2017 New START declaration that 1,411 are deployed on 673 ICBMs, SLBMs, and strategic bombers.
The United States first began developing nuclear weapons during World War II under the order of President Franklin Roosevelt in 1939, motivated by the fear that they were engaged in a race with Nazi Germany to develop such a weapon. After a slow start under the direction of the National Bureau of Standards, at the urging of British scientists and American administrators, the program was put under the Office of Scientific Research and Development, and in 1942 it was officially transferred under the auspices of the United States Army and became known as the Manhattan Project, an American, British and Canadian joint venture. Under the direction of General Leslie Groves, over thirty different sites were constructed for the research, production, and testing of components related to bomb - making. These included the Los Alamos National Laboratory at Los Alamos, New Mexico, under the direction of physicist Robert Oppenheimer, the Hanford plutonium production facility in Washington, and the Y - 12 National Security Complex in Tennessee.
By investing heavily in breeding plutonium in early nuclear reactors and in the electromagnetic and gaseous diffusion enrichment processes for the production of uranium - 235, the United States was able to develop three usable weapons by mid-1945. The Trinity test was a plutonium implosion - design weapon tested on 16 July 1945, with around a 20 kiloton yield.
Oppenheimer later recalled that, while witnessing the explosion, he thought of a verse from the Hindu holy book, the Bhagavad Gita (XI, 12):
कालोऽस्मि लोकक्षयकृत्प्रवृद्धो लोकान्समाहर्तुमिह प्रवृत्तः । ऋतेऽपि त्वां न भविष्यन्ति सर्वे येऽवस्थिताः प्रत्यनीकेषु योधाः ॥ ११ - ३२ ॥
If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once into the sky, that would be like the splendor of the mighty one...
Years later he would explain that another verse had also entered his head at that time:
We knew the world would not be the same. A few people laughed, a few people cried. Most people were silent. I remembered the line from the Hindu scripture, the Bhagavad Gita; Vishnu is trying to persuade the Prince that he should do his duty and, to impress him, takes on his multi-armed form and says, ' Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds. ' I suppose we all thought that, one way or another.
Faced with a planned invasion of the Japanese home islands scheduled to begin on 1 November 1945 and with Japan not surrendering, President Harry S. Truman ordered the atomic raids on Japan. On 6 August 1945, the U.S. detonated a uranium - gun design bomb, Little Boy, over the Japanese city of Hiroshima with an energy of about 15 kilotons of TNT, killing approximately 70,000 people, among them 20,000 Japanese combatants and 20,000 Korean slave laborers, and destroying nearly 50,000 buildings (including the 2nd General Army and Fifth Division headquarters). Three days later, on 9 August, the U.S. attacked Nagasaki using a plutonium implosion - design bomb, Fat Man, with the explosion equivalent to about 20 kilotons of TNT, destroying 60 % of the city and killing approximately 35,000 people, among them 23,200 -- 28,200 Japanese munitions workers, 2,000 Korean slave laborers, and 150 Japanese combatants.
On January 1, 1947, the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (known as the McMahon Act) took effect, and the Manhattan Project was officially turned over to the United States Atomic Energy Commission.
On August 15, 1947, the Manhattan District was abolished.
Between 1945 and 1990, more than 70,000 total warheads were developed, in over 65 different varieties, ranging in yield from around. 01 kilotons (such as the man - portable Davy Crockett shell) to the 25 megaton B41 bomb. Between 1940 and 1996, the U.S. spent at least $9.08 trillion in present - day terms on nuclear weapons development. Over half was spent on building delivery mechanisms for the weapon. $570 billion in present - day terms was spent on nuclear waste management and environmental remediation.
Richland, Washington was the first city established to support plutonium production at the nearby Hanford nuclear site, to power the American nuclear weapons arsenals. It produced plutonium for use in cold war atomic bombs.
Throughout the Cold War, the U.S. and USSR threatened with all - out nuclear attack in case of war, regardless of whether it was a conventional or a nuclear clash. U.S. nuclear doctrine called for mutually assured destruction (MAD), which entailed a massive nuclear attack against strategic targets and major populations centers of the Soviet Union and its allies. The term "mutual assured destruction '' was coined in 1962 by American strategist Donald Brennan. MAD was implemented by deploying nuclear weapons simultaneously on three different types of weapons platforms.
After the end of the Cold War following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the U.S. nuclear program was heavily curtailed, halting its program of nuclear testing, ceasing production of new nuclear weapons, and reducing its stockpile by half by the mid-1990s under President Bill Clinton. Many of its former nuclear facilities were shut down, and their sites became targets of extensive environmental remediation. Much of the former efforts towards the production of weapons became involved in the program of stockpile stewardship, attempting to predict the behavior of aging weapons without using full - scale nuclear testing. Increased funding was also put into anti-nuclear proliferation programs, such as helping the states of the former Soviet Union eliminate their former nuclear sites, and assist Russia in their efforts to inventory and secure their inherited nuclear stockpile. By February 2006, over $1.2 billion had been paid under the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act of 1990 to U.S. citizens exposed to nuclear hazards as a result of the U.S. nuclear weapons program, and by 1998 at least $759 million had been paid to the Marshall Islanders in compensation for their exposure to U.S. nuclear testing, and over $15 million was paid to the Japanese government following the exposure of its citizens and food supply to nuclear fallout from the 1954 "Bravo '' test. In 1998, the country spent an estimated total of $35.1 billion on its nuclear weapons and weapons - related programs.
In the 2013 book Plutopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters (Oxford), Kate Brown explores the health of affected citizens in the United States, and the "slow - motion disasters '' that still threaten the environments where the plants are located. According to Brown, the plants at Hanford, over a period of four decades, released millions of curies of radioactive isotopes into the surrounding environment. Brown says that most of this radioactive contamination over the years at Hanford were part of normal operations, but unforeseen accidents did occur and plant management kept this secret, as the pollution continued unabated. Even today, as pollution threats to health and the environment persist, the government keeps knowledge about the associated risks from the public.
During the presidency of George W. Bush, and especially after the 11 September terrorist attacks of 2001, rumors have circulated in major news sources that the U.S. has been considering design of new nuclear weapons ("bunker - busting nukes ''), and the resumption of nuclear testing for reasons of stockpile stewardship. Statements by the U.S. government in 2004, however, indicated that the arsenal will drop to around 5,500 total warheads by 2012. According to recent reports, much of that reduction was already accomplished by January 2008.
Between 16 July 1945 and 23 September 1992, the United States maintained a program of vigorous nuclear testing, with the exception of a moratorium between November 1958 and September 1961. By official count, a total of 1,054 nuclear tests and two nuclear attacks were conducted, with over 100 of them taking place at sites in the Pacific Ocean, over 900 of them at the Nevada Test Site, and ten on miscellaneous sites in the United States (Alaska, Colorado, Mississippi, and New Mexico). Until November 1962, the vast majority of the U.S. tests were atmospheric (that is, above - ground); after the acceptance of the Partial Test Ban Treaty all testing was relegated underground, in order to prevent the dispersion of nuclear fallout.
The U.S. program of atmospheric nuclear testing exposed a number of the population to the hazards of fallout. Estimating exact numbers, and the exact consequences, of people exposed has been medically very difficult, with the exception of the high exposures of Marshall Islanders and Japanese fishers in the case of the Castle Bravo incident in 1954. A number of groups of U.S. citizens -- especially farmers and inhabitants of cities downwind of the Nevada Test Site and U.S. military workers at various tests -- have sued for compensation and recognition of their exposure, many successfully. The passage of the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act of 1990 allowed for a systematic filing of compensation claims in relation to testing as well as those employed at nuclear weapons facilities. By June 2009 over $1.4 billion total has been given in compensation, with over $660 million going to "downwinders ''.
A few notable U.S. nuclear tests include:
A summary table of each of the American operational series may be found at United States ' nuclear test series.
The original Little Boy and Fat Man weapons, developed by the United States during the Manhattan Project, were relatively large (Fat Man had a diameter of 5 feet (1.5 m)) and heavy (around 5 tons each) and required specially modified bomber planes to be adapted for their bombing missions against Japan. Each modified bomber could only carry one such weapon and only within a limited range. After these initial weapons were developed, a considerable amount of money and research was conducted towards the goal of standardizing nuclear warheads so that they did not require highly specialized experts to assemble them before use, as in the case with the idiosyncratic wartime devices, and miniaturization of the warheads for use in more variable delivery systems.
Through the aid of brainpower acquired through Operation Paperclip at the tail end of the European theater of World War II, the United States was able to embark on an ambitious program in rocketry. One of the first products of this was the development of rockets capable of holding nuclear warheads. The MGR - 1 Honest John was the first such weapon, developed in 1953 as a surface - to - surface missile with a 15 - mile (24 km) maximum range. Because of their limited range, their potential use was heavily constrained (they could not, for example, threaten Moscow with an immediate strike).
Development of long - range bombers, such as the B - 29 Superfortress during World War II, was continued during the Cold War period. In 1946, the Convair B - 36 Peacemaker became the first purpose - built nuclear bomber; it served with the USAF until 1959. The Boeing B - 52 Stratofortress was able by the mid-1950s to carry a wide arsenal of nuclear bombs, each with different capabilities and potential use situations. Starting in 1946, the U.S. based its initial deterrence force on the Strategic Air Command, which, by the late 1950s, maintained a number of nuclear - armed bombers in the sky at all times, prepared to receive orders to attack the USSR whenever needed. This system was, however, tremendously expensive, both in terms of natural and human resources, and raised the possibility of an accidental nuclear war.
During the 1950s and 1960s, elaborate computerized early warning systems such as Defense Support Program were developed to detect incoming Soviet attacks and to coordinate response strategies. During this same period, intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) systems were developed that could deliver a nuclear payload across vast distances, allowing the U.S. to house nuclear forces capable of hitting the Soviet Union in the American Midwest. Shorter - range weapons, including small tactical weapons, were fielded in Europe as well, including nuclear artillery and man - portable Special Atomic Demolition Munition. The development of submarine - launched ballistic missile systems allowed for hidden nuclear submarines to covertly launch missiles at distant targets as well, making it virtually impossible for the Soviet Union to successfully launch a first strike attack against the United States without receiving a deadly response.
Improvements in warhead miniaturization in the 1970s and 1980s allowed for the development of MIRVs -- missiles which could carry multiple warheads, each of which could be separately targeted. The question of whether these missiles should be based on constantly rotating train tracks (to avoid being easily targeted by opposing Soviet missiles) or based in heavily fortified silos (to possibly withstand a Soviet attack) was a major political controversy in the 1980s (eventually the silo deployment method was chosen). MIRVed systems enabled the U.S. to render Soviet missile defenses economically unfeasible, as each offensive missile would require between three and ten defensive missiles to counter.
Additional developments in weapons delivery included cruise missile systems, which allowed a plane to fire a long - distance, low - flying nuclear - tipped missile towards a target from a relatively comfortable distance.
The current delivery systems of the U.S. make virtually any part of the Earth 's surface within the reach of its nuclear arsenal. Though its land - based missile systems have a maximum range of 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) (less than worldwide), its submarine - based forces extend its reach from a coastline 12,000 kilometres (7,500 mi) inland. Additionally, in - flight refueling of long - range bombers and the use of aircraft carriers extends the possible range virtually indefinitely.
Command and control procedures in case of nuclear war were given by the Single Integrated Operational Plan (SIOP) until 2003, when this was superseded by Operations Plan 8044.
Since World War II, the President of the United States has had sole authority to launch U.S. nuclear weapons, whether as a first strike or nuclear retaliation. This arrangement was seen as necessary during the Cold War to present a credible nuclear deterrent; if an attack was detected, the United States would have only minutes to launch a counterstrike before its nuclear capability was severely damaged, or national leaders killed. If the President has been killed, command authority follows the presidential line of succession. Changes to this policy have been proposed, but currently the only way to countermand such an order before the strike was launched would be for the Vice President and the majority of the Cabinet to relieve the President under Section 4 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution.
The President can give a nuclear launch order using his or her nuclear briefcase (called the nuclear football in the case of the United States), or can use command centers such as the White House Situation Room. The command would be carried out by a Nuclear and Missile Operations Officer (a member of a missile combat crew, also called a "missileer '') at a missile launch control center. A two - man rule applies to the launch of missiles, meaning that two officers must turn keys simultaneously (far enough apart that this can not be done by one man).
When President Reagan was shot in 1981 there was confusion about where the "nuclear football '' was, and who was in charge.
In 1975 a launch crew member, Harold Hering, was dismissed from the Air Force for asking how he could know whether the order to launch his missiles came from a sane president. It has been claimed that the system is not foolproof.
Starting with President Eisenhower, authority to launch a full scale nuclear attack has been delegated to theater commanders and other specific commanders if they believed it was warranted by circumstances, and were out of communication with the president or the president had been incapacitated. For example, during the Cuban Missile Crisis, on October 24, 1962, General Thomas Power, commander of the Strategic Air Command (SAC), took the country to DEFCON 2, the very precipice of full - scale nuclear war, launching the SAC bombers of the US with nuclear weapons ready to strike. Moreover, some of these commanders subdelegated to lower commanders the authority to launch nuclear weapons under similar circumstance. In fact, the nuclear weapons were not placed under locks until decades later, so pilots or individual submarine commanders had the power, but not the authority, to launch nuclear weapons entirely on their own.
The United States nuclear program since its inception has experienced accidents of varying forms, ranging from single - casualty research experiments (such as that of Louis Slotin during the Manhattan Project), to the nuclear fallout dispersion of the Castle Bravo shot in 1954, to the accidental dropping of nuclear weapons from aircraft (broken arrows). How close any of these accidents came to being major nuclear disasters is a matter of technical and scholarly debate and interpretation.
Weapons accidentally dropped by the United States include incidents near Atlantic City, New Jersey (1957), Savannah, Georgia (1958) (see Tybee Bomb), Goldsboro, North Carolina (1961) (see 1961 Goldsboro B - 52 crash), off the coast of Okinawa (1965), in the sea near Palomares, Spain (1966, see 1966 Palomares B - 52 crash), and near Thule Air Base, Greenland (1968) (see 1968 Thule Air Base B - 52 crash). In some of these cases (such as Palomares), the explosive system of the fission weapon discharged, but did not trigger a nuclear chain reaction (safety features prevent this from easily happening), but did disperse hazardous nuclear materials across wide areas, necessitating expensive cleanup endeavors. Eleven American nuclear warheads are thought to be lost and unrecovered, primarily in submarine accidents.
The nuclear testing program resulted in a number of cases of fallout dispersion onto populated areas. The most significant of these was the Castle Bravo test, which spread radioactive ash over an area of over 100 square miles (260 km), including a number of populated islands. The populations of the islands were evacuated but not before suffering radiation burns. They would later suffer long - term effects, such as birth defects and increased cancer risk. There were also instances during the nuclear testing program in which soldiers were exposed to overly high levels of radiation, which grew into a major scandal in the 1970s and 1980s, as many soldiers later suffered from what were claimed to be diseases caused by their exposures.
Many of the former nuclear facilities (see next section) produced significant environmental damages during their years of activity, and since the 1990s have been Superfund sites of cleanup and environmental remediation. The Radiation Exposure Compensation Act of 1990 allows for U.S. citizens exposed to radiation or other health risks through the U.S. nuclear program to file for compensation and damages.
In 1972 three hijackers took control of a domestic passenger flight along the east coast of the U.S. and threatened to crash the plane into a U.S. nuclear weapons plant in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. The plane got as close as 8,000 feet above the site before the hijackers ' demands were met.
Various acts of civil disobedience since 1980 by the peace group Plowshares have shown how nuclear weapons facilities can be penetrated, and the group 's actions represent extraordinary breaches of security at nuclear weapons plants in the United States. The National Nuclear Security Administration has acknowledged the seriousness of the 2012 Plowshares action. Non-proliferation policy experts have questioned "the use of private contractors to provide security at facilities that manufacture and store the government 's most dangerous military material ''. Nuclear weapons materials on the black market are a global concern, and there is concern about the possible detonation of a small, crude nuclear weapon by a militant group in a major city, with significant loss of life and property.
Stuxnet is a computer worm discovered in June 2010 that is believed to have been created by the United States and Israel to attack Iran 's nuclear facilities.
The initial U.S. nuclear program was run by the National Bureau of Standards starting in 1939 under the edict of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Its primary purpose was to delegate research and dispense funds. In 1940 the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) was established, coordinating work under the Committee on Uranium among its other wartime efforts. In June 1941, the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) was established, with the NDRC as one of its subordinate agencies, which enlarged and renamed the Uranium Committee as the Section on Uranium. In 1941, NDRC research was placed under direct control of Vannevar Bush as the OSRD S - 1 Section, which attempted to increase the pace of weapons research. In June 1942, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers took over the project to develop atomic weapons, while the OSRD retained responsibility for scientific research.
This was the beginning of the Manhattan Project, run as the Manhattan Engineering District (MED), an agency under military control that was in charge of developing the first atomic weapons. After World War II, the MED maintained control over the U.S. arsenal and production facilities and coordinated the Operation Crossroads tests. In 1946 after a long and protracted debate, the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 was passed, creating the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) as a civilian agency that would be in charge of the production of nuclear weapons and research facilities, funded through Congress, with oversight provided by the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy. The AEC was given vast powers of control over secrecy, research, and money, and could seize lands with suspected uranium deposits. Along with its duties towards the production and regulation of nuclear weapons, it was also in charge of stimulating development and regulating civilian nuclear power. The full transference of activities was finalized in January 1947.
In 1975, following the "energy crisis '' of the early 1970s and public and congressional discontent with the AEC (in part because of the impossibility to be both a producer and a regulator), it was disassembled into component parts as the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), which assumed most of the AEC 's former production, coordination, and research roles, and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, which assumed its civilian regulation activities.
ERDA was short - lived, however, and in 1977 the U.S. nuclear weapons activities were reorganized under the Department of Energy, which maintains such responsibilities through the semi-autonomous National Nuclear Security Administration. Some functions were taken over or shared by the Department of Homeland Security in 2002. The already - built weapons themselves are in the control of the Strategic Command, which is part of the Department of Defense.
In general, these agencies served to coordinate research and build sites. They generally operated their sites through contractors, however, both private and public (for example, Union Carbide, a private company, ran Oak Ridge National Laboratory for many decades; the University of California, a public educational institution, has run the Los Alamos and Lawrence Livermore laboratories since their inception, and will jointly manage Los Alamos with the private company Bechtel as of its next contract). Funding was received both through these agencies directly, but also from additional outside agencies, such as the Department of Defense. Each branch of the military also maintained its own nuclear - related research agencies (generally related to delivery systems).
This table is not comprehensive, as numerous facilities throughout the United States have contributed to its nuclear weapons program. It includes the major sites related to the U.S. weapons program (past and present), their basic site functions, and their current status of activity. Not listed are the many bases and facilities at which nuclear weapons have been deployed. In addition to deploying weapons on its own soil, during the Cold War, the United States also stationed nuclear weapons in 27 foreign countries and territories, including Okinawa (which was US - controlled until 1971,) Japan (during the occupation immediately following World War II), Greenland, Germany, Taiwan, and French Morocco then independent Morocco.
Early on in the development of its nuclear weapons, the United States relied in part on information - sharing with both the United Kingdom and Canada, as codified in the Quebec Agreement of 1943. These three parties agreed not to share nuclear weapons information with other countries without the consent of the others, an early attempt at nonproliferation. After the development of the first nuclear weapons during World War II, though, there was much debate within the political circles and public sphere of the United States about whether or not the country should attempt to maintain a monopoly on nuclear technology, or whether it should undertake a program of information sharing with other nations (especially its former ally and likely competitor, the Soviet Union), or submit control of its weapons to some sort of international organization (such as the United Nations) who would use them to attempt to maintain world peace. Though fear of a nuclear arms race spurred many politicians and scientists to advocate some degree of international control or sharing of nuclear weapons and information, many politicians and members of the military believed that it was better in the short term to maintain high standards of nuclear secrecy and to forestall a Soviet bomb as long as possible (and they did not believe the USSR would actually submit to international controls in good faith).
Since this path was chosen, the United States was, in its early days, essentially an advocate for the prevention of nuclear proliferation, though primarily for the reason of self - preservation. A few years after the USSR detonated its first weapon in 1949, though, the U.S. under President Dwight D. Eisenhower sought to encourage a program of sharing nuclear information related to civilian nuclear power and nuclear physics in general. The Atoms for Peace program, begun in 1953, was also in part political: the U.S. was better poised to commit various scarce resources, such as enriched uranium, towards this peaceful effort, and to request a similar contribution from the Soviet Union, who had far fewer resources along these lines; thus the program had a strategic justification as well, as was later revealed by internal memos. This overall goal of promoting civilian use of nuclear energy in other countries, while also preventing weapons dissemination, has been labeled by many critics as contradictory and having led to lax standards for a number of decades which allowed a number of other nations, such as China and India, to profit from dual - use technology (purchased from nations other than the U.S.).
The Cooperative Threat Reduction program of the Defense Threat Reduction Agency was established after the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 to aid former Soviet bloc countries in the inventory and destruction of their sites for developing nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, and their methods of delivering them (ICBM silos, long - range bombers, etc.). Over $4.4 billion has been spent on this endeavor to prevent purposeful or accidental proliferation of weapons from the former Soviet arsenal.
After India and Pakistan tested nuclear weapons in 1998, President Bill Clinton imposed economic sanctions on the countries. In 1999, however, the sanctions against India were lifted; those against Pakistan were kept in place as a result of the military government that had taken over. Shortly after the September 11 attacks in 2001, President George W. Bush lifted the sanctions against Pakistan as well, in order to get the Pakistani government 's help as a conduit for US and NATO forces for operations in Afghanistan.
The U.S. government has officially taken a silent policy towards the nuclear weapons ambitions of the state of Israel, while being exceedingly vocal against proliferation of such weapons in the countries of Iran and North Korea. Until 2005 when the program was cancelled, it was violating its own non-proliferation treaties in the pursuit of so - called nuclear bunker busters. The 2003 invasion of Iraq by the U.S. was done, in part, on indications that Weapons of mass destruction were being stockpiled (later, stockpiles of previously undeclared nerve agent and mustard gas shells were located in Iraq), and the Bush administration said that its policies on proliferation were responsible for the Libyan government 's agreement to abandon its nuclear ambitions.
The United States is one of the five nuclear weapons states with a declared nuclear arsenal under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), of which it was an original drafter and signatory on 1 July 1968 (ratified 5 March 1970). All signatories of the NPT agreed to refrain from aiding in nuclear weapons proliferation to other states.
Further under Article VI of the NPT, all signatories, including the US, agreed to negotiate in good faith to stop the nuclear arms race and to negotiate for complete elimination of nuclear weapons. "Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament. '' The International Court of Justice (ICJ), the preeminent judicial tribunal of international law, in its advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, issued 8 July 1996, unanimously interprets the text of Article VI as implying that:
There exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control.
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 2005 proposed a comprehensive ban on fissile material that would greatly limit the production of weapons of mass destruction. One hundred forty seven countries voted for this proposal but the United States voted against. The US government has also resisted the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, a binding agreement for negotiations for the total elimination of nuclear weapons, supported by more than 120 nations.
In 1958, the United States Air Force had considered a plan to drop nuclear bombs on China during a confrontation over Taiwan but it was overruled, previously secret documents showed after they were declassified due to the Freedom of Information Act in April 2008. The plan included an initial plan to drop 10 -- 15 kiloton bombs on airfields in Amoy (now called Xiamen) in the event of a Chinese blockade against Taiwan 's Offshore Islands.
The Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Program (EEOICP) began on 31 July 2001. The program provides compensation and health benefits to Department of Energy nuclear weapons workers (employees, former employees, contractors and subcontractors) as well as compensation to certain survivors if the worker is already deceased. By 14 August 2010, the program had already identified 45,799 civilians who lost their health (including 18,942 who developed cancer) due to exposure to radiation and toxic substances while producing nuclear weapons for the United States.
The United States is one of the five recognized nuclear powers by the signatories of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). As of 2017, the US has an estimated 4,018 nuclear weapons in either deployment or storage. This figure compares to a peak of 31,225 total warheads in 1967 and 22,217 in 1989, and does not include "several thousand '' warheads that have been retired and scheduled for dismantlement. The Pantex Plant near Amarillo, Texas, is the only location in the United States where weapons from the aging nuclear arsenal can be refurbished or dismantled.
In 2009 and 2010, the administration of President Barack Obama declared policies that would invalidate the Bush - era policy for use of nuclear weapons and its motions to develop new ones. First, in a prominent 2009 speech, U.S. President Barack Obama outlined a goal of "a world without nuclear weapons ''. To that goal, U.S. President Barack Obama and Russian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev signed a new START treaty on April 8, 2010, to reduce the number of active nuclear weapons from 2,200 to 1,550. That same week Obama also revised U.S. policy on the use of nuclear weapons in a Nuclear Posture Review required of all presidents, declaring for the first time that the U.S. would not use nuclear weapons against nonnuclear, NPT - compliant states. The policy also renounces development of any new nuclear weapons.
The Obama Administration, in its release of the 2012 defense budget, included planned to modernize, as well as maintain, the nation 's nuclear weapons arsenal.
In the early 1980s, the revival of the nuclear arms race triggered large protests about nuclear weapons. On June 12, 1982, one million people demonstrated in New York City 's Central Park against nuclear weapons and for an end to the cold war arms race. It was the largest anti-nuclear protest and the largest political demonstration in American history. International Day of Nuclear Disarmament protests were held on June 20, 1983 at 50 sites across the United States. There were many Nevada Desert Experience protests and peace camps at the Nevada Test Site during the 1980s and 1990s.
There have also been protests by anti-nuclear groups at the Y - 12 Nuclear Weapons Plant, the Idaho National Laboratory, Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository proposal, the Hanford Site, the Nevada Test Site, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and transportation of nuclear waste from the Los Alamos National Laboratory.
On May 1, 2005, 40,000 anti-nuclear / anti-war protesters marched past the United Nations in New York, 60 years after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. This was the largest anti-nuclear rally in the U.S. for several decades. In May 2010, some 25,000 people, including members of peace organizations and 1945 atomic bomb survivors, marched from downtown New York to the United Nations headquarters, calling for the elimination of nuclear weapons.
Some scientists and engineers have opposed nuclear weapons, including Paul M. Doty, Hermann Joseph Muller, Linus Pauling, Eugene Rabinowitch, M.V. Ramana and Frank N. von Hippel. In recent years, many elder statesmen have also advocated nuclear disarmament. Sam Nunn, William Perry, Henry Kissinger, and George Shultz -- have called upon governments to embrace the vision of a world free of nuclear weapons, and in various op - ed columns have proposed an ambitious program of urgent steps to that end. The four have created the Nuclear Security Project to advance this agenda. Organizations such as Global Zero, an international non-partisan group of 300 world leaders dedicated to achieving nuclear disarmament, have also been established.
Operational American strategic nuclear forces, July 1, 2016
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what is the phantom of the opera based on | The Phantom of the Opera - wikipedia
The Phantom of the Opera (French: Le Fantôme de l'Opéra) is a novel by French writer Gaston Leroux. It was first published as a serialization in Le Gaulois from 23 September 1909, to 8 January 1910. It was published in volume form in late March 1910 by Pierre Lafitte. The novel is partly inspired by historical events at the Paris Opera during the nineteenth century and an apocryphal tale concerning the use of a former ballet pupil 's skeleton in Carl Maria von Weber 's 1841 production of Der Freischütz. It has been successfully adapted into various stage and film adaptations, most notable of which are the 1925 film depiction featuring Lon Chaney, and Andrew Lloyd Webber 's 1986 musical.
Leroux first decided he would become a lawyer, but after he spent his inheritance gambling he became a reporter for L'Echo de Paris. At the paper he was asked to write about and critique dramas, as well as being a courtroom reporter. With his job, he was able to travel frequently, but then he came back to Paris where he became a writer. Because of his fascination with both Edgar Allan Poe and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, he wrote a detective mystery entitled The Mystery of the Yellow Room in 1907, and four years later he published Le Fantôme de l'Opéra. The novel was first published within newspapers before finally being published as a novel in 1911.
The setting of The Phantom of the Opera came from an actual Paris opera house that Leroux had heard the rumors about from the time the opera house was finished. The details about the Palais Garnier, and rumors surrounding it, are closely linked in Leroux 's writing. The underground water tank that he had written about is accurate to this opera house, and it is still used for training firefighters. The mysteries that Leroux uses in his novel about the phantom are still mysteries.
The Phantom of the Opera 's origins came from Leroux 's curiosity with the phantom being real. In the prologue he tells the readers about the phantom and the research that he did to prove the truth of the ghost. His findings connected the corpse from the opera house to the Persian phantom himself. The claims from the prologue of his novel were ones that Leroux held onto even up until his death in 1927.
In Paris in the 1880s, the Palais Garnier opera house is believed to be haunted by an entity known as the Phantom of the Opera, or simply the Opera Ghost. A stagehand named Joseph Buquet is found hanged and the rope around his neck goes missing. At a gala performance for the retirement of the opera house 's two managers, a young little - known Swedish soprano, Christine Daaé, is called upon to sing in the place of the Opera 's leading soprano, Carlotta, who is ill, and her performance is an astonishing success. The Vicomte Raoul de Chagny, who was present at the performance, recognizes her as his childhood playmate and recalls his love for her. He attempts to visit her backstage, where he hears a man complimenting her from inside her dressing room. He investigates the room once Christine leaves, only to find it empty.
At Perros - Guirec, Christine meets with Raoul, who confronts her about the voice he heard in her room. Christine tells him she has been tutored by the Angel of Music, whom her father used to tell them about. When Raoul suggests that she might be the victim of a prank, she storms off. Christine visits her father 's grave one night, where a mysterious figure appears and plays the violin for her. Raoul attempts to confront it but is attacked and knocked out in the process.
Back at the Palais Garnier, the new managers receive a letter from the Phantom demanding that they allow Christine to perform the lead role of Marguerite in Faust, and that box 5 be left empty for his use, lest they perform in a house with a curse on it. The managers ignore his demands as a prank, resulting in disastrous consequences: Carlotta ends up croaking like a toad, and the chandelier suddenly drops into the audience, killing a spectator. The Phantom, having abducted Christine from her dressing room, reveals himself as a deformed man called Erik. Erik intends to keep her in his lair with him for a few days, but she causes him to change his plans when she unmasks him and, to the horror of both, beholds his noseless, lipless, sunken - eyed face, which resembles a skull dried up by the centuries, covered in yellowed dead flesh.
Fearing that she will leave him, he decides to keep her with him forever, but when Christine requests release after two weeks, he agrees on the condition that she wear his ring and be faithful to him. On the roof of the opera house, Christine tells Raoul about her abduction and makes Raoul promise to take her away to a place where Erik can never find her, even if she resists. Raoul tells Christine he will act on his promise the next day, to which she agrees. However, Christine sympathizes with Erik and decides to sing for him one last time as a means of saying goodbye. Unbeknownst to Christine and Raoul, Erik has been watching them and overheard their whole conversation.
The following night, the enraged and jealous Erik abducts Christine during a production of Faust and tries to force her to marry him. Raoul is led by a mysterious opera regular known as "The Persian '' into Erik 's secret lair deep in the bowels of the opera house, but they end up trapped in a mirrored room by Erik, who threatens that unless Christine agrees to marry him, he will kill them and everyone in the Opera House by using explosives. Christine agrees to marry Erik. Erik initially tries to drown Raoul and the Persian, using the water which would have been used to douse the explosives, but Christine begs and offers to be his "living bride '', promising him not to kill herself after becoming his bride, as she had both contemplated and attempted earlier in the book. Erik eventually releases Raoul and the Persian from his torture chamber.
When Erik is alone with Christine, he lifts his mask to kiss her on her forehead and is given a kiss back. Erik reveals that he has never received a kiss, not even from his own mother, nor has been allowed to give one and is overcome with emotion. He and Christine then cry together and their tears "mingle ''. Erik later says that he has never felt so close to another human being. He allows the Persian and Raoul to escape, though not before making Christine promise that she will visit him on his death day, and return the gold ring he gave her. He also makes the Persian promise that afterward he will go to the newspaper and report his death, as he will die soon and will die "of love ''. Indeed, sometime later Christine returns to Erik 's lair, buries him somewhere he will never be found (by Erik 's request) and returns the gold ring. Afterward, a local newspaper runs the simple note: "Erik is dead ''. Christine and Raoul (who finds out that Erik has killed his older brother) elope together, never to return.
Passages narrated directly by the Persian and the final chapter piece together Erik 's life: the son of a construction business owner deformed from birth, he ran away from his native Normandy to work in fairs and in caravans, schooling himself in the arts of the circus across Europe and Asia, and eventually building trick palaces in Persia and Turkey. Eventually, he returned to France and, wearing a mask, started his own construction business. After being subcontracted to work on the foundations of the Palais Garnier, Erik had discreetly built himself a lair to disappear in, complete with hidden passages and other tricks that allowed him to spy on the managers.
Leroux uses the operatic setting in The Phantom of the Opera to use music as a device for foreshadowing. Ribière makes note that Leroux was once a theatre critic and his brother was a musician, so he was knowledgeable about music and how to use it as a framing device. She uses the example of how Leroux introduces the song Danse Macabre which means "dance of death '' in the gala scene which foreshadows the graveyard scene that comes later where the Phantom plays the fiddle for Christine and attacks Raoul when he tries to intervene.
Drumright points out that music is evident throughout the novel in that it is the basis for Christine and Erik 's relationship. Christine sees Erik as her Angel of Music that her father promised would come to her one day. The Phantom sees Christine as his musical protege, and he uses his passion for music to teach her everything he knows.
Stylistically, the novel is framed as a mystery novel as it is narrated through a detective pulling his information from various forms of research. The mystery being uncovered is the Phantom who lurks through the opera house, seemingly appearing in places out of nowhere as if by magic.
In his article, Fitzpatrick compares the Phantom to other monsters featured in Gothic horror novels such as Frankenstein 's monster, Dr. Jekyll, Dorian Gray, and Count Dracula). The Phantom has a torture chamber where he kidnaps and kills people, and the walls of the chapel in the graveyard are lined with human bones. Indeed, Drumright notes that The Phantom of the Opera checks off every trope necessary to have a Gothic novel according to the Encyclopedia of Literature 's description which says, "Such novels were expected to be dark and tempestuous and full of ghosts, madness, outrage, superstition, and revenge. '' Although the Phantom is really just a disfigured man, he has ghost - like qualities in that no one can ever find him or his lair and he is seen as a monster. People are frightened by him because of his deformities and the acts of violence he commits.
The novel features a love triangle between the Phantom, Christine, and Raoul. Raoul is seen as Christine 's childhood love whom she is familiar with and has affection for. He is rich and therefore offers her security as well as a wholesome, Christian marriage. The Phantom, on the other hand, is not familiar. He is dark, ugly, and dangerous and therefore represents the forbidden love. However, Christine is drawn to him because she sees him as her Angel of Music, and she pities his existence of loneliness and darkness.
By the time Leroux published The Phantom of the Opera, he had already gained credibility as a crime mystery author in both French and English speaking countries. He had written six novels prior, two of which had garnered substantial popularity within their first year of publication called The Mystery of the Yellow Room and The Perfume of the Lady in Black. Although previous commentators have asserted that The Phantom of the Opera did not attain as much success as these previous novels, being particularly unpopular in France where it was first published, recent research into the novel 's early reception and sales has indicated the contrary. One book review from the New York Times expressed a disappointment in the way the phantom was portrayed, saying that the feeling of suspense and horror is lost once it is found out that the phantom is just a man and not a real ghost. The majority of the notability that the novel acquired early on was due to its publication in a series of installments in French, American, and English newspapers. This serialized version of the story became important when it was read and sought out by Universal Pictures to be adapted into a movie in 1925.
Based on the critical reviews of two modern day readers of the book, Sean Fitzpatrick and Cathleen Myers, the novel is praiseworthy for its drama, but overall it does not rise to the standards of great literature. Fitzpatrick claims that "The Phantom of the Opera is not a great book, but it is a great read. '' He digresses that even though the book is not good enough to be in the canon of great literature, there are many aspects of it that make it fun to read such as the drama of the "whodunnit '' plot, the investigative styling of the book which pretends to pull from real life newspaper articles and interviews relating to the Paris Opera House, and the character Erik (the phantom) who fills the roles of the "mad genius '', disfigured monster, and one of three in a love triangle all at once. Fitzpatrick argues that all of these elements make the book good for light reading. Myers agrees that the novel makes for a good "airplane read '', but says that it fails in terms of being a good mystery novel. She claims that one of the book 's downfalls is that one of the important characters - the mysterious Persian - is introduced too late in the storyline. Another glaring omission that she sees in the book is that the Phantom is left unexplained. Myers also criticizes Christine 's love for Raoul whom she claims is an idiot, saying he "makes Jonathon Harker and Lord Godalming in Dracula look like rocket scientists. ''
There have been many literary and other dramatic works based on Leroux 's novel, ranging from stage musicals to films to children 's books. Some well known stage and screen adaptations of the novel are the 1925 film and the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical. In Webber 's musical, he was focused on writing more of a romance piece and found the book and the musical took off from there. Leroux 's novel was more than just a mystery and had romance and other genres, that would appeal to more audiences. Webber used accounts from within the novel in the musical as well such as the real - life event of the chandelier falling. This musical even after being produced in the mid-80s, has still remained popular with people today. The musical has received more than fifty awards and is seen by many as being the most popular musical on Broadway.
Leroux 's novel was created into two silent films during the history and adaptations of the novel. The first production of the novel into a silent film was produced by German adaptation called, Das Gespenst im Opernhaus. This film though has no living proof left and is lost due to no pictures being taken or an actual copy of the film is preserved. The last living knowledge of the film is that it was made in 1916 and was directed by Ernest Matray.
The next adaptation or silent film was made in 1925 by Universal Studios. This version starred Lon Chaney Sr. as the phantom. Due to tensions on the set, there was a switch in directors and Edward Sedgwick finished the film while changing the direction the movie was going to take. His take on the novel and making it a dark romantic movie with comedy was n't popular by audiences. Finally, the film was adapted one last time by Maurice Pivar and Louis Weber where they took out most of Sedgwick 's adaptation and stuck to the original film. This time, the movie was a success with audiences in 1925.
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where did the need for england to tax the colonies come from | Colonial History of the United States - wikipedia
The colonial history of the United States covers the history of European settlements from the start of colonization in the early 16th century until their incorporation into the United States of America. In the late 16th century, England, France, Spain, and the Netherlands launched major colonization programs in eastern North America. Small early attempts sometimes disappeared, such as the English Lost Colony of Roanoke. Everywhere, the death rate was very high among the first arrivals. Nevertheless, successful colonies were established within several decades.
European settlers came from a variety of social and religious groups, including adventurers, soldiers, farmers, and tradesmen, and some from the aristocracy. Settlers traveling to the new continent included the Dutch of New Netherland, the Swedes and Finns of New Sweden, the English Quakers of Pennsylvania, the English Puritans of New England, the English settlers of Jamestown, the "worthy poor '' of Georgia, the Germans who settled the mid-Atlantic colonies, and the Ulster Scots people of the Appalachian Mountains. These groups all became part of the United States when it gained its independence in 1776. Russian America and parts of New France and New Spain were also incorporated into the United States at various points. The diverse groups from these various regions built colonies of distinctive social, religious, political, and economic style.
Over time, non-British colonies East of the Mississippi River were taken over and most of the inhabitants were assimilated. In Nova Scotia, however, the British expelled French Acadian inhabitants; many relocated to Louisiana. No major civil wars occurred in the thirteen colonies. The two chief armed rebellions were short - lived failures in Virginia in 1676 and in New York in 1689 -- 91. Some of the colonies developed legalized systems of slavery, centered largely around the Atlantic slave trade. Wars were recurrent between the French and the British during the French and Indian Wars. By 1760, France was defeated and its colonies were seized by Britain.
On the eastern seaboard of what became the United States, the four distinct English regions were New England, the Middle Colonies, the Chesapeake Bay Colonies (Upper South), and the Lower South. Some historians add a fifth region of the Frontier, which was never separately organized. By the time that European settlers arrived around 1600 -- 1650, a significant percentage of the Indians living in the eastern region had been ravaged by disease, possibly introduced to them decades before by explorers and sailors (although no conclusive cause has ever been established).
Colonizers came from European kingdoms that had highly developed military, naval, governmental, and entrepreneurial capabilities. The Spanish and Portuguese centuries - old experience of conquest and colonization during the Reconquista, coupled with new oceanic ship navigation skills, provided the tools, ability, and desire to colonize the New World. These efforts were managed respectively by the Casa de Contratación and the Casa da Índia.
England, France, and the Netherlands had also started colonies in both the West Indies and North America. They had the ability to build ocean - worthy ships but did not have as strong a history of colonization in foreign lands as did Portugal and Spain. However, English entrepreneurs gave their colonies a foundation of merchant - based investment that seemed to need much less government support.
Initially, matters concerning the colonies were dealt with primarily by the Privy Council and its committees. The Commission of Trade was set up in 1625 as the first special body convened to advise on colonial (plantation) questions. From 1696 until the end of the revolution, colonial affairs were the responsibility of the Board of Trade in partnership with the relevant secretaries of state, which changed from the Secretary of State for the Southern Department to the Secretary of State for the Colonies in 1768.
Mercantilism was the basic policy imposed by Britain on its colonies from the 1660s. Mercantilism meant that the government became a partner with merchants based in England, with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other empires and even other merchants based in its own colonies. The government protected its London - based merchants and kept out others by trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from the realm and minimize imports.
The government also fought smuggling, and this became a direct source of controversy with American merchants when their business activities became classified as smuggling according to the Navigation Acts -- including activities that had been considered business as normal previously, such as direct trade with the French, Spanish, Dutch, and Portuguese. The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold and silver would pour into London. The government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on a superb Royal Navy which protected the British colonies and also threatened the colonies of the other empires, sometimes even seizing them. Thus, the British Navy captured New Amsterdam (New York) in 1664. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country.
The prospect of religious persecution by authorities of the crown and the Church of England prompted a significant number of colonization efforts. People fleeing persecution by King Charles I were responsible for settling most of New England, and the Province of Maryland was founded in part to be a haven for Roman Catholics.
Anonymous Portuguese explorers were the first Europeans to map the eastern seaboard of the U.S. from New York to Florida, as documented in the Cantino planisphere of 1502. However, they kept their discoveries a secret and did not attempt to settle in North America, as the Inter caetera had granted these lands to Spain, issued by Pope Alexander VI in 1493.
Other countries did attempt to found colonies in America over the following century, and most of these attempts ended in failure. The colonists faced high rates of death due to many reasons, including disease, starvation, inefficient resupply, conflict with Indians, and attacks by rival European powers.
Spain had numerous failed attempts, including San Miguel de Gualdape in Georgia (1526), Pánfilo de Narváez 's expedition to Florida 's Gulf coast (1528 -- 36), Pensacola in West Florida (1559 -- 61), Fort San Juan in North Carolina (1567 -- 68), and the Ajacán Mission in Virginia (1570 -- 71).
The French failed at Parris Island, South Carolina (1562 -- 63), Fort Caroline on Florida 's Atlantic coast (1564 -- 65), Saint Croix Island, Maine (1604 - 05), and Fort Saint Louis, Texas (1685 -- 89).
The most notable English failures were the "Lost Colony of Roanoke '' (1587 -- 90) in North Carolina and Popham Colony in Maine (1607 -- 08). It was at the Roanoke Colony that Virginia Dare became the first English child born in the Americas; her fate is unknown.
Starting in the 15th century, Spain built a huge colonial empire in the Americas, consisting of New Spain and other viceroyalties. New Spain included territories in present - day Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, much of the United States west of the Mississippi River, parts of Latin America (including Puerto Rico), and the Spanish East Indies (including Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands). New Spain encompassed the territory of Louisiana after the 1762 signing of the Treaty of Fontainebleau, though Louisiana reverted to France in the 1800 Third Treaty of San Ildefonso. Many territories that had been part of New Spain would become part of the United States after 1776 through various wars and treaties, including the Louisiana Purchase (1803), the Adams -- Onís Treaty (1819), the Mexican -- American War (1846 - 1848), and the Spanish -- American War (1898). Spain also sent several expeditions to the Pacific Northwest, and it transferred its claims to the Pacific Northwest to the United States in the Adams -- Onís Treaty. In terms of Spanish settlers, there were several thousand families in New Mexico and California that became American citizens in 1848, plus small numbers in the other colonies.
Spain established several small outposts in Florida in the early 16th century. The most important of these was St. Augustine, founded in 1565 but repeatedly attacked and burned by pirates, privateers, and English forces. Its buildings survived, even as nearly all the Spanish left. It claims to be the oldest European settlement in the continental United States.
The British attacked Spanish Florida during numerous wars. As early as 1687, the Spanish government had begun to offer asylum to slaves from British colonies. In 1693, the Spanish Crown officially proclaimed that runaways would find freedom in Florida, in return for converting to Catholicism and a term for men of four years ' military service to the Crown. In effect, Spain created a maroon settlement in Florida as a front - line defense against English attacks from the north. Spain also intended to destabilize the plantation economy of the British colonies by creating a free black community to attract slaves seeking escape and refuge from the British slavery.
In 1763, Spain traded Florida to Great Britain in exchange for control of Havana, Cuba, which had been captured by the British during the Seven Years ' War. Florida was home to about 3,000 Spaniards at the time, and nearly all quickly left. Britain occupied Florida, but did not send many settlers to the area, and control was restored to Spain in 1783 by the Peace of Paris, which ended the American Revolutionary War. Spain sent no more settlers or missionaries to Florida during this second colonial period. The inhabitants of West Florida revolted against the Spanish in 1810 and formed the Republic of West Florida, which was quickly annexed by the United States. The United States took possession of East Florida in 1821 according to the terms of the Adams -- Onís Treaty.
Throughout the 16th century, Spain explored the southwest from Mexico, with the most notable explorer being Francisco Coronado, whose expedition rode throughout modern New Mexico and Arizona. The Spanish moved north from Mexico, settling villages in the upper valley of the Rio Grande, including much of the western half of the present - day state of New Mexico. The capital was Santa Fe. Local Indians expelled the Spanish for 12 years following the Pueblo Revolt of 1680; they returned in 1692 in the bloodless reoccupation of Santa Fe. Control was by Spain (223 years) and Mexico (25 years) until 1846, when the American Army of the West took over in the Mexican -- American War. About a third of the population in the 21st century is descended from the Spanish settlers.
Spanish explorers sailed along the coast of present - day California from the early 16th century to the mid-18th century, but no settlements were established over those centuries.
From 1769 until the independence of Mexico in 1820, Spain sent missionaries and soldiers to Alta California who created a series of missions operated by Franciscan priests. They also operated presidios (forts), pueblos (settlements) s, and ranchos (land grant ranches), along the southern and central coast of California. Father Junípero Serra, founded the first missions in Spanish upper Las Californias, starting with Mission San Diego de Alcalá in 1769. Through the Spanish and Mexican eras they eventually comprised a series of 21 missions to spread Roman Catholicism among the local Native Americans, linked by El Camino Real ("The Royal Road ''). They were established to convert the indigenous peoples of California, while protecting historic Spanish claims to the area. The missions introduced European technology, livestock, and crops. The Indian Reductions converted the native peoples into groups of Mission Indians; they worked as laborers in the missions and the ranchos. In the 1830s the missions were disbanded and the lands sold to Californios. The indigenous Native American population was around 150,000; the Californios (Mexican era Californians) around 10,000; with the rest immigrant Americans and other nationalities involved in trade and business in California.
In September 1493, Christopher Columbus set sail on his second voyage with 17 ships from Cádiz. On November 19, 1493 he landed on the island of Puerto Rico, naming it San Juan Bautista in honor of Saint John the Baptist. The first European colony, Caparra, was founded on August 8, 1508 by Juan Ponce de León, a lieutenant under Columbus, who was greeted by the Taíno Cacique Agüeybaná and who later became the first governor of the island. Ponce de Leon was actively involved in the Higuey massacre of 1503 in Puerto Rico. In 1508, Sir Ponce de Leon was chosen by the Spanish Crown to lead the conquest and slavery of the Taíno Indians for gold mining operations. The following year, the colony was abandoned in favor of a nearby islet on the coast, named Puerto Rico (Rich Port), which had a suitable harbor. In 1511, a second settlement, San Germán was established in the southwestern part of the island. During the 1520s, the island took the name of Puerto Rico while the port became San Juan.
As part of the colonization process, African slaves were brought to the island in 1513. Following the decline of the Taíno population, more slaves were brought to Puerto Rico; however, the number of slaves on the island paled in comparison to those in neighboring islands. Also, early in the colonization of Puerto Rico, attempts were made to wrest control of Puerto Rico from Spain. The Caribs, a raiding tribe of the Caribbean, attacked Spanish settlements along the banks of the Daguao and Macao rivers in 1514 and again in 1521 but each time they were easily repelled by the superior Spanish firepower. However, these would not be the last attempts at control of Puerto Rico. The European powers quickly realized the potential of the newly discovered lands and attempted to gain control of them. Nonetheless, Puerto Rico remained a Spanish possession until the 19th century.
The last half of the 19th century was marked by the Puerto Rican struggle for sovereignty. A census conducted in 1860 revealed a population of 583,308. Of these, 300,406 (51.5 %) were white and 282,775 (48.5 %) were persons of color, the latter including people of primarily African heritage, mulattos and mestizos. The majority of the population in Puerto Rico was illiterate (83.7 %) and lived in poverty, and the agricultural industry -- at the time, the main source of income -- was hampered by lack of road infrastructure, adequate tools and equipment, and natural disasters, including hurricanes and droughts. The economy also suffered from increasing tariffs and taxes imposed by the Spanish Crown. Furthermore, Spain had begun to exile or jail any person who called for liberal reforms. The Spanish -- American War broke out in 1898, in the aftermath of the explosion of USS Maine in Havana harbor. The U.S. defeated Spain by the end of the year, and won control of Puerto Rico in the ensuing peace treaty. In the Foraker Act of 1900, the U.S. Congress established Puerto Rico 's status as an unincorporated territory.
New France was the vast area centered on the Saint Lawrence river, Great Lakes, Mississippi River and other major tributary rivers that was explored and claimed by France starting in the early 17th century. It was composed of several colonies: Acadia, Canada, Newfoundland, Louisiana, Île - Royale (present - day Cape Breton Island), and Île Saint Jean (present - day Prince Edward Island). These colonies came under British or Spanish control after the French and Indian War, though France briefly re-acquired a portion of Louisiana in 1800. The United States would gain much of New France in the 1783 Treaty of Paris, and the U.S. would acquire another portion of French territory with the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. The remainder of New France became part of Canada, with the exception of the French island of Saint Pierre and Miquelon.
By 1660, French fur trappers, missionaries and military detachments based in Montreal pushed west along the Great Lakes upriver into the Pays d'en Haut and founded outposts at Green Bay, Fort de Buade and Saint Ignace (both at Michilimackinac), Sault Sainte Marie, Vincennes, and Detroit in 1701. During the French and Indian War (1754 -- 1763) many of these settlements became occupied by the British. By 1773, the population of Detroit was 1,400. At the end of the War for Independence in 1783, the region south of the Great Lakes formally became part of the United States.
The Illinois country by 1752 had a French population of 2,500; it was located to the west of the Ohio Country and was concentrated around Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Sainte Genevieve. According to one scholar, "The Illinois Habitant was a gay soul; he seemed shockingly carefree to later, self - righteous Puritans from the American colonies. ''
French claims to French Louisiana stretched thousands of miles from modern Louisiana north to the largely unexplored Midwest, and west to the Rocky Mountains. It was generally divided into Upper and Lower Louisiana. This vast tract was first settled at Mobile and Biloxi around 1700, and continued to grow when 7,000 French immigrants founded New Orleans in 1718. Settlement proceeded very slowly; New Orleans became an important port as the gateway to the Mississippi River, but there was little other economic development because the city lacked a prosperous hinterland.
In 1763, Louisiana was ceded to Spain around New Orleans and west of the Mississippi River. In the 1780s, the western border of the newly independent United States stretched to the Mississippi River. The United States reached an agreement with Spain for navigation rights on the river and was content to let the "feeble '' colonial power stay in control of the area. The situation changed when Napoleon forced Spain to return Louisiana to France in 1802 and threatened to close the river to American vessels. Alarmed, the United States offered to buy New Orleans.
Napoleon needed funds to wage another war with Great Britain, and he doubted that France could defend such a huge and distant territory. He therefore offered to sell all of Louisiana for $15 million. The United States completed the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, doubling the size of the nation.
Nieuw - Nederland, or New Netherland, was a colonial province of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands chartered in 1614, in what became New York State, New Jersey, and parts of other neighboring states. The peak population was less than 10,000. The Dutch established a patroon system with feudal - like rights given to a few powerful landholders; they also established religious tolerance and free trade. The colony 's capital of New Amsterdam was founded in 1625 and located at the southern tip of the island of Manhattan, which grew to become a major world city.
The city was captured by the English in 1664; they took complete control of the colony in 1674 and renamed it New York. However the Dutch landholdings remained, and the Hudson River Valley maintained a traditional Dutch character until the 1820s. Traces of Dutch influence remain in present - day northern New Jersey and southeastern New York State, such as homes, family surnames, and the names of roads and whole towns.
New Sweden (Swedish: Nya Sverige) was a Swedish colony that existed along the Delaware River Valley from 1638 to 1655 and encompassed land in present - day Delaware, southern New Jersey, and southeastern Pennsylvania. The several hundred settlers were centered around the capital of Fort Christina, at the location of what is today the city of Wilmington, Delaware. The colony also had settlements near the present - day location of Salem, New Jersey (Fort Nya Elfsborg) and on Tinicum Island, Pennsylvania. The colony was captured by the Dutch in 1655 and merged into New Netherland, with most of the colonists remaining. Years later, the entire New Netherland colony was incorporated into England 's colonial holdings.
The colony of New Sweden introduced Lutheranism to America in the form of some of the continent 's oldest European churches. The colonists also introduced the log cabin to America, and numerous rivers, towns, and families in the lower Delaware River Valley region derive their names from the Swedes. The Nothnagle Log House in present - day Gibbstown, New Jersey was constructed in the late 1630s during the time of the New Sweden colony. It remains the oldest European - built house in New Jersey and is believed to be one of the oldest surviving log houses in the United States.
Russia explored the area that became Alaska, starting with the Second Kamchatka expedition in the 1730s and early 1740s. Their first settlement was founded in 1784 by Grigory Shelikhov. The Russian - American Company was formed in 1799 with the influence of Nikolay Rezanov, for the purpose of buying sea otters for their fur from native hunters. In 1867, the U.S. purchased Alaska, and nearly all Russians abandoned the area except a few missionaries of the Russian Orthodox Church working among the natives.
England made its first successful efforts at the start of the 17th century for several reasons. During this era, English proto - nationalism and national assertiveness blossomed under the threat of Spanish invasion, assisted by a degree of Protestant militarism and the energy of Queen Elizabeth. At this time, however, there was no official attempt by the English government to create a colonial empire. Rather, the motivation behind the founding of colonies was piecemeal and variable. Practical considerations played their parts, such as commercial enterprise, over-crowding, and the desire for freedom of religion. The main waves of settlement came in the 17th century. After 1700, most immigrants to Colonial America arrived as indentured servants, young unmarried men and women seeking a new life in a much richer environment. The consensus view among economic historians and economists is that the indentured servitude occurred largely as "an institutional response to a capital market imperfection, '' but that it "enabled prospective migrants to borrow against their future earnings in order to pay the high cost of passage to America. '' Between the late 1610s and the American Revolution, the British shipped an estimated 50,000 to 120,000 convicts to its American colonies.
Dr. Alexander Hamilton (1712 -- 1756) was a Scottish - born doctor and writer who lived and worked in Annapolis, Maryland. Leo Lemay says that his 1744 travel diary Gentleman 's Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Alexander Hamilton is "the best single portrait of men and manners, of rural and urban life, of the wide range of society and scenery in colonial America. '' His diary has been widely used by scholars, and covers his travels from Maryland to Maine. Biographer Elaine Breslaw says that he encountered:
The first successful English colony was Jamestown, established May 14, 1607 near Chesapeake Bay. The business venture was financed and coordinated by the London Virginia Company, a joint stock company looking for gold. Its first years were extremely difficult, with very high death rates from disease and starvation, wars with local Indians, and little gold. The colony survived and flourished by turning to tobacco as a cash crop. By the late 17th century, Virginia 's export economy was largely based on tobacco, and new, richer settlers came in to take up large portions of land, build large plantations and import indentured servants and slaves. In 1676, Bacon 's Rebellion occurred, but was suppressed by royal officials. After Bacon 's Rebellion, African slaves rapidly replaced indentured servants as Virginia 's main labor force.
The colonial assembly shared power with a royally appointed governor. On a more local level, governmental power was invested in county courts, which were self - perpetuating (the incumbents filled any vacancies and there never were popular elections). As cash crop producers, Chesapeake plantations were heavily dependent on trade with England. With easy navigation by river, there were few towns and no cities; planters shipped directly to Britain. High death rates and a very young population profile characterized the colony during its first years.
Randall Miller points out that "America had no titled aristocracy... although one aristocrat, Lord Thomas Fairfax, did take up residence in Virginia in 1734. '' Lord Fairfax (1693 - 1781) was a Scottish baron who came to America permanently to oversee his family 's vast land holdings. Historian Arthur Schlesinger says that he "was unique among the permanent comers in bearing so high a rank as baron. '' He was a patron of George Washington and was not disturbed during the war.
The Pilgrims were a small group of Puritan separatists who felt that they needed to physically distance themselves themselves from the Church of England. They initially moved to the Netherlands, then decided to re-establish themselves in America. The initial Pilgrim settlers sailed to North America in 1620 on the Mayflower. Upon their arrival, they drew up the Mayflower Compact, by which they bound themselves together as a united community, thus establishing the small Plymouth Colony. William Bradford was their main leader. After its founding, other settlers traveled from England to join the colony.
The non-separatist Puritans constituted a much larger group than the Pilgrims, and they established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 with 400 settlers. They sought to reform the Church of England by creating a new, pure church in the New World. By 1640, 20,000 had arrived; many died soon after arrival, but the others found a healthy climate and an ample food supply. The Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies together spawned other Puritan colonies in New England, including the New Haven, Saybrook, and Connecticut colonies. During the 17th century, the New Haven and Saybrook colonies were absorbed by Connecticut.
The Puritans created a deeply religious, socially tight - knit, and politically innovative culture that still influences the modern United States. They hoped that this new land would serve as a "redeemer nation ''. They fled England and attempted to create a "nation of saints '' or a "City upon a Hill '' in America: an intensely religious, thoroughly righteous community designed to be an example for all of Europe.
Economically, Puritan New England fulfilled the expectations of its founders. The Puritan economy was based on the efforts of self - supporting farmsteads that traded only for goods which they could not produce themselves, unlike the cash crop - oriented plantations of the Chesapeake region. There was a generally higher economic standing and standard of living in New England than in the Chesapeake. New England became an important mercantile and shipbuilding center, along with agriculture, fishing, and logging, serving as the hub for trading between the southern colonies and Europe.
Providence Plantation was founded in 1636 by Roger Williams on land provided by Narragansett sachem Canonicus. Williams was a Puritan who preached religious tolerance, separation of Church and State, and a complete break with the Church of England. He was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony over theological disagreements, and he and other settlers founded Providence Plantation based on an egalitarian constitution providing for majority rule "in civil things '' and "liberty of conscience '' in religious matters. In 1637, a second group including Anne Hutchinson established a second settlement on Aquidneck Island, also known as Rhode Island.
Other colonists settled to the north, mingling with adventurers and profit - oriented settlers to establish more religiously diverse colonies in New Hampshire and Maine. These small settlements were absorbed by Massachusetts when it made significant land claims in the 1640s and 1650s, but New Hampshire was eventually given a separate charter in 1679. Maine remained a part of Massachusetts until achieving statehood in 1820.
Under King James II of England, the New England colonies, New York, and the Jerseys were briefly united as the Dominion of New England (1686 -- 89). The administration was eventually led by Governor Sir Edmund Andros and seized colonial charters, revoked land titles, and ruled without local assemblies, causing anger among the population. The 1689 Boston revolt was inspired by England 's Glorious Revolution against James II and led to the arrest of Andros, Boston Anglicans, and senior dominion officials by the Massachusetts militia. Andros was jailed for several months, then returned to England. The Dominion of New England was dissolved and governments resumed under their earlier charters.
However, the Massachusetts charter had been revoked in 1684, and a new one was issued in 1691 that combined Massachusetts and Plymouth into the Province of Massachusetts Bay. King William III sought to unite the New England colonies militarily by appointing the Earl of Bellomont to three simultaneous governorships and military command over Connecticut and Rhode Island. However, these attempts failed at unified control.
The Middle Colonies consisted of the present - day states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware and were characterized by a large degree of diversity -- religious, political, economic, and ethnic.
The Dutch colony of New Netherland was taken over by the British and renamed New York. However, large numbers of Dutch remained in the colony, dominating the rural areas between New York City and Albany. Meanwhile, Yankees from New England started moving in, as did immigrants from Germany. New York City attracted a large polyglot population, including a large black slave population.
New Jersey began as a division of New York, and was divided into the proprietary colonies of East and West Jersey for a time.
Pennsylvania was founded in 1681 as a proprietary colony of Quaker William Penn. The main population elements included Quaker population based in Philadelphia, a Scotch Irish population on the Western frontier, and numerous German colonies in between. Philadelphia became the largest city in the colonies with its central location, excellent port, and a population of about 30,000.
By the mid-18th century, Pennsylvania was basically a middle - class colony with limited deference to the small upper - class. A writer in the Pennsylvania Journal summed it up in 1756:
The predominant culture of the South was rooted in the settlement of the region by British colonists. In the seventeenth century, most voluntary immigrants were of English origins who settled chiefly along the coastal regions of the Eastern seaboard. The majority of early British settlers were indentured servants, who gained freedom after enough work to pay off their passage. The wealthier men who paid their way received land grants known as headrights, to encourage settlement.
The French and Spanish established colonies in Florida, Louisiana, and Texas. The Spanish colonized Florida in the 16th century, with their communities reaching a peak in the late 17th century. In the British and French colonies, most immigrants arrived after 1700. They cleared land, built houses and outbuildings, and worked on the large plantations that dominated export agriculture. Many were involved in the labor - intensive cultivation of tobacco, the first cash crop of Virginia. With a decrease in the number of British willing to go to the colonies in the eighteenth century, planters began importing more enslaved Africans, who became the predominant labor force on the plantations. Tobacco exhausted the soil quickly, requiring new fields to be cleared on a regular basis. Old fields were used as pasture and for crops such as corn and wheat, or allowed to grow into woodlots.
Also in the seventeenth century, colonists started importing African laborers. In the coastal and other settlements, early workers lived closely together in a multiracial society. Europeans married and made unions with Africans and Native Americans. The colonies gradually passed laws that hardened early conditions of indenture into lifelong racial slavery attached to African descent. Africans contributed to the economy of rice and indigo cultivation with their skilled knowledge, technology and labor, as well as to all the commodity crops; and to every aspect of culture (food, music, stories and religion).
Rice cultivation in South Carolina became another major commodity crop. Some historians have argued that slaves from the lowlands of western Africa, where rice was a basic crop, provided key skills, knowledge and technology for irrigation and construction of earthworks to support rice cultivation. The early methods and tools used in South Carolina were congruent with those in Africa. British immigrants would have had little or no familiarity with the complex process of growing rice in fields flooded by irrigation works. Africans were instrumental in the development of major earthworks for cultivating these commodities, as well as in the knowledge of technology and techniques for processing. The earthworks included extensive, elaborate systems of dams and irrigation for rice.
In the mid - to late - 18th century, large groups of Scots and Ulster - Scots (later called the Scots - Irish) immigrated and settled in the back country of Appalachia and the Piedmont. They were the largest group of immigrants from the British Isles before the American Revolution. In a census taken in 2000 of Americans and their self - reported ancestries, areas where people reported ' American ' ancestry were the places where, historically, many Scottish, Scotch - Irish and English Borderer Protestants settled in America: the interior as well as some of the coastal areas of the South, and especially the Appalachian region. The population with some Scots and Scots - Irish ancestry may number 47 million, as most people have multiple heritages, some of which they may not know.
The early colonists, especially the Scots - Irish in the back - country, engaged in warfare, trade, and cultural exchanges. Those living in the backcountry were more likely to join with Creek Indians, Cherokee, and Choctaws and other regional native groups.
The oldest university in the South, The College of William & Mary, was founded in 1693 in Virginia; it pioneered in the teaching of political economy and educated future U.S. Presidents Jefferson, Monroe and Tyler, all from Virginia. Indeed, the entire region dominated politics in the First Party System era: for example, four of the first five Presidents -- Washington, Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe -- were from Virginia. The two oldest public universities are also in the South: the University of North Carolina (1795) and the University of Georgia (1785).
The colonial South included the plantation colonies of the Chesapeake region (Virginia, Maryland, and, by some classifications, Delaware) and the lower South (Carolina, which eventually split into North and South Carolina; and Georgia).
The top five percent or so of the white population of Virginia and Maryland in the mid-18th century were planters who possessed growing wealth and increasing political power and social prestige. They controlled the local Anglican church, choosing ministers and handling church property and disbursing local charity. They sought election to the house of purchases or appointment as justice of the peace.
About 60 percent of white Virginians were part of a broad middle class that owned substantial farms. By the second generation, death rates from malaria and other local diseases had declined so much that a stable family structure was possible.
The bottom third owned no land and verged on poverty. Many were recent arrivals, recently released from indentured servitude. In some districts near present - day Washington DC, 70 percent of the land was owned by a handful of families, and three fourths of the whites had no land at all. Large numbers of Irish and German Protestants had settled in the frontier districts, often moving down from Pennsylvania. Tobacco was not important here; farmers focused on hemp, grain, cattle, and horses. Entrepreneurs had begun to mine and smelt the local iron ores.
Sports occupied a great deal of attention at every social level, starting at the top. In England, hunting was sharply restricted to landowners and enforced by armed gameskeepers. In America, game was more than plentiful. Everyone could and did hunt, including servants and slaves. Poor men with good rifle skills won praise; rich gentlemen who were off target won ridicule. In 1691, governor Sir Francis Nicholson organized competitions for the "better sort of Virginians onely who are Batchelors, '' and he offered prizes "to be shot for, wrastled, played at backswords, & Run for by Horse and foott. ''
Horse racing was the main event. The typical farmer did not own a horse in the first place, and racing was a matter for gentlemen only, but ordinary farmers were spectators and gamblers. Selected slaves often became skilled horse trainers. Horse racing was especially important for knitting together the gentry. The race was a major public event designed to demonstrate to the world the superior social status of the gentry through expensive breeding, training, boasting, and gambling, and especially winning the races themselves. Historian Timothy Breen explains that horse racing and high - stakes gambling were essential to maintaining the status of the gentry. When they publicly bet a large sum on their favorite horse, it told the world that competitiveness, individualism, and materialism where the core elements of gentry values.
Historian Edmund Morgan (1975) argues that Virginians in the 1650s and for the next two centuries turned to slavery and a racial divide as an alternative to class conflict. "Racism made it possible for white Virginians to develop a devotion to the equality that English republicans had declared to be the soul of liberty. '' That is, white men became politically much more equal than was possible without a population of low - status slaves.
By 1700, the Virginia population reached 70,000 and continued to grow rapidly from a high birth rate, low death rate, importation of slaves from the Caribbean, and immigration from Britain, Germany, and Pennsylvania. The climate was mild; the farm lands were cheap and fertile.
The Province of Carolina was the first attempted English settlement south of Virginia. It was a private venture, financed by a group of English Lords Proprietors who obtained a Royal Charter to the Carolinas in 1663, hoping that a new colony in the south would become profitable like Jamestown. Carolina was not settled until 1670, and even then the first attempt failed because there was no incentive for emigration to that area. Eventually, however, the Lords combined their remaining capital and financed a settlement mission to the area led by Sir John Colleton. The expedition located fertile and defensible ground at what became Charleston, originally Charles Town for Charles II of England. The original settlers in South Carolina established a lucrative trade in food for the slave plantations in the Caribbean. The settlers came mainly from the English colony of Barbados and brought African slaves with them. Barbados was a wealthy sugarcane plantation island, one of the early English colonies to use large numbers of Africans in plantation - style agriculture. The cultivation of rice was introduced during the 1690s and became an important export crop.
At first, South Carolina was politically divided. Its ethnic makeup included the original settlers (a group of rich, slave - owning English settlers from the island of Barbados) and Huguenots, a French - speaking community of Protestants. Nearly continuous frontier warfare during the era of King William 's War and Queen Anne 's War drove economic and political wedges between merchants and planters. The disaster of the 1715 Yamasee War threatened the colony 's viability and set off a decade of political turmoil. By 1729, the proprietary government had collapsed, and the Proprietors sold both colonies back to the British crown.
North Carolina had the smallest upper - class. The richest 10 percent owned about 40 percent of all land, compared to 50 to 60 percent in neighboring Virginia and South Carolina. There were no cities of any size and very few towns, so there was scarcely an urban middle class at all. Heavily rural North Carolina was dominated by subsistence farmers with small operations. In addition, one fourth of the whites had no land at all.
British Member of Parliament James Oglethorpe established the Georgia Colony in 1733 as a solution to two problems. At that time, tension was high between Spain and Great Britain, and the British feared that Spanish Florida was threatening the British Carolinas. Oglethorpe decided to establish a colony in the contested border region of Georgia and to populate it with debtors who would otherwise have been imprisoned according to standard British practice. This plan would both rid Great Britain of its undesirable elements and provide her with a base from which to attack Florida. The first colonists arrived in 1733.
Georgia was established on strict moralistic principles. Slavery was officially forbidden, as were alcohol and other forms of immorality. However, the reality of the colony was far different. The colonists rejected a moralistic lifestyle and complained that their colony could not compete economically with the Carolina rice plantations. Georgia initially failed to prosper, but eventually the restrictions were lifted, slavery was allowed, and it became as prosperous as the Carolinas. The colony of Georgia never had an established religion; it consisted of people of various faiths.
Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain in 1763, which established the colonies of East and West Florida. The Floridas remained loyal to Great Britain during the American Revolution. They were returned to Spain in 1783 in exchange for the Bahamas, at which time most of the British left. The Spanish then neglected the Floridas; few Spaniards lived there when the US bought the area in 1819.
Efforts began as early as the 1640s toward a common defense of the colonies, principally against shared threats from Indians, the French, and the Dutch. The Puritan colonies of New England formed a confederation to coordinate military and judicial matters. From the 1670s, several royal governors attempted to find means of coordinating defensive and offensive military matters, notably Sir Edmund Andros (who governed New York, New England, and Virginia at various times) and Francis Nicholson (governed Maryland, Virginia, Nova Scotia, and Carolina). After King Phillips War, Andros successfully negotiated the Covenant Chain, a series of Indian treaties that brought relative calm to the frontiers of the middle colonies for many years.
The northern colonies experienced numerous assaults from the Wabanaki Confederacy and the French from Acadia during the four French and Indian Wars, particularly present - day Maine and New Hampshire, as well as Father Rale 's War and Father Le Loutre 's War.
One event that reminded colonists of their shared identity as British subjects was the War of the Austrian Succession (1740 -- 1748) in Europe. This conflict spilled over into the colonies, where it was known as "King George 's War ''. The major battles took place in Europe, but American colonial troops fought the French and their Indian allies in New York, New England, and Nova Scotia with the Siege of Louisbourg (1745).
At the Albany Congress of 1754, Benjamin Franklin proposed that the colonies be united by a Grand Council overseeing a common policy for defense, expansion, and Indian affairs. The plan was thwarted by colonial legislatures and King George II, but it was an early indication that the British colonies of North America were headed towards unification.
The French and Indian War (1754 -- 1763) was the American extension of the general European conflict known as the Seven Years ' War. Previous colonial wars in North America had started in Europe and then spread to the colonies, but the French and Indian War is notable for having started in North America and spread to Europe. One of the primary causes of the war was increasing competition between Britain and France, especially in the Great Lakes and Ohio valley.
The French and Indian War took on a new significance for the British North American colonists when William Pitt the Elder decided that major military resources needed to be devoted to North America in order to win the war against France. For the first time, the continent became one of the main theaters of what could be termed a "world war ''. During the war, the position of the British colonies as part of the British Empire was made truly apparent, as British military and civilian officials took on an increased presence in the lives of Americans.
The war also increased a sense of American unity in other ways. It caused men to travel across the continent who might otherwise have never left their own colony, fighting alongside men from decidedly different backgrounds who were nonetheless still "American ''. Throughout the course of the war, British officers trained American ones for battle, most notably George Washington, which benefitted the American cause during the Revolution. Also, colonial legislatures and officials had to cooperate intensively, for the first time, in pursuit of the continent - wide military effort. The relations between the British military establishment and the colonists were not always positive, setting the stage for later distrust and dislike of British troops.
In the Treaty of Paris (1763), France formally ceded to Britain the eastern part of its vast North American empire, having secretly given to Spain the territory of Louisiana west of the Mississippi River the previous year. Before the war, Britain held the thirteen American colonies, most of present - day Nova Scotia, and most of the Hudson Bay watershed. Following the war, Britain gained all French territory east of the Mississippi River, including Quebec, the Great Lakes, and the Ohio River valley. Britain also gained Spanish Florida, from which it formed the colonies of East and West Florida. In removing a major foreign threat to the thirteen colonies, the war also largely removed the colonists ' need of colonial protection.
The British and colonists triumphed jointly over a common foe. The colonists ' loyalty to the mother country was stronger than ever before. However, disunity was beginning to form. British Prime Minister William Pitt the Elder had decided to wage the war in the colonies with the use of troops from the colonies and tax funds from Britain itself. This was a successful wartime strategy but, after the war was over, each side believed that it had borne a greater burden than the other. The British elite, the most heavily taxed of any in Europe, pointed out angrily that the colonists paid little to the royal coffers. The colonists replied that their sons had fought and died in a war that served European interests more than their own. This dispute was a link in the chain of events that soon brought about the American Revolution.
The colonies were very different from one another but they were still a part of the British Empire in more than just name. Socially, the colonial elite of Boston, New York, Charleston, and Philadelphia saw their identity as British. Many had never been to Britain, yet they imitated British styles of dress, dance, and etiquette. This social upper echelon built its mansions in the Georgian style, copied the furniture designs of Thomas Chippendale, and participated in the intellectual currents of Europe, such as the Enlightenment. The seaport cities of colonial America were truly British cities in the eyes of many inhabitants.
Many of the political structures of the colonies drew upon the republicanism expressed by opposition leaders in Britain, most notably the Commonwealth men and the Whig traditions. Many Americans at the time saw the colonies ' systems of governance as modeled after the British constitution of the time, with the king corresponding to the governor, the House of Commons to the colonial assembly, and the House of Lords to the governor 's council. The codes of law of the colonies were often drawn directly from English law; indeed, English common law survives not only in Canada, but also throughout the United States. Eventually, it was a dispute over the meaning of some of these political ideals (especially political representation) and republicanism that led to the American Revolution.
Another point on which the colonies found themselves more similar than different was the booming import of British goods. The British economy had begun to grow rapidly at the end of the 17th century and, by the mid-18th century, small factories in Britain were producing much more than the nation could consume. Britain found a market for their goods in the British colonies of North America, increasing her exports to that region by 360 % between 1740 and 1770. British merchants offered credit to their customers; this allowed Americans to buy a large amount of British goods. From Nova Scotia to Georgia, all British subjects bought similar products, creating and anglicizing a sort of common identity.
In recent years, historians have enlarged their perspective to cover the entire Atlantic world in a subfield now known as Atlantic history. Of special interest are such themes as international migration, trade, colonization, comparative military and governmental institutions, the transmission of religions and missionary work, and the slave trade. It was the Age of the Enlightenment, and ideas flowed back and forth across the Atlantic, with Philadelphian Benjamin Franklin playing a major role.
Francois Furstenberg (2008) offers a different perspective on the historical period. He suggests that warfare was critical among the major imperial players: Britain, the American colonies, Spain, France, and the First Nations (Indians). They fought a series of conflicts from 1754 to 1815 that Furstenberg calls a "Long War for the West '' over control of the region.
Women played a role in the emergence of the capitalist economy in the Atlantic world. The types of local commercial exchange in which they participated independently were well integrated with the trade networks between colonial merchants throughout the Atlantic region, especially markets in dairy and produce commodities. For example, local women merchants were important suppliers of foodstuffs to transatlantic shipping concerns.
In the colonial era, Americans insisted on their rights as Englishmen to have their own legislature raise all taxes. Tax loads in practice were very light and far lower than in England. Beginning in 1765, the British Parliament asserted its supreme authority to lay taxes, and a series of American protests began that led directly to the American Revolution. The first wave of protests attacked the Stamp Act of 1765, and marked the first time that Americans met together from each of the 13 colonies and planned a common front against British taxation. The Boston Tea Party of 1773 dumped British tea into Boston Harbor because it contained a hidden tax that Americans refused to pay. The British responded by trying to crush traditional liberties in Massachusetts, leading to the American revolution starting in 1775.
The idea of independence steadily became more widespread, after being first proposed and advocated by a number of public figures and commentators throughout the Colonies. One of the most prominent voices on behalf of independence was Thomas Paine in his pamphlet Common Sense published in 1776. Another group which called for independence was the Sons of Liberty, which had been founded in 1765 in Boston by Samuel Adams and which was now becoming even more strident and numerous.
The Parliament attempted a series of taxes and punishments which met more and more resistance: First Quartering Act (1765); Declaratory Act (1766); Townshend Revenue Act (1767); and Tea Act (1773). In response to the Boston Tea Party, Parliament passed the Intolerable Acts: Second Quartering Act (1774); Quebec Act (1774); Massachusetts Government Act (1774); Administration of Justice Act (1774); Boston Port Act (1774); Prohibitory Act (1775). By this point, the 13 colonies had organized themselves into the Continental Congress and began setting up shadow governments and drilling their militia in preparation for war.
In the British colonies, the three forms of government were provincial (royal colony), proprietary, and charter. These governments were all subordinate to the King of England, with no explicit relationship with the British (Parliament of Great Britain Parliament)). Beginning late in the 17th century, the administration of all British colonies was overseen by the Board of Trade in London. Each colony had a paid colonial agent in London to represent its interests.
New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and eventually Massachusetts were crown colonies. The provincial colony was governed by commissions created at pleasure of the king. A governor and (in some provinces) his council were appointed by the crown. The governor was invested with general executive powers and authorized to call a locally elected assembly. The governor 's council would sit as an upper house when the assembly was in session, in addition to its role in advising the governor. Assemblies were made up of representatives elected by the freeholders and planters (landowners) of the province. The governor had the power of absolute veto and could prorogue (i.e., delay) and dissolve the assembly. The assembly 's role was to make all local laws and ordinances, ensuring that they were not inconsistent with the laws of England. In practice, this did not always occur, since many of the provincial assemblies sought to expand their powers and limit those of the governor and crown. Laws could be examined by the British Privy Council or Board of Trade, which also held veto power of legislation.
Pennsylvania (which included Delaware), New Jersey, and Maryland were proprietary colonies. They were governed much as royal colonies except that lord proprietors, rather than the king, appointed the governor. They were set up after the Restoration of 1660 and typically enjoyed greater civil and religious liberty.
Massachusetts, Providence Plantation, Rhode Island, Warwick, and Connecticut were charter colonies. The Massachusetts charter was revoked in 1684 and was replaced by a provincial charter that was issued in 1691. Charter governments were political corporations created by letters patent, giving the grantees control of the land and the powers of legislative government. The charters provided a fundamental constitution and divided powers among legislative, executive, and judicial functions, with those powers being vested in officials.
The primary political cultures of the United States had their origins in the colonial period. Most theories of political culture identify New England, the Mid-Atlantic, and the South as having formed separate and distinct political cultures.
As Bonomi (1971) shows, the most distinctive feature of colonial society was the vibrant political culture, which attracted the most talented and ambitious young men into politics. First, suffrage was the most generous in the world, with every man allowed to vote who owned a certain amount of property. Fewer than one - percent of British men could vote, whereas a majority of American freemen were eligible. The roots of democracy were present, although deference was typically shown to social elites in colonial elections.
Second, a very wide range of public and private business was decided by elected bodies in the colonies, especially the assemblies and county governments in each colony. They handled land grants, commercial subsidies, and taxation, as well as oversight of roads, poor relief, taverns, and schools. Americans sued each other at a very high rate, with binding decisions made not by a great lord but by local judges and juries. This promoted the rapid expansion of the legal profession, so that the intense involvement of lawyers in politics became an American characteristic by the 1770s.
Third, the American colonies were exceptional in the world because of the representation of many different interest groups in political decision - making. The American political culture was open to economic, social, religious, ethnic, and geographical interests, with merchants, landlords, petty farmers, artisans, Anglicans, Presbyterians, Quakers, Germans, Scotch Irish, Yankees, Yorkers, and many other identifiable groups taking part. Elected representatives learned to listen to these interests because 90 % of the men in the lower houses lived in their districts, unlike England where it was common to have an absentee member of Parliament. All of this was very unlike Europe, where aristocratic families and the established church were in control.
Finally and most dramatically, the Americans were fascinated by and increasingly adopted the political values of Republicanism which stressed equal rights, the need for virtuous citizens, and the evils of corruption, luxury, and aristocracy. Republicanism provided the framework for colonial resistance to British schemes of taxation after 1763, which escalated into the Revolution.
None of the colonies had stable political parties of the sort that formed in the 1790s, but each had shifting factions that vied for power, especially in the perennial battles between the appointed governor and the elected assembly. There were often "country '' and "court '' factions, representing those opposed to the governor 's agenda and those in favor of it, respectively. Massachusetts had particularly low requirements for voting eligibility and strong rural representation in its assembly from its 1691 charter; consequently, it also had a strong populist faction that represented the province 's lower classes.
Up and down the colonies, non-English ethnic groups had clusters of settlements. The most numerous were the Scotch Irish and the Germans. Each group assimilated into the dominant English, Protestant, commercial, and political culture, albeit with local variations. They tended to vote in blocs, and politicians negotiated with group leaders for votes. They generally retained their historic languages and cultural traditions, even as they merged into the developing American culture.
Ethnocultural factors were most visible in Pennsylvania. During 1756 -- 76, the Quakers were the largest faction in the legislature, but they were losing their dominance to the growing Presbyterian faction based on Scotch - Irish votes, supported by Germans.
Mortality was very high for new arrivals, and high for children in the colonial era. Malaria was deadly to many new arrivals in the Southern colonies. For an example of newly arrived able - bodied young men, over one - fourth of the Anglican missionaries died within five years of their arrival in the Carolinas.
Mortality was high for infants and small children, especially from diphtheria, yellow fever, and malaria. Most sick people turned to local healers and used folk remedies. Others relied upon the minister - physicians, barber - surgeons, apothecaries, midwives, and ministers; a few used colonial physicians trained either in Britain or an apprenticeship in the colonies. There was little government control, regulation of medical care, or attention to public health. Colonial physicians introduced modern medicine to the cities in the 18th century, following the models in England and Scotland, and made some advances in vaccination, pathology, anatomy, and pharmacology.
The religious history of the United States began with the first Pilgrim settlers who came on the Mayflower in 1620. Their Puritan faith motivated their move from Europe. The Spanish set up a network of Catholic missions in California, but they had all closed decades before 1848 when California became part of the U.S. There were a few important French Catholic churches and institutions in New Orleans.
Most of the settlers came from Protestant backgrounds in England and Western Europe, with a small proportion of Catholics (chiefly in Maryland) and a few Jews in port cities. The English and the Germans brought along multiple Protestant denominations. Several colonies had an "established '' church, which meant that local tax money went to the established denomination. Freedom of religion became a basic American principle, and numerous new movements emerged, many of which became established denominations in their own right.
The Puritans of New England kept in close touch with nonconformists in England, as did the Quakers and the Methodists.
The Church of England (Anglican) was officially established in five Southern colonies, which meant that local taxes paid the salary of the clergy. The parish had civic responsibilities such as poor relief. The local gentry controlled the budget, rather than the clergy. The Crown never appointed a bishop in the American colonies because of resistance from other churches. Anglicans in America were under the authority of the Bishop of London. He sent out missionaries from England and ordained men from the Colonies to minister there in parishes.
Historians debate how influential Christianity was in the era of the American Revolution. Many of the founding fathers were active in a local church; some of them had Deist sentiments, such as Jefferson, Franklin, and Washington.
Catholics were few outside of Maryland; however, they played the Patriot role during the Revolution. Leaders such as George Washington strongly endorsed tolerance for them and indeed for all denominations.
The First Great Awakening was the nation 's first major religious revival, occurring in the middle of the 18th century, and it injected new vigor into Christian faith. It was a wave of religious enthusiasm among Protestants that swept the colonies in the 1730s and 1740s, leaving a permanent impact on American religion. Jonathan Edwards was a key leader and a powerful intellectual in colonial America. George Whitefield came over from England and made many converts.
The Great Awakening emphasized the traditional Reformed virtues of Godly preaching, rudimentary liturgy, and a deep awareness of personal sin and redemption by Christ Jesus, spurred on by powerful preaching that deeply affected listeners. Pulling away from ritual and ceremony, the Great Awakening made religion personal to the average person.
The Awakening had a major impact in reshaping the Congregational, Presbyterian, Dutch Reformed, and German Reformed denominations, and it strengthened the small Baptist and Methodist denominations. It brought Christianity to the slaves and was a powerful event in New England that challenged established authority. It incited rancor and division between the new revivalists and the old traditionalists who insisted on ritual and liturgy. The Awakening had little impact on Anglicans and Quakers.
The First Great Awakening focused on people who were already church members, unlike the Second Great Awakening that began around 1800 and reached out to the unchurched. It changed their rituals, their piety, and their self - awareness. The new style of sermons and the way that people practiced their faith breathed new life into religion in America. People became passionately and emotionally involved in their religion, rather than passively listening to intellectual discourse in a detached manner. Ministers who used this new style of preaching were generally called "new lights '', while the traditional - styled preachers were called "old lights ''.
People began to study the Bible at home, which effectively decentralized the means of informing the public on religious manners and was akin to the individualistic trends present in Europe during the Protestant Reformation.
The experiences of women varied greatly from colony to colony during the colonial era. In New England, the Puritan settlers brought their strong religious values with them to the New World, which dictated that a woman be submissive to her husband and dedicate herself to rearing God - fearing children to the best of her ability.
There were ethnic differences in the treatment of women. Among Puritan settlers in New England, wives almost never worked in the fields with their husbands. In German communities in Pennsylvania, however, many women worked in fields and stables. German and Dutch immigrants granted women more control over property, which was not permitted in the local English law. Unlike English colonial wives, German and Dutch wives owned their own clothes and other items and were also given the ability to write wills disposing of the property brought into the marriage.
By the mid-18th century, the values of the American Enlightenment became established and weakened the view that husbands were natural "rulers '' over their wives. There was a new sense of shared marriage. Legally, husbands took control of wives ' property when marrying. Divorce was almost impossible until the late eighteenth century.
Slaves imported to American colonies
About 600,000 slaves were imported into what is now the U.S., or 5 % of the 12 million slaves brought from Africa. The great majority went to sugarcane - growing colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil, where life expectancy was short and the numbers had to be continually replenished. Life expectancy was much greater in the North American colonies because of better food, less disease, lighter work loads, and better medical care, so the numbers grew rapidly by excesses of births over deaths, reaching 4 million by the 1860 Census. From 1770 until 1860, the rate of natural growth of North American slaves was much greater than for the population of any nation in Europe, and was nearly twice as rapid as that of England.
The Africans are commonly referred to as African slaves, although they were not considered slaves until they were officially purchased by a planter or plantation owner. Those who worked in the indigo, tobacco, and rice fields in the South came from mainly western and central Africa. Slavery in colonial America was very oppressive, as it passed from generation to generation, and slaves had no legal rights.
The colonies that had the most specialization in agricultural production, such as sugar and coffee, and relied the most upon slaves, had the highest per capita (including slaves) income in the New World. However, the slaves did not accrue wages or receive rights; they provided free labor to those who purchased them, receiving just enough to live. They were considered to be in chattel slavery.
In 1700, there were about 9,600 slaves in the Chesapeake region and a few hundred in the Carolinas. About 170,000 more Africans were forcibly brought over during the next five decades. By 1750, there were more than 250,000 slaves in British America, and they made up about 60 percent of the total population in the Carolinas.
In New England, the Puritans created self - governing communities of religious congregations of farmers (or yeomen) and their families. High - level politicians gave out plots of land to settlers (or proprietors) who then divided the land amongst themselves. Large portions were usually given to men of higher social standing, but every man who was n't indentured or criminally bonded had enough land to support a family. Every male citizen had a voice in the town meeting. The town meeting levied taxes, built roads, and elected officials who managed town affairs. The towns did not have courts; that was a function of the county, whose officials were appointed by the state government.
The Congregational Church which the Puritans founded was not automatically joined by all New England residents because of Puritan beliefs that God singled out specific people for salvation. Instead, membership was limited to those who could convincingly "test '' before members of the church that they had been saved. They were known as "the elect '' or "Saints. ''
A majority of New England residents were small farmers. A man had complete power over the property within these small farm families.
When married, an English woman gave up her maiden name. The role of wives was to raise and nurture healthy children and support their husbands. Most women carried out these duties. During the 18th century, couples usually married between the ages of 20 - 24, and 6 - 8 children were typical of a family, with three on average surviving to adulthood. Farm women provided most of the materials needed by the rest of the family by spinning yarn from wool and knitting sweaters and stockings, making candles and soap from ashes, and churning milk into butter.
Most New England parents tried to help their sons establish farms of their own. When sons married, fathers gave them gifts of land, livestock, or farming equipment; daughters received household goods, farm animals, or cash. Arranged marriages were very unusual; normally, children chose their own spouses from within a circle of suitable acquaintances who shared their race, religion, and social standing. Parents retained veto power over their children 's marriages.
New England farming families generally lived in wooden houses because of the abundance of trees. A typical New England farmhouse was one - and - a-half stories tall and had a strong frame (usually made of large square timbers) that was covered by wooden clapboard siding. A large chimney stood in the middle of the house that provided cooking facilities and warmth during the winter. One side of the ground floor contained a hall, a general - purpose room where the family worked and ate meals. Adjacent to the hall was the parlor, a room used to entertain guests that contained the family 's best furnishings and the parents ' bed. Children slept in a loft above, while the kitchen was either part of the hall or was located in a shed along the back of the house. Colonial families were large, and these small dwellings had much activity and there was little privacy.
By the middle of the 18th century, New England 's population had grown dramatically, going from about 100,000 people in 1700 to 250,000 in 1725 and 375,000 in 1750 thanks to high birth rates and relatively high overall life expectancy. (A 15 - year - old boy in 1700 could expect to live to about 63.) Colonists in Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island continued to subdivide their land between farmers; the farms became too small to support single families, and this threatened the New England ideal of a society of independent yeoman farmers.
Some farmers obtained land grants to create farms in undeveloped land in Massachusetts and Connecticut or bought plots of land from speculators in New Hampshire and what later became Vermont. Other farmers became agricultural innovators. They planted nutritious English grass such as red clover and timothy - grass, which provided more feed for livestock, and potatoes, which provided a high production rate that was an advantage for small farms. Families increased their productivity by exchanging goods and labor with each other. They lent livestock and grazing land to one another and worked together to spin yarn, sew quilts, and shuck corn. Migration, agricultural innovation, and economic cooperation were creative measures that preserved New England 's yeoman society until the 19th century.
By the mid-18th century in New England, shipbuilding was a staple, particularly as the North American wilderness offered a seemingly endless supply of timber. (By comparison, Europe 's forests had been depleted, and most timber had to be purchased from Scandinavia.) The British crown often turned to the inexpensive yet strongly built American ships. There was a shipyard at the mouth of almost every river in New England.
By 1750, a variety of artisans, shopkeepers, and merchants provided services to the growing farming population. Blacksmiths, wheelwrights, and furniture makers set up shops in rural villages. There they built and repaired goods needed by farm families. Stores were set up by traders selling English manufactures such as cloth, iron utensils, and window glass, as well as West Indian products such as sugar and molasses. The storekeepers of these shops sold their imported goods in exchange for crops and other local products, including roof shingles, potash, and barrel staves. These local goods were shipped to towns and cities all along the Atlantic Coast. Enterprising men set up stables and taverns along wagon roads to serve this transportation system.
These products were delivered to port towns such as Boston and Salem in Massachusetts, New Haven in Connecticut, and Newport and Providence in Rhode Island. Merchants then exported them to the West Indies, where they were traded for molasses, sugar, gold coins, and bills of exchange (credit slips). They carried the West Indian products to New England factories, where the raw sugar was turned into granulated sugar and the molasses distilled into rum. The gold and credit slips were sent to England where they were exchanged for manufactures, which were shipped back to the colonies and sold along with the sugar and rum to farmers.
Other New England merchants took advantage of the rich fishing areas along the Atlantic Coast and financed a large fishing fleet, transporting its catch of mackerel and cod to the West Indies and Europe. Some merchants exploited the vast amounts of timber along the coasts and rivers of northern New England. They funded sawmills that supplied cheap wood for houses and shipbuilding. Hundreds of New England shipwrights built oceangoing ships, which they sold to British and American merchants.
Many merchants became very wealthy by providing their goods to the agricultural population, and ended up dominating the society of sea port cities. Unlike yeoman farmhouses, these merchants lived in elegant 2 ⁄ - story houses designed in the new Georgian style, imitating the lifestyle of the upper class of England. These Georgian houses had a symmetrical façade with equal numbers of windows on both sides of the central door. The interior consisted of a passageway down the middle of the house with specialized rooms off the sides, such as a library, dining room, formal parlor, and master bedroom. Unlike the multi-purpose space of the yeoman houses, each of these rooms served a separate purpose. These houses contained bedrooms on the second floor that provided privacy to parents and children.
Education was primarily the responsibility of families, but numerous religious groups established tax - supported elementary schools, especially the Puritans in New England, so that their children could read the Bible. Nearly all the religious denominations set up their own schools and colleges to train ministers. Each city and most towns had private academies for the children of affluent families.
The practical sciences were of great interest to colonial Americans, who were engaged in the process of taming and settling a wild frontier country. The mainstream of intellectual activity in the colonies was on technological and engineering developments rather than more abstract topics such as politics or metaphysics. American scientific activity was pursued by such people as:
The arts in colonial America were not as successful as the sciences. Literature in the European sense was nearly nonexistent, with histories being far more noteworthy. These included The History and present State of Virginia (1705) by Robert Beverly and History of the Dividing Line (1728 -- 29) by William Byrd, which was not published until a century later. Instead, the newspaper was the principal form of reading material in the colonies. Printing was expensive, and most publications focused on purely practical matters, such as major news, advertisements, and business reports. Almanacs were very popular, also, Benjamin Franklin 's Poor Richard 's Almanac being the most famous. Literary magazines appeared at mid-century, but few were profitable and most went out of business after only a few years. American publications never approached the intellectual quality of European writers, but they were much more widespread and achieved a greater readership than anything produced by Voltaire, Locke, or Rousseau.
New Englanders wrote journals, pamphlets, books, and especially sermons -- more than all of the other colonies combined. Boston minister Cotton Mather published Magnalia Christi Americana (The Great Works of Christ in America, 1702), while revivalist Jonathan Edwards wrote his philosophical work A Careful and Strict Enquiry Into... Notions of... Freedom of Will... (1754). Most music had a religious theme, as well, and was mainly the singing of Psalms. Because of New England 's deep religious beliefs, artistic works that were insufficiently religious or too "worldly '' were banned, especially the theater. The leading theologian and philosopher of the colonial era was Jonathan Edwards of Massachusetts, an interpreter of Calvinism and the leader of the First Great Awakening.
Art and drama were somewhat more successful than literature. Benjamin West was a noteworthy painter of historical subjects, and two first - rate portrait painters emerged in John Copley and Gilbert Stuart, yet all three men spent much of their lives in London. Theater was more developed in the Southern colonies, especially South Carolina, but nowhere did stage works attain the level of Europe. Puritans in New England and Quakers in Pennsylvania opposed theatrical performances as immoral and ungodly.
Elementary education was widespread in New England. Early Puritan settlers believed that it was necessary to study the Bible, so children were taught to read at an early age. It was also required that each town pay for a primary school. About 10 percent enjoyed secondary schooling and funded grammar schools in larger towns. Most boys learned skills from their fathers on the farm or as apprentices to artisans. Few girls attended formal schools, but most were able to get some education at home or at so - called "Dame schools '' where women taught basic reading and writing skills in their own houses. By 1750, nearly 90 % of New England 's women and almost all of its men could read and write.
Puritans founded Harvard College in 1636 and Yale College in 1701. Later, Baptists founded Rhode Island College (now Brown University) in 1764 and Congregationalists established Dartmouth College in 1769. Virginia founded the College of William and Mary in 1693; it was primarily Anglican. The colleges were designed for aspiring ministers, lawyers, or doctors. There were no departments or majors, as every student shared the same curriculum, which focused on Latin and Greek, mathematics, and history, philosophy, logic, ethics, rhetoric, oratory, and a little basic science. There were no sports or fraternities and few extracurricular activities apart from literary societies. There were no separate seminaries, law schools, or divinity schools. The first medical schools were founded late in the colonial era in Philadelphia and New York.
Some emigrants who came to Colonial America were in search of religious freedom. London did not make the Church of England official in the colonies -- it never sent a bishop -- so religious practice became diverse.
The Great Awakening was a major religious revival movement that took place in most colonies in the 1730s and 1740s. The movement began with Jonathan Edwards, a Massachusetts preacher who sought to return to the Pilgrims ' Calvinist roots and to reawaken the "Fear of God. '' English preacher George Whitefield and other itinerant preachers continued the movement, traveling throughout the colonies and preaching in a dramatic and emotional style. Followers of Edwards and other preachers called themselves the "New Lights '', as contrasted with the "Old Lights '' who disapproved of their movement. To promote their viewpoints, the two sides established academies and colleges, including Princeton and Williams College. The Great Awakening has been called the first truly American event.
A similar pietistic revival movement took place among some German and Dutch settlers, leading to more divisions. By the 1770s, the Baptists were growing rapidly both in the north (where they founded Brown University) and in the South (where they challenged the previously unquestioned moral authority of the Anglican establishment).
Unlike New England, the Mid-Atlantic region gained much of its population from new immigration and, by 1750, the combined populations of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania had reached nearly 300,000 people. By 1750, about 60,000 Irish and 50,000 Germans came to live in British North America, many of them settling in the Mid-Atlantic Region. William Penn founded the colony of Pennsylvania in 1682, and attracted an influx of British Quakers with his policies of religious liberty and freehold ownership. ("Freehold '' meant owning land free and clear, with the right to resell it to anyone.) The first major influx of settlers were the Scotch Irish who headed to the frontier. Many Germans came to escape the religious conflicts and declining economic opportunities in Germany and Switzerland.
Thousands of poor German farmers, chiefly from the Palatine region of Germany, migrated to upstate districts after 1700. They kept to themselves, married their own, spoke German, attended Lutheran churches, and retained their own customs and foods. They emphasized farm ownership. Some mastered English to become conversant with local legal and business opportunities. They ignored the Indians and tolerated slavery (although few were rich enough to own a slave).
Much of the architecture of the Middle Colonies reflects the diversity of its people. In Albany and New York City, a majority of the buildings were Dutch style with brick exteriors and high gables at each end, while many Dutch churches were octagonal. German and Welsh settlers in Pennsylvania used cut stone to build their houses, following the way of their homeland and completely ignoring the plethora of timber in the area. An example of this would be Germantown, Pennsylvania where 80 percent of the buildings in the town were made entirely of stone. On the other hand, settlers from Ireland took advantage of America 's ample supply of timber and constructed sturdy log cabins.
Ethnic cultures also affected styles of furniture. Rural Quakers preferred simple designs in furnishings such as tables, chairs, and chests, and shunned elaborate decorations. However, some urban Quakers had much more elaborate furniture. The city of Philadelphia became a major center of furniture - making because of its massive wealth from Quaker and British merchants. Philadelphian cabinet makers built elegant desks and highboys. German artisans created intricate carved designs on their chests and other furniture, with painted scenes of flowers and birds. German potters also crafted a large array of jugs, pots, and plates of both elegant and traditional design.
By the time of the Revolutionary War, approximately 85 percent of white Americans were of English, Irish, Welsh, or Scottish descent. Approximately 8.8 percent of whites were of German ancestry, and 3.5 percent were of Dutch origin.
Ethnicity made a difference in agricultural practice. As an example, German farmers generally preferred oxen rather than horses to pull their plows and Scots - Irish made a farming economy based on hogs and corn. Eventually cows were brought with the horses. They were more useful than horses for many reasons. Almost all the farms had cows on their land. In Ireland, people farmed intensively, working small pieces of land trying to get the largest possible production - rate from their crops. In the American colonies, settlers from northern Ireland focused on mixed - farming. Using this technique, they grew corn for human consumption and as feed for hogs and other livestock. Many improvement - minded farmers of all different backgrounds began using new agricultural practices to raise their output. During the 1750s, these agricultural innovators replaced the hand sickles and scythes used to harvest hay, wheat, and barley with the cradle scythe, a tool with wooden fingers that arranged the stalks of grain for easy collection. This tool was able to triple the amount of work done by farmers in one day. Farmers also began fertilizing their fields with dung and lime and rotating their crops to keep the soil fertile. By 1700, Philadelphia was exporting 350,000 bushels of wheat and 18,000 tons of flour annually. The Southern colonies in particular relied on cash crops such as tobacco and cotton. South Carolina produced rice and indigo. North Carolina was somewhat less involved in the plantation economy, but because a major producer of naval stores. Virginia and Maryland came to be almost totally dependent on tobacco, which would ultimately prove fatal at the end of the 18th century thanks to exhausted soil and collapsing prices, but for most of the century, the soil remained good and a single - crop economy profitable.
Before 1720, most colonists in the mid-Atlantic region worked with small - scale farming and paid for imported manufactures by supplying the West Indies with corn and flour. In New York, a fur - pelt export trade to Europe flourished adding additional wealth to the region. After 1720, mid-Atlantic farming stimulated with the international demand for wheat. A massive population explosion in Europe brought wheat prices up. By 1770, a bushel of wheat cost twice as much as it did in 1720. Farmers also expanded their production of flax seed and corn since flax was a high demand in the Irish linen industry and a demand for corn existed in the West Indies. Thus, by mid-century, most colonial farming was a commercial venture, although subsistence agriculture continued to exist in New England and the middle colonies.
Some immigrants who just arrived purchased farms and shared in this export wealth, but many poor German and Irish immigrants were forced to work as agricultural wage laborers. Merchants and artisans also hired these homeless workers for a domestic system for the manufacture of cloth and other goods. Merchants often bought wool and flax from farmers and employed newly arrived immigrants, who had been textile workers in Ireland and Germany, to work in their homes spinning the materials into yarn and cloth. Large farmers and merchants became wealthy, while farmers with smaller farms and artisans only made enough for subsistence. The Mid-Atlantic region, by 1750, was divided by both ethnic background and wealth.
Seaports that expanded from wheat trade had more social classes than anywhere else in the Middle Colonies. By 1773, the population of Philadelphia had reached 40,000, New York 25,000, and Baltimore 6,000. Merchants dominated seaport society, and about 40 merchants controlled half of Philadelphia 's trade. Wealthy merchants in Philadelphia and New York, like their counterparts in New England, built elegant Georgian - style mansions.
Shopkeepers, artisans, shipwrights, butchers, coopers, seamstresses, cobblers, bakers, carpenters, masons, and many other specialized professions made up the middle class of seaport society. Wives and husbands often worked as a team and taught their children their crafts to pass it on through the family. Many of these artisans and traders made enough money to create a modest life.
Laborers stood at the bottom of seaport society. These poor people worked on the docks unloading inbound vessels and loading outbound vessels with wheat, corn, and flax seed. Many of these were African American; some were free, while others were enslaved. In 1750, blacks made up about 10 percent of the population of New York and Philadelphia. Hundreds of seamen worked as sailors on merchant ships, some of whom were African American.
The Southern colonies were mainly dominated by the wealthy planters in Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina. They owned increasingly large plantations that were worked by African slaves. Of the 650,000 inhabitants of the South in 1750, about 250,000 or 40 percent, were slaves. The plantations grew tobacco, indigo and rice for export, and raised most of their own food supplies. In addition, many small subsistence farms were family owned and operated by yeoman. Most white men owned some land, and therefore could vote.
Historians have paid special attention to the role of women, family, and gender in the colonial South since the social history revolution in the 1970s.
Very few women were present in the early Chesapeake colonies. In 1650, estimates put Maryland 's total population near six hundred, with fewer than two hundred women present. Much of the population consisted of young, single, white indentured servants and, as such, the colonies lacked social cohesiveness, to a large degree. African women entered the colony as early as 1619, although their status remains a historical debate -- free, slave, or indentured servant.
In the 17th century, high mortality rates for newcomers and a very high ratio of men to women made family life either impossible or unstable for most colonists. These factors made families and communities fundamentally different from their counterparts in Europe and New England in the Virginia - Maryland region before 1700, along with dispersed settlements and a reluctance to live in villages, together with a growing immigration of white indentured servants and black slaves. These extreme conditions both demeaned and empowered women.
Women were often vulnerable to exploitation and abuse, especially teenage girls who were indentured servants and lacking male protectors. On the other hand, young women had much more freedom in choosing spouses, without parental oversight, and the shortage of eligible women enabled them to use marriage as an avenue to upward mobility. The high death rates meant that Chesapeake wives generally became widows who inherited property; many widows increased their property by remarrying as soon as possible. The population began to stabilize around 1700, with a 1704 census listing 30,437 white people present with 7,163 of those being women. Women married younger, remained wed longer, bore more children, and lost influence within the family polity.
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when was the last power plant built in california | List of Power stations in California - wikipedia
This is a map of electricity - generating power stations in California, sorted by type and name.
* Located along aqueduct or tunnel
* Under construction
List of major solar photovoltaic power stations in California as of July 23, 2014.
List of current solar thermal power stations in California.
Nuclear Energy in California (CA.gov): http://www.energy.ca.gov/nuclear/california.html retrieved: 11 / 10 / 12
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where is the abandoned town in centralia pa | Centralia, Pennsylvania - wikipedia
Centralia is a borough and near - ghost town in Columbia County, Pennsylvania, United States. Its population has dwindled from more than 1,000 residents in 1980 to 63 by 1990, to only seven in 2013 -- a result of the coal mine fire which has been burning beneath the borough since 1962. Centralia, which is part of the Bloomsburg -- Berwick metropolitan area, is the least - populated municipality in Pennsylvania. It is completely surrounded by Conyngham Township.
All real estate in the borough was claimed under eminent domain in 1992 and therein condemned by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Centralia 's ZIP code was discontinued by the Postal Service in 2002. State and local officials reached an agreement with the seven remaining residents on October 29, 2013, allowing them to live out their lives there, after which the rights to their houses will be taken through eminent domain.
Many of the Native American tribes in what is now Columbia County sold the land that makes up Centralia to colonial agents in 1749 for the sum of five hundred pounds. In 1770, during the construction of the Reading Road, which stretched from Reading to Fort Augusta (present - day Sunbury), settlers surveyed and explored the land. A large portion of the Reading Road was developed later as Route 61, the main highway east into and south out of Centralia.
In 1793, Robert Morris, a hero of the Revolutionary War and a signatory of the Declaration of Independence, acquired a third of Centralia 's valley land. When he declared bankruptcy in 1798, the land was surrendered to the Bank of the United States. A French sea captain named Stephen Girard purchased Morris ' lands for $30,000, including 68 tracts east of Morris. ' He had learned that there was anthracite coal in the region.
The Centralia coal deposits were largely overlooked before the construction of the Mine Run Railroad in 1854. In 1832, Johnathan Faust opened the Bull 's Head Tavern in what was called Roaring Creek Township; this gave the town its first name, Bull 's Head. In 1842, Centralia 's land was bought by the Locust Mountain Coal and Iron Company. Alexander Rae, a mining engineer, moved his family in and began planning a village, laying out streets and lots for development. Rae named the town Centreville, but in 1865 changed it to Centralia because the U.S. Post Office already had a Centreville in Schuylkill County. The Mine Run Railroad was built in 1854 to transport coal out of the valley.
The first two mines in Centralia opened in 1856, the Locust Run Mine and the Coal Ridge Mine. Afterward came the Hazeldell Colliery Mine in 1860, the Centralia Mine in 1862, and the Continental Mine in 1863. The Continental was located on Stephen Girard 's former estate. Branching from the Lehigh Valley Railroad, the Lehigh and Mahanoy Railroad was constructed to Centralia in 1865; it enabled transport and expansion of Centralia 's coal sales to markets in eastern Pennsylvania.
Centralia was incorporated as a borough in 1866. Its principal employer was the anthracite coal industry. Alexander Rae, the town 's founder, was murdered in his buggy by members of the Molly Maguires on October 17, 1868, during a trip between Centralia and Mount Carmel. Three men were eventually convicted of his death and were hanged in the county seat of Bloomsburg, on March 25, 1878.
Several other murders and incidents of arson also took place during the violence, as Centralia was a hotbed of Molly Maguires activity during the 1860s to organize a mineworkers union in order to improve wages and working conditions. A legend among locals in Centralia tells that Father Daniel Ignatius McDermott, the first Roman Catholic priest to call Centralia home, cursed the land in retaliation for being assaulted by three members of the Maguires in 1869. McDermott said that there would be a day when St. Ignatius Roman Catholic Church would be the only structure remaining in Centralia. Many of the Molly Maguires ' leaders were hanged in 1877, ending their crimes. Legends say that a number of descendants of the Molly Maguires still lived in Centralia up until the 1980s.
According to numbers of Federal census records, the town of Centralia reached its maximum population of 2,761 in the year 1890. At its peak the town had seven churches, five hotels, twenty - seven saloons, two theaters, a bank, a post office, and 14 general and grocery stores. Thirty - seven years later the production of anthracite coal had reached its peak in Pennsylvania. In the following years, production declined, as many young miners from Centralia enlisted in the military when the US entered World War I.
In 1929 the crash of the stock market resulted in the Lehigh Valley Coal Company closing five of its Centralia - local mines. Bootleg miners continued mining in several idle mines, using techniques such as what was called "pillar - robbing, '' where miners would extract coal from coal pillars left in mines to support their roofs. This caused the collapse of many idle mines, further complicating the prevention of the mine fire in 1962. Efforts to seal off the abandoned mines ran into the collapsed areas.
In the year 1950, Centralia Council acquired the rights to all anthracite coal beneath Centralia through a state law passed in 1949 that enabled the transaction. That year, the federal census counted 1,986 residents in Centralia.
Coal mining continued in Centralia until the 1960s, when most of the companies shut down. Bootleg mining continued until 1982, and strip and open - pit mining are still active in the area. An underground mine about three miles to the west employs about 40 people.
Rail service ended in 1966. Centralia operated its own school district, including elementary schools and a high school. There were also two Catholic parochial schools. By 1980, it had 1,012 residents. Another 500 or 600 lived nearby.
Analysts disagree about the specific cause of the Centralia fire. Writer David Dekok concluded that it started with an attempt to clean up the town landfill. In May 1962, the Centralia Borough Council hired five members of the volunteer fire company to clean up the town landfill, located in an abandoned strip - mine pit next to the Odd Fellows Cemetery just outside the borough limits. This had been done prior to Memorial Day in previous years, when the landfill was in a different location.
On May 27, 1962, the firefighters, as they had in the past, set the dump on fire and let it burn for some time. Unlike in previous years, however, the fire was not fully extinguished. An unsealed opening in the pit allowed the fire to enter the labyrinth of abandoned coal mines beneath Centralia.
By contrast, Joan Quigley states in her book The Day the Earth Caved In (2007) that the fire had started the previous day, when a trash hauler dumped hot ash or coal discarded from coal burners into the open trash pit. She noted that borough council minutes from June 4, 1962 referred to two fires at the dump, and that five firefighters had submitted bills for "fighting the fire at the landfill area. '' The borough, by law, was responsible for installing a fire - resistant clay barrier between each layer of the landfill, but fell behind schedule, leaving the barrier incomplete. This allowed the hot coals to penetrate the vein of coal underneath the pit and start the subsequent subterranean fire.
According to a legend, the Bast Colliery coal fire of 1932 was never fully extinguished. In 1962, it reached the landfill area.
In 1979, locals became aware of the scale of the problem when a gas - station owner, then - mayor John Coddington, inserted a dipstick into one of his underground tanks to check the fuel level. When he withdrew it, it seemed hot. He lowered a thermometer into the tank on a string and was shocked to discover that the temperature of the gasoline in the tank was 172 ° F (77.8 ° C).
Statewide attention to the fire began to increase, culminating in 1981 when a 12 - year - old resident named Todd Domboski fell into a sinkhole, 4 feet (1.2 m) wide by 150 feet (46 m) deep, that suddenly opened beneath his feet in a backyard. His cousin, 14 - year - old Eric Wolfgang, pulled Domboski out of the hole and saved his life. The plume of hot steam billowing from the hole was tested and found to contain a lethal level of carbon monoxide.
Although there was physical, visible evidence of the fire, residents of Centralia were bitterly divided over the question of whether or not the fire posed a direct threat to the town. In The Real Disaster is Above Ground, Steve Kroll - Smith and Steve Couch identified at least six community groups, each organized around varying interpretations of the amount and kind of risk posed by the fire. In 1984, the Congress allocated more than $42 million for relocation efforts. Most of the residents accepted buyout offers and moved to the nearby communities of Mount Carmel and Ashland.
In 1992, Pennsylvania governor Bob Casey invoked eminent domain on all property in the borough, condemning all the buildings within. A subsequent legal effort by residents to overturn the action failed. In 2002, the U.S. Postal Service discontinued Centralia 's ZIP code, 17927. In 2009, Governor Ed Rendell began the formal eviction of the remaining Centralia residents.
The Centralia mine fire extended beneath the village of Byrnesville, a short distance to the south, and required it also to be abandoned.
Few homes remain standing in Centralia. Most of the abandoned buildings have been demolished by the Columbia County Redevelopment Authority or reclaimed by nature. At a casual glance, the area now appears to be a field with many paved streets running through it. Some areas are being filled with new - growth forest. The remaining church in the borough, St. Mary 's, holds weekly services on Sunday. It has not yet been directly affected by the fire. The town 's four cemeteries -- including one on the hilltop that has smoke rising around and out of it -- are maintained in good condition.
The only indications of the fire, which underlies some 400 acres (1.6 km) spreading along four fronts, are low round metal steam vents in the south of the borough. Several signs warn of underground fire, unstable ground, and dangerous levels of carbon monoxide. Additional smoke and steam can be seen coming from an abandoned portion of Pennsylvania Route 61, the area just behind the hilltop cemetery, and other cracks in the ground scattered about the area. Route 61 was repaired several times until it was closed.
The current route was formerly a detour around the damaged portion during the repairs and became a permanent route in 1993; mounds of dirt were placed at both ends of the former route, effectively blocking the road. Pedestrian traffic is still possible due to a small opening about two feet wide at the north side of the road. The underground fire is still burning and may continue to do so for 250 years. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania did not renew the relocation contract at the end of 2005.
The last remaining house on Locust Avenue was demolished in September 2007. It was notable for a period for the five chimney - like support buttresses along each of two opposite sides of the house. The house had formerly been supported by a row of adjacent buildings. Another house with similar buttresses was visible from the northern side of the cemetery, just north of the burning, partially subsumed hillside.
Residents John Comarnisky and John Lokitis, Jr. were evicted in May and July 2009, respectively. In May 2009, the remaining residents mounted another legal effort to reverse the 1992 eminent domain claim. In 2010, only five homes remain as state officials try to vacate the remaining residents and demolish what is left of the town. In March 2011, a federal judge refused to issue an injunction that would have stopped the condemnation.
The Borough Council still has regular meetings as of 2011. It was reported that the town 's highest bill at the meeting reported on came from PPL, a power utility, at $92 and the town 's budget was "in the black. ''
In February 2012, the Commonwealth Court ruled that a declaration of taking could not be re-opened or set aside on the basis that the purpose for the condemnation no longer exists; seven people, including the Borough Council president, had filed suit claiming the condemnation was no longer needed because the underground fire had moved and the air quality in the borough was the same as that in Lancaster. In October 2013, the remaining residents settled their lawsuit, receiving $218,000 in compensation for the value of their homes, along with $131,500 to settle additional claims, and the right to stay in their homes for the rest of their lives.
The town 's residents and former residents decided to open a time capsule buried in 1966 a few years earlier than planned after someone had attempted to unearth and steal the capsule in May 2014. The capsule was not scheduled to be opened until 2016. Items found in the footlocker - sized capsule, which had been inundated with about 12 inches (30 cm) of water, included a miner 's helmet, a miner 's lamp, some coal, a Bible, local souvenirs, and a pair of bloomers signed by the men of Centralia in 1966.
Several current and former Centralia residents believe the state 's eminent domain claim was a plot to gain the mineral rights to the anthracite coal beneath the borough. Residents have asserted its value to be in the hundreds of millions of dollars, although the exact amount of coal is not known.
This theory is based on the municipality laws of the state. According to state law, when the municipality can no longer form a functioning municipal government, i.e., when there are no longer any residents, the borough legally ceases to exist. At that point, the mineral rights, which are owned by the Borough of Centralia (they are not privately held) would revert to the ownership of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.
As of the census of 2000, there were 21 people, 10 households, and 7 families residing in the borough. The population density was 87.5 people per square mile (3.38 km2). There were 16 housing units at an average density of 66.7 people per square mile (2.57 km2). The racial makeup of the borough was 100 % white.
There were 10 households, out of which 1 (10 %) had children under the age of 18 living with them, 5 (50 %) were married couples living together, 1 had a female householder with no husband present, and 3 (30 %) were non-families. 3 of the households were made up of individuals, and 1 had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.10, and the average family size was 2.57.
In the borough the population was spread out, with 1 resident under the age of 18, 1 from 18 to 24, 4 from 25 to 44, 7 from 45 to 64, and 8 who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 62 years. There were 10 females and 11 males with 1 male under the age of 18.
The median income for a household in the borough was $23,750, and the median income for a family was $28,750. The per capita income for the borough was $16,083. None of the population was below the poverty line.
As of the census of 2010 there were 10 people (down 52 % since 2000), 5 households (down 50 %), and 3 families (down 57 %) residing in the borough. The population density was 42 people per square mile (16 / km2) (down 52 %). There were 6 housing units (down 62.5 %) at an average density of 0.4 units per square mile (. 015 units / km2). The racial makeup of the borough was 100 % white.
Of the five households, none had children under the age of 18. Two (40 %) were married couples living together, one (20 %) had a female householder with no spouse present, and two (40 %) were non-families. One of those non-family households was an individual, and none had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.0 persons, and the average family size was 2.33 persons.
There were no residents under the age of 18, one aged 25 -- 29, one aged 50 -- 54, one aged 55 -- 59, four aged 60 -- 64, two aged 70 -- 74, and one aged 80 -- 84. The median age was 62.5 years, and there were five females and five males in total.
The borough is served by a small group of volunteer firefighters operating one fire engine that is more than 30 years old. The fire company 's ambulance was given to the nearby Wilburton Fire Company in Conyngham Township in 2012.
Centralia has been used as a model for many different ghost towns and physical manifestations of Hell. Prominent examples include Dean Koontz 's Strange Highways and David Wellington 's Vampire Zero.
Centralia was the inspiration for the Silent Hill film adaptation.
The 1982 PBS documentary Centralia Mine Fire contains interviews with residents and relates the story of the mine fire.
The 1987 film Made in U.S.A. opens in Centralia and the surrounding coal region of Pennsylvania.
The 2007 documentary The Town That Was is about the history of the town and its current and former residents.
Centralia had a segment entitled "City on Fire '' on the Travel Channel television series America Declassified which aired in 2013.
The Centralia story was explored in the documentary segment "Dying Embers '' from public radio station WNYC 's RadioLab.
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the flamingos - i only have eyes for you lyrics | I Only Have Eyes for You - wikipedia
"I Only Have Eyes for You '' is a popular romantic love song by composer Harry Warren and lyricist Al Dubin, written in 1934 for the film Dames where it was introduced by Dick Powell and Ruby Keeler. The song is a jazz standard, and has been covered by thousands of musicians. Successful recordings of the song have been made by Ben Selvin (in 1934), The Flamingos (in 1959), The Lettermen (in 1966) and Art Garfunkel (in 1975), among others.
The song was a # 2 hit for Ben Selvin in 1934. The orchestras of Eddie Duchin and Anson Weeks also figured in the song 's 1934 popularity.
The vocal group The Lettermen released a version in 1966 that charted in the United States and Canada, and reached # 4 on the US Billboard Easy Listening chart.
This song was included on The Flamingos ' debut album Flamingo Serenade. The version by the Flamingos features a prominent reverb effect, creating a dreamy ambience. This version peaked at # 11 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and # 3 on the R&B charts. It ranked as the 73rd biggest hit of 1959 by Billboard. Rolling Stone magazine ranked the Flamingos ' version # 157 on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.
A recording of the song by Art Garfunkel was a number one hit on the UK Singles Chart in October 1975 for two weeks. The song was his first hit as a solo artist in the UK. In the US, the song reached # 18 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and # 1 on the adult contemporary chart. The B - side of the single release was "Looking for the Right One, '' a song written and later recorded by Stephen Bishop. Garfunkel performed "I Only Have Eyes for You '' on the second episode of Saturday Night Live.
In addition to the above artists, these notable artists have also covered this song:
The song was sung in the 1935 film The Woman in Red, produced by Warner Bros., starring Barbara Stanwyck and Gene Raymond. It was also used in the 1950 film Tea for Two, sung by Gordon MacRae.
The Flamingos ' version was also used in the 1991 movie "Do n't Tell Mom the Babysitter 's Dead. ''
The Flamingos ' version was included on the soundtracks for the 1972 version of Kenneth Anger 's Rabbit 's Moon, 1973 film American Graffiti, 1983 films The Right Stuff and Heart Like a Wheel, the 1991 film My Girl, the 1993 Robert De Niro film A Bronx Tale and the 2003 movie Something 's Gotta Give starring Jack Nicholson and Diane Keaton. Grace (Nicole Kidman) also sings a portion of the song to Charles (Christopher Eccleston) in the 2001 film The Others. The trailer of The Grudge 2 also briefly features the song. In the 2001 sci - fi movie A.I. Artificial Intelligence, Gigolo Joe, a lover robot, has this song built into him, and he can play it by a tilt of his head. He plays it to seduce women.
On television, it was used as a recurring theme in a Tex Avery - directed Warner Bros. Merrie Melodies cartoon of the same title, in a scene in the 1989 episode of The Wonder Years, "How I 'm Spending My Summer Vacation '', and in a 1998 episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer involving two ghosts from the 1950s borrowing its title from the song and features excerpts of it in several scenes. Disney also featured a music video of the song in the special DTV Doggone Valentine set to clips from Lady and the Tramp. Most recently, the song has been used in episodes of the supernatural drama TV series 666 Park Avenue and in 2013 was featured in the series Glee. It was also featured in the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Lifesigns ''. In 2014 this song appeared in the horror movie Annabelle followed by the alternate history thriller, The Man in the High Castle, in 2016. It was also recently used in the newest season of Ray Donovan.
The song was included in the 1980 revival of the musical 42nd Street.
This song makes an appearance twice in the game The Darkness 2, when Jackie Estacado dances with his love Jenny.
A 35 - minute version of the song alternately featuring Beck, Devendra Banhart, No Age, Tilda Swinton, and other artists formed the audio portion of Doug Aitken 's installation Song \ 1 at the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden in Washington, D.C. from March 22 to May 20, 2012.
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will there be more d gray man episodes | D. Gray - man - wikipedia
D. Gray - man (Japanese: ディー ・ グレイマン, Hepburn: Dī Gureiman) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Katsura Hoshino. Set in the 19th century, it tells the story of a young Allen Walker, who joins an organization of exorcists named the Black Order. They use an ancient substance, Innocence, to combat a man known as the Millennium Earl and his demonic army of Akuma who intend to destroy humanity. Many characters are adapted from Hoshino 's previous works and drafts, such as Zone. The series is noted for its dark narrative; Hoshino once rewrote a scene she thought too violent for her young readers.
The manga began serialization in 2004 in the Weekly Shōnen Jump magazine, published by Shueisha. Production of the series was suspended several times because of Hoshino 's health. D. Gray - man made the transition from a weekly to a monthly series in November 2009, when it began serialization in Jump Square. On December 29, 2012, the series went on indefinite hiatus. It resumed serialization on July 17, 2015 after the release of Jump SQ. Crown, a spin - off from the magazine Jump SQ. The manga 's chapters have been collected in twenty - five tankōbon volumes. By August 5, 2014, Viz Media had released 25 volumes in the United States.
A spin - off novel series, D. Gray - man Reverse by Kaya Kizaki, explores the history of a number of characters. The manga has been adapted into a 103 - episode anime series by TMS Entertainment which aired from October 2006 to September 2008 in Japan and is licensed by Funimation in North America. A 13 - episode anime series, D. Gray - Man Hallow, was produced by TMS Entertainment. It aired in Japan from July to September 2016 as a sequel to the first D. Gray - man anime series. Several items of merchandise have been produced, including two video games about the series.
The manga has become one of Shueisha 's bestsellers, with over 22.5 million copies sold. In Japan and North America, several individual volumes have appeared in weekly top - ten lists of bestselling manga. Although most reviewers found it similar to other series for the same demographic, they compared its moments of originality and well - developed characters favorably to other shōnen series. Hoshino 's artwork has received mostly positive reviews; most critics commented that her characters are visually appealing and that the gothic elements to the art is pleasant to look at, the only critic to criticize Hoshino 's artwork stated that her fight sequences are difficult to follow.
Set in an alternate 19th century, the story focuses on an organization of exorcists, named the Black Order, as they defend humanity against the Noah Family, reincarnations of Noah and his twelve apostles whom bear hatred towards humanity and God led by a man known as the Millennium Earl. The exorcists ' main weapon against the Noah Family are sentient holy artifacts called Innocence. Innocence comes in a variety of forms, varying from everyday objects such as boots to grandfather clocks, to weapons such as swords and guns; regardless of their form, each Innocence possesses unique offensive and supportive abilities and will only work for the wielder of their choosing. Out of the 109 Innocence hidden and scattered throughout the world, one of them is the master Innocence; whichever side obtains this Innocence first will win the war. In contrast to the Innocence, the Noah Family 's weapons are derived from a power source known as Dark Matter. Dark Matter, grants the Noah superpowers, along with the ability to create and control demons.
The central character is Allen Walker, a new recruit to the Black Order who started training to control his Innocence after it destroyed the Akuma of his late guardian, Mana. The story begins in a villain of the week fashion, where Allen teams up with various members of the Black Order to search for Innocence while battling Noah 's demons on the way. Later, Allen and his friends are ordered to track down exorcist General Cross Marian, Allen 's missing teacher. Their search concludes with them stealing one of the Noah 's transportation device, referred to as the Noah 's Ark; this was made possible since Allen has been instilled the consciousness of Nea, the exiled 14th member of the Noah Family who the Earl wishes to have back. During the Third Exorcists insurrection story arc, Nea 's consciousness begins superseding Allen 's body. Now hunted by the Black Order, the Noah Family, and a humanoid Innocence called Apocryphos, Allen goes into hiding as he searches for a way to end Nea 's resurrection.
A draft of D. Gray - man was sent to Shueisha by manga author Katsura Hoshino on a nonspecified date. She had mixed feelings about writing the series, since she had been offered other jobs (such as developing video games). However, Shueisha liked the draft and the staff asked Hoshino to go ahead with the series believing it would be popular in 2004. She had originally intended to write a story about zombies, but was discouraged by her editor T - shi and decided to abandon the idea during the third chapter. Asked about her inspiration for writing about the supernatural, Hoshino said that she feared it after seeing the 1973 film, The Exorcist. Although the horror film frightened her, it inspired the author to design the manga 's Akuma.
The area in the series known as Noah 's Ark was based on science fiction rather than the supernatural like the Akuma. After conceiving the Ark 's role in the series, Hoshino decided to write a song when Allen is rebuilding it through a piano. She requested help from her editor, a university graduate, but decided to use her own lyrics. She blamed it on her own ego.
Elements of D. Gray - man first appeared in Hoshino 's one - shot title, Zone, in which the Akuma, the exorcists, and the Millennium Earl plan to end the world. Although Allen Walker is male, his character is based on Zone 's female protagonist. Lavi is based on the protagonist of Hoshino 's planned series, Book - man, that she originally wanted to write. Other characters, such as the Millennium Earl, Lenalee Lee, and Komui Lee, are based on real people whom Hoshino has not specifically identified; some are well - known scientists, and Komui is based on Hoshino 's boss. The character of Yu Kanda, based on a samurai, was created to vary D. Gray - man 's Western setting. Hoshino found the design of some characters difficult early in the series. In 2011, the author visited New York for research, and believed that the city had greatly influenced her work. Hoshino visited cemeteries, and was deeply impressed by her guides ' comments at Ground zero of the World Trade Center (left after the September 11 attacks). She said that she would like to spend more time in New York to gather data for the series.
After beginning D. Gray - man, Hoshino considered continuing to use the name Zone and also contemplated naming the series Dolls or Black Noah. She chose "D. Gray - man '' for its several meanings, most referring to the state of Allen and the other main characters. Although the title 's meaning was not completely explained, Hoshino said that the "D '' stands for "dear ''. According to the author, she got most of her ideas for the series while sleeping in her bathtub for six hours. One exception was the second - volume plot, based on a Noh story entitled "Koi no Omoni ''.
When the manga moved from weekly to monthly serialization in 2009, Hoshino heard concerns from readers about its possible cancellation and reassured them that the series would continue. She set up Kanda 's backstory by introducing the Third Exorcists, characters related to him and Alma Karma. In Hoshino 's original drafts, Kanda 's past had a number of plot holes. A rewritten, published version had a young Kanda walking along a path surrounded by dead people who had cared for him. Due to its violence, the image was replaced with one in which Kanda learns that Alma Karma had killed them all. When the chapters were collected into a volume, Hoshino added a small chapter which included the corpses.
The author noted that the character of Lavi was popular with fans, placing third in a poll (behind Allen and Kanda) despite infrequent appearances in later story arcs, and she promised that Lavi would return. The story arc involving Alma Karma, featuring several characters, was difficult for the author; as a result, the next arc in which Allen leaves the Black Order contained fewer characters per chapter due to its different format. The character of Apocryphos was introduced to hint at the Heart, a plot element briefly described in a past storyline which would later reappear. Due to Jump Square 's (the manga 's magazine at the time) readership -- older men, rather than children -- Hoshino found Allen the most difficult character to write. She does not want Allen 's problems in recent story arcs to lead to portraying him as a troubled teenager, preferring to show him as a cheerful person with a balance of strength and sorrow. After D. Gray - man 's dark narrative, Hoshino plans to write more lighthearted series in the future.
According to Hoshino, the series ' main theme focuses on tragedy. Many characters such as Allen across the series suffer poor fates such as losing a loved one and being tempted to revive them by the Earl. Although this works, the people are revived as Akuma who consume the skin of their loved ones. This has led to state that an initial theme is that people should not be brought back to life. Although some characters like Kanda express unconditional love to Alma, their happiness is short - lived due to Alma dying shortly after this with another writer finding fitting for the series ' dark narrative. Additionally, Allen 's life becomes sadder across the series as he is forced to abandon the Black Order due to the Pope removing his rights as an exorcist and he is treated as Noah due to his connections with these characters. Nevertheless, Hoshino still tried to make it fun for the readers, stating that Allen will always have allies.
In the book Representing Multiculturalism in Comics and Graphic Novels Carolene Ayaka states another theme set in the series is identity. This is reflected in Allen and the exorcists familiarizing themselves with their own supernatural powers in order to become more humanize themselves. On the other hand, Allen 's revelation that he is the 14th Noah which makes him less human. Another theme is grief, as seen in the Millennium Earl 's appearance as a tired, middle - aged man who is constantly searching for a former comrade, Nea. Hoshino believes that the Millennium Earl, the series ' main antagonist, would fit the manga 's demographic. In the book Anime and Philosophy: Wide Eyed Wonder Josef Steiff and Tristan D. Tamplin discuss how D. Gray - man, alongside Spriggan and Ulysses 31, focus on the "end of the world '' with D. Gray - man and Spriggan taking references from the blibical flood.
During production of the first anime adaptation, the author often visited the TMS Entertainment studio, where the voice actors requested advice about their characters. Although Hoshino was nervous about talking with them, she was surprised by their dedication in practising their characters -- particularly Sanae Kobayashi (Allen), Takahiro Sakurai (Kanda), Katsuyuki Konishi (Komui), and Hiroki Tōchi (Cross Marian) -- and joked that Lenalee seemed more beautiful after she saw Shizuka Itō 's work. Early in production, Hoshino was shown an early version of the first opening theme: "Innocent Sorrow '' by the Japanese rock band Abingdon Boys School. When she saw the video, Hoshino began to cry in delight while the staff laughed to her. Tyki Mikk 's voice actor, Toshiyuki Morikawa, remembered the recording sessions for the series as "lively '' because of the presence of many popular actors. After the anime finished, the actors (who became friends during production) kept in touch.
The anime 's sequel was subtitled Hallow, referring to Halloween; the holiday celebrates the "revival of the dead '', and TMS Entertainment celebrated the "revival of the D. Gray - man anime series ''. Although it is a sequel, Hoshino called it a completely new D. Gray - man anime and thanked fans for following it. The original Japanese actors were replaced, with Ayumu Murase voicing Allen and Shinnosuke Tachibana voicing Howard Link; both anime adaptations retained most of Funimation 's English - language cast. In the English version, Allen was voiced by Todd Haberkorn, who said that voicing the character was a career highlight.
Written and drawn by Hoshino, the D. Gray - man manga began its serializion in Shueisha 's Weekly Shōnen Jump on May 31, 2004. The series went on hiatus several times due to issues with Hoshino 's health. Publication resumed on March 9, 2009. The series reappeared in the seasonal magazine Akamaru Jump on August 17. After its run in Akamaru Jump, D. Gray - Man resumed publication on November 4, 2009 in the monthly magazine Jump SQ. The manga began another hiatus on December 29, 2012, beginning serialization again on July 17, 2015 in the quarterly Jump SQ. Crown. Individual chapters have been published in tankōbon format by Shueisha. The first complete volume was published on October 9, 2004, and the 25th volume, and last as of 2017, appeared on June 3, 2016.
At the 2005 San Diego Comic - Con International, D. Gray - man was licensed for English - language publication in North America by Viz Media. The company published the first collected volume of the series on May 2, 2006 and the 24th volume on August 5, 2014. The twenty - fifth volume is set to be released on May 2, 2017. Viz Media reissued the series in a 3 - in - 1 format, publishing eight 3 - volumes - in - 1 editions from July 2, 2013 to November 3, 2015. Madman Entertainment published Viz 's 24 - volume English edition in Australia and New Zealand, from August 10, 2008 to September 10, 2014.
In June 2006, Shueisha announced that the D. Gray - man manga would be adapted as an anime. Its first episodes were directed by Osamu Nabeshima and produced by Dentsu, TMS Entertainment, Aniplex, and TV Tokyo. TMS Entertainment provided the animation, while Aniplex provided the music. The series began airing on October 3, 2006 on TV Tokyo. The anime 's 51 - episode first season, known as the "1st stage '', ended on September 25, 2007. The 52 - episode second season, known as the "2nd stage '', began on October 2, 2007 and ended on September 30, 2008, for a total of 103 episodes. The anime adapts the manga 's storyline from the beginning and concludes after the destruction of the Black Order headquarters. The episodes were released by Aniplex on 26 DVDs from February 7, 2007 to March 4, 2009.
The English - language versions of the first 51 episodes was licensed by Funimation in May 2008, and released in North America on DVD from March 31, 2009 to January 5, 2010. The anime made its North American television debut on the Funimation Channel in September 2010. The first 51 episodes were released on four DVDs by Madman Entertainment from August 19, 2009 to May 13, 2010, and a DVD box set was released on June 6, 2012. In the United Kingdom, Manga Entertainment released the first season in four parts from February 22 to October 18, 2010. A box set was released on December 6, 2010. On June 30, 2016, it was announced that Funimation had acquired the rights to the anime 's second season. In August 2017, Funimation announced they would release the series ' second half on home media version starting on October of the same year. In August, Crunchyroll started streaming the first 25 episodes of the series.
A second TV anime series was announced at Shueisha 's 2016 Jump Festa. Hoshino called the new series a sequel of the first anime, rather than a reboot. It starts where the first series finished and ends with Allen 's departure from the Order. The new series, D. Gray - man Hallow, directed by Yoshiharu Ashino and written by Michiko Yokote, Tatsuto Higuchi, and Kenichi Yamashita, has character designs by Yosuke Kabashima and music by Kaoru Wada. Crunchyroll aired the series on its channel. It aired on TV Tokyo from July 4 to September 26, 2016, and was broadcast on Animax Asia. Hallow 's home - media release was delayed, and in March 2017, the official D. Gray - man Hallow website stated the home media release was cancelled due to "various circumstances ''.
The music for the D. Gray - man anime series was composed by Kaoru Wada, and four CD soundtracks have been released in Japan by Sony Music Entertainment. The first, 34 - track D. Gray - man Original Soundtrack 1 (including its first opening theme and the first two ending themes), was released on March 21, 2007. It was followed by the 32 - track CD D. Gray - man Original Soundtrack 2, released on December 19, 2007, which includes the series ' second opening theme and its third and fourth closing themes. The series ' opening and closing themes were collected on a CD, D. Gray - man Complete Best, which was released on September 24, 2008. Its limited edition includes a DVD with credit-less footage of the series ' introduction and closing scenes and anime illustrations.
The third soundtrack, D. Gray - man Original Soundtrack 3 with 31 tracks, was released in Japan on December 17, 2008. It includes the series ' third and fourth opening themes, the fifth to eighth closing themes and the insert song "Hands Sealed With a Kiss '' (つない だ 手 に キス を, Tsunaida Te Ni Kisu o) by Sanae Kobayashi (Allen Walker 's first Japanese voice actor). Another soundtrack, based on the Hallow sequel, was released on September 28, 2016. Entitled D. Gray - man Hallow Original Soundtrack, the 40 - track release includes the opening and closing themes of the Hallow series.
Two D. Gray - man adventure games, based on the first anime series, have been released. The first, D. Gray - man: Kami no Shitotachi (D. Gray - man 神 の 使徒 達, lit. "D. Gray - man The Apostles of God '') for Nintendo DS, was released in Japan by Konami on March 29, 2007 with Allen and his comrades as playable characters. The second, D. Gray - man: Sousha no Shikaku (D. Gray - man 奏者 ノ 資格, lit. "D. Gray - man Player ''), was released for PlayStation 2 on September 11, 2008. In it, Allen trains in the Asian headquarters of the Black Order to regain powers lost after a previous battle so he can rejoin his allies to fight the Akuma and Noah. Allen and other series characters appear in the Nintendo DS fighting game Jump Super Stars and its sequel, Jump Ultimate Stars, and he is a supporting character in the fighting game J - Stars Victory VS.
A three - volume light novel based on the manga series, D. Gray - man: Reverse by Kaya Kizaki, was published by Shueisha. The first volume, published on May 30, 2005, focuses on Allen 's journey to the Black Order after he finishes his exorcism training, Yu Kanda 's mission to find a witch, and Asian branch head Bak Chan, who tries to learn how Komui Lee was elected European branch head (instead of himself). The second volume, published on July 4, 2006, is set in the Black Order. Allen and other characters attend a party, Lavi trains to be the next Bookman before he meets Allen, and the Millennium Earl searches for people to create Akuma. The third volume was published on December 3, 2010. Its first chapter follows Black Order scientist Rohfa 's search for Allen, with whom she is infatuated. In the second chapter, Allen lives with a circus as a child after he is abandoned by his parents.
Several other series - related books also exist published by Shueisha. The D. Gray - man Official Fanbook: Gray Ark was published on June 4, 2008, and TV Animation D. Gray - man Official Visual Collection: Clown Art on September 4. Three omnibus editions were published on November 13 and December 11, 2009 and January 15, 2010. They were followed by an illustrated book, D. Gray - man Illustrations Noche, on February 4, 2010. Noche was published by Viz Media on December 6, 2011. The artist 's book also contains two interviews with Hoshino and manga artists Osamu Akimoto and Takeshi Obata. D. Gray - man Character Ranking Book, a compilation of character popularity polls with character profiles by Hoshino and the one - shot "Exorcist no Natsu Yasumi '' (エクソシスト の 夏休み, lit. "Exorcist 's Summer Vacation ''), was published on July 4, 2011. A new book, D. Gray - man Official Fan Book - Gray Log (Gray 's Memory), will be released in Japan on August 4, 2017.
The manga has been popular in Japan. One of Weekly Shōnen Jump 's bestselling series, individual volumes have appeared on annual Japanese top - 50 manga sales lists; in 2008, volumes 14, 15, and 16 were on the list. Later volumes were also Japanese bestsellers. In October 2016, the series had a Japanese circulation of over 22.5 million copies. Manga author Katsura Hoshino is grateful to the editors assisting her to the point of saying that she owes the series ' success to them.
Volumes of Viz 's English version of the series have appeared on bestselling manga lists in the New York Times and Nielsen BookScan. In its summer 2008 and Q3 2008 lists, ICv2 ranked D. Gray - man the 15th - bestselling manga property in North America. In 2009 and 2010, the series was North America 's bestselling shōnen property and the bestselling manga overall. It was ranked as the 24th and 23rd North American manga property on ICv2 's Top 25 Manga list in 2011 and 2012, respectively.
Zassosha 's manga magazine, Puff, ranked the series the seventh - best long - story manga of 2006. In France, it received the Best Manga Series of 2006 award at the Anime and Manga 2007 French Grand Prix (organized by Animeland) and the 2006 Manga of the Year award from Webotaku. The anime DVDs have also been popular, ranking high on several Japanese animation DVD lists from 2007 to 2009, and the series was listed as a most - watched anime of the week. Its novelizations were also well - received; the second volume was the third - bestselling novel in Japan in 2006. D. Gray - man 's characters have also inspired cosplay.
Reception of the series has been generally positive. In his review of volume one, Carlo Santos of Anime News Network said that certain plot points "come out of nowhere '' and the story was kept from its full potential due to finding some points like the designs generic. However, he enjoyed the series ' quick - moving plot, exposition, and backstory. A.E. Sparrow of IGN also reviewed the first volume, comparing the series ' antagonist to three of Batman 's villains due to his likeability despite his role. Sparrow also enjoyed Allen 's characterization based on his tragic backstory. Calling the early volumes an "amateur comic '', reviewer Leroy Douresseaux of comicbookbin.com noted that the plot and art improved significantly with each volume. Ross Liversidge of the UK Anime Network enjoyed the first three volumes; Hoshino had "an excellent quality of storytelling '' in juggling dark plot, light comedy and appealing characters. According to Brian Henson of Mania Beyond Entertainment, the series became better over time; although some elements seemed derivative, it developed a unique identity. Yussif Osman of Japanator said that the characters were some of the deepest seen in shōnen manga, citing Lavi 's backstory and the Noah Family.
Later volumes were also praised; Otaku USA 's Joseph Luster appreciated the series ' battles and Allen 's development. The revelation that Allen would be an enemy of the Order and the 14th Noah was well received by Grant Goodman of Pop Culture Shock and Chris Beveridge of the Fandom Post. However, Goodman criticized early - volume reliance on comedy rather than plot. Beveridge and Erkael of Manga News were impressed with Kanda 's dark past. Douresseaux liked Allen 's situation in volume 21 (due to the character 's connections with the Noah), and wanted to see more of that and less of Kanda 's fight with Alma Karma.
Hoshino 's art received mixed reviews. According to Casey Brienza of ANN, as of volume twelve, the battles were "practically unintelligible '' yet liked the rest of the artwork. She described Hoshino 's drawing style as the "aesthetic yet dynamic, superbly beautiful yet super-violent '' style made famous by female manga artists arising from the late - 1980s and early - 1990s dōjinshi subculture, citing Clamp and Yun Kōga as examples. Brienza also talked about Hoshino 's character designs, believing fans of both sexes would find them appealing. Douresseaux called Hoshino 's art "highly stylish '' and reminiscent of work by Joe Madureira, Kelley Jones, and Chris Bachalo. Describing her backgrounds as eerie and Lovecraftian, Douresseaux wrote that Hoshino made appealing scenes that combined both gothic and violent elements. Brian Henson criticized changes made to the Viz Media version, such as the replacement of Japanese sound effects with less - appealing ones and awkward translations of character names.
According to Funimation Entertainment president and CEO Gen Fukunaga, the anime series was popular in Japan and the United States. Carl Kimlinger of Anime News Network reviewed the first episode, calling it derivative with "absolutely nothing original '' but not boring. Noting that Allen 's use of the anti-Akuma weapon might seem clichéd, Todd Douglass Jr. of DVD Talk found its use in the anime entertaining. Active Anime 's Sandra Scholes and UK Anime Network 's Kevin Leathers enjoyed the anime series and, similarly to Douglass, found its small borrowings from other series appealing. Both reviewers praised Allen Walker 's characterization. Anime Insider 's Kimberly Morales said that the series ' animation quality varied and although the story was appealing, voice actor Travis Willingham was miscast as Kanda. However, Morales liked the series and its cast overall. Tom Tonhat of Escapist praised the cast due to how it inspired multiple cosplaying and noted the impact of the Earl 's characterization as it involved about how the dead can not be brought back to life.
UK Anime 's Kevin Leathers criticized its lack of entertaining story arcs, and Anime News Network 's Casey Brienza called the anime a poor adaptation of the manga. Allen 's English - language voice actor, Todd Haberkorn, said that anime sales were poor despite generally - positive reviews; he suggested that fans buy DVDs on sale to keep the series from being cancelled.
The anime 's sequel, D. Gray - man Hallow, was one of the most - anticipated anime series of summer 2016 by followers of Anime News Network and the Japanese web portal goo. Since he had not watched the original anime for some time, Alex Osborn of IGN appreciated the brief exposition in the sequel 's first episode to remind the audience of the plot. Although he enjoyed the interaction among the main cast, Osborn was confused by the revelation that Allen would become the 14th Noah and had to watch the scene again in order to understand it. In a later review, Osborn said he was amazed by Allen 's first possession by the 14th Noah; although it was "disturbing '', it enhanced the character 's development. Anne Laurenroth remarked Kanda 's character development in Hallow, particularly his fight against Alma Karma and his return to the Order in the finale. Laurenroth noted Hallow 's poor animation and pacing but, although most of its episodes were grim, its final moments were upbeat.
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where was the largest construction project ever undertaken | List of megaprojects - wikipedia
This is a list of megaprojects. "Megaprojects are temporary endeavours (i.e. projects) characterized by: large investment commitment, vast complexity (especially in organizational terms), and long - lasting impact on the economy, the environment, and society ''. The number of such projects is so large that the list may never be fully completed.
Megaprojects may be defined as:
Megaprojects require care in the project development process to reduce any possible optimism bias and strategic misrepresentation. Examples of megaprojects include bridges, tunnels, highways, railways, airports, seaports, power plants, dams, wastewater projects, Special Economic Zones (SEZ), oil and natural gas extraction projects, public buildings, information technology systems, aerospace projects, and weapons systems.
This list identifies a wide variety of examples of major historic and contemporary projects that meet one or both megaproject criteria identified above.
While most megaprojects are planned and undertaken with careful forethought, some are undertaken out of necessity after a natural disaster occurs. There have also been a few man - made disasters.
Every Olympic Games and FIFA World Cup in the latter part of the 20th century and entering into the 21st century has cost more than $1 billion in arenas, hotels etc., usually several billions.
Ground transportation systems like roads, tunnels, bridges, terminals, railways, and mass transit systems are often megaprojects. Numerous large airports and terminals used for airborne passenger and cargo transportation are built as megaprojects.
It is the longest bridge in Europe (including viaducts), with a total length of 12.3 kilometres (7.6 mi), including 0.8 kilometres (0.50 mi) for the main bridge and 11.5 kilometres (7.1 mi) in viaducts. The Bridge is served by 4.8 kilometres (3.0 mi) of dedicated access roads. It was built to alleviate the congestion on Lisbon 's 25 de Abril Bridge, and eliminate the need for traffic between the country 's northern and southern regions to pass through the capital city.
Infrastructure systems that include electricity, sewer, telecommunications, and transportation. Building cities that include Skyscrapers, housing, etc. requires concrete, steel, glass, and most especially that workers in all the trades to undertaker the massive scale of these megaprojects.
Ongoing 2,000 hectare township project in the buzzling province of Cavite. Touted to be a full pledged city, Lancaster New City has its own transport terminal, several campuses throughout the project, a 25 Hectare BPO center, a Church, Multiple club houses and retail strip complex. Future expansions are on going with Zones 3, 4 and 5 that consists of low rise residential complexes.
Ports, waterways, canals, and locks for Passenger Ships and Cargo Ships carrying passengers and cargo from country to country and islands nations are built as megaprojects
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who is the moat followed person on instagram | List of most - liked Instagram pictures - wikipedia
This list contains the pictures with the most likes on the social photo - sharing platform Instagram; Instagram does not provide an official list. As of June 2018, the name announcement of Kylie Jenner 's first child is the most - liked picture with almost 18 million likes. Additionally, Kylie Jenner has the most pictures in the top ten with four, including the top two overall. Most of Jenner 's top pictures feature her newborn daughter, Stormi Webster.
The following table lists all of the pictures since 2014 that were once the most - liked picture on Instagram.
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how far is woodland park from my location | Woodland Park, Colorado - wikipedia
The City of Woodland Park is a Home Rule Municipality that is the most populous city in Teller County, Colorado, United States and is immediately west of El Paso County and the unincorporated community of Crystola. Many residents in this bedroom community, which is surrounded by the one - million acre (4,000 km2) Pike National Forest, make the 17 - mile (27 km) commute to Colorado Springs. Ute Pass lies 12 miles (19 km) to the west of Woodland Park on US 24. The population was 6,515 at the 2000 census. Nearby Douglas County is about a fifteen - minute drive from the city.
A post office called Woodland Park has been in operation since 1890. The community was named for the abundance of trees near the original town site.
Woodland Park is located at the eastern intersection of U.S. Highway 24 and State Highway 67. (The highways overlap west to Divide.)
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 5.7 square miles (15 km), all of it land.
As of the census of 2000, there were 6,515 people, 2,476 households, and 1,884 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,151.0 people per square mile (444.4 / km2). There were 2,642 housing units at an average density of 466.8 per square mile (180.2 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 94.89 % White, 0.52 % African American, 0.72 % Native American, 0.87 % Asian, 0.81 % from other races, and 2.18 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.45 % of the population.
There were 2,476 households out of which 39.9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.3 % were married couples living together, 7.7 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.9 % were non-families. 19.1 % of all households were made up of individuals and 4.3 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the average family size was 3.03.
In the city, the population was spread out with 28.5 % under the age of 18, 5.8 % from 18 to 24, 32.9 % from 25 to 44, 26.3 % from 45 to 64, and 6.5 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.0 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $52,279, and the median income for a family was $59,583. Males had a median income of $36,157 versus $27,459 for females. The per capita income for the city was $22,780. About 1.8 % of families and 3.7 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.9 % of those under age 18 and 3.7 % of those age 65 or over.
Students are served by Woodland Park School District RE-2.
Woodland Park, 1887
Library in Downtown Woodland Park
View of Pikes Peak, from Woodland Park
Woodland Park as viewed from the summit of Pikes Peak
A number of full - time musicians reside in Woodland Park and the surrounding areas, and arts festivals have become more frequent in recent years, often held at the Ute Pass Cultural Center. Woodland Park is also the site of the Rocky Mountain Dinosaur Resource Center, a museum devoted to dinosaurs and fossils.
Woodland Park experiences an alpine subarctic climate (Dfc), due to its high elevation and its location in the Rocky Mountains. Summers are warm, but much milder than summers at lower elevations, such as in Colorado Springs, Denver, or the plains to the east. Nights are cool, even chilly in summer.
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how to watch europa league final in australia | List of UEFA Europa League broadcasters - wikipedia
This article list all the confirmed broadcasters for the UEFA Europa League with each broadcaster holding three season broadcasting rights. The current cycle will be from 2015 -- 2018.
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who does stephen fry play in the hobbit | Stephen Fry - Wikipedia
Stephen John Fry (born 24 August 1957) is an English comedian, actor, writer, presenter, and activist. He had a troubled childhood and adolescence, during which he was expelled from two schools and spent three months in prison for credit card fraud. Fry secured a place at Queens ' College, Cambridge, where he studied English literature. While at university, he became involved with the Cambridge Footlights, where he met Hugh Laurie, who would become his long - time collaborator. As half of the comic double act Fry and Laurie, he co-wrote and co-starred in A Bit of Fry & Laurie and also took the role of Jeeves (with Laurie playing Wooster) in Jeeves and Wooster.
Fry 's acting roles include a Golden Globe Award -- nominated lead performance in the film Wilde, Melchett in the BBC television series Blackadder, the title character in the television series Kingdom, a recurring guest role as Dr Gordon Wyatt on the crime series Bones, and as Gordon Deitrich in the dystopian thriller V for Vendetta. He has also written and presented several documentary series, including the Emmy Award -- winning Stephen Fry: The Secret Life of the Manic Depressive, which saw him explore his bipolar disorder, and the travel series Stephen Fry in America. He was also the long - time host of the BBC television quiz show QI, with his tenure lasting from 2003 to 2016.
Besides working in television, Fry has contributed columns and articles for newspapers and magazines and written four novels and three volumes of autobiography, Moab Is My Washpot, The Fry Chronicles, and More Fool Me. He also appears frequently on BBC Radio 4, starring in the comedy series Absolute Power, being a frequent guest on panel games such as Just a Minute, and acting as chairman for I 'm Sorry I Have n't a Clue, where he was one of a trio of hosts who succeeded the late Humphrey Lyttelton.
Fry is also known for his voice - overs, reading all seven of the Harry Potter novels for the UK audiobook recordings, narrating the LittleBigPlanet and Birds of Steel series of video games, as well as an animated series of explanations of the laws of cricket, and a series of animations about Humanism for the British Humanist Association. He has also filmed commercials, including an advertisement where he explains the essence of British culture to foreigners arriving at London 's Heathrow Airport.
Fry was born in Hampstead, London, on 24 August 1957, the son of Marianne Eve Fry (née Newman) and Alan John Fry, a British physicist and inventor. Fry 's father is English, and his paternal grandmother had roots in Kent and Cheshire. The Fry family originates in Dorset, at Shillingstone and Blandford; in the early 1800s, Samuel Fry (second son of James Fry, of Shillingstone and Blandford) settled in Surrey, with his descendants residing in Middlesex.
Fry 's mother is Jewish, but he was not brought up in a religious family. His maternal grandparents, Martin and Rosa Neumann, were Hungarian Jews, who emigrated from Šurany (now Slovakia) to Britain in 1927. Rosa Neumann 's parents, who originally lived in Vienna, were sent to a concentration camp in Riga, Latvia, where they were murdered. His mother 's aunt and cousins were sent to Auschwitz and Stutthof and never seen again.
Fry grew up in the village of Booton near Reepham, Norfolk, having moved from Chesham, Buckinghamshire, at an early age. He has an elder brother, Roger, and a younger sister, Joanna. Fry briefly attended Cawston Primary School in Cawston, Norfolk, before going on to Stouts Hill Preparatory School in Uley, Gloucestershire, at the age of seven, and then to Uppingham School, Rutland, where he joined Fircroft house, and was described as a "near - asthmatic genius ''. He was expelled from Uppingham when he was 15 and subsequently from the Paston School.
At 17, after leaving Norfolk College of Arts and Technology, Fry absconded with a credit card stolen from a family friend. He had taken a coat when leaving a pub, planning to spend the night sleeping rough, but had then discovered the card in a pocket. He was arrested in Swindon, and, as a result, spent three months in Pucklechurch Prison on remand. While Fry was in Pucklechurch, his mother had cut out the crossword from every copy of The Times since he had been away, something which Fry said was "a wonderful act of kindness ''. Fry later stated that these crosswords were the only thing that got him through the ordeal.
Following his release, he resumed his education at City College Norwich, promising administrators that he would study rigorously to sit the Cambridge entrance exams. He scored well enough to gain a scholarship to Queens ' College, Cambridge. At Cambridge, Fry joined the Footlights, appeared on University Challenge, and read for a degree in English literature, graduating with upper second - class honours. Fry also met his future comedy collaborator Hugh Laurie at Cambridge and starred alongside him in the Footlights.
Fry 's career in television began with the 1982 broadcasting of The Cellar Tapes, the 1981 Cambridge Footlights Revue which was written by Fry, Hugh Laurie, Emma Thompson and Tony Slattery. The revue caught the attention of Granada Television, who, keen to replicate the success of the BBC 's Not the Nine O'Clock News, hired Fry, Laurie and Thompson to star alongside Ben Elton in There 's Nothing to Worry About!. A second series, retitled Alfresco, was broadcast in 1983, and a third in 1984; it established Fry and Laurie 's reputation as a comedy double act. In 1983, the BBC offered Fry, Laurie and Thompson their own show, which became The Crystal Cube, a mixture of science fiction and mockumentary that was cancelled after the first episode. Undeterred, Fry and Laurie appeared in an episode of The Young Ones in 1984, and Fry also appeared in Ben Elton 's 1985 Happy Families series. In 1986 and 1987 Fry and Laurie performed sketches on the LWT / Channel 4 show Saturday Live.
Forgiving Fry and Laurie for The Crystal Cube, the BBC commissioned, in 1986, a sketch show that was to become A Bit of Fry & Laurie. The programme ran for 26 episodes spanning four series between 1986 and 1995, and was very successful. During this time, Fry starred in Blackadder II as Lord Melchett, made a guest appearance in Blackadder the Third as the Duke of Wellington, then returned to a starring role in Blackadder Goes Forth, as General Melchett. In a 1988 television special, Blackadder 's Christmas Carol, he played the roles of Lord Melchett and Lord Frondo. Between 1990 and 1993, Fry starred as Jeeves (alongside Hugh Laurie 's Bertie Wooster) in Jeeves and Wooster, 23 hour - long adaptations of P.G. Wodehouse 's novels and short stories.
Towards the end of 2003, Fry starred alongside John Bird in the television adaptation of Absolute Power, previously a radio series on BBC Radio 4. In 2010, Fry took part in a Christmas series of short films called Little Crackers. His short was based on a story from his childhood at school. He appeared as the Christian God in 2011 's Holy Flying Circus. In January 2016 it was announced that Fry would be appearing as the character "Cuddly Dick '' in Series 3 of the Sky One family comedy Yonderland. In 2016, Fry had a lead role in the American sitcom The Great Indoors. He portrayed an outdoor magazine publisher helping to ease his best worldly reporter (Joel McHale) into a desk job. The show was cancelled after one season.
Fry has appeared in a number of BBC adaptations of plays and books, including a 1992 adaptation of the Simon Gray play The Common Pursuit (he had previously appeared in the West End stage production); a 1998 Malcolm Bradbury adaptation of the Mark Tavener novel In the Red, taking the part of the Controller of BBC Radio 2; and in 2000 in the role of Professor Bellgrove in the BBC serial Gormenghast, which was adapted from the first two novels of Mervyn Peake 's Gormenghast series. In 2011, Fry portrayed Professor Mildeye in the BBC adaptation of Mary Norton 's 1952 novel The Borrowers.
Fry narrates the first two seasons of the English - language version of the Spanish children 's animated series Pocoyo. From 2007 to 2009, Fry played the lead role in (and was executive producer for) the legal drama Kingdom, which ran for three series on ITV1. He has also taken up a recurring guest role as FBI psychiatrist Dr. (later chef) Gordon Wyatt in the popular American drama Bones. In 2010, having learned some Irish for the role, he filmed a cameo role in Ros na Rún, an Irish - language soap opera broadcast in Ireland, Scotland and the US. In 2014 he began starring alongside Kiefer Sutherland and William Devane in 24: Live Another Day as British Prime Minister Alastair Davies.
Fry 's first documentary was the Emmy Award - winning Stephen Fry: The Secret Life of the Manic Depressive in 2006. The same year, he appeared on the BBC 's genealogy series Who Do You Think You Are?, tracing his maternal family tree to investigate his Jewish ancestry. Fry narrated The Story of Light Entertainment, which was shown from July -- September 2006. In 2007, he presented a documentary on the subject of HIV and AIDS, HIV and Me.
On 7 May 2008, Fry gave a speech as part of a series of BBC lectures on the future of public service broadcasting in the United Kingdom, which he later recorded for a podcast. His six - part travel series Stephen Fry in America began on BBC One in October 2008, and saw him travel to each of the 50 US states. In the same year, he narrated the nature documentaries Spectacled Bears: Shadow of the Forest for the BBC Natural World series. In the 2009 television series Last Chance to See, Fry and zoologist Mark Carwardine sought out endangered species, some of which had been featured in Douglas Adams ' and Carwardine 's 1990 book and radio series of the same name.
In August 2011, Stephen Fry 's 100 Greatest Gadgets was shown on Channel 4 as one of the 100 Greatest strand. His choice for the greatest gadget was the cigarette lighter, which he described as "fire with a flick of the fingers ''. In the same month, the nature documentary series Ocean Giants, narrated by Fry, premiered. In September 2011, Fry 's Planet Word, a five - part documentary about language, aired on BBC HD and BBC Two. In November 2011, an episode of Living The Life featured Fry in an intimate conversation discussing his life and career with Rolling Stones bass player Bill Wyman.
At the 2012 Pride of Britain Awards shown on ITV on 30 October, Fry, along with Michael Caine, Elton John, Richard Branson and Simon Cowell, recited Rudyard Kipling 's poem "If -- '' in tribute to the 2012 British Olympic and Paralympic athletes. In November 2012, Fry hosted a gadgets show called Gadget Man, exploring the usefulness of various gadgets in different daily situations to improve the livelihoods of everyone. In October 2013, Fry presented Stephen Fry: Out There, a two - part documentary in which he explores attitudes to homosexuality and the lives of gay people in different parts of the globe.
On Christmas Day 2013, Fry featured with adventurer Bear Grylls in an episode of Channel 4 's Bear 's Wild Weekends. Over the course of two days, in the Italian Dolomites, Fry travelled on the skids of a helicopter, climbed down a raging 500 - foot waterfall, slept in a First World War trench and abseiled down a towering cliff face. In June 2015 Fry was the guest on BBC Radio 4 's Desert Island Discs. His favourite piece was the String Quartet No. 14 by Beethoven. His book choice was Four Quartets by T.S. Eliot and his luxury item was "canvasses, easels, brushes, an instruction manual ''.
In 2003, Fry began hosting QI (Quite Interesting), a comedy panel game television quiz show. QI was created and co-produced by John Lloyd, and features permanent panellist Alan Davies. QI has the highest viewing figures for any show on BBC Four and Dave (formerly UKTV G2). In 2006, Fry won the Rose d'Or award for "Best Game Show Host '' for his work on the series. In October 2015, it was announced that Fry would retire as the host of QI after the "M '' series.
Having made his film début in the 1985 film The Good Father, Fry had a brief appearance in A Fish Called Wanda (in which he is knocked out by Kevin Kline, who is posing as an airport security man), and then appeared as the eponymous Peter in Kenneth Branagh 's Peter 's Friends in 1992. In the 1994 romantic comedy film I.Q., he played the role of James Moreland. Portraying Oscar Wilde (of whom he had been an ardent admirer since the age of 13) in the 1997 film Wilde, he fulfilled to critical acclaim a role that he has said he was "born to play ''. It also earned him a nomination for Best Actor -- Drama in the 1998 Golden Globe Award. A year later, Fry starred in David Yates ' small independent film The Tichborne Claimant, and in 2001 he played the detective in Robert Altman 's period costume drama, Gosford Park. In the same year, he also appeared in the Dutch film The Discovery of Heaven, directed by Jeroen Krabbé and based on the novel by Harry Mulisch.
In 2003, Fry made his directorial début with Bright Young Things, adapted by him from Evelyn Waugh 's Vile Bodies. In 2001, he began hosting the BAFTA Film Awards, a role from which he stepped down in 2006. Later that same year, he wrote the English libretto and dialogue for Kenneth Branagh 's film adaptation of The Magic Flute.
Fry continues to make regular film appearances, notably in treatments of literary cult classics. He portrayed Maurice Woodruff in The Life and Death of Peter Sellers, served as narrator in the 2005 film version of The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy, and in 2005 appeared in both A Cock and Bull Story, based on Tristram Shandy, and V for Vendetta, as a non-conforming TV presenter who challenges the fascist state. The Wachowskis pointed out that it was Fry 's "normalcy '' in the face of the insanity of the censorship of BTV that makes his character truly powerful and adds a "wholly unexpected dimension to the film ''. In 2006, he played the role of gadget - master Smithers in Stormbreaker, and in 2007 he appeared as himself hosting a quiz in St Trinian 's. In 2007 Fry wrote, for director Peter Jackson, a script for a remake of The Dam Busters. He also appeared that year in Eichmann.
Fry was offered a role in Valkyrie, but was unable to participate. Fry starred in the Tim Burton version of Alice in Wonderland, as the voice of the Cheshire Cat. He played Mycroft Holmes in the 2011 film Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows, directed by Guy Ritchie. In 2010, Fry provided the voice of Socrates the Lion in the environmental animated film Animals United. He portrayed the Master of Lake - town in two of Peter Jackson 's three film adaptation of J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Hobbit: the second The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug, and the third The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies.
Fry came to the attention of radio listeners with the 1986 creation of his alter - ego, Donald Trefusis, whose "wireless essays '' were broadcast on the BBC Radio 4 programme Loose Ends. In the 1980s, he starred as David Lander in four series of the BBC Radio 4 show Delve Special, written by Tony Sarchet, which then became the six - part Channel 4 series This is David Lander in 1988. In 1988, Fry wrote and presented a six - part comedy series entitled Saturday Night Fry. Frequent radio appearances have ensued, notably on panel games Just a Minute and I 'm Sorry I Have n't a Clue. In 2000, he began starring as Charles Prentiss in the Radio 4 comedy Absolute Power, reprising the role for three further series on radio, and two on television. In 2002, Fry was one of the narrators of A.A. Milne 's Winnie - the - Pooh and The House at Pooh Corner, in which he voiced Winnie - the - Pooh. He presented a 20 - part, two - hour series, The Incomplete and Utter History of Classical Music, a "witty guide '' to the genre over the past 1,000 years, on Classic FM.
In 2007, he hosted Current Puns, an exploration of wordplay, and Radio 4: This Is Your Life, to celebrate the radio station 's 40th anniversary. He also interviewed the Prime Minister Tony Blair as part of a series of podcasts released by 10 Downing Street. In February 2008, Fry began presenting podcasts entitled Stephen Fry 's Podgrams, in which he recounts his life and recent experiences. In July 2008, he appeared as himself in I Love Stephen Fry, an Afternoon Play for Radio 4 written by former Fry and Laurie script editor Jon Canter.
Since August 2008, he has presented Fry 's English Delight, a series on BBC Radio 4 about the English language. As of 2015, it has been running for eight series and 30 episodes. In the summer 2009 series of I 'm Sorry I Have n't a Clue, Fry was one of a trio of hosts replacing Humphrey Lyttelton (the others being Jack Dee and Rob Brydon). In 2012, he appeared as a guest panellist in the BBC Radio 4 comedy panel show Wordaholics. In September 2012, he guest - starred as himself in the audio comedy drama We Are The BBC, produced by the Wireless Theatre Company, written by Susan Casanove.
Fry wrote the play Latin! or Tobacco and Boys for the 1980 Edinburgh Festival, where it won the Fringe first prize. It had a revival in 2009 at London 's Cock Tavern Theatre, directed by Adam Spreadbury - Maher. The Cellar Tapes, the Footlights Revue of 1981, won the Perrier Comedy Award. In 1984, Fry adapted the hugely successful 1930s musical Me and My Girl for the West End, where it ran for eight years.
Fry was cast in Simon Gray 's The Common Pursuit for its first staging in London 's West End on 7 April 1988, with Rik Mayall, John Sessions, Sarah Berger, Paul Mooney and John Gordon Sinclair, directed by Simon Gray. He was also cast in a lead role in Simon Gray 's 1995 play Cell Mates, which he left three days into the West End run, pleading stage fright. He later recalled the incident as a hypomanic episode in his documentary about bipolar disorder, The Secret Life of the Manic Depressive. In 2007, Fry wrote a Christmas pantomime, Cinderella, which ran at London 's Old Vic Theatre.
Fry is a long - standing fan of the anarchic British musical comedy group the Bonzo Dog Doo - Dah Band, and particularly of its eccentric front man, the late Vivian Stanshall. Fry helped to fund a 1988 London re-staging of Stanshall 's Stinkfoot, a Comic Opera, written by Vivian and Ki Longfellow - Stanshall for the Bristol - based Old Profanity Showboat. Fry performed several of Stanshall 's numbers as part of the Bonzos ' 2006 reunion concert at the London Astoria. He also appears as a shiny New Millennium Bonzo on their post-reunion album, Pour l'Amour des Chiens, on which he recites a recipe for "Salmon Proust '', plays a butler in "Hawkeye the Gnu '', and voices ads for the fictitious "Fiasco '' stores. Following three one - man shows in Australia, Fry announced a ' sort of stand - up ' performance at The Royal Albert Hall in London for September 2010.
In September 2012, Fry made a return to the stage at Shakespeare 's Globe, appearing as Malvolio in a production of William Shakespeare 's Twelfth Night, which transferred to the West End in November 2012. He received excellent reviews. The production transferred to Broadway, with previews beginning 15 October 2013 and Opening Night 10 November 2013. Fry was nominated for a Tony in the category Best Performance by an Actor in a Featured Role in a Play for the Broadway revival. In August 2013, he lent his voice to the title role in Britten 's operetta Paul Bunyan at the Wales Millennium Centre with the Welsh National Youth Opera.
In December 2013, Fry was invited by The Noel Coward Society to lay flowers on the statue of Sir Noël Coward at The Gershwin Theatre in Manhattan to celebrate the 114th birthday of "The Master ''.
Fry has been the reader for the British versions of all of J.K. Rowling 's Harry Potter series of audiobooks. He discussed this project in an interview with Rowling in 2005. He has also read for Douglas Adams ' The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy film tie - in edition and has made recordings of his own books, such as The Stars ' Tennis Balls and Moab Is My Washpot, and of works by Roald Dahl, Michael Bond, A.A. Milne, Anthony Buckeridge, Eleanor Updale, and Alexander Pushkin. In June 2015, Fry backed children 's fairy tale app GivingTales in aid of UNICEF together with other British celebrities Sir Roger Moore, Ewan McGregor, Dame Joan Collins, Joanna Lumley, Michael Caine, David Walliams, Charlotte Rampling, Paul McKenna and Michael Ball.
In February 2017, Audible released Sherlock Holmes: The Definitive Collection, a complete collection of Sherlock Holmes stories, all read by Fry, who also narrated an introduction for each story.
Fry is the patron of the audiobook charity Listening Books. Fry said of his patronage, "I 'm proud and delighted to be patron of the first audiobook charity to offer downloads to its members and excited about what this will mean for all print impaired people who can now listen on - the - go. ''
Fry 's distinctive voice has been featured in a number of video games, including an appearance as Reaver, an amoral supporting character in Lionhead Studios games Fable II and Fable III, and as the narrator of the LittleBigPlanet series. He also narrated the first four Harry Potter games: Philosopher 's Stone, Chamber of Secrets, Prisoner of Azkaban, and Goblet of Fire.
Fry has appeared in numerous advertisements -- either on - screen or in voice - over -- starting with an appearance as "Count Ivan Skavinsky Skavar '' in a 1982 advert for Whitbread Best Bitter. Fry has said, in his memoirs, that after receiving his payment for this work -- £ 25,000 -- he has never subsequently experienced "what one could call serious money troubles ''. He has since appeared in adverts for products and companies such as Marks and Spencer, Twinings, Kenco, Vauxhall, Honda, Direct Line, Calpol, Heineken, Alliance & Leicester (a series of adverts which also featured Hugh Laurie), After Eights, Trebor, Panama cigars, Virgin Media and Orange Mobile.
Since the publication of his first novel, The Liar (1991), Fry has written three further novels, several non-fiction works and three volumes of autobiography. Making History (1997) is partly set in an alternative universe in which Adolf Hitler 's father is made infertile and his replacement proves a rather more effective Führer. The book won the Sidewise Award for Alternate History. The Hippopotamus (1994) is about Edward (Ted / Tedward) Wallace and his stay at his old friend Lord Logan 's country manor in Norfolk. The Hippopotamus was later adapted into a 2017 film. The Stars ' Tennis Balls (2000) is a modern retelling of The Count of Monte Cristo. Fry 's book The Ode Less Travelled: Unlocking the Poet Within is a guide to writing poetry.
When writing a book review for Tatler, Fry wrote under a pen name, Williver Hendry, editor of A Most Peculiar Friendship: The Correspondence of Lord Alfred Douglas and Jack Dempsey, a field close to his heart as an Oscar Wilde enthusiast. Once a columnist in The Listener and The Daily Telegraph, he now writes a weekly technology column in the Saturday edition of The Guardian. His blog attracted more than 300,000 visitors in its first two weeks.
In May 2009, Fry unveiled The Dongle of Donald Trefusis, an audiobook series following Donald Trefusis (a fictional character from Fry 's novel The Liar and from the BBC Radio 4 series Loose Ends), set over 12 episodes. After its release, it reached No. 1 on the UK Album Chart list. Ultimately however only three episodes were released, the rest with the note ' exact release date pending '. Fry 's use of the word "luvvie '' (spelled "lovie '' by Fry), in The Guardian on 2 April 1988, is given by the Oxford English Dictionary as the earliest recorded use of the word as a humorous synonym for "actor ''.
In August 2010, Fry joined the board of directors at Norwich City Football Club. A lifelong fan of "the Canaries '' and a regular visitor to Carrow Road, he said, on being appointed, "Truly this is one of the most exciting days of my life, and I am as proud and pleased as I could be. '' Fry stepped down from his Board position in January 2016, to take up a new position as "Norwich City Ambassador ''. Fry said, "My five years in the role have been an honour and a privilege beyond almost anything I can remember. I wish I could take credit for ushering the club up from League One to the Premiership during that time on the Board. Actually, I 'm going to. It was all me. It ca n't have been a coincidence... But now I 'm so happy to relinquish my seat on the board to Thomas Smith and to engage as fully as I can in the role of ambassador for Norwich City. We have so much to be proud of, both on and off the pitch, and I hope to welcome many new fans to the greatest club of all. On the Ball, City! '' In February 2014, Fry became the honorary president of Proud Canaries, a new club for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender fans.
In October 2008, Fry began posting to the social networking site Twitter, which he regularly updated. On 16 May 2009, he celebrated the 500,000 - follower mark: "Bless my soul 500k followers. And I love you all. Well, all except that silly one. And that 's not you. ''
Fry wields a considerable amount of influence through his use of Twitter. He is frequently asked to promote various charities and causes, often inadvertently causing their websites to crash because of the volume of traffic generated by his large number of followers; as Fry notes on his website: "Four thousand hits a second all diving down the pipeline at the same time for minutes on end. '' He uses his influence to recommend underexposed musicians and authors (who often see large increases in web hits and sales) and to raise awareness of contemporary issues in the world of media and politics, notably the dropping of an injunction against The Guardian and the attacking of Daily Mail columnist Jan Moir over her article on the death of Boyzone member Stephen Gately.
In November 2009, Fry 's Twitter account reached one million followers. He commemorated the million - followers milestone with a humorous video blog in which a ' Step Hen Fry ' clone speaks from the year 2034, where MySpace, Facebook and Twitter have combined to form ' Twit on MyFace '. In November 2010, he welcomed his two - millionth follower with a blog entry detailing his opinions and experiences of Twitter. On 11 March 2012, Fry noted his passing of the four - million - followers mark with a tweet: "Lordy I 've breasted the 4 million followers tape. Love you all. Yes even YOU. But let 's dedicate today to Douglas Adams 's diamond jubilee ''. As of February 2017 he had 12.4 million followers.
Fry has a history of temporarily distancing himself from the social networking site which began when he received criticism in October 2009. However, he retracted the announcement that he would be leaving the following day. In October 2010, Fry left Twitter for a few days, with a farewell message of "Bye bye '', following press criticism of a quote taken from an interview he had given. After returning, he explained that he had left Twitter to "avoid being sympathised with or told about an article '' he "would otherwise never have got wind of ''. In some quarters, the general methods Fry uses on Twitter have been criticised. On 15 February 2016, Fry deleted his Twitter account, after receiving criticism for a tweet about Jenny Beavan and her dress. Fry alluded to this on an April 2016 episode of The Rubin Report in which he criticized groupthink mentality and stated that his return to Twitter was a "maybe ''. He returned to Twitter in August 2016.
In 1995, Fry was presented with an honorary doctorate from the University of Dundee, which named their main Students ' Association bar after his novel The Liar. Fry is a patron of its Lip Theatre Company. He also served two consecutive terms -- 1992 to 1995 and 1995 to 1998 -- as the student - elected Rector of the University of Dundee. Such was his popularity, he was unopposed when he sought re-election to office in 1995, and by the time he completed his second term in office, he had won the widespread admiration of the University 's staff and students. He was awarded the AoC Gold Award in 2004, and was entered into their Hall of Fame. Fry was also awarded an honorary degree from Anglia Ruskin University in 2005.
He was made honorary president of the Cambridge University Quiz Society and honorary fellow of his alma mater Queens ' College, Cambridge. On 13 July 2010, he was made an honorary fellow of Cardiff University, and on 28 January 2011, he was awarded an honorary doctorate at the University of Sussex, for his work campaigning for people suffering from mental health problems, bipolar disorder and HIV. He is a Patron of the Norwich Playhouse theatre and a Vice-President of The Noël Coward Society. Fry was the last person to be named Pipe Smoker of the Year before the award was discontinued. In 2017, Fry became the latest patron of the Norwich Film Festival, and said he was "Very proud now to be a patron of a festival that encourages people from Norfolk, Norwich and beyond to be enchanted, beguiled and entranced by all kinds of film that might not otherwise reach them. ''
In December 2006, he was ranked sixth for the BBC 's Top Living Icon Award, was featured on The Culture Show, and was voted Most Intelligent Man on Television by readers of Radio Times. The Independent on Sunday Pink List named Fry the second most influential gay person in Britain in May 2007; he had taken the twenty - third position on the list the previous year. Later the same month, he was announced as the 2007 Mind Champion of the Year, in recognition of the success of his documentary The Secret Life of a Manic Depressive in raising awareness of bipolar disorder. He was also nominated in "Best Entertainment Performance '' for QI and "Best Factual Series '' for Secret Life of the Manic Depressive at the 2007 British Academy Television Awards. That same year, Broadcast magazine listed Fry at number four in its "Hot 100 '' list of influential on - screen performers, describing him as a polymath and a "national treasure ''. He was also granted a lifetime achievement award at the British Comedy Awards on 5 December 2007, and the Special Recognition Award at the National Television Awards on 20 January 2010.
BBC Four dedicated two nights of programming to Fry on 17 and 18 August 2007, in celebration of his 50th birthday. The first night, comprising programs featuring Fry, began with a sixty - minute documentary entitled Stephen Fry: 50 Not Out. The second night was composed of programmes selected by Fry, as well as a 60 - minute interview with Mark Lawson and a half - hour special, Stephen Fry: Guilty. The weekend programming proved such a ratings hit for BBC Four that it was repeated on BBC Two on 16 and 17 September 2007. In 2011, he was the subject of Molly Lewis 's song An Open Letter to Stephen Fry, in which the singer jokingly offers herself as a surrogate mother for his child. In February 2011, Fry was awarded the Outstanding Lifetime Achievement Award in Cultural Humanism by the Humanist Chaplaincy at Harvard University, the Harvard Secular Society and the American Humanist Association.
In 2012, Fry wrote the foreword to the Union of UEA Students report on the student experience for LGBT+ members. As recognition of his public support for LGBT+ rights and for the Union 's report, the Union of UEA Students awarded him, on 18 October 2012, Honorary Life Membership of the Union. In March 2014 Fry beat David Attenborough and Davina McCall to win the Best Presenter award at the Royal Television Society Programme Awards. The award was given for his BBC2 programme Stephen Fry: Out There. In an episode of QI, "M - Merriment '', originally broadcast in December 2015, Fry was awarded membership of The Magic Circle.
In 2017, the bird louse Saepocephalum stephenfryii was named after him, in honour of his contributions to the popularization of science as host of QI.
Fry married comedian Elliott Spencer in January 2015. Fry is on cordial terms with Prince Charles, through his work with the Prince 's Trust. He attended the Prince 's wedding to Camilla Parker Bowles in 2005. Fry is a friend of comedian and actor (and Blackadder co-star) Rowan Atkinson and was best man at Atkinson 's wedding to Sunetra Sastry at the Russian Tea Room in New York City. Fry was a friend of British actor John Mills. His best friend is Hugh Laurie, whom he met while both were at Cambridge and with whom he has collaborated many times over the years. He was best man at Laurie 's wedding and is godfather to all three of his children. Fry became a vegetarian in 2017, having earlier expressed a desire to become so.
A fan of cricket, Fry has stated that he is related to former England cricketer C.B. Fry, and was interviewed for the Ashes Fever DVD, reporting on England 's victory over Australia in the 2005 Ashes series. Regarding football, he is a supporter of Norwich City, and is a regular visitor to Carrow Road. He has been described as "deeply dippy for all things digital '', claims to have bought the third Macintosh computer sold in the UK (his friend Douglas Adams bought the first two) and jokes that he has never encountered a smartphone that he has not bought. He counts Wikipedia among his favourite websites "because I like to find out that I died, and that I 'm currently in a ballet in China, and all the other very accurate and important things that Wikipedia brings us all. ''
Fry has a long - standing interest in Internet production, including having his own website since 1997. His current site, The New Adventures of Mr Stephen Fry, has existed since 2002 and has attracted many visitors following his first blog in September 2007, which comprised a 6,500 - word "blessay '' on smartphones. In February 2008, Fry launched his private podcast series, Stephen Fry 's Podgrams (now discontinued), and a forum, including discussions on depression and activities in which Fry is involved. The website content is created by Fry and produced by Andrew Sampson. Fry 's weekly gadget column Dork Talk appeared in The Guardian from November 2007 to October 2008. Fry is also a supporter of GNU and the Free Software Foundation. For the 25th anniversary of the GNU operating system, Fry appeared in a video explaining some of the philosophy behind GNU by likening it to the sharing found in science. When in London, he drives a dark green TX4 London cab. This vehicle has been featured in Fry 's production Stephen Fry in America.
Fry struggled to keep his homosexuality secret during his teenage years at public school, and by his own account did not engage in sexual activity for 16 years from 1979 until 1995. When asked when he first acknowledged his sexuality, Fry quipped: "I suppose it all began when I came out of the womb. I looked back up at my mother and thought to myself, ' That 's the last time I 'm going up one of those '. '' Fry was in a 15 - year relationship with Daniel Cohen, which ended in 2010. In 2016, Fry was listed number 2 on the World Pride Power list.
On 6 January 2015, The Sun reported that Fry would marry his partner, comedian Elliott Spencer. Fry wrote on Twitter: "It looks as though a certain cat is out of a certain bag. I 'm very very happy of course but had hoped for a private wedding. Fat chance! '' Fry married Spencer on 17 January 2015 in the town of Dereham in Norfolk.
Fry was an active supporter of the Labour Party for many years and appeared in a party political broadcast on its behalf with Hugh Laurie and Michelle Collins in November 1993. He did not vote in the 2005 General Election because of the stance of both the Labour and Conservative parties with regard to the Iraq War. Despite his praise of the Blair / Brown government 's work on social reform, Fry has been critical of the Labour Party 's "Third Way '' concept. Fry appeared in literature to support changing the British electoral system from first - past - the - post to alternative vote for electing members of parliament to the House of Commons in the Alternative Vote referendum of 2011.
On 30 April 2008, Fry signed an open letter, published in The Guardian newspaper by some well - known Jewish personalities, stating their opposition to celebrating the 60th anniversary of the founding of the state of Israel. Furthermore, he is a signatory member of the British Jews for Justice for Palestinians organisation, which campaigns for Palestinian rights. Fry was among over 100 signatories to a statement published by Sense About Science on 4 June 2009, condemning British libel laws and their use to "severely curtail the right to free speech on a matter of public interest ''.
In August 2013, Fry published an "Open Letter to David Cameron and the IOC '' calling for a boycott of the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, due to concerns over the state - sanctioned persecution of LGBT persons in Russia. Cameron however stated on Twitter he believed "we can better challenge prejudice as we attend, rather than boycotting the Winter Olympics ''. Adrian Hilton, writing in the Daily Mail, criticised Fry for not calling for a boycott of all Russian performing arts. Fry responded by accusing the Daily Mail of being "against progress, the liberalising of attitudes, modern art and strangers (whether by race, gender or sexuality) ''. Fry said in 2015 that the Daily Mail editor Paul Dacre "has done more to damage the Britain I love than any single person ''.
In March 2014, Fry publicly backed "Hacked Off '' and its campaign towards press self - regulation by "safeguarding the press from political interference while also giving vital protection to the vulnerable. ''
On 6 October 2009, Fry was interviewed by Jon Snow on Channel 4 News as a signatory of a letter to British Conservative Party leader David Cameron expressing concern about the party forming a political alliance with the right - wing Polish Law and Justice party in the European Parliament. During the interview, he stated:
There has been a history, let 's face it, in Poland of a right - wing Catholicism which has been deeply disturbing for those of us who know a little history, and remember which side of the border Auschwitz was on and know the stories, and know much of the anti-semitic, and homophobic and nationalistic elements in countries like Poland.
The remark prompted a complaint from the Polish Embassy in London, an editorial in The Economist and criticism from British Jewish historian David Cesarani. Fry has since posted an apology in a six - page post on his personal blog, in which he stated:
I offer no excuse. I seemed to imply that the Polish people had been responsible for the most infamous of all the death factories of the Third Reich. I did n't even really at the time notice the import of what I had said, so gave myself no opportunity instantly to retract the statement. It was a rubbishy, cheap and offensive remark that I have been regretting ever since. I take this opportunity to apologise now. I said a stupid, thoughtless and fatuous thing. It detracted from and devalued my argument, such as it was, and it outraged and offended a large group of people for no very good reason. I am sorry in all directions, and all the more sorry because it is no one 's fault but my own, which always makes it so much worse.
Fry has bipolar disorder. His first diagnosis was cyclothymia, which he refers to as "bipolar lite ''. Fry has spoken publicly about his experience with bipolar disorder, which was depicted in the documentary Stephen Fry: The Secret Life of the Manic Depressive. In the programme, he interviewed other sufferers of the illness including Robbie Williams, Carrie Fisher, Richard Dreyfuss and Tony Slattery. He is involved with the mental health charity Stand to Reason and is president of Mind. In 2013 he revealed that, in the previous year, he had started taking medication for the first time, in an attempt to control his condition.
In 1995, while appearing in the West End Cell Mates, Fry suffered an acute episode of mental illness and walked out of the production, causing its early closure and incurring the displeasure of co-star Rik Mayall and playwright Simon Gray. Fry went missing for several days and contemplated suicide. He later said that he would have killed himself if he had not had "the option of disappearing ''. He abandoned the idea and left the United Kingdom by ferry, eventually resurfacing in Belgium. Fry has attempted suicide on a number of occasions, most recently in 2012. In an interview with Richard Herring in 2013, Fry revealed that he had attempted suicide the previous year while filming abroad. He said that he took a "huge number of pills and a huge (amount) of vodka '' and had to be brought back to the UK to be "looked after ''.
In January 2008, Fry broke his arm while filming Last Chance to See in Brazil. While climbing aboard a boat, he slipped between it and the dock, and, stopping himself from falling into the water, his body weight snapped his right humerus. The resulting vulnerability to his radial nerve -- which affects use of the arm -- was not diagnosed until he saw a consultant in the UK.
Appearing on the BBC 's Top Gear in 2009, Fry had lost a significant amount of weight, and explained that he had shed a total of 6 stone (84 lb; 38 kg), attributing the weight loss to doing a lot of walking while listening to downloaded audiobooks. Fry is between 6 feet 4 inches (1.93 m) and 6 feet 5 inches (1.96 m) in height. Fry has stated that he is allergic to champagne and bumble bee stings. Fry has prosopagnosia.
Fry has repeatedly expressed opposition to organised religion, and has identified himself as an atheist and humanist, while declaring some sympathy for the ancient Greek belief in capricious gods. In his first autobiography he described how he once considered ordination to the Anglican priesthood, but came to the conclusion that he "could n't believe in God, because (he) was fundamentally Hellenic in (his) outlook. '' He has stated that religion can have positive effects: "Sometimes belief means credulity, sometimes an expression of faith and hope which even the most sceptical atheist such as myself can not but find inspiring. ''
In 2009, The Guardian published a letter from Fry addressing his younger self, explaining how his future is soon to unfold, reflecting on the positive progression towards gay acceptance and openness around him, and yet not everywhere, while warning on how "the cruel, hypocritical and loveless hand of religion and absolutism has fallen on the world once more. '' Later that year, he and Christopher Hitchens participated in an "Intelligence Squared '' debate in which they argued against Ann Widdecombe and Archbishop John Onaiyekan, who supported the view that the Catholic Church was a force for good. Fry and Hitchens argued that the church did more harm than good. Fry attacked the Catholic Church 's teachings on sexuality and denounced its wealth.
In 2010 Fry was made a Distinguished Supporter of the British Humanist Association, stating: "it is essential to nail one 's colours to the mast as a humanist. '' Later that year, Fry joined 54 other public figures in signing an open letter published in The Guardian stating their opposition to Pope Benedict XVI 's visit to the United Kingdom being a state visit. On 22 February 2011, Fry was presented with the Lifetime Achievement Award in Cultural Humanism by the Humanist Chaplaincy at Harvard University.
When interviewed in 2015 by veteran Irish broadcaster Gay Byrne, Fry was asked what he would say if he came face - to - face with God. Fry said: "Bone cancer in children, what 's that about? How dare you? How dare you create a world where there is such misery that 's not our fault? It 's utterly, utterly evil. Why should I respect a capricious, mean - minded, stupid God who creates a world which is so full of injustice and pain? '' Within days, the video was viewed over five million times. Fry later stated he did not refer to any specific religion, and said: "I said quite a few things that were angry at this supposed God. I was merely saying things that Bertrand Russell and many finer heads of the mind have said for many thousands of years, going all the way back to the Greeks. '' Because the God who created this universe, if it was created by God, is quite clearly a maniac, utter maniac. ' In May 2017 it was announced that Fry, along with broadcaster RTÉ, were under criminal investigation for blasphemy under the 2009 Defamation Act, following a complaint from a member of the public about the broadcast: the case was dropped after the police confirmed that they had not been able to locate a sufficient number of offended people.
In 2008, Fry formed SamFry Ltd, with long - term collaborator Andrew Sampson to produce and fund new material and manage his official website. Fry is the co-owner, with Gina Carter and Sandi Toksvig, of Sprout Pictures, an independent film and television company.
In 2008 he appeared in a film made by the Free Software Foundation to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the GNU Project to create a completely free operating system. In the film Fry explains the principles of software freedom central to the development of the Linux and GNU software projects.
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who has been married at st george chapel | St George 's chapel, Windsor Castle - wikipedia
St George 's Chapel is the place of worship at Windsor Castle in England, United Kingdom. It is both a royal peculiar and the chapel of the Order of the Garter. The chapel is governed by the dean and Canons of Windsor. It seats approximately 800.
The castle chapel was established in the 14th century by King Edward III and began extensive enlargement in the late 15th century. It has been the location of many royal ceremonies, weddings and burials. The chapel is located in the Lower Ward. Windsor Castle is a principal residence for Queen Elizabeth II and its chapel is the planned burial site for the queen.
The day - to - day running of the chapel is the responsibility of the religious College of St George, which is directed by a chapter of the dean and four canons, assisted by a clerk, virger (traditional spelling of verger) and other staffers. The Society of the Friends of St George 's and Descendants of the Knights of the Garter, a registered charity, was established in 1931 to assist the College in maintaining the chapel.
In 1348, King Edward III founded two new religious colleges: St Stephen 's at Westminster and St George 's at Windsor. The new college at Windsor was attached to the Chapel of St Edward the Confessor which had been constructed by Henry III in the early thirteenth century. The chapel was then rededicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary, St Edward the Confessor and St George the Martyr. Edward III also built the Aerary Porch in 1353 -- 1354. It was used as the entrance to the new college.
St George 's Chapel became the Mother Church of the Order of the Garter, and a special service is still held in the chapel every June and is attended by the members of the order. Their heraldic banners hang above the upper stalls of the choir where they have a seat for life.
The period 1475 -- 1528 saw a radical redevelopment of St George 's Chapel, set in motion by Edward IV and continued by Henry VII and Henry VIII. The thirteenth century Chapel of St Edward the Confessor was expanded into a huge new Cathedral - like chapel under the supervision of Richard Beauchamp, Bishop of Salisbury, and the direction of the master mason Henry Janyns. The Horseshoe Cloister was constructed for the new community of 45 junior members: 16 vicars, a deacon gospeller, 13 lay clerks, 2 clerks epistoler and 13 choristers. The choristers of St George 's Chapel are still in existence to this day, although the total number is not fixed and is nearer to 20. The choristers are educated at St George 's School, Windsor Castle. They are full boarders at the school and attend practice in the castle every morning and perform at services throughout the entire week, with the exception of Wednesdays.
St George 's Chapel was a popular destination for pilgrims during the late medieval period. The chapel was purported to contain several important relics: the bodies of John Schorne and Henry VI of England and a fragment of the True Cross held in a reliquary called the Cross of Gneth. These relics all appear to have been displayed at the east end of the south choir aisle.
The Chapel suffered a great deal of destruction during the English Civil War. Parliamentary forces broke into and plundered the chapel and treasury on 23 October 1642. Further pillaging occurred in 1643 when the fifteenth - century chapter house was destroyed, lead was stripped off the chapel roofs, and elements of Henry VIII 's unfinished funeral monument were stolen. Following his execution in 1649, Charles I was buried in a small vault in the centre of the choir at St George 's Chapel which also contained the coffins of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour. A programme of repair was undertaken at St George 's Chapel following the Restoration of the monarchy.
The reign of Queen Victoria saw further changes made to the architecture of the chapel. The east end of the choir was reworked in devotion to Prince Albert; the Lady Chapel, which had been abandoned by Henry VII, was completed; a royal mausoleum was completed underneath the Lady Chapel; and a set of steps were built at the west end of the chapel to create a ceremonial entrance to the building. In the 21st century, St George 's accommodates approximately 800 persons for services and events.
On the roof of the chapel, standing on the pinnacles, and also on pinnacles on the sides, are seventy - six heraldic statues representing the Queen 's (or King 's) Beasts. They represent fourteen of the heraldic animals: the lion of England, the red dragon of Wales, the panther of Jane Seymour, the falcon of York, the black bull of Clarence, the yale of Beaufort, the white lion of Mortimer, the greyhound of Richmond, the white hart of Richard II, the collared silver antelope of Bohun, the black dragon of Ulster, the white swan of Hereford, the unicorn of Edward III and the golden hind of Kent.
The original beasts dated from the sixteenth century, but were removed in 1682 on the advice of Sir Christopher Wren. Wren had condemned the Reigate stone, the calcareous sandstone of which they were constructed. The present statues date from 1925, when the chapel was restored.
Members of the Order meet at Windsor Castle every June for the annual Garter Service. After lunch in the State Apartments in the Upper Ward of the Castle they process on foot, wearing their robes and insignia, down to St George 's Chapel where the service is held. If any new members have been admitted to the Order they are installed at the service. After the service, the members of the order return to the Upper Ward by carriage or car.
The Order once enjoyed frequent services at the chapel, but, after becoming infrequent in the 18th century, they were discontinued after 1805. The ceremony was revived in 1948 by King George VI for the 600th anniversary of the founding of the Order, and has since become an annual event.
After their installation, members are each assigned a stall in the chapel choir above which his or her heraldic devices are displayed.
A member 's sword is placed below a helm which is decorated with a mantling and topped by a crest, coronet or crown. Above this, a member 's heraldic banner is flown emblazoned with his or her arms. A Garter stall plate, a small elaborately enamelled plate of brass, is affixed to the back of the stall displaying its member 's name and arms with other inscriptions.
On a member 's death, the sword, helm, mantling, crest, coronet or crown, and banner are removed. A ceremony marking the death of the late member must be held before the stall can be assigned to anyone else. This ceremony takes place in the chapel, during which the Military Knights of Windsor carry the banner of the deceased member and offer it to the Dean of Windsor, who places it on the altar.
The stall plates, however, are not removed; rather, they remain permanently affixed somewhere about the stall, so the stalls of the chapel are festooned with a colourful record of the members throughout history.
St George 's Windsor is among the most important and ambitious medieval chantry foundations to have survived in England. The college, itself a medieval chantry, also contains a number of independent chantries in the form of altars and small chapels dedicated to various members of the English monarchy and also to a number of prominent courtiers, deans and canons. Masses, the Office and prayers would be offered in these chantries for the good of the founder. Interestingly, Henry VIII had intended a chantry to be set up in the Chapel, despite the fact that he instituted the religious changes which brought about the Reformation in England and the eventual suppression of chantries.
The much admired iron gates in the sanctuary of the chapel as well as the locks on the doors of the chapel are the work of the Cornish metalsmith John Tresilian.
The status of the college as a royal foundation saved it from dissolution at the Reformation. As a result, many of the smaller chantries within the chapel were preserved. These are the only remaining chantries of their kind in England which have never formally been suppressed.
The St Ledger Chantry, forming the northern transept of St. George 's Chapel, was founded in 1481 by Thomas St. Leger (c. 1440 -- 1483), second husband of Anne of York, Duchess of Exeter (1439 -- 1476), the eldest surviving daughter of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, and thus elder sister to Kings Edward IV (1461 -- 1483) and Richard III (1483 -- 1485). It was later named the Rutland Chantry in honour of Anne 's son - in - law George Manners, 11th Baron de Ros (whose effigy, with that of his wife Anne St Ledger, is situated in the chantry), father of Thomas Manners, 1st Earl of Rutland. A Monumental brass in memory of Anne of York and her husband Sir Thomas St Ledger survives on the east wall of the St Ledger Chantry, the inscription of which records that the chantry was founded "with two priests singing forevermore '':
"Wythin thys Chappell lyethe beryed Anne Duchess of Exetur suster unto the noble kyng Edward the forte. And also the body of syr Thomas Sellynger knyght her husband which hathe funde within thys College a Chauntre with too prestys sy'gyng for ev'more. On whose soule god have mercy. The wych Anne duchess dyed in the yere of oure lorde M Thowsande CCCCl xxv ''
The chapel has been the site of many royal weddings, particularly of the children of Queen Victoria. These weddings include:
The chapel has been the site of many royal funerals and interments. Persons interred here include:
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when did may the 4th be with you begin | Star Wars Day - wikipedia
Star Wars Day, May 4, celebrates George Lucas ' Star Wars. It is observed by fans of the media franchise. Observance of the holiday spread quickly through media and grassroots celebrations.
The date was chosen for the pun on the catchphrase "May the Force be with you '' as "May the Fourth be with you ''. Even though the holiday was not actually created or declared by Lucasfilm, many Star Wars fans across the world have chosen to celebrate the holiday. It has since been embraced by Lucasfilm as an annual celebration of Star Wars.
Apocryphally, the reference was first used on May 4, 1979, the day Margaret Thatcher took office as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. An online news article from the Danish public broadcaster says her political party, the Conservatives, placed a congratulatory advertisement in The London Evening News, saying "May the Fourth Be with You, Maggie. Congratulations. ''
The saying was used in a UK Parliament defence debate on May 4th 1994.
Astrophysicist and author Jeanne Cavelos used the saying on page 94 of her 1999 book The Science of Star Wars.
In 2008, the first Facebook groups appeared, celebrating Luke Skywalker Day, with the same catchphrase. While the initial group never received widespread acclaim, the phenomenon spread to college campuses a few years later, and Star Wars Day was born.
In 2011, the first organized celebration of Star Wars Day took place in Toronto, Ontario, Canada at the Toronto Underground Cinema. Produced by Sean Ward and Alice Quinn, festivities included an Original Trilogy Trivia Game Show; a costume contest with celebrity judges; and the web 's best tribute films, mash - ups, parodies, and remixes on the big screen. The second annual edition took place on Friday, May 4, 2012.
Fans (even government officials) have celebrated Star Wars in a variety of ways in social media and on television.
Since 2013, The Walt Disney Company has officially observed the holiday with several Star Wars events and festivities at Disneyland and Walt Disney World. Disney had purchased Lucasfilm including the rights to Star Wars in late 2012.
Minor League baseball teams such as the Toledo Mud Hens and the Durham Bulls have worn special uniforms as part of Star Wars Day promotions.
On Star Wars Day 2015, astronauts in the International Space Station watched Star Wars.
Some recognize the following day, May 5, as "Revenge of the Fifth '', a play on Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith and celebrate the Sith Lords from the Star Wars series rather than the Jedi.
Others celebrate this one day later, on May 6, citing "Revenge of the Sixth '' as a better play on "Sith ''.
The Los Angeles City Council declared May 25, 2007, as Star Wars Day, in honor of the 30th anniversary release date of Star Wars. A separate initiative for observing Geek Pride Day on May 25 is based on the Star Wars connection along with ties to The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy (Towel Day) and Discworld.
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where did the formula for area of a circle come from | Area of a circle - wikipedia
In geometry, the area enclosed by a circle of radius r is π r. Here the Greek letter π represents a constant, approximately equal to 3.14159, which is equal to the ratio of the circumference of any circle to its diameter.
One method of deriving this formula, which originated with Archimedes, involves viewing the circle as the limit of a sequence of regular polygons. The area of a regular polygon is half its perimeter multiplied by the distance from its center to its sides, and the corresponding formula (that the area is half the perimeter times the radius, i.e. ⁄ × 2πr × r) holds in the limit for a circle.
Although often referred to as the area of a circle in informal contexts, strictly speaking the term disk refers to the interior of the circle, while circle is reserved for the boundary only, which is a curve and covers no area itself. Therefore, the area of a disk is the more precise phrase for the area enclosed by a circle.
Modern mathematics can obtain the area using the methods of integral calculus or its more sophisticated offspring, real analysis. However the area of a disk was studied by the Ancient Greeks. Eudoxus of Cnidus in the fifth century B.C. had found that the area of a disk is proportional to its radius squared. Archimedes used the tools of Euclidean geometry to show that the area inside a circle is equal to that of a right triangle whose base has the length of the circle 's circumference and whose height equals the circle 's radius in his book Measurement of a Circle. The circumference is 2πr, and the area of a triangle is half the base times the height, yielding the area π r for the disk. Prior to Archimedes, Hippocrates of Chios was the first to show that the area of a disk is proportional to the square of its diameter, as part of his quadrature of the lune of Hippocrates, but did not identify the constant of proportionality.
A variety of arguments have been advanced historically to establish the equation A = π r 2 (\ displaystyle A = \ pi r ^ (2)) of varying degrees of mathematical rigor. The most famous of these is Archimedes ' method of exhaustion, one of the earliest uses of the mathematical concept of a limit, as well as the origin of Archimedes ' axiom which remains part of the standard analytical treatment of the real number system. The original proof of Archimedes is not quite rigorous by modern standards, because it assumes that we can compare the length of arc of a circle to the length of a secant and a tangent line, and similar statements about the area, as geometrically evident.
The area of a regular polygon is half its perimeter times the apothem. As the number of sides of the regular polygon increases, the polygon tends to a circle, and the apothem tends to the radius. This suggests that the area of a disk is half the circumference of its bounding circle times the radius.
Following Archimedes & c. 260 BCE, compare the area enclosed by a circle to a right triangle whose base has the length of the circle 's circumference and whose height equals the circle 's radius. If the area of the circle is not equal to that of the triangle, then it must be either greater or less. We eliminate each of these by contradiction, leaving equality as the only possibility. We use regular polygons in the same way.
Suppose that the area C enclosed by the circle is greater than the area T = ⁄ cr of the triangle. Let E denote the excess amount. Inscribe a square in the circle, so that its four corners lie on the circle. Between the square and the circle are four segments. If the total area of those gaps, G, is greater than E, split each arc in half. This makes the inscribed square into an inscribed octagon, and produces eight segments with a smaller total gap, G. Continue splitting until the total gap area, G, is less than E. Now the area of the inscribed polygon, P = C − G, must be greater than that of the triangle.
But this forces a contradiction, as follows. Draw a perpendicular from the center to the midpoint of a side of the polygon; its length, h, is less than the circle radius. Also, let each side of the polygon have length s; then the sum of the sides, ns, is less than the circle circumference. The polygon area consists of n equal triangles with height h and base s, thus equals ⁄ nhs. But since h < r and ns < c, the polygon area must be less than the triangle area, ⁄ cr, a contradiction. Therefore, our supposition that C might be greater than T must be wrong.
Suppose that the area enclosed by the circle is less than the area T of the triangle. Let D denote the deficit amount. Circumscribe a square, so that the midpoint of each edge lies on the circle. If the total area gap between the square and the circle, G, is greater than D, slice off the corners with circle tangents to make a circumscribed octagon, and continue slicing until the gap area is less than D. The area of the polygon, P, must be less than T.
This, too, forces a contradiction. For, a perpendicular to the midpoint of each polygon side is a radius, of length r. And since the total side length is greater than the circumference, the polygon consists of n identical triangles with total area greater than T. Again we have a contradiction, so our supposition that C might be less than T must be wrong as well.
Therefore, it must be the case that the area enclosed by the circle is precisely the same as the area of the triangle. This concludes the proof.
Following Satō Moshun (Smith & Mikami 1914, pp. 130 -- 132) and Leonardo da Vinci (Beckmann 1976, p. 19), we can use inscribed regular polygons in a different way. Suppose we inscribe a hexagon. Cut the hexagon into six triangles by splitting it from the center. Two opposite triangles both touch two common diameters; slide them along one so the radial edges are adjacent. They now form a parallelogram, with the hexagon sides making two opposite edges, one of which is the base, s. Two radial edges form slanted sides, and the height is h (as in the Archimedes proof). In fact, we can assemble all the triangles into one big parallelogram by putting successive pairs next to each other. The same is true if we increase to eight sides and so on. For a polygon with 2n sides, the parallelogram will have a base of length ns, and a height h. As the number of sides increases, the length of the parallelogram base approaches half the circle circumference, and its height approaches the circle radius. In the limit, the parallelogram becomes a rectangle with width πr and height r.
There are various equivalent definitions of the constant π. The conventional definition in pre-calculus geometry is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter:
However, because the circumference of a circle is not a primitive analytical concept, this definition is not suitable in modern rigorous treatments. A standard modern definition is that π is equal to twice the least positive root of the cosine function or, equivalently, the half - period of the sine (or cosine) function. The cosine function can be defined either as a power series, or as the solution of a certain differential equation. This avoids any reference to circles in the definition of π, so that statements about the relation of π to the circumference and area of circles are actually theorems, rather than definitions, that follow from the analytical definitions of concepts like "area '' and "circumference ''.
The analytical definitions are seen to be equivalent, if it is agreed that the circumference of the circle is measured as a rectifiable curve by means of the integral
The integral appearing on the right is an abelian integral whose value is a half - period of the sine function, equal to π. Thus C = 2 π R = π D (\ displaystyle C = 2 \ pi R = \ pi D) is seen to be true as a theorem.
Several of the arguments that follow use only concepts from elementary calculus to reproduce the formula A = π r 2 (\ displaystyle A = \ pi r ^ (2)), but in many cases to regard these as actual proofs, they rely implicitly on the fact that one can develop trigonometric functions and the fundamental constant π in a way that is totally independent of their relation to geometry. We have indicated where appropriate how each of these proofs can be made totally independent of all trigonometry, but in some cases that requires more sophisticated mathematical ideas than those afforded by elementary calculus.
Using calculus, we can sum the area incrementally, partitioning the disk into thin concentric rings like the layers of an onion. This is the method of shell integration in two dimensions. For an infinitesimally thin ring of the "onion '' of radius t, the accumulated area is 2πt dt, the circumferential length of the ring times its infinitesimal width (one can approximate this ring by a rectangle with width = 2πt and height = dt). This gives an elementary integral for a disk of radius r.
It is rigorously justified by the multivariate substitution rule in polar coordinates. Namely, the area is given by a double integral of the constant function 1 over the disk itself. If D denotes the disk, then the double integral can be computed in polar coordinates as follows:
which is the same result as obtained above.
An equivalent rigorous justification, without relying on the special coordinates of trigonometry, uses the coarea formula. Define a function ρ: R 2 → R (\ displaystyle \ rho: \ mathbb (R) ^ (2) \ to \ mathbb (R)) by ρ (x, y) = x 2 + y 2 (\ displaystyle \ rho (x, y) = (\ sqrt (x ^ (2) + y ^ (2)))). Note ρ is a Lipschitz function whose gradient is a unit vector ∇ ρ = 1 (\ displaystyle \ nabla \ rho = 1) (almost everywhere). Let D be the disc ρ < 1 (\ displaystyle \ rho < 1) in R 2 (\ displaystyle \ mathbb (R) ^ (2)). We will show that L 2 (D) = π (\ displaystyle (\ mathcal (L)) ^ (2) (D) = \ pi), where L 2 (\ displaystyle (\ mathcal (L)) ^ (2)) is the two - dimensional Lebesgue measure in R 2 (\ displaystyle \ mathbb (R) ^ (2)). We shall assume that the one - dimensional Hausdorff measure of the circle ρ = r (\ displaystyle \ rho = r) is 2 π r (\ displaystyle 2 \ pi r), the circumference of the circle of radius r. (This can be taken as the definition of circumference.) Then, by the coarea formula,
Similar to the onion proof outlined above, we could exploit calculus in a different way in order to arrive at the formula for the area of a disk. Consider unwrapping the concentric circles to straight strips. This will form a right angled triangle with r as its height and 2πr (being the outer slice of onion) as its base.
Finding the area of this triangle will give the area of the disk
The opposite and adjacent angles for this triangle are respectively in degrees 9.0430611..., 80.956939... and in radians 0.1578311... A233527, 1.4129651... A233528.
Explicitly, we imagine dividing up a circle into triangles, each with a height equal to the circle 's radius and a base that is infinitesimally small. The area of each of these triangles is equal to 1 / 2 ⋅ r ⋅ d u (\ displaystyle 1 / 2 \ cdot r \ cdot du). By summing up (integrating) all of the areas of these triangles, we arrive at the formula for the circle 's area:
It too can be justified by a double integral of the constant function 1 over the disk by reversing the order of integration and using a change of variables in the above iterated integral:
Making the substitution u = r θ, d u = r d θ (\ displaystyle u = r \ theta, \ du = r \ d \ theta) converts the integral to
which is the same as the above result.
The triangle proof can be reformulated as an application of Green 's theorem in flux - divergence form (i.e. a two - dimensional version of the divergence theorem), in a way that avoids all mention of trigonometry and the constant π. Consider the vector field r = x i + y j (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (r) = x \ mathbf (i) + y \ mathbf (j)) in the plane. So the divergence of r is equal to two, and hence the area of a disc D is equal to
By Green 's theorem, this is the same as the outward flux of r across the circle bounding D:
where n is the unit normal and ds is the arc length measure. For a circle of radius R centered at the origin, we have r = R (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (r) = R) and n = r / R (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (n) = \ mathbf (r) / R), so the above equality is
The integral of ds over the whole circle ∂ D (\ displaystyle \ partial D) is just the arc length, which is its circumference, so this shows that the area A enclosed by the circle is equal to R / 2 (\ displaystyle R / 2) times the circumference of the circle.
Note that the area of a semicircle of radius r can be computed by the integral ∫ − r r r 2 − x 2 d x (\ displaystyle \ int _ (- r) ^ (r) (\ sqrt (r ^ (2) - x ^ (2))) \, dx).
By trigonometric substitution, we substitute x = r sin θ (\ displaystyle x = r \ sin \ theta), hence d x = r cos θ d θ. (\ displaystyle dx = r \ cos \ theta \, d \ theta.)
The last step follows since the trigonometric identity cos (θ) = sin (π / 2 − θ) (\ displaystyle \ cos (\ theta) = \ sin (\ pi / 2 - \ theta)) implies that cos 2 θ (\ displaystyle \ cos ^ (2) \ theta) and sin 2 θ (\ displaystyle \ sin ^ (2) \ theta) have equal integrals over the interval (0, π / 2) (\ displaystyle (0, \ pi / 2)), using integration by substitution. But on the other hand, since cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1 (\ displaystyle \ cos ^ (2) \ theta + \ sin ^ (2) \ theta = 1), the sum of the two integrals is the length of that interval, which is π / 2 (\ displaystyle \ pi / 2). Consequently, the integral of cos 2 θ (\ displaystyle \ cos ^ (2) \ theta) is equal to half the length of that interval, which is π / 4 (\ displaystyle \ pi / 4).
Therefore, the area of a circle of radius r, which is twice the area of the semi-circle, is equal to 2 ⋅ π r 2 2 = π r 2 (\ displaystyle 2 \ cdot (\ frac (\ pi r ^ (2)) (2)) = \ pi r ^ (2)).
This particular proof may appear to beg the question, if the sine and cosine functions involved in the trigonometric substitution are regarded as being defined in relation to circles. However, as noted earlier, it is possible to define sine, cosine, and π in a way that is totally independent of trigonometry, in which case the proof is valid by the change of variables formula and Fubini 's theorem, assuming the basic properties of sine and cosine (which can also be proved without assuming anything about their relation to circles).
The circle is the closed curve of least perimeter that encloses the maximum area. This is known as the isoperimetric inequality, which states that if a rectifiable Jordan curve in the Euclidean plane has perimeter C and encloses an area A (by the Jordan curve theorem) then
Moreover, equality holds in this inequality if and only if the curve is a circle, in which case A = π r 2 (\ displaystyle A = \ pi r ^ (2)) and C = 2 π r (\ displaystyle C = 2 \ pi r).
The calculations Archimedes used to approximate the area numerically were laborious, and he stopped with a polygon of 96 sides. A faster method uses ideas of Willebrord Snell (Cyclometricus, 1621), further developed by Christiaan Huygens (De Circuli Magnitudine Inventa, 1654), described in Gerretsen & Verdenduin (1983, pp. 243 -- 250).
Given a circle, let u be the perimeter of an inscribed regular n - gon, and let U be the perimeter of a circumscribed regular n - gon. Then u and U are lower and upper bounds for the circumference of the circle that become sharper and sharper as n increases, and their average (u + U) / 2 is an especially good approximation to the circumference. To compute u and U for large n, Archimedes derived the following doubling formulae:
Starting from a hexagon, Archimedes doubled n four times to get a 96 - gon, which gave him a good approximation to the circumference of the circle.
In modern notation, we can reproduce his computation (and go further) as follows. For a unit circle, an inscribed hexagon has u = 6, and a circumscribed hexagon has U = 4 √ 3. Doubling seven times yields
(Here (u + U) / 2 approximates the circumference of the unit circle, which is 2π, so (u + U) / 4 approximates π.)
The last entry of the table has ⁄ as one of its best rational approximations; i.e., there is no better approximation among rational numbers with denominator up to 113. The number ⁄ is also an excellent approximation to π, better than any other rational number with denominator less than 16604.
Snell proposed (and Huygens proved) a tighter bound than Archimedes ':
This for n = 48 gives a better approximation (about 3.14159292) than Archimedes ' method for n = 768.
Let one side of an inscribed regular n - gon have length s and touch the circle at points A and B. Let A ′ be the point opposite A on the circle, so that A ′ A is a diameter, and A ′ AB is an inscribed triangle on a diameter. By Thales ' theorem, this is a right triangle with right angle at B. Let the length of A ′ B be c, which we call the complement of s; thus c + s = (2r). Let C bisect the arc from A to B, and let C ′ be the point opposite C on the circle. Thus the length of CA is s, the length of C ′ A is c, and C ′ CA is itself a right triangle on diameter C ′ C. Because C bisects the arc from A to B, C ′ C perpendicularly bisects the chord from A to B, say at P. Triangle C ′ AP is thus a right triangle, and is similar to C ′ CA since they share the angle at C ′. Thus all three corresponding sides are in the same proportion; in particular, we have C ′ A: C ′ C = C ′ P: C ′ A and AP: C ′ A = CA: C ′ C. The center of the circle, O, bisects A ′ A, so we also have triangle OAP similar to A ′ AB, with OP half the length of A ′ B. In terms of side lengths, this gives us
In the first equation C ′ P is C ′ O + OP, length r+ ⁄ c, and C ′ C is the diameter, 2r. For a unit circle we have the famous doubling equation of Ludolph van Ceulen,
If we now circumscribe a regular n - gon, with side A '' B '' parallel to AB, then OAB and OA '' B '' are similar triangles, with A '' B '': AB = OC: OP. Call the circumscribed side S; then this is S: s = 1: ⁄ c. (We have again used that OP is half the length of A ′ B.) Thus we obtain
Call the inscribed perimeter u = ns, and the circumscribed perimenter U = nS. Then combining equations, we have
so that
This gives a geometric mean equation.
We can also deduce
or
This gives a harmonic mean equation.
When more efficient methods of finding areas are not available, we can resort to "throwing darts ''. This Monte Carlo method uses the fact that if random samples are taken uniformly scattered across the surface of a square in which a disk resides, the proportion of samples that hit the disk approximates the ratio of the area of the disk to the area of the square. This should be considered a method of last resort for computing the area of a disk (or any shape), as it requires an enormous number of samples to get useful accuracy; an estimate good to 10 requires about 100 random samples (Thijsse 2006, p. 273).
We have seen that by partitioning the disk into an infinite number of pieces we can reassemble the pieces into a rectangle. A remarkable fact discovered relatively recently (Laczkovich 1990) is that we can dissect the disk into a large but finite number of pieces and then reassemble the pieces into a square of equal area. This is called Tarski 's circle - squaring problem. The nature of Laczkovich 's proof is such that it proves the existence of such a partition (in fact, of many such partitions) but does not exhibit any particular partition.
Circles can be defined in non-Euclidean geometry, and in particular in the hyperbolic and elliptic planes.
For example, the unit sphere S 2 (1) (\ displaystyle S ^ (2) (1)) is a model for the two - dimensional elliptic plane. It carries an intrinsic metric that arises by measuring geodesic length. The geodesic circles are the parallels in a geodesic coordinate system.
More precisely, fix a point z ∈ S 2 (1) (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (z) \ in S ^ (2) (1)) that we place at the zenith. Associated to that zenith is a geodesic polar coordinate system (φ, θ) (\ displaystyle (\ phi, \ theta)), 0 ≤ φ ≤ π (\ displaystyle 0 \ leq \ phi \ leq \ pi), 0 ≤ θ < 2 π (\ displaystyle 0 \ leq \ theta < 2 \ pi), where z is the point φ = 0 (\ displaystyle \ phi = 0). In these coordinates, the geodesic distance from z to any other point x ∈ S 2 (1) (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (x) \ in S ^ (2) (1)) having coordinates (φ, θ) (\ displaystyle (\ phi, \ theta)) is the value of φ (\ displaystyle \ phi) at x. A spherical circle is the set of points a geodesic distance R from the zenith point z. Equivalently, with a fixed embedding into R 3 (\ displaystyle \ mathbb (R) ^ (3)), the spherical circle of radius R ≤ π (\ displaystyle R \ leq \ pi) centered at z is the set of x in S 2 (1) (\ displaystyle S ^ (2) (1)) such that x ⋅ z = cos R (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (x) \ cdot \ mathbf (z) = \ cos R).
We can also measure the area of the spherical disk enclosed within a spherical circle, using the intrinsic surface area measure on the sphere. The area of the disk of radius R is then given by
More generally, if a sphere S 2 (ρ) (\ displaystyle S ^ (2) (\ rho)) has radius of curvature ρ (\ displaystyle \ rho), then the area of the disk of radius R is given by
Observe that, as an application of L'Hôpital's rule, this tends to the Euclidean area π R 2 (\ displaystyle \ pi R ^ (2)) in the flat limit ρ → ∞ (\ displaystyle \ rho \ to \ infty).
The hyperbolic case is similar, with the area of a disk of intrinsic radius R in the (constant curvature − 1 (\ displaystyle - 1)) hyperbolic plane given by
where cosh is the hyperbolic cosine. More generally, for the constant curvature − k (\ displaystyle - k) hyperbolic plane, the answer is
These identities are important for comparison inequalities in geometry. For example, the area enclosed by a circle of radius R in a flat space is always greater than the area of a spherical circle and smaller than a hyperbolic circle, provided all three circles have the same (intrinsic) radius. That is,
for all R > 0 (\ displaystyle R > 0). Intuitively, this is because the sphere tends to curve back on itself, yielding circles of smaller area than those in the plane, whilst the hyperbolic plane, when immersed into space, develops fringes that produce additional area. It is more generally true that the area of the circle of a fixed radius R is a strictly decreasing function of the curvature.
In all cases, if k (\ displaystyle k) is the curvature (constant, positive or negative), then the isoperimetric inequality for a domain with area A and perimeter L is
where equality is achieved precisely for the circle.
We can stretch a disk to form an ellipse. Because this stretch is a linear transformation of the plane, it has a distortion factor which will change the area but preserve ratios of areas. This observation can be used to compute the area of an arbitrary ellipse from the area of a unit circle.
Consider the unit circle circumscribed by a square of side length 2. The transformation sends the circle to an ellipse by stretching or shrinking the horizontal and vertical diameters to the major and minor axes of the ellipse. The square gets sent to a rectangle circumscribing the ellipse. The ratio of the area of the circle to the square is π / 4, which means the ratio of the ellipse to the rectangle is also π / 4. Suppose a and b are the lengths of the major and minor axes of the ellipse. Since the area of the rectangle is ab, the area of the ellipse is πab / 4.
We can also consider analogous measurements in higher dimensions. For example, we may wish to find the volume inside a sphere. When we have a formula for the surface area, we can use the same kind of "onion '' approach we used for the disk.
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which is the third tier of federalism in india | Federalism in India - wikipedia
The Constitution of India gives a federal structure to the Republic of India, declaring it to be a "Union of the States ''. Part XI of the Indian constitution specifies the distribution of legislative, administrative and executive powers between the Union or Federal or Central government, and the States of India. The legislative powers are categorised under the Union List, a State List and a Concurrent List, representing, respectively, the powers conferred upon the Union government, those conferred upon the State governments and the shared powers.
The federalism is asymmetric in that the devolved powers of the constituent units are not all that same. The state of Jammu and Kashmir was accorded a higher degree of autonomy than other States under the Article 370. The Union Territories are unitary type directly governed by the Union government though Article 1 (1) of the constitution stipulates a two tier - governance with an additional local elected government by the local citizens throughout the country. However, Delhi and Puducherry have been accorded their own legislatures under Article 239AA and 239A respectively.
The fundamental rights of the citizens can be applicable differently to each state per Article 31 (B) when the required changes are added to the schedule IX of the constitution by constitutional amendments.
The power of the states and the Centre are defined by the constitution and the legislative powers are divided into three lists:
Union List consists of 100 items (previously 97 items) on which the parliament has exclusive power to legislate including: defence, armed forces, arms and ammunition, atomic energy, foreign affairs, war and peace, citizenship, extradition, railways, shipping and navigation, airways, posts and telegraphs, telephones, wireless and broadcasting, currency, foreign trade, inter-state trade and commerce, banking, insurance, control of industries, regulation and development of mines, mineral and oil resources, elections, audit of Government accounts, constitution and organisation of the Supreme Court, High Courts and union public service commission, income tax, custom duties and export duties, duties of excise, corporation tax, taxes on capital value of assets, estate duty, terminal taxes.
State List consists of 61 items (previously 66 items). Uniformity is desirable but not essential on items in this list: maintaining law and order, police forces, healthcare, transport, land policies, electricity in the state, village administration, etc. The state legislature has exclusive power to make laws on these subjects. But in certain circumstances, the parliament can also make laws on subjects mentioned in the State List, then the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) has to pass a resolution with a two - thirds majority that it is expedient to legislate on this state list in the national interest.
Though states have exclusive powers to legislate with regards to items on the State List, articles 249, 250, 252, and 253 state situations in which the Union government can legislate on these items.
Concurrent List consists of 52 (earlier 47) items. Uniformity is desirable but not essential on items in this list: Marriage and divorce, transfer of property other than agricultural land, education, contracts, bankruptcy and insolvency, trustees and trusts, civil procedure, contempt of court, adulteration of foodstuffs, drugs and poisons, economic and social planning, trade unions, labour welfare, electricity, newspapers, books and printing press, stamp duties.
The subjects that are not mentioned in any of the three lists are known as residuary subjects. However, there are many provisions made in the constitution outside these lists permitting parliament or state legislative assembly to legislate. Excluding the provisions of the constitution outside these lists per Article 245, the power to legislate on residuary subjects (not mentioned anywhere in the constitution), rests with the parliament exclusively per Article 248. Parliament shall legislate on residuary subjects following the procedure per Article 368 as constitutional amendments.
In case the above lists are to be expanded or amended, the legislation should be done by the Parliament under its constituent power per Article 368 with ratification by the majority of the states. Federalism is part of the basic structure of the Indian constitution which can not be altered or destroyed through constitutional amendments under the constituent powers of the Parliament without undergoing judicial review by the Supreme Court.
The Union and states have independent executive staffs fully controlled by their respective governments and executive power of the states and the Centre are extended on issues they are empowered to legislate. As in legislative matters, in administrative matters also, the Central government can not overrule the constitutional rights / powers of a state government except when president rule is promulgated in a state. It is the duty of the Union to ensure that the government of every State is carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution as per Article 355. Article 256 of the Constitution has made it clear that the State governments can not go against the Central laws in administrative matters. When a State has failed to work according to the Constitution, President 's rule is imposed under Article 356 and President takes over its (the State 's) administration with post facto consent of the Parliament per Article 357.
Article 282 accords financial autonomy in spending the financial resources available to the states for public purpose. Article 293 gives liberty to states to borrow without any limit to its ability for its requirements within the territory of India without any consent from the Union government. However, the Union government can insist for compliance of its loan terms when a state has outstanding loan charged to the consolidated fund of India or an outstanding loan in respect of which a guarantee has been given by the Government of India under the liability of consolidated fund of India.
President constitutes a Finance Commission after every five years to recommend the modality for devolving Union government revenues between central and state governments.
Under Article 360 of the constitution, President can proclaim a financial emergency when the financial stability or credit of the nation or of any part of its territory is threatened. However, until now no guidelines defining the situation of financial emergency in the entire country or a state or a union territory or a panchayat or a municipality or a corporation have been framed either by the finance commission or by the Central government.
Such an emergency must be approved by the Parliament within two months by a simple majority. It has never been declared. A state of financial emergency remains in force indefinitely until revoked by the President. The President can reduce the salaries of all government officials, including judges of the supreme court and high courts, in cases of a financial emergency. All money bills passed by the State legislatures are submitted to the President for approval. He can direct the state to observe certain principles (economy measures) relating to financial matters.
States can make agreements between themselves without violating applicable laws in respective states. When a dispute arises with another state or group of states or Union Territory or central government, Supreme Court shall adjudicate in such disputes per Article 141 of the constitution. However, article 262 excludes Supreme Court jurisdiction with respect to adjudication of any dispute in the use, distribution or control of the interstate river waters per Article 262.
Under Article 263, President can also establish an interstate council for serving the public interest to coordinate / resolve the disputes between states and the Union and for better implementation of policies.
Article 1 (1) of the Indian constitution says that India (Bharat) shall be Union of States which are elaborated under Parts V (The Union) and VI (The States) of the constitution. Article 1 (3) says territories of India constitute territories of states, union territories and other acquired territories. The concept of union territory was not there from the beginning of the constitution and it was incorporated by the Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956. In the constitution wherever it refers to Territories of India, it is applicable to the whole country including union territories. Where it refers to only India, it is applicable to all states only but not to union territories. Thus, union public service commission role is not applicable to the union territories as it refers to India only in the Part XIV.
The state of Jammu and Kashmir has a separate set of applicable laws under Article 370 read with Appendix I & II (The Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir) Order, 1954) of the Indian constitution. Only matters related to defence, foreign relations and communications of Jammu and Kashmir are under the jurisdiction of Union government. The laws enacted by the parliament (including amendments to the Indian constitution) applicable to rest of India are not valid in J&K state unless ratified by its state assembly. The Government of India can declare a state of emergency in Jammu and Kashmir and impose governor 's rule in certain conditions. The state has its own constitution other than applicable Indian constitution. Part XII of the J&K state constitution makes provision to amend its constitution with two - thirds majority by the state assembly. Part VI (The states) and Part XIV (Services) of the Indian constitution is not applicable to J&K state per Article 152 and Article 308.
The Government of India Act 1935 aimed to establish India as a Federation of States. It emphasized division of powers, independent and apolitical Governors and Governors - General and introduced provincial autonomy for the first time in India. On 26 January 1950, India adopted a new constitution.
The unitary bias of the constitution
Article 1 (1) of the constitution says India shall be a union of states and its citizens shall have at least two tier governance. So the people of a UT have every right to opt for statehood in India. However, the amended (in 1956) Article 3, allows the union government power with prior consent of the President (common head of states and union governments) to (a) form a new state / UT by separating a territory of any state, or by uniting two or more states / UTs or parts of states / UTs, or by uniting any territory to a part of any state / UT. (b) the power to establish new states / UT (which were not previously under India 's territory) which were not in existence before.
Appointment and role of governors
The appointment of Governor of States in India is vested with the President but only on the advice of the Union Government. The governors of states are generally not residents of the state.
In the case of a breakdown of constitutional machinery in a state, Article 356 brings about state emergency which dissolves the state government and results in President 's rule during which the Union Government can make laws for a state. There is no emergency at the centre which can dissolve the Union government unlike Government of India Act 1935. Misuse of Article 356 was rampant in the decades following the adoption of the new constitution especially during the prime ministry of Indira Gandhi. In 1991, Supreme court passed a landmark judgement which acknowledged misuse of the article and laid down principles for the Union government to follow before the state emergency can be invoked.
The Lieutenant Governors of Union Territories of India are designed as administrators and are once again appointed by the President on the advice of the Union government. These Lieutenant Governors can override policies made by the local government.
Economic federalism
States are at liberty to manage their finances as long it is not leading to financial emergency per Article 360. Instead, the Government of India is trying to impose uniform taxation laws throughout India and trying to take over of tax collection mechanism of states without regards for the positive and negative inherent aspects of each state which are to be addressed by each state from time to time. Recently Supreme court upheld the constitutional right of states to impose Entry Tax which is against the principle of GST.
Control of industries, which was a subject in the concurrent list in the 1935 act, was transferred to the Union List. The Union government in 1952 introduced the repulsive Freight equalisation policy which resulted in the resource drain and backwardness of a number of Indian states. The sufferers of this policy were the states of West Bengal, Bihar (including present - day Jharkhand), Madhya Pradesh (including present - day Chhattisgarh) and Orissa. These states lost their competitive advantage of holding the minerals, as the factories could now be set up anywhere in India. This was not the case in the pre-independence era when the major business houses like the Tatas and the Dalmias set up industries in these states, and most of the engineering industry was located in the state of West Bengal. Even after the removal of the policy in the early 1990s, these states could not catch up with the more industrialised states. In 1996, the Commerce & Industry Minister of West Bengal complained that "the removal of the freight equalisation and licensing policies can not compensate for the ill that has already been done ''.
GoI laws permit a private / public limited company to raise loans internally and externally to its capacity based on its performance / repayment reputation. Whereas states are unconstitutionally limited by the GoI to limit the borrowings when they have not defaulted / led to a financial emergency. The employees ' salary and pension expenditure of many state governments are exceeding their total revenue, but no financial emergency by the President is imposed to restrict the expenditure for enhancing the productivity of the government employees. Article 47 of Directive Principles of the state policy stipulates prohibition of intoxicating drinks which are injurious to health but it is not imposed even after the constitution is adopted 65 years ago. In contrary, many states promote liquor sales exponentially and collect a major chunk of their tax revenues from liquor sales for meeting expenditure on developmental works.
The political economy issues
GoI is devolving central funds to the states under specifically identified schemes (like NREGA, etc.) whose implementation by the states is subject to the satisfaction of the GoI which is highly controversial and against Article 282. The controversy arises from the fact that the grants for centrally sponsored schemes and central plan schemes are under complete control and discretion of the ruling party. The ruling party does not use it to help the states in need or where poor people are concentrated, but to pursue its own partisan and political goals. This distributive tendency of the ruling party is known as pork - barrel politics. The nomenclature of schemes is specifically designed to convey that the central government is the source of these progressive policies. This is done to prevent leakage of benefit to state governments.
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when do jack and lisa get married on heartland | Heartland (Canadian TV series) - wikipedia
Heartland is a Canadian family drama television series which debuted on CBC on October 14, 2007.
The series is based on the Heartland book series by Lauren Brooke. Heartland follows sisters Amy and Lou Fleming, their grandfather Jack Bartlett, and Ty Borden, through the highs and lows of life at the ranch.
As of the episode shown on March 29, 2015, Heartland surpassed Street Legal as the longest - running one - hour scripted drama in the history of Canadian television. It celebrated its ten - year anniversary in 2016, and Season 10 began airing October 2, 2016. It was announced on March 22, 2017 that Heartland was renewed for Season 11. The season premiered on September 24, 2017.
Much of the series is filmed on location in and around High River, Alberta, with additional filming in studio and on location in nearby Calgary. A June 2013 flood in High River swamped the standing set for Maggie 's Diner.
Entertainment One has released the first seven seasons of Heartland on DVD in Region 1 (Canada only). The standalone TV movie A Heartland Christmas was released on DVD in Canada on November 1, 2011 and in the USA on October 29, 2013. Season 8 was released in Canada on October 6, 2015.
In Region 2, 4Digital Media has released the first 6 seasons on DVD in the UK.
In Region 4, Season 1 and Season 2 Parts 1 and 2 have been released by Roadshow Home Video.
Seasons 1 - 9 are available on Netflix and Hulu
US season 10 will be available in 2018.
In its series premiere, Heartland beat out Global 's comedy Da Kink in My Hair with 513,000 viewers in a battle of two new series. After four episodes, Heartland had an average viewership of 464,000. In its first - season finale, Heartland attracted 625,000 viewers. The third - season premiere brought in over 1 million viewers, a new record for the show. The 100th episode "After All We 've Been Through '' was watched by 945,000 viewers.
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why do they call it the badlands in south dakota | Badlands - wikipedia
Badlands are a type of dry terrain where softer sedimentary rocks and clay - rich soils have been extensively eroded by wind and water. They are characterized by steep slopes, minimal vegetation, lack of a substantial regolith, and high drainage density. They can resemble malpaís, a terrain of volcanic rock. Canyons, ravines, gullies, buttes, mesas, hoodoos and other such geologic forms are common in badlands. They are often difficult to navigate by foot. Badlands often have a spectacular color display that alternates from dark black / blue coal stria to bright clays to red scoria.
Badlands are partially characterized by their thin to nonexistent regolith layers. The regolith profiles of badlands in arid climates are likely to resemble one another. In these regions, the upper layer (~ 1 -- 5 cm) is typically composed of silt, shale, and sand (a byproduct of the weathered shale). This layer can form either a compact crust or a looser, more irregular aggregation of "popcorn '' fragments. Located beneath the top layer is a sublayer (~ 5 -- 10 cm), below which can be found a transitional shard layer (~ 10 -- 40 cm), formed largely of loose disaggregated shale chips, which in turn eventually gives way to a layer of unweathered shale. Badlands such as those found in the Mancos Shale, the Brule Formation, the Chadron Formation, and the Dinosaur Provincial Park can be generally said to fit this profile.
In less arid regions, the regolith profile can vary considerably. Some badlands have no regolith layer whatsoever, capping instead in bare rock such as sandstone. Others have a regolith with a clay veneer, and still others have a biological crust of algae or lichens.
In addition to lacking significant regolith, they also lack much vegetation. The lack of vegetation could very well be a result of the lack of a substantial regolith.
The formation of badlands is a result of two processes: deposition and erosion. The process of deposition describes the accumulation, over time, of layers of mineral material. Different environments such as seas, rivers, or tropical zones, deposit different sorts of clays, silts, and sand. For instance, the badlands formations in Badlands National Park, South Dakota, United States underwent a 47 - million year period of deposition which spanned three major geologic periods (the Cretaceous Period, the Late Eocene, and the Oligocene Epochs), resulting in clear, distinct layers of sediment which serve as a dramatic display of the law of superposition. Once the deposited sediments have solidified, the sedimentary material becomes subject to erosion. It is sometimes erroneously taught that badlands erode at a steady rate of about one inch per year. In actuality, the precise processes by which the erosion responses take place vary depending on the precise interbedding of the sedimentary material. In 2010, researchers at Badlands National Park initiated a three - year project to learn more about the actual erosion rate of the specific badlands found in that park.
Some of the best - known badland formations can be found in Canada and the United States. In the U.S., Makoshika State Park in Montana and Badlands National Park in South Dakota together form a series of extensive badland formations. Also located in this region is Theodore Roosevelt National Park, a United States National Park composed of three geographically separated areas of badlands in western North Dakota named after former U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt. Among the Henry Mountains area, about 1500m above sea level, Cretaceous and Jurassic aged shales are exposed. Another popular area of badland formations is Toadstool Geologic Park in the Oglala National Grassland located in northwestern Nebraska. Dinosaur National Monument in Colorado and Utah are also badlands settings, along with several other areas in southern Utah, such as the Chinle Badlands in Grand Staircase - Escalante National Monument. A small badland called Hell 's Half - Acre is present in Natrona County, Wyoming. Additional badlands also exist in various places throughout southwest Wyoming, such as near Pinedale and in the Bridger Valley near the towns of Lyman and Mountain View, near the high Uintah Mountains. Pinnacles National Park in California also has areas of badlands, as does the Mojave Desert in eastern California.
El Malpais National Monument in western New Mexico is named after the Spanish word malpaís, meaning bad lands.
The Big Muddy Badlands in Saskatchewan, Canada, gained notoriety as a hideout for outlaws. There is a large badland area in Alberta, Canada, particularly in the valley of the Red Deer River, where Dinosaur Provincial Park is located, as well as in Drumheller, where The Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology is located.
A well - known badlands formation in New Zealand -- the Putangirua Pinnacles, formed by the erosion of the conglomerate of an old alluvial fan -- is located at the head of a small valley near the southern tip of the North Island.
Other badlands can be found in Italy, known as "Calanchi ''. Some examples include Aliano, Basilicata, and Crete Senesi, Tuscany.
The Bardenas Reales near Tudela, Navarre, and the Tabernas Desert in Tabernas, Almería, and possible Los Monegros in Aragon, all of them in Spain, are examples in Europe.
The Valle de la Luna ("Valley of the Moon '') is one of many examples of badland formations in midwestern Argentina. This geologic formation is the only place in the world where nearly all of the Triassic is represented in an undisturbed sequence of rock deposits.
Although most badland scenery is natural, there are some examples produced by mining, such as the Roman gold mine of Las Médulas in northern Spain. An example of badlands produced by poor farming practices is the Cheltenham Badlands in Caledon, Ontario.
Badlands near Drumheller, Alberta
Badlands of Hell 's Half - Acre, Natrona County, Wyoming
Panoramic view of Las Médulas, Spain
Valle de la Luna, San Juan, Argentina
Badlands incised into shale at the foot of the North Caineville Plateau, Utah, within the pass carved by the Fremont River known as the Blue Gate.
Badlands National Park, South Dakota
Badlands in eastern Montana (Hell Creek Formation)
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who won season 1 of americas next top model | America 's Next Top Model - Wikipedia
America 's Next Top Model (abbreviated ANTM and Top Model) is an American reality television series and interactive competition in which a number of aspiring models compete for the title of "America 's Next Top Model '' and a chance to begin their career in the modeling industry. Created by Tyra Banks, who also serves as an executive producer, and developed by Ken Mok and Kenya Barris, the series premiered in May 2003, and was aired semiannually until 2012, then annually from 2013. The first six seasons (referred to as "cycles '') were aired on UPN, before UPN merged with The WB to create The CW in 2006. The following sixteen cycles were aired on The CW until the series was first cancelled in October 2015. The series has since been revived, with cycle 24 currently airing on VH1. The series was among the highest - rated programs on UPN, and was the highest - rated show on The CW from 2007 to 2010. Advertisers paid $61,315 per 30 - second slot during the 2011 -- 12 television seasons, the highest of any series on The CW.
The first 22 cycles of the series and cycle 24 were presented by Banks, with cycle 23 being presented by Rita Ora. The series also employs a panel of two or three additional judges, a creative director and a runway coach.
Cycles 1 -- 16, 19 and 23 -- 24 each consisted of a cast of between 10 and 15 female contestants with no previous participation on the series. Cycle 17 's cast consisted entirely of previous participants, while cycle 18 's had seven new contestants and seven former Britain 's Next Top Model participants. Cycles 20 -- 22 featured male contestants in the contest, including two male winners. As of April 2018, 24 people have won the competition. Winners typically receive a feature in a magazine and a contract with a modeling agency among other prizes.
The series is the originator of the international Top Model franchise. Over thirty versions of the series have been produced internationally.
It was announced on January 24, 2006, that Top Model would be part of the new The CW network, a merge between UPN and The WB, when the seventh cycle started in September airing on Wednesdays. The series became the first series among regular programming to air on the network. Prior to the announcement of merging with The WB, UPN had committed to renewing the series through its ninth cycle on January 20, 2006, for which casting was conducted throughout mid-2006. America 's Next Top Model was the only show left on the network that was originally from UPN.
On July 21, 2006, the writers of America 's Next Top Model went on strike while working on cycle 7, set to premiere on the new CW Network in September 2006. The writers sought representation through the Writers Guild of America, West, which would allow them regulated wages, access to portable health insurance, and pension benefits. These benefits would be similar to those given to writers on scripted shows. The strike was the focus of a large rally of Hollywood writers coinciding with the premiere of the new network on September 20, 2006. The dispute was chronicled in a July 24 interview on the website Television Without Pity with Daniel J. Blau, a former recapper on the site who covered the series, and at the time was an America 's Next Top Model show producer. In November 2006, the writers on strike were taken off payroll.
To celebrate its tenth cycle, America 's Next Top Model aired a special installment called America 's Next Top Model: Exposed in two parts on the CW on Wednesday, February 6 & 13, 2008. It reviewed the best cat fights, mishaps and most memorable photoshoots, personalities, defining moments and contained other segments about the show since cycles 1 to 9, and featured a special opening fusing all three openings together. Camille McDonald (cycles 2 and 17), Toccara Jones (cycle 3), Eva Pigford (cycle 3 winner), Bre Scullark (cycles 5 and 17), Cassandra Whitehead (cycle 5), Joanie Dodds (cycle 6), Jael Strauss (cycle 8), Dionne Walters (cycle 8), Heather Kuzmich (cycle 9), and Bianca Golden (cycles 9 and 17) all returned to comment on events that happened in their or other cycles.
After announcing that the seventeenth season would be an All - Stars version, Banks said on The CW upfronts in May 2011, that there would n't be a "normal '' season of the show anymore. With the start of the eighteenth British Invasion cycle, the program converted to high definition, becoming the second - to - last primetime show on the five major English - language broadcast networks in the United States to make the switch, and the last to air in the regular season to do so.
The show is syndicated to NBCUniversal 's cable division, with Oxygen as well as Style Network carrying the series, usually in marathon form throughout the daytime period on either network, and running through most of or an entire cycle. Bravo, MTV, and VH1 have also aired the series in the past. E! also currently airs reruns of ANTM.
Each season of America 's Next Top Model has from 9 -- 16 episodes and starts with 10 -- 16 contestants. Contestants are judged weekly on their overall appearance, participation in challenges, and best shot from that week 's photo shoot; each episode, one contestant is eliminated, though in rare cases a double elimination or non-elimination was given by consensus of the judging panel. Makeovers are administered to contestants early in the season (usually after the first or second elimination in the finals) and a trip to an international destination is scheduled about two - thirds of the way through the season.
The series employs a panel of judges who critique contestants ' progress throughout the competition. Throughout its broadcast, the program has employed seventeen different judges. The original panel consisted of Banks (who also serves as its presenter), Janice Dickinson, Kimora Lee Simmons, and Beau Quillian. Quillian and Simmons were replaced by Nigel Barker and Eric Nicholson in cycle 2, before Nicholson was replaced by Nolé Marin in cycle 3. After cycle 4, Marin and Dickinson were replaced by J. Alexander and Twiggy in cycle 5. Paulina Porizkova joined the panel in cycle 10, in place of Twiggy. After cycle 12, Porizkova was fired by Banks and the panel was left with three judges (Banks, Alexander and Barker) in cycle 13. In cycle 14, Alexander left the panel and was replaced by André Leon Talley, but continued as the series ' runway coach. In cycle 18, Kelly Cutrone replaced Talley. After cycle 18, Banks fired long - standing cast members Barker, Alexander and photo shoot director Jay Manuel. Barker was replaced by Rob Evans in cycle 19, and Manuel by Johnny Wujek. Alexander returned to the panel in cycle 21 in place of Evans. For cycle 23 the entire panel, including Banks, was replaced with Rita Ora, Ashley Graham, Drew Elliott and Law Roach while Stacey McKenzie replaced Alexander as runway coach. For the 24th cycle, Banks returned as the main judge and presenter, replacing Ora, while the rest of the personnel remained unchanged.
In the first eighteen cycles, an additional guest judge was welcomed to the panel each week. For the nineteenth and twentieth cycles, public voting was represented on the panel by Bryanboy. For the twenty - first cycle public voting was simply presented on screen doing call - out.
Though not a judge, Jay Manuel served as the creative director during contestants ' photo shoots for the first to eighteenth cycles. During the nineteenth and twentieth cycles, Johnny Wujek replaced Manuel as the creative director of all the shoots, and Yu Tsai replaced Wujek in the twenty - first and twenty - second cycles. Elliot served as both judge and creative director in cycle 23 and 24.
The first three cycles of America 's Next Top Model were filmed in New York City, and was relocated back and forth in cycles 10, 12, 14 and 23. Los Angeles has been the primary filming location of most of the cycles since the fourth cycle.
America 's Next Top Model was also connected with Banks ' talk show, on which several contestants have appeared, most notably Natasha Galkina (cycle 8), who worked as a correspondent for the show. The show 's stage was also used for the cycle 5 reunion show.
In 2008, Banks launched a new reality show inside the Tyra Show, called Modelville which featured past contestants Renee DeWitt (cycle 8), Bianca Golden (cycle 9), Dominique Reighard, Fatima Siad and Lauren Utter (all cycle 10) vying for a $50,000 contract with Carol 's Daughter. The competition was ultimately won by Reighard.
The ANTM franchise released a clothing and accessories line based on the television show, which is sold at most Walmart stores. It ranges from cosmetic products to handbags. Dolls were also released based on the show that were made by MGA Entertainment.
The show has been referred to in many series, such as ABC Family 's GREEK, CBS 's The Big Bang Theory, and Fox 's Family Guy. It also had its own E! True Hollywood Story episode, featuring past contestants Ebony Haith, Giselle Samson, Elyse Sewell (all cycle 1), Adrianne Curry (cycle 1 winner), Camille McDonald (cycles 2 & 17), April Wilkner, Mercedes Scelba - Shorte (both cycle 2), Toccara Jones, Ann Markley, Amanda Swafford (all cycle 3), Eva Pigford (cycle 3 winner), Michelle Deighton (cycle 4), Brittany Brower (cycles 4 & 17), Naima Mora (cycle 4 winner), Ebony Taylor (cycle 5), Lisa D'Amato (cycle 5 & cycle 17 winner), Kim Stolz (cycle 5) and Bre Scullark (cycles 5 & 17) as well as judges & personals Janice Dickinson, Tyra Banks, Nigel Barker, J. Alexander, Jay Manuel, Ken Mok and Michelle Mock - Falcon. It covered the first five cycles and recently re-aired with a few added minutes of footage which cover cycles 6 to 10 and Stylista.
In 2009, Oxygen Network aired a series based on the show called Top Model Obsessed, featuring past contestants Lisa D'Amato (cycle 5 & cycle 17 winner), CariDee English (cycle 7 winner) and Bianca Golden (cycles 9 & 17).
For the 2006 -- 2009 and 2010 -- 2011 television seasons, America 's Next Top Model was the No. 1 show in average viewers on The CW.
Yahoo! 's Shine lifestyle website said the show contained cruelty and elements of humiliation, and that some critiques from the judges are "really cruel and cringe - inducing '', claiming that the show "humiliates and degrades young women. '' The site created the list "10 reasons why ' America 's Next Top Model ' is bad for women, humans '', citing such things as giving the contestants and women viewers unrealistic visions of life as a model, and "always espousing empowerment and female strength and then forcing the contestants into embarrassing scenarios far outside the realm of real - life modeling ''. One such scenario highlighted was when cycle 12 's final two contestants "were made to wear bikinis so skimpy that the producers had to blur out Allison Harvard 's butt cheeks '', and performed a "creepily sexual mud fight, '' after which contestant and winner Teyona Anderson was "commended for taking her weave in her hand and whipping it around on the runway like a sexy feather boa. ''
Allure magazine criticized the show in its October 2006 issue, saying that ANTM "has n't exactly produced any actual supermodels. ''
Ken Mok and Banks noticed that most of cycle 8 's girls were unusually heavy smokers. "Tyra and I understand the influence ' Top Model ' has on a generation of young people, and we want to make sure we get the right message to our audience, '' Mok said, which then prompted the "green '' theme of cycle 9.
The winner of cycle 9, Saleisha Stowers, was discovered to have been in a Wendy 's commercial, on a catwalk in the cycle 6 show and an episode of Tyra Banks Show prior to her participation. The rules of the competition stated that a contestant must not have appeared as a model in a national campaign during the five years prior to the production of the cycle in which they participate. The CW network said she had revealed her role in the Wendy 's commercial, and "after reviewing the commercial, it was determined that her appearance did not amount to ' modeling ' experience, and therefore did not exclude her from participating in the show. ''
After filming cycle 10, the producers of America 's Next Top Model were served with a lawsuit from Michael Marvisi, the owner of the loft used as the Top Model house. The lawsuit claimed that the contestants as well as the production crew caused an estimated $500,000 in damages to the loft. Marvisi claims the contestants engaged in food fights, made holes in the walls, caused water damage to the bathroom, damaged a $15,000 chandelier beyond repair, and caused $90,000 worth of damage to an electrical store. Also, the production crew was accused of damaging the flooring and making holes in the ceiling for lighting equipment.
America 's Next Top Model is currently shown on TV internationally in 170 countries and regions, namely: Australia, the United Kingdom, Japan, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan and the whole of Southeast Asia (except Timor - Leste). The following table shows countries and regions that have aired this show:
The channel in bold also broadcast their own version of Top Model.
Kanal 11
2011
1 -- 12
In October 2008, The CW announced that it had ordered a spin - off pilot of America 's Next Top Model, titled Operation Fabulous. The proposed show would have starred ANTM creative director Jay Manuel and runway coach Mrs. J. Alexander as they travel the country to provide makeovers to everyday women. Tyra Banks and Ken Mok would have served as executive producers for the new show. However, The CW ultimately declined to pick up the show.
Until 2012, only cycle 1 had been released domestically on DVD. This is because the home video license was formerly held by UPN, and was distributed for them by Paramount Home Entertainment. Since the series is now independently produced, the video rights to the remaining seasons have, until recently, been open for acquisition (and therefore, the remaining seasons had yet to be issued on DVD or Blu - ray). However, on May 30, it was announced on the CW that cycles 2 and 3 were available to pre-order on DVD via new licensee CBS Home Entertainment. They are now available for purchase on Amazon.com. Additionally, cycles 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 were also made into DVDs and sold on the website.
For cycle 1, Revlon sponsored this show with the products and prizes. For cycle 2, Sephora replaced Revlon as the commercial sponsor. Through cycles 3 - 18, CoverGirl replaced Sephora as the continuation on products and prizes. For cycle 19, shoe retailer Nine West and Smashbox sponsored with campaigns, but the cosmetics sponsorship has ended. For cycle 20, Guess sponsored with a US $100,000 ad campaign for the winner.
Media related to America 's Next Top Model at Wikimedia Commons
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under 19 cricket world cup 2008 team members | 2008 Under - 19 Cricket World Cup squads - wikipedia
The following players were selected to play in the 2008 Under - 19 Cricket World Cup.
The following players were selected for Australia 's squad:
The following players were selected for Bangladesh 's squad:
The following players were selected for Bermuda 's squad:
The following players were selected for England 's squad:
The following players were selected for India 's squad:
The following players were selected for Ireland 's squad:
The following players were selected for Malaysia 's squad:
The following players were selected for Namibia 's squad:
The following players were selected for Nepal 's squad:
The following players were selected for New Zealand 's squad:
The following players were selected for Pakistan 's squad:
The following players were selected for Papua New Guinea 's squad:
The following players were selected for South Africa 's squad:
The following players were selected for Sri Lanka 's squad:
The following players were selected for the West Indie 's squad:
The following players were selected for Zimbabwe 's squad:
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the angular momentum quantum number (l) value of 2 indicates the | Azimuthal quantum number - wikipedia
The azimuthal quantum number is a quantum number for an atomic orbital that determines its orbital angular momentum and describes the shape of the orbital. The azimuthal quantum number is the second of a set of quantum numbers which describe the unique quantum state of an electron (the others being the principal quantum number, following spectroscopic notation, the magnetic quantum number, and the spin quantum number). It is also known as the orbital angular momentum quantum number, orbital quantum number or second quantum number, and is symbolized as l.
Connected with the energy states of the atom 's electrons are four quantum numbers: n, l, m, and m. These specify the complete, unique quantum state of a single electron in an atom, and make up its wavefunction or orbital. The wavefunction of the Schrödinger equation reduces to three equations that when solved, lead to the first three quantum numbers. Therefore, the equations for the first three quantum numbers are all interrelated. The azimuthal quantum number arose in the solution of the polar part of the wave equation as shown below. To aid understanding of this concept of the azimuth, it may also prove helpful to review spherical coordinate systems, and / or other alternative mathematical coordinate systems besides the Cartesian coordinate system. Generally, the spherical coordinate system works best with spherical models, the cylindrical system with cylinders, the cartesian with general volumes, etc.
An atomic electron 's angular momentum, L, is related to its quantum number l by the following equation:
where ħ is the reduced Planck 's constant, L is the orbital angular momentum operator and Ψ (\ displaystyle \ Psi) is the wavefunction of the electron. The quantum number l is always a non-negative integer: 0, 1, 2, 3, etc. While many introductory textbooks on quantum mechanics will refer to L by itself, L has no real meaning except in its use as the angular momentum operator. When referring to angular momentum, it is better to simply use the quantum number l.
Atomic orbitals have distinctive shapes denoted by letters. In the illustration, the letters s, p, and d describe the shape of the atomic orbital.
Their wavefunctions take the form of spherical harmonics, and so are described by Legendre polynomials. The various orbitals relating to different values of l are sometimes called sub-shells, and (mainly for historical reasons) are referred to by letters, as follows:
Each of the different angular momentum states can take 2 (2l + 1) electrons. This is because the third quantum number m (which can be thought of loosely as the quantized projection of the angular momentum vector on the z - axis) runs from − l to l in integer units, and so there are 2l + 1 possible states. Each distinct n, l, m orbital can be occupied by two electrons with opposing spins (given by the quantum number m = ± 1⁄2), giving 2 (2l + 1) electrons overall. Orbitals with higher l than given in the table are perfectly permissible, but these values cover all atoms so far discovered.
For a given value of the principal quantum number n, the possible values of l range from 0 to n − 1; therefore, the n = 1 shell only possesses an s subshell and can only take 2 electrons, the n = 2 shell possesses an s and a p subshell and can take 8 electrons overall, the n = 3 shell possesses s, p, and d subshells and has a maximum of 18 electrons, and so on. Generally speaking, the maximum number of electrons in the nth energy level is 2n.
The angular momentum quantum number, l, governs the number of planar nodes going through the nucleus. A planar node can be described in an electromagnetic wave as the midpoint between crest and trough, which has zero magnitude. In an s orbital, no nodes go through the nucleus, therefore the corresponding azimuthal quantum number l takes the value of 0. In a p orbital, one node traverses the nucleus and therefore l has the value of 1. L has the value √ 2 ħ.
Depending on the value of n, there is an angular momentum quantum number l and the following series. The wavelengths listed are for a hydrogen atom:
Given a quantized total angular momentum ȷ → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (\ jmath))) which is the sum of two individual quantized angular momenta l 1 → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (\ ell _ (1)))) and l 2 → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (\ ell _ (2)))),
the quantum number j (\ displaystyle j) associated with its magnitude can range from l 1 − l 2 (\ displaystyle \ ell _ (1) - \ ell _ (2)) to l 1 + l 2 (\ displaystyle \ ell _ (1) + \ ell _ (2)) in integer steps where l 1 (\ displaystyle \ ell _ (1)) and l 2 (\ displaystyle \ ell _ (2)) are quantum numbers corresponding to the magnitudes of the individual angular momenta.
Due to the spin - orbit interaction in the atom, the orbital angular momentum no longer commutes with the Hamiltonian, nor does the spin. These therefore change over time. However the total angular momentum J does commute with the Hamiltonian and so is constant. J is defined through
L being the orbital angular momentum and S the spin. The total angular momentum satisfies the same commutation relations as orbital angular momentum, namely
from which follows
where J stand for J, J, and J.
The quantum numbers describing the system, which are constant over time, are now j and m, defined through the action of J on the wavefunction Ψ (\ displaystyle \ Psi)
So that j is related to the norm of the total angular momentum and m to its projection along a specified axis.
As with any angular momentum in quantum mechanics, the projection of J along other axes can not be co-defined with J, because they do not commute.
j and m, together with the parity of the quantum state, replace the three quantum numbers l, m and m (the projection of the spin along the specified axis). The former quantum numbers can be related to the latter.
Furthermore, the eigenvectors of j, s, m and parity, which are also eigenvectors of the Hamiltonian, are linear combinations of the eigenvectors of l, s, m and m.
The azimuthal quantum number was carried over from the Bohr model of the atom, and was posited by Arnold Sommerfeld. The Bohr model was derived from spectroscopic analysis of the atom in combination with the Rutherford atomic model. The lowest quantum level was found to have an angular momentum of zero. Orbits with zero angular momentum were considered as oscillating charges in one dimension and so described as "pendulum '' orbits. In three - dimensions the orbits become spherical without any nodes crossing the nucleus, similar (in the lowest - energy state) to a skipping rope that oscillates in one large circle.
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who plays love handle in phineas and ferb | List of Phineas and Ferb characters - wikipedia
The following is a character list of main and secondary characters on the Disney Channel series Phineas and Ferb.
Phineas Flynn (voiced by Vincent Martella) Like other characters, he has red hair, his age is not mentioned. Phineas, along with his stepbrother Ferb Fletcher, star in the A-Plot of every episode. The series concerns Phineas 's attempts to avoid boredom by finding something new to do every day of the summer vacation. He does this with his less - talkative stepbrother Ferb, and often with many other neighborhood children. He is known to be very selfless and energetic. Phineas has many catch phrases like "Oh, there you are, Perry '' or "Hey, Ferb! I know what we 're going to do today! '' and "Hey, where 's Perry? ''.
Phineas comes from a blended family. The creators chose this arrangement because they considered it underused in children 's programming as well as from Marsh 's experiences in one. As a character, Phineas has received a positive critical response, with one reviewer describing him and his brother as a "comical pairing. '' Phineas appears in Phineas and Ferb merchandise, including plush toys, t - shirts, and a video game.
Ferb Fletcher (voiced by Thomas Sangster) is a boy of few words, Phineas 's green - haired, intelligent but laconic stepbrother from the United Kingdom and created by Phineas and Ferb co-founders Dan Povenmire and Jeff "Swampy '' Marsh. He first appeared in the show 's pilot episode, "Rollercoaster. ''
Ferb and his stepbrother Phineas Flynn spend their days during their summer vacation having fun. They are featured in every episode 's A-Plot constructing large scale inventions or taking part in other outlandish activities. Ferb, an engineering genius, allows Phineas to do most of the talking for the pair and is described as "more of a man of action, '' by Phineas, which makes him more of a plot device than a developed character. Ferb is more likely to sing than speak, but most often has a one - liner in the episodes. Ferb is named after a friend of the show 's creators who was an expert on tools and, at times, stayed rather silent.
Candace Flynn (voiced by Ashley Tisdale) is Phineas 's fifteen - year - old older sister and Ferb 's stepsister. She first appeared in the pilot episode. Candace does not approve of the inventions her brothers create then she hates their creations, and in most episodes she attempts to "bust her brothers '' by showing their mom. Her best friend is Stacy Hirano; Candace also has an obvious crush on Jeremy Johnson, but for a long time she was oblivious to the fact he liked her back. As a character, she has received a positive critical acclaim, having appeared in other media such as video games.
Perry the Platypus (vocal effects by Dee Bradley Baker), a.k.a. Agent P, is Phineas and Ferb 's pet platypus and first appeared along with a large portion of the main cast in the pilot episode "Rollercoaster. '' Perry is featured as the star of the B - Plot for all but one episode of the series alongside his arch - nemesis Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz, at last he pretend to destroy their creations. He is a primarily silent character, with the only noises being the occasional rattling of his bill.
In Phineas and Ferb the Movie: Across the 2nd Dimension, an alternate reality (yet more evil and ruthless) version of Perry (known as Platyborg) appears. Platyborg would later return in the episode sequel, Tales from the Resistance: Back to the 2nd Dimension.
Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz (voiced by Dan Povenmire) is a mad scientist appearing in all but one episode 's B - Plots thus far. He is the father to teenage Vanessa Doofenshmirtz and is the head of his own company, Doofenshmirtz Evil Inc. Depending on the episode, Dr. Doofenshmirtz 's main goal is to either destroy or rule the Tri-State Area which was suggested to him as a starting point before trying to take over the world. Routinely bumbling, incompetent, and forgetful, almost all of Doofenshmirtz 's plans -- always involving various gadgets and inventions -- have been thwarted by Perry the Platypus. However, a few of his schemes were quite successful in nature, such as in the 2014 special Phineas and Ferb Save Summer when Doofenshmirtz succeeded in moving the Earth away from its original orbit to an early autumn, much to Perry 's distraught. After most defeats, he shouts his catchphrase, "Curse you, Perry the Platypus! '' His first invention as a child was simply called "Inator '' which led to his modern contraptions usually ending with the suffix of the same name.
Throughout the series, Doofenshmirtz 's flashbacks (which are often shown after Perry has been captured) explore his mentally abusive and lonely childhood growing up in the fictional village Gimmelshtump, Druelselstein. Before becoming an evil scientist, Doofenshmirtz was a bratwurst vendor until being put out of business by the hot dog industry. Doofenshmirtz usually monologues and displays acts of cartoon - style physical violence towards his nemesis Perry, a skilled anthropomorphic platypus secret agent. His last name is frequently abbreviated to "Doof ''. Doofenshmirtz appears in several merchandise pieces, particularly the book series, and the video game.
In the 2011 TV film, Phineas and Ferb the Movie: Across the 2nd Dimension, an alternate reality (yet more intelligent and successful) version of Dr. Doofenshmirtz appears, with the regular Doctor Doofenshmirtz serving as a supporting character. 2nd Doofenshmirtz later returns in the episode sequel, Tales from the Resistance: Back to the 2nd Dimension.
Baljeet Tjinder (voiced by Maulik Pancholy) is Phineas ' and Ferb 's friend and neighbor. He wears blue overalls, despite being in grade school. A shy, intellectual, and polite boy who moved to Danville from India, he often helps the boys with their ideas and displays his knowledge of algebra and trivia. He also has a compulsive need to get good grades.
Carl the Intern (Tyler Alexander Mann) is Major Monogram 's young unpaid intern of the O.W.C.A. (Organization Without a Cool Acronym) in charge of video taping Monogram when he is being interviewed and talking to Agent P. He is a bit careless, wears glasses, and sometimes forgets to focus the camera correctly.
The Fireside Girls are a group of ten girl scout - like girls led by Isabella in troop 46231. Isabella and the other Fireside Girls usually help Phineas and Ferb in their projects which, in turn, are at times created to help the Fireside Girls with a humanitarian cause.
Other members of the troop:
Lawrence Fletcher (voiced by Richard O'Brien) is the father of Ferb and stepfather of Phineas and Candace. Lawrence sells antiques, is from the United Kingdom and is portrayed like a sitcom dad as being scatterbrained and unaware of what is going on. He often agrees to follow Phineas 's instructions and even forces Candace to cooperate as if he considers Phineas and Ferb 's skills normal. Unlike the boys ' mother, he has seen some of the boys ' inventions; he has not reacted negatively, and apparently believes that their mother approves. His precise surname is a matter of some dispute; in at least one episode, Isabella addresses him as "Mr. Flynn ''. Jeff "Swampy '' Marsh has said that Lawrence Fletcher is very similar to his stepfather, Bill.
Linda Flynn - Fletcher (voiced by Caroline Rhea) is the mother of Phineas and Candace and stepmother of Ferb. Unaware of the large - scale projects that Phineas and Ferb create on a daily basis, Candace often drags her away from other interests in an attempt to get the boys in trouble. Each creation is somehow destroyed or eliminated moments before "Mom '' arrives leaving Candace dumbfounded and Linda once more reluctant to believe Candace the next time. She was also a one - hit wonder known as "Lindana '' with her song, "I 'm Lindana and I Wanna Have Fun ''. That fact possibly makes her, as a singer, a parody of Cyndi Lauper, because of Lauper 's hit Girls Just Want to Have Fun, and because both of them were famous singers in the 1980s (Linda fictionally). Her single is used as elevator music throughout the series. Her surname is not consistent throughout the series; in at least one episode, Candace refers to her as "Linda Flynn ''. She is based on Dan Povenmire 's sister, also named Linda. She also used to date Dr. Doofenshmirtz during their mid-teens and that she was the one who inspired him to take over the Tri-State Area as a starting point for worldwide domination when he sarcastically stated that he would rule the world.
Isabella Garcia - Shapiro (voiced by Alyson Stoner) is a Jewish Mexican girl. She is one of the brothers ' best friends and has an obvious crush on Phineas Flynn of which he is unaware, though he has shown he cares for her from time to time. She is known for the catchphrase, "Whatcha doin '? '' and is the leader of the Fireside Girls troop 46231. The troop often helps Phineas and Ferb in their projects. She is named after series creator Dan Povenmire 's oldest daughter.
Stacy Hirano (voiced by Kelly Hu) is Candace 's best friend. She is of Japanese heritage. Stacy is shown to be annoyed by Candace 's constant attempts to bust Phineas and Ferb, and would prefer to just have fun with the inventions; she also occasionally gets annoyed with Candace 's gushing about her relationship with Jeremy. During the episode "Happy Birthday, Isabella '', she finds out about Perry 's secret Identity but does n't lose her memories afterwards.
Jeremy Johnson (voiced by Mitchel Musso) is Candace Flynn 's crush and later boyfriend. His age is sixteen, a year older than Candace. He works at Mr. Slushy Burger (sometimes named Mr. Slushy Dawg). In "Summer Belongs to You, '' it was confirmed that he and Candace had become boyfriend and girlfriend; toward the end of the episode, they kissed. He also has a band called "The Incidentals. ''
Major Francis Monogram (voiced by Jeff "Swampy '' Marsh) is one of the heads of the O.W.C.A. (Organization Without a Cool Acronym) Department and Perry the Platypus ' boss. He usually appears in a Nehru jacket on a giant screen giving Perry instructions for his next mission to stop Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz 's endless attempts to take over the Tri-State Area. His uniform prominently features the initials "MM. '' He has a monobrow and wears a toupée. Sometimes, he is shown to have a lack of details about what Doofenshmirtz is up to, and orders Perry to go stop it as usual. Just like Doofenshmirtz, he has appeared in every episode of the series to date except, "Isabella and the Temple of Sap. ''
Buford van Stomm (voiced by Bobby Gaylor) is frequently referred to as a bully, but he rarely hurts anyone on - screen. He is portrayed as a nice person with a tough guy attitude more often than as a bully. Phineas believes that Buford only bullies out of boredom thus Phineas often invites him to keep his mind occupied. He is thought not to get along with Baljeet, but in most episodes it is shown that they share a friendly bond. In one episode, Buford and Baljeet sing a song where they describe each other as "Frenemies '' and "my least favorite brother ''.
Vanessa Doofenshmirtz (voiced by Olivia Olson) is Heinz and Charlene Doofenshmirtz 's teenage daughter. She is sarcastic, mild - mannered, cynical, and dresses in a goth style. Vanessa is aware that her father is an evil scientist and knows about her father 's nemesis Perry the Platypus. She is often exasperated by her father whenever he tries to establish a "father - daughter '' bond between them as he does n't really understand her interests or refuses to acknowledge that she is growing up and often assumes that she is also interested in "evil. '' She often tries to convince her mom that her dad is an "evil scientist '' but, much like Candace, ultimately always fails when she does appear trying to catch him in the act, much to her dismay. She does, however, occasionally show appreciation for what he does for her, as he is clearly devoted to her (he once taught her how to drive and traveled halfway around the world after she got lost). Also, despite denying it so many times, Vanessa admits that she may be a little evil, as she once helped her father escape from custody by posing her hairdryer as a pistol to fool Major Monogram and Perry into releasing Doofenshmirtz, as shown in the special Phineas and Ferb: Summer Belongs to You!. Although Ferb has a crush on her, she remains oblivious to his affections as she already had a punk (not visigoth) boyfriend named "Johnny. '', whom she later broke up with in the episode "Minor Monogram ''. She is in a relationship with Monty Monogram, the son of Major Monogram; however "Act Your Age '' depicts her becoming involved with Ferb ten years down the line.
In addition to this, Vanessa makes a cameo appearance in the 2011 TV film, "Phineas and Ferb: Across the 2nd Dimension '', along with an alternative reality version of herself (2nd Vanessa), though their scenes were deleted. 2nd Vanessa returned in the episode sequel, Tales from the Resistance: Back to the 2nd Dimension.
Vivian Garcia - Shapiro (voiced by Eileen Galindo), or simply "Viv, '' is Isabella 's mother and lives across the street from Phineas and Ferb. She is a Jewish Mexican, one of Linda 's best friends, and plays upright bass in a jazz band with Linda Flynn and Jeremy 's mom. She is known for talking very fast and often making useless comments such as, "Oh, Candace, look how tall you 've gotten. '' despite seeing Candace only a week earlier.
Jenny Brown (voiced by Alyson Stoner) is Candace 's second best friend and a hippie. She wears a peace symbol necklace and says that she hopes for world peace.
Pinky (vocals by Dee Bradley Baker) is Isabella 's pet chihuahua. Much like Perry the Platypus, Pinky also lives a double - life as a secret agent for the O.W.C.A. under the codename, "Agent Pinky '' in a division run by a commander named Wanda, a.k.a. Admiral Acronym. Pinky 's nemesis is Professor Poofenplotz. Although he does not like dog food, Pinky will eat just about anything -- especially his favorite; grilled cheese sandwiches, and even inedible objects, having once swallowed Isabella 's Fireside Girl sash. Pinky always shakes as an ongoing joke about the behavior of Chihuahuas. He first appeared in the episode, "Journey to the Center of Candace. ''
Norm (voiced by John Viener) is a giant robot man created by Dr. Doofenshmirtz to destroy Perry the Platypus. Introduced in "Greece Lightning, '' he is a giant robotic mild - mannered businessman who often says, "The enemy of platypus is man. '' Norm has appeared in other episodes. For instance, in the episode, "Traffic Cam Caper, '' Perry borrows Norm as a ride to steal the traffic cam disk, for it has evidence that Perry is a secret agent. He was once a part of the O.W.C.A. but was fired because he was not an animal. Later in the series, he is depicted as Doofenshmirtz 's sidekick and servant who makes frequent mistakes such as cooking eggs with the shells on or serving Doof chocolate cake for breakfast, though always staying cheery. In the episode "A Real Boy '', Norm reveals that he has always wanted to be a human boy and considers Doofenshmirtz his father and Vanessa his sister.
In the 2011 TV film, Phineas and Ferb the Movie: Across the 2nd Dimension, a group of alternate reality (yet more menacing and successful) versions of Norm (known as Norm - Bots) appear, with the regular Norm making a cameo.
Charlene Doofenshmirtz (voiced by Allison Janney) is the former wife of Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz and shares custody of their daughter, Vanessa. Unaware of Dr. Doofenshmirtz 's "evil '' side, and in fact saying she does not believe someone can ever be truly evil, she divorced him due to a lack of common interests and having different life - goals. She is very wealthy and gives her ex-husband a large allowance each month. She is sometimes called by Vanessa who tries to "bust '' her father but to no avail. Charlene and Linda Flynn - Fletcher have been paired up in a cooking class owned by Chef Pierre and in "I Scream, You Scream '' were distracted by both Candace and Vanessa at the same time. Despite being divorced with Doof, she still goes to Doofenshmirtz family reunions claiming that she "kept the name, '' as seen in "Thaddeus and Thor. ''
However, in the episode "Tales From the Resistance: Back to the 2nd Dimension '' (the episode sequel to the 2011 TV film, "Phineas and Ferb: Across the 2nd Dimension ''), it is shown that there is an alternate reality version of Charlene Doofenshmirtz. It turns out that 2nd Charlene is still married to 2nd Doof and actually shares much of his evil personality, and that their divorce was just a ruse to gain financial advantages during 2nd Doof 's reign (such as receiving coupon mail, putting up junk yard sales, and going on separate vacation trips).
Suzy Johnson (voiced by Kari Wahlgren), known as Little Suzy Johnson, is Jeremy 's little sister. She has a high - pitched squeaky voice and appears very sweet and innocent. However, she is actually very spoiled and manipulative and very possessive over Jeremy, once telling Candace, "There is only one girl in Jeremy 's life '' and thus will do anything to keep Candace away from her brother.
Grandpa Clyde Flynn and Grandma Betty Jo Flynn (voiced by Barry Bostwick and Caroline Rhea respectively) are Linda 's parents, Phineas and Candace 's maternal grandparents, Lawrence 's - in - laws, and Ferb 's step - grandparents. Every summer, they invite the family along with many neighborhood kids to a lakehouse which Phineas calls, "Camp P&F ''. Though they are old, they often participate in the kids ' capers. Grandpa Clyde, like Phineas and Ferb, has a great sense of mechanics, as seen in "Crack That Whip! '' Betty Jo is also shown in the same episode to have a fierce rivalry with Edna Hildagard, Jeremy and Suzy 's grandmother.
Grandma Winifred Fletcher and Grandpa Reginald Fletcher (voiced by Malcolm McDowell and Jane Carr) are Lawrence 's parents, Ferb 's paternal grandparents, Phineas and Candace 's step grandparents, and Linda Flynn Fletcher 's in laws who reside in the United Kingdom. Reginald used to be a daredevil known as the Flying Fishmonger the anthem.
Roger Doofenshmirtz (voiced by John O'Hurley) is mayor of Danville and Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz 's younger brother. Heinz often states angrily that Roger is their mother 's favorite son. In "Tree to Get Ready '' Roger states that he is, "the most handsome and charming man in the Tri-State area. ''
Irving Du Bois (voiced by Jack McBrayer) is Phineas ' and Ferb 's self - proclaimed biggest fan. He always carries a scrapbook that he filled with images and souvenirs from Phineas and Ferb 's big ideas as well as a strand of Ferb 's hair. Irving has an older brother Albert, who is self - nicknamed ' The Truth Detector. '
Django Brown (voiced by Alec Holden) is a friend of Phineas and Ferb. Django is the son of the artist Beppo Brown from "Oil on Candace, '' who is famous for his work in making giant creations, from refrigerators to dental floss. He is named after co-creator's Jeff "Swampy '' Marsh son, Django Marsh, who voices minor characters on the show.
Admiral Wanda Acronym (voiced by Jane Leeves) is the one of the heads of the O.W.C.A. (Organization Without a Cool Acronym) Department and Pinky the Chihuahua ' boss. Just like Major Monogram, she usually appears on a giant screen giving Pinky instructions for his next mission to stop Professor Poofenplotz 's endless attempts to take over the world.
Also, just like Monogram (who has an unpaid intern named Carl), Adrimal Acronym has her own unpaid intern named Carla, who bears some resemblances to Carl.
Carla (voiced by Jennifer Hale) is one of the interns working for the O.W.C.A.. She bears some resemblances to Carl (possible could be her brother or cousin), as her boss Admiral Acronym stated that she comes from an ' entire family of unpaid interns '. She usually gives in the intelligence of whatever plans that Poofenplotz is up to.
Professor Esmeralda Poofenplotz (voiced by Amanda Plummer) is an old mad scientist and the nemesis of Agent Pinky, Isabella 's pet Chihuahua. She is known for her silly attempts for worldwide domination. Her known schemes so far involve replacing handbags, stealing royal jelly, and searching for strong hairspray (her favorite is "Stiff Beauty '' hairspray, which originally was only used by clowns). Needless to say, because of her somewhat arrogant personality, Poofenplotz has failed to know about the flaws of her schemes. And because of that, it has allowed Pinky to defeat her in return, leaving an humiliated Poofenplotz to yell out, "Curse you, Pinky the Chihuahua! '', similar to how Heinz Doofenshmirtz says whenever his plans get foiled by Perry the Platypus.
Love Händel is a rock band idolized by many in the Danville Tri-State Area, first seen the episode, "Dude, We 're Gettin ' the Band Back Together! '' Lawrence Fletcher and Linda Flynn shared their first kiss at a Love Händel concert. Shortly afterward, plagued by infighting caused by the pressures of a dwindling fanbase, Love Händel split up. Lead Singer Danny (voiced by Jaret Reddick) became the owner of Danny 's Music Shop. Bass Player Bobbi Fabulous (voiced by Carlos Alazraqui) became the owner of Bobbi 's Fashion Salon and Linda 's hairdresser. Sherman "Swampy '' (voiced by Steve Zahn) ended up working at the Danville Public Library, believing he had lost his sense of rhythm. Eventually all three members are convinced to reunite for a concert in the Flynn / Fletcher 's backyard, in which they sing their hit song, "You Snuck Your Way Right into My Heart. '' Love Handel occasionally reappears in other episodes and in the movie where they sing their songs.
Monty Monogram (voiced by Seth Green) is Major Monogram 's son and has been working in O.W.C.A. since "Minor Monogram ''. Vanessa Doofenshmirtz seems to become interested in him after she broke up with Johnny, and it is possible that he is slightly interested in her too because he winks at her before leaving. They have coffee together in "Sipping with the Enemy '', at which point they apparently begin to date one another. In "Minor Monogram '' he has recently graduated from the "High School Without a Cool Acronym '' (H.S.W.C.A.) and he really wants to fight evil following his dad 's footsteps. Due to the rivalry between his father and Dr. Doofenshmirtz, he and Vanessa try to keep it secret from the two of them, aided by Perry and Carl (though the latter briefly blackmailed Monty in hopes of getting his help in earning Major Monogram 's approval). In the special Phineas and Ferb Save Summer, Monty played a major role as he attempts to help rescue all of the captured agents and defeat the villains of L.O.V.E.M.U.F.F.I.N. in their plan to take over the world by sending it into a new Ice Age.
Dr. Hirano (voiced by Ming - Na Wen) is Stacy and Ginger 's mother. She removed Isabella 's tonsils in, "I Scream, You Scream. '' She is often referred to through conversations between Candace and Stacy where Candace gratifies, "Stacy, you 're a genius! '' and Stacy replies, "Could you call my mom and tell her that? ''
Aloyse Everheart Elizabeth Otto Wolfgang Hypatia Gunther Galen Gary Cooper von Roddenstein (voiced by Joe Orrantia), or Rodney for short, is a bald evil scientist and a member of the villain organization L.O.V.E.M.U.F.F.I.N.. He serves as the main rival to Dr. Doofenshmirtz, believing him to a disappointment because of his constant failures. Throughout most of his appearances, Rodney attempts to best out on Doofenshmirtz to show that he 's a better villain, only to fail so many times (either due to Doofenshmirtz 's antics or Perry 's intervention). Similar to Doofenshmirtz, Rodney usually makes his own inventions and ends them with the suffix ' - inizor '. He also has his own robot apprentice named Chloe, whom Norm fell in love with. He also has a son named Orville, who usually helps him create his - inizors.
Rodney would later go on to appear in the 2014 episode special, "Phineas and Ferb Save Summer '', where he learns that Doofenshmirtz has actually succeeded in moving the Earth away from the Sun to an early autumn with his latest - inator. Taking the opportunity to exploit this, Rodney leads L.O.V.E.M.U.F.F.I.N. into revealing themselves to the world and capturing all of O.W.C.A. 's agents. He even creates an - inizor (which is just ten times the size and strength of Doof 's - inator) that will send the Earth into a new Ice Age if the world refuse to meet all of L.O.V.E.M.U.F.F.I.N. 's demands. However, in the end, Doofenshmirtz (who is completely disgusted by Rodney 's true goal for worldwide domination) manages to defeat Rodney, who then gets arrested by Monty Monogram and taken into O.W.C.A. custody.
Professor Parenthesis (voiced by Paul Reubens) is an evil scientist serving in the 2015 standalone special, O.W.C.A. Files. He has claimed to have known Major Monogram during biology class 30 years ago (even announcing several names of their old classmates). In the special, Parenthesis plots to take over O.W.C.A. by using robotic fleas to take control of all of its animal agents, so that he can unleash them to wreak havoc around the world in order to smear O.W.C.A. 's good name. During the climax, he is revealed to be a tiny talking flea controlling a human android, as he plans to capture Perry (who is among the few agents not be infested with the robotic fleas) while finalizing his control over the agents to become permanent. However, Perry 's team of trainees (including Doofenshmirtz, who has given up evil at that time) set up a trap against Parenthesis, destroy his robotic fleas to free the agents, and confine Parenthesis inside a pill bottle as punishment for his crimes.
There are several characters that reappear as recurring joke such as farmer and wife. The wife always tells her husband "I ca n't believe you (blank) without getting a (blank) '' and then it falls from the sky and sometimes hits her. For example, in the episode, "Leave the Busting to Us '', the wife says, "I ca n't believe you bought a bunny farm but forgot to buy any bunnies! Did you really think the bunnies would fall from the sky? '' A pack of rabbits then falls from the sky and hits her. Then in the end credits scene from said episode, the wife yells at her husband, "I ca n't believe you sold our lucrative bunny farm and bought a van rental place! And you did n't buy a single van! '' She hears a van falling over her and says, "Not one word, '' just before the van crashes and injures her (the screen blacks out the impact).
Another minor character is the Giant Floating Baby Head. In an interview, Dan Povenmire stated that the head had originated from a storyboard panel that writer Mike Diederich had drawn which director Rob Hughes found hilarious enough to create an entire bit around. It first appears in "One Good Scare Ought to Do It! '' and has since appeared in several other episode.
Dr. Doofenshmirtz 's mother (Cloris Leachman) has appeared. She refers to Roger being her favorite child and often ignores Heinz. Albert (voiced by Diedrich Bader), Irving 's Brother has appeared in "Not Phineas and Ferb '', "The Doof Side of the Moon '', and "Nerds of a Feather ''.
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what are the requirements of farming which would lead to high yield of crops | Intensive crop farming - wikipedia
Intensive crop farming is a modern form of intensive farming that refers to the industrialized production of crops. Intensive crop farming 's methods include innovation in agricultural machinery, farming methods, genetic engineering technology, techniques for achieving economies of scale in production, the creation of new markets for consumption, patent protection of genetic information, and global trade. These methods are widespread in developed nations.
The practice of industrial agriculture is a relatively recent development in the history of agriculture, and the result of scientific discoveries and technological advances. Innovations in agriculture beginning in the late 19th century generally parallel developments in mass production in other industries that characterized the latter part of the Industrial Revolution. The identification of nitrogen and phosphorus as critical factors in plant growth led to the manufacture of synthetic fertilizers, making more intensive uses of farmland for crop production possible.
Similarly, the discovery of vitamins and their role in animal nutrition, in the first two decades of the 20th century, led to vitamin supplements, which in the 1920s allowed certain livestock to be raised indoors, reducing their exposure to adverse natural elements. The discovery of antibiotics and vaccines facilitated raising livestock in larger numbers by reducing disease. Chemicals developed for use in World War II gave rise to synthetic pesticides. Developments in shipping networks and technology have made long - distance distribution of produce feasible.
Critics of intensively farmed crops cite a wide range of concerns. On the food quality front, it is held by critics that quality is reduced when crops are bred and grown primarily for cosmetic and shipping characteristics. Environmentally, industrial farming of crops is claimed to be responsible for loss of biodiversity, degradation of soil quality, soil erosion, food toxicity (pesticide residues) and pollution (through agrichemical build - ups and runoff, and use of fossil fuels for agrichemical manufacture and for farm machinery and long - distance distribution).
The projects within the Green Revolution spread technologies that had already existed, but had not been widely used outside of industrialized nations. These technologies included pesticides, irrigation projects, and synthetic nitrogen fertilizer.
The novel technological development of the Green Revolution was the production of what some referred to as "miracle seeds. '' Scientists created strains of maize, wheat, and rice that are generally referred to as HYVs or "high - yielding varieties. '' HYVs have an increased nitrogen - absorbing potential compared to other varieties. Since cereals that absorbed extra nitrogen would typically lodge, or fall over before harvest, semi-dwarfing genes were bred into their genomes. Norin 10 wheat, a variety developed by Orville Vogel from Japanese dwarf wheat varieties, was instrumental in developing Green Revolution wheat cultivars. IR8, the first widely implemented HYV rice to be developed by IRRI, was created through a cross between an Indonesian variety named "Peta '' and a Chinese variety named "Dee Geo Woo Gen. ''
With the availability of molecular genetics in Arabidopsis and rice the mutant genes responsible (reduced height (rht), gibberellin insensitive (gai1) and slender rice (slr1)) have been cloned and identified as cellular signalling components of gibberellic acid, a phytohormone involved in regulating stem growth via its effect on cell division. Stem growth in the mutant background is significantly reduced leading to the dwarf phenotype. Photosynthetic investment in the stem is reduced dramatically as the shorter plants are inherently more stable mechanically. Assimilates become redirected to grain production, amplifying in particular the effect of chemical fertilisers on commercial yield.
HYVs significantly outperform traditional varieties in the presence of adequate irrigation, pesticides, and fertilizers. In the absence of these inputs, traditional varieties may outperform HYVs. One criticism of HYVs is that they were developed as F1 hybrids, meaning they need to be purchased by a farmer every season rather than saved from previous seasons, thus increasing a farmer 's cost of production.
Wheat is a grass that is cultivated worldwide. Globally, it is the most important human food grain and ranks second in total production as a cereal crop behind maize; the third being rice. Wheat and barley were the first cereals known to have been domesticated. Cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses led to the domestication of wheat through selection of mutant forms with tough years which remained intact during harvesting, and larger grains. Because of the loss of seed dispersal mechanisms, domesticated wheats have limited capacity to propagate in the wild.
Agricultural cultivation using horse collar leveraged plows (3000 years ago) increased cereal grain productivity yields, as did the use of seed drills which replaced broadcasting sowing of seed in the 18th century. Yields of wheat continued to increase, as new land came under cultivation and with improved agricultural husbandry involving the use of fertilizers, threshing machines and reaping machines (the ' combine harvester '), tractor - draw cultivators and planters, and better varieties (see Green Revolution and Norin 10 wheat). With population growth rates falling, while yields continue to rise, the area devoted to wheat may now begin to decline for the first time in modern human history.
Organic wheat typically halves yield attainable but costs less as there are no fertiliser and pesticide costs. Seed costs are typically higher, however, and arguably labour and machinery costs are higher as the organic crop, and more importantly the whole rotation and cropping on such a farm, is more difficult to manage correctly.
While winter wheat lies dormant during a winter freeze, wheat normally requires between 110 and 130 days between planting and harvest, depending upon climate, seed type, and soil conditions. Crop management decisions require the knowledge of stage of development of the crop. In particular, spring fertilizers applications, herbicides, fungicides, growth regulators are typically applied at specific stages of plant development. For example, current recommendations often indicate the second application of nitrogen be done when the ear (not visible at this stage) is about 1 cm in size (Z31 on Zadoks scale).
Maize was planted by the Native Americans in hills, in a complex system known to some as the Three Sisters: beans used the corn plant for support, and squashes provided ground cover to stop weeds. This method was replaced by single species hill planting where each hill 60 -- 120 cm (2 -- 4 ft) apart was planted with 3 or 4 seeds, a method still used by home gardeners. A later technique was checked corn where hills were placed 40 inches (1,000 mm) apart in each direction, allowing cultivators to run through the field in two directions. In more arid lands this was altered and seeds were planted in the bottom of 10 -- 12 cm (4 -- 5 in) deep furrows to collect water. Modern technique plants maize in rows which allows for cultivation while the plant is young, although the hill technique is still used in the cornfields of some Native American reservations. Haudenosaunee Confederacy is what a group of Native Americans who are preparing for climate change through seed banking. Now this group is known as the Iroquois.
With a climate changing more crops are able to grow in different areas that they previously were n't able to grow in. This will open growing areas for maize.
In North America, fields are often planted in a two - crop rotation with a nitrogen - fixing crop, often alfalfa in cooler climates and soybeans in regions with longer summers. Sometimes a third crop, winter wheat, is added to the rotation. Fields are usually plowed each year, although no - till farming is increasing in use. Many of the maize varieties grown in the United States and Canada are hybrids. Over half of the corn area planted in the United States has been genetically modified using biotechnology to express agronomic traits such as pest resistance or herbicide resistance.
Before about World War II, most maize in North America was harvested by hand (as it still is in most of the other countries where it is grown). This often involved large numbers of workers and associated social events. Some one - and two - row mechanical pickers were in use but the corn combine was not adopted until after the War. By hand or mechanical picker, the entire ear is harvested which then requires a separate operation of a corn sheller to remove the kernels from the ear. Whole ears of corn were often stored in corn cribs and these whole ears are a sufficient form for some livestock feeding use. Few modern farms store maize in this manner. Most harvest the grain from the field and store it in bins. The combine with a corn head (with points and snap rolls instead of a reel) does not cut the stalk; it simply pulls the stalk down. The stalk continues downward and is crumpled into a mangled pile on the ground. The ear of corn is too large to pass through a slit in a plate and the snap rolls pull the ear of corn from the stalk so that only the ear and husk enter the machinery. The combine separates the husk and the cob, keeping only the kernels.
Soybeans are one of the "biotech food '' crops that are being genetically modified, and GMO soybeans are being used in an increasing number of products. Monsanto Company is the world 's leader in genetically modified soy for the commercial market. In 1995, Monsanto introduced "Roundup Ready '' (RR) soybeans that have had a copy of a gene from the bacterium, Agrobacterium sp. strain CP4, inserted, by means of a gene gun, into its genome that allows the transgenic plant to survive being sprayed by this non-selective herbicide, glyphosate. Glyphosate, the active ingredient in Roundup, kills conventional soybeans. The bacterial gene is EPSP (= 5 - enolpyruvyl shikimic acid - 3 - phosphate) synthase. Soybean also has a version of this gene, but the soybean version is sensitive to glyphosate, while the CP4 version is not.
RR soybeans allow a farmer to reduce tillage or even to sow the seed directly into an unplowed field, known as ' no - till ' or conservation tillage. No - till agriculture has many advantages, greatly reducing soil erosion and creating better wildlife habitat; it also saves fossil fuels, and sequesters CO2, a greenhouse effect gas.
In 1997, about 8 % of all soybeans cultivated for the commercial market in the United States were genetically modified. In 2006, the figure was 89 %. As with other "Roundup Ready crops '', concern is expressed over damage to biodiversity. However, the RR gene has been bred into so many different soybean cultivars that the genetic modification itself has not resulted in any decline of genetic diversity.
The largest commercial hydroponics facility in the world is Eurofresh Farms in Willcox, Arizona, which sold more than 200 million pounds of tomatoes in 2007. Eurofresh has 318 acres (1.3 km) under glass and represents about a third of the commercial hydroponic greenhouse area in the U.S. Eurofresh does not consider their tomatoes organic, but they are pesticide - free. They are grown in rockwool with top irrigation.
Some commercial installations use no pesticides or herbicides, preferring integrated pest management techniques. There is often a price premium willingly paid by consumers for produce which is labeled "organic ''. Some states in the USA require soil as an essential to obtain organic certification. There are also overlapping and somewhat contradictory rules established by the US Federal Government. So some food grown with hydroponics can be certified organic. In fact, they are the cleanest plants possible because there is no environment variable and the dirt in the food supply is extremely limited. Hydroponics also saves an incredible amount of water; It uses as little as 1 / 20 the amount as a regular farm to produce the same amount of food. The water table can be impacted by the water use and run - off of chemicals from farms, but hydroponics may minimize impact as well as having the advantage that water use and water returns are easier to measure. This can save the farmer money by allowing reduced water use and the ability to measure consequences to the land around a farm.
The environment in a hydroponics greenhouse is tightly controlled for maximum efficiency and this new mindset is called soil-less / controlled - environment agriculture (S / CEA). With this growers can make ultra-premium foods anywhere in the world, regardless of temperature and growing seasons. Growers monitor the temperature, humidity, and pH level constantly.
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who decides about the size and membership of the council of ministers | Council of Ministers - wikipedia
"Council of Ministers '' is the name given to the supreme executive organ in some governments. The term is usually equivalent to the word "cabinet ''. Councils of Ministers are usually composed of those (Minister (government) ministers) who are responsible for a ministry, and are usually led by the President of the Council of Ministers, a term that is usually translated as "Prime Minister ''. It is the official name for body that includes all the ministers it usually has 60 to 80 ministers having collective responsibility.
Council of state is a similar term that also most often refer to a Cabinet.
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the projectile is launched with a velocity v0 | Range of a projectile - wikipedia
In physics, assuming a flat Earth with a uniform gravity field, and no air resistance, a projectile launched with specific initial conditions will have a predictable range.
The following applies for ranges which are small compared to the size of the Earth. For longer ranges see sub-orbital spaceflight. The maximum horizontal distance traveled by the projectile, neglecting air resistance, can be calculated as follows:
where
If y is taken to be zero, meaning that the object is being launched on flat ground, the range of the projectile will simplify to:
Ideal projectile motion states that there is no air resistance and no change in gravitational acceleration. This assumption simplifies the mathematics greatly, and is a close approximation of actual projectile motion in cases where the distances travelled are small. Ideal projectile motion is also a good introduction to the topic before adding the complications of air resistance.
A launch angle of 45 degrees displaces the projectile the farthest horizontally. This is due to the nature of right triangles. Additionally, from the equation for the range:
We can see that the range will be maximum when the value of sin 2 θ (\ displaystyle \ sin 2 \ theta) is the highest (i.e. when it is equal to 1). Clearly, 2 θ (\ displaystyle 2 \ theta) has to be 90 degrees. That is to say, θ (\ displaystyle \ theta) is 45 degrees.
First we examine the case where (y) is zero. The horizontal position of the projectile is
In the vertical direction
We are interested in the time when the projectile returns to the same height it originated. Let t be any time when the height of the projectile is equal to its initial value.
By factoring:
or
but t = T = time of flight
The first solution corresponds to when the projectile is first launched. The second solution is the useful one for determining the range of the projectile. Plugging this value for (t) into the horizontal equation yields
Applying the trigonometric identity
If x and y are same,
allows us to simplify the solution to
Note that when (θ) is 45 °, the solution becomes
Now we will allow (y) to be nonzero. Our equations of motion are now
and
Once again we solve for (t) in the case where the (y) position of the projectile is at zero (since this is how we defined our starting height to begin with)
Again by applying the quadratic formula we find two solutions for the time. After several steps of algebraic manipulation
The square root must be a positive number, and since the velocity and the sine of the launch angle can also be assumed to be positive, the solution with the greater time will occur when the positive of the plus or minus sign is used. Thus, the solution is
Solving for the range once again
or, equivalently
To maximize the range at any height
Checking the limit as y 0 (\ displaystyle y_ (0)) approaches 0
The angle ψ at which the projectile lands is given by:
For maximum range, this results in the following equation:
Rewriting the original solution for θ, we get:
Multiplying with the equation for (tan ψ) ^ 2 gives:
Because of the trigonometric identity
this means that θ + ψ must be 90 degrees.
In addition to air resistance, which slows a projectile and reduces its range, many other factors also have to be accounted for when actual projectile motion is considered.
Generally speaking, a projectile with greater volume faces greater air resistance, reducing the range of the projectile. (And see Trajectory of a projectile.) Air resistance drag can be modified by the projectile shape: a tall and wide, but short projectile will face greater air resistance than a low and narrow, but long, projectile of the same volume. The surface of the projectile also must be considered: a smooth projectile will face less air resistance than a rough - surfaced one, and irregularities on the surface of a projectile may change its trajectory if they create more drag on one side of the projectile than on the other. However, certain irregularities such as dimples on a golf ball may actually increase its range by reducing the amount of turbulence caused behind the projectile as it travels. Mass also becomes important, as a more massive projectile will have more kinetic energy, and will thus be less affected by air resistance. The distribution of mass within the projectile can also be important, as an unevenly weighted projectile may spin undesirably, causing irregularities in its trajectory due to the magnus effect.
If a projectile is given rotation along its axes of travel, irregularities in the projectile 's shape and weight distribution tend to be cancelled out. See rifling for a greater explanation.
For projectiles that are launched by firearms and artillery, the nature of the gun 's barrel is also important. Longer barrels allow more of the propellant 's energy to be given to the projectile, yielding greater range. Rifling, while it may not increase the average (arithmetic mean) range of many shots from the same gun, will increase the accuracy and precision of the gun.
Some cannons or howitzers have been created with a very large range.
During World War I the Germans created an exceptionally large cannon, the Paris Gun, which could fire a shell more than 80 miles (130 km). North Korea has developed gun known in the West as Koksan, with a range of 60 km using rocket - assisted projectiles. (And see Trajectory of a projectile.)
Such cannons are distinguished from rockets, or ballistic missiles, which have their own rocket engines, which continue to accelerate the missile for a period after they have been launched.
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evs project topics for 12th std arts in marathi language | Lists of environmental topics - wikipedia
The natural environment commonly referred to simply as the environment, is all living and non-living things that occur naturally on Earth or some part of it (e.g. the natural environment in a country). This includes complete ecological units that function as natural systems without massive human intervention, including all vegetation, animals, microorganisms, rocks, atmosphere and natural phenomena that occur within their boundaries. And it includes universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear - cut boundaries, such as air, water, and climate, as well as energy, radiation, electric charge, and magnetism, not originating from human activity.
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who won the world series in the last 20 years | List of World Series champions - wikipedia
The World Series is the annual championship series of Major League Baseball (MLB) and concludes the MLB postseason. First played in 1903, the World Series championship is determined through a best - of - seven playoff and is a contest between the champions of baseball 's National League (NL) and American League (AL). Often referred to as the "Fall Classic '', the modern World Series has been played every year since 1903 with two exceptions: in 1904, when the NL champion New York Giants declined to play the AL champion Boston Americans; and in 1994, when the series was canceled due to the players ' strike.
The best - of - seven style has been the format of all World Series except in 1903, 1919, 1920 and 1921, when the winner was determined through a best - of - nine playoff. The Series - winning team is awarded the Commissioner 's Trophy. Players, coaches, and others associated with the team are generally given World Series rings to commemorate their victory; however, they have received other items such as pocket watches and medallions in the past. The winning team is traditionally invited to the White House to meet the President of the United States.
A total of 112 Series have been contested, with the NL champion winning 48 and the AL champion winning 64. The New York Yankees of the AL have played in 40 World Series through 2016 -- winning 27 -- the most Series appearances, victories, and losses (13) of any Major League Baseball franchise. The St. Louis Cardinals, who represented the NL for a 19th time in 2013, have won 11 championships, which is the second-most among all 30 Major League Baseball teams as well as most among NL teams. Only the Giants have been NL champions more times, appearing in 20 World Series (14 as the New York Giants and six representing San Francisco), with eight Series victories (second-most in the National League), including their most recent in 2014.
The Seattle Mariners and the Washington Nationals (formerly Montreal Expos) are the only current Major League Baseball franchises to have never appeared in a World Series; the Houston Astros, San Diego Padres, Colorado Rockies, Texas Rangers (formerly the 1961 -- 1971 version of the Washington Senators), Tampa Bay Rays, and Milwaukee Brewers (formerly Seattle Pilots) have all played in the Series but have never won. The Toronto Blue Jays are the only franchise from outside the United States to appear in a World Series, winning in 1992 and 1993. The current World Series champions are the Chicago Cubs.
Numbers in parentheses in the table are World Series appearances, as of the date of that World Series and are used as follows:
In the sortable table below, teams are ordered first by number of appearances, then by number of wins, and finally by year of first appearance. In the "Season (s) '' column, bold years indicate winning World Series appearances.
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when did republicans gain control of the house | United States House of Representatives elections, 2010 - wikipedia
Nancy Pelosi Democratic
John Boehner Republican
The 2010 United States House of Representatives elections were held on November 2, 2010, as part of the 2010 midterm elections (along with Senate elections), at the midpoint of President Barack Obama 's first term in office. Voters of the 50 U.S. states chose 435 U.S. Representatives. Voters of the U.S. territories, commonwealths, and the District of Columbia chose their non-voting delegates.
Republicans regained control of the chamber they had lost in the 2006 midterm elections, picking up a net total of 63 seats and erasing the gains Democrats made in 2006 and 2008. Although the sitting U.S. President 's party usually loses seats in a midterm election, the 2010 election resulted in the highest loss of a party in a House midterm election since 1938, and the largest House swing since 1948. This also happened to be the Republicans ' largest gain in House seats since 1938. Republicans gained the most in New York state where they picked up six seats, defeating five incumbents and winning an open Democratic district. The heavy Democratic Party losses were attributed to anger with President Obama, opposition to the Affordable Care Act, large budget deficits and the weak economy. This was also the third consecutive midterm election in a president 's first term where the Republican Party has made gains in the House of Representatives, as well as the second consecutive midterm election where party control of the said chamber changed hands. Notable freshmen included future Senators Cory Gardner, Todd Young, James Lankford, and Tim Scott, future Governor of Delaware John Carney, future Director of the Office of Management and Budget Mick Mulvaney, future CIA director Mike Pompeo, future Lieutenant Governor of Arkansas Tim Griffin, and future Louisiana Attorney General Jeff Landry.
Following the 2006 elections, Democrats took control of the House as well as the Senate. In the 2008 elections, which coincided with Democrat Barack Obama 's victory over Republican John McCain for the presidency, Democrats increased their majorities in both chambers. Of the 435 congressional districts, 242 were carried by Obama, while 193 voted for McCain. Of the districts Obama won, 34 elected a Republican to the House, while 49 of the districts McCain won elected a Democrat.
The Republicans ' 63 - seat pickup in the House to take control of that chamber, as well as their gain of six Senate seats, signified a dramatic rollback of recent Democratic gains. In the election, Republicans won their greatest number of House seats since 1946. This has been attributed to the continued economic recession, as well as President Obama 's controversial stimulus and health care reform bills. Republicans also took control of 29 of the 50 state governorships and gained 690 seats in state legislatures, to hold their greatest number since the 1928 elections.
Republicans also made historic gains in state legislatures, adding more than 675 state legislative seats, by far surpassing their state - legislative gains in 1994. Republicans gained control of dozens of state legislative chambers, and took control of "seven more legislatures outright than they did after 1994 and the most since 1952. '' Republicans picked up control of the Alabama Legislature for the first time since Reconstruction; control of the North Carolina Senate for the first time since 1870; and control of the Minnesota Senate for the first time since the state returned to partisan elections in 1974.
The Great Lakes region, which had recently favored the Democratic Party, went strongly Republican. In California and the Pacific Northwest, however, the Democrats retained the upper hand.
Sources: House Clerk -- Statistics of the Congressional Election, 2010, House Clerk -- Statistics of the Congressional Election, 2008
Thirty - seven incumbents retired.
Seventeen incumbent Democrats retired.
Twenty incumbent Republicans retired.
There were nine Democrats who survived reelection in the 1994 Republican Revolution, but were defeated this year.
Two Democrats lost renomination. One seat remained Democratic, and the other seat was taken by a Republican.
Two Republicans lost renomination. Both seats remained Republican.
Fifty - four incumbents lost re-election; almost all of them were Democrats.
52 Democrats lost re-election.
Two Republicans lost re-election.
Fourteen open seats, held by Democrats, were won by Republicans.
One open seat, held by a Republican, was won by a Democrat.
The following were predictions of the outcome of the 2010 United States House of Representatives elections.
The following table contains the final ratings of the competitiveness of selected races according to noted political analysts. Races which were considered safe for the incumbent 's party are not included. Incumbents who did not run for re-election have parentheses around their name.
Key:
The House of Representatives includes five Delegates from the District of Columbia and outlying territories elected to two - year terms and one Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico elected to a four - year term (for which the last election was held in 2008, so the seat was not up for reelection in 2010). These delegates are not allowed to vote on the floor of the House of Representatives.
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as a result of the reforms of cleisthenes the government of athens | Cleisthenes - wikipedia
Cleisthenes (/ ˈklaɪsθɪˌniːz /; Greek: Κλεισθένης, Kleisthénēs; also Clisthenes or Kleisthenes) was an ancient Athenian lawgiver credited with reforming the constitution of ancient Athens and setting it on a democratic footing in 508 BC. For these accomplishments, historians refer to him as "the father of Athenian democracy. '' He was a member of the aristocratic Alcmaeonid clan, and the maternal grandson of the tyrant Cleisthenes of Sicyon, as the younger son of the latter 's daughter Agariste and her husband Megacles. He was also credited with increasing the power of the Athenian citizens ' assembly and for reducing the power of the nobility over Athenian politics.
In 510 BC, Spartan troops helped the Athenians overthrow their king, the tyrant Hippias, son of Peisistratos. Cleomenes I, king of Sparta, put in place a pro-Spartan oligarchy headed by Isagoras. But his rival Cleisthenes, with the support of the middle class and aided by democrats, took over. Cleomenes intervened in 508 and 506 BC, but could not stop Cleisthenes, now supported by the Athenians. Through Cleisthenes ' reforms, the people of Athens endowed their city with isonomic institutions -- equal rights for all citizens (though only men were citizens) -- and established ostracism.
Historians estimate that Cleisthenes was born around 570 BC. Cleisthenes was the uncle of Pericles ' mother Agariste and of Alcibiades ' maternal grandfather Megacles.
With help from the Spartans and the Alcmaeonidae (Cleisthenes ' genos, "clan ''), he was responsible for overthrowing Hippias, the tyrant son of Pisistratus. After the collapse of Hippias ' tyranny, Isagoras and Cleisthenes were rivals for power, but Isagoras won the upper hand by appealing to the Spartan king Cleomenes I to help him expel Cleisthenes. He did so on the pretext of the Alcmaeonid curse. Consequently, Cleisthenes left Athens as an exile, and Isagoras was unrivalled in power within the city. Isagoras set about dispossessing hundreds of Athenians of their homes and exiling them on the pretext that they too were cursed. He also attempted to dissolve the Boule (βουλή), a council of Athenian citizens appointed to run the daily affairs of the city. However, the council resisted, and the Athenian people declared their support of the council. Isagoras and his supporters were forced to flee to the Acropolis, remaining besieged there for two days. On the third day they fled the city and were banished. Cleisthenes was subsequently recalled, along with hundreds of exiles, and he assumed leadership of Athens.
After this victory, Cleisthenes began to reform the government of Athens. He commissioned a bronze memorial from the sculptor Antenor in honor of the lovers and tyrannicides Harmodius and Aristogeiton, whom Hippias had executed. In order to forestall strife between the traditional clans, which had led to the tyranny in the first place, he changed the political organization from the four traditional tribes, which were based on family relations and which formed the basis of the upper class Athenian political power network, into ten tribes according to their area of residence (their deme,) which would form the basis of a new democratic power structure. It is thought that there may have been 139 demes (though this is still a matter of debate) which were organized into three groups called trittyes ("thirds ''), with ten demes divided among three regions in each trittyes (a city region, asty; a coastal region, paralia; and an inland region, mesogeia). Cleisthenes also abolished patronymics in favour of demonymics (a name given according to the deme to which one belongs), thus increasing Athenians ' sense of belonging to a deme. He also established sortition - the random selection of citizens to fill government positions rather than kinship or heredity, a true test of real democracy. He reorganized the Boule, created with 400 members under Solon, so that it had 500 members, 50 from each tribe. He also introduced the bouletic oath, "To advise according to the laws what was best for the people ''. The court system (Dikasteria -- law courts) was reorganized and had from 201 -- 5001 jurors selected each day, up to 500 from each tribe. It was the role of the Boule to propose laws to the assembly of voters, who convened in Athens around forty times a year for this purpose. The bills proposed could be rejected, passed or returned for amendments by the assembly.
Cleisthenes also may have introduced ostracism (first used in 487 BC), whereby a vote from more than 6,000 of the citizens would exile a citizen for 10 years. The initial trend was to vote for a citizen deemed a threat to the democracy (e.g., by having ambitions to set himself up as tyrant). However, soon after, any citizen judged to have too much power in the city tended to be targeted for exile (e.g., Xanthippus in 485 / 84 BC). Under this system, the exiled man 's property was maintained, but he was not physically in the city where he could possibly create a new tyranny. One later ancient author records that Cleisthenes himself was the first person to be ostracized.
Cleisthenes called these reforms isonomia ("equality vis à vis law '', iso - = equality; nomos = law), instead of demokratia. Cleisthenes ' life after his reforms is unknown as no ancient texts mention him thereafter.
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what are the federal holidays in the united states | Federal holidays in the United States - wikipedia
In the United States, a federal holiday is an authorized holiday which has been recognized by the US government. Every year on a U.S. federal holiday, non-essential federal government offices are closed, and every federal employee is paid for the holiday. Private - sector employees required to work on a legal holiday may receive holiday pay in addition to their ordinary wages.
Federal holidays are designated by the United States Congress in Title V of the United States Code (5 U.S.C. § 6103). Congress has authority to create holidays only for federal institutions (including federally owned properties) and employees, and for the District of Columbia. However, as a general rule other institutions, including banks, post offices, and schools, may be closed on those days. In various parts of the country, state and city holidays may be observed in addition to the federal holidays.
The history of federal holidays in the United States dates back to June 28, 1870, when Congress created federal holidays "to correspond with similar laws of States around the District... and... in every State of the Union. '' Although at first applicable only to federal employees in the District of Columbia, Congress extended coverage in 1885 to all federal employees.
The original four holidays were:
George Washington 's Birthday became a Federal holiday in 1880. In 1888 and 1894, respectively, Decoration Day (now Memorial Day) and Labor Day were created. In 1938, Armistice Day (now Veterans Day) was created to mark the end of World War I. The scope and the name of the holiday was expanded in 1954 to honor Americans who fought in World War II and the Korean War.
In 1968, the Monday Holiday Act of 1968 shifted several holidays to always fall on a Monday and saw the establishment of Columbus Day.
In 1983, the birthday of Martin Luther King Jr. became the nation 's most recently established holiday.
Most of the ten U.S. federal holidays are also state holidays. A holiday that falls on a weekend is usually observed on the closest weekday (e.g. a holiday falling on a Saturday is observed on the preceding Friday, while a holiday falling on a Sunday is observed on the succeeding Monday). The official names came from the laws that define holidays for federal employees.
New Year 's Day, Independence Day, Veterans Day, and Christmas Day are observed on the same calendar date each year. Holidays that fall on a Saturday are observed by federal employees who work a standard Monday to Friday week on the previous Friday. Federal employees who work on Saturday will observe the holiday on Saturday; Friday will be a regular work day. Holidays that fall on a Sunday are observed by federal workers the following Monday. The other holidays always fall on a particular day of the week.
Although many states recognize most or all federal holidays as state holidays, the Federal government can not enact laws to compel them to do so. Furthermore, states can recognize other days as state holidays that are not federal holidays. For example, the State of Texas recognizes all federal holidays except Columbus Day, and in addition recognizes the Friday after Thanksgiving, Christmas Eve, and the day after Christmas as state holidays. Furthermore, Texas does not follow the federal rule of closing either the Friday before if a holiday falls on a Saturday, or the Monday after if a holiday falls on a Sunday (offices are open on those Fridays or Mondays), but does have "partial staffing holidays '' (such as March 2, which is Texas Independence Day) and "optional holidays '' (such as Good Friday).
Private employers also can not be required to observe federal or state holidays, the key exception being federally chartered banks. Some private employers, often by a union contract, pay a differential such as time - and - a-half or double - time to employees who work on some federal holidays. However, most non-unionized private sector employees only receive their standard pay for working on a federal holiday if it is not a designated holiday at their company.
Federal law also provides for the declaration of other public holidays by the President of the United States. Generally the president will provide a reasoning behind the elevation of the day, and call on the people of the United States to observe the day "with appropriate ceremonies and activities. '' Examples of presidentially declared holidays were the days of the funerals for former Presidents Ronald Reagan and Gerald Ford; federal government offices were closed and employees given a paid holiday.
Some individuals and organizations have objected to the federal status of certain holidays, such as Martin Luther King Jr. Day and Columbus Day. In particular, Senator Jesse Helms of North Carolina opposed the creation of the federal holiday for the birthday of Martin Luther King Jr. in 1983.
Protests by the Native American community support the abolition of Columbus Day, mainly due to its ideology in forcefully conquering and converting whole populations with another and encouraging imperialism and colonization. Glenn Morris of the Denver Post wrote that Columbus Day "... is not merely a celebration of Columbus the man; it is the celebration of a racist legal and political legacy - embedded in official legal and political pronouncements of the U.S. - such as the Doctrine of Discovery and Manifest Destiny. ''
Hawaii, Alaska, Oregon, and South Dakota are U.S. states that do not recognize Columbus Day at all, though Hawaii and South Dakota mark the day with an alternative holiday or observance. South Dakota is the only state to recognize Native American Day as an alternate. Hawaii recognizes Discoverer 's Day.
Christmas Day as a federal or public holiday is also sometimes objected to by various sources, usually due to its ties with the Christian religion. In December 1999, the U.S. District Court, in the case Ganulin vs. United States, denied the charge that Christmas Day 's federal status violated the Establishment Clause of the Constitution, ruling that "the Christmas holiday has become largely secularized '', and that "by giving federal employees a paid vacation day on Christmas, the government is doing no more than recognizing the cultural significance of the holiday ''.
Many proposed federal holidays have come up over time. According to an article from CBS, federal holidays are generally "expensive '' and they only allow federal workers to take the day off. As the U.S. federal government is a large employer, the holidays are expensive. If a holiday is controversial, opposition will generally prevent bills enacting them from passing. Martin Luther King Jr. 's birthday, for example, was one that took much effort to pass. And once it did pass, it took more effort for all states to eventually recognize it.
The following list is an example of holidays that have been proposed and have reasons why they are not observed at the federal level today. Some of these holidays are observed at the state level.
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where is the majority of deforestation currently taking place | Deforestation by region - wikipedia
Rates and causes of deforestation vary from region to region around the world. In 2009, 2 / 3 of the world forests were in 10 top countries: 1) Russia, 2) Brazil, 3) China, 4) United States, 5) Canada, 6) Australia, 7) Congo, 8) Indonesia, 9) Peru and 10) India.
World annual deforestation is estimated as 13.7 million hectares a year, equal to the area of Greece. Only half of this area is compensated by new forests or forest growth. In addition to directly human - induced deforestation, the growing forests have also been affected by climate change, increasing risks of storms, and diseases. Kyoto protocol includes the agreement to prevent deforestation but not the actions to fulfill it.
Africa is suffering deforestation at twice the world rate, according to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Some sources claim that deforestation has already wiped out roughly 90 % of West Africa 's original forests. Deforestation is accelerating in Central Africa. According to the FAO, Africa lost the highest percentage of tropical forests of any continent during the 1980s, 1990s, and early 2000s. According to the figures from the FAO (1997), only 22.8 % of West Africa 's moist forests remain, much of this degraded. Nigeria has lost 81 % of its old - growth forests in just 15 years (1990 -- 2005). Massive deforestation threatens food security in some African countries. One factor contributing to the continent 's high rates of deforestation is the dependence of 90 % of its population on wood as fuel for heating and cooking.
Research carried out by WWF International in 2006 shows that in Africa, rates of illegal logging vary from 50 % in Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea to 70 % in Gabon and 80 % in Liberia -- where timber revenues played a major role in financing the Sierra Leone Civil War and other regional armed conflicts until the UN Security Council imposed a ban on all Liberian timber in 2003.
Deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo has been caused partly by unregulated logging and mining, but mostly by the demands made by the subsistence activities of a poor population. In the east of the country, for example, more than 3 million people live less than a day 's walk from Virunga National Park. Wood from the park 's forests is used by many of those people as firewood, as lumber for construction, and in the production of charcoal. Deforestation caused by subsistence living is an acute threat to the park in general, and to the habitat of the critically endangered mountain gorilla in particular.
The main cause of deforestation in the East African country of Ethiopia is a growing population and subsequent higher demand for agriculture, livestock production and fuel wood. Other reasons include low education and inactivity from the government, although the current government has taken some steps to tackle deforestation. Organizations such as Farm Africa are working with the federal and local governments to create a system of forest management. Ethiopia, the third largest country in Africa by population, has been hit by famine many times because of shortages of rain and a depletion of natural resources. Deforestation has lowered the chance of getting rain, which is already low, and thus causes erosion. Bercele Bayisa, an Ethiopian farmer, offers one example why deforestation occurs. He said that his district was forested and full of wildlife, but that overpopulation caused people to come to that land and clear it to plant crops, cutting all trees to sell as firewood.
Ethiopia has lost 98 % of its forested regions in the last 50 years. At the beginning of the 20th century, around 420,000 km2 or 35 % of Ethiopia 's land was covered with forests. Recent reports indicate that forests cover less than 14.2 % or even only 11.9 % as of 2005. Between 1990 and 2005, the country lost 14 % of its forests or 21,000 km2.
In 1963 Kenya had forest cover of some 10 percent and by 2006 1.7 percent.
Deforestation with resulting desertification, water resource degradation and soil loss has affected approximately 94 % of Madagascar 's previously biologically productive lands. Since the arrival of humans 2000 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90 % of its original forest. Most of this loss has occurred since independence from the French, and is the result of local people using slash - and - burn agricultural practices as they try to subsist. Largely due to deforestation, the country is currently unable to provide adequate food, fresh water and sanitation for its fast growing population.
According to the FAO, Nigeria has the world 's highest deforestation rate of primary forests. It has lost more than half of its primary forest in the last five years. Causes cited are logging, subsistence agriculture, and the collection of fuel wood. Almost 90 % of West Africa 's rainforest has been destroyed.
Russia has the largest area of forests of any state on Earth, with around 12 million km of boreal forest, larger than the Amazon rainforest. Russia 's forests contain 55 % of the world 's conifers and represent 11 % of biomass on Earth. It is estimated that 20,000 km are deforested each year. The present scale of deforestation in Russia is most easily seen using Google Earth. Areas nearer to China are most affected, as it is the main market for the timber. Deforestation in Russia is particularly damaging as the forests have a short growing season due to extremely cold winters and therefore will take longer to recover.
Forest loss is acute in Southeast Asia, the second of the world 's great biodiversity hot spots. According to 2005 report conducted by the FAO, Vietnam has the second highest rate of deforestation of primary forests in the world second to only Nigeria. More than 90 % of the old - growth rainforests of the Philippine Archipelago have been cut. Other Southeast Asian countries where major deforestation is ongoing are Cambodia and Laos. According to a documentary by TelePool, the deforestation is being directed by corrupt military personnel and government (forestry services).
As of 2008, at present rates, tropical rainforests in Indonesia would be logged out in 10 years, Papua New Guinea in 13 to 16 years.
Indonesia had lost over 72 % of intact forests and 40 % of all forests completely in 2005. Illegal logging took place in 37 out of 41 national parks. The illegal logging costs up to US $4 billion a year. The lowland forests of Sumatra and Borneo were in risk to be wiped out by 2022. According to Transparency International numerous controversial court decisions in this area have raised concerns about the integrity of the judiciary.
Yoichi Kuroda sketches a history and current outline of ' large scale land and landscape destruction ' here See also Mudslides and Erosion.
Iceland has undergone extensive deforestation since Scandinavians settled in the ninth century. At the time of human settlement about 1140 years ago, birch forest and woodland covered ' at least 25 % ' of Iceland 's land area. The settlers began by cutting down the forests and burning scrubland to create fields and grazing land. Deforestation did not end in Iceland until the middle of the 20th century. Afforestation and revegetation has restored small areas of land. However, pastoralism was the main reason birch forest and woodland did not grow back.
Sicily is an often - quoted example of man - made deforestation, which was practiced since Roman times, when the island was made an agricultural region, and continued to this day. This gradually aridified the climate, leading to decline of rainfall and drying of rivers. Today, entire central and southwest provinces are practically without any forests. That also affected the island 's wild fauna, of which is little left in the pastures and crop fields of the inland.
In 2005, an estimated 56,000 hectares were deforested in Canada. Deforestation affected less than 0.02 % of Canada 's forests in 2005. The agricultural sector accounted for just over half of the deforestation in 2005, the result of forests having been cleared for pasture or crops. The remainder was caused by urban development, transportation corridors, and recreation (19 %); hydroelectric development (10 %); the forest sector (10 %); and other natural resource extraction industries (8 %). About two thirds of this deforestation occurred in Canada 's boreal forest, mainly in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba where the forest borders the Prairies.
In Canada, prior to 2000, less than 8 % of the boreal forest was protected from development and more than 50 % has been allocated to logging companies for cutting.
In 1600, prior to the arrival of European - Americans, roughly half of the land area of the present - day United States was forest -- about 4,000,000 square kilometres (990,000,000 acres). For the next 300 years land was cleared, mostly for agriculture, at a rate that matched the rate of population growth. For every person added to the population, one to two hectares of land was cultivated. This trend continued until the 1920s when the amount of crop land stabilized in spite of continued population growth. As abandoned farmland reverted to forest, the amount of forestland increased from 1952, reaching a peak in 1963 of 3,080,000 square kilometres (760,000,000 acres). Since 1963 there has been a steady decrease of forest area with the exception of some gains from 1997.
The history of most Central American countries involves cycles of deforestation and reforestation. By the fifteenth century, intensive Mayan agriculture had significantly thinned the forests. Before Europeans arrived, forests covered 500,000 square kilometers -- approximately 90 % of the region. Eventually, the forcing of "Europe 's money economy on Latin America '' created the demand for the exportation of primary products, which introduced the need for large amounts of cleared agricultural land to produce those products. Since the 1960s, cattle ranching has become the primary reason for land clearing. The lean grass - fed cattle produced by Central American ranches (as opposed to grain - fed cattle raised elsewhere) was perfectly suited for American fast - food restaurants and this seemingly bottomless market has created the so - called "hamburger connection '' which links "consumer lifestyles in North America with deforestation in Central America ''.
There is no agreement on what drives deforestation in Brazil, though a broad consensus exists that expansion of croplands and pastures is important. Increases in commodity prices may increase the rate of deforestation. Recent development of a new variety of soybean has led to the displacement of beef ranches and farms of other crops, which, in turn, move farther into the forest. Certain areas such as the Atlantic Rainforest have been diminished to just 7 % of their original size. Although much conservation work has been done, few national parks or reserves are efficiently enforced. Some 80 % of logging in the Amazon is illegal.
In 2008, Brazil 's Government has announced a record rate of deforestation in the Amazon. Deforestation jumped by 69 % in 2008 compared to 2007 's twelve months, according to official government data. Deforestation could wipe out or severely damage nearly 60 % of the Amazon rainforest by 2030, says a new report from WWF.
Due to relatively recent colonisation, Australia has had high rates of deforestation, primarily due to clearing for agricultural purposes. In recent years much of the clearing has occurred in Tasmania and Queensland, but rates are expected to decrease with the implementation of new legislation. In 1998, deforestation is thought to have been responsible for around 12 % of Australia 's total carbon emissions.
An additional factor currently causing the loss of forest cover is the expansion of urban areas. Littoral rainforest growing along coastal areas of eastern Australia is now rare due to ribbon development to accommodate the demand for seachange lifestyles.
Earlier in 2014, there were plans to cleared large areas of forests, but that decision was later abandoned.
In the 800 years of human occupation of New Zealand 75 % of the forests were lost. Initially it was by wholesale burning by English but remaining forests were logged for lumber for the burgeoning population. By 2000 all logging of native trees on public land was stopped. Logging on private land is controlled with a permit system and with the Resource Management Act.
Papua New Guinea (PNG) has one of the world 's largest rainforests. Illegal logging was among highest in the world in 2007, estimated as ca 70 - 90 % of all timber export.
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the animals we gotta get out of this place | We Gotta Get out of This Place - wikipedia
"We Gotta Get out of This Place '', occasionally written "We 've Gotta Get out of This Place '', is a rock song written by Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil and recorded as a 1965 hit single by The Animals. It has become an iconic song of its type and was immensely popular with United States Armed Forces GIs during the Vietnam War.
In 2004 it was ranked number 233 on Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list; it is also in The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll list.
Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil were husband and wife (and future Hall of Fame) songwriters associated with the 1960s Brill Building scene in New York City.
Mann and Weil wrote and recorded "We Gotta Get out of This Place '' as a demo, with Mann singing and playing piano. It was intended for The Righteous Brothers, for whom they had written the number one hit "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' '' but then Mann gained a recording contract for himself, and his label Red Bird Records wanted him to release it instead. Meanwhile, record executive Allen Klein had heard it and gave the demo to Mickie Most, The Animals ' producer. Most already had a call out to Brill Building songwriters for material for the group 's next recording session (The Animals hits "It 's My Life '' and "Do n't Bring Me Down '' came from the same call), and The Animals recorded it before Mann could.
In The Animals ' rendition, the lyrics were slightly reordered and reworded from the demo and opened with a locational allusion -- although different from that in the songwriters ' minds -- that was often taken as fitting the group 's industrial, working class Newcastle - upon - Tyne origins:
In this dirty old part of the city Where the sun refused to shine People tell me, there ai n't no use in tryin '
Next came a verse about the singer 's father in his deathbed after a lifetime of working his life away, followed by a call - and - response buildup, leading to the start of the chorus:
We got ta get out of this place! If it 's the last thing we ever do...
The arrangement featured a distinctive bass lead by group member Chas Chandler. This was the first single not to be recorded by the original line - up, following as it did the departure of keyboard player Alan Price and his replacement by Dave Rowberry. It featured one of singer Eric Burdon 's typically raw, fierce vocals. Rolling Stone described the overall effect as a "harsh white - blues treatment from The Animals. As (Burdon) put it, ' Whatever suited our attitude, we just bent to our own shape. ' ''
The song reached number 2 on the UK pop singles chart on August 14, 1965 (held out of the top slot by The Beatles ' "Help! ''). The following month, it reached number 13 on the U.S. pop singles chart, its highest placement there. In Canada, the song also reached number 2, on September 20, 1965.
The UK and US single releases were different versions from the same recording sessions. The take that EMI, The Animals ' parent record company, sent to MGM Records, the group 's American label, was mistakenly one that had not been selected for release elsewhere. The two versions are most easily differentiated by the lyric at the beginning of the second verse: in the US version the lyric is, "See my daddy in bed a-dyin ' '', while the UK version uses, "Watch my daddy in bed a-dyin ' '' (as a result of an error by the music labels, certain online retailers sell the UK version but incorrectly identify it as the US version).
In the US the song (in its "mistaken '' take) was included on the album Animal Tracks, released in the fall 1965, and again on the popular compilation The Best of The Animals released in 1966 and re-released with an expanded track list on the ABKCO label in 1973. The song was not on any British Animals album during the group 's lifetime.
Once Animals reissues began occurring during the compact disc era, Allen Klein, by now owner of ABKCO and the rights to this material, dictated that the "correct '' British version be used on all reissues and compilations everywhere. Thus, as US radio stations converted from vinyl records to CDs, gradually only the British version became heard. Some collectors and fans in the US wrote letters of complaint to Goldmine magazine, saying they believed the US version featured an angrier and more powerful vocal from Burdon, and in any case wanted to hear the song in the form they had grown up with. The 2004 remastered SACD Retrospective compilation from ABKCO included the US version.
At the time, the title and simple emotional appeal of "We Gotta Get out of This Place '' lent itself to some obvious self - identifications -- for instance, it was a very popular number to be played at high school senior proms and graduation parties. In music writer Dave Marsh 's view, it was one of a wave of songs in 1965, by artists such as The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, and Bob Dylan, that ushered in a new role for rock music as a vehicle for common perception and as a force for social consciousness. Writer Craig Werner sees the song as reflecting the desire of people to take a hard look at their own lives and the community they come from. Burdon later said, "The song became an anthem for different people -- everybody at some time wants to get out of the situation they 're in. ''
The song was very popular with United States Armed Forces members stationed in South Vietnam during the Vietnam War. It was frequently requested of, and played by, American Forces Vietnam Network disc jockeys. During 2006 two University of Wisconsin -- Madison employees, one a Vietnam veteran, began an in - depth survey of hundreds of Vietnam veterans, and found that "We Gotta Get out of This Place '' had resonated the strongest among all the music popular then: "We had absolute unanimity is this song being the touchstone. This was the Vietnam anthem. Every bad band that ever played in an armed forces club had to play this song. '' Just such a band played the song in an episode ("USO Down '', by Vietnam veteran Jim Beaver) of the American television series about the war, Tour of Duty, and the song is reprised in the episode 's final scene.
"We Gotta Get out of This Place '' was also used in Dennis Potter 's 1965 television play Stand Up, Nigel Barton and the BBC 's 1996 Newcastle - set Our Friends in the North, which partially took place in the 1960s. In America it was used as the title credits song in some episodes of the Vietnam War - set television series China Beach. It was then applied to the Bin Laden family, having to leave the United States in the aftermath of the September 11th terrorist attacks, in Michael Moore 's 2004 Fahrenheit 9 / 11. It also was featured in the soundtrack to the 1987 movie Hamburger Hill. It was used in a third - season episode of the 2000s television series Heroes. It was used as the theme song for 2002 BBC comedy TLC and the 2013 BBC series Privates. The song was also featured humorously in the Kong: Skull Island trailer
In a 2012 keynote speech to an audience at the South by Southwest music festival, Bruce Springsteen performed an abbreviated version of The Animals ' version on acoustic guitar and then said, "That 's every song I 've ever written. That 's all of them. I 'm not kidding, either. That 's ' Born to Run ', ' Born in the U.S.A. ' ''
The song 's title and theme have become a common cultural phrase over the years.
It formed the basis for the title of academician Lawrence Grossberg 's We Gotta Get out of This Place: Popular Conservatism and Postmodern Culture (1992), detailing the conflict between American conservatism and rock culture. Similarly, it formed the title basis for Gerri Hirshey 's 2002 account, We Gotta Get out of This Place: The True, Tough Story of Women in Rock.
It has also been used as the title of editorials by American Journalism Review and other publications. The title was even used to name an art exhibit, curated by Stefan Kalmar at the Cubitt Gallery in London in 1997.
We Gotta Get Out of This Place is the twenty eighth single by Australian Hard rock band The Angels, released in 1986. It is the third single to be released from The Angels eighth studio album Howling. The song peaked at number 7 on the ARIA Charts and number 13 on the Recorded Music NZ,
Production
"We Gotta Get out of This Place '' has been recorded or performed in concert by numerous artists, including The Cryan ' Shames (1966), The American Breed (1967), The Frost (1970), The Partridge Family (1972), Bruce Springsteen (performed only a handful of times in his career, but acknowledged by him as one of his primary influences in the 1970s), Udo Lindenberg (in a German language adaption in the 1970s for which commercial success was small), Blue Öyster Cult (1978), Steve Bender (1978), Gilla (1979), Angelic Upstarts (1980), Gardens & Villa, Grand Funk Railroad (1981), David Johansen (1982, and a hit on album oriented rock radio and MTV as part of an Animals medley), Fear (1982), The Angels (1986), Richard Thompson (1988), Jello Biafra and D.O.A. (1989), Randy Stonehill (1990), Bon Jovi (1992, again as part of an Animals medley for an MTV special), Midnight Oil (1993, for MTV Unplugged), Space (1998), Southside Johnny (concerts in the 2000s), Overkill (2000), Widespread Panic (2005), Ann Wilson with Wynonna Judd (2007), Alice Cooper (2011), and many others.
In 1990 Eric Burdon joined Katrina and the Waves for a recording of it for use on China Beach. In 2000 Barry Mann revisited the song, performing it with Bryan Adams on Mann 's retrospective solo album Soul & Inspiration. When Suzi Quatro was on a German tour in 2008 she came on stage and played bass on the song during an Eric Burdon concert at the Porsche Arena in Stuttgart. Burdon also performed it in 2010 at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Induction Ceremony, when songwriters Mann and Weil were inducted. Later in 2010, Mann and Weil were at The Grammy Museum in Los Angeles -- to open a gallery for the Songwriter 's Hall of Fame -- and performed their original version of the song, including previously - unheard lyrics like "What are we waiting for? '' (which was supposed to occur before the familiar lyrics in the chorus).
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where was the boy in the striped pajamas filmed | The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas (film) - wikipedia
The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas (released as The Boy in the Striped Pajamas in the United States; see spelling differences) is a 2008 British - American historical period drama based on the novel of the same name by Irish writer John Boyne. Directed by Mark Herman, produced by BBC Films and Heyday Films, and distributed by Miramax (North America) and Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures (International), the film stars Vera Farmiga, David Thewlis, Asa Butterfield, and Jack Scanlon. It was released on 12 September 2008 in the United Kingdom.
The Holocaust drama explores the horror of a World War II Nazi extermination camp through the eyes of two 8 - year - old boys; Bruno (Butterfield), the son of the camp 's Nazi commandant, and Shmuel (Jack Scanlon), a Jewish inmate.
The film opens with the quote, "Childhood is measured out by sounds and smells and sights, before the dark hour of reason grows, '' by John Betjeman. A young boy named Bruno lives with his family in Berlin, in Nazi Germany during the period of the Holocaust. He learns that his father Ralf has been promoted, due to which their family, including Bruno 's mother Elsa and sister Gretel, relocate to the countryside. Bruno hates his new home as there is no one to play with and very little to explore. After commenting that he has spotted people working on what he thinks is a farm in the distance, he is also forbidden from playing in the back garden.
Bruno and Gretel get a private tutor, Herr Liszt, who pushes an agenda of antisemitism and nationalist propaganda. As a result, Gretel becomes extremely fanatical in her support for the Third Reich, to the point of covering her bedroom wall with Nazi propaganda posters and portraits of Adolf Hitler. Bruno is confused as the Jews he has seen, in particular the family 's Jewish servant Pavel, do not resemble the caricatures in Liszt 's teachings.
One day, Bruno disobeys his parents and sneaks off into the woods, eventually arriving at an electric barbed wire fence surrounding a camp. He befriends a boy his own age named Shmuel. The pair 's lack of knowledge on the true nature of the camp is revealed: Bruno thinks that the striped uniforms that Shmuel, Pavel, and the other prisoners wear are pyjamas and Shmuel believes his grandparents died from an illness during their journey to the camp. Bruno starts meeting Shmuel regularly, sneaking him food and playing board games with him. He eventually learns that Shmuel is a Jew and was brought to the camp with his father and mother.
One day, Elsa discovers the reality of Ralf 's assignment after Lieutenant Kurt Kotler lets slip that the black smoke coming from the camp 's chimneys is due to the burning corpses of Jews. She confronts Ralf, disgusted and heartbroken. At dinner that night, Kotler admits that his father had left his family and moved to Switzerland. Upon hearing this, Ralf tells Kotler that he should have informed the authorities of his father 's disagreement with the current political regime as it was his duty. The embarrassed Kotler then becomes infuriated with Pavel for accidentally spilling a glass of wine and violently beats him, presumably to the point of killing him. The next morning the maid, Maria, is seen scrubbing the blood stains.
Later that day, Bruno sees Shmuel working in his home. Shmuel is there to clean wine glasses because they needed someone with small hands to do it. Bruno offers him some cake and willingly Shmuel accepts it. Unfortunately, Kotler happens to walk into the room where Bruno and Shmuel are socialising. Kotler is furious and yells at Shmuel for talking to Bruno. In the midst of his scolding, Kotler notices Shmuel chewing the food Bruno gave him. When Kotler asks Shmuel where he got the food, he says Bruno offered the cake, but Bruno, fearful of Kotler, denies this. Believing Bruno, Kotler tells Shmuel that they will have a "little chat '' later. Distraught, Bruno goes to apologise to Shmuel, but finds him gone. Every day, Bruno returns to the same spot by the camp but does not see Shmuel. Eventually, Shmuel reappears behind the fence, sporting a black eye. Bruno apologises and Shmuel forgives him, renewing the friendship.
After the funeral of his mother, who was killed in Berlin by an enemy bombing, Ralf tells Bruno and Gretel that their mother suggests that they go to live with a relative because it is not safe there. Their mother suggests this because she does not want her children living with their murderous father. Shmuel has problems of his own; his father has gone missing after those with whom he participated in a march did not return to the camp. Bruno decides to redeem himself by helping Shmuel find his father. The next day, Bruno, who is due to leave that afternoon, dons a striped prisoners ' outfit and a cap to cover his unshaven hair, and digs under the fence to join Shmuel in the search. Bruno soon discovers the true nature of the camp after seeing the many sick and weak - looking Jews, much to his shock. While searching, the boys are taken on a march with other inmates by Sonderkommandos.
At the house, Gretel and Elsa discover Bruno 's disappearance. After they discover the open window he went through, Elsa bursts into Ralf 's meeting to alert him that Bruno is missing. Ralf and his men mount a search. Led by a dog tracking Bruno 's scent they find his discarded clothing outside the fence. Elsa and Gretel are following along behind. They enter the camp, looking for him; Bruno, Shmuel and the other inmates are stopped inside a changing room and are told to remove their clothes for a "shower ''. They are packed into a gas chamber, where Bruno and Shmuel hold each other 's hands. A Schutzstaffel soldier pours some Zyklon B pellets inside, and the prisoners start panicking, yelling and banging on the metal door. When Ralf realises that a gassing is taking place, he cries out his son 's name, and Elsa and Gretel fall to their knees in despair and mourn Bruno. The film ends by showing the closed door of the now - silent gas chamber, indicating that all prisoners, including Bruno and Shmuel, are dead.
The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas has a 63 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 135 reviews, with an average rating of 6.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "A touching and haunting family film that deals with the Holocaust in an arresting and unusual manner, and packs a brutal final punch of a twist. '' On Metacritic, the film has a normalized score of 55 out of 100, based on 28 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
James Christopher, of The Times, referred to the film as "a hugely affecting film. Important, too. '' Manohla Dargis, of The New York Times said the film "trivialized, glossed over, kitsched up, commercially exploited and hijacked (the Holocaust) for a tragedy about a Nazi family. ''
Some critics have criticised the premise of the book and subsequent film. Reviewing the original book, Rabbi Benjamin Blech wrote: "Note to the reader: There were no 9 - year - old Jewish boys in Auschwitz -- the Nazis immediately gassed those not old enough to work. '' Rabbi Blech affirmed the opinion of a Holocaust survivor friend that the book is "not just a lie and not just a fairytale, but a profanation. '' Blech acknowledges the objection that a "fable '' need not be factually accurate; he counters that the book trivialises the conditions in and around the death camps and perpetuates the "myth that those not directly involved can claim innocence, '' and thus undermines its moral authority. Students who read it, he warns, may believe the camps "were n't that bad '' if a boy could conduct a clandestine friendship with a Jewish captive of the same age, unaware of "the constant presence of death. ''
Kathryn Hughes, whilst agreeing about the implausibility of the plot, argues that "Bruno 's innocence comes to stand for the wilful refusal of all adult Germans to see what was going on under their noses. '' In the Chicago Sun - Times, Roger Ebert says the film is not a reconstruction of Germany during the war, but is "about a value system that survives like a virus. ''
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royal military college kuala lumpur federal territory of kuala lumpur | Royal Military College (Malaysia) - wikipedia
Royal Military College (Malay: Maktab Tentera Diraja; abbreviated RMC) or Malaya 's Sandhurst) is an all - boys military school established to train young Malaysians for service in the Malaysian Armed Forces. It is sometimes dubbed "the Malaya 's Sandhurst ''.
The RMC campus covers an area of 1,200 acres (4.9 km) near the town of Sungai Besi (about 10 miles (16 km) from Kuala Lumpur) with a view of the Mines Resort and the 1998 Commonwealth Games Bukit Jalil Stadium. RMC shares its grounds with the National Defence University of Malaysia. A current student of RMC is known as a Present Putera, while a graduate of the institution is known as an Old Putera or "OP '' in short. The term Putera, literally meaning prince in Malay, is attributed to the RMC 's royal status. As of 3 July 2015 (in conjunction with its anniversary), RMC has received authorisation to become an IB World School and implement the International Baccalaureate Diploma Program (IBDP).
The Charter of the Royal Military College states that the Royal Military College was established with the objective of preparing young Malaysians to become Officers in the Malaysian Armed Forces, hold office in the higher divisions of public service and become leaders in the professional, commercial and industrial life of the country.
The motto of the college is "Serve to Lead '' or Berkhidmat Memimpin.
The Sportsman 's Prayer is inscribed on a bronze plaque, on a white rock that sits by the rugby field in the college compound.
The Sportsman 's Prayer is traditionally recited before a sporting competition by the members of a team. The prayer is as follows:
Oh God, please help me to win for I always want to win. But if in thy inscrutable wisdom Thou willest me not to win, then make me a good loser. For when the one great scorer comes to write against your name, he writes not that you won or lost, but how you played the game.
Prior to 1952, there had been what was called the "Training Depot of the Malay Regiment '' in Port Dickson. Here courses were held in signals, tactics and military administration. The Depot also provide educational facilities to bring selected members of the Regiment up to the necessary academic standard for acceptance at the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, for higher military training, with a view to qualifying for commissioned rank.
On 3 July 1952, Mr. M.E.B. David, the Secretary of Defence, in the Federal Legislative Council Meeting, announced the decision to expand the Malay Regiment Training Depot. The expansion was to result in the formation of The Malay Regiment Training Center, that was to constitute two additional sections: The Pre-Officer Cadet Training Unit (Pre-OCTU) and an inter-racial Boys Company.
The Boys Company was to be part of the Malayan Army, serving the Malay Regiment and the Federation Regiment. The function of the Boys Company was to provide education to sons of serving officers and other ranks in the Malay Regiment, leading to the School Certificate level, coupled with the rudiments of military training.
The first intake of 74 Boys into the Boys Company were recruited in August 1952, from a total of 100 applicants. The ages of the Boys ranged between 14 and 15 years. Their educational qualification, according to a 1952 newspaper bulletin, was to be the equivalent of Standard 4 (English - medium). In addition to these academic requirements those who were shortlisted had to undergo various aptitude tests too.
The task of looking after the academic aspects in the Boys Wing was entrusted to a Director of Studies (DOS) -- a civilian Senior Education Officer. He was responsible to the Commandant for carrying out the scholastic policy drawn by the Board of Governors of the College and thus adviser to the Commandant on general educational policies. The DOS had two Senior - Assistants each responsible for the teaching of a group of subjects -- called the Head of Science and Mathematics (HOS) and Head of Arts (HOA).
For the purpose of military training, and the co-ordination of domestics military administration required within the Boys Wing, an Officer - in - Charge (O.C.) (later to be known as Chief Instructor - CI) was posted. He was responsible to the Director of Studies (DOS) and thus ultimately to the Commandant.
In September 1954, the Commemoration Foundation Day was celebrated. Present to witness the Commemoration Day Parade were the High Commissioner, Sir Donald MacGillivray, His Highness, the Sultan of Selangor, the Yang di - Pertuan Besar of Negeri Sembilan, The Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman, Deputy Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak and a large number of dignitaries.
In 1958, reports of a proposed $20 million cantonment, covering an area of 1,200 acres (4.9 km), to be located near Sungai Besi (about 10 miles (16 km) from Kuala Lumpur) began appearing in local press. The entire project, expected to be completed by 1963, was financed by the British Government under the United Kingdom Grants - in - aid Funds. An area of 200 acres (0.81 km) was allocated for the new Federal Military College.
The site reserved for the College consisted of scenic surroundings. The new home of the FMC was situated on a hill overlooking a disused mining pool. The College buildings were to be modelled on the lines of some of the best military academies overseas such as West Point in the United States and Royal Military College of Canada. They were to consist of an assembly hall, dormitories, classrooms, a gymnasium, laboratories, some 140 married - quarters for all ranks and civilians employees and numerous playing fields.
On 20 June 1961, the Yang di - Pertuan Agong, as Supreme Commander of the Malayan Armed Forces, officially opened the new complex. In acknowledgement of the immense debt of which the FMC owed the High Commissioner Field Marshal Tun Sir Gerald Templer, the Assembly Hall was named Tun Templer Hall (Dewan Tun Templer).
On 9 December 1966, in a ceremony held at the college, the Yang Di - Pertuan Agong conferred the "Royal '' title to the FMC. This was a great honour for the college for no other educational institution in the history of this nation has the "Royal '' title bestowed upon it. Hence since 1966, the former Federation Military College came to be known as the Royal Military College.
The college anthem is entitled Berkhidmat Memimpin (Serve to Lead) which refers to the college motto. The college song is sung during all assemblies.
Berkhidmat Memimpin Cogan Yang Mulia, Maktab Tentera Diraja Yang Ternama, Putera - putera Sentiasa Bersama, Menjunjung Harapan Nusa dan Bangsa. Menuntut Ilmu Tekun Usaha, Bersukan Ukir Daya Sejahtera, Menuntut Ilmu Tekun Usaha, Bersukan Ukir Daya Sejahtera. Berdikari Amalan Yang Terpuja, Memupuk Semangat Wira Waja.
The college has won numerous awards and accolades at all levels of competition and at various sports, most significantly in rugby and hockey. The college also fields a formidable English Debate team that has won the prestigious Prime Minister 's Trophy a record number of times, only to be equalled by its arch - rival on the debating stage, the Tunku Kurshiah College. The College also organises an annual multi-game carnival with its other arch - rival, the Malay College Kuala Kangsar. Both colleges take turns to host the competition.
Within the College, each Putera belongs to one of eight Companies. They are:
The eight companies compete with each other for four trophies:
The overall winner is presented the Commandant 's Trophy, which is awarded to the winning company at the Annual Passing - out Parade, usually inspected by the Defence Minister of Malaysia. The victorious company will hold the title of Commandant Company, and all the Puteras of that company shall be entitled to wear a royal yellow lanyard cord on their right shoulder during the Passing - out Parade and for the rest of the academic year.
All Companies have four senior rankholders and five junior rankholders.
Every Company is led by one Senior Under Officer (SUO) and assisted by three Junior Under Officers (JUOs), who are fourth year Puteras appointed by the College administration. The terms SUO and JUO are a throwback to the traditions of the Royal Military Academy at Sandhurst, where such titles are still in use today for senior rankholders. Fourth year Puteras who are not rankholders are entitled to be referred to as Senior Puteras (SP).
The SUO is responsible for all aspects of the Puteras under his command, and is the highest ranking Putera in the Company. The three JUOs, covering the General, Administration and Quartering billets of the Company, are equal in terms of rank and assist the SUO in the running of the Company on a day - to - day basis. All Under Officers are entitled to a private bunk each, and SUO 's are also entitled to have their meals at the High Table in the Mess Hall. SUO 's also carry swagger stick and don Sam Browne belt during official parade (except Passing Out Parade).
SUO 's lead their Company at all Parades and are the main liaisons between the military administration and the Puteras under his care. SUOs and JUOs are also subject to the authority of the Company 's commissioned officers and instructors, and play a role in the selection of junior rankholders.
Rank is denoted by slip - on shoulder epaulettes and is worn on all uniforms except the Mosque Order (traditional Malay dress) and the Planters ' Order (formal blazer and College tie dress). Prior to 1997, these slip - on epaulettes were only worn by the senior and junior rankholders, and its use was accompanied by a metallic shoulder title, bearing the name Maktab Tentera Diraja underneath the rank insignia on the epaulette.
In 1997, this rank insignia structure was amended to bring it in line with the Officer Cadet rank insignia in use at the Army College (KTD, Kolej Tentera Darat) and the then - newly established Malaysian Armed Forces Academy (ATMA, Akademi Angkatan Tentera Malaysia). The main difference between an Officer Cadet rank insignia and the Putera rank insignia is the color of the insignia; the bars, knots and chevrons on an Officer Cadet rank are white in color, while the same on a Putera rank is royal yellow in color.
An SUO 's rank insignia consists of four horizontal bars (one bar for each year of study at the College) with an Austrian knot and chevron pointing upwards underneath the knot, on a dark green epaulette.
A JUO 's rank insignia is identical to the SUO 's, except that there is no chevron underneath the Austrian knot.
The letters MTD (acronym of the College 's Malay name, Maktab Tentera Diraja) are also emblazoned in royal yellow at the bottom edge of the epaulette for both ranks.
Junior rankholders on the other hand are understudies for the senior rankholder posts and are invested with similar authority with senior rankholders. Nevertheless, all actions of junior rankholders are subject to review by the senior rankholders and the College administration.
Putera Sergeants (P / SGT) are normally appointed from the third year Puteras in the first quarter of the academic year, and they are further promoted to Acting Senior Under Officer (A / SUO) and Acting Junior Under Officer (A / JUO) ranks by the third quarter of the academic year to allow for the gradual takeover of the Company from the graduating seniors.
AP / SGT 's rank insignia consists of three horizontal bars and three chevrons pointing downwards. An A / SUO 's rank insignia consists of three horizontal bars and a bright red Austrian knot and chevron pointing upwards underneath the knot. An A / JUO 's rank insignia is identical to the A / SUO 's, except that there is no chevron underneath the Austrian knot. The letters MTD (acronym of the College 's Malay name, Maktab Tentera Diraja) are in royal yellow at the bottom edge of the epaulette for all three ranks.
P / SGTs, A / SUOs and A / JUOs are not entitled to any privileges accorded to the senior rankholders.
As of 2009, new epaulette were introduced for the Puteras following the changes in intakes from Form 2 to Form 4 in the year 2006. The first year Puteras (or New boys) initially wears a pair of epaulettes having only one yellow horizontal bar above the MTD acronym. Later on, some of the Puteras who are promoted to A.P / SGT wears a pair of epaulettes consists of one red horizontal bar above the MTD acronym and three red chevrons pointing downwards. The A.P / SGT are the Puteras that will take up the senior ranks of the Company in the following year.
As of 2014, two new ranks were formed; Putera Commander (P / CO) and Putera Regimental Sergeant Major (P / RSM). After the selection of rank holders at the beginning of each year, they will be given a 3 - month probationary period. In the month of April, one SUO will be promoted to P / CO and one P / SGT will be promoted to P / RSM.
Normally, after their Passing Out Parade, OPs will get their class ring (or also known as OP ring) as a sign that they have graduated from the college and to commemorate their time in the college. The tradition was influenced by the similar tradition practiced by Royal Military Academy Sandhurst which was introduced by British administrators during the college 's early days.
Furthermore, OPs wear their college 's green tie every Wednesday. This makes it easier for OPs to recognize each other, regardless of generations, race and religion.
The alumni association of the RMC is known as the Old Putera Association or OPA.
Alumni include:
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how many seats are there in the globe theatre | Shakespeare 's Globe - wikipedia
Coordinates: 51 ° 30 ′ 29 '' N 0 ° 5 ′ 50 '' W / 51.50806 ° N 0.09722 ° W / 51.50806; - 0.09722
This article is about the modern reconstruction in London. For the Globe Theatre that was active during Shakespeare 's life, see Globe Theatre.
Shakespeare 's Globe is the complex housing a reconstruction of the Globe Theatre, an Elizabethan playhouse associated with William Shakespeare, in the London Borough of Southwark, on the south bank of the River Thames. The original theatre was built in 1599, destroyed by fire in 1613, rebuilt in 1614, and then demolished in 1644. The modern Globe Theatre reconstruction is an academic approximation based on available evidence of the 1599 and 1614 buildings. It is considered quite realistic, though contemporary safety requirements mean that it accommodates only 1400 spectators compared to the original theatre 's 3000.
Shakespeare 's Globe was founded by the actor and director Sam Wanamaker, built about 230 metres (750 ft) from the site of the original theatre and opened to the public in 1997, with a production of Henry V. The site also includes the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse, an indoor theatre which opened in January 2014. This is a smaller, candle - lit space based on the indoor playhouses of Jacobean London. The Sackler Studios, an educational and rehearsal studio complex, is situated just around the corner from the main site. There is also an exhibition about Shakespeare 's life and work, and regular tours of the two theatres.
In 1970, American actor and director Sam Wanamaker founded the Shakespeare Globe Trust and the International Shakespeare Globe Centre, with the objective of building a faithful recreation of Shakespeare 's Globe close to its original location at Bankside, Southwark. This inspired the founding of a number of Shakespeare 's Globe Centres around the world, an activity in which Wanamaker also participated.
Multiple maintained that a faithful Globe reconstruction was impossible to achieve due to the complications in the 16th century design and modern fire safety requirements; however, Wanamaker persevered in his vision for over twenty years, and a new Globe theatre was eventually built according to a design based on the research of historical adviser John Orrell.
It was Wanamaker 's wish that the new building recreate the Globe as it existed during most of Shakespeare 's time there; that is, the 1599 building rather than its 1614 replacement. A study was made of what was known of the construction of The Theatre, the building from which the 1599 Globe obtained much of its timber, as a starting point for the modern building 's design. To this were added: examinations of other surviving London buildings from the latter part of the 16th century; comparisons with other theatres of the period (particularly the Fortune Playhouse, for which the building contract survives); and contemporary drawings and descriptions of the first Globe. For practical reasons, some features of the 1614 rebuilding were incorporated into the modern design, such as the external staircases. The design team consisted of architect Theo Crosby of Pentagram, structural and services engineer Buro Happold, and quantity surveyors from Boyden & Co. The construction, building research and historic design details were undertaken by McCurdy & Co.
The theatre opened in 1997 under the name "Shakespeare 's Globe Theatre '', and has staged plays every summer. Mark Rylance became the first artistic director in 1995 and was succeeded by Dominic Dromgoole in 2006. In January 2016, Emma Rice began her term as the Globe 's third Artistic Director, but in October 2016 announced her decision to resign from the position in April 2018. On 24 July 2017 her successor was announced to be the actor and writer Michelle Terry.
The theatre is located on Bankside, about 230 metres (750 ft) from the original site -- measured from centre to centre. The Thames was much wider in Shakespeare 's time and the original Globe was on the riverbank, though that site is now far from the river, and the river - side site for the reconstructed Globe was chosen to recreate the atmosphere of the original theatre. In addition, listed Georgian townhouses now occupy part of the original site and could not be considered for removal. Like the original Globe, the modern theatre has a thrust stage that projects into a large circular yard surrounded by three tiers of raked seating. The only covered parts of the amphitheatre are the stage and the seating areas. Plays are staged during the summer, usually between May and the first week of October; in the winter, the theatre is used for educational purposes. Tours are available all year round. Some productions are filmed and released to cinemas as Globe on Screen productions (usually in the year following the live production), and on DVD.
The reconstruction was carefully researched so that the new building would be as faithful a replica of the original as possible. This was aided by the discovery of the remains of the original Rose Theatre, a nearby neighbour to the Globe, as final plans were being made for the site and structure.
The building itself is constructed entirely of English oak, with mortise and tenon joints and is, in this sense, an "authentic '' 16th century timber - framed building, as no structural steel was used. The seats are simple benches (though cushions can be hired for performances) and the Globe has the first and only thatched roof permitted in London since the Great Fire of 1666. The modern thatch is well protected by fire retardants, and sprinklers on the roof ensure further protection against fire. The pit has a concrete surface, as opposed to earthen - ground covered with strewn rush from the original theatre. The theatre has extensive backstage support areas for actors and musicians, and is attached to a modern lobby, restaurant, gift shop and visitor centre. Seating capacity is 857 with an additional 700 "Groundlings '' standing in the yard, making up an audience about half the size of a typical audience in Shakespeare 's time.
For its first eighteen seasons, performances were engineered to duplicate the original environment of Shakespeare 's Globe; there were no spotlights, and plays were staged during daylight hours and in the evenings (with the help of interior floodlights), there were no microphones, speakers or amplification. All music was performed live, most often on period instruments; and the actors and the audience could see and interact easily with each other, adding to the feeling of a shared experience and of a community event.
Typically, performances have been created in the spirit of experimentation to explore the original playing conditions of the 1599 Globe. Modern, conventional theatre technology such as spotlights and microphones were not used during this period. Beginning in the 2016 season, the new Artistic Director, Emma Rice, began experimenting with the theatre space by installing a temporary lighting and sound rig.
The Globe operates without any public subsidy and generates £ 21 million in revenue per year.
Adjacent to the Globe is the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse, an indoor theatre modelled after a Jacobean - era theatre and used for performances during the winter months when the main theatre can not be used.
Read Not Dead is a series of play readings, or staged "performances with scripts '' that have been presented as part of the educational program of Shakespeare 's Globe since 1995. The plays selected are those that were written between 1576 and 1642 by Shakespeare 's contemporaries or near contemporaries. These readings are performed at Shakespeare 's Globe Sackler Studios as well as other theatres, halls, festivals and fields nationwide.
In 2013 there were Read Not Dead performances at the Wilderness Festival and at Glastonbury Festival. In 2014, the final production in Read not Dead 's first season was performed at the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse, which is the indoor Jacobean style theatre. The play selected for that occasion was Robert Daborne 's A Christian Turn 'd Turk.
The Globe 's productions are often screened in cinemas and released on DVD. In 2015, the venue launched Globe Player, a video - on - demand service enabling viewers to watch the plays on laptops and mobile devices.
Replicas and free interpretations of the Globe have been built around the world:
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who was the sultan off delhi when timur invaded the city | Timur - wikipedia
Timur (Persian: تیمور Temūr, Chagatai: Temür; 9 April 1336 -- 18 February 1405), historically known as Amir Timur and Tamerlane (Persian: تيمور لنگ Temūr (- i) Lang, "Timur the Lame ''), was a Turco - Mongol conqueror. As the founder of the Timurid Empire in Persia and Central Asia, he became the first ruler in the Timurid dynasty. According to John Joseph Saunders, Timur was "the product of an islamized and iranized society '', and not steppe nomadic.
Born into the Barlas confederation in Transoxiana (in modern - day Uzbekistan) on 9 April 1336, Timur gained control of the western Chagatai Khanate by 1370. From that base, he led military campaigns across Western, South and Central Asia, the Caucasus and southern Russia, and emerged as the most powerful ruler in the Muslim world after defeating the Mamluks of Egypt and Syria, the emerging Ottoman Empire, and the declining Delhi Sultanate. From these conquests, he founded the Timurid Empire, but this empire fragmented shortly after his death.
Timur was the last of the great nomadic conquerors of the Eurasian Steppe, and his empire set the stage for the rise of the more structured and lasting Gunpowder Empires in the 16th and 17th centuries. Timur envisioned the restoration of the Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan (died 1227). According to Beatrice Forbes Manz, "in his formal correspondence Temur continued throughout his life to portray himself as the restorer of Chinggisid rights. He justified his Iranian, Mamluk, and Ottoman campaigns as a re-imposition of legitimate Mongol control over lands taken by usurpers. '' To legitimize his conquests, Timur relied on Islamic symbols and language, referred to himself as the "Sword of Islam '', and patronized educational and religious institutions. He converted nearly all the Borjigin leaders to Islam during his lifetime. Timur decisively defeated the Christian Knights Hospitaller at the Siege of Smyrna, styling himself a ghazi. By the end of his reign, Timur had gained complete control over all the remnants of the Chagatai Khanate, the Ilkhanate, and the Golden Horde, and even attempted to restore the Yuan dynasty in China.
Timur 's armies were inclusively multi-ethnic and were feared throughout Asia, Africa, and Europe, sizable parts of which his campaigns laid to waste. Scholars estimate that his military campaigns caused the deaths of 17 million people, amounting to about 5 % of the world population at the time.
He was the grandfather of the Timurid sultan, astronomer and mathematician Ulugh Beg, who ruled Central Asia from 1411 to 1449, and the great - great - great - grandfather of Babur (1483 -- 1530), founder of the Mughal Empire, which ruled parts of South Asia for over three centuries, from 1526 until 1857. Timur is considered as a great patron of art and architecture, as he interacted with intellectuals such as Ibn Khaldun and Hafiz - i Abru.
Through his father, Timur claimed to be a descendant of Tumanay Khan, a male - line ancestor he shared in common with Genghis Khan. Tuminai 's great - great grandson Karachar Noyan (1165 -- 1242 / 54) was a minister for the Emperor and was eventually transferred to assist his second son Chagatai in the governorship of Transoxiana. Though there are not many mentions of Karachar in 13th and 14th century records, later Timurid sources greatly emphasised his role in the early history of the Mongol Empire. These histories also state that Genghis Khan later "established the bond of fatherhood and sonship '' by marrying Chagatai 's daughter to Karachar. Through his descent from this marriage, Timur claimed kinship with the Chagatai Khans.
The origins of Timur 's mother, Tekina Khatun are less clear. The Zafarnama merely states her name without giving any information regarding her background. Writing in 1403 Jean, Archbishop of Sultaniyya claimed that she was of lowly origins. The Mu'izz al - Ansab, written decades later say that she was related to the Yasa'uri tribe, whose lands bordered that of the Barlas. Ibn Khaldun recounted that Timur himself described to him his mother 's descent from the legendary Persian hero Manuchehr. Ibn Arabshah suggested that she was a descendant of Genghis Khan. The 18th century Books of Timur identify her as the daughter of ' Sadr al - Sharia ', believed to be referring to the Hanafi scholar Ubayd Allah al - Mahbubi of Bukhara.
Timur was born in Transoxiana near the city of Kesh (modern Shahrisabz, Uzbekistan) some 80 kilometres (50 mi) south of Samarkand, part of what was then the Chagatai Khanate. His father, Taraghai, was a minor noble of the Barlas, a Mongolian tribe that had been turkified in many aspects. Historian Beatrice Forbes Manz believes that Timur may have later understated the social position of his father so as to make his own successes appear more remarkable. She states that though he is not believed to be especially powerful, Taraghai was reasonalbly wealthy and influential. This is shown by Timur returning to his birthplace following the death of Taraghai in 1360, suggesting concern over his estate. He is described by Arabshah as a magnate in the court of Amir Husayn Qara'unas. In addition to this the father of the great Amir Hamid Kereyid of Moghulistan is stated as a friend of Taraghai 's.
According to Gérard Chaliand, Timur was a Muslim, and he saw himself as Genghis Khan 's heir. Though not a Borjigid or a descendent of Genghis Khan, he clearly sought to invoke the legacy of Genghis Khan 's conquests during his lifetime.
His name Temur means "Iron '' in the Chaghatay language, Timur 's mother - tongue (cf. Uzbek Temir, Turkish Demir).
Later Timurid dynastic histories claim that he was born on 8 April 1336, but most sources from his lifetime give ages that are consistent with a birthdate in the late 1320s. Historian Beatrice Forbes Manz suspects the 1336 date was designed to tie Timur to the legacy of Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan, the last ruler of the Ilkhanate descended from Hulagu Khan, who died in that year.
At the age of eight or nine, Timur and his mother and brothers were carried as prisoners to Samarkand by an invading Mongol army. In his childhood, Timur and a small band of followers raided travelers for goods, especially animals such as sheep, horses, and cattle. Around 1363, it is believed that Timur tried to steal a sheep from a shepherd but was shot by two arrows, one in his right leg and another in his right hand, where he lost two fingers. Both injuries crippled him for life. Some believe that Timur suffered his crippling injuries while serving as a mercenary to the khan of Sistan in Khorasan in what is today the Dashti Margo in southwest Afghanistan. Timur 's injuries have given him the names of Timur the Lame and Tamerlane by Europeans.
Timur was a Muslim, possibly belonging to the Naqshbandi school of Sufism, which was influential in Transoxiana. However, his chief official religious counsellor and adviser was the Hanafi scholar ' Abdu ' l - Jabbar Khwarazmi. In Tirmidh, he had come under the influence of his spiritual mentor Sayyid Baraka, a leader from Balkh who is buried alongside Timur in Gur - e-Amir. Timur was known to hold Ali and the Ahl al - Bayt in high regard and has been noted by various scholars for his "pro-Alid '' stance. Despite this, Timur was noted for attacking the Shia with Sunni apologism, while at other times he attacked Sunnis on religious ground as well. In contrast, Timur held the Seljuk Sultan Ahmad Sanjar in high regard for attacking the Ismailis at Alamut, while Timur 's own attack on Ismailis at Anjudan was equally brutal.
Timur is regarded as a military genius and as a brilliant tactician with an uncanny ability to work within a highly fluid political structure to win and maintain a loyal following of nomads during his rule in Central Asia. He was also considered extraordinarily intelligent -- not only intuitively but also intellectually. In Samarkand and his many travels, Timur, under the guidance of distinguished scholars, was able to learn the Persian, Mongolian, and Turkish languages (according to Ahmad ibn Arabshah, Timur could not speak Arabic). More importantly, Timur was characterized as an opportunist. Taking advantage of his Turco - Mongolian heritage, Timur frequently used either the Islamic religion or the law and traditions of the Mongol Empire to achieve his military goals or domestic political aims. Timur was a learned king, and enjoyed the company of scholars; he was tolerant and generous to them. He was a contemporary of the Persian poet Hafez, and a story of their meeting explains that Timur summoned Hafiz, who had written a ghazal with the following verse:
For the black mole on thy cheek I would give the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara.
Timur upbraided him for this verse and said, "By the blows of my well tempered sword I have conquered the greater part of the world to enlarge Samarkand and Bukhara, my capitals and residences; and you, pitiful creature, would exchange these two cities for a mole. '' Hafez, undaunted, replied, "It is by similar generosity that I have been reduced, as you see, to my present state of poverty. '' It is reported that the King was pleased by the witty answer and the poet departed with magnificent gifts.
Timur used Persian expressions in his conversations often, and his motto was the Persian phrase rāstī rustī (راستی رستی, meaning "truth is safety '' or "veritas salus '').
About 1360, Timur gained prominence as a military leader whose troops were mostly Turkic tribesmen of the region. He took part in campaigns in Transoxiana with the Khan of the Chagatai Khanate. Allying himself both in cause and by family connection with Qazaghan, the dethroner and destroyer of Volga Bulgaria, he invaded Khorasan at the head of a thousand horsemen. This was the second military expedition that he led, and its success led to further operations, among them the subjugation of Khwarezm and Urgench.
Following Qazaghan 's murder, disputes arose among the many claimants to sovereign power. Tughlugh Timur of Kashgar, the Khan of the Eastern Chagatai Khanate, another descendant of Genghis Khan, invaded, interrupting this infighting. Timur was sent to negotiate with the invader but joined with him instead and was rewarded with Transoxania. At about this time, his father died and Timur also became chief of the Berlas. Tughlugh then attempted to set his son Ilyas Khoja over Transoxania, but Timur repelled this invasion with a smaller force.
It was in this period that Timur reduced the Chagatai khans to the position of figureheads while he ruled in their name. Also during this period, Timur and his brother - in - law Amir Husayn, who were at first fellow fugitives and wanderers in joint adventures, became rivals and antagonists. The relationship between them began to become strained after Husayn abandoned efforts to carry out Timur 's orders to finish off Ilya Khoja (former governor of Mawarannah) close to Tishnet.
Timur began to gain a following of people in Balkh, consisting of merchants, fellow tribesmen, Muslim clergy, aristocracy and agricultural workers, because of his kindness in sharing his belongings with them. This contrasted Timur 's behavior with that of Husayn, who alienated these people, took many possessions from them via his heavy tax laws and selfishly spent the tax money building elaborate structures. Around 1370, Husayn surrendered to Timur and was later assassinated, which allowed Timur to be formally proclaimed sovereign at Balkh. He married Husayn 's wife Saray Mulk Khanum, a descendant of Genghis Khan, allowing him to become imperial ruler of the Chaghatay tribe.
One day Aksak Temür spoke thusly:
"Khan Züdei (in China) rules over the city. We now number fifty to sixty men, so let us elect a leader. '' So they drove a stake into the ground and said: "We shall run thither and he among us who is the first to reach the stake, may he become our leader ''. So they ran and Aksak Timur, as he was lame, lagged behind, but before the others reached the stake he threw his cap onto it. Those who arrived first said: "We are the leaders. '' ("But, '') Aksak Timur said: "My head came in first, I am the leader. '' Meanwhile, an old man arrived and said: "The leadership should belong to Aksak Timur; your feet have arrived but, before then, his head reached the goal. '' So they made Aksak Timur their prince.
Timur 's Turco - Mongolian heritage provided opportunities and challenges as he sought to rule the Mongol Empire and the Muslim world. According to the Mongol traditions, Timur could not claim the title of khan or rule the Mongol Empire because he was not a descendant of Genghis Khan. Therefore, Timur set up a puppet Chaghatay Khan, Suyurghatmish, as the nominal ruler of Balkh as he pretended to act as a "protector of the member of a Chinggisid line, that of Genghis Khan 's eldest son, Jochi ''.
As a result, Timur never used the title of khan because the name khan could only be used by those who come from the same lineage as Genghis Khan himself. Timur instead used the title of amir meaning general, and acting in the name of the Chagatai ruler of Transoxania.
To reinforce his position in the Mongol Empire, Timur managed to acquire the royal title of son - in - law when he married a princess of Chinggisid descent.
Likewise, Timur could not claim the supreme title of the Islamic world, caliph, because the "office was limited to the Quraysh, the tribe of the Prophet Muhammad ''. Therefore, Timur reacted to the challenge by creating a myth and image of himself as a "supernatural personal power '' ordained by God. Since Timur had a successful career as a conqueror, it was easy to justify his rule as ordained and favored by God since no ordinary man could be a possessor of such good fortune that resistance would be seen as opposing the will of God. Moreover, the Islamic notion that military and political success was the result of Allah 's favor had long been successfully exploited by earlier rulers. Therefore, Timur 's assertions would not have seemed unbelievable to fellow Islamic people.
Timur spent the next 35 years in various wars and expeditions. He not only consolidated his rule at home by the subjugation of his foes, but sought extension of territory by encroachments upon the lands of foreign potentates. His conquests to the west and northwest led him to the lands near the Caspian Sea and to the banks of the Ural and the Volga. Conquests in the south and south - West encompassed almost every province in Persia, including Baghdad, Karbala and Northern Iraq.
One of the most formidable of Timur 's opponents was another Mongol ruler, a descendant of Genghis Khan named Tokhtamysh. After having been a refugee in Timur 's court, Tokhtamysh became ruler both of the eastern Kipchak and the Golden Horde. After his accession, he quarreled with Timur over the possession of Khwarizm and Azerbaijan. However, Timur still supported him against the Russians and in 1382 Tokhtamysh invaded the Muscovite dominion and burned Moscow.
In 1395, Tamerlane reached the frontier of Principality of Ryazan, took Elets and advancing towards Moscow came near the banks of the Don River. Great Prince Vasily I of Moscow went with an army to Kolomna and halted at the banks of the Oka River. The clergy brought the famed Theotokos of Vladimir icon from Vladimir to Moscow. Along the way people prayed kneeling: "O Mother of God, save the land of Russia! '' Suddenly, Tamerlane 's armies retreated. In memory of this miraculous deliverance of the Russian land from Tamerlane on August 26, the all - Russian celebration in honor of the Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Most Holy Mother of God was established.
After the death of Abu Sa'id, ruler of the Ilkhanate, in 1335, there was a power vacuum in Persia. In the end, Persia was split amongst the Muzaffarids, Kartids, Eretnids, Chobanids, Injuids, Jalayirids, and Sarbadars. In 1383, Timur started his lengthy military conquest of Persia, though he already ruled over much of Persian Khorasan by 1381, after Khwaja Mas'ud, of the Sarbadar dynasty surrendered. Timur began his Persian campaign with Herat, capital of the Kartid dynasty. When Herat did not surrender he reduced the city to rubble and massacred most of its citizens; it remained in ruins until Shahrukh Mirza ordered its reconstruction. Timur then sent a General to capture rebellious Kandahar. With the capture of Herat the Kartid kingdom surrendered and became vassals of Timur; it would later be annexed outright less than a decade later in 1389 by Timur 's son Miran Shah.
Timur then headed west to capture the Zagros Mountains, passing through Mazandaran. During his travel through the north of Persia, he captured the then town of Tehran, which surrendered and was thus treated mercifully. He laid siege to Soltaniyeh in 1384. Khorasan revolted one year later, so Timur destroyed Isfizar, and the prisoners were cemented into the walls alive. The next year the kingdom of Sistan, under the Mihrabanid dynasty, was ravaged, and its capital at Zaranj was destroyed. Timur then returned to his capital of Samarkand, where he began planning for his Georgian campaign and Golden Horde invasion. In 1386, Timur passed through Mazandaran as he had when trying to capture the Zagros. He went near the city of Soltaniyeh, which he had previously captured but instead turned north and captured Tabriz with little resistance, along with Maragha. He ordered heavy taxation of the people, which was collected by Adil Aqa, who was also given control over Soltaniyeh. Adil was later executed because Timur suspected him of corruption.
Timur then went north to begin his Georgian and Golden Horde campaigns, pausing his full - scale invasion of Persia. When he returned, he found his generals had done well in protecting the cities and lands he had conquered in Persia. Though many rebelled, and his son Miran Shah, who may have been regent, was forced to annex rebellious vassal dynasties, his holdings remained. So he proceeded to capture the rest of Persia, specifically the two major southern cities of Isfahan and Shiraz. When he arrived with his army at Isfahan in 1387, the city immediately surrendered; he treated it with relative mercy as he normally did with cities that surrendered (unlike Herat). However, after Isfahan revolted against Timur 's taxes by killing the tax collectors and some of Timur 's soldiers, he ordered the massacre of the city 's citizens; the death toll is reckoned at between 100,000 and 200,000. An eye - witness counted more than 28 towers constructed of about 1,500 heads each. This has been described as a "systematic use of terror against towns... an integral element of Tamerlane 's strategic element '', which he viewed as preventing bloodshed by discouraging resistance. His massacres were selective and he spared the artistic and educated. This would later influence the next great Persian conqueror: Nader Shah.
Timur then began a five - year campaign to the west in 1392, attacking Persian Kurdistan. In 1393, Shiraz was captured after surrendering, and the Muzaffarids became vassals of Timur, though prince Shah Mansur rebelled but was defeated, and the Muzafarids were annexed. Shortly after Georgia was devastated so that the Golden Horde could not use it to threaten northern Iran. In the same year, Timur caught Baghdad by surprise in August by marching there in only eight days from Shiraz. Sultan Ahmad Jalayir fled to Syria, where the Mamluk Sultan Barquq protected him and killed Timur 's envoys. Timur left the Sarbadar prince Khwaja Mas'ud to govern Baghdad, but he was driven out when Ahmad Jalayir returned. Ahmad was unpopular but got some dangerous help from Qara Yusuf of the Kara Koyunlu; he fled again in 1399, this time to the Ottomans.
In the meantime, Tokhtamysh, now khan of the Golden Horde, turned against his patron and in 1385 invaded Azerbaijan. The inevitable response by Timur resulted in the Tokhtamysh -- Timur war. In the initial stage of the war, Timur won a victory at the Battle of the Kondurcha River. After the battle Tokhtamysh and some of his army were allowed to escape. After Tokhtamysh 's initial defeat, Timur invaded Muscovy to the north of Tokhtamysh 's holdings. Timur 's army burned Ryazan and advanced on Moscow. He was pulled away before reaching the Oka River by Tokhtamysh 's renewed campaign in the south.
In the first phase of the conflict with Tokhtamysh, Timur led an army of over 100,000 men north for more than 700 miles into the steppe. He then rode west about 1,000 miles advancing in a front more than 10 miles wide. During this advance, Timur 's army got far enough north to be in a region of very long summer days causing complaints by his Muslim soldiers about keeping a long schedule of prayers. It was then that Tokhtamysh 's army was boxed in against the east bank of the Volga River in the Orenburg region and destroyed at the Battle of the Kondurcha River, in 1391.
In the second phase of the conflict, Timur took a different route against the enemy by invading the realm of Tokhtamysh via the Caucasus region. In 1395, Timur defeated Tokhtamysh in the Battle of the Terek River, concluding the struggle between the two monarchs. Tokhtamysh was unable to restore his power or prestige, and he was killed about a decade later in the area of present - day Tyumen. During the course of Timur 's campaigns, his army destroyed Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde, and Astrakhan, subsequently disrupting the Golden Horde 's Silk Road. The Golden Horde no longer held power after their losses to Timur.
In May 1393, Timur 's army invaded the Anjudan, crippling the Ismaili village only a year after his assault on the Ismailis in Mazandaran. The village was prepared for the attack, evidenced by its fortress and system of underground tunnels. Undeterred, Timur 's soldiers flooded the tunnels by cutting into a channel overhead. Timur 's reasons for attacking this village are not yet well understood. However, it has been suggested that his religious persuasions and view of himself as an executor of divine will may have contributed to his motivations. The Persian historian Khwandamir explains that an Ismaili presence was growing more politically powerful in Persian Iraq. A group of locals in the region was dissatisfied with this and, Khwandamir writes, these locals assembled and brought up their complaint with Timur, possibly provoking his attack on the Ismailis there.
In 1398, Timur invaded northern India, attacking the Delhi Sultanate ruled by Sultan Nasir - ud - Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq of the Tughlaq Dynasty. He was opposed by Ahirs and faced some reversals from the Jats, but the Sultanate at Delhi did nothing to stop him. After crossing the Indus river on 30 September 1398, he sacked Tulamba and massacred its inhabitants. Then he advanced and captured Multan by October.
Timur crossed the Indus River at Attock (now in Pakistan) on 24 September 1398. His invasion did not go unopposed and he encountered resistance from the Governor of Meerut during the march to Delhi. Timur was still able to continue his approach to Delhi, arriving in 1398, to fight the armies of Sultan Nasir - ud - Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq, which had already been weakened by a succession struggle within the royal family.
The battle took place on 17 December 1398. Sultan Nasir - ud - Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq and the army of Mallu Iqbal had war elephants armored with chain mail and poison on their tusks. As his Tatar forces were afraid of the elephants, Timur ordered his men to dig a trench in front of their positions. Timur then loaded his camels with as much wood and hay as they could carry. When the war elephants charged, Timur set the hay on fire and prodded the camels with iron sticks, causing them to charge at the elephants howling in pain: Timur had understood that elephants were easily panicked. Faced with the strange spectacle of camels flying straight at them with flames leaping from their backs, the elephants turned around and stampeded back toward their own lines. Timur capitalized on the subsequent disruption in the forces of Nasir - ud - Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq, securing an easy victory. Nasir - ud - Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq fled with remnants of his forces. Delhi was sacked and left in ruins. Before the battle for Delhi, Timur executed 100,000 captives.
The capture of the Delhi Sultanate was one of Timur 's greatest victories, arguably surpassing the likes of Alexander the Great and Genghis Khan because of the harsh conditions of the journey and the achievement of taking down one of the richest cities at the time. After Delhi fell to Timur 's army, uprisings by its citizens against the Turkic - Mongols began to occur, causing a retaliatory bloody massacre within the city walls. After three days of citizens uprising within Delhi, it was said that the city reeked of the decomposing bodies of its citizens with their heads being erected like structures and the bodies left as food for the birds by Timur 's soldiers. Timur 's invasion and destruction of Delhi continued the chaos that was still consuming India, and the city would not be able to recover from the great loss it suffered for almost a century.
Before the end of 1399, Timur started a war with Bayezid I, sultan of the Ottoman Empire, and the Mamluk sultan of Egypt Nasir - ad - Din Faraj. Bayezid began annexing the territory of Turkmen and Muslim rulers in Anatolia. As Timur claimed sovereignty over the Turkmen rulers, they took refuge behind him.
In 1400, Timur invaded Christian Armenia and Georgia. Of the surviving population, more than 60,000 of the local people were captured as slaves, and many districts were depopulated.
Then Timur turned his attention to Syria, sacking Aleppo and Damascus. The city 's inhabitants were massacred, except for the artisans, who were deported to Samarkand. Timur cited the killing of Hasan ibn Ali by the Umayyad caliph Muawiyah I and the killing of Husayn ibn Ali by Yazid I as the reason for his massacre of the inhabitants of Damascus.
Timur invaded Baghdad in June 1401. After the capture of the city, 20,000 of its citizens were massacred. Timur ordered that every soldier should return with at least two severed human heads to show him. When they ran out of men to kill, many warriors killed prisoners captured earlier in the campaign, and when they ran out of prisoners to kill, many resorted to beheading their own wives.
In the meantime, years of insulting letters had passed between Timur and Bayezid. Finally, Timur invaded Anatolia and defeated Bayezid in the Battle of Ankara on 20 July 1402. Bayezid was captured in battle and subsequently died in captivity, initiating the twelve - year Ottoman Interregnum period. Timur 's stated motivation for attacking Bayezid and the Ottoman Empire was the restoration of Seljuq authority. Timur saw the Seljuks as the rightful rulers of Anatolia as they had been granted rule by Mongol conquerors, illustrating again Timur 's interest with Genghizid legitimacy.
After the Ankara victory, Timur 's army ravaged Western Anatolia, with Muslim writers complaining that the Timurid army acted more like a horde of savages than that of a civilized conqueror. But Timur did besiege and take the city of Smyrna, a stronghold of the Christian Knights Hospitalers, thus he referred to himself as ghazi or "Warrior of Islam ''. A mass beheading was carried out in Smyrna by Timur 's soldiers.
Timur was furious with the Genoese and Venetians, as their ships ferried the Ottoman army to safety in Thrace. As Lord Kinross reported in The Ottoman Centuries, the Italians preferred the enemy they could handle to the one they could not.
While Timur invaded Anatolia, Qara Yusuf assaulted Baghdad and captured it in 1402. Timur returned to Persia from Anatolia and sent his grandson Abu Bakr ibn Miran Shah to reconquer Baghdad, which he proceeded to do. Timur then spent some time in Ardabil, where he gave Ali Safavi, leader of the Safaviyya, a number of captives. Subsequently, he marched to Khorasan and then to Samarkhand, where he spent nine months celebrating and preparing to invade Mongolia and China.
He ruled over an empire that, in modern times, extends from southeastern Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran, through Central Asia encompassing part of Kazakhstan, Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, and even approached Kashgar in China. The conquests of Timur are claimed to have caused the deaths of up to 17 million people, an assertion impossible to verify.
Of Timur 's four sons, two (Jahangir and Umar Shaikh) predeceased him. His third son, Miran Shah, died soon after Timur, leaving the youngest son, Shah Rukh. Although his designated successor was his grandson Pir Muhammad b. Jahangir, Timur was ultimately succeeded in power by his son Shah Rukh. His most illustrious descendant Babur founded the Islamic Mughal Empire and ruled over most of Afghanistan and North India. Babur 's descendants Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, expanded the Mughal Empire to most of the Indian subcontinent.
Markham, in his introduction to the narrative of Clavijo 's embassy, states that, after Timur died, his body "was embalmed with musk and rose water, wrapped in linen, laid in an ebony coffin and sent to Samarkand, where it was buried ''. His tomb, the Gur - e Amir, still stands in Samarkand, though it has been heavily restored in recent years.
By 1368, Han Chinese forces had driven the Mongols out of China. The first of the new Ming dynasty 's emperors, the Hongwu Emperor, and his son, the Yongle Emperor, produced tributary states of many Central Asian countries. The suzerain - vassal relationship between Ming empire and Timurid existed for a long time. In 1394, Hongwu 's ambassadors eventually presented Timur with a letter addressing him as a subject. He had the ambassadors Fu An, Guo Ji, and Liu Wei detained. Neither Hongwu 's next ambassador, Chen Dewen (1397), nor the delegation announcing the accession of the Yongle Emperor fared any better.
Timur eventually planned to invade China. To this end Timur made an alliance with surviving Mongol tribes based in Mongolia and prepared all the way to Bukhara. Engke Khan sent his grandson Öljei Temür Khan, also known as "Buyanshir Khan '' after he converted to Islam while at the court of Timur in Samarkand.
Timur preferred to fight his battles in the spring. However, he died en route during an uncharacteristic winter campaign. In December 1404, Timur began military campaigns against Ming China and detained a Ming envoy. He suffered illness while encamped on the farther side of the Syr Daria and died at Farab on February 17, 1405, before ever reaching the Chinese border. After his death the Ming envoys such as Fu An and the remaining entourage were released by his grandson Khalil Sultan.
Timur was buried in Gur - i Amir, his mausoleum in Samarkand.
Just before his death, Timur designated his grandson Pir Muhammad ibn Jahangir as his successor. However, his other descendants did not abide by this wish, and spent the next fifteen years engaged in violent infighting. His son Shahrukh Mirza and grandson Khalil Sultan struggled for control until Shahrukh won.
Timur had numerous epistolary and diplomatic exchanges with various European states, especially Spain and France. Relations between the court of Henry III of Castile and that of Timur played an important part in medieval Castilian diplomacy. In 1402, the time of the Battle of Ankara, two Spanish ambassadors were already with Timur: Pelayo de Sotomayor and Fernando de Palazuelos. Later, Timur sent to the court of the Kingdom of León and Castile a Chagatai ambassador named Hajji Muhammad al - Qazi with letters and gifts.
In return, Henry III of Castile sent a famous embassy to Timur 's court in Samarkand in 1403 -- 06, led by Ruy González de Clavijo, with two other ambassadors, Alfonso Paez and Gomez de Salazar. On their return, Timur affirmed that he regarded the king of Castile "as his very own son ''.
According to Clavijo, Timur 's good treatment of the Spanish delegation contrasted with the disdain shown by his host toward the envoys of the "lord of Cathay '' (i.e., the Yongle Emperor), the Chinese ruler. Clavijo 's visit to Samarkand allowed him to report to the European audience on the news from Cathay (China), which few Europeans had been able to visit directly in the century that had passed since the travels of Marco Polo.
The French archives preserve:
A copy has been kept of the answer of Charles VI to Timur, dated 15 June 1403.
Timur 's legacy is a mixed one. While Central Asia blossomed under his reign, other places, such as Baghdad, Damascus, Delhi and other Arab, Georgian, Persian, and Indian cities were sacked and destroyed and their populations massacred. He was responsible for the effective destruction of the Nestorian Christian Church of the East in much of Asia. Thus, while Timur still retains a positive image in Muslim Central Asia, he is vilified by many in Arabia, Iraq, Persia, and India, where some of his greatest atrocities were carried out. However, Ibn Khaldun praises Timur for having unified much of the Muslim world when other conquerors of the time could not. The next great conqueror of the Middle East, Nader Shah, was greatly influenced by Timur and almost re-enacted Timur 's conquests and battle strategies in his own campaigns. Like Timur, Nader Shah conquered most of Caucasia, Persia, and Central Asia along with also sacking Delhi.
Timur 's short - lived empire also melded the Turko - Persian tradition in Transoxiana, and in most of the territories that he incorporated into his fiefdom, Persian became the primary language of administration and literary culture (diwan), regardless of ethnicity. In addition, during his reign, some contributions to Turkic literature were penned, with Turkic cultural influence expanding and flourishing as a result. A literary form of Chagatai Turkic came into use alongside Persian as both a cultural and an official language.
Tamerlane virtually exterminated the Church of the East, which had previously been a major branch of Christianity but afterwards became largely confined to a small area now known as the Assyrian Triangle.
Timur became a relatively popular figure in Europe for centuries after his death, mainly because of his victory over the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid. The Ottoman armies were at the time invading Eastern Europe and Timur was ironically seen as an ally.
Timur has now been officially recognized as a national hero in Uzbekistan. His monument in Tashkent now occupies the place where Karl Marx 's statue once stood.
Muhammad Iqbal, a philosopher, poet and politician in British India who is widely regarded as having inspired the Pakistan Movement, composed a notable poem entitled Dream of Timur, the poem itself was inspired by a prayer of the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II:
The Sharif of the Hijaz suffers due to the divisive sectarian schisms of his faith, And lo! that young Tatar (Timur) has boldly re-envisioned magnanimous victories of overwhelming conquest.
In 1794, Sake Dean Mahomed published his travel book, The Travels of Dean Mahomet. The book begins with the praise of Genghis Khan, Timur, and particularly the first Mughal emperor, Babur. He also gives important details on the then incumbent Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.
The earliest known history of his reign was Nizam ad - Din Shami 's Zafarnama, which was written during Timur 's lifetime. Between 1424 and 1428, Sharaf ad - Din Ali Yazdi wrote a second Zafarnama drawing heavily on Shami 's earlier work. Ahmad ibn Arabshah wrote a much less favorable history in Arabic. Arabshah 's history was translated into Latin by the Dutch Orientalist Jacobus Golius in 1636.
As Timurid - sponsored histories, the two Zafarnamas present a dramatically different picture from Arabshah 's chronicle. William Jones remarked that the former presented Timur as a "liberal, benevolent and illustrious prince '' while the latter painted him as "deformed and impious, of a low birth and detestable principles ''.
The Malfuzat - i Timurī and the appended Tuzūk - i Tīmūrī, supposedly Timur 's own autobiography, are almost certainly 17th - century fabrications. The scholar Abu Taleb Hosayni presented the texts to the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, a distant descendant of Timur, in 1637 -- 38, supposedly after discovering the Chagatai language originals in the library of a Yemeni ruler. Due to the distance between Yemen and Timur 's base in Transoxiana and the lack of any other evidence of the originals, most historians consider the story highly implausible, and suspect Hosayni of inventing both the text and its origin story.
Timur arguably had a significant impact on the Renaissance culture and early modern Europe. His achievements both fascinated and horrified Europeans from the fifteenth century to the early nineteenth century.
European views of Timur were mixed throughout the fifteenth century, with some European countries calling him an ally and others seeing him as a threat to Europe because of his rapid expansion and brutality.
When Timur captured the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid at Ankara, he was often praised and seen as a trusted ally by European rulers, such as Charles VI of France and Henry IV of England, because they believed he was saving Christianity from the Turkish Empire in the Middle East. Those two kings also praised him because his victory at Ankara allowed Christian merchants to remain in the Middle East and allowed for their safe return home to both France and England. Timur was also praised because it was believed that he helped restore the right of passage for Christian pilgrims to the Holy Land.
Other Europeans viewed Timur as a barbaric enemy who presented a threat to both European culture and the religion of Christianity. His rise to power moved many leaders, such as Henry III of Castile, to send embassies to Samarkand to scout out Timur, learn about his people, make alliances with him, and try to convince him to convert to Christianity in order to avoid war.
In the introduction to a 1723 translation of Yazdi 's Zafarnama, the translator wrote:
(M. Petis de la Croix) tells us, that there are calumnies and impostures, which have been published by authors of romances, and Turkish writers who were his enemies, and envious at his glory: among whom is Ahmed Bin Arabschah... As Timur - Bec had conquered the Turks and Arabians of Syria, and had even taken the Sultan Bajazet prisoner, it is no wonder that he has been misrepresented by the historians of those nations, who, in despite of truth, and against the dignity of history, have fallen into great excesses on this subject.
Timur 's body was exhumed from his tomb on 19 June 1941 and his remains examined by the Soviet anthropologist Mikhail M. Gerasimov, Lev V. Oshanin and V. Ia. Zezenkova. It was determined that Timur was a tall and broad - chested man with strong cheek bones. At 5 feet 8 inches (1.73 meters), Timur was tall for his era. The examinations confirmed that Timur was lame and had a withered right arm due to his injuries. His right thighbone had knitted together with his kneecap, and the configuration of the knee joint suggests that he had kept his leg bent at all times and therefore would have had a pronounced limp. Gerasimov reconstructed the likeness of Timur from his skull and found that Timur 's facial characteristics displayed Mongoloid features with some Caucasoid admixture. Oshanin also concluded that Timur 's cranium showed predominately the characteristics of a South Siberian Mongoloid type.
It is alleged that Timur 's tomb was inscribed with the words, "When I rise from the dead, the world shall tremble. '' It is also said that when Gerasimov exhumed the body, an additional inscription inside the casket was found, which read, "Whomsoever opens my tomb shall unleash an invader more terrible than I. '' In any case, three days after Gerasimov began the exhumation, Adolf Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa, the largest military invasion of all time, upon the Soviet Union. Timur was re-buried with full Islamic ritual in November 1942 just before the Soviet victory at the Battle of Stalingrad.
Geometric courtyard surrounding the tomb showing the Iwan, and dome.
View of the Registan.
Timurid Mosque in Herat.
Goharshad Mosque, Timurid architecture
Green Mosque (Balkh) is a Timurid mosque that inspired Shah Jahan.
Bibi - Khanym Mosque
Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi, a prime example of Timurid architecture.
Timur had forty - three consorts:
His other wives and concubines included: Dawlat Tarkan Agha, Burhan Agha, Jani Beg Agha, Tini Beg Agha, Durr Sultan Agha, Munduz Agha, Bakht Sultan Agha, Nowruz Agha, Jahan Bakht Agha, Nigar Agha, Ruhparwar Agha, Dil Beg Agha, Dilshad Agha, Murad Beg Agha, Piruzbakht Agha, Khoshkeldi Agha, Dilkhosh Agha, Barat Bey Agha, Sevinch Malik Agha, Arzu Bey Agha, Yadgar Sultan Agha, Khudadad Agha, Bakht Nigar Agha, Qutlu Bey Agha, and another Nigar Agha.
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orange is the new black cast correctional officers | List of Orange is the new Black characters - wikipedia
Orange Is the New Black is an American comedy - drama series created by Jenji Kohan that airs on Netflix. It is based on Piper Kerman 's memoir, Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women 's Prison, about her experiences in a women 's prison. The series ' protagonist is Piper Chapman, a woman sentenced to 15 months in a woman 's federal prison for her part in a drug smuggling operation ten years before the start of the first season. It follows Piper 's experiences in and out of prison along with the experiences of a diverse ensemble.
Piper Chapman (played by Taylor Schilling) is a woman who was sentenced to 15 months in Litchfield Penitentiary for helping her former girlfriend Alex Vause smuggle drug money in Europe several years before the first episode. The first season shows Piper 's journey through the prison system, beginning with her rough first week, during which she accidentally makes several enemies and struggles to adapt to life on the inside, as well as reuniting with Alex. In prison, she acquires several other nicknames throughout the series. "Crazy Eyes '' calls her "Dandelion '' because she is tall and blonde, "Pennsatucky '' refers to her as "College, '' and Tricia refers to her as "Brain, '' because she is more educated than most of the inmates. Piper is assigned a bunk with Claudette, who treats her rudely at first, but eventually warms up to her. Piper is assigned to the Women 's Advisory Council (WAC), despite not running and asking Healy not to put her on it. She works in the electrical shop at the prison and inadvertently takes a screwdriver from the tool crib and loses it. Her ambiguous sexuality is a source of amusement to her best friend Polly, and of frustration to her fiancé Larry. She is initially considered non-threatening by most of the other inmates. Although she does her best to have empathy and be helpful to others, she is often accused of being profoundly self - obsessed, and she only comes to realize that this might be true after being sent to prison. She becomes enemies with Tiffany after she ridiculed her religious beliefs, and ended up beating her severely after a failed attempt on her life at the end of the first season, knocking out all of her teeth.
In the second season, she is flown to Chicago to testify at the trial of Alex 's former boss, Kubra Balik. After perjuring herself at the recommendation of Alex, Piper is returned to Litchfield to serve the remainder of her sentence while Alex is released on early parole for her testimony. After learning her grandmother is dying, Healy assists her in getting furlough to visit her, and then to attend the funeral, which aggravates some of the other inmates. She is also commissioned by a journalist and friend of Larry 's to secretly investigate the prison 's books, and later collaborates with Caputo to expose Figueroa 's corruption, preventing Piper from being transferred to a prison in Virginia. She ends up breaking up with Larry, and after discovering that him and her friend Polly are having an affair, she asks them to report Alex to her probation officer. In the third season, Piper admits to Alex that she was the one that alerted her probation officer that she violated her parole, causing her to be sent back to prison. Piper ends up getting selected for a new work detail creating underwear for Whispers, a lingerie company. After being rebuffed on her attempt to show the company that they were wasting fabric and could make an extra pair of underwear with each sheet, she uses the extra fabric to start a used panty business with her brother Cal, recruits some of the other inmates to wear the panties, and uses Officer Bayley to smuggle the panties out of the prison. At first, she pays the women wearing the panties with ramen noodle seasoning packets, but is forced to give them money after Flaca threatens to cause a strike. However, as her business begins to succeed, she becomes darker and more ruthless, firing Flaca in retaliation for her instigation of the strike. This change in Piper 's personality, as well as Alex 's paranoia leads to the end of their relationship, and Piper starts a relationship with new inmate Stella Carlin and allowed her to tattoo the words "Trust No Bitch '' on her arm. At the end of the third season, Piper discovers that Stella stole her money from her panty business to use as a financial cushion on the outside due to her pending release. Piper at first pretends to forgive her and allows her to keep the money, but later plants several contraband items (including a shiv and some marijuana) in her area and arranges for them to be discovered, causing Stella to be moved to maximum security, while facing an extended sentence. She uses this incident as a warning to the other inmates that may try to cross her.
In the fourth season, Piper has allowed the incident with Stella to go to her head, and she has become arrogant and overconfident, hiring her new bunk mate Stephanie Hapakuka as muscle. As a result, when Maria Ruiz tries to persuade Piper to recruit some of her new Dominican friends into her business, Piper is rude to her. Angered, Maria starts a rival business that quickly outperforms Piper 's. Faced with the loss of her business, Piper convinces the new guard captain Piscatella to let her start an anti-gang task force, but the women that gather at her meeting mistakenly assume that she wants to start a white supremacist group. During a meeting with one of the COs, the women bring the used panty businesses to his attention (after Piper tried to downplay it), resulting in Maria being caught and Piscatella recommending that she get three to five years added to her sentence. Despite her disgust with the white supremacist gang, she hangs out with them for protection from Maria 's gang, but she is still kidnapped by Maria and branded with a swastika. She shows Red the brand while crying on her bed, and later shows Nicky and Alex while smoking crack cocaine in the garden. While high, Piper discovers that Kubra sent Aydin to kill Alex and she killed him after he failed. Later, she was able to get her swastika altered into a window, with the help of Red, Norma, and Alex, and she apologizes to Alex for not believing her during the branding. After the incident, she and Alex start having sex again. Piper tries to convince Piscatella to stop the increasingly draconian treatment of the other inmates by the guards, and when he refuses, she joins the protest to include standing next to Blanca Flores on the cafeteria table. When Aydin 's remains are found, she tries to prevent Alex from confessing to Aydin 's murder. After Bayley accidentally kills Poussey, she runs into him in the hall while he is trying to go to Poussey 's friends to apologize. She tells him to let them grieve and that she will let them know he is sorry in order to prevent him from going to their cell block. At the end of the season, she discovers that Alex has written several notes with Aydin 's full name on it and spread it around the prison. She convinces her to gather them up so that they can burn them, but shortly after they throw them into a garbage can and set them on fire, women participating in the riot kick over the can, spreading the papers all over the floor.
Alex Vause (played by Laura Prepon) -- Alex is a former drug smuggler for an unspecified international drug cartel. Years prior to the beginning of the series, she took a sexual interest in Piper after meeting her in a bar, and gradually integrated her into the drug trade while they traveled the world living in luxury. Alex once convinced Piper to smuggle cash through customs at an airport in Europe, the crime for which Piper is doing time. Alex specifically named Piper during her testimony, which is what led to Piper 's later arrest. After Piper broke up with her, Alex began using heroin, but cleaned up in prison. She states during an Alcoholics Anonymous meeting that being in prison is her "rock bottom '' experience. Alex 's mother had worked four jobs, and her father was a washed - up rock star. Alex tracked down her father and struck up a friendship with his drug dealer who subsequently became her industry contact in a drug cartel. Alex is not particularly broken up about being in prison, since she at least managed to free herself of her drug addiction. She admits to Piper and Nicky that she is n't sure what she 'll do with her life when she gets out, as her only life skill is "moving massive amounts of heroin. '' She appears to have moments of depression, telling Nicky that she can no longer "get past the swirling darkness in her brain long enough to land on anything, '' and mentioning to Piper that upon entering prison, she was on anti-depressants, which she now trades for black eyeliner.
Alex is good at reading people and is perceptive, quite often surmising Piper 's true feelings and intentions. During the second season, she double - crosses Piper and gives incriminating evidence at the trial of her former boss Kubra (after advising Piper to lie), earning herself an early release. When Piper calls her on the phone, she reveals that Kubra had walked free, and she is now in fear of her life. To Piper 's dismay, when Alex visits, she reveals that she is planning to skip town and go into hiding. Wanting to get her old girlfriend back in prison with her, Piper secretly asks Polly to tip off her probation officer, causing Alex to violate her probation when he turns up to check on her, to find her brandishing a gun. In the third season, she returns to Litchfield, and despite finding out that Piper was the reason she was arrested, she restarts their relationship. This is short - lived, as the two break up again when Piper starts dating Stella. Alex becomes suspicious when Lolly Whitehall, a new inmate originally seen in Chicago, comes to the prison and she assumes that Kubra sent Lolly to kill her. Confronting Lolly in the bathroom, the two fight, and while choking Lolly, Alex discovers that she is just a paranoid prisoner that thinks the NSA is watching her. Alex ends up convincing Lolly that she is an undercover agent with the CIA in order to keep her from reporting their confrontation.
At the end of the third season, one of Kubra 's enforcers, Aydin Bayat, confronts Alex in the greenhouse, ready to kill her. At the beginning of the fourth season, Lolly returns to find Aydin garrotting Alex with his belt. Instinctively, Lolly storms in, pushes him off of her and stomps him until he is unconscious and presumed dead. Later that night, Alex finds Aydin still breathing, and smothers him to death before dismembering his body and disposing of his remains in the prison garden the following morning with Lolly and Frieda. She is concerned with Lolly 's actions, when she continues to insist that Aydin was a government agent, but she tries to stop Frieda from killing Lolly to silence her. Alex becomes consumed with guilt for killing Aydin, and tells Red about it. When Nicky returns from max, Alex declines a proposition for sex with her, but ends up smoking crack with her and Piper in the garden. While they were high, Piper shows her the swastika brand on her arm, and Alex tells Piper and Nicky that she killed Aydin. She helps Red and Norma turn Piper 's brand into a window, while Piper apologized to her for ignoring her concerns about Kubra trying to kill her. After joking with Piper about who would give Bayley a handjob in exchange for burgers, the two once again rekindle their relationship. When Aydin 's remains are found, Alex expresses disappointment that he may not be identifiable. She attempts to confess to Piscatella, but is prevented from doing so after Healy turns Lolly in for Aydin 's death. Alex starts spreading notes around the prison identifying Aydin; after Piper discovers her planting a note in the garden, she tells Alex to gather the notes so she is n't implicated. At the end of the season, Alex and Piper attempt to burn the notes in a garbage can, but after they light up the notes, inmates participating in the riot kick over the garbage can, spreading the notes all over the floor.
Sam Healy (played by Michael J. Harney) -- Healy is an experienced Corrections Officer and supervisor at Litchfield Penitentiary who has a Master of Social Work and acts as prison counselor to many of the inmates. He is initially presented as someone who, though rigid, genuinely wants to help the inmates under his care. Due to his preference for avoiding confrontation, Healy is contemptuously referred to as "Samantha '' by Caputo, who feels that Healy is not tough enough on the inmates. Healy generally appears weary and often tells the inmates what they want to hear so they will leave him alone - he later admits to his own counselor that he is dissatisfied with his job, having gone into it with such idealistic notions of changing the world, but his experiences have left him cynical. Despite this, he still shows a sense of justice, such as forging evidence to show that Suzanne (who was going to take for the fall for an assault she did not commit) was in fact innocent. Healy has an outspoken personal vendetta against lesbians for unknown reasons, cautioning Piper at the beginning of the series not to be involved with lesbian activity. While early on he appears particularly sympathetic towards Piper and even acts biased in her favor, he increasingly dislikes her as he hears rumors of her alleged lesbian activities. His hatred of lesbians, first presented as a quirk, is later revealed to be a deep - seated pathological problem when he explosively sends Piper to solitary confinement purely because she was dancing closely with Alex. In season four, it is revealed that his hatred of lesbianism was imbued in him by his father, who believed that it was a disease akin to schizophrenia. His increasing disdain of Piper culminates in his acquiescence to Tiffany Doggett 's attempt to murder her in the first - season finale.
During the second season, Healy makes amends with Piper, supporting her idea of a weekly prison newsletter and getting her a furlough to visit her dying grandmother. He also attempts to start a group counseling program with Tiffany, but cancels it due to poor attendance, further adding to his emotional exhaustion. At home, Healy is in a troubled and seemingly - loveless marriage with a Ukrainian mail - order bride, who speaks little English, and her mother. It is implied that Healy lied about himself to her on the Internet, and she is only staying with him because she has two years left until she gets her green card. In the third season, he enlists the help of Red to mediate between the two and bridge the language gap, however Red ends up lambasting his wife and defending Healy as a "good man ''. Following this, Healy and his wife appear to split, while Healy then forms a closer bond with Red. It is also implied they have mutual romantic feelings for one another; but Red initially flirts with him so that she can be reassigned on her job in the kitchen, much to Healy 's dismay. Later, it seems that Red and Healy may still have hidden feelings for each other, as evidenced by a shared a look during Lorna Morello 's wedding. Red rejects the idea of developing their relationship, saying "their ships passed too late in the night '', despite Healy 's attempts to admit their feelings for each other. At times, Healy also finds himself at odds with new counselor Berdie Rogers and her alternative methods, feeling that she is encouraging the prisoners to engage in deviant behavior.
Healy 's background is further explored in season four. His mother suffered from severe mental illness, causing frequent stress to young Sam. When she began electroconvulsive therapy, her erratic behavior subsided. However, she confided to Sam that she wished to stop the therapy, as they caused her to feel "fuzzy '' and forgetful. Sam protested against this, saying that he preferred her medicated. Following this, his mother left the home and never returned, with Healy still uncertain of her fate decades later. This experience causes problems between him and the schizophrenic Lolly, with Healy believing that her confession to murdering a guard is only a delusion. At the end of the fourth season, increasingly dissatisfied with his job and unsure if he is able to be effective, he contemplates suicide by walking into a lake, but returns to shore when he hears his phone ring. Later, rather than returning to work, he voluntarily checks himself into psychiatric care, and is later seen in the facility while watching Caputo 's statement on television. He makes no appearance in season five.
Claudette "Miss Claudette '' Pelage (played by Michelle Hurst) -- Miss Claudette is a very strict and feared inmate at the prison, she is often grumpy and holds her bunk - mates to very high standards. Her mysterious origins and fearsome reputation bred numerous legends, with some inmates humorously noting they never see her in the bathrooms. When Piper is assigned to share a cubicle with her, she reacts rudely due to her obsession with cleanliness and dislike of the messy situations Piper brings with her, but softens to her over time. It is later shown that Miss Claudette was inducted into forced child labor and sent to the United States from an unknown French - speaking country (possibly Haiti) to pay off a familial debt. She was brought to America by a boy called Jean Baptiste whom she develops a close friendship and later falls in love. Years later she ran her own illegal cleaning service using similar child labor. She kills a customer who beat and abused one of her cleaning girls, which is the basis for the rumor amongst the prisoners that she is in prison for murder. It is not clear if she was convicted for her business, the killing, or both. She also becomes heartbroken after Baptiste marries another woman.
Miss Claudette never gets mail, has not received a visitor in a decade of being incarcerated, and initially refuses help with her case as she has nothing to live for outside. However, when she receives a letter from Baptiste (whose wife has since died) she decides to appeal her conviction. Initially optimistic, her appeal is denied, and in a fit of anger she nearly strangles a prison guard in grief, and is immediately transferred to a maximum security prison with an extended sentence.
Galina "Red '' Reznikov (played by Kate Mulgrew) -- Red is a Russian inmate who runs the prison 's kitchen as the master chef and is the behind - the - scenes leader of the prison 's white population. In her earlier life, she and her husband had migrated from Russia and ran a struggling restaurant in Queens, eventually getting involved with the Russian mafia bosses who frequented their establishment. Red angered the mob bosses by punching one of their wives in the chest (rupturing a breast implant) after being excluded by their group, but later impressed the same boss by offering sound advice that allowed her to swiftly climb the ranks of the organization. Red is feared and respected by most of the prisoners, and has a lot of influence with Healy. She is the closest to Nicky, whom she loves like a daughter, and is always accompanied by Norma and Gina, who cater to her needs and work with her in the kitchen. Red runs a smuggling business out of her kitchen, using a food company she helped the Russian mafia set up, but refuses to import drugs of any kind. She actively uses her resources to help some of the inmates overcome drug addictions, although they have only "two strikes '' before she abandons them because "Russians do n't play baseball. '' When Mendez begins to force her to use her connections to bring in drugs, she hatches a plan to have him removed from the prison.
Red is initially pleasant to Piper until she unknowingly insults her cooking, and in response Red punishes her by starvation. Piper eventually repairs their relationship by making a lotion to help soothe Red 's injured back. Red also has an odd obsession with a chicken that is allegedly seen on the prison grounds from time to time, as she wants to cook "real food '' and also wants to absorb its "power. '' Towards the end of the first season, she is decommissioned from the kitchen by Caputo after he discovers Mendez 's drug smuggling operation, which is blamed on Red. Caputo assigns Gloria as the new master chef, and the kitchen is then run by the Latina inmates. In an attempt to take Gloria and her "girls '' out of the kitchen, Red sabotaged one of the ovens, causing Gina to get injured, thus straining her relationship with her friends severely. Red eventually becomes Piper 's new roommate and befriends her, while at the same time she attempts to come to terms with her loss of friends and status, in the process befriending the "Golden Girls '' -- the older women in the prison.
Upon discovering a disused sewage drain in the prison greenhouse, Red restarts her smuggling business and reunites her shattered circle of friends. She has history with Vee, a returning prisoner who had befriended her when Red first went to prison years before the series began, only to beat her violently and try to take over her smuggling operation. Vee 's appearance in the prison puts Red in competition with her. Following repeated threats from Vee against Red 's girls and her family outside prison, Red attempts to strangle Vee during a blackout, but can not bring herself to finish the job and instead agrees to a truce. However, Vee sneaks up on Red in the greenhouse and beats her violently with a sock with a padlock inside, sending her to the prison hospital. She at first keeps her silence to the authorities about Vee as her attacker, preferring instead to plot her revenge, but has a change of heart after speaking with Sister Ingalls.
Throughout the second season, visits from her son reveal that Red 's family business is failing and the family itself is having money troubles. When Piper is granted furlough, Red asks her to stop by the shop, and Piper sees the business is closed down. Upon returning to prison, Piper lies and tells Red that the business is doing well. Red eventually discovers that Piper lied about the business 's prosperity and berates her for attempting to cover it up. After divorcing her husband for failing to keep the business open, Red starts a friendship with Healy and uses this to get back into the kitchen. Healy convinces Caputo to let her back into the kitchen, but shortly after she takes over the kitchen, it is revealed that MCC has begun to order prepackaged foods as a cost - saving measure, severely diminishing the quality of the food and limiting her ability to cook traditional meals.
In the fourth season, Red is distraught when she discovers that her new bunkmate has sleep apnea, and snores very loudly. This, together with the new breakfast timetable, severely affects Red 's ability to sleep. She makes numerous attempts to silence her bunk mate, and eventually resorts to taking sleeping pills. In addition, she finds herself having to assist Alex, Lolly and Frieda in covering up Aydin 's death. She is overjoyed when Nicky returns from max. However, shortly afterwards, some of Red 's possessions disappear, and she later discovers that Nicky had stolen them to fund her relapse into drug addiction. She finds Nicky sitting on the floor in the showers and is heartbroken, feeling that she failed Nicky, and that her harsh policy on drugs contributed both to Nicky 's relapse and to Tricia 's death. After Nicky agreed to sober up again, Red went to the drug dealers and threatened to tamper with their food if they sell drugs to Nicky just in case. After learning that Piper was branded with a swastika, she helped alter it to a window. When Aydin 's body is found, Red is one of the first suspects, and Piscatella deliberately prevents her from sleeping in an attempt to force a confession. In response to the death of Poussey, Red tells her family to start building a new garden, as the last had been destroyed to make room for a new building, to keep them busy and out of trouble.
Larry Bloom (played by Jason Biggs) -- Larry is a Jewish freelance writer trying to establish a journalism career, and Piper 's anxious and selfish fiancé. He is blindsided at the beginning of the series when his then girlfriend Piper reveals to him her former life as a lesbian who smuggled cash for a drug cartel 10 years ago. Larry is initially vocally supportive of Piper, and proposes marriage to her before she goes inside. As the series progresses, he begins to lose interest toward her, becoming angry when he learns that Piper 's former lover is in the same prison and that she did n't tell him about it. Later on, he begins writing a newspaper article titled "One Sentence, Two Prisoners '' about the experience of having a fiancée in prison. This article is published in The New York Times and allows him to move up in the journalistic world. He is close to his parents, who are strongly opposed to his marriage plans. After a conversation with Alex, Larry 's controlled anxiety gets the better of him, and he breaks off his engagement with Piper. During the second season, he begins an affair with Piper 's best friend Polly after becoming a more supportive partner than her husband, who was frequently gone for trips. Shortly after this, Larry and Polly reveal the affair to Piper and asked for her blessing in their relationship. At the end of the second season, Piper asks Larry and Polly to arrange for Alex to be thrown back in prison for violating her probation. Although Larry expresses doubts, Piper is able to appeal to Polly who agrees to help. While he did n't appear in the third or fourth seasons, he appeared in a flashback during the fifth season, which reveals he has a tattoo of the Kool - Aid Man on his butt. When Piper mentions him to other inmates during the riot, one of them notes she 's never heard his name and has no idea who he is.
Suzanne "Crazy Eyes '' Warren (played by Uzo Aduba) -- Suzanne is a mentally unstable inmate with a violent history, however generally passive and friendly. An African - American, she was raised by an adoptive middle class white couple who later had another daughter named Grace during Suzanne 's childhood. For her race and mental illness, Suzanne was often shunned by her parents ' community and her little sister 's friends. Her parents tried to provide her with the best care growing up, but, despite their love, Suzanne felt pushed by her mother to accomplish things that she was afraid to do.
Suzanne is a lesbian who develops an obsession with Piper when she first arrives at Litchfield, giving her the pet name "Dandelion '' because of Piper 's blonde hair. She is initially portrayed as creepy and unpredictable due to her obsession with Piper, stalking her around the prison and submitting a request to bunk together. After being rejected, she urinates in Piper 's cubicle. As the show progresses she acts more like a regular inmate, and is revealed that despite her mental illness, she is rather intelligent with a flair for reciting literature and poetry verbatim, often writing her own compositions. She received her nickname "Crazy Eyes '' due to her tendency to widen her eyes when she talks. Suzanne is unaware of why exactly people call her "Crazy Eyes, '' but it is shown that she is hurt by the nickname. During the second season, it emerges that she gets stage fright, and on the night of Piper 's altercation with Tiffany, had come outside in the midst of a panic attack, and mistaking Piper for her adoptive mother, punched her in the face, inadvertently making it look like a more even fight, saving Piper from severe punishment.
When Yvonne "Vee '' Parker enters the prison and forms an African - American gang, Suzanne falls for Vee 's charms and maternal influence, being exploited into becoming Vee 's "muscle. '' While zealously loyal to Vee, Suzanne violently beat or threatened any inmates who crossed her, almost acting on command. Later, Vee attempts to coldly trick her into taking the fall for Red 's severe beating, as a distraught Suzanne believes she may have done it unconsciously due to her violent history. During the third season, she is encouraged by the new counselor Berdie Rogers to be more creative, causing her to start writing several science fiction erotic stories that become a hit among the women in the prison. Suzanne reveals that she has no sexual experience and is completely naïve in regard to sex, having never actually had a girlfriend before, and that the stories are based on other sources. Eventually, the stories make their way to the staff, causing Rogers to get suspended. Meanwhile, Suzanne becomes nervous upon discovering that one of her fans, Maureen Kukudio, is interested in her romantically. Suzanne backs out of a possible sexual encounter, but is later seen forming a close bond with Maureen towards the end of the season.
In the fourth season, Suzanne becomes put off when Maureen turns out to be quite strange, and abandons her in the woods. For most of the season, she and Lorna attempt to find out who is defecating in the showers, before Nicky eventually deduces that it was Angie, and that she was doing it to smuggle drugs inside the prison. Through her conversations with Lorna, Suzanne is eventually convinced that she gave up on Maureen too quickly, and eventually approaches her to suggest they give the broom closet another go. Maureen agrees, but deliberately leaves Suzanne unsatisfied in retaliation for abandoning her in the woods. When Aydin 's remains are discovered, Suzanne is one of the suspects because of her history of mental health problems, and is taken for questioning. In flashbacks, Suzanne lives with Grace and her boyfriend Brad. She works as a greeter at a hypermarket and befriends Dylan, a young child. When Grace and Brad leave for the weekend, she goes to the park, sees Dylan, and brings him to her apartment to play video games. Dylan became scared and called 911, and while fleeing from Suzanne, he climbs out of a window and falls off of the fire escape of her apartment.
While in the waiting room, Maureen approaches, seeking a reconciliation, but Suzanne goes and sits elsewhere. She then gets into a verbal dispute with white supremacist inmate Kasey Sankey after laughing at her when Officer Humphrey pulled her chair, and he immediately tries to escalate it into a full - on fight. Kasey declined to do so, but an embittered Maureen volunteers to fight Suzanne instead. In the subsequent fight, Maureen accidentally takes her taunting too far, and Suzanne violently tackles her to the ground and proceeds to beat her severely, before she is eventually dragged off. The incident unhinges Suzanne, and shortly afterwards, when she takes part in a non-violent stand - in in the prison canteen, the sight of Humphrey causes her to go into a full - on meltdown. Officer Bayley attempts to restrain her and take her to psych, inadvertently making Suzanne become more erratic. Poussey attempts to intervene, and is pinned to the ground by Bayley 's leg while at the same time attempting to wrestle with Suzanne. As a result, Poussey is suffocated and dies on the canteen floor. Traumatized by the event, Suzanne attempts to deal with it by piling books on top of herself in order to find out what it felt like not to breathe. She eventually attempts to do so by pulling several bookshelves on top of herself, but luckily, a grieving Brook happens to be nearby, and she quickly alerts the COs. Suzanne is taken to the medical facility, where she discovers that her neighbor in the next bed is Maureen.
At the start of the fifth season, while continuing to recover in medical, Humphrey is bought in there next to them to be treated from his gunshot wound. She leaves medical, and rejoins the other inmates. Noticing that the place in the cafeteria Poussey died is n't being respected, she becomes upset and makes a circle around the area after clearing the other inmates away from it. Later on, she attempts to speak to Poussey 's spirit with some of the other inmates. Due to the change in her routine with the guards no longer in control, as well as a lack of medication, she begins to act crazier than normal, eventually resulting in her being handcuffed to a bunk and her face being painted. She is released by Lorna, who has taken control of the prison pharmacy, and Lorna decides not to give Suzanne her medication. While in the bathroom washing her face, she discovers Maureen inside of a stall with her injuries infected, and they go back to medical to discover Humphrey not breathing. Suzanne attempts to take Humphrey in a wheelchair to Taystee to show her, unknowingly putting negotiations at risk. Black Cindy and Alison take control of the situation, and Cindy ends up giving her some lithium to put her to sleep. Later, she is revived, and she ends up in Frieda 's bunker prior to the riot team breaching the bunker.
Tasha "Taystee '' Jefferson (played by Danielle Brooks) -- Taystee is the black representative on the WAC. She works in the prison library. With coaching from Poussey and a makeover from Sophia, Taystee is paroled from the prison. However, as she has been in institutions most of her life and finds it hard to adapt to the rough life she finds outside the prison walls, she re-offends in violation of her parole and is subsequently sent back to prison. Following her return, she is assigned to the recently vacated bunk of Miss Claudette as Piper 's roommate.
Taystee is quite intelligent and well - read, with a strong ability to remember information and an aptitude for business and mathematics that initially helped her become involved in Vee 's drug ring. Owing to her time spent in the prison law library, she has accrued a wide knowledge base with regard to the law. Taystee 's childhood was a rough one, spent in foster homes, and she was eventually taken in by Vee to help with her heroin business. She has known Vee on the outside for 15 years, and becomes a member of her prison gang in the second season. Eventually, when Poussey 's actions damage Vee 's business, Vee decides to cut her losses and appease her by expelling Taystee from the group. Finally seeing Vee for what she really is, Taystee later rallies the other black inmates to turn on her former idol. During the third season, Taystee finds herself becoming the leader of her group and ends up having to be the one to keep them in control. Later on in the season, she helps Poussey save Brook Soso after a suicide attempt and welcomes her into their group.
During the fourth season, Taystee finds herself being assigned as Caputo 's secretary. She uses her new position to influence some of the decisions Caputo makes on behalf of the inmates, to include convincing him to play The Wiz during movie night. She also convinces Caputo to give her a wristwatch, which none of the other inmates have, and it is later broken by one of the guards. While Caputo was gone, she successfully guessed his computer password and used his computer to surf the Internet. After Poussey died, she was devastated, but refused to take the day off from being Caputo 's secretary, offering to call the police for him and trying to convince him to call Poussey 's dad. Unknown to Caputo, she was present during the press release announcing Poussey 's death and was angered when he stated Bayley was n't being arrested and when Caputo failed to mention Poussey 's name. Following this, she went through the halls shouting that Bayley was being let off, causing an uprising among all of the inmates.
At the beginning of the fifth season, after the inmates take control of the prison, Taystee punches Caputo in the face and holds him and Josh from MCC hostage. She attempts to force Caputo to make a statement on video stating that Bayley murdered Poussey, but he refuses to and she finished the statement herself. Frustrated that the video did n't get the views she wanted, she handed Caputo to the Spanish inmates. Following this, she negotiates with the white supremacist inmates for possession of Judy King, who she plans to use to release a statement about their treatment in the prison to the press to the protest of Janae. During Judy 's statement, Taystee interrupts her and speaks about how they are treated herself, as well as revealing Judy 's special treatment, before releasing Judy and going back into the prison.
Taystee ends up being the prison 's spokesperson for negotiations, and she presents the list of demands voted on by the other inmates, disappointed that Bayley 's arrest was so low on the list. She ends up negotiating with Figuerora, who was sent on behalf of the governor, and has Caputo by her side during the negotiations. After a video of Piscatella torturing Red, Alex, and others goes viral on the Internet, the governor agrees to meet all of their demands except for the arrest of Bayley due to his alleged murder of Poussey being outside of the state 's jurisdiction. Taystee refuses to accept the remaining demands without the demand for Bayley 's arrest being met and kicks Figueroa and Caputo out. After Maria leads the guards out of the prison, the state orders the riot team to take back the prison after Maria reveals that the guards were n't released by Taystee. After Taystee fails to stop the guards from breaching, she flees to Red 's bunker and after seeing Piscatella she grabs Frieda 's gun and almost shoots him for contributing to Poussey 's death, before being talked down. After Piscatella is released, her and the other inmates in the bunker stand together as the riot team breaches the bunker.
Nicky Nichols (played by Natasha Lyonne) -- A former drug addict, now Red 's most trusted assistant, Nicky is witty and acerbic, with a loud mouth. She swiftly befriends both Piper and Alex, expressing curiosity about what happened between the two of them outside of prison. She is estranged from her mother, a wealthy but extraordinarily selfish socialite who now lives in Brazil. When she was a child, Nicky was raised by a nanny and lived in a separate house from her mother. This estrangement was what initially led to Nicky 's drug addiction. Upon arriving in prison, Red had helped her through her worst bouts of cold turkey. For this reason, Nicky has disowned her mother, and now looks up to Red as a mother figure, to the point where she openly calls her "mom '' in the presence of other inmates, and Red in turn openly treats her as if she were her daughter. Nicky was involved in a friends - with - benefits relationship with Lorna until Lorna broke it off, which Nicky is bitter about for some time, but she later develops a brief interest in Alex. Nevertheless, Nicky continues to make numerous attempts to get back together with Lorna throughout the series, suggesting that her feelings for her may be romantic. Nicky has a scar on her chest from having heart surgery as a complication of a bacterial infection in her heart, which came from using a dirty needle. Having been clean for two years, Nicky uses sex with the other inmates as a coping mechanism, becoming something of a nymphomaniac in the process. During the second season, Nicky stages a sex - based point scoring competition with Big Boo, during which Nicky even makes advances on Officer Fischer. She gets revenge on Vee for Red 's slocking by stealing her stash of heroin, causing her to again face her addiction. In the third season, she attempts to get the stolen heroin out of the prison. She decides to work with Luschek so he could sell it on the outside and split the profits with her. During a surprise inspection, drugs are discovered under Luschek 's desk and he blames her for it, causing her to get sent to max. On her way out, she exchanges brief goodbyes with Lorna and Red, and as the prison van pulls up at the facility, Nicky expresses her satisfaction to Tiffany that she will never be able to hurt them or anyone she cares about again, lamenting that, even after kicking her drug addiction, she may never lose her self - destructive tendencies. In Season 4, Nicky is surviving in Max, and celebrates three years sobriety. She is initially shown ending a fling with Stella Carlin after discovering that she is using drugs again, but shortly after, falls off the wagon and starts using them herself. She has also been sending Luschek hate mail, and angrily castigates him when he comes to visit her, attempting to apologise. Eventually, with the help of Judy King, Luschek secures her return to the regular prison, and she has an emotional reunion with Red and Lorna. However, as a result of her relapse, she begins to steal from Red to purchase drugs from the various dealers across the prison, and at the same time makes numerous failed attempts to convince Lorna to restart their relationship. When Red confronts her and breaks down in tears at watching her adoptive daughter destroy herself, as happened with Tricia, Nicky reluctantly agrees to clean herself up again. Unbeknownst to her, Red uses her influence to get all of the prison drug dealers to cut Nicky off, while Pennsatucky provides her with emotional support. She concludes the season clean, however admits to Lorna that she is unhappy and a ' junkie addict liar '.
Tiffany "Pennsatucky '' Doggett (played by Taryn Manning) -- Doggett is a former drug addict (meth) originally from Waynesboro, Virginia. Her nickname is a reference to "Pennsyltucky, '' a slang term for poor rural areas in central Pennsylvania. Tiffany has very bad teeth due to drug abuse, and initially appears to be a fundamentalist Christian. Frequently preaching about God, her religious rants are often laced with racism and hostility. She also caused the ceiling of the prison 's chapel to collapse when she tries to hang an oversized cross from an overhead pipe. For a period of time, Tiffany believed that she was blessed with "faith healing '' abilities, after being tricked by the other inmates, and eventually gets sent to the psych ward when she attempts to forcibly "heal '' a visiting paraplegic juvenile delinquent. Despite this, it is revealed Tiffany was sent to prison for shooting an abortion clinic worker in broad daylight for making a snarky comment about her having had five previous abortions. The local press believed that it was instead because of her religious beliefs -- leading to her receiving funding, support, and even a fan base from some pro-life religious groups.
Tiffany dislikes Piper after she is placed on the WAC committee despite Piper not having run for the position, and also has a long - running hostile relationship with Alex, with the two of them clashing frequently. Although it is Piper who gets Tiffany released from the psych ward, Tiffany declares a violent vendetta against Piper, eventually attempting to kill her after Piper rebuffed her religious beliefs, but instead Piper beats her up badly. After the beating she appears to have gotten over her vendetta, presumably because Piper 's beating allowed her to get a new set of porcelain teeth at the expense of the prison. Tiffany loses her religious fervor, becoming more easy - going and moderate in her beliefs after attending regular counseling sessions with Healy. Nevertheless, her old friends are now unafraid to stand up to her, and abandon her, leaving her on her own. Ultimately, she finds an unlikely friend in Big Boo, who has also been abandoned by her friends, and Tiffany subsequently cuts her hair short on Boo 's advice.
After the prison 's van is stolen, Tiffany replaces Lorna as the prison 's van driver and begins a friendship with Charlie "Donuts '' Coates, a new guard who initially seems friendly but exhibits unsettling behavior when they are alone. Later, after Coates gets reprimanded by Caputo and put on probation for missing count, he rapes Tiffany in the prison van. Through flashbacks, it is shown she has a warped view of sex due to her upbringing, having prostituted herself for six - packs of soda, and that she was repeatedly raped in the past to the point she no longer fights back. At one point Tiffany had developed a non-abusive romance with a boy called Nathan, but the relationship ended after he was forced to move away with his parents to Wyoming. Big Boo - now her closest friend - devises a plan to get revenge for Coates ' actions, but they decide not to go through with it. In order to prevent future rapes, Tiffany fakes a seizure while driving and gets off van detail. However, she sees that Maritza Ramos is her replacement, realizing that she may have provided Coates with a more naive and vulnerable victim.
In Season 4, Tiffany remains worried that Coates is raping Maritza, and continues to avoid him. Over the course of the season, Coates becomes perturbed when Tiffany continually acts coldly and angrily towards him, and eventually confronts her to ask why. She responds by asking him whether he is having sex with Maritza, and when he is confused by the question, she tells him that she wants to make sure he is not raping her, as he did with her. Coates is genuinely shocked by this disclosure. He later offers her an apology, and Tiffany decides to accept and forgive him. Unfortunately, this costs her her friendship with Boo, although she later makes amends and convinces Boo that she forgave Coates for herself, and not for him. Later, when Coates tells her that he is planning to quit his job, due to the horrors that he has witnessed at the prison, she tries to persuade him not to go, and kisses him. He initially returns it, but stops himself from initiating sex, telling her that he does not want to make the same mistake again, and that he is leaving anyway.
Dayanara "Daya '' Diaz (played by Dascha Polanco) -- A Puerto Rican inmate with artistic talents. She is the daughter of Aleida Diaz, with whom she has a strained relationship, as her mother often ignored her and her sisters as young girls in favor of going out and partying. Daya is often criticized by her fellow Hispanic inmates because she can not speak fluent Spanish. She develops a romantic relationship with prison guard John Bennett and becomes pregnant with his child. Knowing that Bennett could be imprisoned for her pregnancy, Daya joins forces with Red to trick Mendez into having sex with her so that he can be blamed for her pregnancy. During the second season, she is shown to be increasingly hormonal and emotional due to the pregnancy, a contrast from her sweet demeanor in the first season. She begins to believe that Bennett should serve time for her pregnancy in order to allow them to be together and raise their child after they are both released.
In the third season, Bennett proposes to her, and she expects for them to have a relationship after she is released. However, after a meeting with Cesar, Bennett appears to abandon Daya and the baby. Distraught and hopeless, she decides to give her child up for adoption to Mendez 's mother Delia. Instead, Aleida tricks Delia into thinking the baby died during childbirth, while in reality the child, who Daya named Armaria, was given to Cesar. However, Cesar 's home is soon raided by the DEA and Daya 's daughter is taken away. Daya is concerned about the fate of Armaria during season four, after finding out Cesar was sent to prison, and is worried that she will get lost in the foster care system. With her mother being released, Daya decides that she wants to start hanging out with women closer to her age, resulting in her going to the salon and working with Maria and her group, in spite of the concerns of Gloria, who promised Aleida that she would take care of Daya. At the end of the fourth season, she is in the middle of the riot that was started when Taystee informed the rest of the inmates that Bayley was n't arrested for Poussey 's death. Officer Humphrey attempts to pull out a smuggled gun and is pushed over by Maritza, causing it to fall in front of Daya. She grabs it and takes Humphrey and Officer McCullough hostage, while most of the other inmates present loudly cheer her on and urge her to shoot Humphrey.
At the beginning of the fifth season, Daya, while trying to decide what to do with Humphrey and McCullough, gets annoyed at Humphrey and shoots him in the leg while he is trying to appeal to her in Spanish, pointing out that she does n't understand him. Following the shooting, the inmates take over the prison and Daya is presumed to be in charge, due to her possession of the gun. Later that night, she is hit from behind and the gun is taken from her. The following morning, she pretends to still have the gun until it is discovered Gloria took it from her. She decides to distance herself from the other inmates and goes outside with the inmates that are attempting to take no part in the uprising, taking this time to paint Bennet on the garden shed. Due to a media interview featuring Judy King and her mother, Judy reveals that a guard was shot during the riot, causing negotiations to end the standoff to halt until the shooter is turned over. Not wanting to be the reason negotiations fail, she decides to turn herself in. Prior to surrendering, she calls Delia and reveals that her daughter is alive. She asks Delia to adopt her and give her a better life, and after Delia tells her yes and she ensured that Delia knew how to correctly pronounce Armaria 's name, she ends the call and goes outside the prison to surrender.
Lorna Morello (played by Yael Stone) -- A hyperfeminine and often racist Italian - American inmate, with a strong accent that inexplicably mixes regional features from both New York City and Boston. Lorna is the first inmate that Piper talks to, since she was in charge of driving the van that transports inmates, and she helps Piper acclimate in her first few days. She had a casual sex relationship with her friend Nicky Nichols, but broke it off due to feelings that she was cheating on her "fiancé '' Christopher. It is eventually revealed that Christopher was a man whom she had obsessively stalked and threatened at the same time that she was running a mail - order scam, and the reason she was in prison. Lorna also gets caught in the middle of Pornstache and Red 's drug - smuggling operations. When she is left alone during a driving errand while Miss Rosa is at a chemotherapy appointment, she drives to Christopher 's house and breaks in. While there, she takes a bath wearing his fiancée 's wedding veil and falls asleep, waking up just in time to escape before she is seen. Christopher suspects her for the break - in, and later visits the prison to confront and threaten her, finally shattering her obsessive delusions. At the end of the second season, Lorna allows Rosa to steal the van after finding out that she only had a few weeks to live so that she would n't die in prison. In the third season, she becomes depressed and lonely after being relieved of her duties as the van driver. To cope, as well as to get extra commissary money, she decides to start writing to multiple men. After visiting with several different men, she starts a relationship with a man named Vince "Vinny '' Muccio. As the two get closer, Lorna manipulates Vince into gathering some of his friends and beating Christopher up. Eventually, Lorna and Vince get married in the prison 's visitor center and they consummate their marriage in the visitor 's snack room. In Season 4, Lorna is angered when nobody has any reaction to the news that she is married. It is soon pointed out to her that she actually knows almost nothing about her new husband, and she realizes that it may well be true when she is asked what his favorite color is and can not answer. She later discovers while talking to Vinny on the phone that he lives with his parents, but is not perturbed. Nevertheless, she begins to annoy and disturb the inmates with her open phone sex conversations, including in the visiting room. She is overjoyed at Nicky 's return from max, but declines when Nicky tries to convince her to restart their relationship. In the later part of the season, she begins to suspect that Vinny is cheating on her with her sister, despite her having asked her sister to go and visit him herself, and ends up angrily accusing both of infidelity. Subsequently, when Red pairs her with Nicky to search the grounds in order to keep them busy, she has to fend Nicky off once again, but eventually confesses through tears that she is destroying her relationship and is powerless to stop herself.
Gloria Mendoza (played by Selenis Leyva) -- Red 's opposite number among the Hispanic and Latina inmates, though with no organized crime connections. She is a mother of two boys. She organizes domino games and looks out for the other inmates, either by giving advice or by performing Santeria spells (which she refers to as "Catholic plus '') for them. She is often critical of Daya 's inability to speak Spanish but still accepts her as one of her own. Despite this, she tricks Daya into drinking a concoction that makes her feel sick, at the request of Aleida. When Red is put under investigation after her smuggling operation 's cover is blown, Gloria becomes the new head cook, and some inmates prefer her breakfast cooking. Red tries to sabotage Gloria 's kitchen operations, but fails to discourage her replacement. At the end of the first season, it is shown that Gloria is starving out Red in a similar way that Red did to Piper at the beginning of the series.
During the second season, her backstory reveals that she was a frequent victim of domestic abuse. As she was planning to run from her abusive boyfriend, she was arrested for fraud for allowing customers to exchange food stamps for money at the store she ran and keeping some of the money for herself. She is shown as compassionate and easily susceptible to other 's feelings, as she forgave her boyfriend repeatedly, and fell for Vee 's charms at the beginning of the season. Upon learning that Norma is plotting to poison Vee, Gloria convinces her to use Santeria to get back at her instead. She also spends the initial part of the season competing with Aleida to be a motherly figure to Daya, but after embarrassing her in front of Bennett, she realizes that it is a job they both do well.
In the third season, she is upset after discovering that her son is becoming disrespectful and is failing his classes. She demands that he comes to visit with his homework every week and asks Sophia to allow him to ride with her son when he is doing his weekly visits. After Sophia cuts off the relationship in response to what she saw as Gloria 's son being a bad influence, the two have a confrontation in the bathroom, resulting in Sophia pushing Gloria to the ground. Gloria quits working in the kitchen and later feels guilty because Aleida started spreading rumors about Sophia that caused her to get attacked in her hair salon and put in the SHU allegedly for her own safety. In the fourth season, she is shown working with Sister Jane Ingalls to get Sophia out of SHU. When Sophia returns, Gloria attempts to make amends with her. Before Aleida is released from prison, she tells Gloria to be a mother figure to Daya and to keep her out of trouble. Gloria is clearly concerned when Daya begins spending time with Maria 's crew.
At the beginning of the fifth season, she becomes extremely concerned about Daya after she shoots Humphrey in the leg, and attempts to keep him alive at all costs so Daya does n't face a murder charge. She takes the gun from Daya, but ends up losing the gun to Angie after dropping it on the ground. She supports Daya when she decides to surrender for shooting Humphrey, and ends up getting into an intense argument with Aledia over it. When Frieda reveals her secret bunker in the prison, she joins her down there, but ends up leaving after she receives text messages about her son being in the hospital. After being given a tip from Caputo to call for help from his office, she is told by MCC that if she gets the hostages out, they will ensure that she is able to see her son. Maria finds out about her plan, but while she does n't reveal it to any of the other prisoners, Maria ends up leading the hostages out of a hole in the fence to take credit for releasing them while Gloria is taken prisoner for releasing the guards. At the end of the season, after finding out that her son survived surgery, she returned to Frieda 's bunker while the riot team is taking back control of the prison.
Cindy "Black Cindy '' Hayes (played by Adrienne C. Moore) -- A bubbly, laid - back and perpetually cheerful inmate, ' Black ' Cindy is seen often with the other black inmates. During Taystee 's time on the outside, she is seen more frequently joking around with Poussey. Her back story is explained more in the second season, where it is revealed that she worked for the TSA and occasionally stole items from the luggage of travelers. It is shown that she also had a nine - year - old daughter named Monica who was raised by her mother under the pretense that Cindy was her older sister. She is shown to shirk her responsibilities; in one instance, she took her daughter out for ice cream, only to leave her in the car for hours after she spontaneously decided to hang out with some friends. In the third season, she decides to pretend to be Jewish as a response to the inferior food quality resulting from the budget cuts so she can get better tasting kosher meals. After the prison brings in a rabbi to discover who is really Jewish and ends up being outed as a faker, she decides to convert for real and completes her conversion by performing a ritual immersion, using the lake behind the prison as a mikveh. In the beginning of season four, she gets involved in an escalating turf war with her new inmate, Alison Abdullah, who is an observant Muslim, during which the two frequently trade barbs about their respective religions. However, they begin to get along and Abdullah joins Cindy 's group of friends.
Joseph Salvatore "Joe '' Caputo (played by Nick Sandow) -- One of the administrative officials in the prison. Caputo is initially portrayed as a sleazy character who believes in keeping the inmates dehumanized and who masturbates in his office immediately after his first encounter with Piper. Later, it becomes clear that he genuinely seeks to rehabilitate the inmates and run the prison properly and ethically. He does n't tolerate corruption, inefficiency, and sexual exploitation, later telling Bennett while berating him for impregnating Daya that he masturbates to control any urges to sleep with one of the inmates. It is shown through flashbacks in the third season that Caputo 's desire to do the right thing has always been met with ingratitude and bad results for him. Prior to working at the prison, he quit his band to raise his girlfriend 's daughter - who was conceived with one of his bandmates while they were separated - only for them to become successful while he got stuck in a low - paid job in the prison service, and his wife selfishly left him for her daughter 's father. Throughout the first season, Caputo appeared to have romantic feelings for the new recruit to the staff, Susan Fischer. However, when she did not return the feelings, Caputo became upset and fired her during an argument. He is easily the most competent of the prison staff, being more than capable of dealing with crises without being appeasing or oppressive -- on one occasion, upon finding out that there is a hunger strike in the prison, he goes to the strikers directly and tells them straight that most of their demands are either unreasonable or are being resolved independently, without then sending them to the SHU. In addition, he is unafraid to challenge people who are being unreasonable, routinely lashing out at Figueroa for her austere methods, and Healy for his lesbian witch hunt. He also plays bass guitar in a band called "Side Boob, '' and attempts to grow plants as a therapeutic hobby. Caputo is also seen to be very ambitious, and desired to move up the ladder to eventually become warden. When Piper finds evidence of Figueroa embezzling funds from the prison, Caputo uses it to force her resignation and he becomes the new assistant warden.
Although Caputo wished to be seen as a more providing and kinder warden that his predecessor, he soon learned that Litchfield was to close with the prisoners transferred and all the staff fired. Desperate to save his job and those of his co-workers, he convinces Figueroa to give him details on how to make Litchfield desirable to the Management & Correction Corporation, a private investor. This works, and although Litchfield is saved, Caputo became a figurehead who reported to Danny Pearson, the son of one of MCC 's senior executives, and is forced to endure severe budget cuts like low - quality pre-packed food and his staff being reduced to part - time while under - qualified staff with minimum training were brought in to fill the void, resulting in many serious mistakes. Around this time, Caputo begins an affair with Figueroa in order to relieve his self - hate at all the compromises he is being forced to make. Due to the incumbent staff angry at their hours and wages being cut as well as being expelled from their union due to working for a private company, Caputo suggests they form their own union and agrees to lead it. When Sophia is seriously assaulted by other inmates while the CO on duty runs off in a panic, she threatens the prison with a lawsuit. As a result, Sophia is taken into "protective custody, '' which is actually just her being thrown into isolation as punishment for her threat to sue. Caputo and Pearson argue with the latter 's father against this unfair treatment, and his frustration results in Pearson quitting. Later, while in bed with Figueroa, she reminds him that his constant efforts to help others have only ever held him back, and tells him that he should start looking after his own interests more - that, instead of fighting for his employees, none of whom have shown him any gratitude for his efforts, he should instead try and advance his own interests within the corporation. In response, Caputo filled Pearson 's position and immediately broke up the union causing most of the older, more experienced staff to immediately go on strike.
At the beginning of the fourth season, he is forced to call for reinforcements from max to replace the guards that walked out while the prisoners escaped and started playing in the lake outside of the prison. During the crisis, he is informed that Judy King arrived and is instructed to give her special treatment by MCC, partly to ensure she is given no opportunity to sue the prison after her release, and partly to create leverage over her in the event that she decides to do so. He appoints Desi Piscatella, one of the reinforcements that came from max during the strike, as the new captain of the guards after the crisis is over. During a meeting at MCC, he recommends using veterans to supplement personnel and to house them near the prison in the existing housing to save money. He also meets Linda, an executive he starts a relationship with and appoints Taystee as his secretary at Linda 's suggestion. He is repeatedly confronted by Crystal, Sophia 's wife, and eventually uses a smuggled cell phone to anonymously show proof that Sophia is in the SHU, resulting in her being returned to general population. He proposes to Linda that the prison should offer college classes to the inmates, only to be disappointed when Linda informs him that MCC replaced the common core classes with labor - intensive classes that are just a front to make the inmates do unpaid labor. After Aydin 's remains are found in the garden, he orders the guards not to interrogate the inmates and to let the FBI handle the situation when they arrive. Following Caputo 's departure, Piscatella promptly ignores his orders and the following morning, he threatens to pull all of his guards if Caputo attempts to suspend any of them for their actions. After Poussey 's death, he sends Piscatella home and attempts to convince MCC to call the police. He is ordered to wait until MCC can find a way to relieve the company of any blame for wrongdoing, and then finds out that the company wants to turn Bayley into a scapegoat. Prior to a press conference to announce Poussey 's death, he calls her father to inform him of her death. Following this, against orders from MCC, he absolves Bayley of any intentional wrongdoing while neglecting to mention Poussey 's name during the press conference, causing the prisoners to riot after Taystee overhears the press conference and spreads the word to the other inmates.
During the fifth season, Caputo is taken hostage along with the other guards after the inmates take over the prison. Taystee forces him to film a statement naming Poussey as the deceased inmate, but he refuses to follow orders to state that she was murdered by Bayley, which resulted in Taystee completing the statement herself. He is locked up with the other guards, and when the guards came up with an escape plan to take place when the inmates were feeding them, he stalled due to Linda being one of the inmates bringing them food. Eventually, he is locked into a Porta - Potty while pleading with whoever could hear him to release him. He sends Gloria to his office so she can call Jack Pearson about getting furlough so she can see her son in the hospital. Later on, he tries to help Taystee during her negotiations with Figueroa, although he was unable to convince her to surrender in exchange for what the state was offering because they claimed that charging Bayley with murder for Poussey 's death was not within the state 's jurisdiction. Following this, he goes to the operations center outside of the prison, where he learns that the CERT officers are preparing to storm the prison due to Maria releasing the majority of the guards in an attempt to cash in on Gloria 's deal with Pearson. After the officers state that they were still missing inmates despite previous sweeps, he informs them about the abandoned pool that Freida converted into a bunker. He becomes upset upon learning that they were given authorization to use deadly force to capture the remaining inmates.
Carrie "Big Boo '' Black (played by Lea DeLaria) -- A prison inmate and lesbian, she has had several "wives '' during her incarceration. Tricia and Boo have had problems in the past fighting over a girl. She has Piper helping her write a letter for her appeal and takes the missing screwdriver from Piper 's bunk unbeknownst to Piper, which she uses to aid in masturbation. She later returns the screwdriver to Piper when Piper becomes stressed over the fact that Tiffany is threatening to kill her. During the first season, Boo is often accompanied by a dog she named "Little Boo. '' She got rid of the dog by the second season, saying things were getting "weird. '' It is implied Boo considered using the dog to stimulate herself sexually. She later participates in a competition with Nicky to see who can have sex with the most inmates. Boo has little loyalty to anyone and, trying to ingratiate herself with the powerful Vee, betrays Red by telling Vee about the tunnel. As a result, she is shunned by Red 's family, and Vee rejects her for snitching. Afterwards, she strikes up an unlikely friendship with Tiffany -- which soon develops to be a close bond -- and, when Red is hospitalized following an assault by Vee, Boo helps Nicky locate and hide Vee 's drug stash. During the third season, she is inspired when she realizes that Tiffany is getting donations from numerous religious groups and decides to pretend to renounce homosexuality in order to get a similar support base. However, when she is speaking to a reverend that openly disparages homosexuals she is unable to continue her ruse and angrily insults him in retaliation.
In flashbacks, it is shown that, as a teenager, her parents -- particularly her mother -- had strongly disapproved of her tomboyish dress sense and appearance and attempted to force her to be more feminine. By the time she was forty, she had adopted a "butch '' self - image which she protected militantly, but at the same time struggled to contain her inner anger and rage at the world brought on by these experiences, and she had become completely estranged from her parents. At one point, in a conversation with Tiffany, she expresses the view that one should not allow one 's beliefs to destroy relationships, as she herself holds deep regret and guilt for having never made peace with, or even attempting to say goodbye to her mother before she died. Later in the series, she attempts to console Tiffany after discovering that she was raped by Coates. She comes up with a plan to get revenge by anally raping him with a broomstick but Tiffany is unable to go through with it. She later witnesses Piper framing Stella as revenge for stealing the money from the used panty business and can not help but be impressed by her ruthless action.
Marisol "Flaca '' Gonzales (played by Jackie Cruz) -- One of the Hispanic inmates, she is close friends with Maritza. She has a teardrop drawn under one of her eyes as well as eyeliner in the style of Amy Winehouse and fringes (bangs) in a blunt style; according to Cruz the teardrop is in the wrong location.
She is shown to be rather misinformed, if not totally dim at times, genuinely believing that black people can not float due to their bone density. This leads to Maritza stating that her head is full of "caca '' and Aleida referring to her as "Flacaca. '' She appears to be a goth, wearing gothic makeup and being obsessed with such bands as The Smiths and Depeche Mode. She is also somewhat aggressive, getting into a brawl with Taystee over an ice - cream cone. She and Maritza have a very close friendship, and on Valentine 's Day in the second season, the two have an intimate conversation about their lack of love in the prison, and end up kissing passionately. After initially laughing at what has just happened, a shocked Flaca becomes upset and begins to cry, while Maritza consoles her. During the third season, Flaca 's backstory is revealed as a high - school student that sold fake acid to students. One student ended up believing it so much that he jumped off the roof of the school and ended up nearly dying. Flaca was thus arrested for fraud, and endangerment, despite her belief that she did nothing illegal as the blotters were only placebos. At the prison, she becomes a part of Piper 's used underwear business. Discovering that Piper was making a large amount of money selling the panties on the outside, she organizes a protest with the other women to get a larger cut of the profits. Piper agrees to her demands but fires her in revenge. Later, she is able to convince Piper to allow her to participate in the business again so that she can use the money to help pay for her mother 's lymphoma treatment.
Cruz stated that Flaca is "a different type of Latina '' who is "(m) ore realistic '' compared to a hyper - photogenic "sexy, beautiful, Sofia Vergara type, with the accent. '' Cruz explained, "Maybe the way she was raised might be similar to others, but what she likes is very awesome. '' According to Cruz, Flaca was originally going to be used to say a few lines in each episode, and that Aleida was supposed to consider Maritza her "daughter '' with the two of them being closer together. According to Cruz, the writers liked Cruz 's performance and also liked Flaca and Maritza 's chemistry. Therefore, they asked for her character to become more prominent. Cruz stated that she is real life friends with Diane Guerrero, Maritza 's actress, and suggested that this may have contributed to the on - screen friendship. Cruz added that in regards to Flaca 's background, she had believed "Flaca was a little more gangster, but you can see she 's not '' and that Flaca "was very sweet, very vulnerable, a good person '' who was forced to adopt a tougher persona upon being incarcerated.
Aleida Diaz (played by Elizabeth Rodriguez) -- Daya 's mother. She was incarcerated for helping her boyfriend Cesar with his drug dealing business and taking the blame for him. In flashbacks, it is shown that she had little concern for her children and was obsessed with her boyfriend. She says during a visitation that she is upset that he wo n't visit her. She treats Daya rudely in the prison, and goes so far as to attempt to seduce Bennett to make Daya angry. She later shows a softer side and advises Daya to have her baby, even going so far as to concoct a plan to allow Bennett to keep his job. She also finds herself competing with Gloria to care for Daya during the more difficult times of her pregnancy, finally forcing her to take on a maternal role in her daughter 's life. She has high status among the other Hispanic inmates. During the second season, she battles with Gloria to be a mother to Daya, and manipulates Bennett to bring in contraband from the outside hidden in his prosthetic leg. During the third season, she attempts to convince Daya to give her unborn child to Pornstache 's mother Delia so that she would have a better life and to get a monthly payment from her. Later, she decides that it would be better for Daya to keep her baby and tells Delia that Daya 's baby died during childbirth while in reality Cesar picked up the child. Despite this, her cruel and vindictive side is shown when she spreads deliberately untrue and transphobic rumors about Sophia to the other inmates in response to a fight between her and Gloria, resulting in Sophia being attacked by the other inmates, something which weighs heavily on Gloria 's conscience. During the fourth season, Aleida is informed that she is eligible for parole and she asks Gloria to watch over Daya after her release. After she is released, she is picked up by Cesar 's girlfriend Margarita. While in a restaurant, Margarita tells her that Cesar got her pregnant, and after becoming upset at the revelation, she yells at a man she believes was profiling her. She gets into an argument with Margarita in a clothing store after finding out that she was n't planning to stay faithful to Cesar while he was in prison, and walks out on her. Later that day, after finding out that her cousin Jazmina spent her money sock on bail and an ER visit, she goes back to Margarita 's apartment and states that she has nowhere else to go. At the end of the season, she is watching the press conference announcing the death of an inmate with Margarita, and becomes concerned for Daya 's well being since Caputo did n't mention the deceased inmate 's name on the air.
Poussey Washington (played by Samira Wiley) -- An often good - natured and joking inmate, who is best friends with Taystee. During the first - season finale, she is revealed to have a great singing voice, and performs an improvised rendition of Amazing Grace. Flashbacks during the second season reveal that she is a military brat, and that her father, who was an officer in the United States Army, would often move her family across the world for assignments. While her father was stationed in Germany, she had a sexual relationship with the daughter of one of her father 's German superior officers. When the relationship was discovered, it was implied that the German officer had her father reassigned to a post in the United States. This led to Poussey trying to kill him before being stopped by her father, who subsequently defended her homosexuality from him. In the present, it is implied that she is in love with Taystee, who does not return her feelings on account of being straight, but does make an effort to be gentle with her about this. After failing to get her to market her moonshine, Vee begins to antagonize Poussey, mostly out of jealousy of her closeness to Taystee, and partly out of implied homophobia. She separates Poussey and Taystee, causing a rift in their relationship.
She is one of the few black inmates not to fall for Vee 's charms, and begins a long campaign to fight her throughout the season. Vee 's numerous efforts to force her to back down, including gentle coaxing, threats and even a violent beating from Suzanne are unsuccessful. Eventually, Poussey causes irreparable damage to Vee 's tobacco business by smashing up an entire batch of tobacco and pouring bleach on it, and Vee, realizing that no amount of intimidation will stop her, and killing her would be an overreaction, decides to remove her reason for fighting her by ejecting Taystee from the gang. The two later make up after a physical fight in the library, and work together to turn the other black inmates against Vee. In the third season, she has become obsessed with trying to discover who was stealing her moonshine and starts to set traps to catch what she believed was a squirrel stealing it. Feeling depressed, lonely and in need of a girlfriend, she joins Norma 's "cult, '' although she later ends up leaving when she becomes unsatisfied with them. While in the library to help herself to some of her hooch, she discovers Brook passed out from a drug overdose. Realizing that Brook will be taken to psych if the truth is known, she takes the foils and gets Taystee and Suzanne instead of the CO 's. On Taystee 's recommendation, they induce vomiting to purge the medication and try to keep Brook from falling asleep at breakfast the next morning. Once Brook has recovered, the African American gang welcomes her into their circle of friends. Poussey later confronts Norma 's cult for the way they treated Brook, and threatens Leanne.
During the fourth season, her relationship with Brook becomes romantic and she becomes excited at the prospect of meeting Judy King, the cooking show host that was sent to Litchfield for tax fraud she was a big fan of. After several awkward moments between her and Judy, she finally sits down with her in the cafeteria due to Brook arranging a meeting with her, only to discover that, in describing her to Judy, Brook had made numerous racist assumptions about her, which demonstrates how little they actually know about each other. Eventually, she accepts Brook 's apology, and the two begin anew, and before too long, it becomes clear that they have fallen in love. She later finds herself helping Judy after her friends were angry about a racist puppet show that Judy filmed in the 80s, that ended up being leaked on YouTube. Judy later offers Poussey a job once she gets out of prison, ensuring she will have something to look forward to. During a protest in the cafeteria, Poussey is caught in a scuffle with Officer Bayley, who tries to restrain her while fighting off an erratic Suzanne by pressing her into the ground and putting his knee over her. Unable to breathe in this position, Poussey dies of asphyxiation, shocking the other inmates and leaving Bayley traumatized. Due to MCC trying to remove liability from the company for her death, they ordered Caputo not to call the police until they could find a way to make Poussey look like she was at fault, before deciding to switch blame to Bayley and portray him as a rogue guard when they had difficulty conjuring up such an image of her, as she came from a respectable family, her charge was for a non-violent offense, and she was a model inmate. As a result, her body stays in the cafeteria overnight and is not removed until the following afternoon.
She was named after the town of Poussay in Northeastern France, where her father was stationed when she was born, and often finds herself on the receiving end of mockery by the other inmates because of its alternative pronunciation.
Reviewer Joanna Robinson commented that Poussey 's death was inspired by that of Eric Garner. Reviewer Crystal Bell likened Poussey 's death to the deaths of Sandra Bland and Michael Brown, because of the following details: Caputo did not say Poussey 's name during the press conference, and her body was left on the cafeteria floor for almost an entire day, respectively.
Prior to production on Season 4 began, Kohan and the writers informed Wiley that her character was going to die, but no other cast members knew. Wiley kept this secret during much of the production. According to Wiley, the writers decided Poussey would die because she was a character who was "really loved and people really cared about. '' According to Lauren Morelli, Kohan stated that a character who would have a bright future outside of prison ought to be chosen since viewers would understand the loss of that person 's potential. A character the viewer never expected much from would thus not have the same impact.
Maria Ruiz (played by Jessica Pimentel) -- An inmate of Dominican descent who acts as the Hispanic representative for WAC, and was pregnant at the beginning of the series. When she goes into labor she is taken to a hospital, and later returns to the prison after having her newborn taken away from her, which elicits sympathy from her fellow inmates. She describes Daya and Aleida 's relationship as a "cautionary tale '' and states that a minute with them is better than Plan B, as she would never talk to her daughter the way Aleida does toward Daya, or allow her daughter to talk to her the way Daya does Aleida. During the second season, she is visited several times by her stoic, quiet boyfriend Yadriel and her child. When it appears she will be transferred to a prison in Virginia, she begs him to be a good, proactive parent and speak to their child more, and later confides in Piper that she is afraid he will be too weak to be faithful during her entire sentence. However, in the second - season finale, she is last seen being visited by her boyfriend and her daughter, happy to see that he is taking a deeper role as a father and apparently plans to stay true to her. During the third season, she is devastated when Yadriel decides not to bring her daughter to the prison anymore, with him saying that he does n't want her to think that is normal for her mother to be in prison as she got older. In the fourth season, it is revealed that her father was a drug dealer who cared for her enormously in the early years of her life. She first met Yadriel when she saw him throwing his drugs into a bush while being pursued by the police, and later returned them to him. Their subsequent relationship angered her father, both because Maria was effectively dating his competition, and because, as an intensely patriotic Dominican, he did not approve of his daughter dating a Mexican. Eventually, after an explosive argument, the two permanently fell out. In the present, Maria began to organize a new gang amongst the other Dominican inmates, in order to fight back against the overt racism of the guards. After attempting to get involved in Piper 's business, Maria was angered by her rude response, and formed a rival business of her own, which immediately snapped up many of Piper 's employees. When Piper blows the whistle on her, Piscatella tells Maria that he will recommend that her sentence be extended. As a result, Maria responds by having her gang seize Piper, take her to the kitchen and brand her with a swastika, which also serves as retaliation for her accidental creation of the white supremacist gang. Maria 's gang start distributing drugs instead, and secures her a position of power in the prison. However, as the guards begin to get increasingly violent and draconian, Maria starts to use her power to help protect and rally the other inmates. Upon the discovery of Aydin 's body, she is separated from the other inmates, along with Ouija and Blanca, for further questioning. She is initially amused by Officer Humphrey 's prank on Kasey Sankey, but is shocked when he then escalates it into a fight between Suzanne and Maureen Kukudio. When Suzanne becomes unhinged and beats Maureen almost to death, Maria finally has enough and, with Ouija 's help, manages to pull Suzanne off Maureen and comforts her.
During the fifth season, Maria takes advantage of the prison riot to strengthen her gang 's position. She offers Daya guidance in handling her newfound status, due to her being the one with the gun, but continues to suggest she give it to her. She also organizes a meeting of all the inmates with the intended purpose of humiliating and degrading the guards that have been taken hostage. However, after a conversation with Caputo, Maria discovers that, contrary to her own understanding, Piscatella could not unilaterally extend her sentence, that he never got a chance to make his recommendation to extend her sentence before the riot began, and even if he had, she would have had to personally attend a court hearing before any extension could be made. With the realization that her sentence was n't extended, Maria abandons the other rioters and joins Piper and Alex 's riot abstention crew to stay out of trouble. Upon learning that Gloria had made a deal with MCC to get furlough in return for releasing the hostages, Maria betrays her confidence and releases them herself in hopes that she would get time taken off of her sentence. Initially outraged after being told by Nita Reddy that MCC does n't have the authority to reduce her sentence, she promised Maria that she would see what she could do, and was later allowed an outside visit with Yadriel and her daughter.
Maria lived with Yadriel after her family disowned her for associating with him. According to Pimentel, Maria originally "kept her head down, did her work and did n't get too involved. '' While she initially had visits with her child, those were taken away when she became "a gangster with an - er. ''
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when does far from the madding crowd start | Far from the Madding Crowd - wikipedia
Far from the Madding Crowd (1874) is Thomas Hardy 's fourth novel and his first major literary success. It originally appeared anonymously as a monthly serial in Cornhill Magazine, where it gained a wide readership.
The novel is the first to be set in Hardy 's fictional region of Wessex in rural south west England. It deals in themes of love, honour and betrayal, against a backdrop of the seemingly idyllic, but often harsh, realities of a farming community in Victorian England. It describes the farmer Bathsheba Everdene, her life and relationships -- especially with her lonely neighbour William Boldwood, the faithful shepherd Gabriel Oak, and the thriftless soldier Sergeant Troy.
On publication, critical notices were plentiful and mostly positive. Hardy revised the text extensively for the 1895 edition and made further changes for the 1901 edition.
The novel was listed at number 48 on the BBC 's survey The Big Read in 2003. The book finished 10th on The Guardian 's list of greatest love stories of all time in 2007.
The novel has been dramatised several times, notably in the Oscar - nominated 1967 film directed by John Schlesinger.
Gabriel Oak is a young shepherd. With the savings of a frugal life, and a loan, he has leased and stocked a sheep farm. He falls in love with a newcomer six years his junior, Bathsheba Everdene, a proud beauty who arrives to live with her aunt, Mrs. Hurst. Over time, Bathsheba and Gabriel grow to like each other well enough, and Bathsheba even saves his life once. However, when he makes her an unadorned offer of marriage, she refuses; she values her independence too much, and him too little. Feeling betrayed and embarrassed, Gabriel offers blunt protestations that only foster her haughtiness. After a few days, she moves to Weatherbury, a village some miles off.
When next they meet, their circumstances have changed drastically. An inexperienced new sheepdog drives Gabriel 's flock over a cliff, ruining him. After selling off everything of value, he manages to settle all his debts but emerges penniless. He seeks employment at a hiring fair in the town of Casterbridge. When he finds none, he heads to another such fair in Shottsford, a town about ten miles from Weatherbury. On the way, he happens upon a dangerous fire on a farm and leads the bystanders in putting it out. When the veiled owner comes to thank him, he asks if she needs a shepherd. She uncovers her face and reveals herself to be none other than Bathsheba. She has recently inherited her uncle 's estate and is now wealthy. Though somewhat uncomfortable, she employs him.
Meanwhile, Bathsheba has a new admirer: the lonely and repressed William Boldwood. Boldwood is a prosperous farmer of about forty, whose ardour Bathsheba unwittingly awakens when -- her curiosity piqued because he has never bestowed on her the customary admiring glance -- she playfully sends him a valentine sealed with red wax on which she has embossed the words, "Marry me ''. Boldwood, not realising the valentine was a jest, becomes obsessed with Bathsheba and soon proposes marriage. Although she does not love him, she toys with the idea of accepting his offer; he is, after all, the most eligible bachelor in the district. However, she postpones giving him a definite answer. When Gabriel rebukes her for her thoughtlessness regarding Boldwood, she dismisses him.
When Bathsheba 's sheep begin dying from bloat, she discovers to her chagrin that Gabriel is the only man who knows how to cure them. Her pride delays the inevitable, but finally she is forced to beg him for help. Afterwards, she offers him back his job and their friendship is restored.
At this point, the dashing Sergeant Francis "Frank '' Troy returns to his native Weatherbury and by chance encounters Bathsheba one night. Her initial dislike turns to infatuation after he excites her with a private display of swordsmanship. Gabriel observes Bathsheba 's interest in the young soldier and tries to discourage it, telling her she would be better off marrying Boldwood. Boldwood becomes aggressive towards Troy, and Bathsheba goes to Bath to prevent Troy returning to Weatherbury, as she fears Troy may be harmed on meeting Boldwood. On their return, Boldwood offers his rival a large bribe to give up Bathsheba. Troy pretends to consider the offer, then scornfully announces they are already married. Boldwood withdraws, humiliated, and vows revenge.
Bathsheba soon discovers that her new husband is an improvident gambler with little interest in farming. Worse, she begins to suspect he does not love her. In fact, Troy 's heart belongs to her former servant, Fanny Robin. Before meeting Bathsheba, Troy had promised to marry Fanny; on the wedding day, however, the luckless girl went to the wrong church. She explained her mistake, but Troy, humiliated at being left at the altar, angrily called off the wedding. When they parted, unbeknownst to Troy, Fanny was pregnant with his child.
Some months later, Troy and Bathsheba encounter Fanny on the road, destitute, as she painfully makes her way toward the Casterbridge workhouse. Troy sends his wife onward with the horse and gig before she can recognise the girl, then gives Fanny all the money in his pocket, telling her he will give her more in a few days. Fanny uses up the last of her strength to reach her destination. A few hours later, she dies in childbirth, along with the baby. Mother and child are then placed in a coffin and sent home to Weatherbury for interment. Gabriel, who has long known of Troy 's relationship with Fanny, tries to conceal the child 's existence -- but Bathsheba agrees that the coffin can be left in her house overnight, from her sense of duty towards a former servant of the household. Her new servant, Liddy, repeats the rumour that Fanny had a child; when all the servants are in bed, Bathsheba unscrews the lid and sees the two bodies inside.
Troy then comes home from Casterbridge, where he had gone to keep his appointment with Fanny. Seeing the reason for her failure to meet him, he gently kisses the corpse and tells the anguished Bathsheba, "This woman is more to me, dead as she is, than ever you were, or are, or can be ''. The next day he spends all his money on a marble tombstone with the inscription: "Erected by Francis Troy in beloved memory of Fanny Robin... '' Then, loathing himself and unable to bear Bathsheba 's company, he leaves. After a long walk he bathes in the sea, leaving his clothes on the beach. A strong current carries him away, but he is rescued by a rowing boat.
A year later, with Troy presumed drowned, Boldwood renews his suit. Burdened with guilt over the pain she has caused him, Bathsheba reluctantly consents to marry him in six years, long enough to have Troy declared dead.
Troy, however, is not dead. When he learns that Boldwood is again courting Bathsheba, he returns to Weatherbury on Christmas Eve to claim his wife. He goes to Boldwood 's house, where a party is under way, and orders Bathsheba to come with him; when she shrinks back in surprise, he seizes her arm, and she screams. At this, Boldwood shoots Troy dead and tries unsuccessfully to turn the gun on himself. Although Boldwood is condemned to hang for murder, his friends petition the Home Secretary for mercy, citing insanity. This is granted, and Boldwood 's sentence is changed to "confinement during Her Majesty 's pleasure ''. Bathsheba, profoundly chastened by guilt and grief, buries her husband in the same grave as Fanny and the child, and adds a suitable inscription.
Throughout her tribulations, Bathsheba comes to rely increasingly on her oldest and, as she admits to herself, only real friend, Gabriel. When he gives notice that he is leaving her employ, she realises how important he has become to her well - being. That night, she goes alone to visit him in his cottage, to find out why he is deserting her. Pressed, he reluctantly reveals that it is because people have been injuring her good name by gossiping that he wants to marry her. She exclaims that it is "... too absurd -- too soon -- to think of, by far! '' He bitterly agrees that it is absurd, but when she corrects him, saying that it is only "too soon '', he is emboldened to ask once again for her hand in marriage. She accepts, and the two are quietly wed.
Hardy took the title from Thomas Gray 's poem Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard (1751).
Far from the madding crowd 's ignoble strife Their sober wishes never learn 'd to stray; Along the cool sequester 'd vale of life They kept the noiseless tenor of their way.
"Madding '' here means "frenzied ''.
Lucasta Miller points out that the title is an ironic literary joke as Gray is idealising the noiselessness and sequestered calm whereas Hardy "disrupts the idyll, and not just by introducing the sound and fury of an extreme plot... he is out to subvert his readers ' complacency ''.
Far from the Madding Crowd offers in ample measure the details of English rural life that Hardy so relished.
Hardy first employed the term "Wessex '' in Far from the Madding Crowd to describe the "partly real, partly dream - country '' that unifies his novels of South West England. He found the word in the pages of early English history as a designation for an extinct, pre-Norman conquest kingdom, the Wessex from which Alfred the Great established England. In the first edition, the word "Wessex '' is used only once, in chapter 50; Hardy extended the reference for the 1895 edition. The village of Puddletown, near Dorchester, is the inspiration for the novel 's Weatherbury. Dorchester, in turn, inspired Hardy 's Casterbridge.
In The Mayor of Casterbridge, Hardy briefly mentions two characters from Far from the Madding Crowd -- Farmer Everdene and Farmer Boldwood, both in happier days.
In 2003, the novel was listed at number 48 on the BBC 's survey The Big Read. In 2007, the book finished 10th on the Guardian 's list of greatest love stories of all time.
The novel was adapted by Graham White in 2012 into a three - part series on BBC Radio 4 's Classic Serial. The production was directed by Jessica Dromgoole and featured Alex Tregear as Bathsheba, Shaun Dooley as Gabriel, Toby Jones as Boldwood and Patrick Kennedy as Troy.
Tamara Drewe is a comic strip serial based upon a modern reworking of the novel by Posy Simmonds. It was itself adapted into a film, Tamara Drewe (2010), directed by Stephen Frears.
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who sings the song at the end of piglet's big movie | Piglet 's Big Movie - wikipedia
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Piglet 's Big Movie (stylized as Piglet 's BIG Movie) is a 2003 American animated musical film released by Walt Disney Pictures on March 21, 2003 by Manila, Philippines. The film features the characters from the Winnie - the - Pooh books written by A.A. Milne, and is the third theatrically - released Winnie the Pooh feature. In this film, Piglet is ashamed of being small and clumsy and wanders off into the Hundred Acre Wood, leading all of his friends to form a search party to find him. Piglet 's Big Movie was produced by the Japanese office of DisneyToon Studios, and the animation production was by Walt Disney Animation Japan, Inc. and Toon City Animation, Inc., Manila, Philippines, with additional animation provided by Gullwing Animation Co., Ltd., and additional background by Studio Fuga and digital ink and paint by T2 Studio.
The film begins as Eeyore, Rabbit, Tigger, and Pooh are working on a plan to get honey from a beehive. Piglet wants to help too, but his friends tell him that he is too small. When the plan goes awry, Piglet saves the day by trapping the bees in a decoy hive; but nobody notices what Piglet has done. Feeling ignored and unappreciated, Piglet sadly wanders away just as the bees escape from the decoy hive.
After escaping from the bees, Piglet 's friends realize that he is missing, so they decide to go on a search for him by using a special scrapbook that Piglet had made of their past adventures as a guide. On the way to Kanga 's house, they reminisce about when Kanga and her son Roo arrived in the Hundred Acre Wood. Everyone is afraid of the newcomers and Rabbit concocts a plan to use Piglet as a decoy so they could kidnap Roo. Kanga pretends to believe Piglet is Roo and gives him a dose of fish oil and a bath. She gives him a cookie afterwards and Piglet realizes she is actually very nice. Roo and Rabbit have become best friends and everyone agrees Kanga and Roo should stay.
Back in the present, Roo joins the search party and they head to their next destination in the scrapbook: the North Pole. They remember the story of their expedition to find the Pole. Partway through the expedition, Roo falls into the river. Tigger, Rabbit and Eeyore try to save him but to no avail. Piglet uses a very long stick to catapult Roo out of the river and hands it off to Pooh as he runs to try and catch Roo. Christopher Robin arrives on the scene, sees Pooh holding the stick, and declares Pooh has discovered the North Pole; Piglet 's role in both Roo 's rescue and the Pole 's discovery went unacknowledged.
Back in the present, Piglet 's friends express their regrets for not celebrating Piglet 's heroism. They become increasingly worried as a storm rolls in; to reassure Roo, Eeyore and Pooh tell him about the time Piglet built a house for Eeyore. Piglet has pointed out to Pooh Eeyore did not have a house to keep him warm. Pooh decides they should build Eeyore a house on that very spot, which he names "Pooh Corner. '' Pooh briefly considers calling it "Pooh and Piglet Corner '' before deciding "Pooh Corner '' sounds nicer. Tigger joins Pooh in trying to build the house while Piglet struggles to keep up; eventually, Pooh and Tigger give up. Then they learn Eeyore has already built himself a house out of sticks, though it has gone missing. Pooh and Tigger realize they were using Eeyore 's old house to build Eeyore 's new house. As they struggle to explain, Piglet arrives and leads them back to Eeyore 's newly completed house. Once again, Piglet 's contributions are overlooked as the wind gets the credit for moving Eeyore 's house.
As the rain begins to fall, Tigger wants to skip to the end of the book to find where Piglet really is, but Rabbit insists they should read it in order; they begin fighting over the book, which falls in the river. The friends sadly return to Piglet 's house to keep Roo from catching a cold. They draw new pictures of Piglet, then set out to look for him once again. They find the scrapbook bindings, suspended on a hollow log, overhanging a raging waterfall; Pooh goes to retrieve it, but falls into a hole in the log.
Pooh 's friends form themselves into a rescue rope, but it is not quite long enough and Pooh is stuck hanging precariously over the waterfall. Piglet appears and pulls Pooh to safety, but the log begins to break, which knocks Piglet 's scrapbook into the river below. Rabbit, Eeyore, Tigger, and Roo all make it to solid ground, just in time to see half of the log plummet to the water below. Tigger, Rabbit, Roo and Eeyore begin to mourn for their apparent loss and almost fail to notice Pooh and Piglet emerging from inside of the other half of the log. Piglet 's friends take him home and show him the drawings they have made of him, demonstrating their appreciation for everything Piglet has done. The film ends as the characters are throwing a party and Pooh shows Piglet the new sign for the renamed "Pooh and Piglet Corner. ''
Piglet 's Big Movie was produced by DisneyToon Studios, Walt Disney Animation (Japan), Toon City Animation, Inc., Manila, Philippines, Gullwing Animation Co., Ltd, Studio Fuga, and T2 Studio.
American singer - songwriter Carly Simon wrote seven new songs for the film, and performed six of them, as well as recording her own version of the Sherman brothers ' "Winnie the Pooh '' theme song.
"The More It Snows (Tiddely - Pom) '' features Jim Cummings and John Fiedler, as Pooh and Piglet. Simon was accompanied by her children Ben Taylor and Sally Taylor on many of the songs. Renée Fleming accompanied Simon on the song "Comforting to Know ''. On "Sing Ho, for the Life of a Bear (Expotition March) '' Simon was accompanied by Kath Soucie and Jim Cummings.
The soundtrack also features five tracks of the film 's score by Carl Johnson, as well as five of Simon 's original demo recordings.
Piglet 's Big Movie was # 7 on the box office charts on its opening weekend, earning $6 million. The film domestically grossed $23 million -- half the amount of what The Tigger Movie earned. -- and $63 million worldwide.
On Rotten Tomatoes the film received a "Certified Fresh '' rating of 71 % based on 76 reviews. The site 's critical consensus is "Wholesome and charming entertainment for young children. '' Film critic Stephen Holden of New York Times called the film an "oasis of gentleness and wit. '' Nancy Churnin of The Dallas Morning News stated that Piglet 's Big Movie was "one of the nifty pleasures in the process '', despite her belief that "Disney may be milking its classics. ''
In 2003 Disney released Piglet 's Big Game for the PlayStation 2, Nintendo GameCube and Game Boy Advance as well as a CD - ROM game which was also entitled Piglet 's Big Game. The latter is developed by Doki Denki Studio and involves helping Piglet assist in the preparation for a "Very Large Soup Party. '' In their review, Edutaining Kids praised various features including the adventure / exploration aspect (the game is linear instead of using a main screen) and many of the activities (such as the color mixing, which they said offers an incredible variety of hues), but noted that it is much too brief and that Kanga and Roo are absent.
The film 's plot is based primarily on five A.A. Milne stories: "In which Piglet meets a Heffalump, '' "In which Kanga and Baby Roo Come to the Forest, and Piglet Has a Bath, '' and "In which Christopher Robin Leads an Expedition to the North Pole '' (chapters 5, 7, and 8 of Winnie - the - Pooh; and "In which a house is built at Pooh Corner for Eeyore '' and "In which a search is organized and Piglet nearly meets the Heffalump again '' (chapters 1 and 3 of The House at Pooh Corner).
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when does season 4 of the path begin | The Path (TV series) - Wikipedia
The Path is an American drama web television series created by Jessica Goldberg and starring Aaron Paul, Michelle Monaghan, and Hugh Dancy. The show portrays members of a fictional religion known as Meyerism.
The series was ordered by Hulu in March 2015 with a straight 10 - episode order. The series was originally titled The Way, but was changed to The Path in September 2015 due to its similarity to real - life ministry and alleged cult, The Way International. The show debuted on March 30, 2016. On May 4, 2016, Hulu renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on January 25, 2017. On April 12, 2017, Hulu renewed the series for a 13 - episode third season, which premiered on January 17, 2018.
On April 23, 2018, Jessica Goldberg announced via Twitter that The Path will not be renewed for a fourth season.
Eddie Lane lives in Upstate New York with his wife Sarah and their two children, Hawk and Summer. They are all members of the Meyerist Movement, which combines aspects of New Age philosophy, shamanism, Scientology, Christian mysticism and Utopianism with a few elements from the Shakers, Sufism, Tibetan Buddhism and Freemasonry ritual. Eddie returns from Peru, where he had undergone a spiritual retreat designed to advance him further up Meyerism 's spiritual ladder. Unbeknownst to his family, while in Peru, Eddie experienced a revelation which causes him to question his faith in Meyerism. Meanwhile, Cal Roberts, a friend of Sarah 's and one of Meyerism 's top leaders, is looking to expand their influence and deal with the imminent death of their founder, Doctor Stephen Meyer.
Meyerism is a fictional movement in the series founded by Dr. Stephen Meyer. In the show 's mythology, on October 28, 1974, Meyer literally climbed a ladder of burning light to receive the message of universal truth. Meyer gave to his followers the instructions for their spiritual development, written in the first book of Meyerism, The Ladder. Meyerists believe that all people are damaged which is the cause of the world 's suffering. Through personal enlightenment, they seek to become aware of suffering in themselves and others, and to heal the world, caring deeply about family, humanity and the environment. In this way and others, they create the heavenly Garden of Meyer 's vision here on earth. However, The Ladder foretells that their efforts will be thwarted by non-believers or Ignorant Systemites (I.S.) whose selfish actions will result in an apocalypse; but those who ascend The Ladder of Enlightenment will live forever in The Garden.
The Movement claims 6000 members with facilities located in San Diego, California, and Parksdale, New York, with a retreat center located in Cusco, Peru. Most practice Meyerism in everyday lives, while others have taken vows of service and dedicate themselves to counseling, recruitment and outreach programs. However, founder Stephen Meyer warned against media attention, that the movement should remain small and publicity should be kept to a minimum. Spiritual progress is evaluated on an ascending series of rungs from 1R to 10R, with many decisions made by the senior membership or Upper Rungs (U.R.). Meyerists practice meditation and use biofeedback devices and drugs -- including ayahuasca and cannabis -- to aid in reaching deeper levels of consciousness, and put considerable stock in visions and intuition which are believed to be The Light trying to communicate with them.
A Vanity Fair analysis of the show 's first episode described Meyerism as "inspired by a grab bag of religious practices and cult beliefs ''. The show 's creator, Jessica Goldberg, specifically refutes comparisons to Scientology.
The Meyerist compound was shot on location at Nyack, New York, redressed with influences from kibbutz living, collective farming, and production designer Russell Barnes 's experiences being raised on an island with limited resources. The two - story Lane home was built on a sound - stage. Almost all of the Peru scenes were shot in the area, including a New York state park used for a mountaintop scene with subtropical plants concealing uncleared snow. The City Center is "played '' by the Church House of the Flatbush Reformed Dutch Church Complex. The New Brunswick scenes in "Mercy '' were filmed in Greenport, Long Island. Jean - Paul 's palatial home and estate in "The Gardens of Giverny '' were "played '' by the Oheka Castle on Long Island.
The Eye symbol, central to Meyerist branding and given dominance in many interiors, was based on tribal, Egyptian and modern art, with a rising sun overlaid to show hopefulness for a new day. Series creator Jessica Goldberg describes the Eye 's symbolism as a duality of enlightenment and paranoia, that "your eyes have been opened, and now you 've seen the truth '' but also that "you 're always being watched. '' While preparing to shoot a scene in a Westchester storefront dressed as a Meyerist recruitment office, passers - by would come in -- curious about the Eye on posters, books, brochures, etc. -- wondering what the movement was and how they could join.
The first season of The Path has received positive reviews from critics. On the review aggregator, Metacritic, the first season scored 70 out of 100 based on 33 reviews. Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter reacted positively to the series, writing: "There 's a lot to like about The Path, from the strong visual sense of place that director Mike Cahill established in the first two episodes to its theoretical take on faith, and of course the exquisite acting and deft writing. '' Hank Stuever of the Washington Post, wrote that "The Path works best as an intense psychological study of an extended family whose members equate faith and loyalty with happiness. ''
Alan Sepinwall of HitFix had a more critical reaction to the series. He called the show a "a dry, claustrophobic show, with not enough of a narrative hook to pull the viewer through hour after hour of it. ''
The second season also received generally positive reviews from critics. On Metacritic, the season has a score of 64 out of 100 based on 8 reviews.
Residents of Marysville, Washington called the show "insensitive '' for "exploiting '' the October 24, 2014 shooting at Marysville Pilchuck High School. Episode 2 referred to the shooting in order to develop Sean 's backstory. The insult, they say, was that the show 's writers changed the real events by giving the shooting a racial motive (the character stated that the shooting was due to "the color of their skin ''). Tulalip Native American student Jaylen Fryberg 's murder - suicide was personally motivated, and did not involve African Americans. As of 8 July 2016, Hulu and the writers of the show had made no response to this.
In April 2017, following the announcement that Hulu had picked up the show for a third season, actor Rockmond Dunbar was abruptly told that his contract would not be renewed. Speaking about it with The Hollywood Reporter, he called the decision "not a healthy way to do business ''.
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what are the power of prime minister of india | Prime minister of India - Wikipedia
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The Prime Minister of India is the leader of the executive of the Government of India. The prime minister is also the chief adviser to the President of India and head of the Council of Ministers. They can be a member of any of the two houses of the Parliament of India -- the Lok Sabha (Council of the States) and the Rajya Sabha (House of the People) -- but has to be a member of the political party or coalition, having a majority in the Lok Sabha.
The prime minister is the senior-most member of cabinet in the executive of government in a parliamentary system. The prime minister selects and can dismiss members of the cabinet; allocates posts to members within the government; and is the presiding member and chairperson of the cabinet.
The union cabinet headed by the prime minister is appointed by the President of India to assist the latter in the administration of the affairs of the executive. Union cabinet is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha as per Article 75 (3) of the Constitution of India. The prime minister has to enjoy the confidence of a majority in the Lok Sabha and shall resign if they are unable to prove majority when instructed by the president.
India follows a parliamentary system in which the prime minister is the presiding head of the government and chief of the executive of the government. In such systems, the head of state, or, the head of state 's official representative (i.e., the monarch, president, or governor - general) usually holds a purely ceremonial position and acts -- on most matters -- only on the advice of the prime minister.
The prime minister -- if they are not already -- shall become a member of parliament within six months of beginning his / her tenure. A prime minister is expected to work with other central ministers to ensure the passage of bills by the parliament.
Since 1947, there have been 14 different prime ministers. The first few decades after 1947 saw the Indian National Congress ' (INC) almost complete domination over the political map of India. India 's first prime minister -- Jawaharlal Nehru -- took oath on August 15, 1947. Nehru went on to serve as prime minister for 17 consecutive years, winning four general elections in the process. His tenure ended in May 1964, on his death. After the death of Nehru, Lal Bahadur Shastri -- a former home minister and a leader of the Congress party -- ascended to the position of prime minister. Shastri 's tenure saw the Indo - Pakistani War of 1965. Shashtri subsequently died of a reported heart attack in Tashkent, after signing the Tashkent Declaration.
After Shastri, Indira Gandhi -- Nehru 's daughter -- was elected as the country 's first woman prime minister. Indira 's first term in office lasted 11 years, in which she took steps such as nationalization of banks; end of allowances and political posts, which were received by members of the royal families of the erstwhile princely states of British India. In addition, events such as the Indo - Pakistani War of 1971; the establishment of a sovereign Bangladesh; accession of Sikkim to India, through a referendum in 1975; and India 's first nuclear test in Pokhran occurred during of Indira 's first term. In 1975, President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed -- on Indira 's advice -- imposed a state of emergency, therefore, bestowing the government with the power to rule by decree, the period is known for human right violations.
After widespread protests, the emergency was lifted in 1977, and a general election was to be held. All of the political parties of the opposition -- after the conclusion of the emergency -- fought together against the Congress, under the umbrella of the Janata Party, in the general election of 1977, and were successful in defeating the Congress. Subsequently, Morarji Desai -- a former deputy prime minister -- became the first non-Congress prime minister of the country. The government of Prime Minister Desai was composed of groups with opposite ideologies, in which unity and coordination were difficult to maintain. Ultimately, after two and a half years as PM; on 28 July 1979, Morarji tendered his resignation to the president; and his government fell. Thereafter, Charan Singh -- a deputy prime minister in Desai 's cabinet -- with outside, conditional support from Congress, proved a majority in Lok Sabha and took oath as prime minister. However, Congress pulled its support shortly after, and Charan Singh had to resign; he had a tenure of 5 months, the shortest in the history of the office.
In 1980, after a three - year absence, the Congress returned to power with an absolute majority. Indira Gandhi was elected prime minister a second time. During her second tenure, Operation Blue Star -- an Indian Army operation inside the Golden Temple, the most sacred site in Sikhism -- was conducted, resulting in reportedly thousands of deaths. Subsequently, on 31 October 1984, Indira was shot dead by Satwant Singh and Beant Singh -- two of her bodyguards -- in the garden of her residence at 1, Safdarjung Road, New Delhi.
After Indira, the Rajiv Gandhi -- her eldest son and 40 years old at the time -- was sworn in on the evening of 31 October 1984, becoming the youngest person ever to hold the office of prime minister. Rajiv immediately called for a general election. In the subsequent general election, the Congress secured an absolute majority, winning 401 of 552 seats in the Lok Sabha, the maximum number received by any party in the history of India. Vishwanath Pratap Singh -- first finance minister and then later defence minister in Rajiv 's cabinet -- uncovered irregularities, in what became to be known as the Bofors scandal, during his stint at the Ministry of Defence; V.P. Singh was subsequently expelled from Congress and formed the Janata Dal and -- with the help of several anti-Congress parties -- also formed the National Front, a coalition of many political parties.
In the general election of 1989, the National Front -- with outside support from the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Left Front -- came to power. V.P. Singh was elected prime minister. During a tenure of less than a year, V.P. Singh and his government accepted the Mandal Commission 's recommendations. V.P. Singh 's tenure came to an end after he ordered the arrest of BJP leader Lal Krishna Advani, as a result, BJP withdrew its outside support to the government, V.P. Singh lost the subsequent vote - of - no - confidence 146 - 320 and had to resign. After V.P. Singh 's resignation, Chandra Shekhar -- home minister in V.P. Singh 's cabinet -- along with 64 members of parliament (MPs) floated the Samajwadi Janata Party (Rashtriya) (SJP (R)), and proved a majority in the Lok Sabha with support from Congress. But his premiership did not last long, Congress proceeded to withdraw its support; Chandra Shekhar 's government fell as a result, and new elections were announced.
In the general election of 1991, Congress -- under the leadership of P.V. Narasimha Rao -- formed a minority government; Rao became the first PM of South Indian origin. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, India was on the brink of bankruptcy, so, Rao took steps to liberalise the economy, and appointed Manmohan Singh -- an economist and a former governor of the Reserve Bank of India -- as finance minister. Rao and Manmohan then took various steps to liberalise the economy, these resulted in an unprecedented economic growth in India. His premiership, however, was also a witness to the demolition of the Babri Masjid, which resulted in the death of about 2,000 people. Rao, however, did complete five continuous years in office, becoming the first prime minister outside of the Nehru -- Gandhi family to do so.
After the end of Rao 's tenure in May 1996, the nation saw four prime ministers in a span of three years, viz., two tenures of Atal Bihari Vajpayee; one tenure of H.D. Deve Gowda from from 1 June 1996 to 21 April, 1997; and one tenure of I.K. Gujral from 21 April 1997 to 19 March 1998. The government of Prime Minister Vajpayee -- elected in 1998 -- took some concrete steps. In May 1998 -- after a month in power -- the government announced the conduct of five underground nuclear explosions in Pokhran. In response to these tests, many western countries, including the United States, imposed economic sanctions on India, but, due to the support received from Russia, France, the Gulf countries and some other nations, the sanctions -- were largely -- not considered successful. A few months later in response to the Indian nuclear tests, Pakistan also conducted nuclear tests. Given the deteriorating situation between the two countries, the governments tried to improve bilateral relations. In February 1999, the India and Pakistan signed the Lahore Declaration, in which the two countries announced their intention to annul mutual enmity, increase trade and use their nuclear capabilities for peaceful purposes. In May 1999, All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) withdrew from the ruling National Democratic Alliance (NDA) coalition; Vajpayee 's government -- hence -- became a caretaker one after losing a motion - of - no - confidence 269 - 270, this coincided with the Kargil War with Pakistan. In the subsequent October 1999 election, the BJP - led NDA and its affiliated parties secured a comfortable majority in the Lok Sabha, winning 299 of 543 seats in the lower house.
Vajpayee continued the process of economic liberalization during his reign, resulting in economic growth. In addition to the development of infrastructure and basic facilities, the government took several steps to improve the infrastructure of the country, such as, the National Highways Development Project (NHDP) and the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY; IAST: Pradhānamaṃtrī Grāma Saḍa़ka Yojanā; lit. Prime Minister Rural Road Scheme), for the development of roads. But during his reign, the 2002 Gujarat communal riots in the state of Gujarat took place; resulting in the death of about 2,000 deaths. Prime Minister Vajpayee 's tenure as prime minister came to an end in May 2004, making him the first non-Congress PM to complete a full five - year tenure.
In the 2004 election, the Congress emerged as the largest party in a hung parliament; Congress - led United Progressive Alliance (UPA) -- with outside support from the Left Front, the Samajwadi Party (SP) and Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) among others -- proved a majority in the Lok Sabha, and Manmohan Singh was elected prime minister; becoming the first Sikh prime minister of the nation. During his tenure, the country retained the economic momentum gained during Prime Minister Vajpayee 's tenure. Apart from this, the government succeeded in getting the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005, and the Right to Information Act, 2005 passed in the parliament. Further, the government strengthened India 's relations with nations like Afghanistan; Russia; and the United States, culminating with the ratification of India -- United States Civil Nuclear Agreement near the end of Manmohan 's first term. At the same time, the November 2008 Mumbai terrorist attacks also happened during Manmohan 's first term in office. In the general election of 2009, the mandate of UPA increased. Prime Minister Manmohan 's second term, however, was surrounded by accusations of high - level scandals and corruption. Manmohan resigned as prime minister on 17 May 2014, after Congress ' defeat in the 2014 general election.
In the general election of 2014, the BJP - led NDA got an absolute majority, winning 336 out of 543 Lok Sabha seats; the BJP itself became the first party since 1984 to get a majority in the Lok Sabha. Narendra Modi -- the Chief Minister of Gujarat -- was elected prime minister; becoming the first prime minister to have been born in an independent India.
The Constitution envisions a scheme of affairs in which the President of India is the head of state; in terms of Article 53 with office of the prime minister being the head of Council of Ministers to assist and advise the president in the discharge of his / her constitutional functions. To quote, Article 53, 74 and 75 provide as under;
The executive powers of the Union shall be vested in the president and shall be exercised either directly or through subordinate officers, in accordance with the Constitution.
There shall be a Council of Ministers with the prime minister at the head to aid and advise the president who shall, in the exercise of his functions, act in accordance with such advice.
The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President and the other Ministers shall be appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister.
Like most parliamentary democracies, the president 's duties are mostly ceremonial as long as the constitution and the rule of law is obeyed by the cabinet and the legislature. The Prime Minister of India is the head of government and has the responsibility for executive power. The president 's constitutional duty is to preserve, protect and defend the Constitution and the law per article 60. In the constitution of India, the prime minister is mentioned in only four of its articles (articles 74, 75, 78 and 366), however he / she plays a crucial role in the Government of India by enjoying majority in the Lok Sabha.
According to Article 84 of the Constitution of India, which sets the principle qualification for member of Parliament, and Article 75 of the Constitution of India, which sets the qualifications for the minister in the Union Council of Minister, and the argument that the position of prime minister has been described as primus inter pares (the first among equals), A prime minister must:
If however a candidate is elected as the prime minister they must vacate their post from any private or government company and may take up the post only on completion of their term.
The prime minister is required to make and subscribe in the presence of President of India before entering office, the oath of office and secrecy, as per the Third Schedule of the Constitution of India.
Oath of office:
I, < name >, do swear in the name of God / solemnly affirm that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of India as by law established, that I will uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India, that I will faithfully and conscientiously discharge my duties as prime minister for the Union and that I will do right to all manner of people in accordance with the Constitution and the law, without fear or favour, affection or ill - will.
Oath of secrecy:
I, < name >, do swear in the name of God / solemnly affirm that I will not directly or indirectly communicate or reveal to any person or persons any matter which shall be brought under my consideration or shall become known to me as prime minister for the Union except as may be required for the due discharge of my duties as such Minister.
The prime minister serves on ' the pleasure of the president ', hence, a prime minister may remain in office indefinitely, so long as the president has confidence in him / her. However, a prime minister must have the confidence of Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament of India.
However, the term of a prime minister can end before the end of a Lok Sabha 's term, if a simple majority of its members no longer have confidence in him / her, this is called a vote - of - no - confidence. Three prime ministers, I.K. Gujral, H.D. Deve Gowda and Atal Bihari Vajpayee have been voted out from office this way. In addition, a prime minister can also resign from office; Morarji Desai was the first prime minister to resign while in office.
Upon ceasing to possess the requisite qualifications to be a member of Parliament subject to the Representation of the People Act, 1951.
The prime minister leads the functioning and exercise of authority of the Government of India. The President of India -- subject to eligibility -- invites a person who is commanding support of majority members of Lok Sabha to form the Government of India -- also known as the central government or Union government -- at the national level and exercise its powers. In practice the prime minister nominates the members of their council of ministers to the president. They also work upon to decide a core group of ministers (known as the cabinet), as in charge of the important functions and ministries of the Government of India.
The prime minister is responsible for aiding and advising the president in distribution of work of the government to various ministries and offices and in terms of the Government of India (Allocation of Business) Rules, 1961. The coordinating work is generally allocated to the Cabinet Secretariat. While the work of the government is generally divided into various Ministries, the prime minister may retain certain portfolios if they are not allocated to any member of the cabinet.
The prime minister -- in consultation with the cabinet -- schedules and attends the sessions of the houses of parliament and is required to answer the question from the Members of Parliament to them as the in - charge of the portfolios in the capacity as Prime Minister of India.
Some specific ministries / department are not allocated to anyone in the cabinet but the prime minister themself. The prime minister is usually always in charge / head of:
The prime minister represents the country in various delegations, high level meetings and international organisations that require the attendance of the highest government office, and also addresses to the nation on various issues of national or other importance.
Per Article 78 of the constitution, the official communication between the union cabinet and the president are through the prime minister. Other wise constitution recognises the prime minister as a member of the union cabinet only outside the sphere of union cabinet.
The prime minister recommends to the president -- among others -- names for the appointment of:
As the chairperson of Appointments Committee of the Cabinet (ACC), the prime minister -- on the non-binding advice of the Cabinet Secretary of India led - Senior Selection Board (SSB) -- decides the postings of top civil servants, such as, secretaries, additional secretaries and joint secretaries in the Government of India. Further, in the same capacity, the PM decides the assignments of top military personnel such as the Chief of the Army Staff, Chief of the Air Staff, Chief of the Naval Staff and commanders of operational and training commands. In addition, the ACC also decides the posting of Indian Police Service officers -- the All India Service for policing, which staffs most of the higher level law enforcement positions at federal and state level -- in the Government of India.
Also, as the Minister of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions, the PM also exercises control over the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), the country 's premier civil service, which staffs most of the senior civil service positions; the Public Enterprises Selection Board (PESB); and the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), except for the selection of its director, who is chosen by a committee of: (a) the prime minister, as chairperson; (b) the leader of the opposition in Lok Sabha; (c) and the chief justice.
Unlike most other countries, the prime minister does not have much influence over the selection of judges, that is done by a collegium of judges consisting of the Chief Justice of India, four senior-most judges of the Supreme Court of India and the chief justice -- or the senior-most judge -- of the concerned state high court. The executive as a whole, however, has the right to send back a recommended name to the collegium for reconsideration, this, however, is not a full veto power, and the collegium can still put forward rejected name.
The prime minister acts as the leader of the house of the chamber of parliament -- generally the Lok Sabha -- he / she belongs to. In this role, the prime minister is tasked with representing the executive in the legislature, he / she is also expected to announce important legislation, and is further expected to respond to the opposition 's concerns. Article 85 of the Indian constitution confers the president with the power to convene and end extraordinary sessions of the parliament, this power, however, is exercised only on the advise of prime minister and his / her council, so, in practice, the prime minister does exercise some control over affairs of the parliament.
Article 75 of the Constitution of India confers the parliament with the power to decide the remuneration and other benefits of the prime minister and other ministers are to be decided by the Parliament. and is renewed from time to time. The original remuneration for prime minister and other ministers were specified in the Part B of the second schedule of the constitution, which was later removed by an amendment.
In 2010, the prime minister 's office reported that he / she does not receive a formal salary, but was only entitled to monthly allowances. That same year The Economist reported that, on a purchasing power parity basis, the prime minister received an equivalent of $4106 per year. As a percentage of the country 's per - capita GDP (Gross Domestic Product), this is the lowest of all countries The Economist surveyed.
The 7, Lok Kalyan Marg -- previously called the 7, Race Course Road -- in New Delhi, serves as the official place of residence for the Prime Minister of India. For ground travel, the prime minister uses a highly modified, armoured version of a Range Rover, while for air travel, Boeing 777 - 300ER s -- designated by the call sign Air India One (AI - 1 or AIC001), and maintained by the Indian Air Force -- are used. The Special Protection Group (SPG) is charged with protecting the sitting prime minister and his / her family.
The Prime Minister 's Office (PMO) acts as the principal workplace of the prime minister. The office is located at South Block, and is a 20 - room complex, and has the Cabinet Secretariat, the Ministry of Defence and the Ministry of External Affairs adjacent to it. The office is headed by the Principal Secretary to the Prime Minister, generally a former civil servant either from the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) or the Indian Foreign Service (IFS).
Former prime ministers are entitled to a bungalow, former prime ministers are also entitled the same facilities as those given to a serving cabinet minister, this includes a fourteen - member secretarial staff, for a period of five years; reimbursement of office expenses; six domestic executive - class air tickets each year and; and security cover from the Special Protection Group. In addition, former prime ministers rank seventh on the Indian order of precedence, equivalent to chief minister s of states (within their respective states) and cabinet ministers As a former member of the parliament, the prime minister receives a minimum pension of ₹ 20,000 (US $310) per month, plus -- if he / she served as an MP for more than five years -- ₹ 15,000 (US $230) for every year served.
The prime minister acts as the presides over various funds.
The National Defence Fund (NDF) was set up the Indian government in 1962, in the aftermath of 1962 Sino - Indian War. The prime minister acts as chairperson of the fund 's executive committee, while, the ministers of defence, finance and home act as the members of the executive committee, the finance minister also acts the treasurer of the committee. The secretary of the fund 's executive committee is a joint secretary in the Prime Minister 's Office, dealing with the subject of NDF. The fund -- according to its website -- is "entirely dependent on voluntary contributions from the public and does not get any budgetary support. ''. Donations to the fund are 100 % tax - deductible under section 80G of the Income Tax Act, 1961.
The Prime Minister 's National Relief Fund (PMNRF) was set up by the first Prime Minister of India -- Jawaharlal Nehru -- in 1948, to assist displaced people from Pakistan. The fund, now, is primarily used to assist the families of those who are killed during natural disasters such as earthquakes, cyclones and flood and secondarily to reimburse medical expenses of people with chronic and deadly diseases. Donations to the PMNRF are 100 % tax - deductible under section 80G of the Income Tax Act, 1961.
The post of Deputy Prime Minister of India is not technically a constitutional post, nor is there any mention of it in an Act of the parliament. But historically, on various occasions, different governments have assigned one of their senior ministers as the ' deputy prime minister '. There is neither constitutional requirement for filling the post of deputy PM, nor does the post provide any kind of special powers. Typically, senior cabinet ministers like the finance minister or the home minister are appointed as deputy prime minister. The post is considered to be the senior most in the cabinet after the prime minister and represents the government in his / her absence. Generally, deputy prime ministers have been appointed to strengthen the coalition governments. The first holder of this post was Vallabhbhai Patel, who was also the home minister in Jawaharlal Nehru 's cabinet.
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what do the colours of the canadian flag mean | Flag of Canada - wikipedia
The flag of Canada, often referred to as the Canadian flag, or unofficially as the Maple Leaf and l'Unifolié (French for "the one - leafed ''), is a national flag consisting of a red field with a white square at its centre in the ratio of 1: 2: 1, in the middle of which is featured a stylized, red, 11 - pointed maple leaf charged in the centre. It is the first specified by law for use as the country 's national flag.
In 1964, Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson formed a committee to resolve the ongoing issue of the lack of an official Canadian flag, sparking a serious debate about a flag change to replace the Union Flag. Out of three choices, the maple leaf design by George Stanley, based on the flag of the Royal Military College of Canada, was selected. The flag made its first official appearance on February 15, 1965; the date is now celebrated annually as National Flag of Canada Day.
The Canadian Red Ensign was unofficially used since the 1890s and approved by a 1945 Order in Council for use "wherever place or occasion may make it desirable to fly a distinctive Canadian flag ''. Also, the Royal Union Flag remains an official flag in Canada. There is no law dictating how the national flag is to be treated. There are, however, conventions and protocols to guide how it is to be displayed and its place in the order of precedence of flags, which gives it primacy over the aforementioned and most other flags.
Many different flags created for use by Canadian officials, government bodies, and military forces contain the maple leaf motif in some fashion, either by having the Canadian flag charged in the canton, or by including maple leaves in the design.
The flag is horizontally symmetric and therefore the obverse and reverse sides appear identical. The width of the Maple Leaf flag is twice the height. The white field is a Canadian pale (a square central band in a vertical triband flag, named after this flag); each bordering red field is exactly half its size and it bears a stylized red maple leaf at its centre. In heraldic terminology, the flag 's blazon as outlined on the original royal proclamation is "gules on a Canadian pale argent a maple leaf of the first ''.
The maple leaf has been used as a Canadian emblem since the 18th century. It was first used as a national symbol in 1868 when it appeared on the coat of arms of both Ontario and Quebec. In 1867, Alexander Muir composed the patriotic song "The Maple Leaf Forever '', which became an unofficial anthem in English - speaking Canada. The maple leaf was later added to the Canadian coat of arms in 1921. From 1876 until 1901, the leaf appeared on all Canadian coins and remained on the penny after 1901. The use of the maple leaf by the Royal Canadian Regiment as a regimental symbol extended back to 1860. During the First World War and Second World War, badges of the Canadian Forces were often based on a maple leaf design. The maple leaf would eventually adorn the tombstones of Canadian military graves.
By proclaiming the Royal Arms of Canada, King George V in 1921 made red and white the official colours of Canada; the former came from Saint George 's Cross and the latter from the French royal emblem since King Charles VII. These colours became "entrenched '' as the national colours of Canada upon the proclamation of the Royal Standard of Canada (the Canadian monarch 's personal flag) in 1962. The Department of Canadian Heritage has listed the various colour shades for printing ink that should be used when reproducing the Canadian flag; these include:
The number of points on the leaf has no special significance; the number and arrangement of the points were chosen after wind tunnel tests showed the current design to be the least blurry of the various designs when tested under high wind conditions. Some textbooks for Canadian schoolchildren assert erroneously that "Each point stands for a province and the three territories '' (1). When the flag was designed in 1964, however, Canada had 10 provinces and 2 territories (Yukon and the Northwest Territories); Nunavut was not made separate from the Northwest Territories until 1999.
The image of the maple leaf used on the flag was designed by Jacques Saint - Cyr; however, Jack Cook claims that this stylized eleven - point maple leaf was lifted from a copyrighted design owned by a Canadian craft shop in Ottawa. The colours 0 / 100 / 100 / 0 in the CMYK process, PMS 032 (flag red 100 %), or PMS 485 (used for screens) in the Pantone colour specifier can be used when reproducing the flag. For the Federal Identity Program, the red tone of the standard flag has an RGB value of 255 -- 0 -- 0 (web hexadecimal # FF0000). In 1984, the National Flag of Canada Manufacturing Standards Act was passed to unify the manufacturing standards for flags used in both indoor and outdoor conditions.
The first flag known to have flown in Canada was the St George 's Cross carried by John Cabot when he reached Newfoundland in 1497. In 1534, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in Gaspé bearing the French royal coat of arms with the fleurs - de-lis. His ship flew a red flag with a white cross, the French naval flag at the time. New France continued to fly the evolving French military flags of that period. As the de jure national flag of the United Kingdom, the Union Flag (commonly known as the Union Jack and, by law, called the Royal Union Flag in Canada since 1964) was used similarly in Canada since the 1621 British settlement in Nova Scotia. Its use continued after Canada 's independence from the United Kingdom in 1931 until the adoption of the current flag in 1965.
Shortly after Canadian Confederation in 1867, the need for distinctive Canadian flags emerged. The first Canadian flag was that then used as the flag of the Governor General of Canada, a Union Flag with a shield in the centre bearing the quartered arms of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick surrounded by a wreath of maple leaves. In 1870 the Red Ensign, with the addition of the Canadian composite shield in the fly, began to be used unofficially on land and sea and was known as the Canadian Red Ensign. As new provinces joined the Confederation, their arms were added to the shield. In 1892, the British admiralty approved the use of the Red Ensign for Canadian use at sea. The composite shield was replaced with the coat of arms of Canada upon its grant in 1921 and, in 1924, an Order in Council approved its use for Canadian government buildings abroad. In 1925, Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King established a committee to design a flag to be used at home, but it was dissolved before the final report could be delivered. Despite the failure of the committee to solve the issue, public sentiment in the 1920s was in favour of fixing the flag problem for Canada. New designs were proposed in 1927, 1931, and 1939.
During the Second World War, the Red Ensign was the recognized Canadian national flag. A joint committee of the Senate and House of Commons was appointed on November 8, 1945, to recommend a national flag to officially adopt. It received 2,409 designs from the public and was addressed by the director of the Historical Section of the Canadian Army, Fortescue Duguid, who pointed out red and white were Canada 's official colours and there was already an emblem representing the country: three joined maple leaves seen on the escutcheon of the Canadian coat of arms. By May 9 the following year, the committee reported back with a recommendation "that the national flag of Canada should be the Canadian red ensign with a maple leaf in autumn golden colours in a bordered background of white ''. The Legislative Assembly of Quebec, however, had urged the committee to not include any of what it deemed as "foreign symbols '', including the Union Flag, and Mackenzie King, then still prime minister, declined to act on the report, leaving the order to fly the Canadian Red Ensign in place.
By the 1960s, debate for an official Canadian flag intensified and became a subject of controversy, culminating in the Great Flag Debate of 1964. In 1963, the minority Liberal government of Lester B. Pearson gained power and decided to adopt an official Canadian flag through parliamentary debate. The principal political proponent of the change was Pearson. He had been a significant broker during the Suez Crisis of 1956, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. During the crisis, Pearson was disturbed when the Egyptian government objected to Canadian peacekeeping forces on the grounds that the Canadian flag (the Red Ensign) contained the same symbol (the Union Flag) also used as a flag by the United Kingdom, one of the belligerents. Pearson 's goal was for the Canadian flag to be distinctive and unmistakably Canadian. The main opponent to changing the flag was the leader of the opposition and former prime minister, John Diefenbaker, who eventually made the subject a personal crusade.
In 1961, Leader of the Opposition Lester Pearson asked John Ross Matheson to begin researching what it would take for Canada to have a new flag. Pearson knew the Red Ensign with the Union Jack was unpopular in Quebec, a base of support for his Liberal Party, but strongly favoured by English Canada. By April 1963, Pearson was prime minister in a minority government and risked losing power over the issue. He formed a 15 - member multi-party parliamentary committee in 1963 to select a new design, despite opposition leader Diefenbaker 's demands for a referendum on the issue. On May 27, 1964, Pearson 's cabinet introduced a motion to parliament for adoption of his favourite design, presented to him by artist and heraldic advisor Alan Beddoe, of a "sea to sea '' (Canada 's motto) flag with blue borders and three conjoined red maple leaves on a white field. This motion led to weeks of acrimonious debate in the House of Commons and the design came to be known as the "Pearson Pennant '', derided by the media and viewed as a "concession to Québec ''.
A new all - party committee was formed in September 1964, comprising seven Liberals, five Conservatives, one New Democrat, one Social Crediter, and one Créditiste, with Herman Batten as chairman, while John Matheson acted as Pearson 's right - hand man. Among those who gave their opinions to the group were Duguid, expressing the same views as he had in 1945, insisting on a design using three maple leaves; Arthur R.M. Lower, stressing the need for a distinctly Canadian emblem; Marcel Trudel, arguing for symbols of Canada 's founding nations, which did not include the maple leaf (a thought shared by Diefenbaker); and A.Y. Jackson, providing his own suggested designs. Also considered by a steering committee were approximately 2,000 suggestions from the public, in addition to 3,900 others, "including those that had accumulated in the Department of the Secretary of State and those from a parliamentary flag committee of 1945 -- 1946 ''. Through a six - week period of study with political manoeuvring, the committee took a vote on the two finalists: the Pearson Pennant (Beddoe 's design) and the current design. Believing the Liberal members would vote for the Prime Minister 's preference, the Conservatives voted for the single leaf design. The Liberals, though, all voted for the same, giving a unanimous, 14 to 0 vote for the option created by George Stanley and inspired by the flag of the Royal Military College of Canada (RMC) in Kingston, Ontario.
There, near the parade square, in March 1964, while viewing the college flag atop the Mackenzie Building, Stanley, then RMC 's Dean of Arts, first suggested to Matheson, then Member of Parliament for Leeds, that the RMC flag should form the basis of the national flag. The suggestion was followed by Stanley 's memorandum of March 23, 1964, on the history of Canada 's emblems, in which he warned that any new flag "must avoid the use of national or racial symbols that are of a divisive nature '' and that it would be "clearly inadvisable '' to create a flag that carried the Union Jack or a fleur - de-lis. According to Matheson, Pearson 's one "paramount and desperate objective '' in introducing the new flag was to keep Quebec in the Canadian union. It was Dr. Stanley 's idea that the new flag should be red and white and that it should feature the single maple leaf; his memorandum included the first sketch of what would become the flag of Canada. Stanley and Matheson collaborated on a design that was ultimately, after six months of debate and 308 speeches, passed by a majority vote in the House of Commons on December 15, 1964. Just after this, at 2: 00 am, Matheson wrote to Stanley: "Your proposed flag has just now been approved by the Commons 163 to 78. Congratulations. I believe it is an excellent flag that will serve Canada well. '' The Senate added its approval two days later.
Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada, proclaimed the new flag on January 28, 1965, and it was inaugurated on February 15 of the same year at an official ceremony held on Parliament Hill in Ottawa, in the presence of Governor General Major - General Georges Vanier, the Prime Minister, other members of the Cabinet, and Canadian parliamentarians. The Red Ensign was lowered at the stroke of noon and the new maple leaf flag was raised. The crowd sang "O Canada '' followed by "God Save the Queen ''. Of the flag, Vanier said "(it) will symbolize to each of us -- and to the world -- the unity of purpose and high resolve to which destiny beckons us. '' Maurice Bourget, Speaker of the Senate, said: "The flag is the symbol of the nation 's unity, for it, beyond any doubt, represents all the citizens of Canada without distinction of race, language, belief, or opinion. '' Yet there was still opposition to the change, and Stanley 's life was even threatened for having "assassinated the flag ''. In spite of this, Stanley attended the flag raising ceremony.
At the time of the 50th anniversary of the flag, the government -- held by the Conservative Party -- was criticized for the lack of official ceremony dedicated to the date; accusations of partisanship were levelled. Minister of Canadian Heritage Shelly Glover denied the charges and others, including Liberal Members of Parliament, pointed to community events taking place around the country. Governor General David Johnston did, though, preside at an official ceremony at Confederation Park in Ottawa, integrated with Winterlude. He said "(t) he National Flag of Canada is so embedded in our national life and so emblematic of our national purpose that we simply can not imagine our country without it. '' Queen Elizabeth II stated: "On this, the 50th anniversary of the National Flag of Canada, I am pleased to join with all Canadians in the celebration of this unique and cherished symbol of our country and identity. '' A commemorative stamp and coin were issued by Canada Post and the Royal Canadian Mint, respectively.
Flag on John Cabot 's ship, and used during the English colonization of the Americas before the Act of Union (1497 - 1707)
Flag used during the Scottish colonization of the Americas before the Act of Union (1621 - 1707)
Flag of France at time of Jacques Cartier (1534 -- 1604)
Merchant Flag used by Champlain and French merchants (1604 -- 1663)
New France Flag (1663 -- 1763)
The Great Britain Union Flag (1763 -- 1801)
The United Kingdom Union Flag (1801 -- 1964) and the Canadian Royal Union Flag (1964 -- present)
Flag used (1868 -- 1921)
1907 Canadian Red Ensign commonly used in western Canada. Note the inclusion of all the provincial emblems.
Flag used (1921 -- 1957)
1957 version of the Canadian Red Ensign that had evolved as the de facto national flag until 1965
First flag proposal to Parliament; the Pearson Pennant
Flag of the Royal Military College of Canada; used as inspiration by George F.G. Stanley
Earlier (1964) version of the proposal that was adopted
Current flag, (1965 -- present)
Current flag, using Pantone specifications.
After the resolutions proposing a new national flag for Canada were passed by the two houses of parliament, a proclamation was drawn up for signature by the Canadian queen. This was created in the form of an illuminated document on vellum, with calligraphy by Yvonne Diceman and heraldic illustrations. The text was rendered in black ink, using a quill, while the heraldic elements were painted in gouache with gilt highlights. The Great Seal of Canada was embossed and secured by a silk ribbon.
This parchment was signed discreetly by the calligrapher, but was made official by the signatures of Queen Elizabeth II, Prime Minister Lester Pearson, and Attorney General Guy Favreau. In order to obtain these signatures, the document was flown to the United Kingdom (for the Queen 's royal sign - manual) and to the Caribbean (for the signature of Favreau, who was on vacation). This transport to different climates, combined with the quality of the materials with which the proclamation was created, and the subsequent storage and repair methods (including the use of Scotch Tape) contributed to the deterioration of the document: The gouache was flaking off, leaving gaps in the heraldic designs, most conspicuously on the red maple leaf of the flag design in the centre of the sheet, and the adhesive from the tape had left stains. A desire to have the proclamation as part of a display at the Canadian Museum of Civilization marking the flag 's 25th anniversary led to its restoration in 1989. The proclamation is today stored in a temperature and humidity controlled, plexiglass case, so as to prevent the vellum from changing dimensionally.
As a symbol of the nation 's membership in the Commonwealth of Nations, the Royal Union Flag is an official Canadian flag and is flown on certain occasions. Regulations require federal installations to fly the Royal Union Flag beside the national flag when physically possible, using a second flagpole, on the following days: Commonwealth Day (the second Monday in March), Victoria Day (the same date as the Canadian sovereign 's official birthday), and the anniversary of the Statute of Westminster (December 11). The Royal Union Flag can also be flown at the National War Memorial or at other locations during ceremonies that honour Canadian involvement with forces of other Commonwealth nations during times of war. The national flag always precedes the Royal Union Flag, with the former occupying the place of honour. The Royal Union Flag is also part of the provincial flags of Ontario and Manitoba, forming the canton of these flags; a stylized version is used on the flag of British Columbia and the flag of Newfoundland and Labrador. Several of the provincial lieutenant governors formerly used a modified union flag as their personal standard, but the Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia is the only one who retains this design. The Royal Union Flag and Red Ensign are still flown in Canada by veterans ' groups and others who continue to stress the importance of Canada 's British heritage and the Commonwealth connection.
The Red Ensign is occasionally still used as well, including official use at some ceremonies. It was flown at the commemorations of the Battle of Vimy Ridge in 2007. This decision elicited criticism from those who believe it should not be given equal status to the Canadian flag and received praise from people who believe that it is important to retain the ties to Canada 's past.
In Quebec, the provincial flag (a white cross on a field of blue with four fleurs - de-lis) can be considered a national flag along with the Maple Leaf flag, as is the Acadian flag in the Acadian regions of the Maritime provinces, and the flags of the Iroquois Nation, the Metis Nation and other groups.
No law dictates the proper use of the Canadian flag. However, Canadian Heritage has released guidelines on how to correctly display the flag alone and with other flags. The guidelines deal with the order of precedence in which the Canadian flag is placed, where the flag can be used, how it is used, and what people should do to honour the flag. The suggestions, titled Flag Etiquette in Canada, were published by Canadian Heritage in book and online formats and last updated in August 2011. The flag itself can be displayed on any day at buildings operated by the Government of Canada, airports, military bases, and diplomatic offices, as well as by citizens, during any time of the day. When flying the flag, it must be flown using its own pole and must not be inferior to other flags, save for, in descending order, the Queen 's standard, the governor general 's standard, any of the personal standards of members of the Canadian Royal Family, or flags of the lieutenant governors. The Canadian flag is flown at half - mast in Canada to indicate a period of mourning. Canadian Forces does have a special protocol for folding the Canadian flag for presentations, such as during a funeral ceremony; however, CF does not recommend this method for everyday use.
Since the adoption of the Canadian flag in 1965, the Canadian government has sponsored programs to promote it. Examples include the Canadian Parliamentary Flag Program of the Department of Canadian Heritage and the flag program run by the Department of Public Works. These programs increased the exposure of the flag and the concept that it was part of the national identity. To increase awareness of the new flag, the Parliamentary Flag Program was set up in December, 1972, by the Cabinet and, beginning in 1973, allowed members of the House of Commons to distribute flags and lapel pins in the shape of the Canadian flag to their constituents. Flags that have been flown on the Peace Tower and the East and West Blocks of Parliament Hill are packaged by the Department of Public Works and offered to the public free of charge. However, the program has a 34 - year waiting list for East and West Block flags, and a 48 - year waiting list for Peace Tower flags.
Since 1996, February 15 has been commemorated as National Flag of Canada Day. In 1996, Minister of Canadian Heritage Sheila Copps instituted the One in a Million National Flag Challenge. This program was intended to provide Canadians with a million new national flags in time for Flag Day, 1997. The program was controversial because it cost some $45 million, and provided no means to hoist or fly the flags. The official numbers from Canadian Heritage put the expenses at $15.5 million, with approximately a seventh of the cost offset by donations.
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who joined the army during the civil war | Confederate States Army - Wikipedia
American Indian Wars Cortina Troubles American Civil War
The Confederate States Army (C.S.A.) was the military ground force of the Confederate States of America (Confederacy) during the American Civil War (1861 - 1865). On February 28, 1861, the Provisional Confederate Congress established a provisional volunteer army and gave control over military operations and authority for mustering state forces and volunteers to the newly chosen Confederate president, Jefferson Davis (1808 - 1889), a graduate of the U.S. Military Academy on the Hudson River at West Point, New York, and colonel of a volunteer regiment during the Mexican -- American War (1846 - 1848), later a United States Senator from Mississippi and U.S. Secretary of War in the administration of 14th President Franklin Pierce (1853 - 1857). By March 1861, the Provisional Confederate Congress expanded the provisional forces and established a more permanent Confederate States Army.
An accurate count of the total number of individuals who served in the Confederate Army is not possible due to incomplete and destroyed Confederate records; all but extremely improbable estimates of the total number of Confederate soldiers range between 600,000 and 1,500,000 men. The better estimates of the number of individual Confederate soldiers are between 750,000 and 1,000,000 men. This does not include an unknown number of slaves who were pressed into performing various tasks for the army, such as construction of fortifications and defenses or driving wagons. Since these figures include estimates of the total number of individual soldiers who served at any time during the war, they do not represent the size of the army at any given date. These numbers do not include men who served in Confederate naval forces (Confederate States Navy).
Although most of the soldiers who fought in the American Civil War were volunteers, both sides by 1862 resorted to conscription, primarily as a means to force men to register and to volunteer. In the absence of exact records, estimates of the percentage of Confederate soldiers who were draftees are about double the 6 percent of Union soldiers who were conscripts.
Confederate casualty figures also are incomplete and unreliable. The best estimates of the number of deaths of Confederate soldiers are about 94,000 killed or mortally wounded in battle, 164,000 deaths from disease and between 26,000 and 31,000 deaths in Union prison camps. One estimate of Confederate wounded, which is considered incomplete, is 194,026. These numbers do not include men who died from other causes such as accidents, which would add several thousand to the death toll.
The main Confederate armies, the Army of Northern Virginia under General Robert E. Lee and the remnants of the Army of Tennessee and various other units under General Joseph E. Johnston, surrendered to the U.S. on April 9, 1865 (officially April 12), and April 18, 1865 (officially April 26). Other Confederate forces surrendered between April 16, 1865 and June 28, 1865. By the end of the war, more than 100,000 Confederate soldiers had deserted. The Confederacy 's government effectively dissolved when it fled Richmond in April and exerted no control of the remaining armies.
By the time Abraham Lincoln took office as President of the United States on March 4, 1861, the seven seceding slave states had formed the Confederate States. The Confederacy seized federal property, including nearly all U.S. Army forts, within its borders. Lincoln was determined to hold the forts remaining under U.S. control when he took office, especially Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. By the time Lincoln was sworn in as president, the Provisional Confederate Congress had authorized the organization of a large Provisional Army of the Confederate States (PACS).
Under orders from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, C.S. troops under the command of General P.G.T. Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12 -- 13, 1861, forcing its capitulation on April 14. The Northern states were outraged by the Confederacy 's attack and demanded war. It rallied behind Lincoln 's call on April 15, for all the states to send troops to recapture the forts from the secessionists, to put down the rebellion and to preserve the Union intact. Four more slave states then joined the Confederacy. Both the United States and the Confederate States began in earnest to raise large, mostly volunteer, armies with the objectives of putting down the rebellion and preserving the Union, on the one hand, or of establishing independence from the United States, on the other.
The Confederate Congress provided for a Confederate army patterned after the United States Army. It was to consist of a large provisional force to exist only in time of war and a small permanent regular army. The provisional, volunteer army was established by an act of the Provisional Confederate Congress passed on February 28, 1861, one week before the act which established the permanent regular army organization, passed on March 6. Although the two forces were to exist concurrently, very little was done to organize the Confederate regular army.
Members of all the Confederate States military forces (the army, the navy, and the marine corps) are often referred to as "Confederates '', and members of the Confederate army were referred to as "Confederate soldiers ''. Supplementing the Confederate army were the various state militias of the Confederacy:
Control and operation of the Confederate army was administered by the Confederate States War Department, which was established by the Confederate Provisional Congress in an act on February 21, 1861. The Confederate Congress gave control over military operations, and authority for mustering state forces and volunteers to the President of the Confederate States of America on February 28, 1861, and March 6, 1861. On March 8 the Confederate Congress passed a law that authorized Davis to issue proclamations to call up no more than 100,000 men. The War Department asked for 8,000 volunteers on March 9, 20,000 on April 8, and 49,000 on and after April 16. Davis proposed an army of 100,000 men in his message to Congress on April 29.
On August 8, 1861, the Confederacy called for 400,000 volunteers to serve for one or three years. In April 1862, the Confederacy passed the first conscription law in either C.S. or U.S. history, the Conscription Act, which made all able bodied white men between the ages of 18 and 35 liable for a three - year term of service in the PACS. It also extended the terms of enlistment for all one - year soldiers to three years. Men employed in certain occupations considered to be most valuable for the home front (such as railroad and river workers, civil officials, telegraph operators, miners, druggists and teachers) were exempt from the draft. The act was amended twice in 1862. On September 27, the maximum age of conscription was extended to 45. On October 11, the Confederate Congress passed the so - called "Twenty Negro Law '', which exempted anyone who owned 20 or more slaves, a move that caused deep resentment among conscripts who did not own slaves.
The Confederate Congress made several more amendments over the course of the war to address losses suffered in battle as well as the North 's greater supply of manpower. In December 1863, they abolished the practice of allowing a rich drafted man to hire a substitute to take his place in the ranks. Substitution had also been practiced in the Northern states, leading to similar resentment from the lower classes. In February 1864, the age limits were extended to between 17 and 50. Challenges to the subsequent acts came before five state supreme courts; all five upheld them.
In his 2010 book Major Problems in the Civil War, historian Michael Perman says that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years:
Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology, holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty, Union, or state rights, or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery. Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight, such as the defense of one 's home and family, or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men. Most historians agree that, no matter what he thought about when he went into the war, the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes affected his reasons for continuing to fight.
Educated soldiers drew upon their knowledge of American history to justify their costs. McPherson says:
Religion played a major part in the lives of Confederate soldiers, and there were numerous revivals in the Confederate army 's camps. Some men with a weak religious affiliation became committed Christians, and saw their military service in terms of God 's wishes. Religion strengthened the soldiers ' loyalty to comrades and the Confederacy. Military historian Samuel J. Watson argues that Christian faith was a major factor in combat motivation. The soldiers ' faith was consoling for the loss of comrades; it was a shield against fear; it helped cut down on drinking and fighting; it enlarged the soldiers community of close friends and helped make up for long - term separation from home.
In his 1997 book For Cause and Comrades, which examines the motivations of the American Civil War 's soldiers, historian James M. McPherson contrasts the views of Confederate soldiers regarding slavery to that of the colonial American revolutionaries of the 18th century. He stated that while the American colonists of the 1770s saw an incongruity with slave ownership and proclaiming to be fighting for liberty, Confederacy 's soldiers did not, as the Confederate ideology of white supremacy negated any contradiction between the two:
Unlike many slaveholders in the age of Thomas Jefferson, Confederate soldiers from slaveholding families expressed no feelings of embarrassment or inconsistency in fighting for their own liberty while holding other people in slavery. Indeed, white supremacy and the right of property in slaves were at the core of the ideology for which Confederate soldiers fought.
McPherson states that Confederate soldiers did not discuss the issue of slavery as often as Union soldiers did, because most Confederate soldiers readily accepted as an obvious fact that they were fighting to perpetuate slavery and thus did not feel the need to debate over it:
(O) nly 20 percent of the sample of 429 Southern soldiers explicitly voiced proslavery convictions in their letters or diaries. As one might expect, a much higher percentage of soldiers from slaveholding families than from nonslaveholding families expressed such a purpose: 33 percent, compared with 12 percent. Ironically, the proportion of Union soldiers who wrote about the slavery question was greater, as the next chapter will show. There is a ready explanation for this apparent paradox. Emancipation was a salient issue for Union soldiers because it was controversial. Slavery was less salient for most Confederate soldiers because it was not controversial. They took slavery for granted as one of the Southern ' rights ' and institutions for which they fought, and did not feel compelled to discuss it.
Continuing, McPherson also stated that of the hundreds of Confederate soldiers ' letters he had examined, none of them contained any anti-slavery sentiment whatsoever:
Although only 20 percent of the soldiers avowed explicit proslavery purposes in their letters and diaries, none at all dissented from that view.
But McPherson admits flaws in his sampling of letters. Soldiers from slaveholding families were overrepresented by 100 %:
Nonslaveholding farmers are underrepresented in the Confederate sample. Indeed, while about one - third of all Confederate soldiers belonged to slaveholding families, slightly more than two - thirds of the sample whose slaveholding status is known did so.
In some cases, Confederate men were motivated to join the army in response to the Union 's actions in regards to opposition to slavery. After U.S. President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, some Confederate soldiers welcomed the move, as they believed it would strengthen pro-slavery sentiment in the Confederacy and thus, lead to greater enlistment of white men into the Confederate army.
One Confederate soldier from Texas gave his reasons for fighting for the Confederacy, stating that "we are fighting for our property '', contrasting this with the motivations of Union soldiers, whom he claimed were fighting for the "flimsy and abstract idea that a negro is equal to an Anglo ''. One Louisianan artillery soldier stated, "I never want to see the day when a negro is put on an equality with a white person. There is too many free niggers... now to suit me, let alone having four millions. '' A North Carolinian soldier stated, "(A) white man is better than a nigger. ''
In 1894, Virginian and former Confederate soldier John S. Mosby, reflecting back on his role in the war, stated in a letter to a friend that "I 've always understood that we went to war on account of the thing we quarreled with the North about. I 've never heard of any other cause than slavery. ''
At many points during the war, and especially near the end, Confederate armies were very poorly fed. Back home their families were in worsening condition and faced starvation and marauders. Many soldiers went home temporarily ("absent without official leave '') and quietly returned when their family problems had been resolved. By September 1864, however, President Davis publicly admitted that two thirds of the soldiers were absent, "most of them without leave. '' The problem escalated rapidly after that, and fewer and fewer men returned. Soldiers who were fighting in defense of their homes realized that they had to desert to fulfill that duty. Historian Mark Weitz argues that the official count of 103,400 deserters is too low. He concludes that most of the desertions came because the soldier felt he owed a higher duty to his own family than to the Confederacy.
Confederate policies generally were severe. For example, on August 19, 1862 General Stonewall Jackson approved the court - martial sentence of execution for three soldiers for desertion. He rejected pleas for clemency from the soldier 's regimental commander. Jackson 's goal was to maintain discipline in a volunteer army whose homes were under threat of enemy occupation.
Historians have emphasized how soldiers from poor families deserted because they were urgently needed at home. Local pressures mounted as Union forces occupied more and more of the Confederacy, putting more and more families at risk. One Confederate officer at the time noted, "The deserters belong almost entirely to the poorest class of non slave - holders whose labor is indispensable to the daily support of their families '' and that "When the father, husband or son is forced into the service, the suffering at home with them is inevitable. It is not in the nature of these men to remain quiet in the ranks under such circumstances. ''
Some soldiers also deserted from ideological motivations. A growing threat to the solidarity of the Confederacy was dissatisfaction in the Appalachian mountain districts caused by lingering unionism and a distrust of the slave power. Many of their soldiers deserted, returned home, and formed a military force that fought off regular army units trying to punish them. North Carolina lost 23 % of its soldiers (24,122) to desertion. The state provided more soldiers per capita than any other Confederate state, and had more deserters as well.
Young Mark Twain deserted long before he became a famous writer and lecturer, but he often commented upon the episode in comic fashion. Beneath his desertion from a Missouri State Guard unit was his deep unease about losing his personal honor, his fear of facing death as a soldier, and his rejection of a Southern identity as a professional author.
Because of the destruction of any central repository of records in Richmond in 1865 and the comparatively poor record - keeping of the time, there can be no definitive number that represents the strength of the Confederate States Army. Estimates range from 500,000 to 2,000,000 men who were involved at any time during the war. Reports from the War Department began at the end of 1861 (326,768 men), 1862 (449,439), 1863 (464,646), 1864 (400,787), and "last reports '' (358,692). Estimates of enlistments throughout the war were 1,227,890 to 1,406,180.
The following calls for men were issued:
The CSA was initially a (strategically) defensive army, and many soldiers were resentful when Lee led the Army of Northern Virginia in an invasion of the North in the Antietam Campaign.
The army did not have a formal overall military commander, or general - in - chief, until late in the war. The Confederate President, Jefferson Davis, himself a former U.S. Army officer and U.S. Secretary of War, served as commander - in - chief and provided the strategic direction for Confederate land and naval forces. The following men had varying degrees of control:
The lack of centralized control was a strategic weakness for the Confederacy, and there are few instances of multiple armies acting in concert across multiple theaters to achieve a common objective. (An exception to this was in late 1862 when Lee 's invasion of Maryland was coincident with two other actions: Bragg 's invasion of Kentucky and Earl Van Dorn 's advance against Corinth, Mississippi. All three initiatives were unsuccessful, however.) Likewise, an extreme example of "States Rights '' control of C.S. soldiers was Georgia Governor Joseph E. Brown, who not only reportedly tried to keep Georgia troops from leaving the State of Georgia in 1861 but also tried to keep them from C.S. government control when U.S. forces entered Georgia in 1864.
Many of the Confederacy 's senior military leaders (including Robert E. Lee, Albert Sidney Johnston, James Longstreet) and even President Jefferson Davis were former U.S. Army and, in smaller numbers, U.S. Navy officers who had been opposed to, disapproved of, or were at least unenthusiastic about secession but resigned their U.S. commissions upon hearing that their states had left the Union. They felt that they had no choice but to help defend their homes. President Abraham Lincoln was exasperated to hear of such men who professed to love their country but were willing to fight against it.
As in the U.S. Army, the Confederate army 's soldiers were organized by military specialty. The combat arms included infantry, cavalry and artillery.
The Confederate States Army consisted of several field armies. Although fewer soldiers might comprise a squad or platoon, the smallest unit in the Army was a company of 100 soldiers. Ten companies were organized into a regiment, which theoretically had 1,000 men. In reality, as disease and casualties took their toll, most regiments were greatly reduced in strength. Replacements usually went to form new regiments and not often to existing ones.
Regiments, which were the basic units of army organization through which soldiers were supplied and deployed, were raised by individual states. They were generally referred by number and state, for example 1st Texas, 12th Virginia. To the extent the word "battalion '' was used to describe a military unit, it referred to a regiment or a near - regimental size unit.
Four regiments usually formed a brigade, although as the number of men in many regiments became greatly reduced, especially later in the war, more than four were often assigned to a brigade. Occasionally, regiments would be transferred between brigades. Two to four brigades usually formed a division. Two to four divisions usually formed a corps. Two to four corps usually formed an army. Occasionally, a single corps might operate independently as if it were a small army.
Companies were commanded by captains and had two or more lieutenants. Regiments were commanded by colonels. Lieutenant colonels were second in command. At least one major was next in command. Brigades were commanded by brigadier generals although casualties or other attrition sometimes meant that brigades would be commanded by senior colonels or even a lower grade officer. Barring the same type of circumstances which might leave a lower grade officer in temporary command, divisions were commanded by major generals and corps were commanded by lieutenant generals. A few corps commanders were never confirmed as lieutenant generals and exercised corps command for varying periods of time as major generals. Armies of more than one corps were commanded by (full) generals.
Corporal of the Artillery division of the Confederate States of America Army.
Confederate mortar crew at Warrington, Florida in 1861, across from Fort Pickens.
Confederate artillery at Charleston Harbor, 1863.
There were four grades of general officer (general, lieutenant general, major general, and brigadier general), but all wore the same insignia regardless of grade. This was a decision made early in the conflict. The Confederate Congress initially made the rank of brigadier general the highest rank. As the war progressed, the other general - officer ranks were quickly added, but no insignia for them was created. (Robert E. Lee was a notable exception to this. He chose to wear the rank insignia of a colonel.) Only seven men achieved the rank of (full) general; the highest ranking (earliest date of rank) was Samuel Cooper, Adjutant General and Inspector General of the Confederate States Army.
Officers ' uniforms bore a braid design on the sleeves and kepi, the number of adjacent strips (and therefore the width of the lines of the design) denoting rank. The color of the piping and kepi denoted the military branch. The braid was sometimes left off by officers since it made them conspicuous targets. The kepi was rarely used, the common slouch hat being preferred for its practicality in the Southern climate.
Branch colors were used for color of chevrons -- blue for infantry, yellow for cavalry, and red for artillery. This could differ with some units, however, depending on available resources or the unit commander 's desire. Cavalry regiments from Texas, for example, often used red insignia and at least one Texas infantry regiment used black.
The CSA differed from many contemporaneous armies in that all officers under the rank of brigadier general were elected by the soldiers under their command. The Confederate Congress authorized the awarding of medals for courage and good conduct on October 13, 1862, but war time difficulties prevented the procurement of the needed medals. To avoid postponing recognition for their valor, those nominated for the awards had their names placed on a Roll of Honor, which would be read at the first dress parade after its receipt and be published in at least one newspaper in each state.
The C.S. Army was composed of independent armies and military departments that were constituted, renamed, and disbanded as needs arose, particularly in reaction to offensives launched by the Union. These major units were generally named after states or geographic regions (in comparison to the Union 's custom of naming armies after rivers). Armies were usually commanded by full generals (there were seven in the C.S. Army) or lieutenant generals. Some of the more important armies and their commanders were:
Some other prominent Confederate generals who led significant units operating sometimes independently in the CSA included Thomas J. "Stonewall '' Jackson, James Longstreet, J.E.B. Stuart, Gideon Pillow, and A.P. Hill.
The supply situation for most Confederate armies was dismal, even when they were victorious on the battlefield. The central government was short of money so each state government had to supply its own regiments. The lack of central authority and the ineffective railroads, combined with the frequent unwillingness or inability of Southern state governments to provide adequate funding, were key factors in the Confederate army 's demise. The Confederacy early on lost control of most of its major river and ocean ports to capture or blockade. The road system was poor, and it relied more and more on a heavily overburdened railroad system. Union forces destroyed track, engines, cars, bridges and telegraph lines as often as possible, knowing that new equipment was unavailable to the Confederacy. Occasional raids into the North were designed to bring back money and supplies. In 1864, the Confederates burned down Chambersburg, a Pennsylvania city they had raided twice in the years before, due to its failure to pay an extortion demand.
As a result of severe supply problems, as well as the lack of textile factories in the Confederacy and the successful Union naval blockade of Southern ports, the typical Confederate soldier was rarely able to wear the standard regulation uniform, particularly as the war progressed. While on the march or in parade formation, Confederate armies often displayed a wide array of dress, ranging from faded, patched - together regulation uniforms; rough, homespun uniforms colored with homemade dyes such as butternut (a yellow - brown color), and even soldiers in a hodgepodge of civilian clothing. After a successful battle, it was not unusual for victorious Confederate troops to procure Union Army uniform parts from captured supplies and dead Union soldiers; this would occasionally cause confusion in later battles and skirmishes.
Individual states were expected to supply their soldiers, which practice led to lack of uniformity. Some states (such as North Carolina) were able to better supply their soldiers, while other states (such as Texas) were unable for various reasons to adequately supply their troops as the war continued.
Furthermore, each state often had its own uniform regulations and insignia, which meant that the "standard '' Confederate uniform often featured a variety of differences based on the state the soldier came from. For example, uniforms for North Carolina regiments often featured a colored strip of cloth on their shoulders to designate what part of the service the soldier was in. Confederate soldiers also frequently suffered from inadequate supplies of shoes, tents, and other gear, and would be forced to innovate and make do with whatever they could scrounge from the local countryside. While Confederate officers were generally better - supplied and were normally able to wear a regulation officer 's uniform, they often chose to share other hardships -- such as the lack of adequate food -- with their troops.
Confederate soldiers were also faced with inadequate food rations, especially as the war progressed. There was plenty of meat in the Confederacy. The unsolvable problem was shipping it to the armies, especially when Lee 's army in Virginia was at the end of a long, tenuous supply line. Union victory at Vicksburg in 1863 shut off supplies from Texas and the west.
By 1863 Confederate generals such as Robert E. Lee often spent as much time and effort searching for food for their men as they did in planning strategy and tactics. Individual commanders often had to "beg, borrow or steal '' food and ammunition from whatever sources were available, including captured U.S. depots and encampments, and private citizens regardless of their loyalties. Lee 's campaign against Gettysburg and southern Pennsylvania (a rich agricultural region) was driven in part by his desperate need of supplies, especially food.
General Sherman 's total warfare reduced the ability of the South to produce food and ship it to the armies or its cities. Coupled with the Union blockade of all ports the devastation of plantations, farms and railroads meant the Confederacy increasingly lost the capacity to feed its soldiers and civilians.
Native Americans served in both the Union and Confederate military during the American Civil War. They fought knowing they might jeopardize their freedom, unique cultures, and ancestral lands if they ended up on the losing side of the Civil War. During the Civil War 28,693 Native Americans served in the Union and Confederate armies, participating in battles such as Pea Ridge, Second Manassas, Antietam, Spotsylvania, Cold Harbor, and in Federal assaults on Petersburg. Many Native American tribes, such as the Creek and the Choctaw, were slaveholders themselves, and thus, found a political and economic commonality with the Confederacy.
At the beginning of the war, Albert Pike was appointed as Confederate envoy to Native Americans. In this capacity he negotiated several treaties, one such treaty was the Treaty with Choctaws and Chickasaws conducted in July 1861. The treaty covered sixty - four terms covering many subjects like Choctaw and Chickasaw nation sovereignty, Confederate States of America citizenship possibilities, and an entitled delegate in the House of Representatives of the Confederate States of America. The Cherokee, Choctaw, Seminole, Catawba, and Creek tribes were the only tribes to fight on the Confederate side. The Confederacy wanted to recruit Indians east of the Mississippi River in 1862, so they opened up a recruiting camp in Mobile, Alabama "at the foot of Stone Street ''. The Mobile Advertiser and Register would advertise for a chance at military service.
A Chance for Active Service. The Secretary of War has authorized me to enlist all the Indians east of the Mississippi River into the service of the Confederate States, as Scouts. In addition to the Indians, I will receive all white male citizens, who are good marksmen. To each member, Fifty Dollars Bounty, clothes, arms, camp equipage &c: furnished. The weapons shall be Enfield Rifles. For further information address me at Mobile, Ala. (Signed) S.G. Spann, Comm'ing Choctaw Forces.
Stand Watie, along with a few Cherokee, sided with the Confederate army, in which he was made colonel and commanded a battalion of Cherokee. Reluctantly, on October 7, 1861, Chief Ross signed a treaty transferring all obligations due to the Cherokee from the U.S. government to the Confederate States. In the treaty, the Cherokee were guaranteed protection, rations of food, livestock, tools and other goods, as well as a delegate to the Confederate Congress at Richmond.
In exchange, the Cherokee would furnish ten companies of mounted men, and allow the construction of military posts and roads within the Cherokee Nation. However, no Indian regiment was to be called on to fight outside Indian Territory. As a result of the Treaty, the 2nd Cherokee Mounted Rifles, led by Col. John Drew, was formed. Following the Battle of Pea Ridge, Arkansas, March 7 -- 8, 1862, Drew 's Mounted Rifles defected to the Union forces in Kansas, where they joined the Indian Home Guard. In the summer of 1862, Federal troops captured Chief Ross, who was paroled and spent the remainder of the war in Washington and Philadelphia proclaiming Cherokee loyalty to the Union army.
William Holland Thomas, the only white chief of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, recruited hundreds of Cherokees for the Confederate army, particularly for Thomas ' Legion. The Legion, raised in September 1862, fought until the end of the War.
Choctaw Confederate battalions were formed in Indian Territory and later in Mississippi in support of the southern cause. The Choctaws, who were expecting support from the Confederates, got little. Webb Garrison, a Civil War historian, describes their response: when Confederate Brigadier General Albert Pike authorized the raising of regiments during the fall of 1860, Creeks, Choctaws, and Cherokees responded with considerable enthusiasm. Their zeal for the Confederate cause, however, began to evaporate when they found that neither arms nor pay had been arranged for them. A disgusted officer later acknowledged that "with the exception of a partial supply for the Choctaw regiment, no tents, clothing, or camp and garrison equipage was furnished to any of them. ''
With so many white males conscripted into the army and roughly 40 % of its population unfree, the work required to maintain a functioning society in the Confederacy ended up largely on the backs of slaves. Even Georgian governor Joseph E. Brown noted that "the country and the army are mainly dependent upon slave labor for support. '' African American slave labor was used in a wide variety of logistical support roles for the Confederacy, from infrastructure and mining, to teamster and medical roles such as hospital attendants and nurses.
The idea of arming the Confederacy 's slaves for use as soldiers was speculated on from the onset of the war, but such proposals were not seriously considered by Jefferson Davis or others in the Confederate administration until late in the war, when it faced severe manpower shortages. Gary Gallagher says, "When Lee publicly advocated arming slaves in early 1865, he did so as a desperate expedient that might prolong Southern military resistance. ''. After acrimonious debate the Confederate Congress agreed in March, 1865. The war was nearly over by then and very few slaves ended up being enlisted before the Confederate armies all surrendered.
As early as November 1864, some Confederates knew that the chance of securing victory against the U.S. was slim. Despite lacking foreign assistance and recognition and facing slim chances of victory against superior U.S. assets, Confederate newspapers such as the Georgian Atlanta Southern Confederacy continued to maintain their position and oppose the idea of armed black men in the Confederate army, even late in the war as January 1865. They stated that it was incongruous with the Confederacy 's goals and views regarding African Americans and slavery. The Georgian newspaper opined that using black men as soldiers would be an embarrassment to Confederates and their children, saying that although African Americans should be used for slave labor, they should not be used as armed soldiers, opining that:
Prominent Confederates such as R.M.T. Hunter and Georgian Democrat Howell Cobb opposed arming slaves, saying that it was "suicidal '' and would run contrary to the Confederacy 's ideology. Opposing such a move, Cobb stated that African Americans were untrustworthy and innately lacked the qualities to make good soldiers, and that using them would cause many Confederates to quit the army.
The overwhelming support most Confederates had for maintaining black slavery was the primary cause of their strong opposition to using African Americans as armed soldiers. Maintaining the institution of slavery was the primary goal of the Confederacy 's existence, and thus, using their slaves as soldiers was incongruous with that goal. According to historian Paul D. Escott:
(F) or a great many of the most powerful southerners the idea of arming and freeing the slaves was repugnant because the protection of slavery had been and still remained the central core of Confederate purpose... Slavery was the basis of the planter class 's wealth, power, and position in society. The South 's leading men had built their world upon slavery and the idea of voluntarily destroying that world, even in the ultimate crisis, was almost unthinkable to them. Such feelings moved Senator R.M.T. Hunter to deliver a long speech against the bill to arm the slaves.
Though most Confederates were opposed to the idea of using black soldiers, a small number suggested the idea. An acrimonious and controversial debate was raised by a letter from Patrick Cleburne urging the Confederacy to raise black soldiers by offering emancipation; Jefferson Davis refused to consider the proposal and issued instructions forbidding the matter from being discussed. It would not be until Robert E. Lee wrote the Confederate Congress urging them that the idea would take serious traction.
On March 13, 1865, the Confederate Congress passed General Order 14 by a single vote in the Confederate senate, and Jefferson Davis signed the order into law. The order was issued March 23, but as it was late in the war, only a few African American companies were raised in the Richmond area before the town was captured by the U.S. Army and placed back under U.S. control.
According to historian James M. McPherson in 1994, "no black soldiers fought in the Confederate army, unless they were passing as white. '' He noted that some Confederates brought along "their body servants, who in many cases had grown up with them '' and that "on occasion some of those body servants were known to have picked up a rifle... But there was no official recruitment of black soldiers in the Confederate army until the very end of the war '', when it was brought about only by a "desperate shortage of manpower. ''
In some cases, the Confederates forced their African American slaves to fire upon U.S. soldiers at gunpoint, such as at the first Battle of Bull Run. According to John Parker, one such slave who was forced by the Confederates to fight U.S. soldiers, "Our masters tried all they could to make us fight... They promised to give us our freedom and money besides, but none of us believed them; we only fought because we had to. '' Parker stated that had he been given an opportunity, he would have turned against his Confederate captors, and "could do it with pleasure ''. According to abolitionist Henry Highland Garnet in 1862, he had met a slave who "had unwillingly fought on the side of Rebellion '', but said slave had since defected to "the side of Union and universal liberty. ''
During the Siege of Yorktown (1862), The Union 's elite sniper unit, the 1st United States Sharpshooters, was devastatingly effective at shooting Confederate artillerymen defending the city. In response, some Confederate artillery crews started forcing slaves to load the cannons. "They forced their negroes to load their cannon, '' reported a Union officer. "They shot them if they would not load the cannon, and we shot them if they did. ''
In other cases, under explicit orders from their commanders, Confederate armies would often forcibly kidnap free African American civilians during their incursions into U.S. territory, sending them south into Confederate territory and thus enslaving them, as was the case with the Army of Northern Virginia when it invaded Pennsylvania in 1863.
The usage of black men as U.S. soldiers by the Union, combined with Abraham Lincoln 's issuing of the Emancipation Proclamation, profoundly angered the Confederacy, with the Confederates calling it uncivilized. As a response, in May 1863 the Confederacy passed a law demanding "full and ample retaliation '' against the Union, stating that any black person captured in "arms against the Confederate States '' or giving aid and comfort to their enemies would be turned over to state authorities, where they could be tried as slave insurrectionists; a capital offense punishable with a sentence of death. However, Confederate authorities feared retaliation, and as such no black prisoner was ever put on trial and executed.
James McPherson states that "Confederate troops sometimes murdered black soldiers and their officers as they tried to surrender. In most cases, though, Confederate officers returned captured black soldiers to slavery or put them to hard labor on southern fortifications. '' African American USCT soldiers were often singled out by the Confederates and suffered extra violence when captured by them. They were often the victims of battlefield massacres and atrocities at the hands of the Confederates, most notably at Fort Pillow in Tennessee and at the Battle of the Crater in Virginia.
The Confederate law declaring black U.S. soldiers as being insurrectionist slaves, combined with the Confederacy 's discriminatory mistreatment of captured black U.S. soldiers, became a stumbling block for prisoner exchanges between the Union and the Confederacy, as the U.S. government in the Lieber Code officially objected to the Confederacy 's discriminatory mistreatment of prisoners of war on basis of color. The Republican Party 's platform of the 1864 presidential election reflected this view, as it too condemned the Confederacy 's discriminatory mistreatment of captured black U.S. soldiers. According to the authors of Liberty, Equality, Power, "Expressing outrage at this treatment, in 1863 the Lincoln administration suspended the exchange of prisoners until the Confederacy agree to treat white and black prisoners alike. The Confederacy refused. ''
Incomplete and destroyed records make an accurate count of the number of men who served in the Confederate army impossible. Historians provide estimates of the actual number of individual Confederate soldiers between 750,000 and 1,000,000 men.
The exact number is unknown. Since these figures include estimates of the total number of individual soldiers who served in each army at any time during the war, they do not represent the size of the armies at any given date. Confederate casualty figures are as incomplete and unreliable as the figures on the number of Confederate soldiers. The best estimates of the number of deaths of Confederate soldiers appear to be about 94,000 killed or mortally wounded in battle, 164,000 deaths from disease and between 26,000 and 31,000 deaths in Union prison camps. In contrast, about 25,000 Union soldiers died as a result of accidents, drowning, murder, killed after capture, suicide, execution for various crimes, execution by the Confederates (64), sunstroke, other and not stated. Confederate casualties for all these reasons are unavailable. Since some Confederate soldiers would have died for these reasons, more total deaths and total casualties for the Confederacy must have occurred. One estimate of Confederate wounded, which is considered incomplete, is 194,026; another is 226,000. At the end of the war 174,223 men of the Confederate forces surrendered to the U.S. Army.
Compared to the U.S. Army at the time, the Confederate army was not very ethnically diverse. Ninety - one percent of Confederate soldiers were native - born white men and only 9 % were foreign - born white men, Irishmen being the largest group with others including Germans, French, Mexicans, and British. A small number of Asian men were forcibly inducted into the Confederate army against their will when they arrived in Louisiana from overseas.
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when will the mirror and the light be published | The Mirror and the Light - wikipedia
The Mirror and the Light is an upcoming historical novel by Hilary Mantel, the final part of a planned trilogy (including Wolf Hall and Bring Up the Bodies) charting the rise and fall of Thomas Cromwell, the powerful minister in the court of King Henry VIII.
The Mirror and the Light is expected to cover the last four years of Cromwell 's life, from the execution of Anne Boleyn (1536) to Cromwell 's execution (1540).
In July 2017 The Guardian reported that "The book may not appear until 2019, said Mantel, who denied that her failure to finish the novel to schedule was a sign of reluctance to write about Cromwell 's execution in July 1540. ''
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where were you when i was falling in love lobo | Where Were You When I was Falling in Love - Wikipedia
"Where Were You When I Was Falling In Love '' is a popular song written by Sam Lorber, Jeff Silbar, and Steve Jobe, and released as a single in 1979 by the musician Lobo. It peaked at # 23 on the Billboard Hot 100 and became Lobo 's fourth and final # 1 on the Adult Contemporary chart, which it topped for two weeks in September / October 1979.
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names of guards of the tomb of the unknown soldier | Tomb of the Unknowns - wikipedia
The Tomb of the Unknowns is a monument dedicated to U.S. service members who have died without their remains being identified. It is also known as the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, but it has never been officially named. It is located in Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia, United States of America. The World War I "Unknown '' is a recipient of the Medal of Honor, the Victoria Cross, and several other foreign nations ' highest service awards. The U.S. Unknowns who were interred are also recipients of the Medal of Honor, presented by U.S. Presidents who presided over their funerals.
On March 4, 1921, the United States Congress approved the burial of an unidentified American serviceman from World War I in the plaza of the new Memorial Amphitheater. On November 11, 1921, the unknown soldier brought back from France was interred below a three - level marble tomb. The bottom two levels are six marble sections each and the top at least nine blocks with a rectangular opening in the center of each level through which the unknown remains were placed through the tomb and into the ground below. A stone, rather than marble, slab covers the rectangular opening.
Since 1921 the intent was to place a superstructure on top of the Tomb, but it was not until July 3, 1926, that Congress authorized the completion of the Tomb and the expenditure of $50,000 (with a completed cost of $48,000). A design competition was held and won by architect Lorimer Rich and sculptor Thomas Hudson Jones. An appropriation from Congress for the work was secured and on December 21, 1929, a contract for completion of the Tomb itself was entered into. The Tomb would consist of seven pieces of marble in four levels (cap, die, base and sub-base) of which the die is the largest block with the sculpting on all four sides.
Quarrying the Yule marble (3.9 miles south of Marble, Colorado by the Vermont Marble Company) was a one - year process beginning in 1930. The cap was quarried on the first attempt but the base required three tries. The large middle block also required three tries. In late January 1931, the 56 ton middle block was lifted out of the quarry. The quarrying involved 75 men. When the block was separated from the mountain inside the quarry it weighed 124 tons. A wire saw was then brought into the quarry to cut the block down to 56 tons.
On February 3, the block reached the marble mill site (in the town of Marble) after a four - day trip from the quarry. Here it was crated, then shipped to Vermont on February 8. The block was sawn to final size in West Rutland, Vermont and fabricated by craftsmen in Proctor, Vermont before it was shipped by train to Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia. By September, all 7 blocks were on the grounds of the Tomb site, at Arlington.
Assembly began in September 1931. An imperfection was found in the base requiring three more quarryings. By the end of December 1931, the assembly was completed. Finishing work followed with the carvings on the die block by the Piccirilli Brothers under the direction of the sculptor Thomas Jones. (The brothers also carved the Lincoln statue for the Lincoln Memorial). The Tomb was completed without formal ceremony on April 9, 1932.
The Tomb was placed at the head of the grave of the World War I Unknown. West of this grave are the crypts of Unknowns from World War II (south) and Korea (north). Between the two lies a crypt that once contained an Unknown from Vietnam (middle). His remains were positively identified in 1998 through DNA testing as First Lieutenant Michael Blassie, United States Air Force and were removed. Those three graves are marked with white marble slabs flush with the plaza.
The Tomb has a flat - faced form and is relieved at the corners and along the sides by neo-classical pilasters set into the surface with objects and inscription carved into the sides. The 1931 symbolism of the objects on the north, south and east sides changed over time.
Tomb Dimensions as of 2004 (xxx) * 1931 die block dimension coming out of the quarry.
On Memorial Day, 1921, four unknown servicemen were exhumed from four World War I American cemeteries in France. U.S. Army Sgt. Edward F. Younger, who was wounded in combat, highly decorated for valor and received the Distinguished Service Cross in "The Great War '' selected the Unknown of World War I from four identical caskets at the city hall in Châlons - en - Champagne, France, on October 24, 1921. Younger selected the World War I Unknown by placing a spray of white roses on one of the caskets. He chose the third casket from the left. The chosen Unknown was transported to the United States aboard the USS Olympia. Those remaining were interred in the Meuse Argonne Cemetery, France.
The World War I Unknown lay in state in the Capitol Rotunda from his arrival in the United States until Armistice Day, 1921. On November 11, 1921, President Warren G. Harding officiated at the interment ceremonies at the Memorial Amphitheater at Arlington National Cemetery. During the ceremony, the World War I Unknown was awarded the Victoria Cross by Admiral of the Fleet Lord Beatty, on behalf of King George V of the United Kingdom. (The United Kingdom Victoria Cross was placed with the soldier. Earlier, on March 4, 1921, the British Unknown Warrior was conferred the U.S. Medal of Honor by General of the Armies John Pershing.) In 1928, the Unknown Soldier was presented the Silver Buffalo Award for distinguished service to America 's youth by the Boy Scouts of America.
On August 3, 1956, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed a bill to select and pay the tribute to the Unknowns of World War II and the Korean War. The selection ceremonies and the interment of these Unknowns took place in 1958. The World War II Unknown was selected from remains exhumed from cemeteries in Europe, Africa, Hawaii, and the Philippines.
Two Unknowns from World War II, one from the European Theater and one from the Pacific Theater, were placed in identical caskets and taken aboard the USS Canberra, a guided - missile cruiser resting off the Virginia Capes. Navy Hospital Corpsman 1st Class William R. Charette, then the U.S. Navy 's only active - duty Medal of Honor recipient who was an enlisted man, selected the World War II Unknown. The remaining casket received a solemn burial at sea.
Four unknown Americans who died in the Korean War were disinterred from the National Cemetery of the Pacific in Hawaii. Army Master Sergeant Ned Lyle made the final selection.
Both caskets arrived in Washington on May 28, 1958, where they lay in the Capitol Rotunda until the morning of May 30, when they were carried on caissons to Arlington National Cemetery. President Eisenhower awarded each the Medal of Honor, and the Unknowns of World War II and the Korean War were interred in the plaza beside their World War I comrade.
The designation of the Vietnam Unknown has proven to be difficult. With improvements in DNA testing it is possible, though unlikely, that the recovered remains for every unknown soldier killed in the Vietnam War will be identified.
The Vietnam Unknown service member was designated by Medal of Honor recipient U.S. Marine Corps Sgt. Maj. Allan Jay Kellogg, Jr., during a ceremony at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, May 17, 1984.
Each branch of the Armed Services took part in the transportation to Honor the unknown. The Marines from Marine Barracks Hawaii consisted of an Honor Guard of 9 enlisted men and Lt. Denis Muller. The Vietnam Unknown was transported aboard the fast frigate USS Brewton, where the Marines stood guard over the casket during the seven day ocean voyage to Naval Air Station Alameda, California where the debarkation ceremony turned the unknown over to the USAF on May 24. The next day, the remains of the Vietnam Unknown were then flown from Travis Air Force Base, California, arriving at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland. Once there the remains were turned over to the US Army, where the remains were taken to Fort McNair for placement upon the horse - drawn wagon which later carried the Unknown to the Capital Rotunda for display before interment. While on display for public viewing, all branches of the US Armed Forces stood in Honor, Guarding the casket of the Unknown for 2 weeks.
Many Vietnam veterans and President Ronald Reagan and Nancy Reagan visited the Vietnam Unknown in the U.S. Capitol. An Army caisson carried the Vietnam Unknown from the Capitol to the Memorial Amphitheater at Arlington National Cemetery on Memorial Day, May 28, 1984.
President Reagan presided over the funeral, and presented the Medal of Honor to the Vietnam Unknown, and also acted as next of kin by accepting the interment flag at the end of the ceremony. The interment flags of all Unknowns at the Tomb of the Unknowns are on view in the Memorial Display Room.
In 1994, Ted Sampley, a POW / MIA activist, determined that the remains of the Vietnam Unknown were likely those of Air Force 1st Lt. Michael Joseph Blassie, who was shot down near An Lộc, Vietnam, in 1972. Sampley published an article in his newsletter and contacted Blassie 's family, who attempted to pursue the case with the Air Force 's casualty office without result. In January 1998 CBS News broadcast a report based on Sampley 's investigation which brought political pressure to support the identification of the remains. The body was exhumed on May 14, 1998. Based on mitochondrial DNA testing, Department of Defense scientists confirmed the remains were those of Blassie. The identification was announced on June 30, 1998, and on July 10, Blassie 's remains arrived home to his family in St. Louis, Missouri; he was reinterred at Jefferson Barracks National Cemetery on July 11.
The slab over the crypt that once held the remains of the Vietnam Unknown has since been replaced. The original inscription of "Vietnam '' and the dates of the conflict has been changed to "Honoring and Keeping Faith with America 's Missing Servicemen '' as a reminder of the commitment of the Armed Forces to the fullest possible accounting of missing service members.
The tomb guards are soldiers of the United States Army. The first military guards were troopers from the 3rd Cavalry, "Brave Rifles '', who were posted nearby on Fort Myer. Since April 6, 1948, (known then as "Army Day ''), when the regiment was reactivated, it has been guarded by soldiers from 3rd Infantry Regiment, "The Old Guard ''. The Old Guard is also posted to Fort Myer, Virginia, adjacent to Arlington National Cemetery. It is considered one of the highest honors to serve as a Sentinel at the Tomb of the Unknowns. Fewer than 20 percent of all volunteers are accepted for training and of those only a fraction pass training to become full - fledged Tomb Guards. This attrition rate has made the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier Guard Identification Badge the second least - awarded qualification badge of the United States military (the first being the Astronaut Badge).
The soldier "walking the mat '' does not wear rank insignia, so as not to outrank the Unknowns, whatever their ranks may have been. Non-commissioned officers (usually the Relief Commander and Assistant Relief Commanders), do wear insignia of their rank when changing the guard only. They have a separate uniform (without rank) that is worn when they actually guard the Unknowns or are "posted. ''
The duties of the sentinels are not purely ceremonial. The sentinels will confront people who cross the barriers at the tomb or who they perceive to be disrespectful or excessively loud.
Over the years there have been several different types of weapons used by the Tomb Guards. The changes in weapons reflect the changes in the Army, including M1903 Springfield rifle, M1 Garand and M14 rifles, M1911 and M9 pistols. Tomb Guards currently carry M14 rifles, which are unloaded and affixed to ceremonial rifle stocks. These rifles are cleaned daily and kept ready for use at all times.
There is a meticulous routine that the guard follows when watching over the graves. The Tomb Guard:
After each turn, the Guard executes a sharp "shoulder - arms '' movement to place the weapon on the shoulder closest to the visitors to signify that the Guard stands between the Tomb and any possible threat.
Out of respect for the interred, the sentinels command silence at the tombs. If the guard walking the mat must vocally confront a disturbance from spectators, or a threat, the routine is interrupted, and remains so until the disturbance is under control. The sentinel will exit the mat, place the weapon in port arms position, and confront the disturbance. Once under control, the sentinel then walks on the pavement to the other side of the mat, turns to shoulder arms, and continues the routine.
Twenty - one was chosen because it symbolizes the highest military honor that can be bestowed -- the 21 - gun salute.
The mat is usually replaced twice per year: before Memorial Day and before Veterans Day. This is required because of the wear on the rubber mat by the special shoes worn by Tomb Guards. The sentinels have metal plates built into the soles and inner parts of their shoes to allow for a more rugged sole and to give the signature click of the heel during maneuvers. The sentinels wear sunglasses because of the bright reflection from the marble surrounding the Tomb and the Memorial Amphitheater.
On the ground not covered by the mat, a rust pattern in the tile can be seen that corresponds to the precise steps taken during the changing of the guard. The metal from the guards ' boots causes the brown rust markings on the stone. On the mat itself, footprints caused by standing guard are also visible.
While Arlington National Cemetery is open, during the day in summer months from April 1 to September 30, the guard is changed every half hour. During the winter months, from October 1 to March 31, the guard is changed every hour. After the cemetery closes to the public (7 p.m. to 8 a.m. April through September, and 5 p.m. to 8 a.m. October through March), the guard is changed every 2 hours. The ceremony can be witnessed by the public whenever Arlington National Cemetery is open.
The guard change is very symbolic, but also conducted in accordance with Army regulations. The relief commander or assistant relief commander, along with the oncoming guard, are both required for a guard change to take place. The relief commander orders the guard being relieved to "pass on your orders '' to the oncoming guard. The guard being relieved will say to the oncoming guard, "Post and orders remain as directed. '' The oncoming guard 's response is always, "Orders acknowledged. '' During changes when the public is witnessing the ceremony, the commander will inform the public that the ceremony is about to take place and that those in attendance should remain "silent and standing '' throughout the entire event.
A civilian guard was first posted at the Tomb on November 17, 1925, to prevent, among other things, families from picnicking on the flat marble slab with views of the city. A military guard was first posted on March 25, 1926. The first 24 - hour guard was posted on midnight, July 2, 1937. The Tomb of the Unknowns has been guarded continuously, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, since that time. Inclement weather, terrorist attacks, et cetera, do not cause the watch to cease.
Since 1948, the Tomb Guards, a special platoon within the 3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment (The Old Guard) work on a team rotation of 24 hours on, 24 hours off, for five days, taking the following four days off. A guard takes an average of six hours to prepare his uniform -- heavy wool, regardless of the time of year -- for the next day 's work. In addition to preparing the uniform, guards also conduct physical training, Tomb Guard training, participate in field exercises, cut their hair before the next work day, and at times are involved in regimental functions as well. Tomb Guards are required to memorize 17 pages of information about Arlington National Cemetery and the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, including the locations of nearly 300 graves and who is buried in each one.
A special Army decoration, the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier Guard Identification Badge is authorized for wear after passing a detailed test of 100 questions (from a pool of more than 300), a uniform test with two gigs (errors) or fewer (measured to the 1 / 64 "), and a test on the guard changing sequence. After serving honorably for a period of nine months, and having passed the sequence of tests, a Tomb Guard is permanently awarded the Badge. Since the first award on February 7, 1958, fewer than 650 soldiers have completed training and been awarded this Badge, including four women. A small number of Tomb Guard Identification Badges have also been retroactively awarded to soldiers who served as Guards before 1959. Those numbers make the Badge the second rarest award currently issued in the United States Army; only the Army Astronaut Badge is rarer.
The badge was designed in 1956 and first issued to members of the Honor Guard at the Tomb of the Unknowns on February 7, 1958. The badge was first issued only as a temporary wear item, meaning the soldiers could only wear the badge during their tenure as members of the Honor Guard. Upon leaving the duty, the badge was returned and reissued to incoming soldiers. In 1963, a regulation was enacted that allowed the badge to be worn as a permanent part of the military uniform, even after the soldier 's completion of duty at the Tomb of the Unknowns.
Cracking and weathering are causing concerns for the long - term preservation of the Tomb Monument. A November 1963 report first recorded horizontal cracking of the monument 's marble die block. Though this was the first time that the damage was documented, the report made it clear that the cracks had become visible some time before that date.
In 1963 -- 1964, there were two cracks -- referred to as "primary '' and "secondary '' -- extending approximately 34 feet around the die block. By 1974, they had extended to 40 feet. They grew another 4.6 feet over the next 15 years. Inspection has determined that the cracks have increased horizontally since 1990. Analysis also indicates that the cracks are not surficial but extend partially through the block and will eventually extend all the way through.
The 1990 report documented deterioration of the marble 's surface. As much as 2.85 mm of the marble surface has been lost through weathering. The study projected that before 2010, the Tomb Monument will have been weathered enough to have a negative effect on the experience of the visitors and concludes the only solutions are to enclose or replace the monument.
Several options have been considered to deal with the damage. Officials at Arlington National Cemetery determined that proper repair can return the Tomb Monument to an acceptable appearance. However, because the cracks will continue to lengthen and widen, continuous grouting, regrouting, touch - up, monitoring, and maintenance would be required. Therefore, a report commissioned by Arlington National Cemetery and published in June 2006 confirmed the Cemetery 's conclusion that "replacement of the three pieces of the Tomb Monument is the preferred alternative ''. A final decision was scheduled to be made on September 30, 2007.
The National Trust for Historic Preservation objects to the plan to replace the authentic Tomb Monument. The Trust expressed concern that Arlington National Cemetery seeks to replace the existing monument with marble from the original quarry, which experts agree is likely eventually to crack.
The Trust has observed that the Cemetery 's own 1990 report recommended that the monument be repaired and that the Cemetery, in fact, commissioned Oehrlein Architects to repair the stone. In 2007, Mary Oehrlein informed Congressional staff members that: "The existing monument can easily be repaired, as was done 17 years ago, using conventional conservation methods to re-grout the cracks. Once repaired, the fault lines would be virtually invisible from the public viewing areas. ''
On September 26, 2007, U.S. Senator Daniel Akaka announced that an amendment crafted together with Senator Jim Webb will be added to the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2008 (H.R. 1585) that would require a report on the plans of the Secretary of the Army and the Secretary of Veterans Affairs to replace the monument at the Tomb of the Unknowns. The secretaries would be required to advise Congress on the current efforts to maintain and preserve the monument. Additionally, they would have to provide an assessment on the feasibility and advisability of repairing rather than replacing the Tomb Monument. Finally, if the secretaries choose replacement, they would have to report those plans and detail how they intend to dispose of the current monument. Once the report is provided, the secretaries are prevented from taking action to replace the monument for at least 180 days. The Akaka - Webb amendment was included in the bill by unanimous consent of the Senate. An amendment to the Fiscal Year 2008 Defense Authorization Bill authorized a review of the monument 's condition. The bill also authorized repair, but not replacement, of the monument. Final passage of the National Defense Authorization Act for 2008 (H.R. 4986) was signed by President Bush on January 28, 2008.
In 2003 John Haines, a retired car dealer, offered to donate a large slab of marble to the Arlington National Cemetery to replace the existing marble. Haines paid $31,000 for the marble slab. The marble was not removed from the quarry, however, because imperfections were found and the block was rejected.
In June 2009 Arlington National Cemetery and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers announced that the monument was to be repaired, not replaced. In 2010, the cracks were filled but the repairs lasted only a few months. As of June 2011, the cemetery was struggling to repair the cracks in the monument, one of which measured 28.4 feet (8.7 m) long, with another at 16.2 feet (4.9 m). In September 2011, the cracks were filled again and on October 21, 2011, inspection by the Corps of Engineers and other experts pronounced the repairs a success.
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what was the result of the battle of wounded knee | Wounded Knee massacre - Wikipedia
150 - 300 killed: 90 men killed 200 women and children killed 51 wounded (7 fatally)
The Wounded Knee Massacre (also called the Battle of Wounded Knee) occurred on December 29, 1890, near Wounded Knee Creek (Lakota: Čhaŋkpé Ópi Wakpála) on the Lakota Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in the U.S. state of South Dakota.
The previous day, a detachment of the U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment commanded by Major Samuel M. Whitside intercepted Spotted Elk 's band of Miniconjou Lakota and 38 Hunkpapa Lakota near Porcupine Butte and escorted them 5 miles (8.0 km) westward to Wounded Knee Creek, where they made camp. The remainder of the 7th Cavalry Regiment, led by Colonel James W. Forsyth, arrived and surrounded the encampment. The regiment was supported by a battery of four Hotchkiss mountain guns.
On the morning of December 29, the U.S. Cavalry troops went into the camp to disarm the Lakota. One version of events claims that during the process of disarming the Lakota, a deaf tribesman named Black Coyote was reluctant to give up his rifle, claiming he had paid a lot for it. Simultaneously, an old man was performing a ritual called the Ghost Dance. Black Coyote 's rifle went off at that point, and the U.S. army began shooting at the Native Americans. The disarmed Lakota warriors did their best to fight back.
By the time the massacre was over, more than 150 men, women, and children of the Lakota had been killed and 51 were wounded (4 men and 47 women and children, some of whom died later); some estimates placed the number of dead at 300. Twenty - five army soldiers also died, and 39 were wounded (6 of the wounded later died). At least twenty soldiers were awarded the Medal of Honor. In 2001, the National Congress of American Indians passed two resolutions condemning the military awards and called on the U.S. government to rescind them.
The site of the battlefield / massacre has been designated a National Historic Landmark by the U.S. Department of the Interior. In 1990, both houses of the U.S. Congress passed a resolution on the historical centennial formally expressing "deep regret '' for the massacre.
In the years leading up to the conflict, the U.S. government had continued to seize Lakota lands. The once - large bison herds, a staple of the Great Plains indigenous peoples, had been hunted to near - extinction by European settlers. Treaty promises to protect reservation lands from encroachment by settlers and gold miners were not implemented as agreed. As a result, there was unrest on the reservations. During this time, news spread among the reservations of a Paiute prophet named Wovoka, founder of the Ghost Dance religion. He had a vision that the Christian Messiah, Jesus Christ, had returned to Earth in the form of a Native American.
According to Wovoka, the Messiah would raise all the Native American believers above the earth. During this time, the white invaders would disappear from Native lands, the ancestors would lead them to good hunting grounds, the buffalo herds and all the other animals would return in abundance, and the ghosts of their ancestors would return to Earth -- hence the word ghost in "Ghost Dance ''. They would then return to earth to live in peace. All this would be brought about by performance of the slow and solemn Ghost Dance, performed as a shuffle in silence to a slow, single drumbeat. Lakota ambassadors to Wovoka, Kicking Bear and Short Bull taught the Lakota that while performing the Ghost Dance, they would wear special Ghost Dance shirts as seen by Black Elk in a vision. Kicking Bear said the shirts had the power to repel bullets.
U.S. settlers were alarmed by the sight of the many Great Basin and Plains tribes performing the Ghost Dance, worried that it might be a prelude to armed attack. Among them was the U.S. Indian agent at the Standing Rock Agency where Chief Sitting Bull lived. U.S. officials decided to take some of the chiefs into custody in order to quell what they called the "Messiah craze ''. The military first hoped to have Buffalo Bill -- a friend of Sitting Bull -- aid in the plan, to reduce the chance of violence. Standing Rock agent James McLaughlin overrode the military and sent the Indian police to arrest Sitting Bull.
On December 15, 1890, 40 Native American policemen arrived at Sitting Bull 's house to arrest him. Crowds gathered in protest, and the first shot was fired when Sitting Bull tried to pull away from his captors, killing the officer who had been holding him. Additional shots were fired, resulting in the deaths of Sitting Bull, eight of his supporters, and six policemen. After Sitting Bull 's death, 200 members of his Hunkpapa band, fearful of reprisals, fled Standing Rock to join Chief Spotted Elk (later known as "Big Foot '') and his Miniconjou band at the Cheyenne River Indian Reservation.
Spotted Elk and his band, along with 38 Hunkpapa, left the Cheyenne River Reservation on December 23 to journey to the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation to seek shelter with Red Cloud.
Former Pine Ridge Indian agent Valentine T. McGillycuddy was asked his opinion of the "hostilities '' surrounding the Ghost Dance movement, by General Leonard Wright Colby, commander of the Nebraska National Guard (portion of letter dated January 15, 1891):
"As for the ' Ghost Dance ' too much attention has been paid to it. It was only the symptom or surface indication of a deep rooted, long existing difficulty; as well treat the eruption of small pox as the disease and ignore the constitutional disease. ''
"As regards disarming the Sioux, however desirable it may appear, I consider it neither advisable, nor practicable. I fear it will result as the theoretical enforcement of prohibition in Kansas, Iowa and Dakota; you will succeed in disarming and keeping disarmed the friendly Indians because you can, and you will not succeed with the mob element because you can not. ''
"If I were again to be an Indian agent, and had my choice, I would take charge of 10,000 armed Sioux in preference to a like number of disarmed ones; and furthermore agree to handle that number, or the whole Sioux nation, without a white soldier. Respectfully, etc., V.T. McGillycuddy.
"P.S. I neglected to state that up to date there has been neither a Sioux outbreak or war. No citizen in Nebraska or Dakota has been killed, molested or can show the scratch of a pin, and no property has been destroyed off the reservation. ''
General Miles sent this telegram from Rapid City to General John Schofield in Washington, D.C., on December 19, 1890:
"The difficult Indian problem can not be solved permanently at this end of the line. It requires the fulfillment of Congress of the treaty obligations that the Indians were entreated and coerced into signing. They signed away a valuable portion of their reservation, and it is now occupied by white people, for which they have received nothing. ''
"They understood that ample provision would be made for their support; instead, their supplies have been reduced, and much of the time they have been living on half and two - thirds rations. Their crops, as well as the crops of the white people, for two years have been almost total failures. ''
"The dissatisfaction is wide spread, especially among the Sioux, while the Cheyennes have been on the verge of starvation, and were forced to commit depredations to sustain life. These facts are beyond question, and the evidence is positive and sustained by thousands of witnesses. ''
After being called to the Pine Ridge Agency, Spotted Elk of the Miniconjou Lakota nation and 350 of his followers were making the slow trip to the agency on December 28, 1890, when they were met by a 7th Cavalry detachment under Major Samuel M. Whitside southwest of Porcupine Butte. John Shangreau, a scout and interpreter who was half Sioux, advised the troopers not to disarm the Indians immediately, as it would lead to violence. The troopers escorted the Native Americans about five miles westward (8 km) to Wounded Knee Creek where they told them to make camp. Later that evening, Colonel James W. Forsyth and the rest of the 7th Cavalry arrived, bringing the number of troopers at Wounded Knee to 500. In contrast, there were 350 Lakota: 230 men and 120 women and children. The troopers surrounded Spotted Elk 's encampment and set up four rapid - fire Hotchkiss - designed M1875 mountain guns.
At daybreak on December 29, 1890, Forsyth ordered the surrender of weapons and the immediate removal of the Lakota from the "zone of military operations '' to awaiting trains. A search of the camp confiscated 38 rifles, and more rifles were taken as the soldiers searched the Indians. None of the old men were found to be armed. A medicine man named Yellow Bird allegedly harangued the young men who were becoming agitated by the search, and the tension spread to the soldiers.
Specific details of what triggered the massacre are debated. According to some accounts, Yellow Bird began to perform the Ghost Dance, telling the Lakota that their "ghost shirts '' were bulletproof. As tensions mounted, Black Coyote refused to give up his rifle; he was deaf and had not understood the order. Another Indian said: "Black Coyote is deaf. '' (Black Coyote did not speak English.) When the soldier persisted, he said, "Stop. He can not hear your orders. '' At that moment, two soldiers seized Black Coyote from behind, and (allegedly) in the struggle, his rifle discharged. At the same moment, Yellow Bird threw some dust into the air, and approximately five young Lakota men with concealed weapons threw aside their blankets and fired their rifles at Troop K of the 7th. After this initial exchange, the firing became indiscriminate.
According to commanding General Nelson A. Miles, a "scuffle occurred between one warrior who had (a) rifle in his hand and two soldiers. The rifle was discharged and a battle occurred, not only the warriors but the sick Chief Spotted Elk, and a large number of women and children who tried to escape by running and scattering over the prairie were hunted down and killed. ''
At first all firing was at close range; half the Indian men were killed or wounded before they had a chance to get off any shots. Some of the Indians grabbed rifles from the piles of confiscated weapons and opened fire on the soldiers. With no cover, and with many of the Indians unarmed, this lasted a few minutes at most. While the Indian warriors and soldiers were shooting at close range, other soldiers used the Hotchkiss guns against the tipi camp full of women and children. It is believed that many of the soldiers were victims of friendly fire from their own Hotchkiss guns. The Indian women and children fled the camp, seeking shelter in a nearby ravine from the crossfire. The officers had lost all control of their men. Some of the soldiers fanned out and finished off the wounded. Others leaped onto their horses and pursued the Indians (men, women, and children), in some cases for miles across the prairies. In less than an hour, at least 150 Lakota had been killed and 50 wounded. Historian Dee Brown, in Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, mentions an estimate of 300 of the original 350 having been killed or wounded and that the soldiers loaded 51 survivors (4 men and 47 women and children) onto wagons and took them to the Pine Ridge Reservation. Army casualties numbered 25 dead and 39 wounded.
"Suddenly, I heard a single shot from the direction of the troops. Then three or four. A few more. And immediately, a volley. At once came a general rattle of rifle firing then the Hotchkiss guns. ''
"... then many Indians broke into the ravine; some ran up the ravine and to favorable positions for defense. ''
"I did not know then how much was ended. When I look back now from this high hill of my old age, I can still see the butchered women and children lying heaped and scattered all along the crooked gulch as plain as when I saw them with eyes young. And I can see that something else died there in the bloody mud, and was buried in the blizzard. A people 's dream died there. It was a beautiful dream... the nation 's hoop is broken and scattered. There is no center any longer, and the sacred tree is dead. ''
"There was a woman with an infant in her arms who was killed as she almost touched the flag of truce... A mother was shot down with her infant; the child not knowing that its mother was dead was still nursing... The women as they were fleeing with their babies were killed together, shot right through... and after most all of them had been killed a cry was made that all those who were not killed or wounded should come forth and they would be safe. Little boys... came out of their places of refuge, and as soon as they came in sight a number of soldiers surrounded them and butchered them there. ''
"I know the men did not aim deliberately and they were greatly excited. I do n't believe they saw their sights. They fired rapidly but it seemed to me only a few seconds till there was not a living thing before us; warriors, squaws, children, ponies, and dogs... went down before that unaimed fire. '' (Godfrey was a lieutenant in Captain Benteen 's force during the Battle of the Little Bighorn.)
"General Nelson A. Miles who visited the scene of carnage, following a three - day blizzard, estimated that around 300 snow shrouded forms were strewn over the countryside. He also discovered to his horror that helpless children and women with babies in their arms had been chased as far as two miles from the original scene of encounter and cut down without mercy by the troopers... Judging by the slaughter on the battlefield it was suggested that the soldiers simply went berserk. For who could explain such a merciless disregard for life?... As I see it the battle was more or less a matter of spontaneous combustion, sparked by mutual distrust... ''
Following a three - day blizzard, the military hired civilians to bury the dead Lakota. The burial party found the deceased frozen; they were gathered up and placed in a mass grave on a hill overlooking the encampment from which some of the fire from the Hotchkiss guns originated. It was reported that four infants were found alive, wrapped in their deceased mothers ' shawls. In all, 84 men, 44 women, and 18 children reportedly died on the field, while at least seven Lakota were mortally wounded. Miles denounced Forsyth and relieved him of command. An exhaustive Army Court of Inquiry convened by Miles criticized Forsyth for his tactical dispositions but otherwise exonerated him of responsibility. The Court of Inquiry, however, was not conducted as a formal court - martial.
The secretary of war concurred with the decision and reinstated Forsyth to command of the 7th Cavalry. Testimony had indicated that for the most part, troops attempted to avoid non-combatant casualties. Miles continued to criticize Forsyth, whom he believed had deliberately disobeyed his commands in order to destroy the Indians. Miles promoted the conclusion that Wounded Knee was a deliberate massacre rather than a tragedy caused by poor decisions, in an effort to destroy the career of Forsyth. This was later whitewashed and Forsyth was promoted to major general.
The American public 's reaction to the massacre at the time was generally favorable. Many non-Lakota living near the reservations interpreted the battle as the defeat of a murderous cult; others confused Ghost Dancers with Native Americans in general. In an editorial response to the event, the young newspaper editor L. Frank Baum, later the author of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, wrote in the Aberdeen Saturday Pioneer on January 3, 1891:
The Pioneer has before declared that our only safety depends upon the total extermination of the Indians. Having wronged them for centuries, we had better, in order to protect our civilization, follow it up by one more wrong and wipe these untamed and untamable creatures from the face of the earth. In this lies future safety for our settlers and the soldiers who are under incompetent commands. Otherwise, we may expect future years to be as full of trouble with the redskins as those have been in the past.
Soon after the event, Dewey Beard, his brother Joseph Horn Cloud, and others formed the Wounded Knee Survivors Association, which came to include descendants. They sought compensation from the U.S. government for the many fatalities and injured. Today the association is independent and works to preserve and protect the historic site from exploitation, and to administer any memorial erected there. Papers of the association (1890 -- 1973) and related materials are held by the University of South Dakota and are available for research. It was not until the 1990s that a memorial to the Lakota was included in the National Historic Landmark.
More than 80 years after the massacre, beginning on February 27, 1973, Wounded Knee was the site of the Wounded Knee incident, a 71 - day standoff between militants of the American Indian Movement -- who had chosen the site for its symbolic value -- and federal law enforcement officials.
Historically, Wounded Knee is generally considered to be the end of the collective multi-century series of conflicts between colonial and U.S. forces and American Indians, known collectively as the Indian Wars. It was not however the last armed conflict between Native Americans and the United States.
The Drexel Mission Fight was an armed confrontation between Lakota warriors and the United States Army that took place on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation on December 30, 1890, the day following Wounded Knee. The fight occurred on White Clay Creek approximately 15 miles north of Pine Ridge where Lakota fleeing from the continued hostile situation surrounding the massacre at Wounded Knee had set up camp.
Company K of the 7th Cavalry -- the unit involved at Wounded Knee -- was sent to force the Lakotas ' return to the areas they were assigned on their respective reservations. Some of the "hostiles '' were Brulé Lakota from the Rosebud Indian Reservation. The 7th Cavalry was pinned down in a valley by the combined Lakota forces and had to be rescued by the 9th Cavalry, an African American regiment nicknamed the "Buffalo Soldiers ''.
Among the Lakota warriors was a young Brulé from Rosebud named Plenty Horses who had recently returned from five years at the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania. A week after this fight, Plenty Horses shot and killed army lieutenant, Edward W. Casey, commandant of the Cheyenne Scouts (Troop L, 8th Cavalry). The testimony introduced at the trial of Plenty Horses and his subsequent acquittal also helped abrogate the legal culpability of the U.S. Army for the deaths at Wounded Knee.
For this 1890 offensive, the army awarded twenty Medals of Honor, its highest commendation. In the governmental Nebraska State Historical Society 's summer 1994 quarterly journal, Jerry Green construes that pre-1916 Medals of Honor were awarded more liberally; however, "the number of medals does seem disproportionate when compared to those awarded for other battles. '' Quantifying, he compares the three awarded for the Battle of Bear Paw Mountain 's five - day siege, to the twenty awarded for this short and one - sided action.
Historian Will G. Robinson notes that, in contrast, only three Medals of Honor were awarded among the 64,000 South Dakotans who fought for four years of World War II.
Native American activists have urged the medals be withdrawn, as they say they were "medals of dishonor ''. According to Lakota tribesman William Thunder Hawk, "The Medal of Honor is meant to reward soldiers who act heroically. But at Wounded Knee, they did n't show heroism; they showed cruelty. '' In 2001, the National Congress of American Indians passed two resolutions condemning the Medals of Honor awards and called on the U.S. government to rescind them.
Some of the citations on the medals awarded to the troopers at Wounded Knee state that they went in pursuit of Lakota who were trying to escape or hide. Another citation was for "conspicuous bravery in rounding up and bringing to the skirmish line a stampeded pack mule. ''
St. John 's Episcopal Mission Church was built on the hill behind the mass grave in which the victims had been buried, some survivors having been nursed in the then - new Holy Cross Mission Church. In 1903, descendants of those who died in the battle erected a monument at the gravesite. The memorial lists many of those who died at Wounded Knee along with an inscription that reads:
"This monument is erected by surviving relatives and other Ogalala and Cheyenne River Sioux Indians in memory of the Chief Big Foot massacre December 29, 1890. Col. Forsyth in command of US troops. Big Foot was a great chief of the Sioux Indians. He often said, ' I will stand in peace till my last day comes. ' He did many good and brave deeds for the white man and the red man. Many innocent women and children who knew no wrong died here. ''
The Wounded Knee Battlefield was declared a U.S. National Historic Landmark in 1965 and was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 1966.
Beginning in 1986, the group named "Big Foot Memorial Riders '' was formed to continue to honor the dead. The ceremony has attracted more participants each year and riders and their horses live with the cold weather, as well as the lack of food and water, as they retrace the path that their family members took to Wounded Knee. They carry with them a white flag to symbolize their hope for world peace, and to honor and remember the victims so that they will not be forgotten.
When the 7th Cavalry Regiment returned to duty at Fort Riley from Pine Ridge, South Dakota, the soldiers of the regiment raised money for a monument for members of the regiment killed at Wounded Knee. About $1,950 was collected, and on July 25, 1893, the monument was dedicated with 5,500 people in attendance. Today, the stone edifice still stands near Waters Hall.
The incident was initially referred to as the "Battle of Wounded Knee ''. Some American Indian groups have objected to this description and refer to it as the "Wounded Knee Massacre ''. The location of the conflict is officially known as the "Wounded Knee Battlefield ''. The U.S. Army currently refers to it as "Wounded Knee ''.
In his 1931 poem "American Names '', Stephen Vincent Benet coined the phrase "Bury my heart at Wounded Knee ''. The poem is about his love of American place names, not making reference to the "battle. '' However, when the line was used as the title of historian Dee Brown 's 1970 best - selling book, awareness was raised and Benet 's phrase became popularly associated with the incident.
Since the publication of the book, the phrase "Bury my heart at Wounded Knee '' has been used many times in reference to the battle, especially in music. In 1973, Stuttgart, Germany 's Gila released a krautrock / psychedelic folk album by the same name.
In 1992, Beverly (Buffy) Sainte - Marie released her song entitled "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee '', on her Coincidence and Likely Stories album.
Artists who have written or recorded songs referring to the battle at Wounded Knee include: Walela "Wounded Knee '' from their 1997 self - titled album. Nightwish ("Creek Mary 's Blood '' from their 2004 album "Once '' featuring John Two - Hawks); Manowar ("Spirit Horse Of The Cherokee '' from the 1992 album The Triumph Of Steel); Grant Lee Buffalo ("Were You There? '' from the album Storm Hymnal 2001); Johnny Cash (1972 's "Big Foot, '' which is strongly sympathetic); Gordon Lightfoot ("Protocol '' from his 1976 album Summertime Dream); The Indigo Girls (a cover of Sainte - Marie 's song); Charlie Parr ("1890 '' on his 2010 album When the Devil Goes Blind); Nik Kershaw ("Wounded Knee '' on his 1989 album The Works); Southern Death Cult ("Moya ''); The Waterboys ("Bury My Heart ''); Uriah Heep; Primus; Nahko and Medicine for the People; Patti Smith; Robbie Robertson; Five Iron Frenzy wrote the 2001 song "The Day We Killed '' with mentions of Custard, Black Kettle, and quotes Black Elk 's account from Black Elk Speaks on their album Five Iron Frenzy 2: Electric Boogaloo; Toad the Wet Sprocket; Marty Stuart; Bright Eyes; and "Pocahontas '' by Neil Young. On Sam Roberts ' 2006 Chemical City album, the song "The Bootleg Saint '' contains line critical of Knee Massacre. There is also a Welsh song called "Gwaed Ar Yr Eira Gwyn '' by Tecwyn Ifan on this incident. The song "American Ghost Dance '' by the Red Hot Chili Peppers makes extensve reference to the massacre as well.
In 1973, the American rock band Redbone, formed by Native Americans Patrick and Lolly Vasquez, released the song, "We Were All Wounded at Wounded Knee ''. The song ends with the subtly altered sentence, "We were all wounded by Wounded Knee. '' The song reached the number - one chart position across Europe. In the U.S., the song was initially withheld from release and then banned by several radio stations. Richard Stepp 's 2008 Native American Music Awards Native Heart nominated album, The Sacred Journey, has "Wounded Knee '' as its final track.
The massacre has been referred to in films, including Thunderheart (1992), Legends of the Fall (1994), The Last Samurai (2003), and Hidalgo (2004). The 2005 TNT mini-series Into the West included scenes of the massacre. In 2007, HBO Films released a film adaptation of the Dee Brown bestseller Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee.
In the 1996 DC comic book Saint of Killers, written by Garth Ennis, the main character becomes a surrogate Angel of Death, reaping souls whenever men kill other men violently. The story is set in the 1880s and, near the end of chapter 4, it is said that "four years later '' he was called upon at Wounded Knee.
In the 2013 video game BioShock Infinite, several main characters are veterans of Wounded Knee. The protagonist Booker DeWitt is haunted by his deeds during the battle.
7th U.S. Cavalry Col James W. Forsyth
First Squadron Maj Samuel Whitside
Second Squadron Cpt. Charles S. Isley
Battery E, 1st U.S. Artillery Captain Allyn Capron
Troop A, Indian Scouts
Map of Wounded Knee
Miniconjou Lakota dance at Cheyenne River, South Dakota, August 9, 1890
Holy Cross Episcopal Mission, used as hospital for wounded Lakota
Photographer taking pictures of campsite
Frozen corpse on field
The scene three days afterwards, with several bodies partially wrapped in blankets in the foreground.
Buffalo Bill, Capt. Baldwin, Gen. Nelson A. Miles, Capt. Moss, and others, on horseback, on battlefield of Wounded Knee.
Reenactment of U.S. troops surrounding the Lakota at Wounded Knee (1913).
Wounded Knee, 1940
Wounded Knee grave, 2003
James W. Forsyth
Gen. L.W. Colby holding Zintkala Nuni (Little Lost Bird), found on the Wounded Knee battlefield.
US Attorney General Eric Holder laying a wreath at the site of the Wounded Knee Memorial
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think of the devil and devil is here | Speak of the devil - wikipedia
"Speak of the devil '' is the short form of the idiom "Speak of the devil and he doth appear '' (or its alternative form "speak of the devil and he shall appear. ''). It is used when an object of discussion unexpectedly becomes present during the conversation. It can also be used about a topic that quickly becomes relevant, such as the onset of rain or a car breaking down. Used in this sense it can be seen as an alternative to the phrase "tempting fate ''.
Deriving from the Middle Ages, this proverb (which was, and to a certain extent still is, rendered as "Talk of the Devil... '') was a superstitious prohibition against speaking directly of the Devil or of evil in general, which was considered to incite that party to appear, generally with unfortunate consequences. Its first printed usage in modern English can be found in Giovanni Torriano 's Piazza Universale (1666), as "The English say, Talk of the Devil, and he 's presently at your elbow. ''
The phrase lost its overt message during the 19th century, during which it became a warning against eavesdroppers ("No good of himself does a listener hear, / Speak of the devil he 's sure to appear ''), and by the 20th century had taken on its present meaning.
Also: "חבל שלא דיברנו על המשיח ״ - "Too bad we were n't speaking about the messiah ''
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who had a crush on helga in hey arnold | List of Hey Arnold! Characters - wikipedia
This is a listing of characters from the Nickelodeon animated television series Hey Arnold!, Hey Arnold!: The Movie and Hey Arnold!: The Jungle Movie.
Arnold Phillip Shortman (voiced by Lane Toran in season 1, Phillip Van Dyke in seasons 2 -- 3, Spencer Klein in seasons 4 -- 5 and Hey Arnold!: The Movie, Alex D. Linz in the episodes, April Fools Day and The Journal, and Mason Vale Cotton in Hey Arnold!: The Jungle Movie), is the title character of the series. He is a dreamer and an idealist who always tries to see the best in people and do the right thing. His parents, Miles and Stella left to go to San Lorenzo when he was 1 year old, but never came back to Hillwood. Whenever he sees someone in trouble, especially Helga, Arnold goes out of his way to help them out, even if it 's not sensible to do so. Arnold often acts as the stable center to those around him, whether he 's around his "family '' in his paternal grandparents ' boarding house, or around his friends at school. He lives in Sunset Arms boarding house with his grandparents, Phil and Getrude.
Arnold has had two major crushes in the series: one with sixth - grader Ruth McDougal (through most of season 1), and one with a classmate named Lila Sawyer (from season 2 onwards). However, his most catalytic relationship is with his classmate and frenemy Helga Pataki. Helga is secretly in love with him, though to keep these feelings secret she bullies Arnold. Arnold is completely unaware of this fact for most of the series, other than the occasional hint from Helga and other classmates. Helga revealed her secret to Arnold during Hey Arnold!: The Movie, but Arnold gave Helga the opportunity to take back her confession, attributing it to "the heat of the moment ''. In the made - for - TV sequel Hey Arnold!: The Jungle Movie, Arnold returns Helga 's feelings with a kiss of his own, after thanking Helga for her help in finding his parents and using her locket to help activate the device that releases the cure to the sleeping sickness which his parents had contracted before they could release the cure. It 's also implied at the end of the movie that he and Helga become a couple, as Arnold holds hands with Helga (although Helga continues to be hostile to Arnold in public). Arnold is friends with most of his fellow fourth - graders, with his best friend being Gerald Johanssen, whose friendship dates as far back as preschool.
Arnold 's surname is never revealed on the show and the mystery surrounding his full name became a running gag on the show, by the last name almost being revealed, then someone or something interrupting or otherwise preventing it from being heard. It was finally revealed that his full name was Arnold Phillip Shortman.
Gerald Martin Johanssen (voiced by Jamil Walker Smith throughout the original series and Benjamin Flores, Jr. in Hey Arnold!: The Jungle Movie) is a nine - year - old boy and Arnold 's best friend. He is an athletic and street - smart boy who is portrayed as loyal, though much less responsible than Arnold. Gerald has known Arnold for many years, most likely since preschool. Besides being Arnold 's friend, Gerald also has a good deal of knowledge of many legendary stories in the city, or "urban legends '' as he calls them. He apparently gets these myths from a source he has nicknamed "Fuzzy Slippers '', mentioned in many episodes as his reliable assistant.
At school, Gerald is the class president, and considers himself very cool, and apparently, so do his friends. When it was revealed that Arnold was on Rhonda 's so - called "Cool List '', and that Gerald was on her other list known as "The Geek List '' (due to a grudge Rhonda had against him over running for class president), many classmates were surprised to find this out ("Cool Party '').
His most distinct features are his tall, Kid ' n Play - style hair, and his shirt with the number 33 on it (he also wears 33 on sports uniforms). He has a crush on Phoebe, who shares the same feelings for him. It 's implied that at the end of Hey Arnold!: The Jungle Movie that the two have become a couple as they are seen holding hands.
Helga Geraldine Pataki (voiced by Francesca Marie Smith) is a rough and cynical girl who puts on a mean, tomboyish front, making her the fourth grade bully. She constantly bullies Arnold to hide her true feelings of love for him, which is obsessive to the point where she has made many shrines dedicated to him. She is an academically - gifted student and a talented writer of poetry for her age. She occasionally expresses interest in pursuing the latter as a career. Despite this, she is neglected by her parents and often disrespectively calls them by their first names because she does not think they are worthy of being called "Mom '' and "Dad ''. Her alcoholic mother, Miriam, is usually depressed, forgetful, struggling to stay conscious, and frequently drinking "smoothies '' and "coffee ''. Helga relates very poorly to her. Her father, Bob, a successful pager salesman, who suffers from workaholism, rarely notices her existence, favoring her over-achieving, neurotic college - aged sister Olga, who Helga rarely gets along with. Helga does not really see him as her father, seeing as he is a horrible one. He never listens to Helga. Helga is also known for her catchword, "criminy! '', which she normally exclaims when stressed.
Helga resents her older sister Olga, a perfectionist. Although Helga will do her best to avoid unnecessary contact with Olga, she has shown feeling of love for her sister from time to time, as in the episode "Olga Gets Engaged '', when she intervenes on Olga 's behalf, saving her from what would have been a bad marriage, and "Big Sis '' when she reveals her jealousy of Olga 's relationship with Lila. In the episode "Quality Time '' it 's revealed that she hates corn and is allergic to strawberries they give her hives. In The Jungle Movie, she is shown to have an extensive video library of Arnold which she and Phoebe convince Gerald to use for the contest for the class field trip that Arnold hoped to win to search for his parents, which proves successful. During the trip Helga attempts to express her true feelings to Arnold who was not in the right frame of mind to hear it at the time and left abruptly leaving Helga heartbroken to the point she ripped up the picture of Arnold in her locket which she discards along with the fragments in the river. She briefly becomes angry at Arnold though after the class is captured by Lasombra and she sees Arnold crying while looking at a picture of his parents she forgives him and reaches for her locket only for her to remember she discarded it but finds that it and Arnold 's torn picture was recovered and repaired by Brainy. She convinces Gerald in helping her free Arnold so they could reach the Green Eyes before Lasombra got there first. Together with Arnold and Gerald they manage to find the Green Eyes. Helga also comes up with the idea to use her locket to replace the Corazon which was lost while they were struggling with Lasombra, which activates the mechanism to release the cure to the sleeping sickness curing the afflicted Green Eyes and Arnold 's parents. While she was attempting to retrieve her locket Arnold thanked her for all she did and returns her feelings, resulting in them kissing, only to be interrupted by Gerald. At the end of the movie when she, Arnold, Gerald and Pheobe were walking to school Arnold tries to hold her hand but she reverted to her old ways but secretly liked that Arnold made that attempt.
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when was the tragical history of doctor faustus written | Doctor Faustus (play) - wikipedia
Doctor Faustus Chorus Wagner Good Angel Bad Angel Valdes Cornelius Three scholars Lucifer Mephistophiles Robin Beelzebub Seven Deadly Sins Pope Adrian VI Raymond, King of Hungary Bruno Two Cardinals Archbishop of Rheims Friars Vintner Martino Frederick Benvolio Charles V Duke of Saxony Two soldiers Horse courser Carter Hostess of a tavern Duke and Duchess of Vanholt Servant
Darius Alexander the Great Alexander 's Paramour Helen of Troy Devils
The Tragical History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus, commonly referred to simply as Doctor Faustus, is an Elizabethan tragedy by Christopher Marlowe, based on German stories about the title character Faust, that was first performed sometime between 1588 and Marlowe 's death in 1593. Two different versions of the play were published in the Jacobean era, several years later.
The powerful effect of early productions of the play is indicated by the legends that quickly accrued around them -- that actual devils once appeared on the stage during a performance, "to the great amazement of both the actors and spectators '', a sight that was said to have driven some spectators mad.
The Admiral 's Men performed Doctor Faustus 25 times in the three years between October 1594 and October 1597. On 22 November 1602, the diary of Philip Henslowe recorded a £ 4 payment to Samuel Rowley and William Bird for additions to the play, which suggests a revival soon after that date.
The powerful effect of the early productions is indicated by the legends that quickly accrued around them. In Histriomastix, his 1632 polemic against the drama, William Prynne records the tale that actual devils once appeared on the stage during a performance of Faustus, "to the great amazement of both the actors and spectators ''. Some people were allegedly driven mad, "distracted with that fearful sight ''. John Aubrey recorded a related legend, that Edward Alleyn, lead actor of The Admiral 's Men, devoted his later years to charitable endeavours, like the founding of Dulwich College, in direct response to this incident.
The play may have been entered into the Stationers ' Register on 18 December 1592, though the records are confused and appear to indicate a conflict over the rights to the play. A subsequent Stationers ' Register entry, dated 7 January 1601, assigns the play to the bookseller Thomas Bushnell, the publisher of the 1604 first edition. Bushnell transferred his rights to the play to John Wright on 13 September 1610.
Two versions of the play exist:
The 1604 version was once believed to be closer to the play as originally performed in Marlowe 's lifetime, simply because it was older. By the 1940s, after influential studies by Leo Kirschbaum and W.W. Greg, the 1604 version came to be regarded as an abbreviation and the 1616 version as Marlowe 's original fuller version. Kirschbaum and Greg considered the A-text a "bad quarto '', and thought that the B - text was linked to Marlowe himself. Since then scholarship has swung the other way, most scholars now considering the A-text more authoritative, even if "abbreviated and corrupt '', according to Charles Nicholl.
The 1616 version omits 36 lines but adds 676 new lines, making it roughly one third longer than the 1604 version. Among the lines shared by both versions, there are some small but significant changes in wording; for example, "Never too late, if Faustus can repent '' in the 1604 text becomes "Never too late, if Faustus will repent '' in the 1616 text, a change that offers a very different possibility for Faustus 's hope and repentance.
Another difference between texts A and B is the name of the devil summoned by Faustus. Text A states the name is generally "Mephistopheles '', while the version of text B commonly states "Mephostophilis ''. The name of the devil is in each case a reference to Mephistopheles in Faustbuch, the source work, which appeared in English translation in about 1588.
The relationship between the texts is uncertain and many modern editions print both. As an Elizabethan playwright, Marlowe had nothing to do with the publication and had no control over the play in performance, so it was possible for scenes to be dropped or shortened, or for new scenes to be added, so that the resulting publications may be modified versions of the original script.
In the past, it was assumed that the comic scenes were additions by other writers. However, most scholars today consider the comic interludes, whoever wrote them, an integral part of the play. Their tone shows the change in Faustus 's ambitions, suggesting Marlowe did oversee the composition of them. The clown is seen as the archetype for comic relief.
Doctor Faustus is based on an older tale; it is believed to be the first dramatization of the Faust legend. Some scholars believe that Marlowe developed the story from a popular 1592 translation, commonly called The English Faust Book. There is thought to have been an earlier, lost, German edition of 1587, the Historia von D. Johann Fausten (chapbook), which itself may have been influenced by even earlier, equally unpreserved pamphlets in Latin, such as those that likely inspired Jacob Bidermann 's treatment of the damnation of the doctor of Paris, Cenodoxus (1602). Several soothsayers or necromancers of the late fifteenth century adopted the name Faustus, a reference to the Latin for "favoured '' or "auspicious ''; typical was Georgius Faustus Helmstetensis, calling himself astrologer and chiromancer, who was expelled from the town of Ingolstadt for such practices. Subsequent commentators have identified this individual as the prototypical Faustus of the legend.
Whatever the inspiration, the development of Marlowe 's play is very faithful to the Faust Book, especially in the way it mixes comedy with tragedy.
However, Marlowe also introduced some changes to make it more original. He made three main additions:
He also emphasised Faustus ' intellectual aspirations and curiosity, and minimised the vices in the character, to lend a Renaissance aura to the story.
The play is in blank verse and prose in thirteen scenes (1604) or twenty scenes (1616).
Blank verse is largely reserved for the main scenes while prose is used in the comic scenes. Modern texts divide the play into five acts; act 5 being the shortest. As in many Elizabethan plays, there is a chorus (which functions as a narrator), that does not interact with the other characters but rather provides an introduction and conclusion to the play and, at the beginning of some Acts, introduces events that have unfolded.
Along with its history and language style, scholars have critiqued and analysed the structure of the play. Leonard H. Frey wrote a document entitled "In the Opening and Close of Doctor Faustus, '' which mainly focuses on Faustus 's opening and closing soliloquies. He stresses the importance of the soliloquies in the play, saying: "the soliloquy, perhaps more than any other dramatic device, involved the audience in an imaginative concern with the happenings on stage ''. By having Doctor Faustus deliver these soliloquies at the beginning and end of the play, the focus is drawn to his inner thoughts and feelings about succumbing to the devil. The soliloquies have parallel concepts. In the introductory soliloquy, Faustus begins by pondering the fate of his life and what he wants his career to be. He ends his soliloquy with the solution and decision to give his soul to the devil. Similarly in the closing soliloquy, Faustus begins pondering, and finally comes to terms with the fate he created for himself. Frey also explains: "The whole pattern of this final soliloquy is thus a grim parody of the opening one, where decision is reached after, not prior to, the survey ''.
In the prologue, the Chorus introduces the reader to Faustus and his story. He is described as being "base of stock ''; however, his intelligence and scholarship eventually earns him the degree of a Doctor at the University of Wittenburg. During this opening, the reader also gets a first clue to the source of Faustus 's downfall. Faustus 's tale is likened to that of Icarus, who flew too close to the sun and fell to his death when the sun melted his waxen wings. This is a hint to Faustus 's end as well as bringing to the reader 's attention the idea of hubris (excessive pride), which is represented in the Icarus story and ultimately Faustus '.
Faustus comments that he has mastered every subject he has studied. He depreciates Logic as merely being a tool for arguing; Medicine as being unvalued unless it allowed raising the dead and immortality; Law as being mercenary and beneath him; and Divinity as useless because he feels that all humans commit sin, and thus to have sins punishable by death complicates the logic of Divinity. He dismisses it as "What doctrine call you this? Que sera, sera '' (What will be, shall be).
Faustus instructs his servant Wagner to summon Valdes and Cornelius, a famous witchcrafter and magician, respectively. Two angels, called the Good Angel and the Bad Angel, appear to Faustus and dispense their own perspectives of his interest in magic and necromancy. Though Faustus seems momentarily dissuaded, he is apparently won over by the Bad Angel, proclaiming, "How am I glutted with conceit of this? '' ("conceit '' meaning the possibilities magic offers to him). Valdes and Cornnelius declare that if Faustus devotes himself to magic, great things are indeed possible with someone of Faustus ' learning and intelligence.
Faustus ' absence is noted by two scholars who are less accomplished than Faustus himself. They request that Wagner reveal Faustus ' present location, a request which Wagner at first haughtily denies, then bombastically reveals. The two scholars worry about Faustus being corrupted by the art of Magic and leave to inform the rector of the university.
That night, Faustus begins his attempt to summon a devil in the presence of Lucifer and other devils (although Faustus is unaware of their presence). After he creates a magic circle and speaks an incantation through which he revokes his baptism, a demon (a representative of the devil himself) named Mephistophilis appears before him, but Faustus is unable to tolerate the hideous looks of the demon and commands it to change its appearance. Faustus, seeing the obedience of the demon in changing its form, takes pride in his skill. He tries to bind the demon to his service, but is unable to because Mephistophilis already serves Lucifer, who is also called the Prince of Devils. Mephistophilis also reveals that it was not Faustus ' power that summoned him but rather his abjuration of scriptures that results in the Devil coming in the hope of claiming Faustus ' soul.
Mephistophilis introduces the history of Lucifer and the other devils while indirectly telling Faustus that Hell has no circumference nor limit and is more of a state of mind than a physical location. Faustus ' inquiries into the nature of hell lead to Mephistophilis saying: "Oh, Faustus, leave these frivolous demands, which strikes a terror to my fainting soul ''.
Using Mephistophilis as a messenger, Faustus strikes a deal with Lucifer: he is to be allotted 24 years of life on Earth, during which time he will have Mephistophilis as his personal servant and the ability to use magic; however, at the end he will give his body and soul over to Lucifer as payment and spend the rest of time as one damned to Hell. This deal is to be sealed in the form of a contract written in Faustus ' own blood. After cutting his arm, the wound is divinely healed and the Latin words Homo, fuge! ("Man, flee! '') then appear upon it. Despite the dramatic nature of this divine intervention, Faustus disregards the inscription with the assertion that he is already damned by his actions thus far and therefore left with no place to which he could flee. Mephistophilis brings coals to break the wound open again, and thus Faustus is able to take his oath written in his own blood.
Faustus begins by asking Mephistophilis a series of science - related questions. However, the demon seems to be quite evasive and finishes with a Latin phrase, Per inoequalem motum respect totes ("through unequal motion with respect to the whole thing ''). This sentence has not the slightest scientific value, thus giving the impression that Mephistophilis is untrustworthy.
Faustus then asks who made the world, a question which Mephistophilis refuses to answer (Mephistophilis knows that God made the world). When Faustus announces his intention to renounce magic and repent, Mephistophilis storms away. The good and evil angels return to Faustus: the Good Angel urges him to repent and recant his oath to Lucifer, but the Evil Angel sneers that Faustus will never repent. This is the largest fault of Faustus throughout the play: he is blind to his own salvation and remains set on his soul 's damnation.
Lucifer, accompanied by Beelzebub and Mephistophilis, appears to Faustus and frightens him into obedience to their pact. Lucifer then, as an entertainment, brings to Faustus the personification of the seven deadly sins. Faustus fails to see them as warnings and ignores their implication.
From this point until the end of the play, although he gains great fame for his powers, Dr. Faustus does nothing worthwhile, having begun his pact with the attitude that he would be able to do anything. Instead, he merely uses his temporary powers for practical jokes and frivolous demonstrations to the nobility. Finally, with his allotted 24 years mostly expired and realizing that he has given up his soul for no good reason, Faustus appears to scholars and warns them that he is damned and will not be long on the Earth. He gives a speech about how he is damned and eventually seems to repent for his deeds.
At the end of the play, on the eleventh hour, Mephistophilis comes to collect Faustus ' soul and Faustus is dragged off the stage to Hell by Mephistophilis and other devils even though Dr. Faustus tries to repent and beg for mercy from those devils. In the later ' B text ' of the play, there is a subsequent scene (V. iii) where the three scholars discover his remains strewn about the stage: they state that Faustus was damned, one scholar declaring that the devils have torn him asunder, but they determine, because of Faustus ' learning, to have him properly buried and mourned. Mephistophilis says to Faustus in the A text ' What are thou, Faustus, but a man condemned to die '
The theological implications of Doctor Faustus have been the subject of considerable debate throughout the last century. Among the most complicated points of contention is whether the play supports or challenges the Calvinist doctrine of absolute predestination, which dominated the lectures and writings of many English scholars in the latter half of the sixteenth century. According to Calvin, predestination meant that God, acting of his own free will, elects some people to be saved and others to be damned -- thus, the individual has no control over his own ultimate fate. This doctrine was the source of great controversy because it was seen by the so - called anti-Calvinists to limit man 's free will in regard to faith and salvation, and to present a dilemma in terms of theodicy.
At the time Doctor Faustus was performed, this doctrine was on the rise in England, and under the direction of Puritan theologians at Cambridge and Oxford had come to be considered the orthodox position of the Church of England. Nevertheless, it remained the source of vigorous and, at times, heated debate between Calvinist scholars, such as William Whitaker and William Perkins, and anti-Calvinists, such as William Barrett and Peter Baro. The dispute between these Cambridge intellectuals had quite nearly reached its zenith by the time Marlowe was a student there in the 1580s, and likely would have influenced him deeply, as it did many of his fellow students.
Concerning the fate of Faustus, the Calvinist concludes that his damnation was inevitable. His rejection of God and subsequent inability to repent are taken as evidence that he never really belonged to the elect, but rather had been predestined from the very beginning for reprobation. In his Chiefe Points of Christian Religion, Theodore Beza, the successor to John Calvin, describes the category of sinner into which Faustus would most likely have been cast:
For the Calvinist, Faustus represents the worst kind of sinner, having tasted the heavenly gift and rejected it. His damnation is justified and deserved because he was never truly adopted among the elect. According to this view, the play demonstrates Calvin 's "three - tiered concept of causation, '' in which the damnation of Faustus is first willed by God, then by Satan, and finally, by himself. As Calvin himself explains it in his Institutes of Christian Religion:
The anti-Calvinist view, however, finds such thinking repugnant, and prefers to interpret Doctor Faustus as a criticism of such doctrines. One of the greatest critics of Calvinism in Marlowe 's day was Peter Baro, who argued that such teachings fostered despair among believers, rather than repentance among sinners. He claimed, in fact, that Calvinism created a theodical dilemma:
Baro recognised the threat of despair which faced the Protestant church if it did not come to an agreement of how to understand the fundamentals. For him, the Calvinists were overcomplicating the issues of faith and repentance, and thereby causing great and unnecessary confusion among struggling believers. Faustus himself confesses a similar sentiment regarding predestination:
Faustus includes a well - known speech addressed to the summoned shade of Helen of Troy, in Act V, scene I. The following is from the Gutenberg project e-text of the 1604 quarto (with footnotes removed).
Faustus
Another well - known passage comes after Faustus asks Mephistophiles how he (Mephistophiles) is out of Hell, to which Mephistophiles replies:
This quote comes from a translation of Saint John Chrysostom, and implies that the fallen angel Mephistophilis has both a deep knowledge of and longing for God, whom he still rebels against.
"Ravished '' by magic (1.1. 112), Faustus turns to the dark arts when law, logic, science, and theology fail to satisfy him. According to Charles Nicholl this places the play firmly in the Elizabethan period when the problem of magic ("liberation or damnation? '') was a matter of debate, and when Renaissance occultism aimed at a furthering of science. Nicholl, who connects Faustus as a "studious artisan '' (1.1. 56) to the "hands - on experience '' promoted by Paracelsus, sees in the former a follower of the latter, a "magician as technologist ''.
Mephistophiles is a demon whom Faustus conjures up while first using magic. Readers initially feel sympathy for the demon when he attempts to explain to Faustus the consequences of abjuring God and Heaven. Mephistophiles gives Faustus a description of Hell and the continuous horrors it possesses; he wants Faustus to know what he is getting himself into before going through with the bargain:
However, Faustus believes that supernatural powers are worth a lifetime in Hell:
Some scholars argue that Mephistophiles depicts the sorrow that comes with separation from God. Mephistophiles is foreshadowing the pain Faustus would have to endure, should he go through with his plan. In this facet, Faustus can be likened to Icarus, whose insatiable ambition was the source of his misery and the cause of his plight.
The first television adaptation was broadcast in 1947 by the BBC starring David King - Wood as Faustus and Hugh Griffith as Mephistopheles.
Another BBC television version was broadcast in 1958 and starred William Squire as Faustus in an adaptation by Ronald Eyre intended for schools.
In 1961, the BBC adapted the play for television as a two - episode production starring Alan Dobie as Faustus; this production was also meant for use in schools
The play was adapted for the screen in 1967 by Richard Burton and Nevill Coghill, who based the film on an Oxford University Dramatic Society production in which Burton starred opposite Elizabeth Taylor as Helen of Troy.
The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation broadcast a full radio adaptation of the play with Kenneth Welsh as Faustus and Eric Peterson as Mephistopheles and later released it on audio cassette (ISBN 978 - 0 - 660 - 18526 - 2) in 2001 as part of its "Great Plays of the Millennium '' series.
In 2007, BBC Radio 3 broadcast an adaptation of the play with Paterson Joseph as Faustus, Ray Fearon as Mephistopheles, Toby Jones as Wagner, Janet McTeer as the Evil Angel and Anton Lesser as the Emperor.
Two live performances in London have been videotaped and released on DVD: one at the Greenwich Theatre in 2010 and one at the Globe Theatre in 2011 starring Paul Hilton as Faustus and Arthur Darvill as Mephistopheles.
Doctor Faustus has raised much controversy due to its alleged interaction with the demonic realm. Before Marlowe, there were few authors who ventured into this kind of writing. After his play, other authors began to expand on their views of the spiritual world.
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who was buried in the great pyramid of giza | Great Pyramid of Giza - wikipedia
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The Great Pyramid of Giza (also known as the Pyramid of Khufu or the Pyramid of Cheops) is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza pyramid complex bordering what is now El Giza, Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain largely intact.
Based on a mark in an interior chamber naming the work gang and a reference to the fourth dynasty Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu, Egyptologists believe that the pyramid was built as a tomb over a 10 - to 20 - year period concluding around 2560 BC. Initially at 146.5 metres (481 feet), the Great Pyramid was the tallest man - made structure in the world for more than 3,800 years. Originally, the Great Pyramid was covered by limestone casing stones that formed a smooth outer surface; what is seen today is the underlying core structure. Some of the casing stones that once covered the structure can still be seen around the base. There have been varying scientific and alternative theories about the Great Pyramid 's construction techniques. Most accepted construction hypotheses are based on the idea that it was built by moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place.
There are three known chambers inside the Great Pyramid. The lowest chamber is cut into the bedrock upon which the pyramid was built and was unfinished. The so - called Queen 's Chamber and King 's Chamber are higher up within the pyramid structure. The main part of the Giza complex is a set of buildings that included two mortuary temples in honour of Khufu (one close to the pyramid and one near the Nile), three smaller pyramids for Khufu 's wives, an even smaller "satellite '' pyramid, a raised causeway connecting the two temples, and small mastaba tombs surrounding the pyramid for nobles.
Egyptologists believe the pyramid was built as a tomb for the Fourth Dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu (often Hellenized as "Cheops '') and was constructed over a 20 - year period. Khufu 's vizier, Hemiunu (also called Hemon) is believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid. It is thought that, at construction, the Great Pyramid was originally 280 Egyptian Royal cubits tall (146.5 metres (480.6 ft)), but with erosion and absence of its pyramidion, its present height is 138.8 metres (455.4 ft). Each base side was 440 cubits, 230.4 metres (755.9 ft) long. The mass of the pyramid is estimated at 5.9 million tonnes. The volume, including an internal hillock, is roughly 2,500,000 cubic metres (88,000,000 cu ft).
Based on these estimates, building the pyramid in 20 years would involve installing approximately 800 tonnes of stone every day. Additionally, since it consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks, completing the building in 20 years would involve moving an average of more than 12 of the blocks into place each hour, day and night. The first precision measurements of the pyramid were made by Egyptologist Sir Flinders Petrie in 1880 -- 82 and published as The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh. Almost all reports are based on his measurements. Many of the casing - stones and inner chamber blocks of the Great Pyramid fit together with extremely high precision. Based on measurements taken on the north - eastern casing stones, the mean opening of the joints is only 0.5 millimetre wide (1 / 50 of an inch).
The pyramid remained the tallest man - made structure in the world for over 3,800 years, unsurpassed until the 160 - metre - tall (520 ft) spire of Lincoln Cathedral was completed c. 1300. The accuracy of the pyramid 's workmanship is such that the four sides of the base have an average error of only 58 millimetres in length. The base is horizontal and flat to within ± 15 mm (0.6 in). The sides of the square base are closely aligned to the four cardinal compass points (within four minutes of arc) based on true north, not magnetic north, and the finished base was squared to a mean corner error of only 12 seconds of arc.
The completed design dimensions, as suggested by Petrie 's survey and subsequent studies, are estimated to have originally been 280 Egyptian Royal cubits high by 440 cubits long at each of the four sides of its base. The ratio of the perimeter to height of 1760 / 280 Egyptian Royal cubits equates to 2 π to an accuracy of better than 0.05 % (corresponding to the well - known approximation of π as 22 / 7). Some Egyptologists consider this to have been the result of deliberate design proportion. Verner wrote, "We can conclude that although the ancient Egyptians could not precisely define the value of π, in practice they used it ''. Petrie, author of Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh concluded: "but these relations of areas and of circular ratio are so systematic that we should grant that they were in the builder 's design ''. Others have argued that the Ancient Egyptians had no concept of pi and would not have thought to encode it in their monuments. They believe that the observed pyramid slope may be based on a simple seked slope choice alone, with no regard to the overall size and proportions of the finished building. In 2013, rolls of papyrus called the Diary of Merer were discovered written by some of those who delivered limestone and other construction materials from Tora to Giza.
The Great Pyramid consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks which most believe to have been transported from nearby quarries. The Tura limestone used for the casing was quarried across the river. The largest granite stones in the pyramid, found in the "King 's '' chamber, weigh 25 to 80 tonnes and were transported from Aswan, more than 800 km (500 mi) away. Traditionally, ancient Egyptians cut stone blocks by hammering into them wooden wedges, which were then soaked with water. As the water was absorbed, the wedges expanded, causing the rock to crack. Once they were cut, they were carried by boat either up or down the Nile River to the pyramid. It is estimated that 5.5 million tonnes of limestone, 8,000 tonnes of granite (imported from Aswan), and 500,000 tonnes of mortar were used in the construction of the Great Pyramid.
At completion, the Great Pyramid was surfaced by white "casing stones '' -- slant - faced, but flat - topped, blocks of highly polished white limestone. These were carefully cut to what is approximately a face slope with a seked of 51⁄2 palms to give the required dimensions. Visibly, all that remains is the underlying stepped core structure seen today. In AD 1303, a massive earthquake loosened many of the outer casing stones, which were then carted away by Bahri Sultan An - Nasir Nasir - ad - Din al - Hasan in 1356 to build mosques and fortresses in nearby Cairo. Many more casing stones were removed from the great pyramids by Muhammad Ali Pasha in the early 19th century to build the upper portion of his Alabaster Mosque in Cairo, not far from Giza. These limestone casings can still be seen as parts of these structures. Later explorers reported massive piles of rubble at the base of the pyramids left over from the continuing collapse of the casing stones, which were subsequently cleared away during continuing excavations of the site.
Nevertheless, a few of the casing stones from the lowest course can be seen to this day in situ around the base of the Great Pyramid, and display the same workmanship and precision that has been reported for centuries. Petrie also found a different orientation in the core and in the casing measuring 193 centimetres ± 25 centimetres. He suggested a redetermination of north was made after the construction of the core, but a mistake was made, and the casing was built with a different orientation. Petrie related the precision of the casing stones as to being "equal to opticians ' work of the present day, but on a scale of acres '' and "to place such stones in exact contact would be careful work; but to do so with cement in the joints seems almost impossible ''. It has been suggested it was the mortar (Petrie 's "cement '') that made this seemingly impossible task possible, providing a level bed, which enabled the masons to set the stones exactly.
Many alternative, often contradictory, theories have been proposed regarding the pyramid 's construction techniques. Many disagree on whether the blocks were dragged, lifted, or even rolled into place. The Greeks believed that slave labour was used, but modern discoveries made at nearby workers ' camps associated with construction at Giza suggest that it was built instead by tens of thousands of skilled workers. Verner posited that the labour was organized into a hierarchy, consisting of two gangs of 100,000 men, divided into five zaa or phyle of 20,000 men each, which may have been further divided according to the skills of the workers.
One mystery of the pyramid 's construction is its planning. John Romer suggests that they used the same method that had been used for earlier and later constructions, laying out parts of the plan on the ground at a 1 - to - 1 scale. He writes that "such a working diagram would also serve to generate the architecture of the pyramid with precision unmatched by any other means ''. He also argues for a 14 - year time - span for its construction. A modern construction management study, in association with Mark Lehner and other Egyptologists, estimated that the total project required an average workforce of about 14,500 people and a peak workforce of roughly 40,000. Without the use of pulleys, wheels, or iron tools, they used critical path analysis methods, which suggest that the Great Pyramid was completed from start to finish in approximately 10 years.
The original entrance to the Great Pyramid is on the north, 17 metres (56 ft) vertically above ground level and 7.29 metres (23.9 ft) east of the centre line of the pyramid. From this original entrance, there is a Descending Passage 0.96 metres (3.1 ft) high and 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide, which goes down at an angle of 26 ° 31'23 '' through the masonry of the pyramid and then into the bedrock beneath it. After 105.23 metres (345.2 ft), the passage becomes level and continues for an additional 8.84 metres (29.0 ft) to the lower Chamber, which appears not to have been finished. There is a continuation of the horizontal passage in the south wall of the lower chamber; there is also a pit dug in the floor of the chamber. Some Egyptologists suggest that this Lower Chamber was intended to be the original burial chamber, but Pharaoh Khufu later changed his mind and wanted it to be higher up in the pyramid.
28.2 metres (93 ft) from the entrance is a square hole in the roof of the Descending Passage. Originally concealed with a slab of stone, this is the beginning of the Ascending Passage. The Ascending Passage is 39.3 metres (129 ft) long, as wide and high as the Descending Passage and slopes up at almost precisely the same angle to reach the Grand Gallery. The lower end of the Ascending Passage is closed by three huge blocks of granite, each about 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) long. One must use the Robbers ' Tunnel (see below) to access the Ascending Passage. At the start of the Grand Gallery on the right - hand side there is a hole cut in the wall. This is the start of a vertical shaft which follows an irregular path through the masonry of the pyramid to join the Descending Passage. Also at the start of the Grand Gallery there is the Horizontal Passage leading to the "Queen 's Chamber ''. The passage is 1.1 m (3'8 ") high for most of its length, but near the chamber there is a step in the floor, after which the passage is 1.73 metres (5.7 ft) high.
The "Queen 's Chamber '' is exactly halfway between the north and south faces of the pyramid and measures 5.75 metres (18.9 ft) north to south, 5.23 metres (17.2 ft) east to west, and has a pointed roof with an apex 6.23 metres (20.4 ft) above the floor. At the eastern end of the chamber there is a niche 4.67 metres (15.3 ft) high. The original depth of the niche was 1.04 metres (3.4 ft), but has since been deepened by treasure hunters.
In the north and south walls of the Queen 's Chamber there are shafts, which, unlike those in the King 's Chamber that immediately slope upwards (see below), are horizontal for around 2 m (6.6 ft) before sloping upwards. The horizontal distance was cut in 1872 by a British engineer, Waynman Dixon, who believed a shaft similar to those in the King 's Chamber must also exist. He was proved right, but because the shafts are not connected to the outer faces of the pyramid or the Queen 's Chamber, their purpose is unknown. At the end of one of his shafts, Dixon discovered a ball of black diorite (a type of rock) and a bronze implement of unknown purpose. Both objects are currently in the British Museum.
The shafts in the Queen 's Chamber were explored in 1993 by the German engineer Rudolf Gantenbrink using a crawler robot he designed, Upuaut 2. After a climb of 65 m (213 ft), he discovered that one of the shafts was blocked by limestone "doors '' with two eroded copper "handles ''. Some years later the National Geographic Society created a similar robot which, in September 2002, drilled a small hole in the southern door, only to find another door behind it. The northern passage, which was difficult to navigate because of twists and turns, was also found to be blocked by a door.
Research continued in 2011 with the Djedi Project. Realizing the problem was that the National Geographic Society 's camera was only able to see straight ahead of it, they instead used a fibre - optic "micro snake camera '' that could see around corners. With this they were able to penetrate the first door of the southern shaft through the hole drilled in 2002, and view all the sides of the small chamber behind it. They discovered hieroglyphs written in red paint. They were also able to scrutinize the inside of the two copper "handles '' embedded in the door, and they now believe them to be for decorative purposes. They also found the reverse side of the "door '' to be finished and polished, which suggests that it was not put there just to block the shaft from debris, but rather for a more specific reason.
The Grand Gallery continues the slope of the Ascending Passage, but is 8.6 metres (28 ft) high and 46.68 metres (153.1 ft) long. At the base it is 2.06 metres (6.8 ft) wide, but after 2.29 metres (7.5 ft) the blocks of stone in the walls are corbelled inwards by 7.6 centimetres (3.0 in) on each side. There are seven of these steps, so, at the top, the Grand Gallery is only 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide. It is roofed by slabs of stone laid at a slightly steeper angle than the floor of the gallery, so that each stone fits into a slot cut in the top of the gallery like the teeth of a ratchet. The purpose was to have each block supported by the wall of the Gallery, rather than resting on the block beneath it, in order to prevent cumulative pressure.
At the upper end of the Gallery on the right - hand side there is a hole near the roof that opens into a short tunnel by which access can be gained to the lowest of the Relieving Chambers. The other Relieving Chambers were discovered in 1837 -- 1838 by Colonel Howard Vyse and J.S. Perring, who dug tunnels upwards using blasting powder.
The floor of the Grand Gallery consists of a shelf or step on either side, 51 centimetres (20 in) wide, leaving a lower ramp 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide between them. In the shelves there are 54 slots, 27 on each side matched by vertical and horizontal slots in the walls of the Gallery. These form a cross shape that rises out of the slot in the shelf. The purpose of these slots is not known, but the central gutter in the floor of the Gallery, which is the same width as the Ascending Passage, has led to speculation that the blocking stones were stored in the Grand Gallery and the slots held wooden beams to restrain them from sliding down the passage. This, in turn, has led to the proposal that originally many more than 3 blocking stones were intended, to completely fill the Ascending Passage.
At the top of the Grand Gallery, there is a step giving onto a horizontal passage some metres long and approximately 1.02 metres (3.3 ft) in height and width, in which can be detected four slots, three of which were probably intended to hold granite portcullises. Fragments of granite found by Petrie in the Descending Passage may have come from these now - vanished doors.
In 2017, scientists from the Scan Pyramids Project discovered a large cavity above the Grand Gallery, using muon radiography that can detect cosmic rays. Its length is at least 30 metres (98 ft) and its cross-section is similar to that of the Grand Gallery. It was detected using three different technologies: nuclear emulsion films, scintillator hodoscopes, and gas detectors. The purpose of the cavity is not known and it is not accessible but according to Zahi Hawass it may have been a gap used in the construction of the Grand Gallery. The Japanese research team disputes this, however, saying that the huge void is completely different from the construction spaces previously identified.
The "King 's Chamber '' is 20 Egyptian Royal cubits or 10.47 metres (34.4 ft) from east to west and 10 cubits or 5.234 metres (17.17 ft) north to south. It has a flat roof 11 cubits and 5 digits or 5.852 metres (19 feet 2 inch) above the floor. 0.91 m (3.0 ft) above the floor there are two narrow shafts in the north and south walls (one is now filled by an extractor fan in an attempt to circulate air inside the pyramid). The purpose of these shafts is not clear: they appear to be aligned towards stars or areas of the northern and southern skies, yet one of them follows a dog - leg course through the masonry, indicating no intention to directly sight stars through them. They were long believed by Egyptologists to be "air shafts '' for ventilation, but this idea has now been widely abandoned in favour of the shafts serving a ritualistic purpose associated with the ascension of the king 's spirit to the heavens.
The King 's Chamber is entirely faced with granite. Above the roof, which is formed of nine slabs of stone weighing in total about 400 tons, are five compartments known as Relieving Chambers. The first four, like the King 's Chamber, have flat roofs formed by the floor of the chamber above, but the final chamber has a pointed roof. Vyse suspected the presence of upper chambers when he found that he could push a long reed through a crack in the ceiling of the first chamber. From lower to upper, the chambers are known as "Davison 's Chamber '', "Wellington 's Chamber '', "Nelson 's Chamber '', "Lady Arbuthnot 's Chamber '', and "Campbell 's Chamber ''. It is believed that the compartments were intended to safeguard the King 's Chamber from the possibility of a roof collapsing under the weight of stone above the Chamber. As the chambers were not intended to be seen, they were not finished in any way and a few of the stones still retain masons ' marks painted on them. One of the stones in Campbell 's Chamber bears a mark, apparently the name of a work gang.
The only object in the King 's Chamber is a rectangular granite sarcophagus, one corner of which is broken. The sarcophagus is slightly larger than the Ascending Passage, which indicates that it must have been placed in the Chamber before the roof was put in place. Unlike the fine masonry of the walls of the Chamber, the sarcophagus is roughly finished, with saw - marks visible in several places. This is in contrast with the finely finished and decorated sarcophagi found in other pyramids of the same period. Petrie suggested that such a sarcophagus was intended but was lost in the river on the way north from Aswan and a hurriedly made replacement was used instead.
Today tourists enter the Great Pyramid via the Robbers ' Tunnel, a tunnel purportedly created around AD 820 by Caliph al - Ma'mun 's workmen using a battering ram. The tunnel is cut straight through the masonry of the pyramid for approximately 27 metres (89 ft), then turns sharply left to encounter the blocking stones in the Ascending Passage. It is believed that their efforts dislodged the stone fitted in the ceiling of the Descending Passage to hide the entrance to the Ascending Passage and it was the noise of that stone falling and then sliding down the Descending Passage, which alerted them to the need to turn left. Unable to remove these stones, however, the workmen tunnelled up beside them through the softer limestone of the Pyramid until they reached the Ascending Passage. It is possible to enter the Descending Passage from this point, but access is usually forbidden.
The Great Pyramid is surrounded by a complex of several buildings including small pyramids. The Pyramid Temple, which stood on the east side of the pyramid and measured 52.2 metres (171 ft) north to south and 40 metres (130 ft) east to west, has almost entirely disappeared apart from the black basalt paving. There are only a few remnants of the causeway which linked the pyramid with the valley and the Valley Temple. The Valley Temple is buried beneath the village of Nazlet el - Samman; basalt paving and limestone walls have been found but the site has not been excavated. The basalt blocks show "clear evidence '' of having been cut with some kind of saw with an estimated cutting blade of 15 feet (4.6 m) in length, capable of cutting at a rate of 1.5 inches (38 mm) per minute. John Romer suggests that this "super saw '' may have had copper teeth and weighed up to 300 pounds (140 kg). He theorizes that such a saw could have been attached to a wooden trestle and possibly used in conjunction with vegetable oil, cutting sand, emery or pounded quartz to cut the blocks, which would have required the labour of at least a dozen men to operate it.
On the south side are the subsidiary pyramids, popularly known as the Queens ' Pyramids. Three remain standing to nearly full height but the fourth was so ruined that its existence was not suspected until the recent discovery of the first course of stones and the remains of the capstone. Hidden beneath the paving around the pyramid was the tomb of Queen Hetepheres I, sister - wife of Sneferu and mother of Khufu. Discovered by accident by the Reisner expedition, the burial was intact, though the carefully sealed coffin proved to be empty.
The Giza pyramid complex, which includes among other structures the pyramids of Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure, is surrounded by a cyclopean stone wall, the Wall of the Crow. Mark Lehner has discovered a worker 's town outside of the wall, otherwise known as "The Lost City '', dated by pottery styles, seal impressions, and stratigraphy to have been constructed and occupied sometime during the reigns of Khafre (2520 -- 2494 BC) and Menkaure (2490 -- 2472 BC). Recent discoveries by Mark Lehner and his team at the town and nearby, including what appears to have been a thriving port, suggest the town and associated living quarters consisting of barracks called "galleries '' may not have been for the pyramid workers after all, but rather for the soldiers and sailors who utilized the port. In light of this new discovery, as to where then the pyramid workers may have lived, Lehner now suggests the alternative possibility they may have camped on the ramps he believes were used to construct the pyramids or possibly at nearby quarries.
In the early 1970s, the Australian archaeologist Karl Kromer excavated a mound in the South Field of the plateau. This mound contained artefacts including mudbrick seals of Khufu, which he identified with an artisans ' settlement. Mudbrick buildings just south of Khufu 's Valley Temple contained mud sealings of Khufu and have been suggested to be a settlement serving the cult of Khufu after his death. A worker 's cemetery used at least between Khufu 's reign and the end of the Fifth Dynasty was discovered south of the Wall of the Crow by Zahi Hawass in 1990.
There are three boat - shaped pits around the pyramid, of a size and shape to have held complete boats, though so shallow that any superstructure, if there ever was one, must have been removed or disassembled. In May 1954, the Egyptian archaeologist Kamal el - Mallakh discovered a fourth pit, a long, narrow rectangle, still covered with slabs of stone weighing up to 15 tons. Inside were 1,224 pieces of wood, the longest 23 metres (75 ft) long, the shortest 10 centimetres (0.33 ft). These were entrusted to a boat builder, Haj Ahmed Yusuf, who worked out how the pieces fit together. The entire process, including conservation and straightening of the warped wood, took fourteen years.
The result is a cedar - wood boat 43.6 metres (143 ft) long, its timbers held together by ropes, which is currently housed in a special boat - shaped, air - conditioned museum beside the pyramid. During construction of this museum, which stands above the boat pit, a second sealed boat pit was discovered. It was deliberately left unopened until 2011 when excavation began on the boat.
Although succeeding pyramids were smaller, pyramid - building continued until the end of the Middle Kingdom. However, as authors Brier and Hobbs claim, "all the pyramids were robbed '' by the New Kingdom, when the construction of royal tombs in a desert valley, now known as the Valley of the Kings, began. Joyce Tyldesley states that the Great Pyramid itself "is known to have been opened and emptied by the Middle Kingdom '', before the Arab caliph Abdullah al - Mamun entered the pyramid around AD 820.
I.E.S. Edwards discusses Strabo 's mention that the pyramid "a little way up one side has a stone that may be taken out, which being raised up there is a sloping passage to the foundations ''. Edwards suggested that the pyramid was entered by robbers after the end of the Old Kingdom and sealed and then reopened more than once until Strabo 's door was added. He adds: "If this highly speculative surmise be correct, it is also necessary to assume either that the existence of the door was forgotten or that the entrance was again blocked with facing stones '', in order to explain why al - Ma'mun could not find the entrance.
He also discusses a story told by Herodotus. Herodotus visited Egypt in the 5th century BC and recounts a story that he was told concerning vaults under the pyramid built on an island where the body of Cheops lies. Edwards notes that the pyramid had "almost certainly been opened and its contents plundered long before the time of Herodotus '' and that it might have been closed again during the Twenty - sixth Dynasty of Egypt when other monuments were restored. He suggests that the story told to Herodotus could have been the result of almost two centuries of telling and retelling by Pyramid guides.
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when does svu season 19 start in uk | Law & Order: Special Victims Unit - Wikipedia
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (often abbreviated to Law & Order: SVU or just SVU) is an American police procedural, legal, crime drama television series set in New York City, where it is also primarily produced. In the style of the original Law & Order, episodes are often "ripped from the headlines '' or loosely based on real crimes that have received media attention. Created by Dick Wolf, the series premiered on NBC on September 20, 1999, as the second series in Wolf 's successful Law & Order franchise. Law & Order: Special Victims Unit has been nominated for and won numerous awards, including the 2006 Emmy for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series for Mariska Hargitay, the first, and to date only, Emmy to be received by a regular on any Law & Order series. It is the current longest running scripted non-animated U.S. primetime TV series since the cancellation of the original Law & Order on May 24, 2010 and is the fourth - longest running scripted U.S. primetime TV series on a major broadcast network.
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit originally centered almost exclusively on the detectives of the Special Victims Unit in a fictional version of the 16th Precinct of the New York City Police Department. As the series progressed, additional supporting characters were added as allies of the detectives in the New York County Manhattan District Attorney 's office (known as advisers from the Sex Crimes Bureau) and the Medical Examiner 's office. Certain episodes will go into detail about detectives ' personal lives and how they may or may not tie into the crimes dealt with during the show. Typical episodes follow the detectives and their colleagues as they investigate and prosecute sexually based offenses, child abuse, and crimes against the elderly. The show starred Christopher Meloni as Detective Elliot Stabler and Mariska Hargitay as Detective Olivia Benson for its first twelve seasons until the former left the cast, unable to come to an agreement on his contract.
On May 12, 2017, the series was renewed for a nineteenth season, which premiered on September 27, 2017. As of November 8, 2017, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit has aired 416 original episodes.
The idea for Law & Order: Special Victims Unit originated with the 1986 "preppie murder '' case of Robert Chambers, who strangled Jennifer Levin, a woman he dated whom he later killed during what he claimed was consensual "rough sex '' in Manhattan 's Central Park. The crime inspired Dick Wolf to write the story for the season one episode of Law & Order titled "Kiss the Girls and Make Them Die ''. Even after writing the episode, however, the case continued to haunt Wolf, who wanted to go deeper into the psychology of crimes to examine the role of human sexuality.
The original title of the show was Sex Crimes, reflecting the sexual nature of the crimes depicted on the show. Initially there was concern among the producers that, should Sex Crimes fail, identifying the new show with the Law & Order franchise could hurt the original show. Additionally, Ted Kotcheff wanted to create a new series that was not dependent upon the original series for success. Wolf felt, however, that it was important and commercially desirable to have "Law & Order '' in the title, and he initially proposed the title of the show be Law & Order: Sex Crimes. Barry Diller, then head of Studios USA, was concerned about the title, however, and it was changed to Law & Order: Special Victims Unit to reflect the actual unit of the New York City Police Department (NYPD) that handles sexually based offenses that are especially heinous. The first episode, "Payback '', premiered on NBC on September 20, 1999.
Executive producer Neal Baer left Law & Order: SVU as showrunner at the end of season twelve, after eleven years (seasons 2 -- 12) on the show, in order to sign a three - year deal with CBS Studios. Baer was replaced by former Law & Order: Criminal Intent showrunner Warren Leight. In March 2015, it was announced that Warren Leight signed a three - year deal with Sony Pictures Television, that will allow him to work on SVU one more season, its seventeenth. Leight joined the show in season thirteen. It was announced on March 10, 2016 that original Law & Order veteran producer Rick Eid would take Leight 's place as showrunner starting in season 18. Creator Dick Wolf commented to The Hollywood Reporter, "I 'm extremely pleased that Rick had decided to rejoin the family and hope that he will be here for years to come. '' During post-production of season 18, following the announcement that SVU was renewed for a nineteenth season, it was revealed that Rick Eid departed the series. He will be taking over another Dick Wolf / NBC series. Chicago P.D.
It was announced on May 25, 2017 that original Law & Order and Law & Order: Criminal Intent showrunner Michael S. Chernuchin would be reprising his role starting on season nineteen. Chernuchin was also co-creator and executive producing showrunner of Chicago Justice, another Wolf - related show that was canceled by NBC at the end of the 2016 -- 17 TV season.
Fort Lee, New Jersey served as the filming location for Detective Elliot Stabler 's residence in Queens, New York.
Many exterior scenes of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit are filmed on location in New York City, Wolf 's hometown, throughout all five of New York City 's boroughs. As the NYPD encounters varied law enforcement challenges on a daily basis, the backdrop provides the writers a supply of ideal locations from which to choose.
When searching for a place to film the interiors of the show, the producers found that there were no suitable studio spaces available in New York City. As a result, a space was chosen at NBC 's Central Archives building in nearby North Bergen, New Jersey, which had sat empty for some time, and featured air - conditioning, adequate parking, and 53,000 square feet (4,900 m) of stage area. The Archives building was used for police station and courtroom scenes, with various other locations in Hudson County used for other scenes, such as a scene shot at the Meadowlands Parkway in Secaucus in 2010. The production left New Jersey for New York in 2010, however, when New Jersey Governor Chris Christie suspended the tax credits for film and television production for the Fiscal Year 2011 to close budget gaps. The show moved into the studio space at Chelsea Piers that had been occupied by the original Law & Order series until its cancellation in May 2010.
The show originally aired on Monday nights at 9: 00 p.m. ET for the first nine episodes, from September 20 through November 29, 1999. It was then shifted to Friday nights at 10 p.m. ET on January 7, 2000, and remained in that time slot through the end of season four on May 16, 2003. Beginning with the season five premiere on September 23, 2003, SVU moved to Tuesday nights at 10: 00 p.m. ET. NBC airs repeats on Saturday nights at varying times and previous episodes are shown on the USA Network on varying days in marathon blocks
With the season eleven premiere on September 23, 2009, the series vacated its Tuesday 10 p.m. ET slot because NBC began a prime - time weeknight Jay Leno series. The new time slot became Wednesday nights at 9: 00 p.m. ET on NBC, with CTV still airing SVU on Tuesdays at 10: 00 in Canada. After the 2010 Winter Olympics on March 3, 2010, the time slot for SVU changed again to Wednesdays at 10 p.m. ET, where it stayed until the twelfth season. In the 12th season, SVU moved back to 9: 00 p.m. to lead in the newest Law & Order spinoff, Law & Order: LA, until it was pulled from the network in January 2011 to be retooled. SVU moved back to 10: 00 p.m. on January 12, 2011, until the end of the 13th season.
With season 14, SVU moved back to 9: 00 p.m. after a two - hour season premiere event on September 26, 2012.
In 2007, the Russian production company Studio 2B purchased the rights to create an adaptation of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit for Russian television. Titled Закон и порядок: отдел оперативных расследований (Law & Order: Division of Field Investigation), the series stars Alisa Bogart as Major Olga Bobrova. The series follows a unit of investigators in Moscow whose job is to investigate crimes of a sexual nature. The series airs on NTV and is produced by Pavel Korchagin, Felix Kleiman, and Edward Verzbovski and directed by Dmitry Brusnikin. The screenplays are written by Sergei Kuznvetsov, Elena Karavaeshnikova, and Maya Shapovalova.
Casting for the lead characters of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit occurred in the spring of 1999. Dick Wolf, along with officials from NBC and Studios USA were at the final auditions for the two leads at Rockefeller Center. The last round had been narrowed down to seven finalists. For the female lead, Detective Olivia Benson, actresses Samantha Mathis, Reiko Aylesworth, and Mariska Hargitay were being considered. For the male role, Detective Elliot Stabler, the finalists were Tim Matheson, John Slattery, Nick Chinlund, and Christopher Meloni. Hargitay and Meloni had auditioned in the final round together and, after the actors left, there was a moment of dead silence, after which Wolf blurted out, "Oh well. There 's no doubt who we should choose -- Hargitay and Meloni. '' Wolf believed the duo had the perfect chemistry together from the first time he saw them together, and they ended up being his first choice. Garth Ancier, then head of NBC Entertainment, agreed, and the rest of the panel assembled began voicing their assent.
The first actor to be cast for the show was Dann Florek. Florek had originated the character of Captain Don Cragen in the 1988 pilot for Law & Order and played the character for the first three seasons of the show until he was fired on the orders of network executives, who wanted to add female characters to the all male primary cast. He maintained a friendly relationship with Wolf, however, and went on to direct three episodes of the original series as well as to occasionally guest star on the show. Shortly after Florek reprised his role for Exiled: A Law & Order Movie, he received a call to be on Sex Crimes. Initially reluctant, he eventually agreed to star on the show as Cragen on the assurance that he would not be asked to audition for the role.
Shortly after the cancellation of Homicide: Life on the Street, Richard Belzer heard that Benjamin Bratt had left Law & Order. Belzer requested his manager to call Wolf and pitch the idea for Belzer 's character from Homicide, Detective John Munch, to become the new partner of Jerry Orbach 's character, Detective Lennie Briscoe, since they had previously teamed in three Homicide crossovers. Wolf loved the idea, but had already cast Jesse L. Martin as Briscoe 's new partner, Detective Ed Green. The idea was reconfigured, however, to have Munch on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit instead. Since the character of Munch was inspired by David Simon 's depiction of Detective Sergeant Jay Landsman and developed for Homicide by Tom Fontana and Barry Levinson, the addition of Munch to the cast required the consent of all three. The appropriate agreements were reached and, while Fontana and Levinson agreed to waive their royalty rights, contracts with Simon required that he be paid royalties for any new show in which Munch is a main character; as a result, Simon receives royalties every time Munch appears in an episode of the show.
Dean Winters was cast as Munch 's partner, Brian Cassidy, at the insistence of Belzer. Belzer looked at Winters as a sort of little brother, and told Wolf, "Well, I 'll do this new show of yours, SVU, only if you make Dean Winters my partner. '' Wolf did make Winters Belzer 's partner, but he was contractually obligated to his other show at the time, the HBO drama Oz. Since the role on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit was only initially meant to be a few episodes, Winters was forced to leave when it was time to film Oz again. Winters returned for the Season 13 finale, "Rhodium Nights, '' reprising his role as Cassidy. He also appeared (as Cassidy) on the two - part Season 14 premiere "Lost Reputation '' / "Above Suspicion ''. He subsequently became a recurring character into season 15. The void left by Winters 's departure was filled for the remainder of the season by Michelle Hurd as Detective Monique Jeffries, a character who Wolf promised that, despite starting out as a minor character with one scene in the pilot, would eventually develop. Hurd left the show at the beginning of season two to join the cast of Leap Years. Munch 's permanent partner came in the form of rapper - turned - actor Ice - T, who had previously worked with Wolf on New York Undercover and Exiled. Ice - T originally agreed to do only four episodes of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, but he quickly gained affection for the ensemble nature of the cast. He relocated to New York City before his four - episode contract was up and remained with the show as Munch 's permanent partner, Detective Odafin "Fin '' Tutuola.
Initially, the show focused exclusively on the policework of the detectives in the Special Victims Unit of the 16th precinct, with members of the District Attorney 's office occasionally appearing as guest roles crossing over from the original Law & Order. From season two onwards, the format was changed to be more faithful to the original Law & Order concept by including court cases. Stephanie March had little television experience before being cast on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, nor did she watch much TV. Nevertheless, March was cast as Assistant District Attorney Alexandra Cabot at the beginning of season two but still believed that, due to the grim nature of the series, it would be short - lived. She stayed with the series for three seasons, however, and left when she believed she had reached the natural conclusion of the character 's development. She would later reprise the character as a guest appearance in season six and as a regular character on the short - lived Wolf series, Conviction, where she was promised more to do. Diane Neal had previously guest starred on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit in season three before being cast as Cabot 's replacement, Casey Novak, in season five. Neal remained with the show through the end of season nine, after which she was replaced by Michaela McManus. March returned to the show in the tenth season (after McManus ' departure from the cast) when Neal Baer proposed Cabot receive a character arc to revitalize the second part of the season, which would continue through season eleven.
Tamara Tunie was cast as medical examiner Melinda Warner in season two after working with Wolf previously on New York Undercover, Feds, and Law & Order. Warner was initially a recurring character but became a regular character in season seven, and Tunie was added to the opening credits at that time. When initially cast as Warner, Tunie was appearing as attorney Jessica Griffin on the CBS daytime soap opera As the World Turns. From 2000 to 2007 (and again briefly in 2009), she appeared on both series simultaneously. In 2002, she also appeared on the Fox espionage - themed drama series 24, in the recurring role of CTU Acting Director Alberta Green. B.D. Wong was asked to film four episodes as Dr. George Huang, a Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) forensic psychiatrist and criminal profiler on loan to the Special Victims Unit. After his four episodes, he was asked to stay on with the show.
After he starred in Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee and guest starred as Detective Chester Lake in the eighth season, Wolf felt that Adam Beach would be a good addition to the cast and asked him to be a permanent member beginning with the ninth season. Although Beach felt the role was a "dream role '', the character proved unpopular with fans who felt that he was designed to gradually write out either Richard Belzer or Ice - T. Feeling there were too many police characters on the show, Beach left the show after only one season. Michaela McManus was originally felt to be too young for the role of an Assistant District Attorney (ADA) before being cast as ADA Kim Greylek in the tenth season. McManus, months removed from a recurring role on One Tree Hill, remained with the series only half a season, however, before departing for unspecified reasons.
Paula Patton joined the cast as ADA Mikka Von. She replaced Stephanie March. However, Patton dropped out after one episode to film Mission: Impossible -- Ghost Protocol, and was replaced by Melissa Sagemiller in the recurring role of ADA Gillian Hardwicke.
Before the end of season twelve, Mariska Hargitay asked for a lighter workload. As a way of writing her out of certain episodes, a plan to have her character promoted to a supervisory role was discussed. At the end of season twelve, Christopher Meloni departed the cast, unable to come to terms with his contract. Warren Leight became the new showrunner during this same year and signed on before he knew that Meloni would be leaving the cast. The second major departure to be announced in 2011 was that of B. D. Wong. On July 17, Wong announced on Twitter that, "I actually do not return for season 13, I am jumping to Awake! It 's awesome! '' Wong added, "I do n't know if or when I 'll be back on SVU! It was amazing to have such a cool job for 11 years and to be a real NY Actor. '' Wong reprised his role as Dr. Huang in season 13 's episode "Father Dearest ''. In response to these departures, two new main actors were hired, and several changes were made to the recurring cast.
In June 2011, it was announced that Kelli Giddish and Danny Pino would join the cast as new series regulars. Weeks later, it was announced that Stephanie March and Diane Neal would be reprising their roles as ADA Alexandra Cabot and ADA Casey Novak, respectively. The launch of season 13 was marked with a retooling of the show that Warren Leight referred to as "SVU 2.0 ''. Changes that accompanied this included Tamara Tunie 's being bumped from the main cast to a guest starring role and recurring actor Joel de la Fuente 's not appearing for the first time since 2002. Of the latter change, Warren Leight said, "those scenes (which featured Fuente) can be dry '' and hired Gilbert Gottfried as a more comedic replacement. In addition to these changes, Linus Roache became a recurring cast member in his role of Michael Cutter, whom he played on Law & Order; on SVU former Executive ADA Cutter serves as the Bureau Chief for ADAs attached to the Special Victims Unit.
In season 14, Raúl Esparza joined the cast in a recurring capacity as ADA Rafael Barba and prior to the season 15 premiere, Esparza was promoted to a series regular. Also in season 15, Belzer departed the cast in the fifth episode, "Wonderland Story '', in which Sgt. Munch retired from the NYPD and took a job in the DA 's office as an investigator. Later in the season, Captain Cragen announced his departure from the NYPD, which made newly promoted Sgt. Benson the temporary squad commander. In leaving the cast, Florek ended a 400 - episode run as Captain Cragen. In season 16, Peter Scanavino joined the series, first in a recurring role for episodes 1 -- 3 and then was promoted to the main cast in episode 5, with Kelli Giddish, Danny Pino, Ice - T and Raúl Esparza no longer appearing in every episode. On May 20, 2015, it was revealed that Danny Pino would be leaving the cast after the season 16 finale "Surrendering Noah ''.
In August 2017, it was announced that Philip Winchester will recur in season 19 as ADA Peter Stone, his character from Chicago P.D. and Chicago Justice, who is the son of Benjamin Stone, the ADA on the original Law & Order show. It was later also announced that Brooke Shields was enlisted to assume a major recurring role starting in Season 19 of the long - running dramatic series.
By season twelve, both Mariska Hargitay and Christopher Meloni had become among the highest - paid lead actors on a drama, with each earning nearly $400,000 per episode, a salary that TV Guide said was exceeded only by House 's Hugh Laurie. During season sixteen, Hargitay was reported to be earning $450,000 per episode, or $10,350,000 per season, In season seventeen, her salary increased to $500,000 per episode.
Based out of the New York City Police Department 's 16th precinct in Manhattan, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit delves into the dark side of the New York underworld as the detectives of a new elite force, the Special Victims Unit (SVU for short), investigate and prosecute various sexually - oriented crimes including rape, pedophilia, and domestic violence. They also investigate the abuses of children, the disabled and elderly victims of non-sexual crimes who require specialist handling. All the while trying to balance the effects of the investigation on their own lives. Its stories also touch on the political and societal issues associated with gender identity, sexual preferences, and equality rights. While the victim is often murdered, this is not always the case, and victims frequently play prominent roles in episodes. The unit also works with the Manhattan District Attorney 's office as they prosecute cases and seek justice for SVU 's victims and survivors with precision and a passion to win and bring closure to the intense investigations. The series often uses stories that are "ripped from the headlines '' or based on real crimes. Such episodes take a real crime and fictionalize it by changing some details.
Originally the show focused around the detective pairings of Elliot Stabler & Olivia Benson and John Munch & Brian Cassidy. Stabler is a seasoned veteran of the unit who has seen it all and tries his best to protect his family from the horrors he sees every day. His partner Benson 's difficult past as the child of a rape victim is the reason she joined the unit. Backing them up is John Munch, and his first partner Brian Cassidy. Munch is a transfer from Baltimore 's homicide unit, who brings his acerbic wit, conspiracy theories, and street - honed investigative skills. Whilst Cassidy is young and eager to learn from his fellow detectives. These two detective teams received support from Detectives Monique Jeffries and Ken Briscoe. When Cassidy transferred to Narcotics after thirteen episodes, Jeffries was partnered with Munch for the remaining of Season One and Briscoe was phased out. In the beginning of season two, Munch was then permanently partnered with Detective Odafin "Fin '' Tutuola, whose unique yet sometimes vulgar sense of humor and investigative experience make him a formidable match for Munch. These detectives were supervised by veteran Captain Donald Cragen who oversaw the team from seasons 1 -- 15. Cragen 's tough - but - supportive approach to the team 's complex cases guides the squad through the challenges they face every day. Also on the team 's payroll is FBI Special Agent Dr. George Huang and Medical Examiner Dr. Melinda Warner. As the resident psychiatrist for the Special Victims Unit, Huang helps keep the officers sane in a field that could drive ordinary people mad. He has also served as the squad 's resident criminal profiler, and his insights into the criminal mind have often helped the officers to crack the toughest perps, whilst Warner has become an integral part of the Manhattan Special Victims Unit, and her personal skills have contributed to the unit 's high success rate in closing cases.
The Unit did not receive a full - time assistant district attorney until season two, when Alexandra Cabot was assigned to work with the detectives. After Cabot 's departure in season five, she was replaced by Casey Novak, who remained as the ADA until the end of season nine. Kim Greylek became the permanent ADA in the season ten premiere, until Cabot made a return midway through that season when Greylek departed. Cabot remained the ADA through the second half of season eleven. After Cabot 's departure, the ADA void was filled by Sonya Paxton (Christine Lahti) and Jo Marlowe (Sharon Stone) until the conclusion of season eleven. Gillian Hardwicke served as the SVU ADA during season twelve. In season thirteen, both Cabot and Novak returned as ADAs and since the beginning of season fourteen, ADA Rafael Barba has been SVU 's prosecutor.
In season 13 other big changes happened when Stabler left in the season twelve finale. Detectives Nick Amaro and Amanda Rollins joined the team filling the void left by Stabler. Amaro brings empathy to his cases while dealing with a stressful home life, whilst Rollins ' dogged persistence and instincts help her close cases, but her secrets could derail her career. In the current seasons the Manhattan SVU is now run by Lieutenant Olivia Benson.
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit has concluded its eighteenth season and has started its nineteenth season. Each season has aired on NBC and consists of 19 to 25 episodes, each lasting approximately forty minutes (sixty minutes including commercials).
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit premiered on Monday, September 20, 1999. After nine episodes, the show was moved to Friday nights, where it found its audience and following its first and second seasons became a Top 20 - overall show, overcoming the "Friday night death slot '' phenomenon. Beginning with the season five, the show aired on Tuesdays to compete with CBS ' Judging Amy and ABC 's NYPD Blue. In its later years, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit consistently outperformed Law & Order in the Nielsen ratings for first run episodes until the latter 's cancellation in 2010.
In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that SVU 's popularity was "atypical: generally slightly more popular in rural areas and the Black Belt, but largely restricted to the eastern half of the country. It 's most popular in Albany, N.Y.; least in Colorado and Utah ''.
Note: Each U.S. network television season starts in late September and ends in late May (with the exception of the second and tenth season), which coincides with the completion of May sweeps.
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit has received many awards and award nominations. Mariska Hargitay has twice been nominated for a Golden Globe Award and won once in 2005.
The show has been nominated numerous times for the Emmy Award. Mariska Hargitay has been nominated for the Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series category 8 years in a row beginning in 2004 and won the Emmy in 2006. Christopher Meloni was nominated for the Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series category in 2006. Robin Williams was nominated in the Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series in 2008. The series was nominated in the category Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series for Jane Alexander and Tracy Pollan in 2000, Martha Plimpton in 2002, Barbara Barrie in 2003, Mare Winningham and Marlee Matlin in 2004, Amanda Plummer and Angela Lansbury in 2005, Marcia Gay Harden and Leslie Caron in 2007, Cynthia Nixon in 2008, Ellen Burstyn, Brenda Blethyn, and Carol Burnett in 2009, and Ann - Margret in 2010. The series won the award for Plummer in 2005, Caron in 2007, Nixon in 2008, Burstyn in 2009, and Margret in 2010.
Law and Order SVU airs on NBC in the United States. All seasons, including the season that is currently on the air, are available to stream on Hulu (with a subscription). Seasons 14 -- 17 are available to stream on Netflix. The latest 5 episodes can be watched for free on NBC.com and the NBC app. Outside of SVOD and NBC platforms, all episodes can be found on electronic sell - through platforms such as iTunes and Amazon Video. The show airs every Thursday night, on Network Ten in Australia, with a new episode usually followed by a repeat and occasionally shows repeats on other nights. Ten 's digital channel One sometimes shows Seasons One - Three on Friday or Saturday nights, but is not currently airing these seasons at the moment. From the 29th of August 2017, Channel Nine started airing the first season at a late night slot, which it has also done with the original Law & Order but stopped after the first episode. It is unknown if it will continue to air on Channel Nine. Season 19 premiered on Network Ten on the 5th of October 2017 at 9: 40pm.
As of September 2017, the show is currently reran on fellow NBCUniversal network USA Network, as well as Ion Television and local stations. The show also briefly ran on Syfy in 2006.
In Australia, Law & Order: SVU airs on Network Ten and Universal Channel (formerly aired on TV1 which ceased to broadcast in December 2013). In the UK "Law & Order: SVU '' originally aired on the Hallmark Channel (which in 2012 became the Universal Channel) with a terrestrial TV airing on Channel 5 in 2016 which then switched to Five USA. The UK is two and half weeks behind the US. In Brazil, Law & Order: SVU also airs on Universal Channel, with weekdays episodes from past seasons and simultaneously, two episodes after the original airing in the US. Law & Order: SVU is broadcast at 9.30 pm on Tuesdays on TV3 in New Zealand. Series 18 premiered on 11 April 2017.
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