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how many urdu words are there in pakistan national anthem | Qaumi Taranah - wikipedia
The Qaumi Taranah (Urdu: قومی ترانہ , Qaumī Tarānah pronounced (ˈqɔː. mi ˈt̪ə. rɑː. nɑ), lit. "National Anthem ''), also known as Pāk Sarzamīn (Urdu: پاک سرزمین , pronounced (ˈpɑːk ˈsər. zə. miːn), lit. "The Sacred Land ''), is the national anthem of Pakistan. Its music was composed by Ahmad G. Chagla in 1949, preceding the lyrics, which were written by Hafeez Jullundhri in 1952. It was officially adopted as Pakistan 's national anthem in August 1954 and was recorded in the same year by eleven major singers of Pakistan including Ahmad Rushdi, Kaukab Jahan, Rasheeda Begum, Najam Ara, Naseema Shaheen, Zawar Hussain, Akhtar Abbas, Ghulam Dastagir, Anwar Zaheer and Akhtar Wasi Ali.
In early 1948, A.R. Ghani, a Muslim from Transvaal, South Africa, offered two prizes of five thousand rupees each for the poet and composer of a new national anthem for the newly independent state of Pakistan. The prizes were announced through a government press advertisement published in June 1948. In December 1948, the Government of Pakistan established the National Anthem Committee (NAC) with the task of coming up with the composition and lyrics for the official national anthem of Pakistan. The NAC was initially chaired by the Information Secretary, Sheikh Muhammad Ikram, and its members included several politicians, poets and musicians, including Abdur Rab Nishtar, Ahmad G. Chagla and Hafeez Jullundhri. The NAC encountered early difficulties in finding suitable music and lyrics.
When President Sukarno of Indonesia became the first foreign head of state to visit Pakistan on 30 January 1950, there was no Pakistani national anthem to be played. In 1950, the impending state visit of the Shah of Iran added urgency to the matter and resulted in the Government of Pakistan asking the NAC to submit an anthem without further delay. The NAC Chairman, then Federal Minister for Education, Fazlur Rahman, asked several poets and composers to write lyrics but none of the submitted works were deemed suitable. The NAC also examined several different tunes and eventually selected the one presented by Ahmed G. Chagla and submitted it for formal approval. On 21 August 1949, the Government of Pakistan adopted Chagla 's tune for the national anthem.
The anthem, without lyrics, was performed for the first time for a foreign head of state on the state visit of the Shah of Iran to Pakistan in Karachi on 1 March 1950 by a Pakistan Navy band.
It was later played for Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan during his official visit to the United States on 3 May 1950. It was played before the NAC on 10 August 1950. Official recognition to the national anthem, however, was not given until August 1954. The NAC distributed records of the composed tune amongst prominent poets, who responded by writing and submitting several hundred songs for evaluation by the NAC. Eventually, the lyrics written by Hafeez Jullundhri were approved and the new national anthem was broadcast publicly for the first time on Radio Pakistan on 13 August 1954, sung by Hafeez Jullundhri himself. Official approval was announced by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting on 16 August 1954. The composer, Ahmed G. Chagla, died in 1953, before the new national anthem was officially adopted. In 1955, there was a performance of the national anthem involving 11 major singers of Pakistan, including Ahmad Rushdi, Kaukab Jahan, Rasheeda Begum, Najam Ara, Naseema Shaheen, Zawar Hussain, Akhtar Abbas, Ghulam Dastagir, Anwar Zaheer and Akhtar Wasi Ali.
The Qaumi Taranah is a melodious and harmonious rendering of a three - stanza composition with a tune based on eastern music but arranged in such a manner that it can be easily played by foreign bands.
The music, composed by the Pakistani musician and composer, Ahmad G. Chagla in 1949, reflects his background in both eastern and western music. Twenty - one musical instruments and thirty - eight different tones are used to play the Qaumi Taranah, the duration of which is 80 seconds.
The Urdu lyrics, written by the Pakistani Urdu - language poet, Hafeez Jullundhri in 1952, have commonality with Persian, making them understandable in both languages. No verse in the three stanza lyrics is repeated.
May the holy land, stay glad; Beautious realm, stay glad. Thou, the sign of high resolve -- O Land of Pakistan! Citadel of faith, stay glad.
Happy be the bounteous realm. Thou symbol of high resolve, O Land of Pakistan! Blessed be the citadel of faith.
The might of the brotherhood of the people, May the nation, the country, and the state, Shine in glory everlasting! Blessed be the goal of our ambition.
Dragoman of past, the pride of present; Soul of the future! Shadow of the God of grandeur.
Leads the way to progress and perfection, Interpreter of our past, glory of our present, inspiration for our future! Shade of God, the Glorious and Mighty.
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how big is the denny sanford premier center | Denny Sanford Premier Center - wikipedia
The Denny Sanford Premier Center is a large, multi-use indoor arena in Sioux Falls, South Dakota. The building is located at 1201 North West Avenue, and is connected to the Sioux Falls Arena and Sioux Falls Convention Center, and is adjacent to Howard Wood Field, and Sioux Falls Stadium. The arena 's naming rights partners, and largest sponsors, are Sanford Health, First Premier Bank and Premier Bankcard.
Completed in 2014, it has a seating capacity of approximately 12,000 spectators and replaces the DakotaDome and the Rushmore Plaza Civic Center as the largest indoor venue in South Dakota. The Sioux Falls Arena remains and hosts smaller concerts and events, while the Denny Sanford Premier Center hosts large scale concerts and sporting events.
A replacement of the Sioux Falls Arena had been discussed since 1999, with numerous task forces formed and studies completed to determine the need for a new events center. The Sioux Falls Arena was built in 1961 when the population of Sioux Falls was 65,000. By 2000, the population had nearly doubled to 124,000 while updates to the Arena were few and far between. After years of arguments and meetings, the new events center was put to a public vote in a special election on November 8, 2011. By a vote of 23,284 to 16,807, Sioux Falls citizens passed the events center special ballot, allowing design and construction of a new events center to begin.
The first concert held at the arena was held on October 3, 2014 and featured Jason Aldean and Florida Georgia Line with Tyler Farr in front of a sold - out crowd of over 11,000 fans.
Slipknot, along with guests Korn and opening band King 810, performed at the Premier Center as part of the "Prepare for hell '' tour on November 9, 2014. Eric Church and Dwight Yoakam performed at the venue on December 6, 2014 as part of The Outsiders World Tour.
Other artists and acts that have performed at the venue are Luke Bryan, Demi Lovato, Christina Perri, Carrie Underwood (who holds the highest attendance), and Varekai - a Cirque du Soleil production.
Events in 2015 included Chris Tomlin, Nickelback, Kenny Chesney, Def Leppard, Rod Stewart, The Eagles, Ed Sheeran, Lady Antebellum, Shania Twain, Elton John, and Mötley Crüe. Paul McCartney will be appearing on May 2, 2016.
The Premier Center hosts The Summit League Men 's Basketball Tournament and The Summit League Women 's Basketball Tournament every year in March. The winner receives an automatic berth to the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship and the NCAA Women 's Division I Basketball Championship, respectively.
The Denny Sanford Premier Center also plays host to the home contests of the Sioux Falls Stampede of the United States Hockey League and the Sioux Falls Storm of the Indoor Football League.
Since 2015, the Professional Bull Riders (PBR) association has hosted an annual Built Ford Tough Series event at the Premier Center, known as the First Premier Bank / Premier Bankcard Invitational.
Country - pop Canadian singer, Shania Twain brought her Rock This Country Tou r to the arena on September 23, 2015 to play a sold - out show of 9,925 patrons, grossing over $1 million from the single - night show. She returned three years later during her Shania Now Tour on May 16, 2018.
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what is the meaning of hindu in arabic dictionary | Hindu - Wikipedia
Hindu (pronunciation (help info)) refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for people indigenous to the Indian subcontinent.
The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time. Starting with the Persian and Greek references to the land of the Indus in the 1st millennium BCE through the texts of the medieval era, the term Hindu implied a geographic, ethnic or cultural identifier for people living in the Indian subcontinent around or beyond the Sindhu (Indus) river. By the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of the subcontinent who were not Turkic or Muslims.
The historical development of Hindu self - identity within the local South Asian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear. Competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu - Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in some texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th - and 18th - century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath used the phrase Hindu dharma (Hinduism) and contrasted it with Turaka dharma (Islam). The Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term ' Hindu ' in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals and Arabs following Islam. By the mid-19th century, colonial orientalist texts further distinguished Hindus from Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains, but the colonial laws continued to consider all of them to be within the scope of the term Hindu until about mid-20th century. Scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. -- > Hindoo is an archaic spelling variant, whose use today may be considered derogatory.
At more than 1.03 billion, Hindus are the world 's third largest group after Christians and Muslims. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million, live in India, according to India 's 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order: Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom and Myanmar. These together accounted for 99 % of the world 's Hindu population, and the remaining nations of the world together had about 6 million Hindus in 2010.
The word Hindu is derived from the Indo - Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means "a large body of water '', covering "river, ocean ''. It was used as the name of the Indus river and also referred to its tributaries. The actual term ' hindu ' first occurs, states Gavin Flood, as "a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: Sindhu) '', more specifically in the 6th - century BCE inscription of Darius I. The Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhava in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in Zend Avesta. The 6th - century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of Hi (n) dush, referring to northwestern India. The people of India were referred to as Hinduvān (Hindus) and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text Chachnama. The term ' Hindu ' in these ancient records is an ethno - geographical term and did not refer to a religion. The Arabic equivalent Al - Hind likewise referred to the country of India.
Among the earliest known records of ' Hindu ' with connotations of religion may be in the 7th - century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang. Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In - tu whose "connotation overflows in the religious '' according to Arvind Sharma. While Xuanzang suggested that the term refers to the country named after the moon, another Buddhist scholar I - tsing contradicted the conclusion saying that In - tu was not a common name for the country.
Al - Biruni 's 11th - century text Tarikh Al - Hind, and the texts of the Delhi Sultanate period use the term ' Hindu ', where it includes all non-Islamic people such as Buddhists, and retains the ambiguity of being "a region or a religion ''. The ' Hindu ' community occurs as the amorphous ' Other ' of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, according to Romila Thapar. Wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that ' Hindu ' retained its geographical reference initially: ' Indian ', ' indigenous, local ', virtually ' native '. Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves and their "traditional ways '' from those of the invaders.
The text Prithviraj Raso, by Chanda Baradai, about the 1192 CE defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan at the hands of Muhammad Ghori, is full of references to "Hindus '' and "Turks '', and at one stage, says "both the religions have drawn their curved swords; '' however, the date of this text is unclear and considered by most scholars to be more recent. In Islamic literature, ' Abd al - Malik Isami 's Persian work, Futuhu 's - salatin, composed in the Deccan in 1350, uses the word ' hindi ' to mean Indian in the ethno - geographical sense and the word ' hindu ' to mean ' Hindu ' in the sense of a follower of the Hindu religion ". The poet Vidyapati 's poem Kirtilata contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks (Muslims) in a city and concludes "The Hindus and the Turks live close together; Each makes fun of the other 's religion (dhamme). '' One of the earliest uses of word ' Hindu ' in religious context in a European language (Spanish), was the publication in 1649 by Sebastiao Manrique.
Other prominent mentions of ' Hindu ' include the epigraphical inscriptions from Andhra Pradesh kingdoms who battled military expansion of Muslim dynasties in the 14th century, where the word ' Hindu ' partly implies a religious identity in contrast to ' Turks ' or Islamic religious identity. The term Hindu was later used occasionally in some Sanskrit texts such as the later Rajataranginis of Kashmir (Hinduka, c. 1450) and some 16th - to 18th - century Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava texts, including Chaitanya Charitamrita and Chaitanya Bhagavata. These texts used it to contrast Hindus from Muslims who are called Yavanas (foreigners) or Mlecchas (barbarians), with the 16th - century Chaitanya Charitamrita text and the 17th - century Bhakta Mala text using the phrase "Hindu dharma ''.
One of the earliest but ambiguous uses of the word Hindu is, states Arvind Sharma, in the ' Brahmanabad settlement ' which Muhammad ibn Qasim made with non-Muslims after the Arab invasion of northwestern Sindh region of India, in 712 CE. The term ' Hindu ' meant people who were non-Muslims, and it included Buddhists of the region. In the 11th - century text of Al Biruni, Hindus are referred to as "religious antagonists '' to Islam, as those who believe in rebirth, presents them to hold a diversity of beliefs, and seems to oscillate between Hindus holding a centralist and pluralist religious views. In the texts of Delhi Sultanate era, states Sharma, the term Hindu remains ambiguous on whether it means people of a region or religion, giving the example of Ibn Battuta 's explanation of the name "Hindu Kush '' for a mountain range in Afghanistan. It was so called, wrote Ibn Battuta, because many Indian slaves died there of snow cold, as they were marched across that mountain range. The term Hindu there is ambivalent and could mean geographical region or religion.
The term Hindu appears in the texts from the Mughal Empire era. It broadly refers to non-Muslims. Pashaura Singh states, "in Persian writings, Sikhs were regarded as Hindu in the sense of non-Muslim Indians ''. Jahangir, for example, called the Sikh Guru Arjan a Hindu:
There was a Hindu named Arjan in Gobindwal on the banks of the Beas River. Pretending to be a spiritual guide, he had won over as devotees many simple - minded Indians and even some ignorant, stupid Muslims by broadcasting his claims to be a saint. (...) When Khusraw stopped at his residence, (Arjan) came out and had an interview with (Khusraw). Giving him some elementary spiritual precepts picked up here and there, he made a mark with saffron on his forehead, which is called qashqa in the idiom of the Hindus and which they consider lucky. (...)
During the colonial era, the term Hindu had connotations of native religions of India, that is religions other than Christianity and Islam. In early colonial era Anglo - Hindu laws and British India court system, the term Hindu referred to people of all Indian religions and two non-Indian religions:
The colonial project was itself undermined by its own constitutive contradictions since many of these laws were no more intrinsic to Indian society than the proposed meld of English and Indian systems. (...) The application of laws derived from Sanskrit classical texts leveled the community of Hindus to include all those who were not Muslims or Christians, and it absorbed under the category of "Hindu '' both outcastes and members of religions as diverse as Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism.
The 20th - century colonial laws of British India segregated people 's rights by their religion, evolving to provide Muslims with Sharia law, Christians, Jews and Parsis of British India with their own religious laws. The British government created a compendium of religious laws for Hindus, and the term ' Hindu ' in these colonial ' Hindu laws ', decades before India 's independence, applied to Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs.
Beyond the stipulations of British law, colonial orientalists and particularly the influential Asiatick Researches founded in the 18th century, later called The Asiatic Society, initially identified just two religions in India -- Islam, and Hinduism. These orientalists included all Indian religions such as Buddhism as a subgroup of Hinduism in the 18th century. These texts called followers of Islam as Mohamedans, and all others as Hindus. The text, by the early 19th century, began dividing Hindus into separate groups, for chronology studies of the various beliefs. Among the earliest terms to emerge were Seeks and their College (later spelled Sikhs by Charles Wilkins), Boudhism (later spelled Buddhism), and in the 9th volume of Asiatick Researches report on religions in India, the term Jainism received notice.
According to Pennington, the terms Hindu and Hinduism were thus constructed for colonial studies of India. The various sub-divisions and separation of subgroup terms were assumed to be result of "communal conflict '', and Hindu was constructed by these orientalists to imply people who adhered to "ancient default oppressive religious substratum of India '', states Pennington. Followers of other Indian religions so identified were later referred Buddhists, Sikhs or Jains and distinguished from Hindus, in an antagonistic two - dimensional manner, with Hindus and Hinduism stereotyped as irrational traditional and others as rational reform religions. However, these mid-19th - century reports offered no indication of doctrinal or ritual differences between Hindu and Buddhist, or other newly constructed religious identities. These colonial studies, states Pennigton, "puzzled endlessly about the Hindus and intensely scrutinized them, but did not interrogate and avoided reporting the practices and religion of Mughal and Arabs in South Asia '', and often relied on Muslim scholars to characterise Hindus.
In contemporary era, the term Hindus are individuals who identify with one or more aspects of Hinduism, whether they are practising or non-practicing or Laissez - faire. The term does not include those who identify with other Indian religions such as Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism or various animist tribal religions found in India such as Sarnaism. The term Hindu, in contemporary parlance, includes people who accept themselves as culturally or ethnically Hindu rather than with a fixed set of religious beliefs within Hinduism. One need not be religious in the minimal sense, states Julius Lipner, to be accepted as Hindu by Hindus, or to describe oneself as Hindu.
Hindus subscribe to a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions, but have no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, nor a single foudning prophet; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist. Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion "defies our desire to define and categorize it ''. A Hindu may, by his or her choice, draw upon ideas of other Indian or non-Indian religious thought as a resource, follow or evolve his or her personal beliefs, and still identify as a Hindu.
In 1995, Chief Justice P.B. Gajendragadkar was quoted in an Indian Supreme Court ruling:
Although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, Hindus share philosophical concepts, such as but not limiting to dharma, karma, kama, artha, moksha and samsara, even if each subscribes to a diversity of views. Hindus also have shared texts such as the Vedas with embedded Upanishads, and common ritual grammar (Sanskara (rite of passage)) such as rituals during a wedding or when a baby is born or cremation rituals. Some Hindus go on pilgrimage to shared sites they consider spiritually significant, practice one or more forms of bhakti or puja, celebrate mythology and epics, major festivals, love and respect for guru and family, and other cultural traditions. A Hindu could:
In the Constitution of India, the word "Hindu '' has been used in some places to denote persons professing any of these religions: Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism or Sikhism. This however has been challenged by the Sikhs and by neo-Buddhists who were formerly Hindus. According to Sheen and Boyle, Jains have not objected to being covered by personal laws termed under ' Hindu ', but Indian courts have acknowledged that Jainism is a distinct religion.
The Republic of India is in the peculiar situation that the Supreme Court of India has repeatedly been called upon to define "Hinduism '' because the Constitution of India, while it prohibits "discrimination of any citizen '' on grounds of religion in article 15, article 30 foresees special rights for "All minorities, whether based on religion or language ''. As a consequence, religious groups have an interest in being recognised as distinct from the Hindu majority in order to qualify as a "religious minority ''. Thus, the Supreme Court was forced to consider the question whether Jainism is part of Hinduism in 2005 and 2006.
Starting after the 10th century and particularly after the 12th century Islamic invasion, states Sheldon Pollock, the political response fused with the Indic religious culture and doctrines. Temples dedicated to deity Rama were built from north to south India, and textual records as well as hagiographic inscriptions began comparing the Hindu epic of Ramayana to regional kings and their response to Islamic attacks. The Yadava king of Devagiri named Ramacandra, for example states Pollock, is described in a 13th - century record as, "How is this Rama to be described... who freed Varanasi from the mleccha (barbarian, Turk Muslim) horde, and built there a golden temple of Sarngadhara ''. Pollock notes that the Yadava king Ramacandra is described as a devotee of deity Shiva (Shaivism), yet his political achievements and temple construction sponsorship in Varanasi, far from his kingdom 's location in the Deccan region, is described in the historical records in Vaishnavism terms of Rama, a deity Vishnu avatar. Pollock presents many such examples and suggests an emerging Hindu political identity that was grounded in the Hindu religious text of Ramayana, one that has continued into the modern times, and suggests that this historic process began with the arrival of Islam in India.
Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya has questioned the Pollock theory and presented textual and inscriptional evidence. According to Chattopadhyaya, the Hindu identity and religious response to Islamic invasion and wars developed in different kingdoms, such as wars between Islamic Sultanates and the Vijayanagara kingdom (Karnataka), and Islamic raids on the kingdoms in Tamil Nadu. These wars were described not just using the mythical story of Rama from Ramayana, states Chattopadhyaya, the medieval records used a wide range of religious symbolism and myths that are now considered as part of Hindu literature. This emergence of religious with political terminology began with the first Muslim invasion of Sindh in the 8th century CE, and intensified 13th century onwards. The 14th - century Sanskrit text, Madhuravijayam, a memoir written by Gangadevi, the wife of Vijayanagara prince, for example describes the consequences of war using religious terms,
I very much lament for what happened to the groves in Madhura, The coconut trees have all been cut and in their place are to be seen, rows of iron spikes with human skulls dangling at the points, In the highways which were once charming with anklets sound of beautiful women, are now heard ear - piercing noises of Brahmins being dragged, bound in iron - fetters, The waters of Tambraparni, which were once white with sandal paste, are now flowing red with the blood of cows slaughtered by miscreants, Earth is no longer the producer of wealth, nor does Indra give timely rains, The God of death takes his undue toll of what are left lives if undestroyed by the Yavanas (Muslims), The Kali age now deserves deepest congratulations for being at the zenith of its power, gone is the sacred learning, hidden is refinement, hushed is the voice of Dharma.
The historiographic writings in Telugu language from the 13th - and 14th - century Kakatiya dynasty period presents a similar "alien other (Turk) '' and "self - identity (Hindu) '' contrast. Chattopadhyaya, and other scholars, state that the military and political campaign during the medieval era wars in Deccan peninsula of India, and in the north India, were no longer a quest for sovereignty, they embodied a political and religious animosity against the "otherness of Islam '', and this began the historical process of Hindu identity formation.
Andrew Nicholson, in his review of scholarship on Hindu identity history, states that the vernacular literature of Bhakti movement sants from 15th to 17th century, such as Kabir, Anantadas, Eknath, Vidyapati, suggests that distinct religious identities, between Hindus and Turks (Muslims), had formed during these centuries. The poetry of this period contrasts Hindu and Islamic identities, states Nicholson, and the literature vilifies the Muslims coupled with a "distinct sense of a Hindu religious identity ''.
Scholars state that Hindu, Buddhist and Jain identities are retrospectively - introduced modern constructions. Inscriptional evidence from the 8th century onwards, in regions such as South India, suggests that medieval era India, at both elite and folk religious practices level, likely had a "shared religious culture '', and their collective identities were "multiple, layered and fuzzy ''. Even among Hinduism denominations such as Shaivism and Vaishnavism, the Hindu identities, states Leslie Orr, lacked "firm definitions and clear boundaries ''.
Overlaps in Jain - Hindu identities have included Jains worshipping Hindu deities, intermarriages between Jains and Hindus, and medieval era Jain temples featuring Hindu religious icons and sculpture. Beyond India, on Java island of Indonesia, historical records attest to marriages between Hindus and Buddhists, medieval era temple architecture and sculptures that simultaneously incorporate Hindu and Buddhist themes, where Hinduism and Buddhism merged and functioned as "two separate paths within one overall system '', according to Ann Kenney and other scholars. Similarly, there is an organic relation of Sikhs to Hindus, states Zaehner, both in religious thought and their communities, and virtually all Sikhs ' ancestors were Hindus. Marriages between Sikhs and Hindus, particularly among Khatris, were frequent. Some Hindu families brought up a son as a Sikh, and some Hindus view Sikhism as a tradition within Hinduism, even though the Sikh faith is a distinct religion.
Julius Lipner states that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs is a modern phenomena, but one that is a convenient abstraction. Distinguishing Indian traditions is a fairly recent practice, states Lipner, and is the result of "not only Western preconceptions about the nature of religion in general and of religion in India in particular, but also with the political awareness that has arisen in India '' in its people and a result of Western influence during its colonial history.
Scholars such as Fleming and Eck state that the post-Epic era literature from the 1st millennium CE amply demonstrate that there was a historic concept of the Indian subcontinent as a sacred geography, where the sacredness was a shared set of religious ideas. For example, the twelve Jyotirlingas of Shaivism and fifty - one Shaktipithas of Shaktism are described in the early medieval era Puranas as pilgrimage sites around a theme. This sacred geography and Shaiva temples with same iconography, shared themes, motifs and embedded legends are found across India, from the Himalayas to hills of South India, from Ellora Caves to Varanasi by about the middle of 1st millennium. Shakti temples, dated to a few centuries later, are verifiable across the subcontinent. Varanasi as a sacred pilgrimage site is documented in the Varanasimahatmya text embedded inside the Skanda Purana, and the oldest versions of this text are dated to 6th to 8th - century CE.
The idea of twelve sacred sites in Shiva Hindu tradition spread across the Indian subcontinent appears not only in the medieval era temples but also in copper plate inscriptions and temple seals discovered in different sites. According to Bhardwaj, non-Hindu texts such as the memoirs of Chinese Buddhist and Persian Muslim travellers attest to the existence and significance of the pilgrimage to sacred geography among Hindus by later 1st millennium CE.
According to Fleming, those who question whether the term Hindu and Hinduism are a modern construction in a religious context present their arguments based on some texts that have survived into the modern era, either of Islamic courts or of literature published by Western missionaries or colonial - era Indologists aiming for a reasonable construction of history. However, the existence of non-textual evidence such as cave temples separated by thousands of kilometers, as well as lists of medieval era pilgrimage sites, is evidence of a shared sacred geography and existence of a community that was self - aware of shared religious premises and landscape. Further, it is a norm in evolving cultures that there is a gap between the "lived and historical realities '' of a religious tradition and the emergence of related "textual authorities ''. The tradition and temples likely existed well before the medieval era Hindu manuscripts appeared that describe them and the sacred geography. This, states Fleming, is apparent given the sophistication of the architecture and the sacred sites along with the variance in the versions of the Puranic literature. According to Diana L. Eck and other Indologists such as André Wink, Muslim invaders were aware of Hindu sacred geography such as Mathura, Ujjain, and Varanasi by the 11th - century. These sites became a target of their serial attacks in the centuries that followed.
The Hindus have been persecuted during the medieval and modern era. The medieval persecution included waves of plunder, killing, destruction of temples and enslavement by Turk - Mongol Muslim armies from central Asia. This is documented in Islamic literature such as those relating to 8th century Muhammad bin - Qasim, 11th century Mahmud of Ghazni, the Persian traveler Al Biruni, the 14th century Islamic army invasion led by Timur, and various Sunni Islamic rulers of the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire. There were occasional exceptions such as Akbar who stopped the persecution of Hindus, and occasional severe persecution such as under Aurangzeb, who destroyed temples, forcibly converted non-Muslims to Islam and banned the celebration of Hindu festivals such as Holi and Diwali.
Other recorded persecution of Hindus include those under the reign of 18th century Tipu Sultan in south India, and during the colonial era. In the modern era, religious persecution of Hindus have been reported outside India.
Christophe Jaffrelot states that modern Hindu nationalism was born in Maharashtra, in the 1920s, as a reaction to the Islamic Khilafat Movement wherein Indian Muslims championed and took the cause of the Turkish Ottoman sultan as the Caliph of all Muslims, at the end of the World War I. Hindus viewed this development as one of divided loyalties of Indian Muslim population, of pan-Islamic hegemony, and questioned whether Indian Muslims were a part of an inclusive anti-colonial Indian nationalism. The Hindu nationalism ideology that emerged, states Jeffrelot, was codified by Savarkar while he was a political prisoner of the British colonial empire.
Chris Bayly traces the roots of Hindu nationalism to the Hindu identity and political independence achieved by the Maratha confederacy, that overthrew the Islamic Mughal empire in large parts of India, allowing Hindus the freedom to pursue any of their diverse religious beliefs and restored Hindu holy places such as Varanasi. A few scholars view Hindu mobilisation and consequent nationalism to have emerged in the 19th century as a response to British colonialism by Indian nationalists and neo-Hinduism gurus. Jaffrelot states that the efforts of Christian missionaries and Islamic proselytizers, during the British colonial era, each of whom tried to gain new converts to their own religion, by stereotyping and stigmatising Hindus to an identity of being inferior and superstitious, contributed to Hindus re-asserting their spiritual heritage and counter cross examining Islam and Christianity, forming organisations such as the Hindu Sabhas (Hindu associations), and ultimately a Hindu - identity driven nationalism in the 1920s.
The colonial era Hindu revivalism and mobilisation, along with Hindu nationalism, states Peter van der Veer, was primarily a reaction to and competition with Muslim separatism and Muslim nationalism. The successes of each side fed the fears of the other, leading to the growth of Hindu nationalism and Muslim nationalism in the Indian subcontinent. In the 20th century, the sense of religious nationalism grew in India, states van der Veer, but only Muslim nationalism succeeded with the formation of the West and East Pakistan (later split into Pakistan and Bangladesh), as "an Islamic state '' upon independence. Religious riots and social trauma followed as millions of Hindus, Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs moved out of the newly created Islamic states and resettled into the Hindu - majority post-British India. After the separation of India and Pakistan in 1947, the Hindu nationalism movement developed the concept of Hindutva in second half of the 20th century.
The Hindu nationalism movement has sought to reform Indian laws, that critics say attempts to impose Hindu values on India 's Islamic minority. Gerald Larson states, for example, that Hindu nationalists have sought a uniform civil code, where all citizens are subject to the same laws, everyone has equal civil rights, and individual rights do not depend on the individual 's religion. In contrast, opponents of Hindu nationalists remark that eliminating religious law from India poses a threat to the cultural identity and religious rights of Muslims, and people of Islamic faith have a constitutional right to Islamic shariah - based personal laws. A specific law, contentious between Hindu nationalists and their opponents in India, relates to the legal age of marriage for girls. Hindu nationalists seek that the legal age for marriage be eighteen that is universally applied to all girls regardless of their religion and that marriages be registered with local government to verify the age of marriage. Muslim clerics consider this proposal as unacceptable because under the shariah - derived personal law, a Muslim girl can be married at any age after she reaches puberty.
Hindu nationalism in India, states Katharine Adeney, is a controversial political subject, with no consensus about what it means or implies in terms of the form of government and religious rights of the minorities.
According to Pew Research, there are over 1 billion Hindus worldwide (15 % of world 's population). Along with Christians (31.5 %), Muslims (23.2 %) and Buddhists (7.1 %), Hindus are one of the four major religious groups of the world.
Most Hindus are found in Asian countries. The countries with most Hindu residents and citizens include (in decreasing order) are India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom, Myanmar, Canada, Mauritius, Guyana, South Africa, Trinidad and Tobago, Fiji, Suriname.
The fertility rate, that is children per woman, for Hindus is 2.4, which is less than the world average of 2.5. Pew Research projects that there will be 1.161 billion Hindus by 2020.
In more ancient times, Hindu kingdoms arose and spread the religion and traditions across Southeast Asia, particularly Thailand, Nepal, Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia, Cambodia, Laos, Philippines, and what is now central Vietnam.
Over 3 million Hindus are found in Bali Indonesia, a culture whose origins trace back to ideas brought by Tamil Hindu traders to Indonesian islands in the 1st millennium CE. Their sacred texts are also the Vedas and the Upanishads. The Puranas and the Itihasa (mainly Ramayana and the Mahabharata) are enduring traditions among Indonesian Hindus, expressed in community dances and shadow puppet (wayang) performances. As in India, Indonesian Hindus recognises four paths of spirituality, calling it Catur Marga. Similarly, like Hindus in India, Balinese Hindu believe that there are four proper goals of human life, calling it Catur Purusartha - dharma (pursuit of moral and ethical living), artha (pursuit of wealth and creative activity), kama (pursuit of joy and love) and moksha (pursuit of self - knowledge and liberation).
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who owns the ferry building in san francisco | San Francisco Ferry Building - wikipedia
The San Francisco Ferry Building is a terminal for ferries that travel across the San Francisco Bay, a food hall and an office building. It is located on The Embarcadero in San Francisco, California.
On top of the building is a 245 - foot tall clock tower with four clock dials, each 22 feet in diameter, which can be seen from Market Street, a main thoroughfare of the city.
Designed in 1892 by American architect A. Page Brown in the Beaux Arts style, the ferry building was completed in 1898. At its opening, it was the largest project undertaken in the city up to that time. Brown designed the clock tower after the 12th - century Giralda bell tower in Seville, Spain, and the entire length of the building on both frontages is based on an arched arcade.
With decreased use since the 1950s, after bridges were constructed across the bay to carry passenger traffic, the building was adapted to office use and its public spaces broken up. In 2002, a restoration and renovation were undertaken to redevelop the entire complex. The 660 - foot long Great Nave was restored, together with its height and materials. A marketplace was created on the ground floor, the former baggage handling area. The second and third floors were adapted for office and Port Commission use. During daylight, on every full and half - hour, the clock bell chimes portions of the Westminster Quarters. The ferry terminal is a designated San Francisco landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
The present structure was designed in 1892 by A. Page Brown, a New York architect who had started with McKim, Mead & White, and later moved to California. Influenced by studies at the École des Beaux - Arts in Paris, he designed the clock tower after the 12th - century Giralda bell tower in Seville, Spain.
Brown designed it to satisfy needs of an industrial society in high style associated with traditional buildings; the entire base is an arched arcade reminiscent of European buildings. The highest quality materials were used, such as marble and mosaics for the state seal. The 660 - foot - long Great Nave on the second floor was the major public space for arriving and departing ferry passengers.
Opened in 1898, the building replaced a wooden predecessor. The well - built reinforced building with its arched arcades survived both the 1906 and the 1989 earthquakes with little damage. It served as the destination for commuters to San Francisco from the East Bay, who rode the ferry fleets of the Southern Pacific and the Key System. In the afternoon, they caught ferries returning across the bay. A loop track in front of the building enabled convenient transfers to streetcars. A large pedestrian bridge spanned the Embarcadero in front of the Ferry building to facilitate safe crossing of the busy plaza and transit hub. In the 1940s, this bridge was deconstructed to supply scrap metal for the Second World War.
Until the completion of the Bay Bridge (which began to carry railroad traffic) and Golden Gate Bridge in the 1930s, the Ferry Building was the second busiest transit terminal in the world, second only to London 's Charing Cross Station. After the bridges opened, and the new Key System trains began running to the East Bay from the Transbay Terminal in 1939, passenger ferry use fell sharply. In the second half of the twentieth century, although the Ferry Building and its clock tower remained a part of the San Francisco skyline, the condition of the building interior declined with changes. Beginning in the 1950s, unsympathetic renovations installed a mezzanine level, broke up the grand space of the Great Nave, and partitioned the ticketing counters and waiting room areas into office space. The formerly grand public space was reduced to a narrow and dark corridor, through which travelers passed en route to the piers. Passengers were made to wait for ferries on outdoor benches, and the ticketing booths were moved to the pier.
With the construction in the late 1950s of the Embarcadero Freeway, which passed right in front of the Ferry Building, views of the once - prominent landmark from Market Street were greatly obscured. Pedestrian access was treated as an afterthought, and the public was cut off from the waterfront.
With the structural failure of the Embarcadero Freeway during the October 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, San Francisco was offered the choice of whether to rebuild it or remove the freeway and reconnect the city with the eastern waterfront and the historic Ferry Building. As part of the larger rejection of the 1950s comprehensive freeway plan as unsympathetic to the city 's character, and the general unpopularity of the freeway, Mayor Art Agnos led the charge to remove the Embarcadero freeway entirely. It was replaced with a ground - level boulevard, which reconnected a significant portion of San Francisco 's waterfront and the rest of the city. Access was restored to Justin Herman Plaza and the foot of Market Street, of which the Ferry Building had been an integral part for so many decades.
By 1992, the freeway had been removed and San Francisco began to create a comprehensive port development plan that would revitalize the newly cleared space, create public access, and reintroduce the ferry service. As the most iconic element of the waterfront, the Ferry Building was central to the aesthetic and the overall success of the development plan, and its status as a historic landmark for both architecture and engineering made a sympathetic restoration essential. The 1903 Ferry Building was a symbol of San Francisco 's history as a bustling port city, but with the redevelopment plan, the city was choosing to also make the structure a symbol of San Francisco 's future.
The vastness of the project resulted in the selection of a group of firms that could each focus on a key aspect of the redevelopment plan. ROMA Design Group - site design architects - designed the bayside and cityside promenades and plazas and reoriented the public spaces of the area to the building and to the bay. ROMA Design Group also designed new ferry terminals and the main historic streetcar stop that re-established the area as a multi-modal transit hub and gateway into the city. Simon Martin - Vegue Winkelstein Moris Architects (SMWM), founded by Cathy Simon, created an overall plan for the building; Baldauf Catton Von Eckartsberg Architects (BCVE) examined and planned for the needs of new retail spaces; Page & Turnbull, Inc., specialists in historic preservation, dealt with the restoration, replacement, and recreation of the historic elements of the structure.
Although the project was a restoration project, the structure would not be returned to its pure historic use as a nexus of bay transit. While the demand for ferry transit has experienced increasing demand in recent years by cross-bay commuters, the ferry service will never again reach historic levels. Therefore, in order to draw visitors, the Ferry Building has been transformed into a retail and restaurant space on the ground floor that focuses on local, sustainable products. The Port and the project developers believed that the combination of transit, office use, and unique retail would make the Ferry Building a destination for locals and tourists alike that would drive the greater goal of stimulating the waterfront.
The focus on creating a viable economic use for the Ferry Building was fundamental in developing the final restoration plan and while important historic features that are key to the structure 's integrity were largely restored, some adaptations were allowed more license to meet the needs of the reuse proposal. The restored Ferry Building was opened in 2003.
The original description of the Ferry Building as published in the Board of Harbor Commissioners ' Biennial Report (1888) specified that "Passengers should pass from the upper decks of the ferries through the second story, with a bridge over the crowded and dangerous portion of East (now Embarcadero) Street. '' The first floor was not intended for public viewing or access and was filled with the movement of baggage, mail, and freight. Instead, the public was meant to enter the structure from an elevated walkway and move through the more refined spaces of the second floor lit by the nave. By 1992, the nave had been turned into private offices and the loss of the foot bridge meant that all public approach to the building would be at street level, altering the way in which the building was understood and experienced.
With the restoration however, the developers argued that the public 's historic interaction with the space was defined by the natural light cascading from the nave, not by the elevated entry way. With the movement of the primary public space to the first floor, it became essential to their proposal that this historic experience would be recreated. Beyond removing an added third floor and restoring the 660 - foot long nave to its two - story height, the proposal included cutting two openings, each at thirty - three feet by one hundred and fifty feet, into the floor of the second floor. These openings would allow for this historic feature to be extended to the visitor 's experience of the first floor. This was a controversial choice, and due to the building 's historic status the proposal had to be approved by the State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO) and was the subject of multiple hearings.
The greatest debate raised by the opening of the second floor cuts, however, surrounded the treatment of the historic mosaic tiling of the second floor. The second floor grand nave was tiled with a mosaic marble floor of white and gray tesserae with a border of red and purple. In the center of the space at the top of the main stairway is a reproduction of the Great Seal of the State of California worked entirely in mosaics. At the time of the restoration, this surface was primarily covered with linoleum, and some small sections had been lost to prior alterations. This feature was considered integral to the historic character of the building, and as a primary public space, the tiling was a key component of community memory.
In allowing the amplification of one feature (the nave), the loss of another (the mosaics) was inherently tied. The final agreement reached between the SHPO and the development team found that as long as the important decorative portions of the flooring were restored and extra tesserae would be used to repair damaged sections, the cuts would be approved.
In order to restore the mosaic, the applied linoleum surface had to be carefully peeled away and a mixture of crushed walnut shells was then used to clean the marble surface without damaging the material.
In the process of removing of the 1947 and 1950 third - floor additions, Page & Turnbull discovered the extent of the damage to the brick and terra cotta arches of the nave. Twenty - two arches span the length of the nave on each side, and of the forty - four total, eleven had been destroyed. Over twenty - five percent of the original material had been removed in the first remodel, including terra cotta scroll - work, the arches themselves, and sections of the surrounding brickwork. In order to restore the highly significant nave, Page & Turnbull had to design and create replacements for these 11 arches that would be accurate enough not to detract from the 660 - foot sight - line of the second story that these arches flank.
The prohibitive cost and effort of replacing these materials in kind led to the choice of a cast - stone with fiberglass support that mimics the buff brick in both color and finish. Through the use of a cast material, Page & Turnbull was able to create a fiberglass mold to be used for casting each arch as a unit that could then be inserted into sections where original fabric had been lost. The addition of fiberglass as a support material -- that allows for both flexibility and compressive strength -- was seen as an added benefit in meeting concerns over the building 's continued seismic safety.
Creating visual continuity between the new and the old was critical in this instance due to the significance of the long stretch of the nave; here an obvious alteration in material or color would detract from the pattern of springing arches that continues through the length of the structure. Page & Turnbull invited faux - finishing specialist Jacquelyn Giuffre to disguise the new sections and recreate the continuity of pattern and color. Guiffre 's job was made more difficult by the fact that the structure had not been completely sealed against the elements during the restoration and the salts of the bay air triggered a staining process that created green marks in the yellow and buff brick. In order to match the texture and patina of the old brick, Guiffre used six different pigments applied by hand, and then applied green shading to mimic the new staining process. Once the pieces were installed, a final stage of blending was completed on site to ensure the greatest possible accuracy.
The original clock mechanism was refurbished in 2000; it is complete and intact, despite two previous modifications. The Ferry Building has its original Special # 4 clock made in 1898 by the Boston clock maker E. Howard. It is the largest wind - up, mechanical dial clock in the world. The four dials are each twenty - two feet in diameter, and a portion of the dial appears to be back - lit at night. This is the effect of two concentric dials on each clock face, in which the inner dial is lit and visible at night.
Although the hands and a small portion of the works are now powered by an accurate electric motor, the entire clock mechanism is still there. The huge weight hangs in its 48 - foot (15 m) shaft; once wound, it formerly kept the clock running for eight days. The 16 - foot (5 m) pendulum also remains, but it is motionless, replaced by more modern, reliable, and accurate electric power. There is also a set of horn loudspeakers above the clock that play Westminster Chimes on the hour and makes a loud siren noise every Tuesday at noon on the hour.
San Francisco 's best - known farmers ' market is held on the grounds around the building on Saturdays from 8 am to 2 pm PT (08: 00 to 14: 00), and on Tuesdays and Thursdays from 10 am to 2 pm PT (10: 00 -- 14: 00), year - round. Outside, a roadway allows pedestrian access to the restaurant and ferry dock behind the building.
The state plans to expand ferry service to Hercules, Redwood City, Martinez, Antioch, Treasure Island, Berkeley, and Richmond.
San Francisco Municipal Railway 's E Embarcadero and F Market & Wharves heritage railway lines have a station located on the pedestrian plaza in front of the Ferry Building.
In addition, the main line of the Bay Area Rapid Transit system runs under the building. The dock area on the eastern side is used as the transition point from the Transbay Tube to the Market Street Subway. The Embarcadero Station a block away is a BART and Muni Metro station; it connects the terminal with the city, East Bay and Peninsula.
The terminal is also served by Vallejo Baylink buses (operated by SolTrans) and Amtrak Thruway Motorcoach.
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where does the last name aguiar come from | Aguiar - wikipedia
Aguiar is a Galician - Portuguese surname. Notable people with the surname include:
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how far is la from san jose california | San Jose, California - wikipedia
San Jose (/ ˌsæn hoʊˈzeɪ /, Spanish for "Saint Joseph ''; Spanish pronunciation: (saŋ xoˈse)), officially the City of San José, is the economic, cultural, and political center of Silicon Valley and the largest city in Northern California. With an estimated 2015 population of 1,026,908, it is the third most populous city in California (after Los Angeles and San Diego) and the tenth most populous in United States. Located in the center of the Santa Clara Valley, on the southern shore of San Francisco Bay. San Jose covers an area of 179.97 square miles (466.1 km). San Jose is the county seat of Santa Clara County, the most affluent county in California and one of the most affluent counties in the United States. San Jose is the largest city in both the San Francisco Bay Area and the San Jose - San Francisco - Oakland Combined Statistical Area, which contain 7.7 million and 8.7 million people respectively.
Before the arrival of the Spanish, the area around San Jose was inhabited by the Ohlone people. San Jose was founded on November 29, 1777, as the Pueblo of San José de Guadalupe, the first civilian town founded in Spanish Alta California. When California gained statehood in 1850, San Jose became the state 's first capital. Following World War II, San Jose experienced an economic boom, with a rapid population growth and aggressive annexation of nearby cities and communities carried out in the 1950s and 60s. The rapid growth of the high - technology and electronics industries further accelerated the transition from an agricultural center to an urbanized metropolitan area. Results of the 1990 U.S. Census indicated that San Jose had officially surpassed San Francisco as the most populous city in Northern California. By the 1990s, San Jose and the rest of Silicon Valley had become the global center for the high tech and internet industries, making it California 's fastest - growing economy.
San Jose is a global city, notable as a center of innovation, for its affluence and high cost of living. San Jose 's location within the booming high tech industry, as a cultural, political, and economic center has earned the city the nickname "Capital of Silicon Valley ''. San Jose is one of the wealthiest major cities in the United States and the world, and has the third highest GDP per capita in the world (after Zurich, Switzerland and Oslo, Norway), according to the Brookings Institution. With a median home price of $1,085,000, San Jose has the most expensive housing market in the country and the fifth most expensive housing market in the world, according to the 2017 Demographia International Housing Affordability Survey. Major global tech companies including Cisco Systems, eBay, Cadence Design Systems, Adobe Systems, PayPal, Brocade, Samsung, Acer, and Western Digital maintain their headquarters in San Jose, in the center of Silicon Valley.
First Mexican Empire 1821 -- 1823 United Mexican States 1823 -- 1848 California Republic 1846
Prior to European settlement, the area was inhabited by several groups of Ohlone Native Americans.
The first lasting European presence began with a series of Franciscan missions established from 1769 by Junípero Serra.
On orders from Antonio María de Bucareli y Ursúa, Spanish Viceroy of New Spain, San Jose was founded by Lieutenant José Joaquín Moraga as Pueblo de San José de Guadalupe (in honor of Saint Joseph) on November 29, 1777, to establish a farming community. The town was the first civil settlement in Alta California
In 1797, the pueblo was moved from its original location, near the present - day intersection of Guadalupe Parkway and Taylor Street, to a location in what is now Downtown San Jose. San Jose came under Mexican rule in 1821 after Mexico broke with the Spanish crown. It then became part of the United States, after it capitulated in 1846 and California was annexed.
On March 27, 1850, San Jose became the second incorporated city in the state (after Sacramento), with Josiah Belden its first mayor. San Jose was California 's first state capital, and hosted the first and second sessions (1850 -- 1851) of the California Legislature. Today the Circle of Palms Plaza in downtown is the historical marker for the first state capital. The city was a station on the Butterfield Overland Mail route.
In the period 1900 through 1910, San Jose served as a center for pioneering invention, innovation, and impact in both lighter - than - air and heavier - than - air flight. These activities were led principally by John Montgomery and his peers. The City of San Jose has established Montgomery Park, a Monument at San Felipe and Yerba Buena Roads, and John J. Montgomery Elementary School in his honor. During this period, San Jose also became a center of innovation for the mechanization / industrialization of agricultural and food processing equipment.
Though not affected as severely as San Francisco, San Jose also suffered significant damage from the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Over 100 people died at the Agnews Asylum (later Agnews State Hospital) after its walls and roof collapsed, and San Jose High School 's three - story stone - and - brick building was also destroyed. The period during World War II was a tumultuous time. Japanese Americans primarily from Japantown were sent to internment camps, including the future mayor Norman Mineta. Following the Los Angeles zoot suit riots, anti-Mexican violence took place during the summer of 1943. In 1940, the Census Bureau reported San Jose 's population as 98 % white.
As World War II started, the city 's economy shifted from agriculture (the Del Monte cannery was the largest employer and closed in 1999) to industrial manufacturing with the contracting of the Food Machinery Corporation (later known as FMC Corporation) by the United States War Department to build 1,000 Landing Vehicle Tracked. After World War II, FMC (later United Defense, and currently BAE Systems) continued as a defense contractor, with the San Jose facilities designing and manufacturing military platforms such as the M113 Armored Personnel Carrier, the Bradley Fighting Vehicle, and various subsystems of the M1 Abrams battle tank.
IBM established its West Coast headquarters in San Jose in 1943 and opened a downtown research and development facility in 1952. Both would prove to be harbingers for the economy of San Jose, as Reynold Johnson and his team would later invent RAMAC, as well as the hard disk drive, and the technological side of San Jose 's economy grew.
The Ford Motor Company relocated its factory in Richmond to a new location in the suburb of Milpitas, called the San Jose Assembly Plant, which was one of the primary locations for manufacturing the Ford Mustang.
During the 1950s and 1960s, City Manager A.P. "Dutch '' Hamann led the city in a major growth campaign. The city annexed adjacent areas, such as Alviso and Cambrian Park, providing large areas for suburbs. An anti-growth reaction to the effects of rapid development emerged in the 1970s, championed by mayors Norman Mineta and Janet Gray Hayes. Despite establishing an urban growth boundary, development fees, and the incorporations of Campbell and Cupertino, development was not slowed, but rather directed into already - incorporated areas.
On April 3, 1979, the San Jose City Council adopted San José, with the diacritical mark on the "e '', as the spelling of the city name on the city seal, official stationery, office titles and department names. Also, by city council convention, this spelling of San José is used when the name is stated in mixed upper - and lower - case letters, but not when the name is stated only in upper - case letters. The accent reflects the Spanish version of the name, and the dropping of accents in all - capital writing was typical in Spanish. While San José is commonly spelled both with and without the acute accent over the "e, '' the city 's official guidelines indicate that it should be spelled with the accent most of the time and sets forth narrow exceptions, such as when the spelling is in URLs, when the name appears in all - capital letters, when the name is used on social media sites where the diacritical mark does not render properly, and where San Jose is part of the proper name of another organization or business, such as San Jose Silicon Valley Chamber of Commerce, that has chosen not to use the accent - marked name. The city 's name without the accent can still be found in its 1965 Charter document, as amended, which formally chartered the municipality as City of San Jose. Similarly, the city 's website appears to use a mixture of both; for example, the "City of San José '' in the text uses the mark but the "City of San Jose '' logo image does not.
San Jose 's position in Silicon Valley triggered further economic and population growth. Results from the 1990 U.S. Census indicated that San Jose surpassed San Francisco as the most populous city in the Bay Area for the first time. This growth led to the highest housing - cost increase in the nation, 936 % between 1976 and 2001. Efforts to increase density continued into the 1990s when an update of the 1974 urban plan kept the urban growth boundaries intact and voters rejected a ballot measure to ease development restrictions in the foothills. Sixty percent of the housing built in San Jose since 1980 and over three - quarters of the housing built since 2000 have been multifamily structures, reflecting a political propensity toward Smart Growth planning principles.
San Jose is located at 37 ° 20 ′ 07 '' N 121 ° 53 ′ 31 '' W / 37.335278 ° N 121.891944 ° W / 37.335278; - 121.891944. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 180.0 sq mi (466 km), of which 3.4 sq mi (8.8 km) (1.91 %) is water.
San Jose lies between the San Andreas Fault, the source of the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, and the Calaveras Fault. San Jose is shaken by moderate earthquakes on average one or two times a year. These quakes originate just east of the city on the creeping section of the Calaveras Fault, which is a major source of earthquake activity in Northern California. On April 14, 1984, at 1: 15 pm local time, a 6.2 magnitude earthquake struck the Calaveras Fault near San Jose 's Mount Hamilton. The most serious earthquake, in 1906, damaged many buildings in San Jose as described earlier. Earlier significant quakes rocked the city in 1839, 1851, 1858, 1864, 1865, 1868, and 1891. The Daly City Earthquake of 1957 caused some damage. The Loma Prieta earthquake of 1989 also did some damage to parts of the city. The other faults near San Jose are the Monte Vista Fault and the Hayward Fault Zone.
The city is generally divided into the following areas: Downtown San Jose, Central, West San Jose, North San Jose, East San Jose, and South San Jose. Many of these regions were originally unincorporated communities or separate municipalities that were later annexed by the city.
Besides those mentioned above, some well - known communities within San Jose include Japantown, Rose Garden, Sunol - Midtown, Willow Glen, Naglee Park, Burbank, Winchester, Alviso, East Foothills, Alum Rock, Little Portugal, Blossom Valley, Cambrian, Almaden Valley, Silver Creek Valley, Evergreen Valley, Edenvale, Santa Teresa, Seven Trees, Coyote Valley, and Berryessa.
San Jose 's expansion was made by the design of "Dutch '' Hamann, the City Manager from 1950 to 1969. During his administration, with his staff referred to as "Dutch 's Panzer Division, '' the city annexed property 1,389 times, growing the city from 17 to 149 square miles (44 to 386 km), absorbing the communities named above, changing their status to "neighborhoods. ''
They say San José is going to become another Los Angeles. Believe me, I 'm going to do everything in my power to make that come true.
Sales taxes were a chief source of revenue. Hamann would determine where major shopping areas would be, and then annex narrow bands of land along major roadways leading to those locations, pushing tentacles across the Santa Clara Valley and, in turn, walling off the expansion of adjacent communities.
During his reign, it was said the City Council would vote according to Hamann 's nod. In 1963, the State of California imposed Local Agency Formation Commissions statewide, but largely to try to maintain order with San Jose 's aggressive growth. Eventually the political forces against growth grew as local neighborhoods bonded together to elect their own candidates, ending Hamann 's influence and leading to his resignation. While the job was not complete, the trend was set. The city had defined its sphere of influence in all directions, sometimes chaotically leaving unincorporated pockets to be swallowed up by the behemoth, sometimes even at the objection of the residents.
Important landmarks in San Jose include Children 's Discovery Museum of San Jose, History Park at Kelley Park, Cathedral Basilica of St. Joseph, Plaza de César Chávez, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Library, Mexican Heritage Plaza, Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum, Lick Observatory, Hayes Mansion, SAP Center at San Jose, Hotel De Anza, San Jose Improv, San Jose Municipal Stadium, Spartan Stadium, Japantown San Jose, Winchester Mystery House, Raging Waters, Circle of Palms Plaza, San Jose City Hall, San Jose Flea Market, Oak Hill Memorial Park, and The Tech Museum of Innovation.
Children 's Discovery Museum of San Jose
Hotel De Anza
SAP Center at San Jose
The Bank of Italy Building
Lick Observatory on Mount Hamilton
The San Jose Municipal Rose Garden
Hayes Mansion
Cathedral Basilica of St. Joseph
The San Jose Museum of Art
San Jose City Hall
The Chinese Cultural Garden
Winchester Mystery House
Japanese Friendship Garden
San José State University
The Tech Museum of Innovation
Circle of Palms Plaza
The Guadalupe River runs from the Santa Cruz Mountains (which separate the South Bay from the Pacific Coast) flowing north through San Jose, ending in the San Francisco Bay at Alviso. Along the southern part of the river is the neighborhood of Almaden Valley, originally named for the mercury mines which produced mercury needed for gold extraction from quartz during the California Gold Rush as well as mercury fulminate blasting caps and detonators for the U.S. military from 1870 to 1945. East of the Guadalupe River, Coyote Creek also flows to south San Francisco Bay and originates on Mount Sizer near Henry W. Coe State Park and the surrounding hills in the Diablo Range, northeast of Morgan Hill, California.
The lowest point in San Jose is 13 feet (4.0 m) below sea level at the San Francisco Bay in Alviso; the highest is 2,125 feet (648 m). Because of the proximity to Lick Observatory atop Mount Hamilton, San Jose has taken several steps to reduce light pollution, including replacing all street lamps and outdoor lighting in private developments with low pressure sodium lamps. To recognize the city 's efforts, the asteroid 6216 San Jose was named after the city.
San Jose lies close to the Pacific Ocean and close to San Francisco Bay (a small portion of its northern border touches the bay). Santa Clara Valley is the population center of the Bay Area and, like the hub and spokes of a wheel, surrounding communities emanate outwards from the valley. This growth, in part, has shaped the greater Bay Area as it is today in terms of geographic population distribution and the trend of suburbanization away from the valley.
There are four distinct valleys in the city of San Jose: Almaden Valley, situated on the southwest fringe of the city; Evergreen Valley to the southeast, which is hilly all throughout its interior; Santa Clara Valley, which includes the flat, main urban expanse of the South Bay; and the rural Coyote Valley, to the city 's extreme southern fringe.
San Jose, like most of the Bay Area, has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csb). San Jose has an average of 301 days of sunshine and an annual mean temperature of 60.5 ° F (15.8 ° C). It lies inland, surrounded on three sides by mountains, and does not front the Pacific Ocean like San Francisco. As a result, the city is somewhat more sheltered from rain, giving it a semiarid feel with a mean annual rainfall of 15.82 inches or 401.8 millimetres, compared to some other parts of the Bay Area, which can receive about three times that amount.
Like most of the Bay Area, San Jose is made up of dozens of microclimates. Because of a more prominent rain shadow from the Santa Cruz Mountains, Downtown San Jose experiences the lightest rainfall in the city, while South San Jose, only 10 mi (16 km) distant, experiences more rainfall, and somewhat more extreme temperatures.
The monthly daily average temperature ranges from around 50 ° F (10 ° C) in December and January to around 70 ° F (21.1 ° C) in July and August. The highest temperature ever recorded in San Jose was 109 ° F (42.8 ° C) on June 14, 2000; the lowest was 19 ° F (− 7.2 ° C) on December 22 -- 23, 1990. On average, there are 2.7 mornings annually where the temperature lowers to or below the freezing mark, and sixteen afternoons where the high reaches or exceeds 90 ° F or 32.2 ° C. Diurnal temperature variation is far wider than along the coast or in San Francisco but still a shadow of what is seen in the Central Valley.
With the light rainfall, San Jose and its suburbs experience about 300 fully or partly sunny days a year. Rain occurs primarily in the months from November through April or May. During the winter and spring, hillsides and fields turn green with grasses and vegetation, although deciduous trees are few. With the coming of the annual hot summer dry period, the vegetation dies and dries, giving the hills a golden cover which, unfortunately, also provides fuel for frequent grass fires.
Measurable precipitation falls in downtown San Jose on an average of 59 days a year. "Rain year '' precipitation has ranged from 4.83 inches (122.7 mm) between July 1876 and June 1877 to 30.30 inches (769.6 mm) between July 1889 and June 1890, although at the current site since 1893 the range is from 5.77 inches (146.6 mm) in "rain year '' 1975 -- 76 to 30.25 inches (768.3 mm) in "rain year '' 1982 -- 83. The most precipitation in one month was 12.38 inches (314.5 mm) in January 1911. The maximum 24 - hour rainfall was 3.60 inches (91.4 mm) on January 30, 1968. Although summer is normally quite dry in San Jose, a very heavy thunderstorm on August 21, 1968, brought 1.92 inches (48.8 mm) of rain, causing some flooding.
The snow level drops as low as 2,000 ft (610 m) above sea level, or lower, occasionally coating nearby Mount Hamilton and, less frequently, the Santa Cruz Mountains, with snow that normally lasts a few days. This sometimes snarls traffic traveling on State Route 17 towards Santa Cruz. Snow rarely falls in San Jose; the most recent snow to remain on the ground was on February 5, 1976, when many residents around the city saw as much as 3 inches (0.076 m) on car and roof tops. The official observation station measured only 0.5 inches (0.013 m) of snow.
In 2014, the U.S. Census Bureau released its new population estimates. With a total population of 1,015,785, San Jose became the 11th U.S. city to hit the 1 million mark, even though it is currently the 10th most populous city. In 1930, Detroit had reached 1,568,662, but by 2000, it had dropped below 1,000,000.
The 2010 United States Census reported that San Jose had a population of 945,942. The population density was 5,256.2 people per square mile (2,029.4 / km2). The racial makeup of San Jose was 404,437 (42.8 %) White, 303,138 (32.0 %) Asian (10.4 % Vietnamese, 6.7 % Chinese, 5.6 % Filipino, 4.6 % Indian, 1.2 % Korean, 1.2 % Japanese, 0.3 % Cambodian, 0.2 % Thai, 0.2 % Pakistani, 0.2 % Laotian), 30,242 (3.2 %) African American, 8,297 (0.9 %) Native American, 4,017 (0.4 %) Pacific Islander, 148,749 (15.7 %) from other races, and 47,062 (5.0 %) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 313,636 persons (33.2 %). 28.2 % of the city 's population were of Mexican descent; the next largest Hispanic groups were those of Salvadoran (0.7 %) and Puerto Rican (0.5 %) heritage. Non-Hispanic Whites were 28.7 % of the population in 2010, down from 75.7 % in 1970.
The census reported that 932,620 people (98.6 % of the population) lived in households, 9,542 (1.0 %) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 3,780 (0.4 %) were institutionalized. There were 301,366 households, out of which 122,958 (40.8 %) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 162,819 (54.0 %) were opposite - sex married couples living together, 37,988 (12.6 %) had a female householder with no husband present, 18,702 (6.2 %) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 16,900 (5.6 %) unmarried opposite - sex partnerships, and 2,458 (0.8 %) same - sex married couples or partnerships. 59,385 households (19.7 %) were made up of individuals and 18,305 (6.1 %) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.09. There were 219,509 families (72.8 % of all households); the average family size was 3.54.
The age distribution of the city was as follows: 234,678 people (24.8 %) were under the age of 18, 89,457 people (9.5 %) aged 18 to 24, 294,399 people (31.1 %) aged 25 to 44, 232,166 people (24.5 %) aged 45 to 64, and 95,242 people (10.1 %) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35.2 years. For every 100 females there were 101.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.8 males.
There were 314,038 housing units at an average density of 1,745.0 per square mile (673.7 / km2), of which 176,216 (58.5 %) were owner - occupied, and 125,150 (41.5 %) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.6 %; the rental vacancy rate was 4.3 %. 553,436 people (58.5 % of the population) lived in owner - occupied housing units and 379,184 people (40.1 %) lived in rental housing units.
As of the census of 2000, there were 894,943 people, 276,598 households, and 203,576 families residing in the city.
The population density was 5,117.9 people per square mile (1,976.1 / km2). There were 281,841 housing units at an average density of 1,611.8 per square mile (622.3 / km2). Of the 276,598 households, 38.3 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.0 % were married couples living together, 11.7 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.4 % were non-families. 18.4 % of all households were made up of individuals and 4.9 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.20 and the average family size was 3.62.
In the city, the population was spread out with 26.4 % under the age of 18, 9.9 % from 18 to 24, 35.4 % from 25 to 44, 20.0 % from 45 to 64, and 8.3 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females there were 103.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.5 males.
According to a 2007 estimate, the median income for a household in the city was the highest in the U.S. for any city with more than a quarter million residents with $76,963 annually. The median income for a family was $86,822. Males had a median income of $49,347 versus $36,936 for females. The per capita income for the city was $26,697. About 6.0 % of families and 8.8 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.3 % of those under age 18 and 7.4 % of those age 65 or over.
San Jose and the rest of the Bay Area is home to many Christian congregations, including large Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, Mormons, and Jehovah 's Witnesses, alongside centers of Jewish, Hindu, Islamic, Buddhist and Sikh faiths, among numerous other religious communities.
A high percentage of foreign - born residents (39.0 % of the population) live in the city. These include many high - tech workers from East and South Asia, Eastern European immigrants, as well as poorer immigrants from Latin America, many of whom can be found in the large, multi-generational barrio Alum Rock district. San Jose has the largest Vietnamese population of any city in the world outside of Vietnam. The people from these countries have settled in the city and across the Santa Clara Valley primarily during the last three or four decades.
The large concentration of high - technology engineering, computer, and microprocessor companies around San Jose has led the area to be known as Silicon Valley. As the largest city in the valley, San Jose has billed itself "the capital of Silicon Valley. '' Area schools such as the University of California, Berkeley, University of California, Santa Cruz, San Jose State University, San Francisco State University, California State University, East Bay, Santa Clara University, and Stanford University pump thousands of engineering and computer science graduates into the local economy every year.
High economic growth during the tech bubble caused employment, housing prices, and traffic congestion to peak in the late 1990s. As the economy slowed in the early 2000s, employment and traffic congestion diminished somewhat. In the mid-2000s, traffic along major highways again began to worsen as the economy improved. San Jose had 405,000 jobs within its city limits in 2006, and an unemployment rate of 4.6 %. In 2000, San Jose residents had the highest median household income of any city in the United States with a population over 300,000, and currently has the highest median income of any U.S. city with over 280,000 people.
The cost of living in San Jose and the surrounding areas is among the highest in California and the nation, according to 2004 data. Housing costs are the primary reason for the high cost of living, although the costs in all areas tracked by the ACCRA Cost of Living Index are above the national average. Households in the city limits have the highest disposable income of any city in the U.S. with over 500,000 residents.
San Jose lists many companies with 1,000 employees or more, including the headquarters of Adobe, Altera, Brocade Communications Systems, Cadence Design Systems, Cisco Systems, eBay, Lee 's Sandwiches, Lumileds, PayPal, Rosendin Electric, Sanmina - SCI, and Xilinx, as well as major facilities for Becton Dickinson, Ericsson, Hewlett - Packard, Hitachi, IBM, Kaiser Permanente, KLA Tencor, Lockheed Martin, Nippon Sheet Glass, Qualcomm, and AF Media Group. The North American headquarters of Samsung Semiconductor are located in San Jose. Approximately 2000 employees will work at the new Samsung campus which opened in 2015. Other large companies based in San Jose include Altera, Atmel, CEVA, Cypress Semiconductor, Echelon, Extreme Networks, Harmonic, Integrated Device Technology, Maxim Integrated, Micrel, Move, Netgear, Novellus Systems, Oclaro, OCZ, Online Trading Academy, Quantum, SunPower, Sharks Sports and Entertainment, Supermicro, Tessera Technologies, TiVo, Ultratech, and VeriFone. Sizable government employers include the city government, Santa Clara County, and San Jose State University. Acer 's United States division has its offices in San Jose. Prior to its closing, Netcom had its headquarters in San Jose.
In January 2014 Forbes Magazine reported that Careerbliss.com had ranked San Jose - Sunnyvale - Santa Clara metro area as the happiest place to work in the USA. The report cited a large concentration of technology jobs that typically offer a high salary and opportunity for growth, in addition to companies providing "fun and innovative work environments '' as some of the reasons for the ranking.
San Jose residents produce more U.S. patents than any other city. On October 15, 2015, the United States Patent and Trademark Office opened a satellite office in San Jose to serve Silicon Valley and the Western U.S. States. Thirty - five percent of all venture capital funds in the U.S. are invested in San Jose and Silicon Valley companies.
On July 31, 2015, Cupertino - based Apple Inc. purchased a 40 - acre site in San Jose. The site, which is bare land, will be the site of an office and research campus where it is estimated that up to 16,000 employees will be located. Apple paid $138.2 million in cash for the site. The seller, Connecticut - based Five Mile Capital Partners, paid $40 million for the site in 2010. Real estate experts expect that other tech companies currently located in Silicon Valley will also follow in Apple 's path by purchasing land or property in San Jose.
As of June 30, 2015, the top employers in the city are:
Because the downtown area is in the flight path to nearby Mineta San Jose International Airport (also evidenced in the above panoramic), there is a height limit for buildings in the downtown area, which is underneath the final approach corridor to the airport. The height limit is dictated by local ordinances, driven by the distance from the runway and a slope defined by Federal Aviation Administration regulations. Core downtown buildings are limited to approximately 300 feet (91 m) but can get taller farther from the airport.
There has been broad criticism over the past few decades of the city 's architecture. Citizens have complained that San Jose is lacking in aesthetically pleasing architectural styles. Blame for this lack of architectural "beauty '' can be assigned to the re-development of the downtown area from the 1950s onward, in which whole blocks of historic commercial and residential structures were demolished. Exceptions to this include the Downtown Historic District, the Hotel De Anza, and the Hotel Sainte Claire, both of which are listed in the National Register of Historic Places for their architectural and historical significance.
Municipal building projects have experimented more with architectural styles than have most private enterprises. The Children 's Discovery Museum, Tech Museum of Innovation, and the San Jose Repertory Theater building have experimented with bold colors and unusual exteriors. The new City Hall, designed by Richard Meier & Partners, opened in 2005 and is a notable addition to the growing collection of municipal building projects.
Public art is an evolving attraction in the city. The city was one of the first to adopt a public art ordinance at 2 % of capital improvement building project budgets, and the results of this commitment are beginning to affect the visual landscape of the city. There are a considerable number of public art projects throughout the downtown area, and a growing collection in the newer civic locations in neighborhoods including libraries, parks, and fire stations. Of particular note, the Mineta Airport expansion is incorporating a program of Art & Technology into its development.
Within the early efforts at public art, there are notable controversies. Two examples include the statue of Quetzalcoatl (the plumed serpent) in downtown which was controversial in its planning because some religious groups felt that it was pagan, and controversial in its implementation because many felt that the final statue by Robert Graham did not closely resemble a winged serpent, and was more noted for its expense than its aesthetics. This has resulted in locals joking that the statue resembles a pile of feces.
The statue of Thomas Fallon also met strong resistance from those who felt that people like him were largely responsible for the decimation of early native populations and Chicano / Latino activists protested he captured San Jose by violent force in the Mexican - American war (1846) as well "repressed '' historic documents of Fallon ordered the expulsion of most of the city 's Californio (early Spanish or Mexican) residents. In October 1991 after protests in part of Columbus Day and Dia de la Raza celebrations, the Fallon statue plan was scrapped and the statue was stored in a warehouse in Oakland for more than a decade. The statue was returned to public display in 2002, albeit in a less conspicuous location: Pellier Park, a small triangular patch formed by the merge of West Julian and West St. James streets.
In 2001, the city sponsored SharkByte, an exhibit of decorated sharks, based on the mascot of the hockey team, the San Jose Sharks, and modeled after Chicago 's display of decorated cows. Large models of sharks were decorated in a variety of clever, colorful, or creative ways by local artists and were then displayed for months at dozens of locations around the city. Many displays were removed early because of vandalism. After the exhibition, the sharks were auctioned off and the proceeds donated to charity. The sharks can still be found in their new owners ' homes and businesses.
In 2006, Adobe Systems commissioned an art installation titled San Jose Semaphore by Ben Rubin, which is located at the top of its headquarters building. Semaphore is composed of four LED discs which "rotate '' to transmit a message. The content of the San Jose Semaphore 's message remained a mystery until it was deciphered in August 2007. The visual art installation is supplemented with an audio track, transmitted from the building on a low - power AM station. The audio track provides clues to decode the message being transmitted.
The city is home to many performing arts companies, including Opera San Jose, Symphony Silicon Valley, Ballet San Jose Silicon Valley, sjDANCEco, Children 's Musical Theater of San Jose (45 years old in 2013), the San Jose Youth Symphony, the San Jose Repertory Theatre, City Lights Theatre Company, The Tabard Theatre Company, San Jose Stage Company, and the now - defunct American Musical Theatre of San Jose which was replaced by Broadway San Jose in partnership with Team San Jose. San Jose also is home to the San Jose Museum of Art, one of the nation 's premiere Modern Art museums. The annual Cinequest Film Festival in downtown has grown to over 60,000 attendees per year, becoming an important festival for independent films. The San Francisco Asian American Film Festival is an annual event, which is hosted in San Francisco, Berkeley, and Downtown San Jose. Approximately 30 to 40 films are screened in San Jose each year at the Camera 12 Downtown Cinemas. The San Jose Jazz Festival is another of many great events hosted throughout the year.
The SAP Center at San Jose is one of the most active venues for events in the world. According to Billboard Magazine and Pollstar, the arena sold the most tickets to non-sporting events of any venue in the United States, and third in the world after the Manchester Evening News Arena in Manchester, England, and the Bell Centre in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, for the period from January 1 -- September 30, 2004. Including sporting events, the SAP Center averages 184 events a year, or roughly one event for every two days, which is significantly higher than the average for NHL arenas.
San Jose has many examples of houses with fine architecture. Late 19th century and early 20th century styles exist in neighborhoods such as Hanchett Park, Naglee Park, Rose Garden, and Willow Glen (including Palm Haven).
Styles include Craftsman, Mission Revival, Prairie style, and Queen Anne style Victorian.
Notable architects include Frank Delos Wolfe, Theodore Lenzen, Charles McKenzie. and Julia Morgan
San Jose is home to the San Jose Sharks of the NHL, the San Jose Barracuda of the AHL, and the San Jose Earthquakes of Major League Soccer. The Sharks and the Barracuda play in the SAP Center at San Jose. The Earthquakes built an 18,000 seat new stadium that opened in March 2015. San Jose was a founding member of both the California League and Pacific Coast League in minor league baseball. San Jose currently fields the San Jose Giants, a High - A affiliate of the San Francisco Giants. The NFL 's San Francisco 49ers call neighboring Santa Clara, California home.
San Jose has "aggressively wooed '' the Oakland Athletics to relocate to San Jose from nearby Oakland, and the Athletics in turn have said that San Jose is their "best option, '' but the San Francisco Giants have thus far exercised a veto against this proposal. In 2013, the city of San Jose sued Major League Baseball for not allowing the Athletics to relocate to San Jose. On October 5, 2015 the United States Supreme Court rejected San Jose 's bid on the Athletics.
From 2005 to 2007, the San Jose Grand Prix, an annual street circuit race in the Champ Car World Series, was held in the downtown area. Other races included the Trans - Am Series, the Toyota Atlantic Championship, the United States Touring Car Championship, the Historic Stock Car Racing Series, and the Formula D Drift racing competition.
In 2004, the San Jose Sports Authority hosted the U.S. Olympic team trials for judo, taekwondo, trampolining and rhythmic gymnastics at the San Jose State Event Center. In 2008, around 90 percent of the members of the United States Olympic team were processed at San Jose State University prior to traveling to the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. The 2009 Junior Olympics for trampoline were also held here.
In August 2004, the San Jose Seahawk Rugby Football Club hosted the USA All - Star Rugby Sevens Championships at Watson Bowl, east of Downtown. San Jose State hosted the 2011 American Collegiate Hockey Association (ACHA) national tournament. The NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament is also frequently held in San Jose.
San Jose possesses about 15,950 acres (6,455 ha) of parkland in its city limits, including a part of the expansive Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge. The city 's oldest park is Alum Rock Park, established in 1872. In its 2013 ParkScore ranking, The Trust for Public Land, a national land conservation organization, reported that San Jose was tied with Albuquerque and Omaha for having the 11th best park system among the 50 most populous U.S. cities.
Early written documents record the local presence of migrating salmon in the Rio Guadalupe dating as far back as the 18th century. Both steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and King salmon are extant in the Guadalupe River, making San Jose the southernmost major U.S. city with known salmon spawning runs, the other cities being Anchorage, Alaska; Seattle, Washington; Portland, Oregon and Sacramento, California. Runs of up to 1,000 Chinook or King Salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) swam up the Guadalupe River each fall in the 1990s, but have all but vanished in the current decade apparently blocked from access to breeding grounds by impassable culverts, weirs and wide, exposed and flat concrete paved channels installed by the Santa Clara Valley Water District. In 2011 a small number of Chinook salmon were filmed spawning under the Julian Street bridge.
San Jose 's trail network of 60 miles (100 km) of recreational and active transportation trails throughout the city. The major trails in the network include:
This large urban trail network, recognized by Prevention Magazine as the nation 's largest, is linked to trails in surrounding jurisdictions and many rural trails in surrounding open space and foothills. Several trail systems within the network are designated as part of the National Recreation Trail, as well as regional trails such as the San Francisco Bay Trail and Bay Area Ridge Trail.
San Jose is a charter city under California law, giving it the power to enact local ordinances that may conflict with state law, within the limits provided by the charter. The city has a council - manager government with a city manager nominated by the mayor and elected by the city council.
The San Jose City Council is made up of ten council members elected by district, and a mayor elected by the entire city. During city council meetings, the mayor presides, and all eleven members can vote on any issue. The mayor has no veto powers. Council members and the mayor are elected to four - year terms; the even - numbered district council members beginning in 1994; the mayor and the odd - numbered district council members beginning in 1996. Each council member represents approximately 100,000 constituents.
Council members and the mayor are limited to two successive terms in office, although a council member that has reached the term limit can be elected mayor, and vice versa. The council elects a vice-mayor from the members of the council at the second meeting of the year following a council election. This council member acts as mayor during the temporary absence of the mayor, but does not succeed to the mayor 's office upon a vacancy.
The City Manager is the chief administrative officer of the city, and must present an annual budget for approval by the city council. When the office is vacant, the Mayor proposes a candidate for City Manager, subject to council approval. The council appoints the Manager for an indefinite term, and may at any time remove the manager, or the electorate may remove the manager through a recall election. Other city officers directly appointed by the council include the City Attorney, City Auditor, City Clerk, and Independent Police Auditor.
Like all cities and counties in the state, San Jose has representation in the state legislature.
Like all California cities except San Francisco, both the levels and the boundaries of what the city government controls are determined by the Local Agency Formation Commission (LAFCO). The goal of a LAFCO is to try to avoid uncontrolled urban sprawl. The Santa Clara County LAFCO has set boundaries of San Jose 's "Sphere of Influence '' (indicated by the blue line in the map near the top of the page) as a superset of the actual city limits (the yellow area in the map), plus parts of the surrounding unincorporated county land, where San Jose can, for example, prevent development of fringe areas to concentrate city growth closer to the city 's core. The LAFCO also defines a subset of the Sphere as an ' Urban Service Area ' (indicated by the red line in the map), effectively limiting development to areas where urban infrastructure (sewers, electrical service, etc.) already exists.
San Jose is the county seat of Santa Clara County. Accordingly, many county government facilities are located in the city, including the office of the County Executive, the Board of Supervisors, the District Attorney 's Office, eight courthouses of the Superior Court, the Sheriff 's Office, and the County Clerk.
In the California State Senate, San Jose is split between the 10th, 15th, and 17th districts, represented by Democrat Bob Wieckowski, Democrat Jim Beall, and Democrat Bill Monning respectively.
In the California State Assembly, San Jose is split between the 25th, 27th, 28th, and 29th districts, represented by Democrat Kansen Chu, Democrat Ash Kalra, Democrat Evan Low, and Democrat Mark Stone, respectively.
Federally, San Jose is split between California 's 17th, 18th, and 19th congressional districts, represented by Democrat Ro Khanna, Democrat Anna Eshoo, and Democrat Zoe Lofgren, respectively.
Several state and federal agencies maintain offices in San Jose. The city is the location of the Sixth District of the California Courts of Appeal. It is also home to one of three courthouses of the United States District Court for the Northern District of California, the other two being in Oakland and San Francisco.
Crime in San Jose had been lower than in other large American cities until 2013, when crime rates in San Jose climbed above California and U.S. averages. Like most large cities, crime levels had fallen significantly after rising in the 1980s. Today it is no longer ranked as one of the safest cities in the country with a population over 1,000,000 people. The designation is based on crime statistics reported to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in six categories: murder, rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, and auto theft. Recently, the city had the second lowest violent crime rate of any city with 500,000 or more residents, only behind Honolulu. However, homicides since 2011 have surged; there were 20 homicides in 2010, 42 in 2011, 46 in 2012, and 44 in 2013.
San Jose is home to several colleges and universities. The largest is San Jose State University, which was founded by the California legislature in 1862 as the California State Normal School, and is the founding campus of the California State University (CSU) system. Located in downtown San Jose since 1870, the university enrolls approximately 30,000 students in over 130 different bachelor 's and master 's degree programs. The school enjoys a good academic reputation, especially in the fields of engineering, business, art and design, and journalism, and consistently ranks among the top public universities in the western region of the United States. San Jose State is one of only three Bay Area schools that fields a Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) Division I college football team; Stanford University and U.C. Berkeley are the other two.
California University of Management and Technology (CALMAT) offers many degree programs, including MBA, Computer Science, Information Technology. Most classes are offered both online and in the downtown campus. Many of the students are working professionals in the Silicon Valley.
Lincoln Law School of San Jose and University of Silicon Valley Law School offer law degrees, catering to working professionals.
National University maintains a campus in San Jose.
The San Jose campus of Golden Gate University offers business bachelor and MBA degrees.
San Jose 's community colleges, San Jose City College, West Valley College, Mission College and Evergreen Valley College, offer associate degrees, general education units to transfer to CSU and UC schools, and adult and continuing education programs. The West campus of Palmer College of Chiropractic is also located in San Jose.
WestMed College is headquartered in San Jose and offers paramedic training, emergency medical technician training, and licensed vocational nursing programs.
The University of California, Santa Cruz operates Lick Observatory atop Mount Hamilton.
Western Seminary has one of its four campuses in San Jose, which opened on the campus of Calvary Church of Los Gatos in 1985. The campus relocated in 2010 to Santa Clara. Western is an evangelical, Christian graduate school that provides theological training for students who hope to serve in a variety of ministry roles including pastors, marriage and family therapists, educators, missionaries and lay leadership. The San Jose campus offers four master 's degrees, and a variety of other graduate - level programs.
National Hispanic University offered associate and bachelor 's degrees and teaching credentials to its students, focusing on Hispanic students, until its closing in 2015.
Up until the opening of Lincoln High School in 1943, San Jose students only attended San Jose High School. Some of the city 's history is embedded within these two high schools, which hold a Thanksgiving Day high school football game, called the "Big Bone. '' As of 2010, there are 127 elementary, 47 middle, and 44 high schools, of which are all public. Public education in the city is provided by four high school districts, fourteen elementary districts, and four unified school districts (which provide both elementary and high schools).
In addition to the main San Jose Unified School District (SJUSD), other nearby unified school districts of nearby cities are Milpitas Unified School District, Morgan Hill Unified School District, and Santa Clara Unified School District.
Districts using the "feeder '' system:
Prior to 1954, California law required cities and school districts to have the same boundaries. When San Jose began expanding, rural school districts became one of the major opponents, as their territory and tax base was taken by the city. The city 's legislators pushed a bill through the California Legislature, removing that requirement, and ending much of the opposition. The result is a patchwork of local school districts in the areas annexed after 1954.
Private schools in San Jose are primarily run by religious groups. The Catholic Diocese of San Jose has the second largest student population in the Santa Clara County, behind only SJUSD; the diocese and its parishes operate several schools in the city, including six high schools: Archbishop Mitty High School, Bellarmine College Preparatory, Notre Dame High School, Saint Francis High School, St. Lawrence High School, and Presentation High School. Other private high schools not run by the Diocese include two Baptist high schools, Liberty Baptist School and White Road Baptist Academy, one Non-Denominational Protestant high school, Valley Christian High School (San Jose, California), one University - preparatory school, Cambrian Academy, and a nonsectarian K - 12 Harker School west of the city in the Blackford neighborhood.
The San Jose Public Library system is unique in that the Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Library combines the collections of the city 's system with the San Jose State University main library. In 2003, construction of the library, which now holds more than 1.6 million items, was the largest single library construction project west of the Mississippi, with eight floors that result in more than 475,000 square feet (44,100 m) of space with a capacity for 2 million volumes.
The city has 23 neighborhood branches including the Biblioteca Latinoamericana which specializes in Spanish language works. The East San Jose Carnegie Branch Library, a Carnegie library opened in 1908, is the last Carnegie library in Santa Clara County still operating as a public library and is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. As the result of a bond measure passed in November 2000, a number of brand new or completely reconstructed branches have been completed and opened. The yet - to - be-named brand new Southeast Branch is also planned, bringing the bond library project to its completion.
The San Jose system (along with the University system) were jointly named as "Library of the Year '' by the Library Journal in 2004.
San Jose is served by Greater Bay Area media. Print media outlets in San Jose include the San Jose Mercury News, the weekly Metro Silicon Valley, El Observador and the Silicon Valley / San Jose Business Journal. The Bay Area 's NBC O&O, KNTV 11, is based in San Jose. In total, broadcasters in the Bay Area include 34 television stations, 25 AM radio stations, and 55 FM radio stations.
In April 1909, Charles David Herrold, an electronics instructor in San Jose, constructed a radio station to broadcast the human voice. The station, "San Jose Calling '' (call letters FN, later FQW), was the world 's first radio station with scheduled programming targeted at a general audience. The station became the first to broadcast music in 1910. Herrold 's wife Sybil became the first female "disk jockey '' in 1912. The station changed hands a number of times before eventually becoming today 's KCBS in San Francisco. Therefore, KCBS technically is the oldest radio station in the United States, and celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2009 with much fanfare.
Rail service to and from San Jose is provided by Amtrak (the Sacramento -- San - Jose Capitol Corridor and the Seattle -- Los - Angeles Coast Starlight), Caltrain (commuter rail service between San Francisco and Gilroy), ACE (commuter rail service to Pleasanton and Stockton), and a local light - rail system connecting downtown to Mountain View, Milpitas, Campbell, and Almaden Valley, operated by the Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority (VTA). Historic streetcars from History Park operate on the light rail lines in downtown during holidays. Long - term plans call for BART to be expanded to Santa Clara through Milpitas and San Jose from the current terminal in Fremont. Originally, the extension was to be built all at once, but due to the recession, sales tax revenue has dramatically decreased. Because of this, the extension will be built in two phases. Phase 1 will extend service to a temporary terminal in north - eastern San Jose in late 2017 at Berryessa station. Construction has been approved and funded and began in Summer 2012 and will connect with the Warm Springs extension to southern Fremont. In addition, San Jose will be a major stop on the future California High Speed Rail route between Los Angeles and San Francisco. Diridon Station (formerly Cahill Depot, 65 Cahill Street) is the meeting point of all regional commuter rail service in the area. It was built in 1935 by the Southern Pacific Railroad, and was refurbished in 1994.
VTA also operates many bus routes in San Jose and the surrounding communities, as well as offering paratransit services to local residents. Additionally, the Highway 17 Express bus line connects central San Jose with Santa Cruz. Intercity bus providers include Greyhound, BoltBus, Megabus, California Shuttle Bus, TUFESA, Intercalifornias, Hoang, and USAsia.
San Jose is served by Norman Y. Mineta San Jose International Airport (IATA: SJC, ICAO: KSJC, FAA LID: SJC), two miles (3.2 km) northwest of downtown, and by Reid - Hillview Airport of Santa Clara County (ICAO: KRHV, FAA LID: RHV) a general aviation airport located in the eastern part of San Jose. San Jose residents also use San Francisco International Airport (IATA: SFO, ICAO: KSFO, FAA LID: SFO), a major international hub located 35 miles (56 km) to the northwest, and Oakland International Airport (IATA: OAK, ICAO: KOAK, FAA LID: OAK), another major international airport located 35 miles (56 km) to the north. The airport is also near the intersections of three major freeways, U.S. Route 101, Interstate 880, and State Route 87.
The San Jose area has a large freeway system, including three Interstate freeways and one U.S. Route. It is, however, the largest city in the country not served by a primary Interstate; most of the Interstate Highway Network was planned by the early 1950s well before San Jose 's rapid growth decades later.
U.S. 101 runs south to the California Central Coast and Los Angeles, and then runs north up near the eastern shore of the San Francisco Peninsula to San Francisco. I - 280 also heads to San Francisco, but goes along just to the west of the cities of San Francisco Peninsula. I - 880 heads north to Oakland, running parallel to the southeastern shore of San Francisco Bay. I - 680 parallels I - 880 to Fremont, but then cuts northeast to the eastern cities of the San Francisco Bay Area.
Several state highways also serve San Jose: SR 17, SR 85, SR 87 and SR 237. Additionally, San Jose is served by a system of county - wide expressways, which includes the Almaden Expressway, Capitol Expressway, San Tomas Expressway, and Lawrence Expressway.
Several regional transportation projects have been undertaken in recent years to deal with congestion on San Jose freeways. This includes expansion of State Route 87 including more lanes near the downtown San Jose area. The interchange for I - 280 connecting with I - 680 and US 101, a rush - hour spot where the three freeways meet has been known to have high - density traffic similar to Los Angeles County interchanges.
The interchange at the beginning of I - 280 and I - 680 was constructed years before its completion. The two bridges, with no on ramps or off ramps stood over U.S. Route 101 as a 110 - foot tall monument to inefficiency for years in the 1970s. It became the butt of many local jokes. The highlight prank occurred in January 1976, when a 1960 Chevrolet Impala was placed on the highest bridge overnight, where it obviously would be impossible to drive. The following day, San Jose City Councilman Joe Colla was photographed standing next to the car, a photo which was circulated across many newspapers. It has been suggested this stunt nudged the wheels of progress to find the funds to complete the freeway. In 2010, the interchange was named the Joe Colla Interchange.
A 2011 study by Walk Score ranked San Jose the nineteenth most walkable of fifty largest cities in the United States.
Potable water is provided primarily by the private - sector San Jose Water Company, with some by the Great Oaks Water Company, and ten percent by the public - sector San Jose Municipal Water System. Great Oaks provides exclusively well water, while the other two provide water from multiple sources, including well water, and surface water from the Los Gatos Creek watershed, Santa Clara Valley Water District, and the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission 's Hetch Hetchy Reservoir.
The city recycles over 50 % of its solid waste. It accepts textiles and "small metal appliances '' for recycling, but not polystyrene foam.
Wastewater treatment happens at the San Jose - Santa Clara Regional Wastewater Facility (RWF), which treats and cleans the wastewater of more than 1,500,000 people that live and work in the 300 + square mile (780 km2) area encompassing San Jose, Santa Clara, Milpitas, Campbell, Cupertino, Los Gatos, Saratoga, and Monte Sereno.
About 18 % of the treated wastewater is sold for irrigation ("water recycling '') in San Jose, Santa Clara, and Milpitas, through local water providers San Jose Municipal Water System, City of Milpitas Municipal Services, City of Santa Clara Water & Sewer Utility, and San Jose Water Company.
PG&E provides residents natural gas and electricity service. Telephone communications are provided primarily by AT&T, and cable television is provided by Comcast. Internet services are provided by several companies, but primarily by Comcast and AT&T.
On March 14, 2013, San Jose implemented a public wireless connection in the downtown area. Wireless access points were placed on outdoor light posts throughout the city.
San Jose has one of the oldest Sister City programs in the nation. In 1957, when the city established a relationship with Okayama, Japan, it was only the third Sister City relationship in the nation, which had begun the prior year. The Office of Economic Development coordinates the San Jose Sister City Program which is part of Sister Cities International. As of 2014, there are eight sister cities:
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when was the last time jacksonville jaguars went to the superbowl | Jacksonville Jaguars - wikipedia
National Football League (1995 -- present)
Black, Teal, Gold
Division championships (3)
The Jacksonville Jaguars are an American professional football franchise based in Jacksonville, Florida. The Jaguars compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the American Football Conference (AFC) South division. The team plays its home games at TIAA Bank Field.
The Jaguars and the Carolina Panthers joined the NFL as expansion teams for the 1995 season. Since their inception, the Jaguars have won division championships in 1998 and 1999 (as members of the now - defunct AFC Central) and 2017 (as members of the AFC South) and have qualified for the playoffs seven times, most recently in 2017 after a ten - season playoff drought.
From their inception until 2011, the Jacksonville Jaguars ' majority owner was Wayne Weaver. The team was then purchased by Pakistani - born businessman Shahid Khan for an estimated $ 770 million. In 2015, Forbes estimated the team value at $1.48 billion.
In 1989, the prospective ownership group Touchdown Jacksonville! was organized. The group initially included future Florida Governor Jeb Bush and Jacksonville developer Tom Petway, and came to be led by shoe magnate Wayne Weaver, founder of Nine West. In 1991, the NFL announced plans to add two expansion teams in 1994 (later delayed until 1995), its first expansion since the 1976 addition of the Seattle Seahawks and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Touchdown Jacksonville! announced its bid for a team, and Jacksonville was ultimately chosen as one of five finalists, along with Charlotte, St. Louis, Baltimore, and Memphis.
Jacksonville was considered the least likely expansion candidate for several reasons. The Jacksonville metropolitan area and television market were smaller than those of nearly every team in the league. Although Jacksonville was the 15th largest city in the nation at the time (It has since grown to become the 11th - largest), it has always been a medium - sized market because the surrounding suburbs and rural areas are far smaller than the city itself. There were 635,000 people in Jacksonville proper according to the 1990 census, but only 900,000 people in the metropolitan area. Additionally, the Gator Bowl was outdated, and the ownership group struggled to negotiate a lease with the city. The troubled negotiations over the Gator Bowl lease led the ownership group to withdraw from the NFL expansion bidding in July 1993.
Charlotte was awarded the first franchise -- the Carolina Panthers -- in October 1993. Surprisingly, the naming of the second expansion city was delayed a month. Most pundits speculated that the delay was made to allow St. Louis to shore up its bid. At the time, St. Louis was considered the favorite for the second franchise, with Baltimore 's three bids also considered strong. However, in a surprising move, the NFL owners voted 26 -- 2 in favor of awarding the 30th franchise to Jacksonville.
After the Gator Bowl game on December 31, 1993, the old stadium was essentially demolished and replaced with a reinforced concrete superstructure. All that remained of the old stadium was the west upper concourse and a portion of the ramping system. To accommodate construction, the 1994 and 1995 games of "The World 's Largest Outdoor Cocktail Party '' were split between the home fields of Florida and Georgia, and the 1994 Gator Bowl was played at Ben Hill Griffin Stadium in Gainesville.
In January 1994 Wayne Weaver chose Tom Coughlin as the first - ever head coach of the Jaguars. Coughlin had worked in the NFL as a position coach, but he had been neither a head coach nor a coordinator in the NFL.
The Jaguars ' hiring of Coughlin contrasted with the hiring moves made by their fellow expansion team. The same month that Weaver hired Coughlin as his head coach, Carolina Panthers owner Jerry Richardson went a more conventional route and hired former Buffalo Bills general manager Bill Polian as the Panthers ' first GM (the Panthers ' head coach, Dom Capers, would not be hired until a full year after Coughlin). As it emerged that Weaver had no intention of hiring a general manager, it became apparent that Coughlin would have most of the authority regarding hiring decisions. Coughlin spent his year as "head coach without a team '' preparing for the personnel moves that would come from the expansion draft, free agency, and the rookie draft in the spring of 1995.
Along with the Carolina Panthers, the Jacksonville Jaguars entered the NFL as the first expansion teams in almost 20 years. Both teams participated in the 1995 NFL expansion draft, with the Jaguars taking Steve Beuerlein with the first pick. Beuerlein quickly lost his starting job to former Green Bay Packers backup Mark Brunell. The Jaguars finished their inaugural season with a record of 4 -- 12. Both the Jaguars and the Panthers (7 -- 9) broke the previous record for most wins by an expansion team (3) set by the Cincinnati Bengals in 1968. The inaugural season featured many of the players who would lead Jacksonville into the playoffs in the team 's next four seasons, including quarterback Mark Brunell (acquired in a draft day trade from Green Bay), offensive lineman Tony Boselli (drafted with the 2nd pick overall in the 1995 NFL Draft) running back James Stewart (also drafted in 1995), and wide receiver Jimmy Smith (signed as a free agent).
The team played its first regular season game at home in front of a crowd of 72,363 on September 3, 1995, a 10 -- 3 loss against the Houston Oilers. The team picked up its first win in Week 4 as the Jaguars defeated the Oilers 17 -- 16 on October 1 in Houston. The next week against the Pittsburgh Steelers, the Jaguars earned their first home win by defeating the eventual AFC Champions 20 -- 16. The team 's other two wins came in a season sweep of the Cleveland Browns including a Week 17 24 -- 21 victory sealed by a Mike Hollis 34 - yard field goal in the Browns ' final game before the team relocated to Baltimore and was renamed the Ravens.
Jacksonville 's 1996 season was a marked success as they won six of their last seven games of the season and finished with a record of 9 -- 7. Quarterback Mark Brunell threw for over 4,000 yards and wide receivers Keenan McCardell and Jimmy Smith each accumulated over 1,000 receiving yards. In the team 's final game of the regular season against the Atlanta Falcons, needing a win to earn a playoff berth, the Jaguars caught a bit of luck when Morten Andersen, one of the most accomplished kickers in NFL history, missed a 30 - yard field goal with less than a minute remaining that would have given the Falcons the lead. The Jaguars clinched the fifth seed in the AFC playoffs.
The Jaguars visited the Buffalo Bills in their first playoff game in franchise history. Despite being a heavy underdog, the Jaguars won 30 -- 27, and knocked Buffalo quarterback Jim Kelly out of what would turn out to be the last game of his career. Their next game was on the road against the Denver Broncos, who had earned the AFC 's top seed with a 13 -- 3 record and were widely regarded as the best team in the AFC, if not the NFL. While the Broncos scored two touchdowns early in the game, after the first quarter, the Jaguars largely dominated. In what is often regarded as one of the three biggest upsets in NFL playoff history, the Jaguars defeated the Broncos by the same score as the previous week against the Bills, 30 -- 27. Upon their return home, the Jags were greeted by an estimated 40,000 fans at the stadium. Many of these fans had watched the game on the stadium JumboTron displays and had stayed into the early hours of the morning when the team arrived. In the AFC Championship Game, the Jaguars miracle season came to an end, as they lost 20 -- 6 to the New England Patriots, in Foxboro. Their fellow second - year NFC expansion team, the Carolina Panthers, also got to their conference championship game, where they lost 30 -- 13 to the eventual Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers.
In 1997, the franchise 's third season, the Jaguars and the Steelers both finished the season with an 11 -- 5 record, tops in the AFC Central Division. Pittsburgh won the division in a tiebreaker as a result of having higher net in division games than Jacksonville. As a result, the Jaguars settled for 2nd place in the division, a Wild Card berth and, for the second straight year, the 5th seed in the AFC playoffs. The Jags postseason would end quickly as they fell in their first game, a 42 -- 17 defeat against the eventual Super Bowl champion Denver Broncos at Mile High Stadium. The Broncos, led by Terrell Davis, ran at will against the Jaguars, rushing for 5 touchdowns and over 300 yards.
In 1998, the Jaguars again finished 11 -- 5 and won their first AFC Central Division title. The team became the first NFL expansion team to make the playoffs three times in its first four seasons of play. In the Wild Card Round, the Jaguars hosted their first home playoff game, a 25 -- 10 win over the New England Patriots. The team 's season ended the next week in the Divisional Round as the New York Jets defeated the Jaguars 34 -- 24.
In 1999, the Jaguars compiled a league best 14 -- 2 regular season record, the best record in franchise history. The team 's two losses were to the Tennessee Titans. The Jaguars won the AFC Central Division for the second straight year and clinched the # 1 seed in the AFC. The Jaguars hosted the Miami Dolphins in the AFC Divisional playoffs, a 62 -- 7 victory in what would be Dan Marino and Jimmy Johnson 's last NFL game. Jacksonville 's 62 points and 55 - point margin are the second most ever in NFL playoff history, and Fred Taylor 's 90 - yard run in the first quarter is the longest ever in an NFL playoff game.
The Jaguars ' bid for a Super Bowl title came to an end the next week in the AFC championship game. The Jags fell at home to the Titans 33 -- 14 in a game that the Jaguars led 14 -- 10 at halftime, before allowing 23 unanswered points in the 2nd half. The Jaguars finished the 1999 season 15 -- 3, with all three of their losses coming against the Titans. The loss marked the end of an era that saw the Jaguars make the playoffs in four of the team 's first 5 years and would be the team 's last playoff appearance until the 2005 season.
The Jaguars struggled during this period, due in part to salary cap problems. In the 2000 season, veteran quarterback Mark Brunell and young running back Fred Taylor led the squad through a painful 7 -- 9 season. The Jaguars finished with records of 6 -- 10 in both the 2001 and 2002 seasons.
After the 2002 season, head coach Tom Coughlin was fired after eight seasons, leading the Jaguars to a total record of 68 -- 60 and four trips to the playoffs. The 2002 season also marked the last full season for Jaguars quarterback Mark Brunell, who was benched in the third game of 2003 in favor of Byron Leftwich. Brunell piled up over 25,000 yards as a Jaguar and earned three trips to the Pro Bowl. In 2002 the NFL split up the two conferences into four divisions, sending the Jacksonville Jaguars to the AFC South. This put them in the same division as the Indianapolis Colts, Tennessee Titans, and the expansion Houston Texans.
In 2003, the Jaguars hired Jack Del Rio as head coach. Del Rio was a linebacker during the late 80s and early 90s before retiring. He was formerly the Carolina Panthers ' defensive coordinator, bringing the team 's defensive ranking from 30th to second. Prior to that, Del Rio was the Baltimore Ravens linebackers coach, participating in that capacity on the Ravens ' record setting championship 2000 defense. The Jaguars selected quarterback Byron Leftwich with the seventh pick of the NFL draft. The Jaguars had high hopes for their new quarterback. The team had many failures and heartbreaking moments, ending the 2003 season at 5 -- 11 and missing the playoffs for the fourth consecutive season. Despite resolving their salary cap problems, the team 's rebuilding was clearly taking longer than expected.
The 2004 season, the 10th season of the Jaguars franchise, resulted in a 9 -- 7 record, their first winning season since 1999, with road victories against the Green Bay Packers at Lambeau Field and the Indianapolis Colts at the RCA Dome. The Jaguars ' defense was a strong suit, as it included two Pro Bowl players, defensive tackles Marcus Stroud and John Henderson. Josh Scobee was selected in the 5th round of the 2004 NFL Draft and became a dominant placekicker for the Jaguars setting multiple franchise records. Byron Leftwich enjoyed a solid year in 2004, helped by strong performances from holdovers Fred Taylor and Jimmy Smith. Unfortunately, Taylor sustained a season - ending injury at Green Bay. The very next week the Jaguars fell to the Houston Texans, which would ultimately eliminate them from playoff contention.
The 2005 Jaguars hoped to challenge the Colts for the division title. However, due to their scintillating 13 -- 0 start, including two victories against the Jaguars, the Colts easily clinched the AFC South title. With a 12 -- 4 record, the Jaguars earned a wild card and their first playoff appearance since 1999. While the Jaguars managed to win key games in 2005, nine of their final ten games were against opponents with losing records. Though these games were wins, key players Byron Leftwich, Mike Peterson, Akin Ayodele, Paul Spicer, and Rashean Mathis were hurt during this stretch. The Jaguars ended the season losing 28 -- 3 to the two - time defending champion New England Patriots on January 7, 2006 in the AFC wild card playoff round.
Jacksonville looked like a team on the rise coming off of their 12 -- 4 season, and was considered a playoff contender entering the season. But injuries plagued the team. Reggie Hayward, Greg Jones, Donovin Darius, Byron Leftwich, and Mike Peterson all suffered season - ending injuries. Marcus Stroud, Matt Jones, Paul Spicer, and Fred Taylor also faced injuries during the season. The team started off 2 -- 0, defeating the Dallas Cowboys (earning the NFL 's highest winning percentage on opening days at. 750 with a record of 9 -- 3), and shutting out the defending champs Pittsburgh Steelers. But the team lost its next two games, and suffered embarrassing losses to the Houston Texans over the course of the season (Jacksonville has struggled against the Texans since Houston entered the league in 2002). They missed the playoffs with an 8 -- 8 record, but there were some positives, in particular an impressive rookie season by their second - round draft pick, running back Maurice Jones - Drew.
In the 2007 NFL Draft, the Jaguars used their first - round pick (21st overall) to select Florida safety Reggie Nelson. On June 15, 2007, the Jaguars released veteran strong safety Donovin Darius, who had seen diminished playing time in previous years due to mounting injuries. On August 31, 2007, the Jaguars announced that long time back - up quarterback David Garrard would start for the team, ahead of former first round draft pick Byron Leftwich, who was released in the team 's final roster cuts. Garrard led the Jaguars to an 11 -- 5 record and a wild card spot in the playoffs. The Jaguars defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 31 -- 29 to win their first playoff game in almost eight years and their first road playoff win since 1997. It was also the first time in the 50 + year history of the Steelers that they had been beaten twice at home by the same team in the same season. However, in the divisional round, the Jaguars fell to the then - undefeated New England Patriots; the teams were tied at halftime, but the Patriots pulled ahead and won 31 -- 20. Tom Brady completed 26 of 28 passes in this game, being pressured by the Jaguars ' defense only once, on the first play. This game, more than any other, gave the Jaguars ' front office a strong desire to upgrade the pass rush during the offseason.
The team 's offense in 2007 was largely a run - first offense, with Maurice Jones - Drew and Fred Taylor each putting up a lot of yards. David Garrard, however showed to be an efficient passer in 2007, throwing only 3 interceptions.
The 2008 season began with high expectations for the Jaguars. The team acquired free agent wide receiver Jerry Porter and rookie defensive ends Quentin Groves of Auburn and Derrick Harvey of Florida to address the team 's most glaring needs. (Porter was released the following year and Groves was traded to Oakland in 2010.) Journalists including ESPN. com 's Kevin Seifert predicted the Jaguars were poised to make a Super Bowl run.
However, the Jaguars failed to live up to those expectations, struggling to a 5 -- 11 finish, the franchise 's worst record since 2003. The team 's struggles were in part, the result of a rash of injuries to the team 's offensive line. The Jaguars lost starting guards Vince Manuwai and Maurice Williams for the season within the first quarter of the opening game. Tackle Richard Collier 's career ended in early September when he was brutally attacked and shot 14 times. Center Brad Meester missed the first two months of the season and guard Chris Naeole, signed to the roster mid-season in response to these injuries, was injured in pregame warmups before playing a single snap. The 2008 season marked the end of running back Fred Taylor 's 11 - year career as a Jaguar. Taylor, who is considered to be one of the greatest Jaguars in the history of the franchise, rushed for over 10,000 yards during his tenure with Jacksonville and earned one trip to the Pro Bowl. In 2009, he signed with the New England Patriots. Taylor 's departure opened up the door for Maurice Jones - Drew to become the team 's feature running back. In 2011, Taylor signed a one - day contract so he could retire as a Jaguar.
The Jaguars hoped to begin a new era in 2009 under their first - ever general manager, Gene Smith. Smith made his mark early on in the 2009 NFL Draft by acquiring talent such as Eugene Monroe, Terrance Knighton, Derek Cox, Eben Britton and Mike Thomas, who all made significant contributions in their rookie years. The Jaguars finished off this season 7 -- 9 and did not manage to make the playoffs. In the offseason, the Jaguars parted ways with veteran players John Henderson and Reggie Hayward as part of the team 's "youth movement ''.
However, 2009 also saw the team 's attendance numbers plummet, leading to television blackouts and speculation that the team could eventually be moved or sold. 2009 marked a low point, with the team 's attendance averaging around 50,000, causing seven of the eight home games to be blacked out, and leading NFL commissioner Roger Goodell to address the issue with owner Wayne Weaver. Jacksonville is one of the league 's smallest markets, though its stadium is relatively large; since 2005 the team has covered nearly 10,000 of the stadium 's 73,000 total seats with tarp in order to lower the stadium 's official capacity to a more typical size and reduce blackouts. 73,000 total seats still ranks as one of the largest in the NFL. From 2008 the team further suffered from the late - 2000s recession, which hit Florida particularly hard, and structural changes within the NFL that disadvantage teams in smaller markets.
In 2010, to address this issue, the team and the City of Jacksonville undertook several measures aimed at ensuring the franchise 's continued viability in Jacksonville. Supporters began the "Team Teal '' drive to drum up ticket sales. The city negotiated a five - year, $16.6 million naming rights deal with Jacksonville - based EverBank to rename the stadium EverBank Field. As a result, the Jaguars ' attendance increased dramatically in 2010. While attendance figures were stagnant for most of the NFL, Jacksonville saw an increase of 36.5 %, by far the highest in the league, and had none of their home games blacked out.
The 2010 season proved a big year for the Jaguars on the field as well. Running back Maurice Jones - Drew emerged as second in the league in rushing yards and David Garrard threw for 23 touchdowns, a franchise record. Marcedes Lewis went to his first pro bowl and the Jags had one of the best young defensive tackle duo with Terrance Knighton and rookie Tyson Alualu. Josh Scobee set a team record with a 59 - yard field goal to beat the Indianapolis Colts. Heading into December, Jacksonville was at the top of the AFC South and in playoff contention. In Week 15, they lost to Indianapolis, 34 -- 24, which placed the Colts back atop the AFC South. The Jaguars lost their last two games, placing themselves out of playoff contention. They finished the season 8 -- 8.
In the 2011 NFL draft, the Jaguars traded a first and a second round pick in order to move up to the 10th pick and select Missouri quarterback Blaine Gabbert.
On September 6, 2011, quarterback David Garrard was cut from the team just days before the start of the season; Luke McCown was named starter. The move was similar to the one that named Garrard himself the starter over Byron Leftwich in 2007. McCown started two games until he threw four interceptions in a lopsided loss to the New York Jets and Blaine Gabbert was named the starter the following week. The Jaguars offense would continue to struggle under the rookie quarterback, losing the next 4 games in a row, until an upset victory over the Baltimore Ravens at home on Monday Night Football.
On November 29, 2011, owner Wayne Weaver announced the firing of head coach Jack Del Rio, whose record had been 3 -- 8 through the first 12 weeks of the season and 68 -- 71 over his 9 - year tenure. Del Rio was succeeded by defensive coordinator Mel Tucker on an interim basis. Weaver also announced that General Manager Gene Smith had been given a three - year extension of his contract.
Immediately following the announcement of Del Rio being fired, Weaver also announced that the team would be sold to Illinois businessman Shahid Khan. Khan 's assumption of ownership was approved a couple of weeks later by the NFL team owners, and Khan took over full ownership on January 4, 2012. He immediately began the team 's search for head coaching candidates.
On February 13, 2012, the Jaguars hired MetLife Stadium president and CEO Mark Lamping as team president. Lamping also spent 13 years as the president of the St. Louis Cardinals. Lamping is the second team president in franchise history and the first since 1997, when David Seldin left that position.
On January 10, 2012, former Atlanta Falcons offensive coordinator Mike Mularkey was named head coach of the Jaguars. On January 13, it was announced that interim head coach Mel Tucker would remain on the staff as defensive coordinator / assistant head coach and that former Falcons quarterbacks coach Bob Bratkowski would become offensive coordinator. On January 20, 2012, the team hired John Bonamego as special teams coordinator.
The Jaguars began the 2012 season with a new coaching staff and a new owner. One of the main priorities of the new leadership was to improve the team 's struggling receiving corps and see improvement from quarterback Blaine Gabbert after a disappointing rookie season. To do this, the team selected wide receiver Justin Blackmon in the first round of the 2012 NFL Draft and acquired Laurent Robinson in free agency. Despite the changes, the team struggled mightily on both sides of the ball. The team finished with a 2 -- 14 record, the worst in franchise history. Both general manager Gene Smith and head coach Mike Mularkey were fired shortly after the end of the season.
On August 21, 2012, the Jaguars announced they had finalized a deal to play one regular season home game each year between 2013 and 2016 at London 's historic Wembley Stadium as part of the NFL International Series. The first of these games was against the San Francisco 49ers on October 27, 2013. This deal was later extended through 2020.
On January 8, 2013, former Atlanta Falcons Director of Player Personnel David Caldwell was hired as the second full - time General Manager in Jaguars history. He formerly served as a scout for the Indianapolis Colts for 10 years from 1998 -- 2007. His first task with the team was to lead the interview process for a new head coach. Nine days later former Seattle Seahawks defensive coordinator Gus Bradley was named head coach of the Jaguars. The Jaguars struggled early on in 2013 and went into the bye week with an 0 -- 8 record. On November 1 Justin Blackmon was suspended indefinitely after violating the NFL 's Policy and Program for Substances of Abuse. Despite the loss of Blackmon the Jaguars got their first win with Gus Bradley on November 10 with a 29 -- 27 victory over the Tennessee Titans. This was followed by a respectable showing against the Arizona Cardinals, despite a 27 -- 14 loss, and the Jaguars ' second and third victory of the season against the Houston Texans and the Cleveland Browns. The Jaguars would win again the very next week against the Houston Texans 27 -- 20 on Thursday night, improving to 4 -- 9. They finished the season 4 -- 12.
After finishing the 2013 season with a 4 -- 12 record, a two - win improvement over the previous season, the Jaguars traded their 2011 NFL draft first round draft pick Blaine Gabbert to the San Francisco 49ers for the 6th round pick of the 2014 NFL draft. Maurice Jones - Drew, after 7 years with the Jaguars, also left the team and signed a three - year contract with the Oakland Raiders.
In the first round of the 2014 NFL draft the Jaguars selected quarterback Blake Bortles from University of Central Florida and then wide receiver Marqise Lee from University of Southern California in the second round. The new draft picks helped put more confidence in the struggling team. Justin Blackmon was suspended yet again for violating the NFL 's Policy and Program for Substances of Abuse in July. Later in July, EverBank Field unveiled their two new endzone scoreboards, which are considered to be the world 's largest. The Jaguars managed to end their season with a 3 -- 13 record.
Dante Fowler Jr. was selected by the Jaguars as the third overall pick in the 2015 NFL draft. However, Fowler tore his ACL at rookie minicamp on May 8 and did not return for the 2015 season. Josh Scobee was traded to the Pittsburgh Steelers for a 2016 NFL Draft sixth round pick. Jason Myers took over as the main placekicker for the Jaguars. The Jaguars finished the 2015 season with a record of 5 -- 11, the team 's fifth straight losing season and their eighth straight non-winning season.
With plenty of cap space to work with, Jacksonville splurged in free agency, adding defensive tackle Malik Jackson from the Denver Broncos and cornerback Prince Amukamara from the New York Giants. With the fifth selection, the Jaguars selected cornerback Jalen Ramsey from Florida State University in the first round and then the second round linebacker Myles Jack of UCLA in the 2016 NFL Draft. Jack was considered to be a top - 10 talent, but fell to the second round due to a knee injury. On October 2, 2016, the Jacksonville Jaguars defeated the Indianapolis Colts 30 -- 27 in the NFL International Series game. On December 18, 2016, Gus Bradley was fired after the Jaguars ' ninth loss in a row during the 2016 season. Bradley 's W-L record as head coach of the Jaguars was 14 -- 48 in three seasons.
On January 9, 2017 the Jaguars announced the interim head coach Doug Marrone was to be the new head coach, the contract of General Manager David Caldwell was to be extended and Tom Coughlin was returning to Jacksonville to become Executive Vice President of Football Operations. Both Doug Marrone and David Caldwell report to the Executive Vice President Tom Coughlin.
In the first round of the 2017 NFL Draft the Jaguars selected running back Leonard Fournette of LSU. At the annual NFL International Series in London on September 24, 2017 Jaguars players locked arms and kneeled during the national anthem in response to President Donald Trump 's remarks on NFL players who kneel. Shahid Khan also participated with the Jaguars in locking arms during the anthem and the Baltimore Ravens kneeled on the opposite side of the field. The Jaguars went on to defeat the Ravens in a 44 - 7 win. Four weeks later on October 17, President of the Jaguars Mark Lamping sent a letter of apology to the director of military affairs and veterans in Jacksonville that says the Jaguars were '' remiss in not fully comprehending the effect of the national anthem demonstration on foreign soil has had on the men and women who have or continue to serve our country. ''
After their week 15 win over the Houston Texans, the Jaguars clinched their first playoff trip since 2007; they finished the season 10 - 6, a seven - game turnaround from the previous year. The Jaguars defeated the Buffalo Bills 10 - 3 in Jacksonville, marking the first playoff win in ten years. In the Divisional Round, on January 14, 2018, the Jaguars defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 45 - 42 in Pittsburgh to advance to their 3rd AFC Championship Game, and their first since 1999. However, they narrowly fell to the New England Patriots 24 - 20. For the season, the defense earned the nickname "Sacksonville '' because of its dominance.
The day after the NFL awarded the expansion team to Jacksonville, a triumphant Wayne Weaver held up the Jaguars ' proposed silver helmet and teal jersey at the NFL owners ' meeting in Chicago. The team 's colors were to be teal, gold, and silver with black accents. However, this jersey and helmet design, with a gold leaping jaguar, created controversy. Ford Motor Company, then - parent of the automaker Jaguar, believed that the Jaguars ' logo bore too much resemblance to the automaker 's logo. Though no lawsuit was brought to trial, lawyers from the team and the automaker negotiated an ultimately amicable agreement whereby Jaguar would be named the official car of the Jaguars, and the Jaguars would redesign their uniforms.
The new logo was a snarling jaguar head with a teal tongue, which Weaver said was his wife 's touch. He also claimed that the teal tongue came from "feeding Panthers to our Jaguars '' -- an obvious jab at their expansion brethren. During the Jaguars ' first ever preseason game teal - colored candies were handed out to all the fans who attended, turning their tongues a teal color just like on the logo. Additionally, raspberry lollipops were handed out by the "Candy Man '' in section 142 to also turn the home fans ' tongues teal.
In 2009, Weaver announced that he wanted to ' clean up ' the team 's image. This meant the elimination of the full - body crawling Jaguar logo, the clawing Jaguar, and the two previous wordmarks which bent the text around these logos.
In February 2013, Jaguars owner Shahid Khan, who had acquired the team in late 2011, introduced a new brand identity for the team that included a new logo, wordmark, and secondary logo. The new Jaguar head logo was intended to be "fiercer '' and more realistic. The secondary logo incorporated the new Jaguar head logo along with the first official usage of the team 's popular nickname "Jags ''. The two images were incased in a shield - style shape, designed to be a tribute to Jacksonville 's military community.
Beginning in 2013, the Jaguars began to feature gold more prominently than in the past. In fact, from 2009 -- 12 gold had only been used in the team logo and as a minor accent color.
Jaguars wordmark logo (1995 -- 1998)
Jaguars wordmark logo (1999 -- 2008)
Jaguars wordmark logo (2009 -- 2012)
For most of their history, the Jaguars have done what many other NFL teams located in subtropical climates traditionally practice: wear their white jerseys at home during the first half of the season -- forcing opponents to wear their dark ones under the sweltering autumns in Jacksonville. The only exceptions were in 2004 and 2008 -- 10, when the Jaguars chose to wear teal for all home games. In the preseason, the Jaguars typically wear teal at home since these games are played at night when there is very little advantage with the heat.
Following the logo change, the redesigned uniforms featured an all - black helmet, white pants with teal, black, and gold stripes, and numbers with gold inner trim and black outer trim. The home jersey was teal with white numbers and the away jersey was white with teal numbers. Both jerseys had a black collar and no sleeve stripes.
A prowling jaguar on each sleeve replaced the leaping jaguar going across both shoulders in the original design. The Jaguars in 1995 were the first NFL team to have 2 - tone borders on their numbers and lettering, and the first NFL team to show a complex logo (the crawling Jaguar) on the sleeve.
Minor modifications were introduced to the Jaguars uniform during this time, most notably the font of the jersey numbers, replacing the original block numbers with a unique font. Two stripes were also added to the end of the sleeves below the prowling jaguar.
During this period, the Jaguars made minor changes to their uniform, each time adding more black to the look.
The team introduced a black alternate jersey in 2002. During that same year, the team also introduced alternate black pants, worn with either the white or the teal jersey. After the black pants were introduced, the white pants would only be seen for the first few games of the year, presumably due to the heat. The black pants originally included two teal stripes down each side. The fan reaction to the extra black in the alternate jersey and alternate pants was positive, so in 2004 the Jaguars went through a formal uniform change, which teams are only allowed to do once every five years. These changes were mostly to the away look. Before 2004, the white away jerseys had teal numbers with black and gold trim, but after, the white jerseys had black numbers with teal and gold trim. The black pants were also changed. The teal stripes were replaced with the Jaguar logo on each hip. Teal almost disappeared from the away uniform.
The stripes on the white pants were altered in 2008 so that the center, thickest stripe was black, and its accents were teal. In the 2008 year, the gold in the uniforms noticeably shifted from a bright yellow metallic appearance to more beige.
The Jaguars unveiled new uniforms for the 2009 season. Team owner Wayne Weaver reportedly wanted to "clean up '' the look, feeling that the team had too many uniform styles. The new uniforms were introduced in a press conference on April 22.
At this press conference, Weaver elaborated that different people had taken different liberties with the Jaguars ' image over the years, singling out the ' All Black ' look which the team wore for every prime - time home game from 2003 to 2007 as a point of regret. He also said that the team would wear their teal jerseys at home even on hot days, saying that the practice of choosing to wear white on hot days had also diluted the team 's image. The new uniform reflected a simpler look overall. The collar and sleeve ends are the same color as the rest of the jersey. The crawling jaguar was removed. The numbers on the jerseys were changed to a simpler, block font with a thicker, single color border. After all of these subtractions, two features were added. The first was a "JAGUARS '' wordmark underneath the NFL insignia on the chest. The second was two thin ' stripes ' of off - color fabric which were added to each midseam of the jersey, curling up to the neckline on the front and below the number on the back. The stripe on the home jersey is a white line next to a black line, matching the color of the numbers, and the stripe on the away jersey is a black line next to a teal line, again matching the numbers. The pants have similar stripes, both for the home and away uniform. The away uniforms were still black pants and numbers on a white jersey, but they now used teal as the only accent color as opposed to using gold in previous years. The Jaguars ' identity, in terms of colors, beginning in 2009 is exclusively teal and black, with gold only being used in the logo. The final change made to the Jaguars ' uniforms in 2009 was to the helmet. The new helmet and facemask were black just like the old ones, but when light hit the new ones a certain way, both the helmet and face mask sparkled with a shiny teal appearance. These were the first helmets in professional football which changed color with different angles of light. The logo and number decals also incorporated this effect.
Prior to the 2012 season, new Jaguars owner Shahid Khan announced that the team would once again use a black jersey, something they had not done since 2008. In September of that year, the team announced that it would use the black jersey and black pants as their primary home uniform. The teal jersey was resurrected as an alternate.
On April 23, 2013, the Jaguars unveiled new uniforms designed by Nike. The primary home jersey is black with white numerals outlined in teal and gold. The road jersey is white with teal numerals outlined in black and gold, marking the first time since 2003 that the team has used teal numbers on their road jersey. The alternate jersey is teal with black numerals outlined in white and gold. The team had never before used black numbers on their teal jersey. All three jerseys feature a contrasting stripe that bends around the neck, and semi-glossy patches on the shoulders meant to resemble claw marks. The team added their new shield logo onto a patch just above the player 's heart, meant to pay tribute to Jacksonville 's military heritage.
The helmet, first of its kind in the NFL, features a glossy gold finish in the back that fades to matte black in the front, via a color gradient.
The new uniform set includes black and white pants with the Jaguars logo on the hip and a tri-color pattern down the player 's leg.
In November 2015, as one of eight teams participating in Nike 's "Color Rush '' initiative for four games of Thursday Night Football during the 2015 season, Jacksonville introduced an all - gold second alternative uniform. The set features a gold jersey with black sleeves and black trim, as well as all gold pants. The white front and back numbers are lined in the teal accent color and bordered by black. The TV numbers on the shoulders are white with black bordering. The set also features gold undershirts and socks.
Since his introduction in 1996, Jaxson de Ville has served as the Jaguars ' mascot. Jaxson entertains the crowd before and during games with his antics. The mascot has established a reputation for making dramatic entrances including bungee jumping off the stadium lights, sliding down a rope from the scoreboard and parachuting into the stadium.
Jaxson 's antics got him into trouble in 1998 and stemmed the changing of the NFL 's mascot rules, and also caused him to calm down. However, Jaxson was still seen, by some, as a mascot that gets in the way during the game. After the October 22, 2007 game against Indianapolis, Colts President Bill Polian complained to the NFL, and Jaxson was reprimanded again.
Jaxson 's first appearance was on August 18, 1996 and was played by Curtis Dvorak from his inception until his retirement in June 2015.
The Jacksonville Roar is the professional cheerleading squad of the Jaguars. The group was established in 1995, the team 's inaugural year, and regularly performs choreographed routines during the team 's home contests.
In addition to performing at games and pep rallies, members function as goodwill ambassadors of the team, participating in corporate, community, and charitable events in the Jacksonville metropolitan area where they sign autographs and pose for pictures. They also join NFL tours to entertain American servicemen and women around the world.
TIAA Bank Field (formerly known as Jacksonville Municipal Stadium, Alltel Stadium, and EverBank Field) is located on the north bank of the St. Johns River, and has been the home of the Jaguars since the team 's first season in 1995. The stadium has a capacity of 69,132, with additional seating added during Florida -- Georgia Game and the Gator Bowl.
The stadium served as the site of Super Bowl XXXIX in addition to four Jaguar playoff games including the 1999 AFC Championship Game. It also hosted the ACC Championship Game from 2005 -- 07 and the River City Showdown in 2007 and 2008.
From 1995 -- 97 and again from 2006 -- 09, the stadium was named Jacksonville Municipal Stadium. From 1997 -- 2006, the stadium was referred to as Alltel Stadium. The naming rights were purchased by EverBank prior to the 2010 season. Prior to the 2018 season the Jaguars announced the stadium would be renamed TIAA Bank Field.
The stadium got a substantial upgrade in 2014 with the addition of new scoreboards, pools, cabana seating and premium seating that includes 180 field - level seats. The scoreboards are 60 feet high and 362 feet long. The new scoreboards at EverBank Field are now the world 's largest video boards. Two 25 feet by 12 feet pools were installed in the north and south end zones along with the cabana seating. The stadium upgrades were $63 million that owner Shahid Khan helped finance $20 million of the total cost.
The Jacksonville Jaguars have three primary rivals: their divisional rivals (Tennessee Titans, Indianapolis Colts, and Houston Texans). They have geographic rivalries with the Miami Dolphins and Tampa Bay Buccaneers. The Jaguars also have a rivalry with their 1995 expansion brethren, the Carolina Panthers. The Jaguars also have rivalries with other teams that arose from the AFC Central days, most notably with the Pittsburgh Steelers.
This is a partial list of the Jaguars ' last five completed seasons. For the full season - by - season franchise results, see List of Jacksonville Jaguars seasons.
Note: The Finish, Wins, Losses, and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play.
As of December 31, 2017
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Unrestricted FAs
Restricted FAs
Exclusive - Rights FAs
Roster updated February 23, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 44 Active, 12 Inactive, 18 FAs
Although not officially retired, the number 71 worn by offensive tackle Tony Boselli, the Jaguars ' first - ever draft pick, has not been worn since his retirement in 2002. According to team officials, while the number is not in circulation, the number (along with Fred Taylor 's number 28) is officially available for use if the circumstances warrant it.
A contest was held in July 2006 to name the club 's ring of honor and "Pride of the Jaguars '' was chosen with 36 % of the vote. It was unveiled during the 2006 season during a game against the New York Jets on October 8. Former offensive tackle Tony Boselli was the first player inducted.
On January 1, 2012, team owner Wayne Weaver and his wife Delores were added to the Pride of the Jaguars in their final game before the sale of the team to Shahid Khan. On June 7, 2012 the Jaguars announced Fred Taylor would be the next inductee into the Pride of the Jaguars. He was officially inducted on September 30, 2012. Longtime Jaguars quarterback Mark Brunell was also inducted into the "Pride of the Jaguars '' on December 15, 2013.
→ Coaching Staff → Management and Scouting → Staff Directory → More NFL staffs
The Jacksonville Jaguars Foundation was established in 1994, when the franchise deal was first announced. Since then, the Foundation has given over $20 million to area efforts in community improvement. The Foundation focuses on many initiatives, such as Honor Rows, anti-tobacco programs, NFL Play 60, and support for veterans. The Foundation grants over $1 million annually to organizations that assist "economically and socially disadvantaged youth and families ''.
The Jaguars ' first head coach, Tom Coughlin, established the Tom Coughlin Jay Fund Foundation in 1996 to help young cancer victims and their families with emotional and financial assistance. The charity remained in Jacksonville after Coughlin left to coach the New York Giants.
Media affiliates
From their inaugural 1995 season until 2013, the Jaguars ' flagship radio station was WOKV, which simulcasts on both AM 690 and on 104.5 FM.
Starting with the 2014 season, the team will be moving the broadcast to WJXL (1010 AM and 92.5 FM) and simulcast on 99.9 Gator Country
Frank Frangie is the play - by - play announcer with former Jaguars players Tony Boselli and Jeff Lageman providing color analysis.
WJXT televises all preseason games and also televises regular season games that are televised nationally on ESPN or NFL Network.
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how many episodes are in the second season of stranger things | Stranger Things - wikipedia
Stranger Things is an American science fiction - horror web television series created, written, directed and co-executive produced by The Duffer Brothers, as well as co-executive produced by Shawn Levy and Dan Cohen. The first season, released in July 2016, stars Winona Ryder, David Harbour, Finn Wolfhard, Millie Bobby Brown, Gaten Matarazzo, Caleb McLaughlin, Natalia Dyer, Charlie Heaton, Cara Buono and Matthew Modine, with Noah Schnapp and Joe Keery in recurring roles. For the second season, Schnapp and Keery were promoted to series regulars, along with the additions of Sadie Sink, Dacre Montgomery, Sean Astin and Paul Reiser.
Set in the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana, in the 1980s, the first season focuses on the investigation into the disappearance of a young boy amid supernatural events occurring around the town, including the appearance of a girl with psychokinetic abilities who helps the missing boy 's friends in their own search. The second season, titled Stranger Things 2, is set a year after the first, and deals with attempts of the characters to return to normal and consequences that linger from the first season.
The Duffer Brothers developed the series as a mix of investigative drama alongside supernatural elements with childlike sensibilities, establishing its time frame in the 1980s and creating a homage to pop culture of that decade. Several themes and directorial aspects were inspired and aesthetically informed by the works of Steven Spielberg, John Carpenter, and Stephen King, among others, including several films, anime and video games.
The first season was released on Netflix on July 15, 2016. It received critical acclaim for its characterization, pacing, atmosphere, acting, soundtrack, directing, writing, and homages to 1980s genre films. The series has received several industry nominations and awards, including winning the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2016, and receiving eighteen nominations for the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series. On August 31, 2016, Netflix renewed the series for a second season of nine episodes, which was released on October 27, 2017. In December 2017, Netflix ordered a third season, which will consist of eight episodes. The Duffer Brothers have said that Stranger Things is likely to end after its fourth or fifth season.
Stranger Things is set in the fictional rural town of Hawkins, Indiana, during the early 1980s. The nearby Hawkins National Laboratory ostensibly performs scientific research for the United States Department of Energy, but secretly does experiments into the paranormal and supernatural, including those that involve human test subjects. Inadvertently, they have created a portal to an alternate dimension called "the Upside Down ''. The influence of the Upside Down starts to affect the unknowing residents of Hawkins in calamitous ways.
The first season begins in November 1983, when Will Byers is abducted by a creature from the Upside Down. His mother, Joyce, and the town 's police chief, Jim Hopper, search for Will. At the same time, a young psychokinetic girl called Eleven escapes from the laboratory and assists Will 's friends, Mike, Dustin, and Lucas, in their own efforts to find Will.
The second season is set a year later, starting in October 1984. Will has been rescued, but few know of the details of the events. When it is discovered that Will is still being influenced by entities from the Upside Down, his friends and family learn there is a larger threat to their universe from the Upside Down.
Executive producer Shawn Levy cameos as a morgue worker.
Stranger Things was created by Matt and Ross Duffer, known professionally as The Duffer Brothers. The two had completed writing and producing their 2015 film Hidden, which they had tried to emulate the style of M. Night Shyamalan, however, due to changes at Warner Bros., its distributor, the film did not see a wide release and the Duffers were unsure of their future. To their surprise, television producer Donald De Line approached them, impressed with Hidden 's script, and offered them the opportunity to work on episodes of Wayward Pines alongside Shyamalan. The brothers were mentored by Shyamalan during the episode 's production, so that when they finished, they felt they were ready to produce their own television series.
The Duffer Brothers prepared a script that would essentially be similar to the series ' actual pilot episode, along with a 20 - page pitch book to help shop the series around for a network. They pitched the story to a number of cable networks, all of which rejected the script on the basis that they felt a plot centered around children as leading characters would not work, asking them to make it a children 's show or to drop the children and focus on Hopper 's investigation in the paranormal. In early 2015, Dan Cohen, the VP of 21 Laps Entertainment, brought the script to his colleague Shawn Levy. They subsequently invited The Duffer Brothers to their office and purchased the rights for the series, giving full authorship of it to the brothers. After reading the pilot, the streaming service Netflix purchased the whole season for an undisclosed amount; the show was subsequently announced for a planned 2016 release by Netflix in early April 2015. The Duffer Brothers stated that at the time they had pitched to Netflix, the service had already gotten recognized for its original programming, such as House of Cards and Orange Is the New Black, with well - recognized producers behind them, and were ready to start giving upcoming producers like them a chance. The brothers started to write out the series and brought Levy and Cohen in as executive producers to start casting and filming.
The series was originally known as Montauk, as the setting of the script was in Montauk, New York and nearby Long Island locations. The brothers had chosen Montauk as it had further Spielberg ties with the film Jaws, where Montauk was used for the fictional setting of Amity Island. After deciding to change the narrative of the series to take place in the fictional town of Hawkins instead, the brothers felt they could now do things to the town, such as placing it under quarantine, that they really could not envision with a real location. With the change in location, they had to come up with a new title for the series under direction from Netflix 's Ted Sarandos so that they could start marketing it to the public. The brothers started by using a copy of Stephen King 's Firestarter novel to consider the title 's font and appearance, and came up with a long list of potential alternatives. Stranger Things came about as it sounded similar to another King novel, Needful Things, though Matt noted they still had a "lot of heated arguments '' over this final title.
To pitch the series, The Duffers showcased images, footage and music from 1980s films such as E.T. the Extra Terrestrial, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Poltergeist, Hellraiser, Stand by Me, Firestarter, A Nightmare on Elm Street and Jaws, in order to establish the tone of the series.
With the critical success of the first season after its release in July 2016, speculation on a possible second season was raised. The Duffer Brothers initially intended for Stranger Things to either be a standalone miniseries or an anthology series. They also considered the possibility of setting a potential second season (which they refereed to as a ' sequel ') in the early 1990s and featuring an older version of the characters, along with all new characters, who are drawn back to Hawkins after supernatural events begin occurring again.. However, following the release of the first season, they realized that the likability of the characters - especially the children - was key to the series ' success, and they decided to set the second season in 1984 and focus on the same characters. By the end of July, The Duffer Brothers had outlined a plan for such a season if it was green - lit, and Netflix 's CEO Reed Hastings said in early August that the company "would be dumb not to '' renew Stranger Things for a second season. On August 31, 2016, Netflix announced it had renewed Stranger Things for a second season of nine episodes, to be released in 2017. The Duffer Brothers revealed that the series had been renewed for a second season before the first premiered. Regarding the decision to wait more than a month after the first season premiered to announce the renewal, Matt Duffer said, "it actually ended up working because it had built up to this fever pitch. I guess that 's what (Netflix) were intending to do all the time. ''
The Duffers wrote the second season to make the combined first and second season feel like a complete work, but setting elements in place to go forward with additional seasons if they are green - lit. While most of the story for the second season had been decided before the first season aired, the Duffers took in the audience reactions from the first season to adjust some of the details within the second season. They knew they would not have the same element of audience surprise as when the show aired anew, and were aware fans wanted to see certain elements, but Ross said "... the point is not to give everyone what they think they want. Because I do n't think they really know what they want. '' The Duffers felt that the second season should be treated more as a sequel rather than a continuation, and thus have opted to call the second Stranger Things 2. This approach had some trepidation from Netflix, since the company felt movie sequels typically have a bad reputation, but the Duffers pointed out that there had been many successful sequels that surpassed the original film, and felt confident with this name. Despite revealing episode titles for the season in the announcement teaser in order "to provide some hint of where we were going in season two without giving anything away, '' Matt Duffer stated that some of the titles would change, since there were some things "we did n't want to put on there because we felt like it would give too much away, '' and because "people are smart on the fucking internet '' with fan - created "videos analyzing the chapter titles... right on a lot '' of how the titles related to the plot of the season. In early October 2017, the Duffers revealed the final titles for the first six episodes of the season.
Levy noted in November 2016 that he and The Duffer Brothers had already begun planning a potential third season, saying, "We are not gon na be caught off guard and we do n't wan na be making stuff up like the day before we have to write it and make it, so we are definitely optimistic and we have started thinking ahead. '' The Duffers anticipate having about four to five seasons to work with, but do want to "have a really finite ending '' while the show is still at a height of success, according to Matt, rather than letting it draw out indefinitely. In August 2017, the Duffers confirmed there would be a third season, with the likelihood of one more season following that, with Ross saying, "We 're thinking it will be a four - season thing and then out ''. However, executive producer Shawn Levy later suggested that either four or five total seasons were possibilities, claiming that "the truth is we 're definitely going four seasons and there 's very much the possibility of a fifth. Beyond that, it becomes I think very unlikely. '' Matt Duffer later commented that no official decision has been made, claiming that "It 's hard, like four seems short, five seems long. So I do n't know what to do. '' In December 2017, Netflix officially confirmed that they have greenlit the third season.
The idea of Stranger Things started with how the brothers felt they could take the concept of the 2013 film Prisoners, detailing the moral struggles a father goes through when his daughter is kidnapped, and expand it out over eight or so hours in a serialized television approach. As they focused on the missing child aspect of the story, they wanted to introduce the idea of "childlike sensibilities '' they could offer, and toyed around with the idea of a monster that could consume humans. The brothers thought the combination of these things "was the best thing ever ''. To introduce this monster into the narrative, they considered "bizarre experiments we had read about taking place in the Cold War '' such as Project MKUltra, which gave a way to ground the monster 's existence in science rather than something spiritual. This also helped them to decide on using 1983 as the time period, as it was a year before the film Red Dawn came out, which focused on Cold War paranoia. Subsequently, they were able to use all their own personal inspirations from the 1980s, the decade they were born, as elements of the series, crafting it in the realm of science fiction and horror. The Duffer Brothers have cited as influence for the show (among others): Stephen King novels; films produced by Steven Spielberg, John Carpenter, Wes Craven, Robert Zemeckis, George Lucas and Guillermo del Toro; films such as Alien and Stand by Me; Japanese anime such as Akira and Elfen Lied; and video games such as Silent Hill, The Last of Us, and Dark Souls. The Duffers also believe that they may have brought influences from other works unintentionally, including Beyond the Black Rainbow and D.A.R.Y.L., discovered by reviewing fan feedback on the show.
With Netflix as the platform, The Duffer Brothers were not limited to a typical 22 - episode format, opting for the eight - episode approach. They had been concerned that a 22 - episode season on broadcast television would be difficult to "tell a cinematic story '' with that many episodes. Eight episodes allowed them to give time to characterization in addition to narrative development; if they had less time available, they would have had to remain committed to telling a horror film as soon as the monster was introduced and abandon the characterization. Within the eight episodes, the brothers aimed to make the first season "feel like a big movie '' with all the major plot lines completed so that "the audience feels satisfied '', but left enough unresolved to indicate "there 's a bigger mythology, and there 's a lot of dangling threads at the end '', something that could be explored in further seasons if Netflix opted to create more.
Regarding writing for the children characters of the series, The Duffer Brothers considered themselves as outcasts from other students while in high school and thus found it easy to write for Mike and his friends, and particularly for Barb. Joyce was fashioned after Richard Dreyfuss ' character Roy Neary in Close Encounters of the Third Kind, as she appears "absolutely bonkers '' to everyone else as she tries to find Will. Other characters, such as Billy in the second season, have more villainous attributes that are not necessarily obvious from the onset; Matt explained that they took further inspiration from Stephen King for these characters, as King "always has really great human villains '' that may be more malicious than the supernatural evil.
According to David Harbour, writing for the third season was still occurring in December 2017. Levy said the season would be less about Will, saying, "We 're not going to put Will through hell for a third season in a row. He 'll be dealing with stuff, but he wo n't be at rock bottom... We 're (going to be) dealing with forces of evil that are new. ''
In June 2015, it was announced that Winona Ryder and David Harbour had joined the series as Joyce and as the unnamed chief of police, respectively. The brothers ' casting director Carmen Cuba had suggested Ryder for the role of Joyce, which the two were immediately drawn to because of her predominance in the films of the 1980s. Levy believed Ryder could "wretch up the emotional urgency and yet find layers and nuance and different sides of (Joyce) ''. Ryder praised that the show 's multiple storylines required her to act for Joyce as "she 's out of her mind, but she 's actually kind of onto something '', and that the producers had faith she could pull off the difficult role. The Duffer Brothers had been interested in Harbour before, who until Stranger Things primarily had smaller roles as villainous characters, and they felt that he had been "waiting too long for this opportunity '' to play a lead, while Harbour himself was thrilled by the script and the chance to play "a broken, flawed, anti-hero character ''.
Additional casting followed two months later with Finn Wolfhard as Mike, Millie Bobby Brown in an undisclosed role, Gaten Matarazzo as Dustin, Caleb McLaughlin as Lucas, Natalia Dyer as Nancy, and Charlie Heaton as Jonathan. In September 2015, Cara Buono joined the cast as Karen, followed by Matthew Modine as Martin Brenner a month later. Additional cast who recur for the first season include Noah Schnapp as Will, Shannon Purser as Barbara "Barb '' Holland, Joe Keery as Steve Harrington, and Ross Partridge as Lonnie, among others.
Actors auditioning for the children roles read lines from Stand By Me. The Duffer Brothers estimated they went through about a thousand different child actors for the roles. They noted that Wolfhard was already "a movie buff '' of the films from the 1980s period and easily filled the role, while they found Matarazzo 's audition to be much more authentic than most of the other audition tapes, and selected him after a single viewing of his audition tape. As casting was started immediately after Netflix greenlit the show, and prior to the scripts being fully completed, this allowed some of the actor 's takes on the roles to reflect into the script. The casting of the young actors for Will and his friends had been done just after the first script was completed, and subsequent scripts incorporated aspects from these actors. The brothers said Modine provided significant input on the character of Dr. Brenner, whom they had not really fleshed out before as they considered him the hardest character to write for given his limited appearances within the narrative.
In October 2016, it was announced that Schnapp and Keery had been promoted to the main cast for the second season, after each recurring in the first season, and that Sadie Sink and Dacre Montgomery would join the main cast as Max and Billy, respectively. Ryder, Harbour, Wolfhard, Brown, Matarazzo, McLaughlin, Dyer and Heaton also return for the season. Sean Astin as Bob Newby and Paul Reiser as Sam Owens are also part of the main cast in the season. For Owens, The Duffer Brothers had referred to the character in their pitch to Netflix for the season as "Paul Reiser '', and specifically alluded to Reiser 's character Burke in Aliens, with Ross referencing James Cameron 's casting choice for that film, saying, "(Cameron) thought people would inherently trust (Reiser) and it would be a twist ''. Reiser 's son was a fan of Stranger Things, and gave his father an early appreciation of the series, so that by when the production called his agent about the role, Reiser was excited for the part. Joining them in recurring roles are Linnea Berthelsen as Kali / Eight and Brett Gelman as Murray Bauman.
The third season sees Ryder, Harbour, Wolfhard, Brown, Matarazzo, McLaughlin, Dyer, Heaton, Buono, Schnapp, Sink, Kerry and Montgomery return.
The brothers had desired to film the series around the Long Island area to match the initial Montauk concept. However, with filming scheduled to take place in November 2015, it was difficult to shoot in Long Island in the cold weather, and the production started scouting locations in and around the Atlanta, Georgia area. The brothers, who grew up in North Carolina, found many places that reminded them of their own childhoods in that area, and felt the area would work well with the narrative shift to the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana.
The filming of the first season began in November 2015 and was extensively done in Atlanta, Georgia, with The Duffer Brothers and Levy handling the direction of individual episodes. Jackson served as the basis of the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana. Other shooting locations included the Georgia Mental Health Institute as the Hawkins National Laboratory site, Bellwood Quarry, Patrick Henry High School in Stockbridge, Georgia, for the middle and high school scenes, Emory University 's Continuing Education Department, the former city hall in Douglasville, Georgia, Georgia International Horse Park, the probate court in Butts County, Georgia, Old East Point Library and East Point First Baptist Church in East Point, Georgia, Fayetteville, Georgia, Stone Mountain Park, Palmetto, Georgia, and Winston, Georgia. Set work was done at Screen Gem Studios in Atlanta. The series was filmed with a Red Dragon digital camera. Filming for the first season concluded in early 2016.
While filming, the brothers tried to capture shots that could be seen as homages to many of the 1980s references they recalled. Their goal was not necessarily to fill the work with these references, but instead make the series seem to the viewer as a 1980s film. They spent little time reviewing those works and instead went by memory. Matt further recognized that some of their filming homages were not purposely done but were found to be very comparable, as highlighted by a fan - made video comparing the show to several 1980s works side - by - side. Matt commented on the video that "Some were deliberate and some were subconscious. '' The brothers recognized that many of the iconic scenes from these 1980s films, such as with Poltergeist, was about "taking a very ordinary object that people deal with every day, their television set, and imbuing it with something otherworldly '', leading to the idea of using the Christmas light strings for Will to communicate with Joyce.
The brothers attributed much of the 1980s feel to set and costume designers and the soundtrack composers that helped to recreate the era for them. Lynda Reiss, the head of props, had about a $220,000 budget, similar to most films, to acquire artifacts of the 1980s, using eBay and searching through flea markets and estate sales around the Atlanta area. The bulk of the props were original items from the 1980s with only a few pieces, such as the Dungeons & Dragons books made as replicas. Costume designer Kimberly Adams - Galligan for the first season aimed for capturing authenticity of the clothes choices by the characters, such as reflecting that the Byers would likely use hand - me - down clothes compared to the other families; in this case, while the costume department did distress the outfits for all the characters, they spent more time for Will 's clothes compared to Mike 's. Frequently, they needed to create outfits for the kids themselves since many were still growing during the time of filming, and could not readily acquire period fashion across a range of sizes. Director of photography Tim Ives shot the first season with Leica lens and the 6K Red Scarlet Dragon to "make sure that our images had the soft and round tones that are in ' 80s films ''; this is achieved through digital image processing. Ives said that these cameras allow them to create an adaptable quality to the recorded film that is adaptable to a wide range of viewing experiences, including support for newer and future television technologies such as high dynamic range video that was just becoming adopted at the time of filming.
Filming for the second season began on November 7, 2016, once again in and around the Atlanta Metro area. While parts of Season 2 were set in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, these were actually filmed in downtown Atlanta, with skylines of Pittsburgh added in post-production. Andrew Stanton, director of Pixar 's Finding Nemo and WALL - E, directed the fifth and sixth episodes of the second season. Levy stated that Stanton was a big fan of the show and called up Levy, offering his directorial abilities for the show. Rebecca Thomas directed the seventh episode of the season. Unlike the first season, which they were able to film without any real security issues, the heightened awareness of the show required the producers to take significant steps to keep the show 's production in secret while filming the second season. They spoke to the production team of HBO 's Game of Thrones for tips and advice for securing filming sites, and have adopted code names for the series and various parts to allow the actors to speak to others without revealing details of the show 's plot. Kim Wilcox took over for costumes in the second season, finding many of the same problems with designing for the child actors that were aging. Furthermore, she wanted to create the 80 's aestetic but as reflected in a small rural town, with the trends of period slowly filtering into it rather that immediately jump on elements like neon colors. The second season concluded filming on June 2, 2017. Ives once again used Leica lens to film the season, while upgrading to the Red Weapon 8K S35 camera.
Filming for the third season is expected to begin in mid-April 2018.
To create the aged effect for the series, a film grain was added over the footage, which was captured by scanning in film stock from the 1980s. The Duffers wanted to scare the audience, but not to necessarily make the show violent or gory, following in line with how the 1980s Amblin Entertainment films drove the creation of the PG - 13 movie rating. It was "much more about mood and atmosphere and suspense and dread than they are about gore '', though they were not afraid to push into more scary elements, particularly towards the end of the first season. The brothers had wanted to avoid any computer - generated effects for the monster and other parts of the series and stay with practical effects. However, the six - month filming time left them little time to plan out and test practical effects rigs for some of the shots. They went with a middle ground of using constructed props including one for the monster whenever they could, but for other shots, such as when the monster bursts through a wall, they opted to use digital effects. Post-production on the first season was completed the week before it was released to Netflix.
The title sequence uses closeups of the letters in the Stranger Things title with a red tint against a black background as they slide into place within the title. The sequence was created by the studio Imaginary Forces, formerly part of R / GA, led by creative director Michelle Doughtey. Levy introduced the studio to The Duffer Brothers, who explained their vision of the 1980s - inspired show, which helped the studio to fix the concept the producers wanted. Later, but prior to filming, the producers sent Imaginary Forces the pilot script, the synth - heavy background music for the titles, as well as the various book covers from King and other authors that they had used to establish the title and imagery, and were looking for a similar approach for the show 's titles, primarily using a typographical sequence. They took inspiration from several title sequences of works from the 1980s that were previously designed by Richard Greenberg under R / GA, such as Altered States and The Dead Zone. They also got input from Dan Perri, who worked on the title credits of several 1980s films. Various iterations included having letters vanish, to reflect the "missing '' theme of the show, and having letters cast shadows on others, alluding to the mysteries, before settling into the sliding letters. The studio began working on the title sequence before filming, and took about a month off during the filming process to let the producers get immersed in the show and come back with more input. Initially they had been working with various fonts for the title and used close - ups of the best features of these fonts, but near the end the producers wanted to work with ITC Benguiat, requiring them to rework those shots. The final sequence is fully computer generated, but they took inspiration from testing some practical effects, such as using Kodalith masks as would have been done in the 1980s, to develop the appropriate filters for the rendering software. The individual episode title cards used a "fly through '' approach, similar to the film Bullitt, which the producers had suggested to the studio.
The Stranger Things original soundtrack was composed by Michael Stein and Kyle Dixon of the electronic band Survive. It makes extensive use of synthesizers in homage to 1980s artists and film composers including Jean - Michel Jarre, Tangerine Dream, Vangelis, Goblin, John Carpenter, Giorgio Moroder, and Fabio Frizzi.
According to Stein and Dixon, The Duffer Brothers had been fans of Survive 's music, and used their song "Dirge '' for the mock trailer that was used to sell the show to Netflix. Once the show was green - lit, the Duffers contacted Survive around July 2015 to ask if they were still doing music; the two provided the production team with dozens of songs from their band 's past to gain their interest, helping to land them the role. Once aboard, the two worked with producers to select some of their older music to rework for the show, while developing new music, principally with character motifs. The two had been hired before the casting process, so their motif demos were used and played over the actors ' audition tapes, aiding in the casting selection. The show 's theme is based on an unused work Stein composed much earlier that ended up in the library of work they shared with the production staff, who thought that with some reworking would be good for the opening credits.
In addition to original music, Stranger Things features period music from artists including The Clash, Joy Division, Toto, New Order, The Bangles, Foreigner, Echo and the Bunnymen, Peter Gabriel, and Corey Hart, as well as excerpts from Tangerine Dream, John Carpenter, and Vangelis. In particular, The Clash 's "Should I Stay or Should I Go '' was specifically picked to play at pivotal moments of the story, such as when Will is trying to communicate with Joyce from the Upside Down.
Stranger Things ' original soundtrack, consisting of 75 songs from Stein and Dixon split across two volumes, was released by Lakeshore Records. Digital release and streaming options were released on August 10 and 19, 2016 for the two volumes, respectively, while retail versions were available on September 16 and 23, 2016. Limited editions of the soundtrack on vinyl, in both individual and a boxed set, are set for release in July 2017. A cassette version of the soundtrack, sold exclusively by Urban Outfitters, was released on July 14, 2017. The cassette packaging features a cardboard cover that emulates an old VHS sleeves, while the cassette case is made to look like a VHS tape.
Both volumes were nominated individually for the Best Score Soundtrack Category for the 2017 Grammy Awards, though neither won.
The soundtrack for the second season of Stranger Things was released digitally on October 20, 2017. The soundtrack, once again composed by Stein and Dixon, consists of 34 songs and was released by Lakeshore Records in the United States and Invada Records internationally. The soundtrack is intended to be released on physical formats, such as compact disc, vinyl, and cassette as well. On the soundtrack 's composition, Stein and Dixon together said that the score for the season introduces "new styles of composition, while still revisiting old themes when appropriate... We 've created new elements that are necessary to support the story, but still want to remain true to the sound of Season 1. '' The first track from the soundtrack, "Walkin ' in Hawkins '', was released on October 12.
The first season consisted of eight one - hour - long episodes which were released worldwide on Netflix on July 15, 2016, in Ultra HD 4K. The second season, consisting of nine episodes, was released on October 27, 2017 in HDR. A teaser for the second season, which also announced the release date, aired during Super Bowl LI. The third season is expected to consist of eight episodes. It is not expected to be released until late 2018 or early 2019.
The first season of Stranger Things was released on a Blu - ray / DVD combo pack exclusively to Target retailers on October 17, 2017, which includes a vintage VHS - inspired packaging.
As Netflix does not reveal subscriber viewership numbers for any of their original series, Symphony Technology Group compiled data for the season based on people using software on their phones that measures television viewing by detecting a program 's sound. According to Symphony, within the first 35 days of release, Stranger Things averaged ratings around 14.07 million adults between the ages 18 -- 49 in the United States. This made it the third most - watched season of Netflix original content in the U.S. at the time behind the first season of Fuller House and fourth season of Orange Is the New Black. In a September 2016 analysis, Netflix found that Stranger Things "hooked '' viewers by the second episode of the first season, indicating that the second episode was "the first installment that led at least 70 percent of viewers who watched that episode to complete the entire first season of a show. ''
In August 2017, the marketing analytics firm Jumpshot determined the season was the seventh-most viewed Netflix season in the first 30 days after it premiered, garnering slightly more than 20 % of the viewers that the second season of Daredevil received, which was the most viewed season according to Jumpshot. Jumpshot, which "analyzes click - stream data from an online panel of more than 100 million consumers '', looked at the viewing behavior and activity of the company 's U.S. members, factoring in the relative number of U.S. Netflix viewers who watched at least one episode of the season.
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the first season an approval rating of 94 % based on 70 reviews, and a weighted average rating of 7.96 / 10. The site 's critical consensus states, "Exciting, heartbreaking, and sometimes scary, Stranger Things acts as an addictive homage to Spielberg films and vintage 1980s television. '' Review aggregator Metacritic gave the first season a normalized score of 76 out of 100 based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
IGN gave the score of 8 out of 10 and called the series "Great '', saying "Stranger Things is an easy recommendation, offering viewers an atmospheric and endearing series that is a nostalgic throwback without feeling like a simple copy. '' In a review in the San Francisco Chronicle Dave Wiegand wrote: "Stranger Things reminds us of a time marked by a kind of no - strings escapism. And as it does so, we find ourselves yearning for it because the Duffers have made it so irresistibly appealing. There may be other equally great shows to watch this summer, but I guarantee you wo n't have more fun watching any of them than you will watching Stranger Things. '' Joshua Alston of The A.V. Club also reviewed it positively saying, "Balancing style and substance is always challenging for a series like Stranger Things, but the show is perfectly calibrated. It feels like watching a show produced during the era in which it 's set, but with the craft of today 's prestige television. '' Reviewing for HitFix, Alan Sepinwall said, "Over the course of the eight hours, the story and characters take on enough life of their own so that the references do n't feel self - indulgent, and so that the series can be appreciated even if you do n't know the plot of E.T. or the title font of Stephen King 's early novels (a huge influence on the show 's own opening credits) by heart. ''
Emily Nussbaum of The New Yorker also applauded the series and wrote, "This is astoundingly efficient storytelling, eight hours that pass in a blink, with even minor characters getting sharp dialogue, dark humor, or moments of pathos. '' Television critic Mary McNamara of Los Angeles Times said, "For the most part, and in absolute defiance of the odds, Stranger Things honors its source material in the best way possible: By telling a sweet ' n ' scary story in which monsters are real but so are the transformative powers of love and fealty. '' The Wall Street Journal 's Brian Kelly said, "Matt Duffer and Ross Duffer, brothers and the show 's creators, have done their homework when it comes to ' 80s cinema. Whether you 're a fan of John Carpenter 's The Thing or The Goonies is more your speed, there 's plenty to like in Stranger Things. ''
In a negative review, cultural critic Grafton Tanner called the series "wish fulfillment '' and "a window through which the present - shocked can gaze at a clichéd past. '' Similarly, Marinna Guzy of The Establishment wrote: "When confronted with a story like Stranger Things, a recycled retelling of an old story being marketed as homage and good, clean nostalgia, one has to wonder whether or not studios and content creators like The Duffer Brothers ever ask themselves whether or not the story they are telling is the one that should be told. What purpose does Stranger Things serve beyond reinforcing the status quo in the media landscape and perpetuating the dangerous delusion that things were better way back when? ''
On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has an approval rating of 94 % based on 120 reviews, and an average rating of 7.79 / 10. The site 's critical consensus states, "Stranger Things ' slow - building sophomore season balances moments of humor and a nostalgic sweetness against a growing horror that 's all the more effective thanks to the show 's full - bodied characters and evocative tone. '' On Metacritic, the second season has a normalized score of 78 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Shortly after its release, Stranger Things gained a dedicated fanbase. One area of focus from these fans was the character of Barb, the nerdy friend and classmate of Nancy who is taken and killed by the monster early in the season. According to actress Shannon Purser, Barb "was n't supposed to be a big deal '', and The Duffer Brothers had not gone into great detail about the character since the focus was on finding Will. However, many fans sympathized with the character, with Laura Bradley of Vanity Fair suggesting that these people found that Barb would be a similar misfit in society, and "looks more like someone you might actually meet in real life '' compared to the other characters, particularly Nancy, in the series. Hashtags such as "# ImWithBarb '' and "# JusticeforBarb '' grew in popularity after the series ' release, and several fan sites and forums were created to support her. While Purser did not return for the second season, The Duffer Brothers used the real - life "Justice for Barb '' movement as inspiration for narrative at the start of the second season, with Nancy addressing the fact "that no one ever cares about '' Barb. Purser and several media outlets took her nomination as Barb for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series in the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards as achieving "Justice for Barb '', highlighting how well her character was received.
Another impact of the series has been an increase demand for Eggo waffles, as they are shown to be Eleven 's favorite food in several episodes and are seen as a representation of the show. The Kellogg Company, which manufactures Eggo, had not been part of the production prior to the first season 's release, but recognized the market impact of the series. It provided a vintage 1980s Eggo television advertisement for Netflix to use in its Super Bowl LI commercial, and is looking to become more involved with cross-promotion.
With the release of the second season of the series, Netflix also released Beyond Stranger Things, an aftershow hosted by Jim Rash. The guests of the aftershow are composed of cast and crew from the series, including The Duffer Brothers and the series ' stars, to discuss the development and behind - the - scenes production of the series and its larger mythology. Unlike previous aftershows created by Embassy Row, such as Talking Dead and Talking Bad, Beyond Stranger Things is intended to be watched after a screening of the entire current season.
Netflix and BonusXP developed a free mobile game tie - in for Stranger Things, released to iOS and Android devices on October 4, 2017. The game uses a retro - pixel style of art, similar to games for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The game is loosely based on the Stranger Things story after season one, with the player starting as Chief of Police Jim Hopper looking for the missing boys. Once these characters are found, they become playable and have special abilities that allow the player to access more areas in the game. BonusXP had less than a year to complete the game. The team decided to make the game in a similar style to The Legend of Zelda because it "was a perfect match because both (Stranger Things and Zelda) are about exploration, and it 's kind of a mysterious fit that fit the mood of the show, '' according to BonusXP president Dave Pottinger. The map of Hawkins in the game was based on a Google street view map of Jackson, Georgia where the series is filmed. In order to help keep the game a secret, BonusXP did not hire game testers for their quality assurance, instead having family members from the design team provide feedback; this process helped create the two difficulty levels in the game. Completing the game gives players a clip from the Season 2 premiere episode of the show. The game was downloaded 3 million times in the first week, becoming a top download and receiving critical praise. With the release of season two, an update to the game added Max as a playable character, and a release for the Amazon Fire TV, which included controller support.
Sony Interactive Entertainment has announced that it is working on a PlayStation 4 - exclusive game, based on Stranger Things, for their PlayStation VR peripheral. The company has since released a teaser showing the Christmas - lights - on - a-wall scenes.
United States Representative David Cicilline compared the state of the nation during the presidency of Donald Trump to that of Stranger Things during a speech given in Congress on February 16, 2017, using a sign "Trump Things '' in the same format as the title card of the show and saying "Like the main characters in Stranger Things, we are now stuck in the Upside Down ''.
As part of its release on Netflix on April 14, 2017, the cast of the rebooted version of Mystery Science Theater 3000 riffed on the first part of "Chapter 1 '' of Stranger Things. Google used augmented reality (AR) "stickers '' of Stranger Things characters to introduce its ARCore technology announced alongside its Pixel 2 phone in October 2017. Sesame Street created a young audience - appropriate spoof of Stranger Things, called Sharing Things, released in November 2017; it featured Cookie Monster as the "Cookiegorgon '', Grover as Lucas, Ernie as Dustin, and included several nods to the narrative of the second season.
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who wrote the song man in the middle | Man in the middle - wikipedia
Man in the middle may refer to:
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why can the heart beat be detected as a pulse | Pulse - wikipedia
In medicine, a pulse represents the tactile arterial palpation of the heartbeat by trained fingertips. The pulse may be palpated in any place that allows an artery to be compressed near the surface of the body, such as at the neck (carotid artery), on the inside of the elbow (brachial artery), at the wrist (radial artery), at the groin (femoral artery), behind the knee (popliteal artery), near the ankle joint (posterior tibial artery), and on foot (dorsalis pedis artery). Pulse (or the count of arterial pulse per minute) is equivalent to measuring the heart rate. The heart rate can also be measured by listening to the heart beat by auscultation, traditionally using a stethoscope and counting it for a minute. The radial pulse is commonly measured using three fingers. This has a reason: the finger closest to the heart is used to occlude the pulse pressure, the middle finger is used get a crude estimate of the blood pressure, and the finger most distal to the heart (usually the ring finger) is used to nullify the effect of the ulnar pulse as the two arteries are connected via the palmar arches (superficial and deep). The study of the pulse is known as sphygmology.
The pulse is a decidedly low tech and high yield and antiquated term still useful at the bedside in an age of computational analysis of cardiac performance. Claudius Galen was perhaps the first physiologist to describe the pulse. The pulse is an expedient tactile method of determination of systolic blood pressure to a trained observer. Diastolic blood pressure is non-palpable and unobservable by tactile methods, occurring between heartbeats.
Pressure waves generated by the heart in systole move the arterial walls. Forward movement of blood occurs when the boundaries are pliable and compliant. These properties form enough to create a palpable pressure wave.
The heart rate may be greater or lesser than the pulse rate depending upon physiologic demand. In this case, the heart rate is determined by auscultation or audible sounds at the heart apex, in which case it is not the pulse. The pulse deficit (difference between heart beats and pulsations at the periphery) is determined by simultaneous palpation at the radial artery and auscultation at the PMI, near the heart apex. It may be present in case of premature beats or atrial fibrillation.
Pulse velocity, pulse deficits and much more physiologic data are readily and simplistically visualized by the use of one or more arterial catheters connected to a transducer and oscilloscope. This invasive technique has been commonly used in intensive care since the 1970s.
The rate of the pulse is observed and measured by tactile or visual means on the outside of an artery and is recorded as beats per minute or BPM.
The pulse may be further indirectly observed under light absorbances of varying wavelengths with assigned and inexpensively reproduced mathematical ratios. Applied capture of variances of light signal from the blood component hemoglobin under oxygenated vs. deoxygenated conditions allows the technology of pulse oximetry.
Normal pulse rates at rest, in beats per minute (BPM):
The pulse rate can be used to check overall heart health and fitness level. Generally lower is better, but bradycardias can be dangerous. Symptoms of a dangerously slow heartbeat include weakness, loss of energy and fainting.
A normal pulse is regular in rhythm and force. An irregular pulse may be due to sinus arrhythmia, ectopic beats, atrial fibrillation, paroxysmal atrial tachycardia, atrial flutter, partial heart block etc. Intermittent dropping out of beats at pulse is called "intermittent pulse ''. Examples of regular intermittent (regularly irregular) pulse include pulsus bigeminus, second - degree atrioventricular block. An example of irregular intermittent (irregularly irregular) pulse is atrial fibrillation.
The degree of expansion displayed by artery during diastolic and systolic state is called volume. It is also known as amplitude, expansion or size of pulse.
A weak pulse signifies narrow pulse pressure. It may be due to low cardiac output (as seen in shock, congestive cardiac failure), hypovolemia, valvular heart disease (such as aortic outflow tract obstruction, mitral stenosis, aortic arch syndrome) etc.
A bounding pulse signifies high pulse pressure. It may be due to low peripheral resistance (as seen in fever, anemia, thyrotoxicosis, hyperkinetic heart syndrome (de), A-V fistula, Paget 's disease, beriberi, liver cirrhosis), increased cardiac output, increased stroke volume (as seen in anxiety, exercise, complete heart block, aortic regurgitation), decreased distensibility of arterial system (as seen in atherosclerosis, hypertension and coarctation of aorta).
The strength of the pulse can also be reported:
Also known as compressibility of pulse. It is a rough measure of systolic blood pressure.
It corresponds to diastolic blood pressure. A low tension pulse (pulsus mollis), the vessel is soft or impalpable between beats. In high tension pulse (pulsus durus), vessels feel rigid even between pulse beats.
A form or contour of a pulse is palpatiory estimation of arteriogram. A quickly rising and quickly falling pulse (pulsus celer) is seen in aortic regurgitation. A slow rising and slowly falling pulse (pulsus tardus) is seen in aortic stenosis.
Comparing pulses and different places gives valuable clinical information.
A discrepant or unequal pulse between left and right radial artery is observed in anomalous or aberrant course of artery, coarctation of aorta, aortitis, dissecting aneurysm, peripheral embolism etc. An unequal pulse between upper and lower extremities is seen in coarctation to aorta, aortitis, block at bifurcation of aorta, dissection of aorta, iatrogenic trauma and arteriosclerotic obstruction.
A normal artery is not palpable after flattening by digital pressure. A thick radial artery which is palpable 7.5 -- 10 cm up the forearm is suggestive of arteriosclerosis.
In coarctation of aorta, femoral pulse may be significantly delayed as compared to radial pulse (unless there is coexisting aortic regurgitation). The delay can also be observed in supravalvar aortic stenosis.
Several pulse patterns can be of clinically significance. These include:
Chinese medicine has focused on the pulse in the upper limbs for several centuries. The concept of pulse diagnosis is essentially a treatise based upon palpation and observations of the radial and ulnar volar pulses at the readily accessible wrist.
Although the pulse can be felt in multiple places in the head, people should not normally hear their heartbeats within the head. This is called pulsatile tinnitus, and it can indicate several medical disorders.
The first person to accurately measure the pulse rate was Santorio Santorii who invented the pulsilogium, a form of pendulum, based on the work by Galileo Galilei. A century later another physician, de Lacroix, used the pulsilogium to test cardiac function.
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how many chapters in the book of kings | Book of Genesis - wikipedia
The Book of Genesis (from the Latin Vulgate, in turn borrowed or transliterated from Greek γένεσις, meaning "Origin ''; Hebrew: בְּרֵאשִׁית , Bərēšīṯ, "In (the) beginning '') is the first book of the Hebrew Bible (the Tanakh) and the Christian Old Testament. It can be divided into two parts, the Primeval history (chapters 1 - 11) and the Ancestral history (chapters 12 - 50). The primeval history sets out the author (s) concepts of the nature of the deity and of humankind 's relationship with its maker: God creates a world which is good and fit for mankind, but when man corrupts it with sin God decides to destroy his creation, saving only the righteous Noah to reestablish the relationship between man and God. The Ancestral History (chapters 12 - 50) tells of the prehistory of Israel, God 's chosen people. At God 's command Noah 's descendant Abraham journeys from his home into the land of Canaan, given to him by God, where he dwells as a sojourner, as does his son Isaac and his grandson Jacob. Jacob 's name is changed to Israel, and through the agency of his son Joseph, the children of Israel descend into Egypt, 70 people in all with their households, and God promises them a future of greatness. Genesis ends with Israel in Egypt, ready for the coming of Moses and the Exodus. The narrative is punctuated by a series of covenants with God, successively narrowing in scope from all mankind (the covenant with Noah) to a special relationship with one people alone (Abraham and his descendants through Isaac and Jacob).
In Judaism, the theological importance of Genesis centers on the covenants linking God to his chosen people and the people to the Promised Land. Christianity has interpreted Genesis as the prefiguration of certain cardinal Christian beliefs, primarily the need for salvation (the hope or assurance of all Christians) and the redemptive act of Christ on the Cross as the fulfillment of covenant promises as the Son of God.
Tradition credits Moses as the author of Genesis, as well as Exodus, Book of Leviticus, Numbers and most of Book of Deuteronomy, but modern scholars increasingly see them as a product of the 6th and 5th centuries BC.
Genesis appears to be structured around the recurring phrase elleh toledot, meaning "these are the generations, '' with the first use of the phrase referring to the "generations of heaven and earth '' and the remainder marking individuals -- Noah, the "sons of Noah '', Shem, etc., down to Jacob. It is not clear, however, what this meant to the original authors, and most modern commentators divide it into two parts based on subject matter, a "primeval history '' (chapters 1 -- 11) and a "patriarchal history '' (chapters 12 -- 50). While the first is far shorter than the second, it sets out the basic themes and provides an interpretive key for understanding the entire book. The "primeval history '' has a symmetrical structure hinging on chapters 6 -- 9, the flood story, with the events before the flood mirrored by the events after; the "ancestral history '' is structured around the three patriarchs Abraham, Jacob and Joseph. (The stories of Isaac do not make up a coherent cycle of stories and function as a bridge between the cycles of Abraham and Jacob).
God creates the world in six days and consecrates the seventh as a day of rest. God creates the first humans Adam and Eve and all the animals in the Garden of Eden but instructs them not to eat the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil. A talking serpent portrayed as a deceptive creature or trickster, entices Eve into eating it anyway, and she entices Adam, whereupon God throws them out and curses them -- Adam to getting what he needs only by sweat and work, and Eve to giving birth in pain. This is intepreted by Christians as the fall of humanity. Eve bears two sons, Cain and Abel. Cain kills Abel after God accepts Abel 's offering but not Cain 's. God then curses Cain. Eve bears another son, Seth, to take Abel 's place.
After many generations of Adam have passed from the lines of Cain and Seth, the world becomes corrupted by human sin and Nephilim, and God determines to wipe out humanity. First, he instructs the righteous Noah and his family to build a huge boat and put examples of all the animals on it. Then God sends a great flood to wipe out the rest of the world. When the waters recede, God promises that he will not destroy the world a second time with water with the rainbow as the symbol of his promise. But upon seeing mankind cooperating to build a great tower city, the Tower of Babel, God divides humanity with many languages and sets them apart with confusion.
God instructs Abram to travel from his home in Mesopotamia to the land of Canaan. There, God makes a covenant with Abram, promising that his descendants shall be as numerous as the stars, but that people will suffer oppression in a foreign land for four hundred years, after which they will inherit the land "from the river of Egypt to the great river, the river Euphrates ''. Abram 's name is changed to Abraham and that of his wife Sarai to Sarah, and circumcision of all males is instituted as the sign of the covenant. Because Sarah is old, she tells Abraham to take her Egyptian handmaiden, Hagar, as a second wife. Through Hagar, Abraham fathers Ishmael.
God resolves to destroy the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah for the sins of their people. Abraham protests and gets God to agree not to destroy the cities if 10 righteous men can be found. Angels save Abraham 's nephew Lot and his family, but his wife looks back on the destruction against their command and is turned into a pillar of salt. Lot 's daughters, concerned that they are fugitives who will never find husbands, get him drunk to become pregnant by him, and give birth to the ancestors of the Moabites and Ammonites.
Abraham and Sarah go to the Philistine town of Gerar, pretending to be brother and sister (they are half - siblings). The King of Gerar takes Sarah for his wife, but God warns him to return her, and he obeys. God sends Sarah a son to be named Isaac, through whom the covenant will be established. At Sarah 's insistence, Ishmael and his mother Hagar are driven out into the wilderness, but God saves them and promises to make Ishmael a great nation.
God tests Abraham by demanding that he sacrifice Isaac. As Abraham is about to lay the knife upon his son, God restrains him, promising him numberless descendants. On the death of Sarah, Abraham purchases Machpelah (believed to be modern Hebron) for a family tomb and sends his servant to Mesopotamia to find among his relations a wife for Isaac, and Rebekah is chosen. Other children are born to Abraham by another wife, Keturah, among whose descendants are the Midianites, and he dies in a prosperous old age and is buried in his tomb at Hebron.
Isaac 's wife Rebecca gives birth to the twins Esau, father of the Edomites, and Jacob. Through deception, Jacob becomes the heir instead of Esau and gains his father 's blessing. He flees to his uncle where he prospers and earns his two wives, Rachel and Leah. Jacob 's name is changed to Israel, and by his wives and their handmaidens he has twelve sons, the ancestors of the twelve tribes of the Children of Israel, and a daughter, Dinah.
Joseph, Jacob 's favorite son, is sold into slavery in Egypt by his jealous brothers. But Joseph prospers, after hardship, with God 's guidance of interpreting Pharaoh 's dream of upcoming famine. He is then reunited with his father and brothers, who do n't recognize him but who plead for food. After much manipulation, he reveals himself and lets them and their households into Egypt, where Pharaoh assigns to them the land of Goshen. Jacob calls his sons to his bedside and reveals their future before he dies. Joseph lives to an old age and exhorts his brethren, if God should lead them out of the country, to take his bones with them.
Genesis takes its Hebrew title from the first word of the first sentence, Bereshit, meaning "In (the) beginning '' (the word "the '' is absent but can be understood); in the Greek Septuagint it was called Genesis, from the phrase "the generations of heaven and earth ''. There are four major textual witnesses to the book: the Masoretic Text, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, and fragments of Genesis found at Qumran. The Qumran group provides the oldest manuscripts but covers only a small proportion of the book; in general, the Masoretic Text is well preserved and reliable, but there are many individual instances where the other versions preserve a superior reading.
For much of the 20th century most scholars agreed that the five books of the Pentateuch -- Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy -- came from four sources, the Yahwist, the Elohist, the Deuteronomist and the Priestly source, each telling the same basic story, and joined together by various editors. Since the 1970s there has been a revolution in scholarship: the Elohist source is now widely regarded as no more than a variation on the Yahwist, while the Priestly source is increasingly seen not as a document but as a body of revisions and expansions to the Yahwist (or "non-Priestly '') material. (The Deuteronomistic source does not appear in Genesis).
Examples of repeated and duplicate stories are used to identify the separate sources. In Genesis these include three different accounts of a Patriarch claiming that his wife was his sister, the two creation stories, and the two versions of Abraham sending Hagar and Ishmael into the desert.
This leaves the question of when these works were created. Scholars in the first half of the 20th century came to the conclusion that the Yahwist was produced in the monarchic period, specifically at the court of Solomon, 10th century BCE, and the Priestly work in the middle of the 5th century BCE (the author was even identified as Ezra), but more recent thinking is that the Yahwist was written either just before or during the Babylonian exile of the 6th century BCE, and the Priestly final edition was made late in the Exilic period or soon after.
As for why the book was created, a theory which has gained considerable interest, although still controversial is "Persian imperial authorisation ''. This proposes that the Persians of the Achaemenid Empire, after their conquest of Babylon in 539 BCE, agreed to grant Jerusalem a large measure of local autonomy within the empire, but required the local authorities to produce a single law code accepted by the entire community. The two powerful groups making up the community -- the priestly families who controlled the Temple and who traced their origin to Moses and the wilderness wanderings, and the major landowning families who made up the "elders '' and who traced their own origins to Abraham, who had "given '' them the land -- were in conflict over many issues, and each had its own "history of origins '', but the Persian promise of greatly increased local autonomy for all provided a powerful incentive to cooperate in producing a single text.
Genesis is perhaps best seen as an example of "antiquarian history '', a type of literature telling of the first appearance of humans, the stories of ancestors and heroes, and the origins of culture, cities and so forth. The most notable examples are found in the work of Greek historians of the 6th century BCE: their intention was to connect notable families of their own day to a distant and heroic past, and in doing so they did not distinguish between myth, legend, and facts. Professor Jean - Louis Ska of the Pontifical Biblical Institute calls the basic rule of the antiquarian historian the "law of conservation '': everything old is valuable, nothing is eliminated. Ska also points out the purpose behind such antiquarian histories: antiquity is needed to prove the worth of Israel 's traditions to the nations (the neighbours of the Jews in early Persian Palestine), and to reconcile and unite the various factions within Israel itself.
In 1978 David Clines published his influential The Theme of the Pentateuch -- influential because he was one of the first to take up the question of the theme of the entire five books. Clines ' conclusion was that the overall theme is "the partial fulfillment -- which implies also the partial nonfulfillment -- of the promise to or blessing of the Patriarchs ''. (By calling the fulfillment "partial '' Clines was drawing attention to the fact that at the end of Deuteronomy the people are still outside Canaan).
The patriarchs, or ancestors, are Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, with their wives (Joseph is normally excluded). Since the name YHWH had not been revealed to them, they worshipped El in his various manifestations. (It is, however, worth noting that in the Jahwist source the patriarchs refer to deity by the name YHWH, for example in Genesis 15.) Through the patriarchs God announces the election of Israel, meaning that he has chosen Israel to be his special people and committed himself to their future. God tells the patriarchs that he will be faithful to their descendants (i.e. to Israel), and Israel is expected to have faith in God and his promise. ("Faith '' in the context of Genesis and the Hebrew bible means agreement to the promissory relationship, not a body of belief).
The promise itself has three parts: offspring, blessings, and land. The fulfilment of the promise to each patriarch depends on having a male heir, and the story is constantly complicated by the fact that each prospective mother -- Sarah, Rebekah and Rachel -- is barren. The ancestors, however, retain their faith in God and God in each case gives a son -- in Jacob 's case, twelve sons, the foundation of the chosen Israelites. All three promises are more richly fulfilled in each succeeding generation, until through Joseph "all the world '' is saved from famine, and by bringing the children of Israel down to Egypt he becomes the means through which the promise can be fulfilled.
Scholars generally agree that the theme of divine promise unites the patriarchal cycles, but many would dispute the efficacy of trying to examine Genesis ' theology by pursuing a single overarching theme, instead citing as more productive the analysis of the Abraham cycle, the Jacob cycle, and the Joseph cycle, and the Yahwist and Priestly sources. The problem lies in finding a way to unite the patriarchal theme of divine promise to the stories of Genesis 1 -- 11 (the primeval history) with their theme of God 's forgiveness in the face of man 's evil nature. One solution is to see the patriarchal stories as resulting from God 's decision not to remain alienated from mankind: God creates the world and mankind, mankind rebels, and God "elects '' (chooses) Abraham.
To this basic plot (which comes from the Yahwist) the Priestly source has added a series of covenants dividing history into stages, each with its own distinctive "sign ''. The first covenant is between God and all living creatures, and is marked by the sign of the rainbow; the second is with the descendants of Abraham (Ishmaelites and others as well as Israelites), and its sign is circumcision; and the last, which does n't appear until the book of Exodus, is with Israel alone, and its sign is Sabbath. Each covenant is mediated by a great leader (Noah, Abraham, Moses), and at each stage God progressively reveals himself by his name (Elohim with Noah, El Shaddai with Abraham, Yahweh with Moses).
Perhaps the most well - known passage of the Hebrew Bible, the first phrase of Genesis has long been translated as "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth... '' but the idea that God created the world out of nothing is not directly stated anywhere in the entire Hebrew Bible.
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where was the first professional football game played | History of American football - wikipedia
Origins of American football
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The history of American football can be traced to early versions of rugby football and association football. Both games have their origin in varieties of football played in Britain in the mid-19th century, in which a football is kicked at a goal or kicked over a line, which in turn were based on the varieties of English public school football games.
American football resulted from several major divergences from association football and rugby football, most notably the rule changes instituted by Walter Camp, a Yale University and Hopkins School graduate who is considered to be the "Father of American Football ''. Among these important changes were the introduction of the line of scrimmage, of down - and - distance rules and of the legalization of blocking. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, gameplay developments by college coaches such as Eddie Cochems, Amos Alonzo Stagg, Parke H. Davis, Knute Rockne, and Glenn "Pop '' Warner helped take advantage of the newly introduced forward pass. The popularity of college football grew as it became the dominant version of the sport in the United States for the first half of the 20th century. Bowl games, a college football tradition, attracted a national audience for college teams. Boosted by fierce rivalries and colorful traditions, college football still holds widespread appeal in the United States.
The origin of professional football can be traced back to 1892, with William "Pudge '' Heffelfinger 's $500 contract to play in a game for the Allegheny Athletic Association against the Pittsburgh Athletic Club. In 1920 the American Professional Football Association was formed. This league changed its name to the National Football League (NFL) two years later, and eventually became the major league of American football. Primarily a sport of Midwestern industrial towns in the United States, professional football eventually became a national phenomenon.
The modern era of American football can be considered to have begun after the 1932 NFL Playoff game, which was the first indoor game since 1902 and the first American football game to feature hash marks, forward passes anywhere behind the line of scrimmage, and the movement of the goal posts back to the goal line. Other innovations to occur immediately after 1932 were the introduction of the AP Poll in 1934, the tapering of the ends of the football in 1934, the awarding of the first Heisman Trophy in 1935, the first NFL draft in 1936 and the first televised game in 1939. Another important event was the American football game at the 1932 Summer Olympics, which combined with a similar demonstration game at 1933 World 's Fair, led to the first College All - Star Game in 1934, which in turn was an important factor in the growth of professional football in the United States. American football 's explosion in popularity during the second half of the 20th century can be traced to the 1958 NFL Championship Game, a contest that has been dubbed the "Greatest Game Ever Played ''. A rival league to the NFL, the American Football League (AFL), began play in 1960; the pressure it put on the senior league led to a merger between the two leagues and the creation of the Super Bowl, which has become the most watched television event in the United States on an annual basis.
Forms of traditional football have been played throughout Europe and beyond since antiquity. Many of these involved handling of the ball, and scrummage - like formations. These archaic forms of football, typically classified as mob football, would be played between neighboring towns and villages, involving an unlimited number of players on opposing teams, who would clash in a heaving mass of people struggling to drag an inflated pig 's bladder by any means possible to markers at each end of a town. By some accounts, in some such events any means could be used to move the ball towards the goal, as long as it did not lead to manslaughter or murder. These antiquated games went into sharp decline in the 19th century when the Highway Act 1835 was passed banning the playing of football on public highways.
Although there are some mentions of Native Americans playing football - like games, modern American football has its origins in the traditional football games played in the cities, villages and schools of Europe for many centuries before America was settled by Europeans. Early games appear to have had much in common with the traditional "mob football '' played in England. The games remained largely unorganized until the 19th century, when intramural games of football began to be played on college campuses. Each school played its own variety of football. Princeton University students played a game called "ballown '' as early as 1820. A Harvard tradition known as "Bloody Monday '' began in 1827, which consisted of a mass ballgame between the freshman and sophomore classes, played at The Delta, the space where Memorial Hall now stands. (A poem, "The Battle of the Delta, '' was written about the first match: "The Freshmen 's wrath, to Sophs the direful spring / Of shins unnumbered bruised, great goddess sing! '') In 1860, both the town police and the college authorities agreed that Bloody Monday had to go. The Harvard students responded by going into mourning for a mock figure called "Football Fightum '', for whom they conducted funeral rites. The authorities held firm and it was a dozen years before football was once again played at Harvard. Dartmouth played its own version called "Old division football '', the rules of which were first published in 1871, though the game dates to at least the 1830s. All of these games, and others, shared certain commonalities. They remained largely "mob '' style games, with huge numbers of players attempting to advance the ball into a goal area, often by any means necessary. Rules were simple, and violence and injury were common. The violence of these mob - style games led to widespread protests and a decision to abandon them. Yale, under pressure from the city of New Haven, banned the play of all forms of football in 1860.
The game began to return to college campuses by the late 1860s. Yale, Princeton, Rutgers University, and Brown University began playing the popular "kicking '' game during this time. In 1867, Princeton used rules based on those of the London Football Association. A "running game '', resembling rugby football, was taken up by the Montreal Football Club in Canada in 1868.
On November 6, 1869, Rutgers University faced Princeton University (then known as the College of New Jersey) in a game that was played with a round ball and, used a set of rules suggested by Rutgers captain William J. Leggett, based on the Football Association 's first set of rules, which were an early attempt by the former pupils of England 's public schools, to unify the rules of their public schools games and create a universal and standardized set of rules for the game of football and bore little resemblance to the American game which would be developed in the following decades. It is still usually regarded as the first game of intercollegiate American football. The game was played at a Rutgers field. Two teams of 25 players attempted to score by kicking the ball into the opposing team 's goal. Throwing or carrying the ball was not allowed, but there was plenty of physical contact between players. The first team to reach six goals was declared the winner. Rutgers won by a score of six to four. A rematch was played at Princeton a week later under Princeton 's own set of rules (one notable difference was the awarding of a "free kick '' to any player that caught the ball on the fly, which was a feature adopted from the Football Association 's rules; the fair catch kick rule has survived through to modern American game). Princeton won that game by a score of 8 -- 0. Columbia joined the series in 1870, and by 1872 several schools were fielding intercollegiate teams, including Yale and Stevens Institute of Technology.
Rutgers was first to extend the reach of the game. An intercollegiate game was first played in the state of New York when Rutgers played Columbia on November 2, 1872. It was also the first scoreless tie in the history of the fledgling sport. Yale football started the same year and had its first match against Columbia, the nearest college to play football. It took place at Hamilton Park in New Haven and was the first game in New England. The game used a set of rules based on association football with 20 - man sides, played on a field 400 by 250 feet. Yale won 3 - 0, Tommy Sherman scoring the first goal and Lew Irwin the other two.
By 1873, the college students playing football had made significant efforts to standardize their fledgling game. Teams had been scaled down from 25 players to 20. The only way to score was still to bat or kick the ball through the opposing team 's goal, and the game was played in two 45 minute halves on fields 140 yards long and 70 yards wide. On October 20, 1873, representatives from Yale, Columbia, Princeton, and Rutgers met at the Fifth Avenue Hotel in New York City to codify the first set of intercollegiate football rules. Before this meeting, each school had its own set of rules and games were usually played using the home team 's own particular code. At this meeting, a list of rules, based more on the Football Association 's rules than the rules of the recently founded Rugby Football Union, was drawn up for intercollegiate football games.
Harvard refused to attend the rules conference organized by the other schools and continued to play under its own code. While Harvard 's decision to maintain its code made it hard for them to schedule games against other American universities, it agreed to play McGill University, from Montreal, in a two - game series in 1874. Harvard won the first game, in which its rules were used, 3 -- 0. The second game, which was played under rugby regulations, did not have a winner as neither team managed to score.
Harvard quickly took a liking to the rugby game, and its use of the try which, until that time, was not used in American football. The try would later evolve into the score known as the touchdown. On June 4, 1875, Harvard faced Tufts University in the first game between two American colleges played under rules similar to the McGill / Harvard contest, which was won by Tufts. The rules included each side fielding 11 men at any given time, the ball was advanced by kicking or carrying it, and tackles of the ball carrier stopped play. Further elated by the excitement of McGill 's version of football, Harvard challenged its closest rival, Yale, to which the Bulldogs accepted. The two teams agreed to play under a set of rules called the "Concessionary Rules '', which involved Harvard conceding something to Yale 's soccer and Yale conceding a great deal to Harvard 's rugby. They decided to play with 15 players on each team. On November 13, 1875, Yale and Harvard played each other for the first time ever, where Harvard won 4 - 0. At the first The Game -- the annual contest between Harvard and Yale, among the 2000 spectators attending the game that day, was the future "father of American football '' Walter Camp. Walter, who would enroll at Yale the next year, was torn between an admiration for Harvard 's style of play and the misery of the Yale defeat, and became determined to avenge Yale 's defeat. Spectators from Princeton admired this type of game and it became the most popular version of football there.
Walter Camp is widely considered to be the most important figure in the development of American football. As a youth, he excelled in sports like track, baseball, and association football, and after enrolling at Yale in 1876, he earned varsity honors in every sport the school offered.
Following the introduction of rugby - style rules to American football, Camp became a fixture at the Massasoit House conventions where rules were debated and changed. Dissatisfied with what seemed to him to be a disorganized mob, he proposed his first rule change at the first meeting he attended in 1878: a reduction from fifteen players to eleven. The motion was rejected at that time but passed in 1880. The effect was to open up the game and emphasize speed over strength. Camp 's most famous change, the establishment of the line of scrimmage and the snap from center to quarterback, was also passed in 1880. Originally, the snap was executed with the foot of the center. Later changes made it possible to snap the ball with the hands, either through the air or by a direct hand - to - hand pass.
Camp 's new scrimmage rules revolutionized the game, though not always as intended. Princeton, in particular, used scrimmage play to slow the game, making incremental progress towards the end zone during each down. Rather than increase scoring, which had been Camp 's original intent, the rule was exploited to maintain control of the ball for the entire game, resulting in slow, unexciting contests. At the 1882 rules meeting, Camp proposed that a team be required to advance the ball a minimum of five yards within three downs. These down - and - distance rules, combined with the establishment of the line of scrimmage, transformed the game from a variation of rugby football into the distinct sport of American football.
Camp was central to several more significant rule changes that came to define American football. In 1881, the field was reduced in size to its modern dimensions of 120 by 53 ⁄ yards (109.7 by 48.8 meters). Several times in 1883, Camp tinkered with the scoring rules, finally arriving at four points for a touchdown, two points for kicks after touchdowns, two points for safeties, and five for field goals. Camp 's innovations in the area of point scoring influenced rugby union 's move to point scoring in 1890. In 1887, game time was set at two halves of 45 minutes each. Also in 1887, two paid officials -- a referee and an umpire -- were mandated for each game. A year later, the rules were changed to allow tackling below the waist, and in 1889, the officials were given whistles and stopwatches.
The last, and arguably most important innovation, which would at last make American football uniquely "American '', was the legalization of interference, or blocking, a tactic which was highly illegal under the rugby - style rules. Interference remains strictly illegal in both rugby codes. The prohibition of interference in the rugby game stems from the game 's strict enforcement of its offside rule, which prohibited any player on the team with possession of the ball to loiter between the ball and the goal. At first, American players would find creative ways of aiding the runner by pretending to accidentally knock into defenders trying to tackle the runner. When Walter Camp witnessed this tactic being employed against his Yale team, he was at first appalled, but the next year had adopted the blocking tactics for his own team. During the 1880s and 1890s, teams developed increasingly complex blocking tactics including the interlocking interference technique known as the Flying wedge or "V - trick formation '', which was developed by Lorin F. Deland and first introduced by Harvard in a collegiate game against Yale in 1892. Despite its effectiveness, it was outlawed two seasons later in 1894 through the efforts of the rule committee led by Parke H. Davis, because of its contribution to serious injury.
After his playing career at Yale ended in 1882, Camp was employed by the New Haven Clock Company until his death in 1925. Though no longer a player, he remained a fixture at annual rules meetings for most of his life, and he personally selected an annual All - American team every year from 1889 through 1924. The Walter Camp Football Foundation continues to select All - American teams in his honor.
On November 23, 1876, representatives from Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and Columbia met at the Massasoit House in Springfield, Massachusetts to standardize a new code of rules based on the rugby game first introduced to Harvard by McGill University in 1874. The rules were based largely on the Rugby Football Union 's code from England, though one important difference was the replacement of a kicked goal with a touchdown as the primary means of scoring (a change that would later occur in rugby itself, favoring the try as the main scoring event). Three of the schools -- Harvard, Columbia, and Princeton -- formed the Intercollegiate Football Association, as a result of the meeting. Yale did not join the group until 1879, because of an early disagreement about the number of players per team.
The first game where one team scored over 100 points happened on October 25, 1884 when Yale routed Dartmouth 113 -- 0. It was also the first time one team scored over 100 points and the opposing team was shut out. The next week, Princeton outscored Lafayette by 140 to 0.
In 1879, the University of Michigan became the first school west of Pennsylvania to establish a college football team. On May 30, 1879 Michigan beat Racine College 1 -- 0 in a game played in Chicago. The Chicago Daily Tribune called it "the first rugby - football game to be played west of the Alleghenies. '' Other Midwestern schools soon followed suit, including the University of Chicago, Northwestern University, and the University of Minnesota. The first western team to travel east was the 1881 Michigan team, which played at Harvard, Yale and Princeton. The nation 's first college football league, the Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives (also known as the Western Conference), a precursor to the Big Ten Conference, was founded in 1895.
Organized intercollegiate football was first played in the state of Virginia and the south on November 2, 1873 in Lexington between Washington and Lee and VMI. Washington and Lee won 4 -- 2. Some industrious students of the two schools organized a game for October 23, 1869 -- but it was rained out.
On April 9, 1880 at Stoll Field, Transylvania University (then called Kentucky University) beat Centre College by the score of 133⁄4 -- 0 in what is often considered the first recorded game played in the South. The first game of "scientific football '' in the South was the first instance of the Victory Bell rivalry between North Carolina and Duke (then known as Trinity College) held on Thanksgiving Day, 1888, at the North Carolina State Fairgrounds in Raleigh, North Carolina.
On November 13, 1887 the Virginia Cavaliers and Pantops Academy fought to a scoreless tie in the first organized football game in the state of Virginia. Students at UVA were playing pickup games of the kicking - style of football as early as 1870, and some accounts even claim that some industrious ones organized a game against Washington and Lee College in 1871, just two years after Rutgers and Princeton 's historic first game in 1869. But no record has been found of the score of this contest. Washington and Lee also claims a 4 to 2 win over VMI in 1873.
College football expanded greatly during the last two decades of the 19th century. Several major rivalries date from this time period.
November 1890 was an active time in the sport. In Baldwin City, Kansas, on November 22, 1890, college football was first played in the state of Kansas. Baker beat Kansas 22 -- 9. On the 27th, Vanderbilt played Nashville (Peabody) at Athletic Park and won 40 -- 0. It was the first time organized football played in the state of Tennessee. The 29th also saw the first instance of the Army -- Navy Game. Navy won 24 -- 0.
The first nighttime football game was played in Mansfield, Pennsylvania on September 28, 1892 between Mansfield State Normal and Wyoming Seminary and ended at halftime in a 0 -- 0 tie. The Army - Navy game of 1893 saw the first documented use of a football helmet by a player in a game. Joseph M. Reeves had a crude leather helmet made by a shoemaker in Annapolis and wore it in the game after being warned by his doctor that he risked death if he continued to play football after suffering an earlier kick to the head.
Although the beginnings of the contemporary Southeastern Conference and Atlantic Coast Conference start in 1892. Upon organizing the first Auburn football team in that year, George Petrie arranged for the team to play the University of Georgia team at Piedmont Park in Atlanta, Georgia. Auburn won the game, 10 -- 0, in front of 2,000 spectators. The game inaugurated what is known to college football fans as the Deep South 's Oldest Rivalry. It was in 1894 the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association (SIAA) was founded on December 21, 1894, by Dr. William Dudley, a chemistry professor at Vanderbilt. The original members were Alabama, Auburn, Georgia, Georgia Tech, North Carolina, Sewanee, and Vanderbilt. Clemson, Cumberland, Kentucky, LSU, Mercer, Mississippi, Mississippi A&M (Mississippi State), Southwestern Presbyterian University, Tennessee, Texas, Tulane, and the University of Nashville joined the following year in 1895 as invited charter members. The conference was originally formed for "the development and purification of college athletics throughout the South ''.
It is thought that the first forward pass in football occurred on October 26, 1895 in a game between Georgia and North Carolina when, out of desperation, the ball was thrown by the North Carolina back Joel Whitaker instead of punted and George Stephens caught the ball. On November 9, 1895 John Heisman executed a hidden ball trick utilizing quarterback Reynolds Tichenor to get Auburn 's only touchdown in a 6 to 9 loss to Vanderbilt. It was the first game in the south decided by a field goal. Heisman later used the trick against Pop Warner 's Georgia team. Warner picked up the trick and later used it at Cornell against Penn State in 1897. He then used it in 1903 at Carlisle against Harvard and garnered national attention.
The 1899 Sewanee Tigers are one of the all - time great teams of the early sport. The team went 12 -- 0, outscoring opponents 322 to 10. Known as the "Iron Men '', with just 13 men they had a six - day road trip with five shutout wins over Texas A&M; Texas; Tulane; LSU; and Ole Miss. It is recalled memorably with the phrase "... and on the seventh day they rested. '' Grantland Rice called them "the most durable football team I ever saw. ''
The first college football game in Oklahoma Territory occurred on November 7, 1895 when the ' Oklahoma City Terrors ' defeated the Oklahoma Sooners 34 to 0. The Terrors were a mix of Methodist college students and high schoolers. The Sooners did not manage a single first down. By next season, Oklahoma coach John A. Harts had left to prospect for gold in the Arctic. Organized football was first played in the territory on November 29, 1894 between the Oklahoma City Terrors and Oklahoma City High School. The high school won 24 to 0.
In 1891, the first Stanford football team was hastily organized and played a four - game season beginning in January 1892 with no official head coach. Following the season, Stanford captain John Whittemore wrote to Yale coach Walter Camp asking him to recommend a coach for Stanford. To Whittemore 's surprise, Camp agreed to coach the team himself, on the condition that he finish the season at Yale first. As a result of Camp 's late arrival, Stanford played just three official games, against San Francisco 's Olympic Club and rival California. The team also played exhibition games against two Los Angeles area teams that Stanford does not include in official results. Camp returned to the East Coast following the season, but coached Stanford for two further years from 1894 -- 1895.
USC first fielded an American football team in 1888. Playing its first game on November 14 of that year against the Alliance Athletic Club, in which USC gained a 16 -- 0 victory. Frank Suffel and Henry H. Goddard were playing coaches for the first team which was put together by quarterback Arthur Carroll; who in turn volunteered to make the pants for the team and later became a tailor. USC faced its first collegiate opponent the following year in fall 1889, playing St. Vincent 's College to a 40 -- 0 victory. In 1893, USC joined the Intercollegiate Football Association of Southern California (the forerunner of the SCIAC), which was composed of USC, Occidental College, Throop Polytechnic Institute (Cal Tech), and Chaffey College. Pomona College was invited to enter, but declined to do so. An invitation was also extended to Los Angeles High School.
The Big Game between Stanford and California is the oldest college football rivalry in the West. The first game was played on San Francisco 's Haight Street Grounds on March 19, 1892 with Stanford winning 14 -- 10. The term "Big Game '' was first used in 1900, when it was played on Thanksgiving Day in San Francisco. During that game, a large group of men and boys, who were observing from the roof of the nearby S.F. and Pacific Glass Works, fell into the fiery interior of the building when the roof collapsed, resulting in 13 dead and 78 injured. On December 4, 1900, the last victim of the disaster (Fred Lilly) died, bringing the death toll to 22; the "Thanksgiving Day Disaster '' remains the deadliest accident to kill spectators at a U.S. sporting event.
In May 1900, Fielding H. Yost was hired as the football coach at Stanford University, and, after traveling home to West Virginia, he arrived in Palo Alto, California, on August 21, 1900. Yost led the 1900 Stanford team to a 7 -- 2 -- 1 record, outscoring opponents 154 to 20. The next year in 1901, Yost was hired by Charles A. Baird as the head football coach for the Michigan Wolverines football team. Led by Yost, Michigan became the first "western '' national power. From 1901 to 1905, Michigan had a 56 - game undefeated streak that included a 1902 trip to play in the first college football bowl game, which later became the Rose Bowl Game. During this streak, Michigan scored 2,831 points while allowing only 40.
In 1906, citing concerns about the violence in American Football, universities on the West Coast, led by California and Stanford, replaced the sport with rugby union. At the time, the future of American football was very much in doubt and these schools believed that rugby union would eventually be adopted nationwide. Other schools followed suit and also made the switch included Nevada, St. Mary 's, Santa Clara, and USC (in 1911). However, due to the perception that West Coast football was inferior to the game played on the East Coast anyway, East Coast and Midwest teams shrugged off the loss of the teams and continued playing American football. With no nationwide movement, the available pool of rugby teams to play remained small. The schools scheduled games against local club teams and reached out to rugby union powers in Australia, New Zealand, and especially, due to its proximity, Canada. The annual Big Game between Stanford and California continued as rugby, with the winner invited by the British Columbia Rugby Union to a tournament in Vancouver over the Christmas holidays, with the winner of that tournament receiving the Cooper Keith Trophy.
Charles William Eliot, President of Harvard University (1869 -- 1909) opposing football in 1905.
From its earliest days as a mob game, football was a very violent sport. The 1894 Harvard - Yale game, known as the "Hampden Park Blood Bath '', resulted in crippling injuries for four players; the contest was suspended until 1897. The annual Army - Navy game was suspended from 1894 to 1898 for similar reasons. One of the major problems was the popularity of mass - formations like the flying wedge, in which a large number of offensive players charged as a unit against a similarly arranged defense. The resultant collisions often led to serious injuries and sometimes even death. Georgia fullback Richard Von Albade Gammon died on the field from a concussion received against Virginia in 1897, causing some southern universities to temporarily stop their football programs.
In 1905 there were 19 fatalities nationwide. President Theodore Roosevelt reportedly threatened to shut down the game if drastic changes were not made. However, the threat by Roosevelt to eliminate football is disputed by sports historians. What is absolutely certain is that on October 9, 1905, Roosevelt held a meeting of football representatives from Harvard, Yale, and Princeton. Though he lectured on eliminating and reducing injuries, he never threatened to ban football. He also lacked the authority to abolish football and was, in fact, actually a fan of the sport and wanted to preserve it. The President 's sons were also playing football at the college and secondary levels at the time.
Meanwhile, John H. Outland held an experimental game in Wichita, Kansas that reduced the number of scrimmage plays to earn a first down from four to three in an attempt to reduce injuries. The Los Angeles Times reported an increase in punts and considered the game much safer than regular play but that the new rule was not "conducive to the sport. '' Finally, on December 28, 1905, 62 schools met in New York City to discuss rule changes to make the game safer. As a result of this meeting, the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States, later named the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), was formed. One rule change introduced in 1906, devised to open up the game and reduce injury, was the introduction of the legal forward pass. Though it was underutilized for years, this proved to be one of the most important rule changes in the establishment of the modern game.
As a result of the 1905 -- 1906 reforms, mass formation plays became illegal and forward passes legal. Bradbury Robinson, playing for visionary coach Eddie Cochems at St. Louis University, threw the first legal pass in a September 5, 1906, game against Carroll College at Waukesha. Other important changes, formally adopted in 1910, were the requirements that at least seven offensive players be on the line of scrimmage at the time of the snap, that there be no pushing or pulling, and that interlocking interference (arms linked or hands on belts and uniforms) was not allowed. These changes greatly reduced the potential for collision injuries. Several coaches emerged who took advantage of these sweeping changes. Amos Alonzo Stagg introduced such innovations as the huddle, the tackling dummy, and the pre-snap shift. Other coaches, such as Pop Warner and Knute Rockne, introduced new strategies that still remain part of the game.
Besides these coaching innovations, several rules changes during the first third of the 20th century had a profound impact on the game, mostly in opening up the passing game. In 1914, the first roughing - the - passer penalty was implemented. In 1918, the rules on eligible receivers were loosened to allow eligible players to catch the ball anywhere on the field -- previously strict rules were in place only allowing passes to certain areas of the field. Scoring rules also changed during this time: field goals were lowered to three points in 1909 and touchdowns raised to six points in 1912.
Star players that emerged in the early 20th century include Jim Thorpe, Red Grange, and Bronko Nagurski; these three made the transition to the fledgling NFL and helped turn it into a successful league. Sportswriter Grantland Rice helped popularize the sport with his poetic descriptions of games and colorful nicknames for the game 's biggest players, including Notre Dame 's "Four Horsemen '' backfield and Fordham University 's linemen, known as the "Seven Blocks of Granite ''.
In 1907 at Champaign, Illinois Chicago and Illinois played in the first game to have a halftime show featuring a marching band. Chicago won 42 -- 6. On November 25, 1911 Kansas and Missouri played the first homecoming football game. The game was "broadcast '' play - by - play over telegraph to at least 1,000 fans in Lawrence, Kansas. It ended in a 3 -- 3 tie. The game between West Virginia and Pittsburgh on October 8, 1921, saw the first live radio broadcast of a college football game when Harold W. Arlin announced that year 's Backyard Brawl played at Forbes Field on KDKA. Pitt won 21 -- 13. On October 28, 1922, Princeton and Chicago played the first game to be nationally broadcast on radio. Princeton won 21 -- 18 in a hotly contested game which had Princeton dubbed the "Team of Destiny. ''
In 1906 Vanderbilt defeated Carlisle 4 -- 0, the result of a Bob Blake field goal. In 1907 Vanderbilt fought Navy to a 6 -- 6 tie. In 1910 Vanderbilt held defending national champion Yale to a scoreless tie.
Helping Georgia Tech 's claim to a title in 1917, the Auburn Tigers held undefeated, Chic Harley led Big Ten champion Ohio State to a scoreless tie the week before Georgia Tech beat the Tigers 68 -- 7. The next season, with many players gone due to World War I, a game was finally scheduled at Forbes Field with Pittsburgh. The Panthers, led by halfback Tom Davies, defeated Georgia Tech 32 -- 0.
1917 saw the rise of another Southern team in Centre of Danville, Kentucky. In 1921 Bo McMillin led Centre upset defending national champion Harvard 6 -- 0 in what is widely considered one of the greatest upsets in college football history. The next year Vanderbilt fought Michigan to a scoreless tie at the inaugural game on Dudley Field, the first stadium in the South made exclusively for college football. Michigan coach Fielding Yost and Vanderbilt coach Dan McGugin were brothers - in - law, and the latter the protege of the former. The game featured the season 's two best defenses and included a goal line stand by Vanderbilt to preserve the tie. Its result was "a great surprise to the sporting world. '' Commodore fans celebrated by throwing some 3,000 seat cushions onto the field. The game features prominently in Vanderbilt 's history. That same year, Alabama upset Penn 9 -- 7.
Vanderbilt 's line coach then was Wallace Wade, who in 1925 coached Alabama to the south 's first Rose Bowl victory. This game is commonly referred to as "the game that changed the south. '' Wade followed up the next season with an undefeated record and Rose Bowl tie.
In the early 1930s, the college game continued to grow, particularly in the South, bolstered by fierce rivalries such as the "South 's Oldest Rivalry '', between Virginia and North Carolina and the "Deep South 's Oldest Rivalry '', between Georgia and Auburn. Although before the mid-1920s most national powers came from the Northeast or the Midwest, the trend changed when several teams from the South and the West Coast achieved national success. Wallace William Wade 's 1925 Alabama team won the 1926 Rose Bowl after receiving its first national title and William Alexander 's 1928 Georgia Tech team defeated California in the 1929 Rose Bowl. College football quickly became the most popular spectator sport in the South.
Several major modern college football conferences rose to prominence during this time period. The Southwest Athletic Conference had been founded in 1915. Consisting mostly of schools from Texas, the conference saw back - to - back national champions with Texas Christian University (TCU) in 1938 and Texas A&M in 1939. The Pacific Coast Conference (PCC), a precursor to the Pac - 12 Conference (Pac - 12), had its own back - to - back champion in the University of Southern California which was awarded the title in 1931 and 1932. The Southeastern Conference (SEC) formed in 1932 and consisted mostly of schools in the Deep South. As in previous decades, the Big Ten continued to dominate in the 1930s and 1940s, with Minnesota winning 5 titles between 1934 and 1941, and Michigan (1933, 1947, and 1948) and Ohio State (1942) also winning titles.
As it grew beyond its regional affiliations in the 1930s, college football garnered increased national attention. Four new bowl games were created: the Orange Bowl, Sugar Bowl, the Sun Bowl in 1935, and the Cotton Bowl in 1937. In lieu of an actual national championship, these bowl games, along with the earlier Rose Bowl, provided a way to match up teams from distant regions of the country that did not otherwise play. In 1936, the Associated Press began its weekly poll of prominent sports writers, ranking all of the nation 's college football teams. Since there was no national championship game, the final version of the AP poll was used to determine who was crowned the National Champion of college football.
The 1930s saw growth in the passing game. Though some coaches, such as General Robert Neyland at Tennessee, continued to eschew its use and was the last college team to produce an undefeated, untied and unscored upon season in 1939. several rules changes to the game had a profound effect on teams ' ability to throw the ball. In 1934, the rules committee removed two major penalties -- a loss of five yards for a second incomplete pass in any series of downs and a loss of possession for an incomplete pass in the end zone -- and shrunk the circumference of the ball, making it easier to grip and throw. Players who became famous for taking advantage of the easier passing game included Alabama end Don Hutson and TCU passer "Slingin '' Sammy Baugh.
In 1935, New York City 's Downtown Athletic Club awarded the first Heisman Trophy to University of Chicago halfback Jay Berwanger, who was also the first ever NFL Draft pick in 1936. The trophy was designed by sculptor Frank Eliscu and modeled after New York University player Ed Smith. The trophy recognizes the nation 's "most outstanding '' college football player and has become one of the most coveted awards in all of American sports.
During World War II, college football players enlisted in the armed forces, some playing in Europe during the war. As most of these players had eligibility left on their college careers, some of them returned to college at West Point, bringing Army back - to - back national titles in 1944 and 1945 under coach Red Blaik. Doc Blanchard (known as "Mr. Inside '') and Glenn Davis (known as "Mr. Outside '') both won the Heisman Trophy, in 1945 and 1946 respectively. On the coaching staff of those 1944 -- 1946 Army teams was future Pro Football Hall of Fame coach Vince Lombardi.
The 1950s saw the rise of yet more dynasties and power programs. Oklahoma, under coach Bud Wilkinson, won three national titles (1950, 1955, 1956) and all ten Big Eight Conference championships in the decade while building a record 47 - game winning streak. Woody Hayes led Ohio State to two national titles, in 1954 and 1957, and dominated the Big Ten conference, winning three Big Ten titles -- more than any other school. Wilkinson and Hayes, along with Robert Neyland of Tennessee, oversaw a revival of the running game in the 1950s. Passing numbers dropped from an average of 18.9 attempts in 1951 to 13.6 attempts in 1955, while teams averaged just shy of 50 running plays per game. Nine out of ten Heisman trophy winners in the 1950s were runners. Notre Dame, one of the biggest passing teams of the decade, saw a substantial decline in success; the 1950s were the only decade between 1920 and 1990 when the team did not win at least a share of the national title. Paul Hornung, Notre Dame quarterback, did, however, win the Heisman in 1956, becoming the only player from a losing team ever to do so.
Following the enormous success of the National Football League 's 1958 championship game, college football no longer enjoyed the same popularity as the NFL, at least on a national level. While both games benefited from the advent of television, since the late 1950s, the NFL has become a nationally popular sport while college football has maintained strong regional ties.
As professional football became a national television phenomenon, college football did as well. In the 1950s, Notre Dame, which had a large national following, formed its own network to broadcast its games, but by and large the sport still retained a mostly regional following. In 1952, the NCAA claimed all television broadcasting rights for the games of its member institutions, and it alone negotiated television rights. This situation continued until 1984, when several schools brought a suit under the Sherman Antitrust Act; the Supreme Court ruled against the NCAA and schools are now free to negotiate their own television deals. ABC Sports began broadcasting a national Game of the Week in 1966, bringing key matchups and rivalries to a national audience for the first time.
New formations and play sets continued to be developed. Emory Bellard, an assistant coach under Darrell Royal at the University of Texas, developed a three - back option style offense known as the wishbone. The wishbone is a run - heavy offense that depends on the quarterback making last second decisions on when and to whom to hand or pitch the ball to. Royal went on to teach the offense to other coaches, including Bear Bryant at Alabama, Chuck Fairbanks at Oklahoma and Pepper Rodgers at UCLA; who all adapted and developed it to their own tastes. The strategic opposite of the wishbone is the spread offense, developed by professional and college coaches throughout the 1960s and 1970s. Though some schools play a run - based version of the spread, its most common use is as a passing offense designed to "spread '' the field both horizontally and vertically. Some teams have managed to adapt with the times to keep winning consistently. In the rankings of the most victorious programs, Michigan, Notre Dame, and Texas are ranked first, second, and third in total wins.
In 1940, for the highest level of college football, there were only five bowl games (Rose, Orange, Sugar, Sun, and Cotton). By 1950, three more had joined that number and in 1970, there were still only eight major college bowl games. The number grew to eleven in 1976. At the birth of cable television and cable sports networks like ESPN, there were fifteen bowls in 1980. With more national venues and increased available revenue, the bowls saw an explosive growth throughout the 1980s and 1990s. In the thirty years from 1950 to 1980, seven bowl games were added to the schedule. From 1980 to 2008, an additional 20 bowl games were added to the schedule. Some have criticized this growth, claiming that the increased number of games has diluted the significance of playing in a bowl game. Yet others have countered that the increased number of games has increased exposure and revenue for a greater number of schools, and see it as a positive development.
With the growth of bowl games, it became difficult to determine a national champion in a fair and equitable manner. As conferences became contractually bound to certain bowl games (a situation known as a tie - in), match - ups that guaranteed a consensus national champion became increasingly rare. In 1992, seven conferences and independent Notre Dame formed the Bowl Coalition, which attempted to arrange an annual No. 1 versus No. 2 matchup based on the final AP poll standings. The Coalition lasted for three years; however, several scheduling issues prevented much success; tie - ins still took precedence in several cases. For example, the Big Eight and SEC champions could never meet, since they were contractually bound to different bowl games. The coalition also excluded the Rose Bowl, arguably the most prestigious game in the nation, and two major conferences -- the Pac - 10 and Big Ten -- meaning that it had limited success. In 1995, the Coalition was replaced by the Bowl Alliance, which reduced the number of bowl games to host a national championship game to three -- the Fiesta, Sugar, and Orange Bowls -- and the participating conferences to five -- the ACC, SEC, Southwest, Big Eight, and Big East. It was agreed that the No. 1 and No. 2 ranked teams gave up their prior bowl tie - ins and were guaranteed to meet in the national championship game, which rotated between the three participating bowls. The system still did not include the Big Ten, Pac - 10, or the Rose Bowl, and thus still lacked the legitimacy of a true national championship.
In 1998, a new system was put into place called the Bowl Championship Series. For the first time, it included all major conferences (ACC, Big East, Big 12, Big Ten, Pac - 10, and SEC) and all four major bowl games (Rose, Orange, Sugar and Fiesta). The champions of these six conferences, along with two "at - large '' selections, were invited to play in the four bowl games. Each year, one of the four bowl games served as a national championship game. Also, a complex system of human polls, computer rankings, and strength of schedule calculations was instituted to rank schools. Based on this ranking system, the No. 1 and No. 2 teams met each year in the national championship game. Traditional tie - ins were maintained for schools and bowls not part of the national championship. For example, in years when not a part of the national championship, the Rose Bowl still hosted the Big Ten and Pac - 10 champions.
The system continued to change, as the formula for ranking teams was tweaked from year to year. At - large teams could be chosen from any of the Division I conferences, though only one selection -- Utah in 2005 -- came from a BCS non-AQ conference. Starting with the 2006 season, a fifth game -- simply called the BCS National Championship Game -- was added to the schedule, to be played at the site of one of the four BCS bowl games on a rotating basis, one week after the regular bowl game. This opened up the BCS to two additional at - large teams. Also, rules were changed to add the champions of five additional conferences (Conference USA, the Mid-American Conference, the Mountain West Conference, the Sun Belt Conference and the Western Athletic Conference), provided that said champion ranked in the top twelve in the final BCS rankings, or was within the top 16 of the BCS rankings and ranked higher than the champion of at least one of the "BCS conferences '' (also known as "AQ '' conferences, for Automatic Qualifying). Several times after this rule change was implemented, schools from non-AQ conferences played in BCS bowl games. In 2009, Boise State played TCU in the Fiesta Bowl, the first time two schools from BCS non-AQ conferences played each other in a BCS bowl game. The last team from the non-AQ ranks to reach a BCS bowl game was Northern Illinois in 2012, which played in (and lost) the 2013 Orange Bowl.
Due to the intensification of the college football playoff debate after nearly a decade of the sometimes disputable results of the BCS, the conference commissioners and Notre Dame 's president voted to implement a Plus - One system which was to be called the ' College Football Playoff '. The College Football Playoff is the annual postseason tournament for the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) and just as its predecessors, has failed to receive sanctioning from the NCAA. The playoff began with the 2014 NCAA Division I FBS football season. Four teams play in two semifinal games, and the winners advance to the College Football Playoff National Championship game. The first season of the new system was not without controversy, however, after TCU and Baylor (both with only one loss) both failed to receive the support of the College Football Playoff selection committee.
In the early 20th century, football began to catch on in the general population of the United States and was the subject of intense competition and rivalry, albeit of a localized nature. Although payments to players were considered unsporting and dishonorable at the time, a Pittsburgh area club, the Allegheny Athletic Association, of the unofficial western Pennsylvania football circuit, surreptitiously hired former Yale All - American guard William "Pudge '' Heffelfinger. On November 12, 1892, Heffelfinger became the first known professional football player. He was paid $500 to play in a game against the Pittsburgh Athletic Club. Heffelfinger picked up a Pittsburgh fumble and ran 35 yards for a touchdown, winning the game 4 -- 0 for Allegheny. Although observers held suspicions, the payment remained a secret for years.
On September 3, 1895 the first wholly professional game was played, in Latrobe, Pennsylvania, between the Latrobe Athletic Association and the Jeannette Athletic Club. Latrobe won the contest 12 -- 0. During this game, Latrobe 's quarterback, John Brallier became the first player to openly admit to being paid to play football. He was paid $10 plus expenses to play. In 1897, the Latrobe Athletic Association paid all of its players for the whole season, becoming the first fully professional football team. In 1898, William Chase Temple took over the team payments for the Duquesne Country and Athletic Club, a professional football team based in Pittsburgh from 1895 until 1900, becoming the first known individual football club owner. Later that year, the Morgan Athletic Club, on the South Side of Chicago, was founded. This team later became the Chicago Cardinals, then the St. Louis Cardinals and now is known as the Arizona Cardinals, making them the oldest continuously operating professional football team.
The first known professional football league, known as the National Football League (not the same as the modern league) began play in 1902 when several baseball clubs formed football teams to play in the league, including the Philadelphia Athletics, Pittsburgh Pirates and the Philadelphia Phillies. The Pirates ' team the Pittsburgh Stars were awarded the league championship. However, the Philadelphia Football Athletics and Philadelphia Football Phillies also claimed the title. A five - team tournament, known as the World Series of Football was organized by Tom O'Rouke, the manager of Madison Square Garden. The event featured the first - ever indoor pro football games. The first professional indoor game came on December 29, 1902, when the Syracuse Athletic Club defeated the "New York team '' 5 -- 0. Syracuse would go on to win the 1902 Series, while the Franklin Athletic Club won the Series in 1903. The World Series only lasted two seasons.
The first black person to be paid for his play in football games is thought to be two - sport athlete Charles Follis, A member of the Shelby Steamfitters for five years starting in 1902, Follis turned professional in 1904.
The game moved west into Ohio, which became the center of professional football during the early decades of the 20th century. Small towns such as Massillon, Akron, Portsmouth, and Canton all supported professional teams in a loose coalition known as the "Ohio League '', the direct predecessor to today 's National Football League. In 1906 the Canton Bulldogs -- Massillon Tigers betting scandal became the first major scandal in professional football in the United States. It was the first known case of professional gamblers attempting to fix a professional sport. Although the Massillon Tigers could not prove that the Canton Bulldogs had thrown the second game, the scandal tarnished the Bulldogs ' name and helped ruin professional football in Ohio until the mid-1910s.
In 1915, the reformed Canton Bulldogs signed former Olympian and Carlisle Indian School standout Jim Thorpe to a contract. Thorpe became the face of professional football for the next several years and was present at the founding of the National Football League five years later.
In 1920, the American Professional Football Association (APFA) was founded, in a meeting at a Hupmobile car dealership in Canton, Ohio. Jim Thorpe was elected the league 's first president. After several more meetings, the league 's membership was formalized. The original teams were:
In its early years the league was little more than a formal agreement between teams to play each other and to declare a champion at season 's end. Teams were still permitted to play non-league members. The 1920 season saw several teams drop out and fail to play through their schedule. Only four teams: Akron, Buffalo, Canton, and Decatur, finished the schedule. Akron claimed the first league champion, with the only undefeated record among the remaining teams.
The APFA, which later became known as the National Football League (NFL), had a limited number of black players. In the league 's first seven years, nine African - Americans played in the APFA / NFL. Two black players took part in the league 's inaugural season: Fritz Pollard and Bobby Marshall. In 1921, Pollard coached in the league, becoming the first African - American to do so.
In 1921, several more teams joined the league, increasing the membership to 22 teams. Among the new additions were the Green Bay Packers, which now has the record for longest use of an unchanged team name. Also in 1921, A.E. Staley, the owner of the Decatur Staleys, sold the team to player - coach George Halas, who went on to become one of the most important figures in the first half century of the NFL. In 1921, Halas moved the team to Chicago, but retained the Staleys nickname. In 1922 the team was renamed the Chicago Bears. The Staleys won the 1921 AFPA Championship, over the Buffalo All - Americans in an event later referred to as the "Staley Swindle ''.
By the mid-1920s, NFL membership had grown to 25 teams, and a rival league known as the American Football League was formed. The rival AFL folded after a single season, but it symbolized a growing interest in the professional game. Several college stars joined the NFL, most notably Red Grange from the University of Illinois, who was taken on a famous barnstorming tour in 1925 by the Chicago Bears. Another scandal that season centered on a 1925 game between the Chicago Cardinals and the Milwaukee Badgers. The scandal involved a Chicago player, Art Folz, hiring a group of high school football players to play for the Milwaukee Badgers, against the Cardinals. This would ensure an inferior opponent for Chicago. The game was used to help prop up their win - loss percentage and as a chance of wrestling away the 1925 Championship away from the first place Pottsville Maroons. All parties were severely punished initially; however, a few months later the punishments were rescinded. Also that year a controversial dispute stripped the NFL title from the Maroons and awarded it to the Cardinals.
At the end of the 1932 season, the Chicago Bears and the Portsmouth Spartans were tied with the best regular - season records. To determine the champion, the league voted to hold its first playoff game. Because of cold weather, the game was held indoors at Chicago Stadium, which forced some temporary rule changes. Chicago won, 9 -- 0. The playoff proved so popular that the league reorganized into two divisions for the 1933 season, with the winners advancing to a scheduled championship game. A number of new rule changes were also instituted: the goal posts were moved forward to the goal line, every play started from between the hash marks, and forward passes could originate from anywhere behind the line of scrimmage (instead of the previous five yards behind). In 1936, the NFL instituted the first draft of college players. With the first ever draft selection, the Philadelphia Eagles picked Heisman Trophy winner Jay Berwanger, but he declined to play professionally. Also in that year, another AFL formed, but it also lasted only two seasons.
The 1930s represented an important time of transition for the NFL. League membership was fluid prior to the mid-1930s. 1936 was the first year where there were no franchise moves, prior to that year 51 teams had gone defunct. In 1941, the NFL named its first Commissioner, Elmer Layden. The new office replaced that of President. Layden held the job for five years, before being replaced by Pittsburgh Steelers co-owner Bert Bell in 1946.
During World War II, a player shortage led to a shrinking of the league as several teams folded and others merged. Among the short - lived merged teams were the Steagles (Pittsburgh and Philadelphia) in 1943, the Card - Pitts (Chicago Cardinals and Pittsburgh) in 1944, and a team formed from the merger of the Brooklyn Dodgers and the Boston Yanks in 1945.
1946 was an important year in the history of professional football, as that was the year when the league reintegrated. The Los Angeles Rams signed two African American players, Kenny Washington and Woody Strode. Also that year, a competing league, the All - America Football Conference (AAFC), began operation.
During the 1950s, additional teams entered the league. In 1950, the AAFC folded, and three teams from that league were absorbed into the NFL: the Cleveland Browns (who had won the AAFC Championship every year of the league 's existence), the San Francisco 49ers, and the Baltimore Colts (not the same as the modern franchise, this version folded after one year). The remaining players were chosen by the now 13 NFL teams in a dispersal draft. Also in 1950, the Los Angeles Rams became the first team to televise its entire schedule, marking the beginning of an important relationship between television and professional football. In 1952, the Dallas Texans went defunct, becoming the last NFL franchise to do so. The following year a new Baltimore Colts franchise formed to take over the assets of the Texans. The players ' union, known as the NFL Players Association, formed in 1956.
At the conclusion of the 1958 NFL season, the Baltimore Colts and the New York Giants met at Yankee Stadium to determine the league champion. Tied after 60 minutes of play, it became the first NFL game to go into sudden death overtime. The final score was Colts 23, Giants 17. The game has since become widely known as "the Greatest Game Ever Played ''. It was carried live on the NBC television network, and the national exposure it provided the league has been cited as a watershed moment in professional football history, helping propel the NFL to become one of the most popular sports leagues in the United States. Journalist Tex Maule said of the contest, "This, for the first time, was a truly epic game which inflamed the imagination of a national audience. ''
In 1959, longtime NFL commissioner Bert Bell died of a heart attack while attending an Eagles / Steelers game at Franklin Field. That same year, Dallas businessman Lamar Hunt led the formation of the rival American Football League, the fourth such league to bear that name, with war hero and former South Dakota Governor Joe Foss as its Commissioner. Unlike the earlier rival leagues, and bolstered by television exposure, the AFL posed a significant threat to NFL dominance of the professional football world. With the exception of Los Angeles and New York, the AFL avoided placing teams in markets where they directly competed with established NFL franchises. In 1960, the AFL began play with eight teams and a double round - robin schedule of fourteen games. New NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle took office the same year.
The AFL became a viable alternative to the NFL as it made a concerted effort to attract established talent away from the NFL, signing half of the NFL 's first - round draft choices in 1960. The AFL worked hard to secure top college players, many from sources virtually untapped by the established league: small colleges and predominantly black colleges. Two of the eight coaches of the Original Eight AFL franchises, Hank Stram (Texans / Chiefs) and Sid Gillman (Chargers) eventually were inducted to the Hall of Fame. Led by Oakland Raiders owner and AFL commissioner Al Davis, the AFL established a "war chest '' to entice top talent with higher pay than they got from the NFL. Former Green Bay Packers quarterback Babe Parilli became a star for the Boston Patriots during the early years of the AFL, and University of Alabama passer Joe Namath rejected the NFL to play for the New York Jets. Namath became the face of the league as it reached its height of popularity in the mid-1960s. Davis 's methods worked, and in 1966, the junior league forced a partial merger with the NFL. The two leagues agreed to have a common draft and play in a common season - ending championship game, known as the AFL - NFL World Championship. Two years later, the game 's name was changed to the Super Bowl. AFL teams won the next two Super Bowls, and in 1970, the two leagues merged to form a new 26 - team league. The resulting newly expanded NFL eventually incorporated some of the innovations that led to the AFL 's success, such as including names on player 's jerseys, official scoreboard clocks, national television contracts (the addition of Monday Night Football gave the NFL broadcast rights on all of the Big Three television networks), and sharing of gate and broadcasting revenues between home and visiting teams.
The NFL continued to grow, eventually adopting some innovations of the AFL, including the two - point conversion. It has expanded several times to its current 32 - team membership, and the Super Bowl has become a cultural phenomena across the United States. One of the most popular televised events annually in the United States, it has become a major source of advertising revenue for the television networks that have carried it and it serves as a means for advertisers to debut elaborate and expensive commercials for their products. The NFL has grown to become the most popular spectator sports league in the United States.
One of the things that have marked the modern NFL as different from other major professional sports leagues is the apparent parity between its 32 teams. While from time to time, dominant teams have arisen, the league has been cited as one of the few where every team has a realistic chance of winning the championship from year to year. The league 's complex labor agreement with its players ' union, which mandates a hard salary cap and revenue sharing between its clubs, prevents the richest teams from stockpiling the best players and gives even teams in smaller cities such as Green Bay and New Orleans the opportunity to compete for the Super Bowl. One of the chief architects of this labor agreement was former NFL commissioner Paul Tagliabue, who presided over the league from 1989 to 2006. In addition to providing parity between the clubs, the current labor contract, established in 1993 and renewed in 1998 and 2006, has kept player salaries low -- the lowest among the four major league sports in the United States -- and has helped make the NFL the only major American professional sports league since 1993 not to suffer any player strike or work stoppage.
Since taking over as commissioner before the 2006 season, Roger Goodell has made player conduct a priority of his office. Since taking office, several high - profile players have experienced trouble with the law, from Adam "Pacman '' Jones to Michael Vick. In these and other cases, Commissioner Goodell has mandated lengthy suspensions for players who fall outside of acceptable conduct limits. Goodell, however, has remained a largely unpopular figure to many of the league 's fans, who perceive him attempting to change the NFL 's identity and haphazardly damage the sport.
Minor professional leagues such as the original United Football League, Atlantic Coast Football League (ACFL), Seaboard Football League and Continental Football League existed in abundance in the 1960s and early 1970s, to varying degrees of success. In 1970, Patricia Barzi Palinkas became the first woman to ever play on a men 's semipro football team when she joined the Orlando Panthers of the ACFL.
Several other professional football leagues have been formed since the AFL -- NFL merger, though none have had the success of the AFL. In 1974, the World Football League formed and was able to attract such stars as Larry Csonka away from the NFL with lucrative contracts. However, most of the WFL franchises were insolvent and the league folded in 1975.
In 1982, the United States Football League formed as a spring league, and enjoyed moderate success during its first two seasons behind such stars as Jim Kelly and Herschel Walker. In 1985, the league, which lost a considerable amount of money due to overspending on players, opted to gamble on moving its schedule to fall in 1986 and filing a billion - dollar antitrust lawsuit against the NFL in an effort to stay afloat. When the lawsuit only drew a three - dollar judgment, the USFL folded.
The NFL founded a developmental league known as the World League of American Football with teams based in the United States, Canada, and Europe. The WLAF ran for two years, from 1991 to 1992. Its successor, the all - European NFL Europe League, ran from 1995 to 2007.
In 2001, the XFL was formed as a joint venture between the World Wrestling Federation and the NBC television network. It folded after one season in the face of rapidly declining fan interest and a poor reputation. However, XFL stars such as Tommy Maddox and Rod "He Hate Me '' Smart later saw success in the NFL.
Football is a popular participatory sport among youth. One of the earliest youth football organizations was founded in Philadelphia, in 1929, as the Junior Football Conference. Organizer Joe Tomlin started the league to provide activities and guidance for teenage boys who were vandalizing the factory he owned. The original four - team league expanded to sixteen teams in 1933 when Pop Warner, who had just been hired as the new coach of the Temple University football team, agreed to give a lecture to the boys in the league. In his honor, the league was renamed the Pop Warner Conference.
Today, Pop Warner Little Scholars -- as the program is now known -- enrolls over 300,000 young boys and girls ages 5 -- 16 in over 5000 football and cheerleading squads, and has affiliate programs in Mexico and Japan. Other organizations, such as the Police Athletic League, Upward, and the National Football League 's NFL Youth Football Program also manage various youth football leagues.
Football is a popular sport for high schools in the United States. The National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS) was founded in 1920 as an umbrella organization for state - level organizations that manage high school sports, including high school football. The NFHS publishes the rules followed by most local high school football associations. More than 13,000 high schools participate in football, and in some places high school teams play in stadiums that rival college - level facilities. For example, the school district serving the Houston suburb of Katy, Texas opened a 12,000 - seat stadium in 2017 that cost over $70 million to host the district 's eight high school teams. The growth of high school football and its impact on small town communities has been documented by landmark non-fiction works such as the 1990 book Friday Night Lights and the subsequent fictionalized film and television series.
American football has been played outside the US since the 1920s and accelerated in popularity after World War II, especially in countries with large numbers of U.S. military personnel, who often formed a substantial proportion of the players and spectators.
In 1998, the International Federation of American Football, was formed to coordinate international amateur competition. At present, 45 associations from the Americas, Europe, Asia and Oceania are organized within the IFAF, which claims to represent 23 million amateur athletes. The IFAF, which is based in La Courneuve, France, organizes the quadrennial World Championship of American Football.
A long - term goal of the IFAF is for American football to be accepted by the International Olympic Committee as an Olympic sport. The only time that the sport was played was at the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, but as a demonstration sport. Among the various problems the IFAF has to solve in order to be accepted by the IOC are building a competitive women 's division, expanding the sport into Africa, and overcoming the current worldwide competitive imbalance that is in favor of American teams.
Other codes of football share a common history with American football. Canadian football is a form of the game that evolved parallel to American football. While both games share a common history, there are some important differences between the two. A more modern sport that derives from American football is Arena football, designed to be played indoors inside of hockey or basketball arenas. The game was invented in 1981 by Jim Foster and the Arena Football League was founded in 1987 as the first major professional league to play the sport. Several other indoor football leagues have since been founded and continue to play today.
American football 's parent sport of rugby continued to evolve. Today, two distinct codes known as rugby union and rugby league are played throughout the world. Since the two codes split following a schism on how the sport should be managed in 1895, the history of rugby league and the history of rugby union have evolved separately. Both codes have adopted innovations parallel to the American game; the rugby union scoring system is almost identical to the American game, while rugby league uses a gridiron - style field and a six - tackle rule similar to the system of downs in American Football.
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when did the ipad pro 12.9 come out | IPad Pro - Wikipedia
12.9 - inch 1G and 9.7 - inch: Apple A9X with 64 - bit architecture and Apple M9 motion co-processor
12.9 - inch 1G: 2.26 GHz dual - core 64 - bit ARMv8 - A 9.7 - inch: 2.16 GHz dual - core 64 - bit
12.9 - inch: 4 GB LPDDR4 SDRAM 9.7 - inch: 2 GB LPDDR4 SDRAM
12.9 - inch 1G: 32 (WiFi only), 128 or 256 GB flash memory 9.7 - inch: 32, 128 or 256 GB flash memory
12.9 - inch: 2732 × 2048 px (264 PPI) (IPS panel) (5.5 megapixels), 12.9 in (327.8 mm) diagonal, 4: 3 9.7 - inch: 2048 × 1536 px (264 PPI) (IPS panel) (3.1 megapixels), 9.7 in (246.3 mm) diagonal, 4: 3
12.9 - inch 1G: 1.2 megapixels 720p front - facing and 8 megapixels rear - facing 9.7 - inch: 5 megapixels 720p front - facing and 12 megapixels 4K rear - facing
12.9 - inch Wi - Fi + Cellular:
9.7 - inch Wi - Fi + Cellular:
12.9 - inch: 3.77 V 38.8 W h (10,307 mA h) 9.7 - inch: 3.82 V 27.91 W h (7,306 mA h)
12.9 - inch: 305.7 mm (12.04 in) (h) 220.6 mm (8.69 in) (w) 6.9 mm (0.27 in) (d) 9.7 - inch: 240 mm (9.4 in) (h) 169.5 mm (6.67 in) (w) 6.1 mm (0.24 in) (d) 10.5 - inch:
12.9 - inch Wi - Fi: 713 g (1.572 lb) 12.9 - inch Wi - Fi + Cellular: 723 g (1.594 lb) 9.7 - inch Wi - Fi: 437 g (0.963 lb) 9.7 - inch Wi - Fi + Cellular: 444 g (0.979 lb) 10.5 - inch WiFi: 469 g (1.034 lb) 10.5 - inch WiFi + Cellular:
The iPad Pro family is a line of iPad tablet computers designed, developed, and marketed by Apple Inc., that runs the iOS mobile operating system. It is currently available in two screen sizes, 10.5 - inch (27 cm) and 12.9 - inch (33 cm), each with three options for internal storage capacities: 64, 256, or 512 GB; the 512 GB configuration making the iPad Pro the first iOS device to offer that storage size.
The first iPad Pro, the 12.9 - inch version, was announced on September 9, 2015, and released on November 11. It is larger than all previous iPad models and the first iPad tablet to feature LPDDR4 RAM. The 12.9 - inch tablet was later followed by the smaller 9.7 - inch version, which was announced on March 21, 2016, and released on March 31 that same year.
On June 5, 2017, a second generation of iPad Pro was announced, which features A10X Fusion processors, with basic storage of 64 GB, and optional 512 GB. Upgraded displays include a new 10.5 - inch version to replace the 9.7 - inch model, while the 12.9 - inch version was refreshed. Following this announcement, the first generation iPad Pros, both 9.7 and 12.9 inch, were discontinued.
The 12.9 - inch version of the iPad Pro was announced during an Apple Special Event on September 9, 2015. It was released on November 11, 2015 with gold, silver, and space gray color options. Prices ranging from US $799.99 to $1,229.99 based on storage size and cellular connectivity. On March 21, 2016, the 9.7 inch version of the iPad Pro was announced at an Apple keynote with an additional rose gold color option. The 9.7 inch version also introduced the ability to choose base 32GB Model with Cellular + WiFi option. (Previously, Cellular + WiFi option was only available on 128GB iPad Pro models.) The 9.7 inch model is priced from $599 to $1,129 depending on the configuration. It was released on March 31, 2016.
The 9.7 - inch iPad Pro, when compared to the iPad Air 2, features a faster CPU, a better camera, and is the first iPad to feature True Tone Flash and Retina Flash. It also had the highest storage for an iPad at the time with a 256 GB storage option and has a True Tone display, which allows the LCD to adapt to ambient lighting to change its color and intensity in different environments.
Both iPad Pro models include the A9X chip and the Apple M9 motion co-processor. The 9.7 inch model, however, has a slightly underclocked CPU (2.16 GHz compared to 2.26 GHz on the 12.9 inch model) and only 2 GB of RAM. A number of features are carried over from the standard iPad, such as Touch ID and the Retina Display. New features include a smart connector for a keyboard and four stereo speakers located in pairs on top and bottom of the device. The 12.9 inch model has a 2732 - by - 2048 Retina Display at 264 pixels per inch, and the 9.7 inch model has a 2048 - by - 1536 Retina Display at 264 pixels per inch and features a variable refresh rate, a first for Apple. The 12.9 inch version of the iPad Pro is the first iPad to include 4 GB of RAM.
A customised 12.9 inch iPad Pro was also designed by Jony Ive and submitted to the Time for Design auction. The special edition iPad Pro has an "Edition 1 of 1 '' label engraved on its back and comes with a custom yellow - gold anodised finish, a blue leather Smart Cover and an orange leather Apple Pencil case cover, all of which are not sold by Apple elsewhere.
The second generation of iPad Pro was announced on June 5, 2017 alongside iOS 11 at the 2017 WWDC. The second - generation iPad Pro models, at 10.5 - inch and 12.9 - inch, have an A10X hexa - core CPU and with a 12 - core GPU, supports HDR10 and Dolby Vision content (with iOS 11 or later) with a 120 Hz refresh rate and their True Tone display is 50 percent brighter than the earlier models; both sizes also have a 12 - megapixel rear - facing camera with quad - LED True - Tone flash and a 7 - megapixel front - facing camera with Retina Flash. They have USB - C connection speeds using Lightning cables, with USB - C fast - charge support. The second generation iPad Pro has the highest storage capacity of iOS devices, up to 512 GB.
There are four accessories made specifically for iPad Pro, all of which are sold separately: a "smart '' screen cover; an attachable keyboard, Smart Keyboard; an active bluetooth tracking stylus, Apple Pencil; and a form - fitted silicone case that is compatible with the Smart Keyboard.
Smart Keyboard docks with iPad Pro using the Smart Connector, a magnetic connection that provides data transfer and power. Smart Keyboard, which doubles as a kickstand, is comparable to that of the competing Microsoft Surface Pro. The design of the Smart Keyboard is similar to the design of the Smart Cover accessory.
Apple Pencil is a precision stylus exclusive to the iPad Pro and the iPad 2018. The accessory is rechargeable via the Lightning port on the tablet itself. iPad Pro introduces a new display with increased responsiveness and precision over previous iPad displays with Apple Pencil support added. During the keynote, Apple demonstrated drawing, managing publication layout, and document annotation.
The iPad Pro 's 9.7 - inch version set a record among all currently released tablets tested in color accuracy, screen reflectance, peak brightness, contrast rating in high ambient light, and smallest color variation. However, the iPad Pro 12.9 - inch version tested to having better contrast ratio in the dark.
Despite Apple advertising the tablets as PC replacements, most reviewers noted that it still can not replace a laptop running the Microsoft Windows or macOS desktop operating systems. One critic pointed out in a comparative review with the competing Surface Pro that "from a flexibility perspective, there is no denying the Windows 10 advantage for consumers, students, and business users '' over iOS.
Scott Stein from CNET praised the faster processor and new accessories available. However, he criticized the cost of both the unit and its accessories, while noting its slightly slower processor with less RAM compared to the larger 12.9 - inch model. Matt Swider from TechRadar complimented the easy handling, large 256GB configuration and True Tone display, but was upset about the high starting price. Gareth Beavis gave a positive review, commending the expansive screen and audio quality but stated that the battery life could be made longer.
Max Parker from TrustedReviews and Gareth Beavis from TechRadar both praised the 10.5 - inch model 's high - quality audio and performance, though both critics noted that it was expensive.
Reviewing the 12.9 inch second - generation iPad Pro, Lauren Goode of The Verge complimented the quality camera, A10X processor and large screen size but said that the device could have been cheaper.
A1652 (Wi - Fi + Cellular)
A1674 or A1675 (Wi - Fi + Cellular)
A1671 (Wi - Fi + Cellular)
A1709 (Wi - Fi + Cellular)
Wi - Fi + Cellular models:
Wi - Fi + Cellular models:
Wi - Fi + Cellular models:
Wi - Fi + Cellular models:
Fully laminated display, Antireflective coating
Fully laminated display, Antireflective coating, ProMotion display (120 Hertz refresh rate)
Fully laminated display, Antireflective coating, ProMotion display (120 Hertz refresh rate)
Backside illumination, Face Detection, Exposure control, Panorama (up to 43 MP), Burst mode, Tap to focus, Photo geotagging, Timer mode, Video Recording, 1080p video recording (30 fps), Slo - mo video support for 720p at 120 fps, Time - lapse video, Video image stabilization, 3 × digital zoom, Video geotagging
Tap to focus, Photo geotagging, Timer mode, Video Recording, Cinematic video stabilization, 4K video recording (30 fps), 1080p HD video recording at 30 fps or 60 fps, Slo - mo video support for 1080p at 120 fps and 720p at 240 fps, Time - lapse video, 3 × digital zoom, Live Photos, True Tone LED flash, Sapphire crystal lens cover, Improved local tone mapping, Improved noise reduction, Video geotagging
Photo and video geotagging, Timer mode, Video Recording, Cinematic video stabilization, 4K video recording (30 fps), 1080p HD video recording at 30fps or 60fps, Slo - mo video support for 1080p at 120 fps and 720p at 240 fps, Time - lapse video, 3 × digital zoom, True Tone LED flash, Sapphire crystal lens cover, Improved local tone mapping, Improved noise reduction
Bluetooth 4.2 technology
UMTS / HSPA / HSPA+ / DC - HSDPA (850, 900, 1700 / 2100, 1900, 2100 MHz); GSM / EDGE (850, 900, 1800, 1900 MHz), CDMA EV - DO Rev. A and Rev. B (800, 1900 MHz), LTE (Bands 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 13, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 26, 28, 29, 38, 39, 40, 41), Data only, Includes Apple SIM (U.S., UK, and Germany only)
UMTS / HSPA / HSPA+ / DC - HSDPA (850, 900, 1700 / 2100, 1900, 2100 MHz); GSM / EDGE (850, 900, 1800, 1900 MHz), CDMA EV - DO Rev. A and Rev. B (800, 1900 MHz), LTE Advanced (Bands 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 12, 13, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 38, 39, 40, 41), Data only, Embedded Apple SIM
Above plus:
220.6 mm (8.69 in) (w)
6.9 mm (0.27 in) (d)
169.5 mm (6.67 in) (w)
6.1 mm (0.24 in) (d)
220.6 mm (8.69 in) (w)
6.9 mm (0.27 in) (d)
174.1 mm (6.85 in) (w)
6.1 mm (0.24 in) (d)
Wi - Fi + Cellular model: 720 g (1.59 lb)
Wi - Fi + Cellular: 444 g (0.979 lb)
Wi - Fi + Cellular model: 692 g (1.526 lb)
Wi - Fi + Cellular 477 g (1.052 lb)
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is there tax on feminine products in florida | Tampon tax - Wikipedia
A tampon tax is a popular term used to call attention to the fact that tampons -- and other feminine hygiene products -- are subject to value - added tax, unlike the tax exemption status granted to other products considered basic necessities. Proponents of tax exemption argue that tampons, sanitary napkins, menstrual cups and comparable products constitute basic, unavoidable necessities for women and thus should be made tax exempt.
Proponents argue that feminine hygiene products serving the basic menstrual cycle should be classified alongside other unavoidable, tax exempt necessities, such as groceries and personal medical items. The BBC estimates that women -- half of the global population -- need to use feminine hygiene products for about a week each month for about 30 years. While sales tax policy varies across jurisdictions, these products were typically taxed at the same rate as non-essential goods, such as in the United States, while other countries, such as the United Kingdom and Ireland, reduced or eliminated their general consumption tax on sanitary products. When asked about equivalent exemptions for men, proponents argue that no male products, condoms included, are comparable to feminine hygiene products, since menstruation is biological and "feminine hygiene is not a choice ''. As the vast majority of consumers of feminine hygiene products are women, the increased cost has been criticized as being discriminatory against women. The tampon tax is not a special tax levied directly on feminine hygiene products.
After the tax in Canada was removed mid-2015, women began protesting in other countries later that year. On July 21, 2018, India eliminated the Goods and Services Tax (GST) of 12 % from sanitary napkins.
The United Kingdom has levied a value - added tax on sanitary products since it joined the European Economic Community in 1973. This rate was reduced to 5 % specifically for sanitary products in 2000 with lobbying from Member of Parliament Dawn Primarolo saying that this reduction was "about fairness, and doing what we can to lower the cost of a necessity. '' This is the lowest rate possible under the European Union 's value added tax law, which as of 2015 does not allow zero rates. The UK Independence Party raised the issue in the 2015 general election with promises to withdraw from the European Union and allow the zero rate. Prime Minister David Cameron commented, when prompted, that the tampon tax campaign was "long - standing '' and a complicated issue within the European Union. In England, one in ten women between 14 and 21 can not afford menstrual management products.
Laura Coryton led a "Stop taxing periods, period '' campaign with an online petition to have the European Union remove the value - added tax for sanitary products. George Osborne mentioned the petition by name in his 2015 Autumn Statement pledge to end the tampon tax at the European Union level. The petition platform 's CEO cited the campaign as an example of successful clicktivism, with over 320,000 signatures. In March 2016, Parliament created legislation to eliminate the tampon VAT. It was expected to go into effect by April 2018 but did not do so; several British women protested for it publicly while displaying blood stains from their periods. On the 3rd October 2018, new EU VAT rules that will allow the UK to stop taxing sanitary products were approved by the European Parliament.
In July 2017, a pilot program began in Scotland to have free sanitary products available at schools and food banks for women who can not afford them. The pilot scheme was launched for six months in Aberdeen, Scotland, with £ 42,500 of funding from the devolved Scottish Government in order to address the growing scandal of "period poverty ''. It was believed 1,000 girls would benefit from the scheme, as there were reports of teenage girls using tissues, toilet roll, torn T - shirts and even newspaper as makeshift sanitary products, with some girls even skipping school altogether. It was decided to launch the scheme to improve attainment and school attendance, as well as improve confidence amongst teenage girls during their period; and Scotland is believed to be the first country in the world to give out free sanitary products as part of a government - sponsored initiative.
Further to this half year pilot program, Scotland 's opposition Labour Party intends to introduce a bill to make this permanent. Scotland is the first country to ban period poverty.
A study by the WHO and UNICEF showed that one out of five women in Scotland have been forced to improvise with items including toilet paper and old clothes due to the high cost of commercial products.
In the United States, almost all states tax "tangible individual property '' but exempt non-luxury "necessities '': groceries, prescriptions, prosthetics, agriculture supplies, and sometimes clothes -- the exemptions vary between states. Five states do not have a state sales tax (Alaska, Delaware, Montana, New Hampshire, and Oregon), and as of November 2017, nine states specifically exempted feminine hygiene products (Connecticut, Florida, Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania).
In the U.S., most states charge sales tax for women 's pads and tampons. Nine states have dropped the tampon tax -- Minnesota, Illinois, Pennsylvania, New York, Massachusetts, Maryland, New Jersey, Connecticut and Florida, according to NPR. Seven other states have introduced such legislation, most recently Nebraska, Virginia and Arizona.
California Assembly member Cristina Garcia reported that California women each pay roughly US $ 7 per month over 40 years, constituting US $20 million in annual taxes. Garcia and Ling Ling Chang proposed a bill to remove the tampon tax in early 2016. At this period, only a handful of the country 's states exempted tampons, and several others had no state sales tax. Garcia held that women were taxed "for being women '' and bore an economic burden for having no other choice but to buy these products. Garcia and Chang added that the tax was "regulatory discrimination '' that disproportionately affected poor women and women of color, and that it likely persisted due to social taboos against discussing menstruation. Both houses of the California State Legislature voted to exempt tampons from taxation in June 2016, but the bill was vetoed by the state 's governor, Jerry Brown, three months later.
In July 2016, New York State exempted feminine hygiene products from taxation, reducing the state 's tax revenue by an estimated US $10 million annually. Connecticut and Illinois also removed their tax in 2016, with Florida following suit in 2017.
In the United States, nine states have eliminated the tampon tax, and seven states have introduced legislation. In January 2018, California rejected a proposal to eliminate tampon tax.
A 2018 study found that "Low ‐ income consumers enjoy a benefit from the repeal of the tax by more than the size of the repealed tax. For high ‐ income consumers, the tax break is shared equally with producers. The results suggest that repealing tampon taxes removes an unequal tax burden and could make menstrual hygiene products more accessible for low ‐ income consumers. ''
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what is the name of the chinese flag | Flag of China - wikipedia
The flag of China, also known as the Five - star Red Flag, is a red field charged in the canton (upper corner nearest the flagpole) with five golden stars. The design features one large star, with four smaller stars in a semicircle set off towards the fly (the side farthest from the flag pole). The red represents the communist revolution; the five stars and their relationship represent the unity of the Chinese people under the leadership of the Communist Party of China (CPC). The first flag was hoisted by the People 's Liberation Army (PLA) on a pole overlooking Beijing 's Tiananmen Square on 1 October 1949, at a ceremony announcing the founding of the People 's Republic.
Other flags used in the People 's Republic of China use a red background to symbolize the revolution in conjunction with other symbols. The flag of the People 's Liberation Army uses the gold star with the Chinese characters 8 - 1 (for 1 August, the date of the PLA 's founding). The flag of the Communist Party of China replaces all of the stars with the party emblem. Due to government regulations, cities and provinces of China can not have their own flags; the only sub-national flags that exist are those of the Hong Kong and Macau Special Administrative Regions. Despite this, at least two cities have adopted flags after the law was passed. The cities of Kaifeng and Shangrao adopted their flags in March 2006 and March 2009 respectively. This implies that the law is either repealed or not enforced.
One of the first earlier flags of China was the "Yellow Dragon Flag '' used by the Qing dynasty from 1644 until the overthrow of the monarchy during the Xinhai Revolution, the Qing dynasty was the last imperial dynasty in China 's history. Between 1889 and 1912, the dynasty represented itself with the dragon flag.
The canton (upper corner on the hoist side) originated from the "Blue Sky with a White Sun flag '' (青天 白 日 旗; qīngtiān báirì qí) designed by Lu Haodong, a martyr of the Xinhai Revolution. He presented his design to represent the revolutionary army at the inauguration of the Society for Regenerating China, an anti-Qing society in Hong Kong, on February 21, 1895. This design was later adopted as the KMT party flag and the Coat of Arms of the Republic of China. The "red Earth '' portion was added by Sun Yat - sen in winter of 1906, bringing the flag to its modern form. According to George Yeo, the Foreign Minister of Singapore, in those days the Blue Sky with a White Sun flag was sewn in the Sun Yat Sen Villa or Wan Qing Yuan in Singapore by Teo Eng Hock and his wife.
During the Wuchang Uprising in 1911 that heralded the Republic, the various revolutionary armies had different flags. Lu Hao - tung 's "Blue Sky with a White Sun '' flag was used in the provinces of Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan, and Guizhou. In Wuhan, a flag with 18 yellow stars was used to represent the 18 administrative divisions at the time. In Shanghai and northern China, a "Five - Colored Flag '' (五色 旗; wǔ sè qí) (Five Races Under One Union flag) was used of five horizontal stripes representing the five major nationalities of China: the Han (red), the Manchu (yellow), the Mongol (blue), the Hui (white), and the Tibetan (black).
When the government of the Republic of China was established on January 1, 1912, the "Five - Colored Flag '' was selected by the provisional Senate as the national flag. The "18 - Star Flag '' was adopted by the army and the modern flag was adopted as a naval ensign. Sun Yat - sen, however, did not consider the five - colored flag appropriate, reasoning that horizontal order implied a hierarchy or class like that which existed during dynastic times.
After President Yuan Shikai assumed dictatorial powers in 1913 by dissolving the National Assembly and outlawing the KMT, Sun Yat - sen established a government - in - exile in Tokyo and employed the modern flag as the national ROC flag. He continued using this design when the KMT established a rival government in Guangzhou in 1917. The modern flag was made the official national flag on December 17, 1928 after the successful Northern Expedition that toppled the Beijing government, though the Five - Colored Flag still continued to be used by locals in an unofficial capacity. One reason for this discrepancy in use was lingering regional biases held by officials and citizens of northern China, who favored the Five - Colored Flag, against southerners such as the Cantonese / Hakka Sun Yat - sen.
During the Second Sino - Japanese War, the invading Japanese established a variety of puppet governments using several flag designs. The "Reform Government '' established in March 1938 in Nanjing to consolidate the various puppet governments employed the Five - Colored Flag. When Wang Jingwei was slated to take over the Japanese - installed government in Nanjing in 1940, he demanded to use the modern flag as a means to challenge the authority of the Nationalist Government in Chongqing under Chiang Kai - shek and position himself as the rightful successor to Sun Yat - sen. However, the Japanese preferred the Five - Colored flag. As a compromise, the Japanese suggested adding a triangular yellow pennant on top with the slogan "Peace, Anti-Communism, National Construction '' (和平 反共 建國; Hépíng fǎngòng jiàn guó) in black, but this was rejected by Wang. In the end, Wang and the Japanese agreed that the yellow banner was to be used outdoors only, until 1943 when the banner was abandoned, leaving two rival governments with the same flag, each claiming to be the legitimate Nationalist government of China.
The flag was specified in Article Six of the 1947 Constitution. After the Chinese Civil War in 1949, the government of Chiang Kai - shek relocated the sovereign independent country of the Republic of China (ROC) to the island of Taiwan. On the mainland, the communist forces of Mao Zedong established the People 's Republic of China and adopted their own national flag. On October 23, 1954, the National Emblem and National Flag of the Republic of China Act (中華 民國 國徽 國旗 法; Zhōnghuá Mínguó guóhuī guóqífǎ) was promulgated by the Legislative Yuan to specify the size, measure, ratio, production, and management of the flag.
On 4 July 1949, the sixth working group of the Preparatory Committee of the New Political Consultative Conference (新 政治 協商 會議 籌備 會, PCNPCC) created a notice to submit designs for the national flag. After a few changes, the notice was published in the papers People 's Daily, Beiping Liberation News, Xinmin News, Dazhong Daily, Guangming Daily, Jinbu Daily and Tianjin Daily during a period between 15 - 26 July. The list requirements for the national flag were also posted in the notice:
Zeng Liansong, a citizen from Wenzhou, Zhejiang, was working in Shanghai at the time the announcement came out; he wanted to create a flag design to express his patriotic enthusiasm for the new country. In the middle of July, he sat down in his attic for multiple nights to come up with designs. His inspiration for the current design comes from the stars shining in the night sky. He thought of a Chinese proverb "longing for the stars, longing for the moon '', (盼 星星 盼 月亮, pàn xīngxīng pàn yuèliàng) which shows yearning. He viewed the CPC as the great saviour (大 救星, dà jiùxīng "great saving star '') of the Chinese people, being represented by a larger star. The idea for four small stars came from On the People 's Democratic Dictatorship a speech by Mao Zedong, which defined the Chinese people as consisting of four social classes, also referred to in Asian cultures as the four occupations (士農工商) shi, nong, gong, shang ("the working class, the peasantry, the urban petty bourgeoisie and the national bourgeoisie ''). Yellow also implies that China belongs to the Chinese people, a "yellow race ''. After working out the details of the placement of the stars and their sizes (he had tried to put all of the stars in the center, but believed it would be too heavy and dull), he sent his "Five Stars on a Field of Red '' (紅 地 五星 旗, hóng dì wǔxīng qí) design to the committee in the middle of August.
As of 20 August, a total of 2,992 (or 3,012) designs were sent to the flag committee, which included input from committee members themselves, such as Guo Moruo and Tan Kah Kee. From August 16 to 20, the designs were viewed at the Beijing Hotel and culled down to a list of 38. These designs are collected into a book named A Reference of National Flag Designs (國旗 圖案 參考 資料). This book was then submitted to the newly established Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) for further discussion. However, Zeng 's design was not included until Tian Han nominated it again.
On the morning of 23 September, the representatives of the CPPCC discussed the national flags, but came to no conclusion. Some disliked the symbolism which Zeng attached to the four smaller stars, and said it should not include the bourgeoisie. The design Mao and others liked had a giant golden star in the corner on a red flag that was charged with a golden horizontal bar. But this design was strongly opposed by Zhang Zhizhong, who saw the golden bar as symbolizing the tearing apart of the revolution from the country. In the night, Peng Guanghan (彭光涵) recommended Zeng 's design to Zhou Enlai, Zhou was satisfied with it and asked for a larger copy of the design to be made. Tan Kah Kee also gave his advice to Mao and Zhou that the power characteristics are more important than Chinese geography characteristics, so there was no need to insist on the golden bar which stands for the Yellow River. Two days later, Mao had a meeting in his office about the flag. He persuaded everyone to adopt Zeng 's design, with some slight modifications. According to earlier discussions at the Beijing Hotel, the hammer and sickle from Zeng 's original design was removed since it was similar to the Flag of the Soviet Union. On 27 September 1949, Zeng 's modified design was selected unanimously by the First Plenary Session of CPPCC, which changed the flag 's name to "Five - star Red Flag ''.
On 29 September the new flag was published in the People 's Daily, so the design could be copied by other local authorities. The flag was officially unveiled in Beijing 's Tiananmen Square on 1 October 1949, the formal announcement of the founding of the People 's Republic of China. The first flag flown over Tiananmen Square was sewn together by Zhao Wenrei (赵文瑞), a seamstress who finished the task around 1 pm on 30 September. Zeng had a hard time believing that his design was picked, due to the missing hammer and sickle from the giant star. However, he was officially congratulated by the General Office of the People 's Government as the designer of the flag and received 5 million yuan for his work.
Proposal by Wu Yuzhang
Proposal by Ai Qing
Proposal by Zhu De
Proposal by Liang Congjie
Proposal by Guo Moruo
Proposal by Guo Moruo
According to the current government interpretation of the flag, the red background symbolises the revolution and the golden colors were used to "radiate '' on the red background. The five stars and their relationship represents the unity of Chinese people under the leadership of the Communist Party of China. The orientation of the stars shows that the unity should go around a center. In the original description of the flag by Zeng, the larger star symbolizes the Communist Party of China, and the four smaller stars that surround the big star symbolize the four social classes (the working class, the peasantry, the urban petite bourgeoisie and the national bourgeoisie) of Chinese people mentioned in Mao 's "On the People 's Democratic Dictatorship ''. The five stars that formed an ellipse represent the territory of China which is shaped like a Begonia leaf. It is sometimes stated that the five stars of the flag represent the five largest ethnic groups: Han Chinese, Zhuangs, Hui Chinese, Manchus and Uyghurs. This is generally regarded as an erroneous conflation with the "Five Races Under One Union '' flag, used 1912 -- 28 by the Beiyang Government of Republic of China, whose different - colored stripes represented the Han Chinese, Hui Chinese, Manchus, Mongols and Tibetans.
The construction sheet for the national flag was published on 28 September 1949 by an order from the Presidium of the First Plenary Session of the Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference. The information can also be found in the document "GB 12982 - 2004: National flag '' that was released by the Standardization Administration of China.
During the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, flags that failed to adhere to the regulations were used in connection with China. The flags, used during the opening ceremony and two medal ceremonies, featured the four small stars incorrectly angled in the same direction, inciting fury at the Olympic organisers.
The Law on the National Flag mentions five possible sizes that could be made for the national flag: According to Article 4 of the Law On the National Flag, people 's governments of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government are directed to authorize companies to make any copy of the national flag. Besides five official sizes for flying on flagpoles, there are another four smaller sizes for other purposes, such as decoration on cars or display in meeting rooms.
The colors of the national flag are regulated in the document "GB 12983 - 2004: Standard Color Sample of the National Flag, '' also released by the Standardization Administration of China. The colors are in the CIE Standard illuminant D65 and the CIE 1964 Supplementary Standard Colorimetric System.
The Flag of China is represented as the Unicode emoji sequence U + 1F1E8 🇨 REGIONAL INDICATOR C and U + 1F1F3 🇳 REGIONAL INDICATOR N.
The current law about the national flag was passed by 14th Meeting of the Standing Committee of the Seventh National People 's Congress on 28 June 1990 and was enforced starting 1 October 1990. The main point of the law was to not only set down regulations on how to make the Chinese flag, what it looks like, where it can be flown and how it can be flown. The law also stresses that the national flag is "the symbol and hallmark of the People 's Republic of China '' and that everyone "shall respect and care for the National Flag. ''
On 29 September 2017, Hong Kong elected legislator Cheng Chung - tai was convicted of desecrating the flag under the National Flag and National Emblem Ordinance. He had been seen turning representations of the flags (not of standard dimensions) upside down in the legislative chamber in October the previous year.
Due to an order passed by the CPC Central Committee General Office and General Office of the State Council, cities and provinces are no longer allowed to adopt their own symbols. However, both of the Hong Kong and Macau Special Administrative Regions of China have their own special flags. The precise use of the SAR flags are regulated by laws passed by the National People 's Congress.
The Regional Flag of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region features a stylized, white, five - petal Bauhinia blakeana flower in the center of a red field. On each petal is a red star; the stars demonstrate that Hong Kong residents love their motherland while the overall flag design signifies the link re-established between post-colonial Hong Kong and China while demonstrating the "One country, two systems '' political principle applied to the region. The flag of Hong Kong was adopted on 16 February 1990. On 10 August 1996, it received formal approval from the Preparatory Committee, a group which advised the People 's Republic of China (PRC) on Hong Kong 's transfer of sovereignty from the United Kingdom to the PRC in 1997. The flag was first officially hoisted on 1 July 1997, in the handover ceremony marking the transfer of sovereignty from the United Kingdom to China.
The Regional flag of the Macau Special Administrative Region is "Macau green '' with a lotus flower above a stylized image of the Governor Nobre de Carvalho Bridge and water in white, beneath an arc of five gold, five - pointed stars: one large star in the center of the arc and four smaller ones. The lotus was chosen as the floral emblem of Macau. The Governor Nobre de Carvalho Bridge is a bridge linking the Macau Peninsula and the island of Taipa. The bridge is one of the most recognizable landmarks of the territory. The water beneath the lotus and the bridge symbolize Macau 's position as a port and its role played in the territory. The five five - pointed stars echo the design of the national flag, symbolizing the relationship Macau has with its mother country. The design was chosen on 15 January 1993 by a committee that was drafting the Basic Law for the Macau SAR and was formally adopted by the Macau SAR Preparatory Committee on 16 January 1999. The flag was first officially hoisted on 20 December 1999, in the handover ceremony marking the transfer of sovereignty from Portugal to China.
There are five flags that are used by the People 's Liberation Army (PLA). The main feature of these flags is a golden star at the top left corner and two Chinese characters "八 一 '' to the right of the star, all placed on a red background. The characters "八 一 '' (literally "eight one '') pay homage to the events on 1 August 1927 (8th month, 1st day); this was when the PLA was created by the Communist Party to start their rebellion against the Kuomintang Government in Nanchang. The main flag of the PLA was created on June 15, 1949 by a decree issued from Mao. The flag has a ratio of 5 by 4, which has a white sleeve measuring ⁄ of the flag 's length. For ceremonies, a PLA flag with golden fringe is placed on a pole with gold and red spiral stripes and topped with a golden finial and red tassel. Each branch of the PLA, the Ground Forces, Navy, Air Force and Rocket Force, also have their own flags to use. In a 1992 order, the flags of the three branches were defined. The top ⁄ of the flags is the same as the PLA flag; the bottom ⁄ are occupied by the colors of the branches. The flag of the Ground Forces has a forest green bar at the bottom, the naval ensign has stripes of blue and white at the bottom, the Air Force uses a sky blue bar and the Rocket Force uses a yellow bar at the bottom. The forest green represents the earth, the blue and white stripes represent the seas, the sky blue represents the air and the yellow represents the flare of missile launching.
PLA
Ground Force
Navy
Air Force
Rocket Force
People 's Armed Police
After the Communist Party of China was founded in 1920, various sections of the party made flags based on what the Bolsheviks used, producing various designs and patterns. The current flag of the CPC was not created until 28 April 1942. On that date, the CPC Central Committee Political Bureau issued a decree announcing the flag and the pattern it should follow. The design was further defined in the CPC Constitution in 1996. The flag has a red background that is charged with the emblem of the CPC in gold at the top left corner. The flag ratio is defined as two by three (24 × 36 units); the size of the emblem is eight units square, placed four units away from the hoist and three units away from the top of the flag.
The flag of the Communist Youth League of China was adopted on 4 May 1950. The design of the flag consists of the group emblem, a gold star surrounded by a ring of gold, charged on a red field. The construction of the flag consists of making the top hoist portion of the flag into twelve by eighteen units, placing the emblem in the middle of that rectangle. The radius of the emblem is four units.
There are two flags used by the Young Pioneers of China. The first flag that is used is for large detachments. The length of the flag is 90 centimetres and the width is 120 centimeters. A golden badge of the Young Pioneers is placed in the center of the flag. For a medium detachment, a modified flag is used. The flag has a length of 60 centimetres and a width of 80 centimetres. A 20 - centimeter triangle is cut out of the fly edge of the flag and the golden emblem is shifted closer towards the hoist.
Communist Party of China
Communist Youth League of China
Young Pioneers of China (Large Detachment)
Young Pioneers of China (Medium Detachment)
The customs flag is a China 's national flag with the emblem of customs at the lower right corner, which consists of a golden key and the Caduceus of Hermes, crossing with each other. The current customs flag was officially adopted in 1 October 1953. The customs flag should be hung at the bow of the customs vessel.
Flag of the Qing Dynasty (1862 -- 1889)
Flag of the Qing Dynasty (1889 -- 1912)
Flag of the Republic of China (1912 -- 1928), representing the Five Races Under One Union principle
National flag of Empire of China 1916
National flag of Empire of China 1916
Flag of the Republic of China (1928 -- present)
Flag of the National Revolutionary Army (1928 -- 1947) and the flag of the Republic of China Army (1947 -- present)
Flag of the Kuomintang and the naval jack of the Republic of China Navy (1947 -- present)
Flag of Chinese Taipei used by ROC (1984 - present)
Flag of the Chinese Soviet Republic (1931 -- 1937)
The Flag of the Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China, a Japanese puppet state during World War II, was based on the Flag of the Republic of China.
National flag of Manchukuo 1934 -- 1945
Flag of the Reformed Government of the Republic of China (1938 -- 1940)
PRC flag flying on the Tiananmen Square centre.
A man in San Francisco holding the PRC flag during the torch relay for the 2008 Summer Olympics.
Protesters waving PRC and ROC flags during an anti-Japan demonstrations in Hong Kong in 2012.
Flag of the PRC flying in the 2015 Victory Day Parade.
The PRC flag in the Air China Boeing 747 jet.
PRC embassy in Nuku'alofa, Tonga with its national flag.
Chinese delegates with the PRC flag marching into the stadium for the World Sports Festival.
People protesting in Hong Kong with two persons holding a PRC flag.
The People 's Liberation Army with the PRC banner during the 2015 Moscow Victory Day Parade.
Yao Ming holding the PRC flag during the 2008 Summer Olympics Parade of Nations.
Chinese students with the PRC flag at École Polytechnique.
The flag of the PRC flown on the Great Wall of China.
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who do think you are song christina perri | Jar of Hearts - wikipedia
"Jar of Hearts '' is the debut single by American singer Christina Perri. The song was released onto iTunes July 27, 2010, a week after its debut on So You Think You Can Dance. The song was included on Perri 's debut EP, The Ocean Way Sessions, and appeared on Perri 's debut studio album, Lovestrong (2011). The song was co-written by Perri, Drew Lawrence, and Barrett Yeretsian. Perri drew inspiration for the song from a real - life experience with a love interest who wanted to rekindle a broken relationship. After its debut, the song was released onto iTunes where it later rose to the Top 20 spot in one week.
Perri was unsigned at the time of the song release, which created a lot of discussion between critics who favored the song. The song charted on multiple charts in both the United States and Canada at numbers 17 and 21 respectively. The song sold a total of 47,500 downloads in its opening week. In 2011, it was released in the UK and peaked at number 4 on the UK Singles Chart. It spent 31 weeks in the Top 40 and 48 weeks in the Top 75. It was later certified Platinum after shipping 600,000 copies. It was the 11th best selling single of 2011 in the UK.
After teaching herself to play six chords on the guitar, Perri wrote "The Perfect Man '' about the same person about whom "Jar of Hearts '' was written. "Jar of Hearts '' premiered on So You Think You Can Dance in June, before Perri even had a record deal. Perri 's best friend, Keltie Colleen (a Rockette), passed it on to one of the show 's choreographers, Stacey Tookey, who later choreographed a contemporary dance routine for All - Star Kathryn McCormick and contestant Billy Bell.
Perri wrote the song in December 2009, only to begin working with her production and management team in February 2010. While recording for an EP, "Jar of Hearts '' was additionally going to be recorded with a full band; however, Perri later decided against it stating that "I imagined people dancing to it. It was all a big ' just in case. ' ''
The song was first added to Perri 's YouTube channel on June 30, 2010 and was later released on iTunes on July 27, 2010. A karaoke - version of the song was also officially released onto iTunes February 1, 2011. The song was featured on the singer 's first EP titled The Ocean Way Sessions, and has additionally appeared on Perri 's debut album, lovestrong.
"Jar of Hearts '' has been described as an autobiographical song for Perri, recalling an ex-boyfriend who wanted to reconnect after a tough breakup. Seeing writing duties by the song 's performer Christina Perri, additional writing is seen by Drew Lawrence and Barrett Yeretsian; production by the song 's writers Barrett Yeretsian and Christina Perri. "Jar of Hearts '' is a rock - oriented tune that is about shunning the continued advances of a former flame who was ungrateful while together, yet now wants to rekindle a failed romance.
Lyrically the ballad revolves around an ex of Perri 's, who sings personal lyrics. In a blog by the artist, Perri described that the song came from true experiences, stating "I wrote the song after I went home to Philadelphia for the holiday last December. I sat in my childhood bedroom and hid from the boy (with the jar of hearts) who wanted to see me. My heart wanted to see him, my head knew better. I could n't take one more break so I wrote the song instead. ''
According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Hal Leonard Corporation, "Jar of Hearts '' is a moderate piano - rock song pacing in common time, written in the key of C minor. Perri 's vocals range from the notes E ♭ to C as she sings to the score of pianos and chords. The song consists simply of a piano melody and delicate strings. Additionally described as a wrenching, string - drenched ballad, the song features "angsty, unvarnished piano rock. '' Perri stated that she does not know how to read or write music, but knew how to perform certain piano chords, which were used in the song. In the singer 's personal blog she released the piano chords of the entire song. The verse of the song is played in the chords Cm Eb Bb Fm; the pre-chorus in Fm Ab Eb Bb Fm Ab Bbsus; the chorus in Eb Bb Cm Ab (Abm) end with: Eb; the bridge in the chords Cm (right hand) Walk down C, B, Bb, A (bass note) Ab G; and the outro finishes the song in the chords Ab B F.
"Jar of Hearts '' received positive reviews from most critics. Kyle Anderson of MTV News positively reviewed the song as a "hook - heavy ballad, '' while reviewing Perri 's rise to fame. Gavin Edwards of Rolling Stone described the song as "a wrenching, string - drenched ballad in which she delivers a kiss - off to an ex who wo n't stop hanging around. '' Megan Vick of Billboard gave the song a positive review stating that the simple piano chords of the song complement Perri 's voice, which was additionally described as "A Fine Frenzy-esque. '' The Leeds UK based entertainment magazine / webzine, Contactmusic.com called the song a raw, defiant break - up song. Much less impressed, giving it two stars out of a possible five, Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone described the song as both insipid and bombastic.
John Hill of About.com broke the song down to understand the "instant hit '' within the song. Hill stated that the song begins with weariness from the opening verse and builds up strength leading to the chorus of the song. Hill continued stating "There have been countless ' you did me wrong ' songs through the history of pop music, but identifying a serial dater as a collector of broken hearts is one of the more unique ways of displaying both hurt and frustration, '' only to later conclude that the song is a bona fide hit and contains longevity making it an "impactful introduction '' for Perri. Common Sense Media gave the song a rating of three - out - of - five stars, stating that although Perri is a "newcomer '' to music, she proves that she can "hang with the big girls '' with "Jar of Hearts '', and said she was vocally superior both to Selena Gomez and Hayley Williams of Paramore. While reviewing the album, Chad Grischow of IGN described the song as a tender ballad containing a certain "magic '' which fails to be recaptured by the rest of the album.
"Jar of Hearts '' debuted at No. 28 on Billboard 's Hot Digital Songs chart, No. 63 on the Billboard Hot 100, and No. 54 on the Canadian Hot 100, clocking 48,000 downloads, according to Nielsen SoundScan. After landing at No. 25 on the Hot 100, the track sold 200,000 downloads in three weeks. Spending twenty - three weeks on the Billboard Hot 100, the song peaked at number seventeen. Peaking at number nineteen after eleven weeks on the Pop Songs Chart, the ringtone version of the song has peaked at number twenty - one on the Ringtones chart after seven weeks. The song spent 72 weeks on the Hot Digital Songs chart, despite missing the top fifteen of the Hot 100. As of June 2014, the song has sold over 3,798,000 digital copies in the US alone,
Elsewhere, "Jar of Hearts '' peaked at No. 2 in Australia and the Republic of Ireland, No. 3 in the Czech Republic and No. 4 in the United Kingdom and Finland. The song has remained in the UK Singles Chart for 27 weeks.
The music video for the song was directed by Jay Martin. A "Behind the scenes... '' look was given into the recording of the music video on August 25, 2010. In the video, Perri states "I really hope that the video connects me to the song and entertains all of the fans of So You Think You Can Dance because it 's because of them that this even happened. I really hope that they love it. I hope that they love the dance... and that they just feel like we did this song justice with this video. '' So You Think You Can Dance contestants Allison Holker and Kathryn McCormick appear as dancers in the music video, performing choreography by Stacey Tookey.
The music video premiered on September 13, 2010 on Perri 's YouTube channel. The video begins with Perri on a stoop while black petals fall from the sky. As Perri begins walking, a smoke reflection is shown over her chest, showing that her "jar '' is empty - her heart is missing. As the song continues, Perri walks through different scenarios of hearts being collected, all by the same man, whose "jar '' is being filled. This includes an intimate moment in a car and another in a phone booth, both of which leave the women whose hearts are stolen (through their mouths) with empty jars. They fall unconscious away from the collector, a young man with dark hair. Towards the end of the video, Perri is watching as the collector, the love - interest, collects more hearts while dancing with different women. The video ends with Perri stealing a heart from him, leaving his "jar '' empty. He falls to the ground, and she appears to recuperate with her heart newly intact.
The music video was added to a list of "VH1 's Top 40 Music Videos Of 2010, '' "Jar of Hearts '' coming in at number seventeen. During the premiere of Perri 's "Daydream, '' VH1 compared it to the music video of "Jar of Hearts '' stating that it took a more cinematic route that "relied heavily on slow motion to connote emotions. ''
After premiering the song on So You Think You Can Dance, Perri returned to the stage on July 17, 2010, performing the song live for the first time. In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, Perri discussed her thoughts on performing on the show after premiering it on the same show, stating "I am very nervous, but very excited. It 's almost like my first child is ' So You Think You Can Dance '. I will do whatever they want me to do. And if it 's perform in front of millions of people, I 'll do that too. I 'm pretty certain this is gon na be the biggest audience I 've ever performed for. '' Perri has additionally performed the song live on and The Early Show on CBS and the Today Show on NBC in August 2012. On July 29, 2010, Perri also performed on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, replacing Stone Temple Pilots who could n't make it to the show on time. On December 7, 2010, Perri performed the song on Conan O'Brien 's new show, Conan, with many critics naming the performance a career peak and stellar. On November 2, 2010, VH1 allowed Perri to perform the song, along with other tracks from her EP, in the elevator lobby as part of an ongoing "Live At VH1 '' series. The performances were recorded and shown through VH1 's video - hosting sites. In October 2011, Perri performed the song live on The Late Late Show, an Irish chat show hosted by Ryan Tubridy. On November 13, 2011, Perri performed the song live on the Strictly Come Dancing Results Show. On January 29, 2012, Perri performed the song live on Dancing On Ice. On February 18, 2012, she performed the song before the world heavyweight boxing championship fight between Vitali Klitschko and Dereck Chisora in Munich. Also Perri performed the song as part of the encore for her first tour Lovestrong Tour in 2011 / 12.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who was considered the most successful writer of the new republic | Toussaint Louverture - wikipedia
François - Dominique Toussaint Louverture (French: (fʁɑ̃swa dɔminik tusɛ̃ luvɛʁtyʁ) 20 May 1743 -- 7 April 1803), also known as Toussaint L'Ouverture or Toussaint Bréda, was the best - known leader of the Haitian Revolution. His military and political acumen saved the gains of the first Black insurrection in November 1791. He first fought for the Spanish against the French; then for France against Spain and Great Britain; and finally, for Saint - Domingue against Napoleonic France. He then helped transform the insurgency into a revolutionary movement, which by 1800 had turned Saint - Domingue, the most prosperous slave colony of the time, into the first free colonial society to have explicitly rejected race as the basis of social ranking.
Though Toussaint did not sever ties with France, his actions in 1800 constituted a de facto autonomous colony. The colony 's constitution proclaimed him governor for life even against Napoleon Bonaparte 's wishes. He died betrayed before the final and most violent stage of the armed conflict. However, his achievements set the grounds for the Black army 's absolute victory and for Jean - Jacques Dessalines to declare the sovereign state of Haiti in January 1804. Toussaint 's prominent role in the Haitian success over colonialism and slavery had earned him the admiration of friends and detractors alike.
Toussaint Louverture began his military career as a leader of the 1791 slave rebellion in the French colony of Saint - Domingue; he was by then a free black man and a Jacobin. Initially allied with the Spaniards of neighboring Santo Domingo (modern Dominican Republic), Toussaint switched allegiance to the French when they abolished slavery. He gradually established control over the whole island and used political and military tactics to gain dominance over his rivals. Throughout his years in power, he worked to improve the economy and security of Saint - Domingue. He restored the plantation system using paid labour, negotiated trade treaties with the UK and the United States, and maintained a large and well - disciplined army.
In 1801, he promulgated an autonomist constitution for the colony, with himself as Governor - General for Life. In 1802 he was forced to resign by forces sent by Napoleon Bonaparte to restore French authority in the former colony. He was deported to France, where he died in 1803. The Haitian Revolution continued under his lieutenant, Jean - Jacques Dessalines, who declared independence on January 1, 1804. The French had lost two - thirds of forces sent to the island in an attempt to suppress the revolution; most died of yellow fever.
Almost nothing is known for certain about Toussaint L'ouverture's early life, as there are contradictory accounts and evidence about this period. The earliest records of his life are his recorded remarks and the reminiscences of his second legitimate son Isaac Louverture. Most histories identify Toussaint 's father as Gaou Guinou, a younger son of the King of Allada (also spelled Arrada), a West African historical kingdom located in modern - day Benin, who had been captured in war and sold into slavery. His mother Pauline was Gaou Guinou 's second wife. The couple had several children, of whom Toussaint was the eldest son. Pierre Baptiste Simon is usually considered to have been his godfather.
Toussaint is thought to have been born on the plantation of Bréda at Haut de Cap in Saint - Domingue, which was owned by the Comte de Noé and later managed by Bayon de Libertat. His date of birth is uncertain, but his name suggests he was born on All Saints Day. He was probably about 50 at the start of the revolution in 1791. Various sources have given birth dates between 1739 and 1746. Because of the lack of written records, Toussaint himself may not have known his exact birth date. In childhood, he earned the nickname Fatras - Bâton, suggesting he was small and weak, though he was to become known for his stamina and riding prowess. An alternative explanation of Toussaint 's origins is that he arrived at Bréda with a new overseer (Bayon de Libertat) who took up his duties in 1772.
Toussaint is believed to have been well educated by his godfather Pierre Baptiste. Historians have speculated as to Toussaint 's intellectual background. His extant letters demonstrate a command of French in addition to Creole; he was familiar with Epictetus, the Stoic philosopher who had lived as a slave; and his public speeches as well as his life 's work, according to his biographers, show a familiarity with Machiavelli. Some cite Abbé Raynal, who wrote against slavery, as a possible influence: The wording of the proclamation issued by then rebel slave leader Toussaint on August 29, 1793, which may have been the first time he publicly used the moniker "Louverture '', seems to refer to an anti-slavery passage in Abbé Raynal 's "A Philosophical and Political History of the Settlements and Trade of the Europeans in the East and West Indies. ''
He may also have received some education from Jesuit missionaries. His medical knowledge is attributed to familiarity with African herbal - medical techniques as well those techniques commonly found in Jesuit - administered hospitals. A few legal documents signed on Toussaint 's behalf between 1778 and 1781 raise the possibility that he could not write at that time. Throughout his military and political career, he made use of secretaries for most of his correspondence. A few surviving documents in his own hand confirm that he could write, though his spelling in the French language was "strictly phonetic. ''
In 1782, Toussaint married Suzanne Simone Baptiste Louverture, who is thought to have been his cousin or his godfather 's daughter. Towards the end of his life, he told General Caffarelli that he had fathered 16 children, of whom 11 had predeceased him. Not all his children can be identified for certain, but his three legitimate sons are well known. The eldest, Placide, was probably adopted by Toussaint and is generally thought to be Suzanne 's first child with a mulatto, Seraphim Le Clerc. The two sons born of his marriage with Suzanne were Isaac and Saint - Jean.
"I was born a slave, but nature gave me the soul of a free man. ''
Until recently, historians believed that Toussaint had been a slave until the start of the revolution. The discovery of a marriage certificate dated 1777 shows that he was freed in 1776 at the age of 33. This find retrospectively clarified a letter of 1797, in which he said he had been free for twenty years. It seems he still maintained an important role on the Breda plantation until the outbreak of the revolution, presumably as a salaried employee. He had initially been responsible for the livestock, but by 1791, his responsibilities most likely included acting as coachman to the overseer, de Libertat, and as a slave - driver, charged with organising the work force.
As a free man, Toussaint began to accumulate wealth and property. Surviving legal documents show him renting a small coffee plantation worked by a dozen of his slaves. He would later say that by the start of the revolution, he had acquired a reasonable fortune, and was the owner of a number of properties and slaves at Ennery.
Throughout his life, Toussaint was known as a devout Roman Catholic. Although Vodou was generally practiced on Saint - Domingue in combination with Catholicism, little is known for certain if Toussaint had any connection with it. Officially as ruler of Saint - Domingue, he discouraged it.
Historians have suggested that he was a member of high degree of the Masonic Lodge of Saint - Domingue, mostly based on a Masonic symbol he used in his signature. The membership of several free blacks and white men close to him has been confirmed.
The Haitian Revolution (1791 -- 1804) was a slave revolt in the French colony of Saint - Domingue, which culminated in the elimination of slavery there and established the Republic of Haiti. It was the only slave revolt which led to the founding of a state and is generally considered the most successful slave rebellion ever to have occurred in the Americas.
Beginning in 1789, free people of color of Saint - Domingue were inspired by the French Revolution to seek an expansion of their rights. Initially, the slave population did not become involved in the conflict. In August 1791, a Vodou ceremony at Bois Caïman marked the start of a major slave rebellion in the north. Toussaint apparently did not take part in the earliest stages of the rebellion, but after a few weeks he sent his family to safety in Spanish Santo Domingo and helped the overseers of the Breda plantation to leave the island. He joined the forces of Georges Biassou as doctor to the troops, commanding a small detachment. Surviving documents show him participating in the leadership of the rebellion, discussing strategy, and negotiating with the Spanish supporters of the rebellion for supplies.
In December 1791, he was involved in negotiations between rebel leaders and the French Governor, Blanchelande, for the release of their white prisoners and a return to work in exchange for a ban on the use of the whip, an extra non-working day per week, and freedom for a handful of leaders. When the offer was rejected, he was instrumental in preventing the massacre of Biassou 's white prisoners. The prisoners were released after further negotiations with the French commissioners and taken to Le Cap by Toussaint. He hoped to use the occasion to present the rebellion 's demands to the colonial assembly, but they refused to meet with him.
Throughout 1792, Toussaint, as a leader in an increasingly formal alliance between the black rebellion and the Spanish, ran the fortified post of La Tannerie and maintained the Cordon de l'Ouest, a line of posts between rebel and colonial territory. He gained a reputation for running an orderly camp, trained his men in guerrilla tactics and "the European style of war '', and began to attract soldiers who would play an important role throughout the revolution. After hard fighting, he lost La Tannerie in January 1793 to the French General Étienne Maynaud, but it was in these battles that the French first recognised him as a significant military leader.
Some time in 1792 - 93, Toussaint adopted the surname Louverture, from the French word for "opening '' or "the one who opened the way ''. Although some modern writers spell his adopted surname with an apostrophe, as in "L'Ouverture '', Toussaint himself did not, as his extant correspondence indicates. The most common explanation is that it refers to his ability to create openings in battle, and it is sometimes attributed to French commissioner Polverel 's exclamation: "That man makes an opening everywhere ''. However, some writers think it was more prosaically due to a gap between his front teeth.
Despite adhering to royalist political views, Louverture had begun to use the language of freedom and equality associated with the French Revolution. From being willing to bargain for better conditions of slavery late in 1791, he had become committed to its complete abolition. On 29 August 1793 he made his famous declaration of Camp Turel to the blacks of St Domingue:
Brothers and friends, I am Toussaint Louverture; perhaps my name has made itself known to you. I have undertaken vengeance. I want Liberty and Equality to reign in St Domingue. I am working to make that happen. Unite yourselves to us, brothers and fight with us for the same cause. Your very humble and obedient servant, Toussaint Louverture, General of the armies of the king, for the public good.
On the same day, the beleaguered French commissioner, Léger - Félicité Sonthonax, proclaimed emancipation for all slaves in French Saint - Domingue, hoping to bring the black troops over to his side. Initially, this failed, perhaps because Toussaint and the other leaders knew that Sonthonax was exceeding his authority. However, on 4 February 1794, the French revolutionary government proclaimed the abolition of slavery. For months, Louverture had been in diplomatic contact with the French general Étienne Maynaud de Bizefranc de Lavaux. During this time, competition between him and other rebel leaders was growing, and the Spanish had started to look with disfavour on his near - autonomous control of a large and strategically important region. In May 1794, when the decision of the French government became known in Saint - Domingue, Louverture switched allegiance from the Spanish to the French and rallied his troops to Lavaux.
Toussaint joined the French in early May 1794, raising the republican flag over the port of Gonaïves and provoking an exodus of refugees. In the first weeks, he eradicated all Spanish supporters from the Cordon de l'Ouest, which he had held on their behalf. He faced attack from multiple sides. His former colleagues in the black rebellion were now fighting against him for the Spanish. As a French commander, he was under attack from the British troops who had landed on Saint - Domingue in September. On the other hand, he was able to pool his 4,000 men with Lavaux 's troops in joint actions. By now his officers included men who were to remain important throughout the revolution: his brother Paul, his nephew Moïse, Jean - Jacques Dessalines and Henri Christophe.
Before long, Louverture had put an end to the Spanish threat to French Saint - Domingue. In any case, the Treaty of Basel of July 1795 marked a formal end to hostilities between the two countries. Even then, the black leaders Jean - François and Biassou continued to fight against Toussaint until November, when they left for Spain and Florida, respectively. At that point, most of their men joined Toussaint 's forces. Toussaint also made inroads against the British troops, but was unable to oust them from Saint - Marc, so he contained them and rendered them ineffective by returning to guerilla tactics.
Throughout 1795 and 1796, Louverture was also concerned with re-establishing agriculture and keeping the peace in areas under his control. In speeches and policy he revealed his belief that the long - term freedom of the people of Saint - Domingue depended on the economic viability of the colony. He was held in general respect and resorted to a mixture of diplomacy and force to return the field hands to the plantations as emancipated and paid workers. Workers regularly created small rebellions, protesting poor conditions, their lack of real freedom or fearing a return to slavery.
Another of Louverture 's concerns was to manage potential rivals for power within the French part of the colony. The most serious of these was the mulatto commander Jean - Louis Villatte, based in Cap - Français. Toussaint and Villate had competed over the command of some sections of troops and territory since 1794. Villatte was thought to be somewhat racist towards black soldiers such as Toussaint and planned to ally with André Rigaud, a free man of colour, after overthrowing French General Étienne Lavaux. In 1796 Villate drummed up popular support by accusing the French authorities of plotting a return to slavery. On 20 March, he succeeded in capturing the French Governor Lavaux, and appointed himself Governor. Louverture 's troops soon arrived at Cap - Français to rescue the captured governor and drive Villatte out of town. Toussaint was noted for opening the warehouses to the public, proving that they were empty of the chains supposedly imported to prepare for a return to slavery. He was promoted to commander of the West Province two months later, and was eventually made Saint - Domingue 's top - ranking officer in 1797. Lavaux also proclaimed Toussaint Lieutenant Governor, announcing at the same time that he would do nothing without his approval, to which Louverture replied "After God, Lavaux ''.
A few weeks after the triumph over the Villate insurrection, France 's representatives of the third commission arrived in Saint - Domingue. Among them was Sonthonax, the commissioner who had previously declared abolition on the same day as Louverture 's proclamation of Camp Turel. At first the relationship between the two was positive. Sonthonax promoted Toussaint to general and arranged for his sons, Placide and Isaac, to attend the school that had been established in France for the children of colonials.
In September 1796, elections were held to choose colonial representatives for the French national assembly. Toussaint 's letters show that he encouraged Lavaux to stand, and historians have speculated as to whether he was seeking to place a firm supporter in France or to remove a rival in power. Sonthonax was also elected, either at Toussaint 's instigation or on his own initiative, but while Lavaux left Saint - Domingue in October, Sonthonax remained.
Sonthonax, a fervent revolutionary and fierce supporter of racial equality, soon rivalled Louverture in popularity. Although their goals were similar, there were several points of conflict. The worst of these was over the return of the white planters who had fled Saint - Domingue at the start of the revolution. To Sonthonax, they were potential counter-revolutionaries, to be assimilated, officially or not, with the ' émigrés ' who had fled the French Revolution and were forbidden to return under pain of death. To Toussaint, they were bearers of useful skills and knowledge, and he wanted them back.
In summer 1797, Toussaint authorised the return of Bayon de Libertat, the ex-overseer of Breda, with whom he had a lifelong relationship. Sonthonax wrote to Louverture threatening him with prosecution and ordering him to get Bayon off the territory. Toussaint went over his head and wrote to the French Directoire directly for permission for Bayon to stay. Only a few weeks later, he began arranging for Sonthonax 's return to France that summer. Toussaint had several reasons to want to get rid of Sonthonax; officially he said that Sonthonax had tried to involve him in a plot to make Saint - Domingue independent, starting with a massacre of the whites of the island. The accusation played on Sonthonax 's political radicalism and known hatred of the aristocratic white planters, but historians have varied as to how credible they consider it.
On reaching France, Sonthonax countered by accusing Toussaint of royalist, counter-revolutionary and pro-independence tendencies. Toussaint knew that he had asserted his authority to such an extent that the French government might well suspect him of seeking independence. At the same time, the French Directoire government was considerably less revolutionary than it had been. Suspicions began to brew that it might reconsider the abolition of slavery. In November 1797, Toussaint wrote again to the Directoire, assuring them of his loyalty but reminding them firmly that abolition must be maintained.
For several months, Toussaint found himself in sole command of French Saint - Domingue, except for a semi-autonomous state in the south, where the mulatto general, André Rigaud, had rejected the authority of the third commission. Both generals continued attacking the British, whose position on Saint - Domingue was looking increasingly weak. Toussaint was negotiating their withdrawal when France 's latest commissioner, Gabriel Hédouville, arrived in March 1798, with orders to undermine his authority.
On 30 April 1798, Toussaint signed a treaty with the British general, Thomas Maitland, exchanging the withdrawal of British troops from western Saint - Domingue for an amnesty for the French counter-revolutionaries in those areas. In May, Port - au - Prince was returned to French rule in an atmosphere of order and celebration.
In July, Louverture and Rigaud met commissioner Hédouville together. Hoping to create a rivalry that would diminish Toussaint 's power, Hédouville displayed a strong preference for Rigaud, and an aversion for Toussaint. However, General Maitland was also playing on French rivalries and evaded Hédouville 's authority to deal with Toussaint directly. In August, Toussaint and Maitland signed treaties for the evacuation of the remaining British troops. On 31 August, they signed a secret treaty which lifted the British blockade on Saint - Domingue in exchange for a promise that Toussaint would not export the black revolution to Jamaica.
As Toussaint 's relationship with Hédouville reached the breaking point, an uprising began among the troops of Toussaint 's adopted nephew, Hyacinthe Moïse. Attempts by Hédouville to manage the situation made matters worse and Toussaint declined to help him. As the rebellion grew to a full - scale insurrection, Hedouville prepared to leave the island, while Toussaint and Dessalines threatened to arrest him as a troublemaker. Hédouville sailed for France in October 1798, nominally transferring his authority to Rigaud. Toussaint decided instead to work with Phillipe Roume, a member of the third commission who had been posted to the Spanish parts of the colony. Though he continued to protest his loyalty to the French government, he had expelled a second government representative from the territory and was about to negotiate another autonomous agreement with one of France 's enemies.
The United States had suspended trade with France in 1798 because of increasing conflict over piracy. The two countries were almost at war, but trade between Saint - Domingue and the United States was desirable to both Toussaint and the United States. With Hédouville gone, Louverture sent Joseph Bunel to negotiate with the government of John Adams. The terms of the treaty were similar to those already established with the British, but Toussaint continually resisted suggestions from either power that he should declare independence. As long as France maintained the abolition of slavery, it seems that he was content that the colony remain French, at least in name.
In 1799, the tensions between Toussaint and André Rigaud came to a head. Louverture accused Rigaud of trying to assassinate him to gain power over Saint - Domingue for himself. Rigaud claimed Toussaint was conspiring with the British to restore slavery. The conflict was complicated by racial overtones which escalated tension between blacks and mulattoes. Toussaint had other political reasons for bringing down Rigaud. Only by controlling every port could he hope to prevent a landing of French troops if necessary.
After Rigaud sent troops to seize the border towns of Petit - Goave and Grand - Goave in June 1799, Louverture persuaded Roume to declare Rigaud a traitor and attacked the southern state. The resulting civil war, known as the War of Knives, lasted over a year, with the defeated Rigaud fleeing to Guadeloupe, then France, in August 1800. Toussaint delegated most of the campaign to his lieutenant, Jean - Jacques Dessalines, who became infamous, during and after the war, for massacring mulatto captives and civilians. The number of deaths is contested: the contemporary French general François Joseph Pamphile de Lacroix suggested 10,000 deaths, while the 20th - century Trinidadian historian C.L.R. James later claimed only a few hundred deaths in contravention of the amnesty.
In November 1799, during the civil war, Napoleon Bonaparte gained power in France and passed a new constitution declaring that the colonies would be subject to special laws. Although the colonies suspected this meant the re-introduction of slavery, Napoleon began by confirming Toussaint 's position and promising to maintain the abolition. But he also forbade Toussaint to invade Spanish Santo Domingo, an action that would put Toussaint in a powerful defensive position. Toussaint was determined to proceed anyway and coerced Roume into supplying the necessary permission. In January 1801, Toussaint and Hyacinthe Moïse invaded the Spanish territory, taking possession from the Governor, Don Garcia, with few difficulties. The area had been wilder and less densely populated than the French section. Toussaint brought it under French law which abolished slavery, and embarked on a program of modernization. He was now master of the whole island.
Napoleon had made it clear to the inhabitants of Saint - Domingue that France would draw up a new constitution for its colonies, in which they would be subjected to special laws. Despite his initial protestations to the contrary, it seemed likely all along that he might restore slavery, which obviously worried the former slaves in Saint - Domingue. In March 1801, Louverture appointed a constitutional assembly, mainly composed of white planters, to draft a constitution for Saint - Domingue. He promulgated the Constitution on July 7, 1801, officially establishing his authority over the entire island of Hispaniola. It made him Governor - General for Life with near absolute powers and the possibility of choosing his successor. However, Toussaint was careful enough as to not explicitly declare Saint - Domingue 's independence, immediately acknowledging that it was just a single colony of the French Empire in Article 1 of the Constitution. Article 3 of the constitution states: "There can not exist slaves (in Saint - Domingue), servitude is therein forever abolished. All men are born, live and die free and French. '' The constitution guaranteed equal opportunity and equal treatment under the law for all races, but also confirmed Toussaint 's policies of forced labour and the importation of workers through the slave trade. Toussaint was not willing to compromise the dominant Vodou faith for Catholicism. Article 6 clearly states that "the Catholic, Apostolic, Roman faith shall be the only publicly professed faith. ''
Toussaint charged Colonel Vincent with the task of presenting the new constitution to Napoleon, even though Vincent himself was horrified to discover that the general had gone so far. Several aspects of the constitution were damaging to France: the absence of provision for French government officials, the lack of advantages to France in trade with its own colony, and Toussaint 's breach of protocol in publishing the constitution before submitting it to the French government. Despite his disapproval, Vincent attempted to submit the constitution to Napoleon in a positive light, but was briefly exiled to Elba for his pains.
Toussaint professed himself a Frenchman and strove to convince Bonaparte of his loyalty. He wrote to Napoleon but received no reply. Napoleon eventually decided to send an expedition of 20,000 men to Saint - Domingue to restore French authority, and possibly to restore slavery as well.
Napoleon 's troops, under the command of his brother - in - law, General Charles Emmanuel Leclerc, were to seize control of the island by diplomatic means, proclaiming peaceful intentions, and keeping secret his orders to deport all black officers. Meanwhile, Toussaint was preparing for defence and ensuring discipline. This may have contributed to a rebellion against forced labor led by his nephew and top general, Moïse, in October 1801. It was violently repressed with the result that when the French ships arrived not all of Saint - Domingue was automatically on Toussaint 's side. In late January 1802, while Leclerc sought permission to land at Cap - Français and Christophe held him off, the Vicomte de Rochambeau suddenly attacked Fort - Liberté, effectively quashing the diplomatic option.
Toussaint 's plan in case of war was to burn the coastal cities and as much of the plains as possible, retreat with his troops into the inaccessible mountains and wait for fever to decimate the European troops. The biggest impediment to this plan proved to be difficulty in internal communications. Christophe burned Cap - Français and retreated, but Paul Louverture was tricked by a false letter into allowing the French to occupy Santo Domingo; other officers believed Napoleon 's diplomatic proclamation, while some attempted resistance instead of burning and retreating. French reports to Napoleon show that in the months of fighting that followed, the French felt their position was weak, but that Toussaint and his generals were not fully conscious of their strength.
With both sides shocked by the violence of the initial fighting, Leclerc tried belatedly to revert to the diplomatic solution. Toussaint 's sons and their tutor had accompanied the expedition with this end in mind and were now sent to present Napoleon 's proclamation to Toussaint. When these talks broke down, months of inconclusive fighting followed. On 6 May 1802, Louverture rode into Cap - Français to treat with Leclerc. He negotiated an amnesty for all his remaining generals, then retired with full honors to his plantations at Ennery.
Jean - Jacques Dessalines was at least partially responsible for Louverture 's arrest, as asserted by several authors, including Louverture 's own son Isaac. On 22 May 1802, after Dessalines "learned that Louverture had failed to instruct a local rebel leader to lay down his arms per the recent ceasefire agreement, he immediately wrote to Leclerc to denounce Louverture 's conduct as "extraordinary. '' For this action, Dessalines and his spouse received gifts from Jean Baptiste Brunet.
Leclerc originally asked Dessalines to arrest Louverture, but he declined. The task then fell to Jean Baptiste Brunet. However accounts differ as to how he accomplished this. One account has it that Brunet pretended that he planned to settle in Saint - Domingue and was asking Toussaint 's advice about plantation management. Louverture 's memoirs however suggest that Brunet 's troops had been provocative, leading Louverture to seek a discussion with him. Either way, Louverture had a letter in which Brunet described himself as a "sincere friend '' to take with him to France. Embarrassed about his trickery, Brunet absented himself during the arrest. He deported them to France on the frigate Créole and the 74 - gun Héros, claiming that he suspected the former leader of plotting an uprising. Boarding Créole, Toussaint Louverture famously warned his captors that the rebels would not repeat his mistake:
In overthrowing me you have cut down in Saint Domingue only the trunk of the tree of liberty; it will spring up again from the roots, for they are numerous and they are deep.
They reached France on 2 July 1802 and, on 25 August, Toussaint Louverture was sent to the jail in Fort - de-Joux in the Doubs. While in prison, he died on the seventh of April 1803. Suggested causes of death include exhaustion, malnutrition, apoplexy, pneumonia and possibly tuberculosis. In his absence, Jean - Jacques Dessalines led the Haitian rebellion until its completion, finally defeating the French forces in 1803.
On August 29, 1954, the Haitian ambassador to France, Léon Thébaud, inaugurated a stone cross memorial for Toussaint Louverture at the foot of the fort. Years afterward, the French government ceremoniously presented a shovelful of soil from the grounds of Fort - de-Joux to the Haitian government as a symbolic transfer of Toussaint Louverture 's remains. An inscription in his memory, installed in 1998, can be found on the wall of the Panthéon in Paris, inscribed with the following description:
Combattant de la liberté, artisan de l'abolition de l'esclavage, héros haïtien mort déporté au Fort - de-Joux en 1803. (Combatant for liberty, artisan of the abolition of slavery, Haitian hero died in deportation at Fort - de-Joux in 1803.)
The inscription is opposite a wall inscription, also installed in 1998, honoring Louis Delgrès, a mulatto military leader who died leading the resistance against Napoleonic reoccupation and re-institution of slavery in Guadeloupe; the location of Delgrès ' body is also a mystery. Both inscriptions are located near the coffins of Jean Jaurès, Félix Éboué, Marc Schoelcher and Victor Schoelcher.
Toussaint Louverture influenced John Brown to invade Harpers Ferry. John Brown and his band captured citizens, and for a small time the federal armory and arsenal. Brown 's goal was that the local slave population would join the raid. But things did not go as planned. He was eventually captured and put on trial, and was hanged on December 2, 1859. Brown and his band of brothers shows the devotion to the violent tactics of the Haitian Revolution. During the 19th century African Americans used Toussaint Louverture as an example of how to reach freedom. Also during the 19th century, British writers focused on Toussaint 's domestic life and ignored his militancy to show Toussaint as a non-threatening rebel slave.
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whats the difference between a murderer and a serial killer | Serial killer - wikipedia
Note: Varies by jurisdiction
Note: Varies by jurisdiction
A serial killer is typically a person who murders three or more people, usually in service of abnormal psychological gratification, with the murders taking place over more than a month and including a significant period of time between them. Different authorities apply different criteria when designating serial killers; while most set a threshold of three murders, others extend it to four or lessen it to two. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), for example, defines serial killing as "a series of two or more murders, committed as separate events, usually, but not always, by one offender acting alone ''.
Although psychological gratification is the usual motive for serial killing, and most serial killings involve sexual contact with the victim, the FBI states that the motives of serial killers can include anger, thrill - seeking, financial gain, and attention seeking. The murders may be attempted or completed in a similar fashion. The victims may have something in common, for example, demographic profile, appearance, gender or race. A serial killer is neither a mass murderer, nor a spree killer.
The English term and concept of serial killer are commonly attributed to former FBI Special agent Robert Ressler who used the term serial homicide in 1974 in a lecture at Bramshill Police Academy in Britain. Author Ann Rule postulates in her book, Kiss Me, Kill Me (2004), that the English - language credit for coining the term goes to LAPD detective Pierce Brooks, who created the Violent Criminal Apprehension Program (ViCAP) system in 1985.
However, there is ample evidence the term was used in Europe and the U.S. earlier. The German term and concept were coined by the influential Ernst Gennat, who described Peter Kürten as a Serienmörder (' serial - murderer ') in his article "Die Düsseldorfer Sexualverbrechen '' (1930). The earliest usage attested of the specific term serial killer listed in the Oxford English Dictionary was from a 1960s German film article written by Siegfried Kracauer, about the German expressionist film M (1931), portraying a pedophilic Serienmörder.
In his book Serial Killers: The Method and Madness of Monsters (2004), criminal - justice historian Peter Vronsky notes that while Ressler might have coined the English term "serial homicide '' within law in 1974, the terms serial murder and serial murderer appear in John Brophy 's book The Meaning of Murder (1966). The Washington DC newspaper Evening Star, in a 1967 review of the book:
There is the mass murderer, or what he (Brophy) calls the "serial '' killer, who may be actuated by greed, such as insurance, or retention or growth of power, like the Medicis of Renaissance Italy, or Landru, the "bluebeard '' of the World War I period, who murdered numerous wives after taking their money.
This use of "serial '' killer to paraphrase Brophy 's serial murderer does not appear to have been influential at the time.
In his more recent study, Vronsky states that the term serial killing first entered into broader American popular usage when published in The New York Times in the spring of 1981, to describe Atlanta serial killer Wayne Williams. Subsequently, throughout the 1980s, the term was used again in the pages of The New York Times, one of the major national news publication of the United States, on 233 occasions. By the end of the 1990s, the use of the term had escalated to 2,514 instances in the paper.
When defining serial killers, researchers generally use "three or more murders '' as the baseline. This is because it is enough to provide a pattern without being overly restrictive. The murders need to have been committed at different times, and are usually committed in different places. The lack of a cooling - off period (a significant break between the murders) marks the difference between a spree killer and a serial killer. The category has, however, been found to be of no real value to law enforcement, because of definitional problems relating to the concept of a "cooling - off period ''. Cases of extended bouts of sequential killings over periods of weeks or months with no apparent "cooling off period '' or "return to normality '' have caused some experts to suggest a hybrid category of "spree - serial killer ''.
The FBI in 2005 hosted a multi-disciplinary symposium in San Antonio, Texas, to bring together 135 experts on serial murder from a variety of fields and specialties. The goal was to identify the commonalities of knowledge regarding serial murder. But the group also settled on a definition of the crime which FBI investigators widely accept as their standard. Serial murder is: "The unlawful killing of two or more victims by the same offender (or offenders), in separate events. '' The definition does not consider motivation for killing nor define a cooling - off period.
Historical criminologists have suggested that there may have been serial murders throughout history, but specific cases were not adequately recorded. Some sources suggest that legends such as werewolves and vampires were inspired by medieval serial killers. In Africa, there have been periodic outbreaks of murder by Lion and Leopard men.
Liu Pengli of China, cousin of the Han Emperor Jing, was made Prince of Jidong in the sixth year of the middle period of Jing 's reign (144 BC). According to the Chinese historian Sima Qian, he would "go out on marauding expeditions with 20 or 30 slaves or with young men who were in hiding from the law, murdering people and seizing their belongings for sheer sport ''. Although many of his subjects knew about these murders, it was not until the 29th year of his reign that the son of one of his victims finally sent a report to the Emperor. Eventually, it was discovered that he had murdered at least 100 people. The officials of the court requested that Liu Pengli be executed; however, the emperor could not bear to have his own cousin killed, so Liu Pengli was made a commoner and banished.
In the 15th century, one of the wealthiest men in Europe and a former companion - in - arms of Joan of Arc, Gilles de Rais, sexually assaulted and killed peasant children, mainly boys, whom he had abducted from the surrounding villages and had taken to his castle. It is estimated that his victims numbered between 140 and 800. The Hungarian aristocrat Elizabeth Báthory, born into one of the wealthiest families in Transylvania, allegedly tortured and killed as many as 650 girls and young women before her arrest in 1610.
Members of the Thuggee cult in India may have murdered a million people between 1740 and 1840. Thug Behram, a member of the cult, may have murdered as many as 931 victims.
In his 1886 book Psychopathia Sexualis, psychiatrist Richard von Krafft - Ebing noted a case of a serial murderer in the 1870s, a Frenchman named Eusebius Pieydagnelle who had a sexual obsession with blood and confessed to murdering six people.
The unidentified killer Jack the Ripper, who has been called the first modern serial killer, killed at least five prostitutes, and possibly more, in London in 1888. He was the subject of a massive manhunt and investigation by the Metropolitan Police, during which many modern criminal investigation techniques were pioneered. A large team of policemen conducted house - to - house inquiries, forensic material was collected and suspects were identified and traced. Police surgeon Thomas Bond assembled one of the earliest character profiles of the offender.
The Ripper murders also marked an important watershed in the treatment of crime by journalists. While not the first serial killer in history, Jack the Ripper 's case was the first to create a worldwide media frenzy. The dramatic murders of financially destitute women in the midst of the wealth of London, focused the media 's attention on the plight of the urban poor and gained coverage worldwide. Jack the Ripper has also been called the most famous serial killer of all time, and his legend has spawned hundreds of theories on his real identity and multiple works of fiction.
H.H. Holmes was one of the first documented modern serial killers in America, responsible for the death of at least 27 victims at his hotel in Chicago in the early 1890s. Here as well, the case gained notoriety and wide publicity through William Randolph Hearst 's newspapers. At the same time in France, Joseph Vacher became known as "The French Ripper '' after killing and mutilating 11 women and children. He was executed in 1898 after confessing to his crimes.
Infamous serial killers of the 20th century include Willy Pickton, Harold Shipman, Luis Garavito, Javed Iqbal, Anatoly Onoprienko, Dean Corll, Carl Panzram, John Wayne Gacy, Jeffrey Dahmer, Ted Bundy, Peter Sutcliffe, Fritz Haarmann, Peter Kürten, Clifford Olson, Peter Tobin, Albert Fish, Fred West, Richard Ramirez, David Berkowitz, Aileen Wuornos, Rosemary West, Paul Bernardo, Dennis Rader and Gary Ridgway. Ed Gein is often included on such lists but is not technically a serial killer as he only murdered two people.
76 % of all known serial killers in the 20th century were from the United States.
Some commonly found characteristics of serial killers include the following:
There are exceptions to these criteria, however. For example, Harold Shipman was a successful professional (a General Practitioner working for the NHS). He was considered a pillar of the local community; he even won a professional award for a children 's asthma clinic and was interviewed by Granada Television 's World in Action. Dennis Nilsen was an ex-soldier turned civil servant and trade unionist who had no previous criminal record when arrested. Neither was known to have exhibited many of the tell - tale signs. Vlado Taneski, a crime reporter, was a career journalist who was caught after a series of articles he wrote gave clues that he had murdered people. Russell Williams was a successful and respected career Royal Canadian Air Force Colonel who was convicted of murdering two women, along with fetish burglaries and rapes.
Many serial killers have faced similar problems in their childhood development. Hickey 's Trauma Control Model explains how early childhood trauma can set the child up for deviant behavior in adulthood; the child 's environment (either their parents or society) is the dominant factor determining whether or not the child 's behavior escalates into homicidal activity.
Family, or lack thereof, is the most prominent part of a child 's development because it is what the child can identify with on a regular basis. "The serial killer is no different from any other individual who is instigated to seek approval from parents, sexual partners, or others. '' This need for approval is what influences children to attempt to develop social relationships with their family and peers, but if they are rejected or neglected, they are unable to do so. This results in the lowering of their self - esteem and helps develop their fantasy world, in which they are in control. According to the Hickey 's Trauma Control Model, the development of a serial killer is based on an early trauma followed by facilitators (e.g., alcohol, drugs, pornography, or other factors that constitute a facilitator, depending on individual circumstances) and disposition (an inability to attach being one common factor).
Family interaction also plays an important role in a child 's growth and development. "The quality of their attachments to parents and other members of the family is critical to how these children relate to and value other members of society. '' Wilson and Seaman (1990) conducted a study on incarcerated serial killers, and what they felt was the most influential factor that contributed to their homicidal activity. Almost all of the serial killers in the study had experienced some sort of environmental problems during their childhood, such as a broken home caused by divorce, or a lack of discipline in the home. It was common for the serial killers to come from a family that had experienced divorce, separation, or the lack of a parent. Furthermore, nearly half of the serial killers had experienced some type of physical or sexual abuse, and even more had experienced emotional neglect. When a parent has a drug or alcohol problem, the attention in the household is on the parents rather than the child. This neglect of the child leads to the lowering of their self - esteem and helps develop a fantasy world in which they are in control. Hickey 's Trauma Control Model supports how the neglect from parents can facilitate deviant behavior, especially if the child sees substance abuse in action. This then leads to disposition (the inability to attach), which can further lead to homicidal behavior, unless the child finds a way to develop substantial relationships and fight the label they receive. If a child receives no support from those around him or her, then he or she is unlikely to recover from the traumatic event in a positive way. As stated by E.E. Maccoby, "the family has continued to be seen as a major -- perhaps the major -- arena for socialization ''.
There have been recent studies looking into the possibility that an abnormality with one 's chromosomes could be the trigger for serial killers. Two serial killers, Bobby Joe Long and Richard Speck, came to attention for reported chromosomal abnormalities. Long had an extra X chromosome. Speck was erroneously reported to have an extra Y chromosome; in fact, his karyotype was performed twice and was normal each time. Hellen Morrison, an American forensic psychiatrist, said in an interview that while researchers have not identified a specific causal gene, the fact that the majority of serial killers are male leads researchers to believe there is "a change associated with the male chromosome make up. ''
Children who do not have the power to control the mistreatment they suffer sometimes create a new reality to which they can escape. This new reality becomes their fantasy that they have total control of and becomes part of their daily existence. In this fantasy world, their emotional development is guided and maintained. According to Garrison (1996), "the child becomes sociopathic because the normal development of the concepts of right and wrong and empathy towards others is retarded because the child 's emotional and social development occurs within his self - centered fantasies. A person can do no wrong in his own world and the pain of others is of no consequence when the purpose of the fantasy world is to satisfy the needs of one person '' (Garrison, 1996). Boundaries between fantasy and reality are lost and fantasies turn to dominance, control, sexual conquest, and violence, eventually leading to murder. Fantasy can lead to the first step in the process of a dissociative state, which, in the words of Stephen Giannangelo, "allows the serial killer to leave the stream of consciousness for what is, to him, a better place ''.
Criminologist Jose Sanchez reports, "the young criminal you see today is more detached from his victim, more ready to hurt or kill... The lack of empathy for their victims among young criminals is just one symptom of a problem that afflicts the whole society. '' Lorenzo Carcaterra, author of Gangster (2001), explains how potential criminals are labeled by society, which can then lead to their offspring also developing in the same way through the cycle of violence. The ability for serial killers to appreciate the mental life of others is severely compromised, presumably leading to their dehumanization of others. This process may be considered an expression of the intersubjectivity associated with a cognitive deficit regarding the capability to make sharp distinctions between other people and inanimate objects. For these individuals, objects can appear to possess animistic or humanistic power while people are perceived as objects. Before he was executed, serial killer Ted Bundy stated media violence and pornography had stimulated and increased his need to commit homicide, although this statement was made during last - ditch efforts to appeal his death sentence. However, correlation is not causation (a disturbed physiological disposition, psychosis, lack of socialization, or aggressiveness may contribute to both fantasy creation and serial killing without fantasy creation generally contributing to serial killing for instance). There are exceptions to the typical fantasy patterns of serial killers, as in the case of Dennis Rader, who was a loving family man and the leader of his church.
The FBI 's Crime Classification Manual places serial killers into three categories: organized, disorganized, and mixed (i.e., offenders who exhibit organized and disorganized characteristics). Some killers descend from being organized into disorganized as their killings continue, as in the case of psychological decompensation or overconfidence due to having evaded capture, or vice versa, as when a previously disorganized killer identifies one or more specific aspects of the act of killing as his / her source of gratification and develops a modus operandi structured around those.
Organized serial killers often plan their crimes methodically, usually abducting victims, killing them in one place and disposing of them in another. They often lure the victims with ploys appealing to their sense of sympathy. Others specifically target prostitutes, who are likely to go voluntarily with a stranger. These killers maintain a high degree of control over the crime scene and usually have a solid knowledge of forensic science that enables them to cover their tracks, such as burying the body or weighing it down and sinking it in a river. They follow their crimes in the news media carefully and often take pride in their actions, as if it were all a grand project. Often, organized killers have social and other interpersonal skills sufficient to enable them to develop both personal and romantic relationships, friends and lovers and sometimes even attract and maintain a spouse and sustain a family including children. Among serial killers, those of this type are in the event of their capture most likely to be described by acquaintances as kind and unlikely to hurt anyone. Bundy and John Wayne Gacy are examples of organized serial killers. In general, the IQs of organized serial killers tend to be near normal range, with a mean of 94.7. Organized nonsocial offenders tend to be on the higher end of the average, with a mean IQ of 99.2.
Disorganized serial killers are usually far more impulsive, often committing their murders with a random weapon available at the time, and usually do not attempt to hide the body. They are likely to be unemployed, a loner, or both, with very few friends. They often turn out to have a history of mental illness, and their modus operandi (M.O.) or lack thereof is often marked by excessive violence and sometimes necrophilia or sexual violence. Disorganized serial killers have been found to have a slightly lower mean IQ than organized serial killers, at 92.8.
Some people with a pathological interest in the power of life and death tend to be attracted to medical professions or acquiring such a job. These kinds of killers are sometimes referred to as "angels of death '' or angels of mercy. Medical professionals will kill their patients for money, for a sense of sadistic pleasure, for a belief that they are "easing '' the patient 's pain, or simply "because they can ''. perhaps the most prolific of these was the British doctor Harold Shipman. Another such killer was nurse Jane Toppan, who admitted during her murder trial that she was sexually aroused by death. She would administer a drug mixture to patients she chose as her victims, lie in bed with them and hold them close to her body as they died.
Another medical profession serial killer is Genene Jones. It is believed she killed 11 to 46 infants and children while working at Bexar County Medical Center Hospital in San Antonio, Texas. She is currently serving a 99 - year sentence for the murder of Chelsea McClellan and the attempted murder of Rolando Santos, and is eligible for parole in 2017 due to a law in Texas at the time of her sentencing to reduce prison overcrowding.
A 21st - century example is Canadian nurse Elizabeth Wettlaufer who murdered elderly patients in the nursing homes where she worked.
Female serial killers are rare compared to their male counterparts. Sources suggest that female serial killers represented fewer than one in every six known serial murderers in the U.S. between 1800 and 2004 (64 females from a total of 416 known offenders), or that around 15 % of U.S. serial killers have been women, with a collective number of victims between 427 and 612. Lethal Ladies ' authors, Amanda L. Farrell, Robert D. Keppel, and Victoria B. Titterington state that "the Justice Department indicated 36 female serial killers have been active over the course of the last century. '' According to The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, there is evidence that 16 % of all serial killers are women.
Kelleher and Kelleher (1998) created several categories to describe female serial killers. They used the classifications of black widow, angel of death, sexual predator, revenge, profit or crime, team killer, question of sanity, unexplained, and unsolved. In using these categories, they observed that most women fell into the categories of black widow or team killer. Although motivations for female serial killers can include attention seeking, addiction, or the result of psychopathological behavioral factors, female serial killers are commonly categorized as murdering men for material gain, usually being emotionally close to their victims, and generally needing to have a relationship with the victim, hence the traditional cultural image of the "black widow. '' In describing murderer Stacey Castor, forensic psychiatrist James Knoll offered a psychological perspective on what defines a "black widow '' type. In simple terms, he described it as a woman who kills two or more husbands or lovers for material gain. Though Castor was not officially defined as a serial killer, it is likely that she would have killed again.
One "analysis of 86 female serial killers from the U.S. found that the victims tended to be spouses, children or the elderly ''. Other studies indicate that since 1975, increasingly strangers are marginally the most preferred victim of female serial killers, or that only 26 % of female serial killers kill for material gain only. Sources state that each killer will have her own proclivities, needs and triggers. '' A review of the published literature on female serial murder stated that "sexual or sadistic motives are believed to be extremely rare in female serial murderers, and psychopathic traits and histories of childhood abuse have been consistently reported in these women. '' A study by Eric W. Hickey (2010) of 64 female serial killers in the U.S. indicated that sexual activity was one of several motives in 10 % of the cases, enjoyment in 11 % and control in 14 %, and that 51 % of all U.S. female serial killers murdered at least one woman and 31 % murdered at least one child. In other cases, women have been involved as an accomplice with a male serial killer as a part of a serial killing team. A 2015 study published in The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology found that the most common motive for female serial killers was for financial gain and almost 40 percent of them had experienced some sort of mental illness.
Peter Vronsky in Female Serial Killers (2007) maintains that female serial killers today often kill for the same reason males do: as a means of expressing rage and control. He suggests that sometimes the theft of the victims ' property by the female "black widow '' type serial killer appears to be for material gain, but really is akin to a male serial killer 's collecting of totems (souvenirs) from the victim as a way of exerting continued control over the victim and reliving it. By contrast, Hickey states that although popular perception sees "black widow '' female serial killers as something of the Victorian past, in his statistical study of female serial killer cases reported in the U.S. since 1826, approximately 75 % occurred since 1950.
The methods that female serial killers use for murder are frequently covert or low - profile, such as murder by poison (the preferred choice for killing). Other methods used by female serial killers include shootings (used by 20 %), suffocation (16 %), stabbing (11 %), and drowning (5 %). They commit killings in specific places, such as their home or a health - care facility, or at different locations within the same city or state. A notable exception to the typical characteristics of female serial killers is Aileen Wuornos, who killed outdoors instead of at home, used a gun instead of poison, killed strangers instead of friends or family, and killed for personal gratification. The most prolific female serial killer in all of history is allegedly Elizabeth Báthory. Countess Elizabeth Báthory de Ecsed (Báthory Erzsébet in Hungarian, August 7, 1560 -- August 21, 1614) was a countess from the renowned Báthory family. After her husband 's death, she and four collaborators were accused of torturing and killing hundreds of girls and young women, with one witness attributing to them over 600 victims, though the number for which they were convicted was 80. Elizabeth herself was neither tried nor convicted. In 1610, however, she was imprisoned in the Csejte Castle, where she remained bricked in a set of rooms until her death four years later.
A 2010 article by Perri and Lichtenwald addressed some of the misperceptions concerning female criminality. In the article, Perri and Lichtenwald analyze the current research regarding female psychopathy, including case studies of female psychopathic killers featuring Münchausen syndrome by proxy, cesarean section homicide, fraud detection homicide, female kill teams, and a female serial killer.
Juvenile serial killers are rare. There are three main categories that juvenile serial killers can fit into: primary, maturing, and secondary killers. There have been studies done to compare and contrast these three groups and to discover similarities and differences between them. Although these types of serial killers are less common, oftentimes adult serial killers may make their debut at an early age and it can be an opportunity for researchers to study what factors brought about the behavior. Though it is rare, the youngest felon on Death Row is in fact, a juvenile serial killer named Harvey Robinson.
The racial demographics regarding serial killers are often subject to debate. In the United States, the majority of reported and investigated serial killers are white males, from a lower - to - middle - class background, usually in their late twenties to early thirties. However, there are African American, Asian, and Hispanic (of any race) serial killers as well, and, according to the FBI, based on percentages of the U.S. population, whites are not more likely than other races to be serial killers. Criminal profiler Pat Brown says serial killers are usually reported as white because serial killers usually target victims of their own race, and the media typically focuses on "All - American '' white and pretty female victims who were the targets of white male offenders; that crimes among minority offenders in urban communities, where crime rates are higher, are under - investigated; and that minority serial killers likely exist at the same ratios as white serial killers for the population. She believes that the myth that serial killers are always white might have become "truth '' in some research fields due to the over-reporting of white serial killers in the media.
According to some sources, the percentage of serial killers who are African American is estimated to be between 13 and 22 percent. Another study has shown that 16 percent of serial killers are African American, what author Maurice Godwin describes as a "sizeable portion ''. A 2014 Radford / FGCU Serial Killer Database annual statistics report showed that for the decades 1900 -- 2010, the percentage of White serial killers was 52.1 % while the percentage of African American serial killers was 40.3 %. In a 2005 article Anthony Walsh, professor of criminal justice at Boise State University, argued a review of post-WWII serial killings in America finds that the prevalence of minority serial killers has typically been drastically underestimated in both professional research literature and the mass media. As a paradigmatic case of this media double - standard, Walsh cites news reporting on white killer Gary Heidnik and African - American killer Harrison Graham. Both men were residents of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; both imprisoned, tortured and killed several women; and both were arrested only months apart in 1987. "Heidnik received widespread national attention, became the subject of books and television shows, and served as a model for the fictitious Buffalo Bill in Silence of the Lambs '', writes Walsh, while "Graham received virtually no media attention outside of Philadelphia, despite having been convicted of four more murders than Heidnik ''.
The motives of serial killers are generally placed into four categories: visionary, mission - oriented, hedonistic and power or control; however, the motives of any given killer may display considerable overlap among these categories.
Visionary serial killers suffer from psychotic breaks with reality, sometimes believing they are another person or are compelled to murder by entities such as the Devil or God. The two most common subgroups are "demon mandated '' and "God mandated ''.
Herbert Mullin believed the American casualties in the Vietnam War were preventing California from experiencing the Big One. As the war wound down, Mullin claimed his father instructed him via telepathy to raise the number of "human sacrifices to nature '' in order to delay a catastrophic earthquake that would plunge California into the ocean. David Berkowitz ("Son of Sam '') may also be an example of a visionary serial killers, having claimed a demon transmitted orders through his neighbor 's dog and instructed him to commit murder. Berkowitz later described those claims as a hoax, as originally concluded by psychiatrist David Abrahamsen.
Mission - oriented killers typically justify their acts as "ridding the world '' of a certain type of person perceived as undesirable, such as gay or lesbian people, prostitutes, or people of different ethnicity or religion; however, they are generally not psychotic. Some see themselves as attempting to change society, often to cure a societal ill.
This type of serial killer seeks thrills and derives pleasure from killing, seeing people as expendable means to this goal. Forensic psychologists have identified three subtypes of the hedonistic killer: "lust '', "thrill '' and "comfort ''.
Sex is the primary motive of lust killers, whether or not the victims are dead, and fantasy plays a large role in their killings. Their sexual gratification depends on the amount of torture and mutilation they perform on their victims. The sexual serial murderer has a psychological need to have absolute control, dominance, and power over their victims, and the infliction of torture, pain, and ultimately death is used in an attempt to fulfill their need. They usually use weapons that require close contact with the victims, such as knives or hands. As lust killers continue with their murders, the time between killings decreases or the required level of stimulation increases, sometimes both.
Kenneth Bianchi, one of the "Hillside Stranglers '', murdered women and girls of different ages, races and appearance because his sexual urges required different types of stimulation and increasing intensity. Jeffrey Dahmer, who was repeatedly diagnosed with borderline personality disorder, searched for his perfect fantasy lover -- beautiful, submissive and eternal. As his desire increased, he experimented with drugs, alcohol, and exotic sex. His increasing need for stimulation was demonstrated by the dismemberment of victims, whose heads and genitals he preserved, and by his attempts to create a "living zombie '' under his control (by pouring acid into a hole drilled into the victim 's skull). Dahmer once said, "Lust played a big part of it. Control and lust. Once it happened the first time, it just seemed like it had control of my life from there on in. The killing was just a means to an end. That was the least satisfactory part. I did n't enjoy doing that. That 's why I tried to create living zombies with... acid and the drill. '' He further elaborated on this, also saying, "I wanted to see if it was possible to make -- again, it sounds really gross -- uh, zombies, people that would not have a will of their own, but would follow my instructions without resistance. So after that, I started using the drilling technique. '' He experimented with cannibalism to "ensure his victims would always be a part of him ''.
The primary motive of a thrill killer is to induce pain or terror in their victims, which provides stimulation and excitement for the killer. They seek the adrenaline rush provided by hunting and killing victims. Thrill killers murder only for the kill; usually the attack is not prolonged, and there is no sexual aspect. Usually the victims are strangers, although the killer may have followed them for a period of time. Thrill killers can abstain from killing for long periods of time and become more successful at killing as they refine their murder methods. Many attempt to commit the perfect crime and believe they will not be caught. Robert Hansen took his victims to a secluded area, where he would let them loose and then hunt and kill them. In one of his letters to San Francisco Bay Area newspapers, the Zodiac Killer wrote "(killing) gives me the most thrilling experience it is even better than getting your rocks off with a girl ''. Coral Watts was described by a surviving victim as "excited and hyper and clappin ' and just making noises like he was excited, that this was gon na be fun '' during the 1982 attack. Slashing, stabbing, hanging, drowning, asphyxiating, and strangling were among the ways Watts killed.
Material gain and a comfortable lifestyle are the primary motives of comfort killers. Usually, the victims are family members and close acquaintances. After a murder, a comfort killer will usually wait for a period of time before killing again to allow any suspicions by family or authorities to subside. They often use poison, most notably arsenic, to kill their victims. Female serial killers are often comfort killers, although not all comfort killers are female. Dorothea Puente killed her tenants for their Social Security checks and buried them in the backyard of her home. H.H. Holmes killed for insurance and business profits. Professional killers ("hitmen '') may also be considered comfort serial killers. Richard Kuklinski charged tens of thousands of dollars for a "hit '', earning enough money to support his family in a middle - class lifestyle (Bruno, 1993).
Some, like Puente and Holmes, may be involved in or have previous convictions for theft, fraud, non payment of debts, embezzlement and other crimes of a similar nature. Dorothea Puente was finally arrested on a parole violation, having been on parole for a previous fraud conviction.
In 2016, the oldest prosecution and conviction of a suspected serial killer (Felix Vail) took place in Louisiana. He was convicted of murder fifty - four years after his wife 's death in 1962, which had originally been ruled an accidental drowning, and which occurred only months after Vail took out two life insurance policies on her. He is a suspect in the disappearances of two other women -- his girlfriend in 1973 and his second wife in 1984. The prosecutors were allowed to present evidence of the two disappearances under the Doctrine of chances.
The main objective for this type of serial killer is to gain and exert power over their victim. Such killers are sometimes abused as children, leaving them with feelings of powerlessness and inadequacy as adults. Many power - or control - motivated killers sexually abuse their victims, but they differ from hedonistic killers in that rape is not motivated by lust (as it would be with a lust murder) but as simply another form of dominating the victim. (See article Causes of sexual violence for the differences regarding anger rape, power rape, and sadistic rape.) Ted Bundy is an example of a power / control - oriented serial killer. He traveled around the United States seeking women to control.
Many serial killers claim that a violent culture influenced them to commit murders. During his final interview, Ted Bundy stated that hardcore pornography was responsible for his actions. Others idolise figures for their deeds or perceived vigilante justice, such as Peter Kürten, who idolised Jack the Ripper, or John Wayne Gacy and Ed Kemper, who both idolised the actor John Wayne. Many movies, books, and documentaries have been written about serial killers, detailing the lives and crimes that have been committed. The movie Bundy, which was released in 2002, focuses on serial killer Ted Bundy 's personal life in college, leading up to his execution. Another movie, Dahmer, was released in the same year, and tells the story of Jeffrey Dahmer. Serial killers are also portrayed in fictional media, oftentimes as having substantial intelligence and looking for difficult targets, despite the contradiction with the psychological profile of serial killers. Killers who have a strong desire for fame or to be renowned for their actions desire media attention as a way of validating and spreading their crimes; fear is also a component here, as some serial killers enjoy causing fear. An example is the BTK Killer, who sought attention from the press during his murder spree.
Theories for why certain people commit serial murder have been advanced. Some theorists believe the reasons are biological, suggesting serial killers are born, not made, and that their violent behavior is a result of abnormal brain activity. Holmes and Holmes believe that "until a reliable sample can be obtained and tested, there is no scientific statement that can be made concerning the exact role of biology as a determining factor of a serial killer personality. '' The "Fractured Identity Syndrome '' (FIS) is a merging of Charles Cooley 's "looking glass self '' and Erving Goffman 's "virtual '' and "actual social identity '' theories. The FIS suggests a social event, or series of events, during one 's childhood or adolescence results in a fracturing of the personality of the serial killer. The term "fracture '' is defined as a small breakage of the personality which is often not visible to the outside world and is only felt by the killer.
"Social Process Theory '' has also been suggested as an explanation for serial murder. Social process theory states that offenders may turn to crime due to peer pressure, family, and friends. Criminal behavior is a process of interaction with social institutions, in which everyone has the potential for criminal behavior. A lack of family structure and identity could also be a cause leading to serial murder traits. A child used as a scapegoat will be deprived of their capacity to feel guilt. Displaced anger could result in animal torture, as identified in the Macdonald triad, and a further lack of basic identity.
The "military theory '' has been proposed as an explanation for why serial murderers kill, as some serial murderers have served in the military or related fields. According to Castle and Hensley, 7 % of the serial killers studied had military experience. This figure may be a proportional under - representation when compared to the number of military veterans in a nation 's total population. For example, according to the United States census for the year 2000, military veterans comprised 12.7 % of the U.S. population; in England, it was estimated in 2007 that military veterans comprised 9.1 % of the population. Though by contrast, about 2.5 % of the population of Canada in 2006 consisted of military veterans.
There are two theories that can be used to study the correlation between serial killing and military training: Applied learning theory states that serial killing can be learned. The military is training for higher kill rates from servicemen while training the soldiers to be desensitized to taking a human life. Social learning theory can be used when soldiers get praised and accommodated for killing. They learn, or believe that they learn, that it is acceptable to kill because they were praised for it in the military. Serial killers want accreditation for the work that they have done.
In both military and serial killing, the offender or the soldier may become desensitized to killing as well as compartmentalized; the soldiers do not see enemy personnel as "human '' and neither do serial killers see their victims as humans. The theories do not imply that military institutions make a deliberate effort to produce serial killers; to the contrary, all military personnel are trained to recognize when, where, and against whom it is appropriate to use deadly force, which starts with the basic Law of Land Warfare, taught during the initial training phase, and may include more stringent policies for military personnel in law enforcement or security. They are also taught ethics in basic training.
In 2008, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) published a handbook titled Serial Murder which was the product of a symposium held in 2005 to bring together the many issues surrounding serial murder, including its investigation.
According to the FBI, identifying one, or multiple, murders as being the work of a serial killer is the first challenge an investigation faces, especially if the victim (s) come from a marginalized or high risk population and is normally linked through forensic or behavioral evidence (FBI 2008). Should the cases cross multiple jurisdictions, the law enforcement system in the United States is fragmented and thus not configured to detect multiple similar murders across a large geographic area (Egger 1998). The FBI suggests utilizing databases and increasing interdepartmental communication. Keppel (1989) suggests holding multi-jurisdictional conferences regularly to compare cases giving departments a greater chance to detect linked cases and overcome linkage blindness. One such collaboration, the Radford / FGCU Serial Killer Database Project was proposed at the 2012 FDIAI Annual Conference. Utilizing Radford 's Serial Killer Database as a starting point, the new collaboration, hosted by FGCU Justice Studies, has invited and is working in conjunction with other Universities to maintain and expand the scope of the database to also include spree and mass murders. Utilizing over 170 data points, multiple - murderer methodology and victimology; researchers and Law Enforcement Agencies can build case studies and statistical profiles to further research the Who, What, Why and How of these types of crimes.
Leadership, or administration, should play a small or virtually non-existent role in the actual investigation past assigning knowledgeable or experienced homicide investigators to lead positions. The administration 's role is not to run the investigation but to establish and reaffirm the primary goal of catching the serial killer, as well as provide support for the investigators. The FBI (2008) suggests completing Memorandums of Understanding to facilitate support and commitment of resources from different jurisdictions to an investigation. Egger (1998) takes this one step further and suggests completing mutual aid pacts, which are written agreements to provide support to each other in a time of need, with surrounding jurisdictions. Doing this in advance would save time and resources that could be used on the investigation.
Organization of the structure of an investigation is key to its success, as demonstrated by the investigation of the Green River Killer. Once a serial murder case was established, a task force was created to track down and arrest the offender. Over the course of the investigation, for various reasons, the task force 's organization was radically changed and reorganized multiple times -- at one point including more than 50 full - time personnel, and at another, only a single investigator. Eventually, what led to the end of the investigation was a conference of 25 detectives organized to share ideas to solve the case.
The FBI handbook provides a description of how a task force should be organized but offers no additional options on how to structure the investigation. While it appears advantageous to have a full - time staff assigned to a serial murder investigation, it can become prohibitively expensive. For example, the Green River Task Force cost upwards of two million dollars a year, and as was witnessed with the Green River Killer investigation, other strategies can prevail where a task force fails.
A common strategy, already employed by many departments for other reasons, is the conference, in which departments get together and focus on a specific set of topics. With serial murders, the focus is typically on unsolved cases, with evidence thought to be related to the case at hand.
Similar to a conference is an information clearing - house in which a jurisdiction with a suspected serial murder case collects all of its evidence and actively seeks data which may be related from other jurisdictions. By collecting all of the related information into one place, they provide a central point in which it can be organized and easily accessed by other jurisdictions working toward the goal of arresting an offender and ending the murders.
Already mentioned was the task force, FBI 2008, Keppel 1989 which provides for a flexible, organized, framework for jurisdictions depending on the needs of the investigation. Unfortunately due to the need to commit resources (manpower, money, equipment, etc.) for long periods of time it can be an unsustainable option.
In the case of the investigation of Aileen Wournos, the Marion County Sheriff coordinated multiple agencies without any written or formal agreement. While not a specific strategy for a serial murder investigation, this is certainly a best practice in so far as the agencies were able to work easily together toward a common goal.
Finally, once a serial murder investigation has been identified, utilization of an FBI Rapid Response Team can assist both experienced and inexperienced jurisdictions in setting up a task force. This is completed by organizing and delegating jobs, by compiling and analyzing clues, and by establishing communication between the parties involved.
During the course of a serial murder investigation it may become necessary to call in additional resources; the FBI defines this as Resource Augmentation. Within the structure of a task force the addition of a resource should be thought of as either long term, or short term. If the task force 's framework is expanded to include the new resource, then it should be permanent and not removed. For short term needs, such as setting up road blocks or canvassing a neighborhood, additional resources should be called in on a short term basis. The decision of whether resources are needed short or long term should be left to the lead investigator and facilitated by the administration (FBI 2008). The confusion and counter productiveness created by changing the structure of a task force mid investigation is illustrated by the way the Green River Task Force 's staffing and structure was changed multiple times throughout the investigation. This made an already complicated situation more difficult, resulting in the delay or loss of information, which allowed Ridgeway to continue killing (Guillen 2007). The FBI model does not take into account that permanently expanding a task force, or investigative structure, may not be possible due to cost or personnel availability. Egger (1998) offers several alternative strategies including; using investigative consultants, or experienced staff to augment an investigative team. Not all departments have investigators experienced in serial murder and by temporarily bringing in consultants, they can educate a department to a level of competence then step out. This would reduce the initially established framework of the investigation team and save the department the cost of retaining the consultants until the conclusion of the investigation.
The FBI handbook (2008) and Keppel (1989) both stress communication as paramount. The difference is that the FBI handbook (2008) concentrates primarily on communication within a task force while Keppel (1989) makes getting information out to, and allowing information to be passed back from patrol officers a priority. The FBI handbook (2008) suggest having daily e-mail or in person briefings for all staff involved in the investigation and providing periodic summary briefings to patrol officer and managers. Looking back on a majority of serial murderer arrests, most are exercised by patrol officers in the course of their every day duties and unrelated to the ongoing serial murder investigation (Egger 1998, Keppel 1989). Keppel (1989) provides examples of Larry Eyler, who was arrested during a traffic stop for a parking violation, and Ted Bundy, who was arrested during a traffic stop for operating a stolen vehicle. In each case it was uniformed officers, not directly involved in the investigation, who knew what to look for and took the direct action that stopped the killer. By providing up to date (as opposed to periodic) briefings and information to officers on the street the chances of catching a serial killer, or finding solid leads, are increased.
A serial murder investigation generates staggering amounts of data, all of which needs to be reviewed and analyzed. A standardized method of documenting and distributing information must be established and investigators must be allowed time to complete reports while investigating leads and at the end of a shift (FBI 2008). When the mechanism for data management is insufficient, leads are not only lost or buried but the investigation can be hindered and new information can become difficult to obtain or become corrupted. During the Green River Killer investigation, reporters would often find and interview possible victims or witnesses ahead of investigators. The understaffed investigation was unable to keep up the information flow, which prevented them from promptly responding to leads. To make matters worse, investigators believed that the journalists, untrained in interviewing victims or witnesses of crimes, would corrupt the information and result in unreliable leads (Guillen 2007).
Notorious and infamous serial killers number in the hundreds, and a subculture revolves around their legacies. That subculture includes the collection, sale, and display of serial killer memorabilia, dubbed "murderabilia '' by one of the best - known opponents of collectors of serial killer remnants, Andrew Kahan. He is the director of the Mayor 's Crime Victims Office in Houston and is backed by the families of murder victims and "Son of Sam laws '' existing in some states that prevent murderers from profiting from the publicity generated by their crimes.
Such memorabilia includes the paintings, writings, and poems of these killers. Recently, marketing has capitalized even more upon interest in serial killers with the rise of various merchandise such as trading cards, action figures, and books such as The Serial Killer Files: The Who, What, Where, How, and Why of the World 's Most Terrifying Murderers by Harold Schechter, and The A-Z Encyclopedia of Serial Killers by Schecter and David Everitt. Some serial killers attain celebrity status in the way they acquire fans, and may have previous personal possessions auctioned off on websites like eBay. A few examples of this are Ed Gein 's 150 - pound stolen gravestone and Bobby Joe Long 's sunglasses.
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who owns the broadmoor hotel in colorado springs | The Broadmoor - wikipedia
The Broadmoor is a hotel and resort in the Old Broadmoor neighborhood of Colorado Springs, Colorado. The Broadmoor is a member of Historic Hotels of America of the National Trust for Historic Preservation. Its visitors have included heads of state, celebrities, professional sports stars, and businessmen.
The main resort complex, situated at the base of Cheyenne Mountain, is 6,230 feet (1,900 m) above sea level, and 5 miles (8.0 km) southwest of downtown Colorado Springs. The resort has hotel, conference, sports, and spa buildings that radiate out from Cheyenne Lake. The Broadmoor 's Ranch at Emerald Valley is a luxury lodge and set of cabins situated on Cheyenne Mountain.
Historically, national and world skating and hockey championships were held at the Broadmoor World Arena. Golf championships have been held at the Broadmoor Golf Club since 1921. The resort has also been the site of clay shooting championships.
The architecture and the color is like the grand hotels that would be found on the coast of the Mediterranean, in an Italian Renaissance style. The pink stucco of the façade also helps to blend into the Pikes Peak area landscape. The main buildings are connected on a circular path around a lake. The original hotel building is Broadmoor Main that was built in 1918. The others -- built between 1961 and 2001 -- are Broadmoor South, Broadmoor West, Lakeside Suites and West Tower.
The Broadmoor has 779 rooms. Many of the Broadmoor South rooms have balconies and some have fireplaces. The Penrose Room restaurant is located on the top of the nine - story building. There are eighteen restaurants that are located in the main hotel buildings, golf club, pool cafes, Summit Restaurant, and Golden Bee pub. Broadmoor Golf Club has three golf courses, designed by Donald Ross, Robert Trent Jones and Ed Seay and Arnold Palmer.
The full - service spa has an indoor pool, fitness center, 43 treatment rooms, relaxation room, and hair and nail salon. It offers more than 100 services. The resort has indoor and outdoor pools and tennis courts. There are 25 retail shops, including clothing boutiques and shops, a florist, sundry shop, jewelry store, and gift shop.
There is a. 75 miles (1.21 km) trail around Cheyenne Lake that is creek - fed and manmade. In the summer guests can rent bikes and paddleboats. The Stables at the Broadmoor offer horseback riding. The Penrose Heritage Museum, formerly called the El Pomar Carriage House Museum, houses a collection of vintage carriages and automobiles, including race cars from the Pikes Peak Auto Hill Climb in the early 20th century.
The Broadmoor has 185,000 square feet (17,200 m) of meeting space. It earns 70 % of its revenue from conventions. The Broadmoor Fire Protection District serves the resort and surrounding area.
The Broadmoor offers a luxurious mountain experience at their 16 - acre Ranch on Emerald Green on Cheyenne Mountain. Philip Anschutz purchased the property and built a main lodge and ten cabins and restored other original buildings. There are two small lakes, horse stables, a gazebo, hot tubs, and an outdoor fire pit.
Spencer Penrose, founder of Broadmoor, established Cheyenne Lodge, which is now Cloud Camp ®, a wilderness retreat situated 3,000 feet above the resort.
Located 75 minutes west of the Resort along a five - mile stretch of Tarryall River, The Broadmoor Fishing Camp borders 120,000 acres of the Lost Creek Wilderness.
Spencer Penrose bought the property in 1916 and began to build The Broadmoor in 1918 to be "Grand Dame of the Rockies '', patterned after elegant European hotels with excellent service and cuisine. Architects Warren and Wetmore, who designed Ritz - Carlton and Biltmore Hotels, were hired to design the hotel buildings. Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., son of the designer of Central Park and an accomplished landscape architect in his own right, was brought on to design the landscape for The Broadmoor 's 3,000 acres. Penrose hired Donald Ross, a golf architect, to design the first golf course. At the time, it was the highest golf course in the United States. Far Eastern and European artwork and antiques were purchased for the hotel. A dismantled English pub was brought to the United States and reassembled at the resort. The resort had one of the first full - service spas in the country and a supervised activities club for children. Penrose 's goal was to build "the finest hotel in the United States ''. After having spent $2 million (equivalent to $32,539,823 in 2017) building the resort, it opened in 1918.
A polo field was built west of the hotel in 1928. The Broadmoor Riding Arena was built across Cheyenne Lake from the main hotel in 1930. The Broadmoor 's hangar was built in 1930 at the Colorado Springs Airport, east of the city, for the guest 's use. In 1942, the resort sold the hangar to the city of Colorado Springs.
The Broadmoor Ice Palace, an Olympic training center, opened on January 1, 1938 on the resort grounds. It held a total of fourteen National Sports Festivals, World Figure Skating Championship, and U.S. Figure Skating championships. It was renamed the Broadmoor World Arena in 1961. Also in 1938, the Will Rogers Memorial Stadium was built across Cheyenne Lake from the hotel where concerts, rodeos, and Native American dances were held. It was named Penrose Stadium after Spencer Penrose 's death. In the 1970s it was torn down to allow for the construction of Broadmoor West.
When Penrose built the Broadmoor he had two partners, Albert E. Carlton and C.M. MacNeill. In 1932, Penrose 's El Pomar Investment Company sued the hotel and purchased it, becoming the sole owner, when the hotel went into receivership.
After Spencer Penrose died, the hotel was owned in 1939 by the Spencer 's charitable organization, El Pomar Foundation. Charles L. Tutt, Jr., who was the secretary of the Broadmoor Hotel and Land Company, was made president. Julie Penrose had the Carriage House Museum (now the Penrose Heritage Museum) built for her husband 's collection of carriages and automobiles. She moved into the hotel 's sixth floor in 1944.
A ski area was built for the resort in 1959. The 144 - room Broadmoor South and the International Center were built in 1961. The son of Charles Tutt, Jr., William Thayer Tutt, became the hotels ' president that year.
On February 15, 1961, members of the U.S. Figure Skating Team were killed during the airplane crash of Sabena Flight 548 near Brussels, Belgium. Eighteen skaters and 16 others associated with the team were killed on their way to the World Figure Skating Championships. A memorial bench made of granite was installed across from the entrance to the World Arena building (now razed) at the edge of the resort 's lake.
The second golf course was designed by Robert Trent Jones in 1965. Russell Thayer Tutt, son of Charles Tutt, Jr., became president of The Broadmoor in 1975. The resort was located within the unincorporated village of Broadmoor until it was annexed into the city of Colorado Springs in 1980. Following attempts to revert the annexation legally, the Colorado Supreme Court upheld the annexation in 1982. The third golf course was designed in 1976 by Ed Seay and Arnold Palmer.
Colorado Hall, the resort 's second conference center, was built in 1982. In 1986, the resort closed Ski Broadmoor, but the city of Colorado Springs and Ski Vail stepped in to keep it open. It closed in 1991.
Due to the Tax Reform Act of 1969, the foundation sold its majority interest of the resort in 1988. The resort was renovated after The Oklahoma Publishing Company gained controlling interest in 1989.
Plans were made to raze the Broadmoor Golf Club and built the Broadmoor Spa, Golf and Tennis Club for $12.2 million (equivalent to $20,667,772 in 2017) in 1993. The Broadmoor World Arena was torn down in April 1994 and the next year Broadmoor West was built. Between 2000 and 2002, a renovation was completed for $75 million (equivalent to $102,044,403 in 2017).
A North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) summit was held at the Broadmoor in October 2003 with President George W. Bush, Donald Rumsfeld, and Defence Ministers from seven countries.
Between 2003 and 2008, the resort was expanded to include a group of retail stores, 160 luxury townhomes and condominiums, rooftop tennis courts, underground parking, and expansion of the third golf course.
The Anschutz Corporation purchased the resort in 2011. President and Chief Executive Officer Steve Bartolin continued to run the hotel.
The hotel 's name and logo is always officially presented as all uppercase with the ' A ' being smaller and raised higher than the other letters: BRO DMOOR. The reasoning behind this is surrounded by legend. One story is that Spencer Penrose had a friendly rivalry with the Antlers Hotel, and for that reason, Penrose required the ' A ' in "Broadmoor '' to always be smaller than the other letters.
Another story about the small "A '' suggested that Spencer Penrose had need to be a guest at the Antlers hotel. On a trip to visit a gold mine, he ended up working alongside the miners. After a full day in the mine, Penrose returned to the Antlers but was denied entrance because he was so dirty. Angry, Penrose vowed that his hotel would never refuse a room based on appearance, and that as a constant reminder of the small minded act, the "A '' in the Broadmoor name was diminished in size. The original copyright documents, filed December 15, 1918, stored in the hotel archive show that the alteration was necessary to obtain exclusive copyright due to other uses of the word Broadmoor in the nearby area since the 1880s.
The resort has been the site of tournaments, such as the US Women 's Open and the US Senior 's Open, since its first years in operation. The first Broadmoor Invitation Golf Tournament was held in 1921. National Figure Skating Championships were held at The Broadmoor in 1948 and 1973. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) golf tournament was held in June 1957. Five years later, World and European Hockey Championships were held at The Broadmoor.
The Broadmoor World Arena was the site of the World Figure Skating Championships in January 1966. Broadmoor East was the site of the World Senior golf tournament in 1966. The United States Sporting Clays Association (USSCA) had its national sporting clays championship in 1990 at the Broadmoor. The 2011 U.S. Women 's Open Golf Championship was held at The Broadmoor.
In 2005, for his contributions in building The Broadmoor resort into one of the leading tennis centers in the United States, Chet Murphy was inducted into the Colorado Tennis Hall of Fame.
Some of the awards that the resort has received include:
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who starred in the jazz singer with neil diamond | The Jazz Singer (1980 film) - wikipedia
The Jazz Singer is a 1980 American drama film and a remake of the 1927 classic The Jazz Singer, released by EMI Films. It starred Neil Diamond, Laurence Olivier and Lucie Arnaz and was co-directed by Richard Fleischer and Sidney J. Furie.
Although the film was a critical flop, the soundtrack was enormously successful, eventually reaching multi-platinum status and becoming Diamond 's most successful album to date. It resulted in three hit songs, "America '', "Love on the Rocks '' and "Hello Again ''.
Yussel Rabinovitch is a young Jewish cantor performing at the synagogue of his imperious father. Yussel is married to his childhood friend, Rivka, and has settled down to a life of religious devotion to the teaching of his faith.
But on the side, he writes songs for a black singing group, and when a member of the quartet takes ill, Yussel covers for him at one of their gigs by wearing blackface. The nightclub engagement is a success, but one of the patrons at the nightclub notices that Yussel hands are white and calls him out. A fight ensues and the band is arrested. Yussel 's father comes to the jail to bail them out, but finds out that there is not a Yussel Rabinovitch there but a Jess Robin. Later his father questions him about this, and Yussel tells him it is just a professional stage name he uses when performing. His father reminds him that his singing voice was to be used for God 's purposes, not his own.
Yussel / Jess 's best friend and member of the "Four Brothers '' signing group, Bubba, informs him that the band got a gig in Los Angeles performing back up vocals for Keith Lennox. Shortly after Bubba leaves, Yussel begins composing a song that would eventually become "Love on the Rocks ''. His wife Rivka notices him writing the song in his free time, and senses that Yussel yearns for a bigger stage for his voice, but her values keep her grounded to the home life they have built together.
Bubba calls Jess from LA and informs him that Keith Lennox really loved "Love on the Rocks '' and wants to record it, but they need Jess to come out for two weeks to oversee the recording session. Jess finally sees this as the opportunity he has been waiting for, but his wife and his father are opposed to him going. But later at a bar mitzvah his father relents and tearfully lets him go.
When Jess arrives in LA, he is picked up by music agent Molly Bell. She takes him to the studio where Keith Lennox is recording and Jess is shocked to find out that his ballad is now being recorded as a hard rock song. During a break in recording, Jess asks the Producer and Keith Lennox if he can perform the song as a ballad as intended so Lennox can get an idea of the framing of the song. They allow him to do it, and while recording the song, Molly realizes that Jess 's performance is the correct way the song should be done. However, Lennox is not so easily swayed and fires the group.
Later, Molly gets a tip from a friend as to where booking agent Eddie Gibbs was having lunch. She asserts herself in his car and has him listen to Jess 's recording of "Love on the Rocks ''. When Eddie asks her who it is, Molly tells him that it is the new opening act for Zane Gray 's new television special. Gibbs is not amused and says he ca n't book anyone from just a tape recording sight unseen, and promptly throws Molly out of his car. However, she manages to get Eddie to come to a club where Jess has managed to get a gig playing, thanks to Bubba, who was working there as a waiter. Eddie comes in and watches for a moment, and then leaves. Jess thinks he has a blown it, but Molly tells him, "... he hates loud crowds... you he loved... you open for Zane Gray. ''
Meanwhile, back in New York, Cantor Rabinovich confronts Rivka about Jess going to California, and reminds her that her place is by her husband 's side, and if she goes to California, maybe she can bring him home. She relents and does just that.
On Jess 's opening night, he begins with a small harmonica intro and is heckled by someone in the crowd, but he endures and performs the song "Summer Love ''. He finishes his first song and the audience applauds, and Jess decides to perform a song everyone can clap, "Hey Louise ''. Rivka shows up and meets Molly, and tries to tell her that their Jewish values are so tightly adhered to that Jess can not possibly stay. Molly tells Rivka that she is not the problem, but the crowd is. Jess ends his set and the audience gives him a standing ovation. He heads backstage and is reunited with Rivka. At the after party in Jess 's dressing room, Jess is met by a receptive crowd and is given a recording contract. Rivka realizes she has lost him and runs off before Jess can catch her.
Days later, Jess meets up with Molly by the pier and tells her that he and Rivka have split up, and confesses his love for her. As time passes, the two grow closer to each other while Jess 's career continues steadily. His father shows up to visit him and attempts to persuade him to come back home, but Jess refuses, insisting that he 's making a name for himself with his music career. Jess reveals that he and Rivka are divorcing, which devastates his father. To make matters worse, Molly suddenly arrives at home. Jess tries to explain the matter to his father, but to no avail, as he angrily disowns his son and leaves in tears.
Still broken by the incident, Jess struggles at his recording sessions, taking out his anger on his bandmates, until he finally storms out and drives away aimlessly. When his car breaks down on the highway, he hitchhikes far away for a few weeks. In the meantime, he takes up singing at a country bar. Eventually, he returns home to Molly when Bubba tracks him down and tells him that she has given birth to a son. Molly once again meets Eddie Gibbs in his car and persuades him to let Jess perform on Zane Gray 's television special.
At rehearsal, the day before Yom Kippur, Leo shows up and tells Jess that his father is in the hospital with high blood pressure and wo n't be able to sing Kol Nidre at the synagogue. Jess is initially reluctant to go back to his father, convinced that he is dead to him, but Molly insists that he go back to him, or else she 'll remain guilty about it. Jess ultimately agrees and returns to sing at the synagogue. He tries to make amends with his father, but he refuses to speak to him, until Jess tells him that he now has a grandson, at which point he finally reconciles with Jess.
The film ends with Jess performing "America '', with his father and Molly in attendance.
Lew Grade, who invested in the film, said the box office "results were disappointing and we were n't able to recoup our prints and advertising costs ''. However, since the movie had been presold to American television for $4 million, the losses were minimized. Also, the soundtrack album was very successful and made more money than the film itself. The film made $27,000,000 on a budget of $14,000,000.
Unlike the original, the film received mostly negative reviews. Roger Ebert from the Chicago Sun - Times, awarding it one star out of four, said that the remake "has so many things wrong with it that a review threatens to become a list ''. Another negative review came from Janet Maslin of The New York Times who stated: "Mr. Diamond, looking glum and seldom making eye contact with anyone, is n't enough of a focus for the outmoded story. '' Time Out London called the appearance of Neil Diamond "the most cautious soft - rock superstar movie debut you 'll ever get to see. '' The only top critic to give a positive review of the film (according to Rotten Tomatoes) was Dave Kehr of the Chicago Reader. He wrote that "Richard Fleischer 's direction is appropriately close - in and small, and Diamond himself, while no actor, proves to be a commandingly intense, brooding presence. '' The film is listed in Golden Raspberry Award founder John J.B. Wilson 's book The Official Razzie Movie Guide as one of The 100 Most Enjoyably Bad Movies Ever Made.
Diamond was nominated for both a Golden Globe Award and a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actor for the same role in this movie, winning the latter. The only other time an actor was nominated for both awards for the same performance was Pia Zadora, who uniquely won both in 1981.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
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who played gerry bertier in remember the titans | Ryan Hurst - wikipedia
Ryan Douglas Hurst (born June 19, 1976) is an American actor, best known for his roles as Gerry Bertier in Disney 's Remember the Titans, Tom Clark in Taken, Opie Winston in the FX network drama series Sons of Anarchy, as Sergeant Ernie Savage in We Were Soldiers, and as Chick in Bates Motel.
Hurst was born in Santa Monica, California, the son of Candace Kaniecki, an acting coach, and Rick Hurst, an actor. He attended Santa Monica High School.
Growing up in a Hollywood family, Hurst made a very early start in show business, with a recurring role in the NBC teen situation comedy series Saved by the Bell: The New Class. In the 1998 epic war drama film Saving Private Ryan, Hurst portrayed Mandelsohn, a paratrooper who, because of temporary hearing loss, can not understand Captain Miller 's (Tom Hanks) questions about sighting Private Ryan, which forces Miller to ask the questions in writing. Additionally, he appeared in the 2002 war film We Were Soldiers as Sgt. Ernie Savage, played the football player Lump Hudson in the black comedy thriller film The Ladykillers (2004), and starred in the TNT police drama series Wanted (2005). From 2005 to 2007, Hurst gained recognition for portraying the recurring role of Allison DuBois ' half - brother, Michael Benoit, in NBC 's supernatural procedural drama series Medium.
Hurst 's big break came when he was cast as Opie Winston in the FX crime drama series Sons of Anarchy. Originally a recurring cast member in the first season, he was promoted to main cast member for the following season and went on to become a fan favorite. His character, newly released from a five - year prison stint and "living right '', but not making ends meet, goes back to SAMCRO to provide for his family, despite his wife 's objections and his knowing the risks. Hurst 's portrayal of Opie earned him the 2011 Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film. Also in 2011, Hurst voiced Jedidiah in the animated box office hit Rango. Also stars in the series, Outsiders. It was announced in August 2018 that he will star as Beta on The Walking Dead.
In 1994, Hurst met Molly Cookson and the couple married in May 2005. Together, they founded the production company Fast Shoes. In April 2013, Hurst purchased a 3,400 square - foot home in Woodland Hills, California for $1.71 million.
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who sings you can leave your hat on in the full monty | You Can Leave Your Hat on - wikipedia
"You Can Leave Your Hat On '' is a song written by Randy Newman and appearing on his 1972 album Sail Away.
According to an Allmusic review by Mark Deming, the song is a "potent mid-tempo rock tune '' and a "witty and willfully perverse bit of erotic absurdity ''. Newman later admitted the song was, "too low for me to sing it. I ca n't rock it too hard, which maybe I should have... or maybe not. ''
Joe Cocker recorded "You Can Leave Your Hat On '' for his 1986 album Cocker. Released as a single, Cocker 's version peaked at # 35 on Billboard Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks, and it was featured in the 1986 Adrian Lyne film 91⁄2 Weeks during the striptease scene.
A music video was released which featured footage of the striptease scene from 91⁄2 Weeks and scenes with Cocker and his band performing the song. In some countries, the song itself is considered a striptease anthem, and still being used by strippers.
Etta James covered the song in a 1974 single, published by Chess Records and produced by Gabriel Mekler.
Three Dog Night 's 1975 album, Coming Down Your Way, featured the band 's version of the song as track two on side one.
Merl Saunders and Aunt Monk covered it in 1976 on their album You Can Leave Your Hat On. Here for the first time that specific brass arrangement was used which also Joe Cocker used in his much more successful cover 10 years later.
Tom Jones covered the song for the soundtrack of the 1997 British film The Full Monty and is included in the subsequent 2013 play of the same name.
American country music singer Ty Herndon covered the song on his 1999 album, Steam. Herndon 's version reached # 72 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart from unsolicited airplay and was included on his 2002 compilation, This Is Ty Herndon: Greatest Hits.
Others artists to cover the song include Jerry Garcia Band, Michael Grimm, Bill Wyman, Jess Roden and Three Dog Night.
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where is carbon stored in the largest amounts on earth | Carbon cycle - wikipedia
The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth. Carbon is the main component of biological compounds as well as a major component of many minerals such as limestone. Along with the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle, the carbon cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key to make Earth capable of sustaining life. It describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout the biosphere, as well as long - term processes of carbon sequestration to and release from carbon sinks.
The global carbon budget is the balance of the exchanges (incomes and losses) of carbon between the carbon reservoirs or between one specific loop (e.g., atmosphere and biosphere) of the carbon cycle. An examination of the carbon budget of a pool or reservoir can provide information about whether the pool or reservoir is functioning as a source or sink for carbon dioxide (CO). The carbon cycle was initially discovered by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier, and popularized by Humphry Davy.
Carbon exists in various forms in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide and methane (CH) are partly responsible for the greenhouse effect and among the most important human - contributed greenhouse gases.
In the past two centuries, human activities have altered the global carbon cycle, most significantly in the atmosphere. Although carbon dioxide levels have changed naturally over the past several thousand years, human emissions of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere have created unnatural fluctuations. Changes in the amount of atmospheric CO are considerably altering weather patterns and indirectly influencing oceanic chemistry. Current carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere exceed measurements from the last 1,000 years and levels are rising quickly, making it of critical importance to better understand how the carbon cycle works and what its effects are on the global climate.
The global carbon cycle is now usually divided into the following major reservoirs of carbon interconnected by pathways of exchange:
The carbon exchanges between reservoirs occur as the result of various chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes. The ocean contains the largest active pool of carbon near the surface of the Earth. The natural flows of carbon between the atmosphere, ocean, terrestrial ecosystems, and sediments is fairly balanced, so that carbon levels would be roughly stable without human influence.
Carbon in the Earth 's atmosphere exists in two main forms: carbon dioxide and methane. Both of these gases absorb and retain heat in the atmosphere and are partially responsible for the greenhouse effect. Methane produces a larger greenhouse effect per volume as compared to carbon dioxide, but it exists in much lower concentrations and is more short - lived than carbon dioxide, making carbon dioxide the more important greenhouse gas of the two.
Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere primarily through photosynthesis and enters the terrestrial and oceanic biospheres. Carbon dioxide also dissolves directly from the atmosphere into bodies of water (oceans, lakes, etc.), as well as dissolving in precipitation as raindrops fall through the atmosphere. When dissolved in water, carbon dioxide reacts with water molecules and forms carbonic acid, which contributes to ocean acidity. It can then be absorbed by rocks through weathering. It also can acidify other surfaces it touches or be washed into the ocean.
Human activities over the past two centuries have significantly increased the amount of carbon in the atmosphere, mainly in the form of carbon dioxide, both by modifying ecosystems ' ability to extract carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and by emitting it directly, e.g., by burning fossil fuels and manufacturing concrete.
The terrestrial biosphere includes the organic carbon in all land - living organisms, both alive and dead, as well as carbon stored in soils. About 500 gigatons of carbon are stored above ground in plants and other living organisms, while soil holds approximately 1,500 gigatons of carbon. Most carbon in the terrestrial biosphere is organic carbon, while about a third of soil carbon is stored in inorganic forms, such as calcium carbonate. Organic carbon is a major component of all organisms living on earth. Autotrophs extract it from the air in the form of carbon dioxide, converting it into organic carbon, while heterotrophs receive carbon by consuming other organisms.
Because carbon uptake in the terrestrial biosphere is dependent on biotic factors, it follows a diurnal and seasonal cycle. In CO measurements, this feature is apparent in the Keeling curve. It is strongest in the northern hemisphere, because this hemisphere has more land mass than the southern hemisphere and thus more room for ecosystems to absorb and emit carbon.
Carbon leaves the terrestrial biosphere in several ways and on different time scales. The combustion or respiration of organic carbon releases it rapidly into the atmosphere. It can also be exported into the oceans through rivers or remain sequestered in soils in the form of inert carbon. Carbon stored in soil can remain there for up to thousands of years before being washed into rivers by erosion or released into the atmosphere through soil respiration. Between 1989 and 2008 soil respiration increased by about 0.1 % per year. In 2008, the global total of CO released from the soil reached roughly 98 billion tonnes, about 10 times more carbon than humans are now putting into the atmosphere each year by burning fossil fuel. There are a few plausible explanations for this trend, but the most likely explanation is that increasing temperatures have increased rates of decomposition of soil organic matter, which has increased the flow of CO. The length of carbon sequestering in soil is dependent on local climatic conditions and thus changes in the course of climate change. From pre-industrial era to 2010, the terrestrial biosphere represented a net source of atmospheric CO prior to 1940, switching subsequently to a net sink.
Oceans contain the greatest quantity of actively cycled carbon in this world and are second only to the lithosphere in the amount of carbon they store. The oceans ' surface layer holds large amounts of dissolved inorganic carbon that is exchanged rapidly with the atmosphere. The deep layer 's concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) is about 15 % higher than that of the surface layer. DIC is stored in the deep layer for much longer periods of time. Thermohaline circulation exchanges carbon between these two layers.
Carbon enters the ocean mainly through the dissolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide, which is converted into carbonate. It can also enter the oceans through rivers as dissolved organic carbon. It is converted by organisms into organic carbon through photosynthesis and can either be exchanged throughout the food chain or precipitated into the ocean 's deeper, more carbon rich layers as dead soft tissue or in shells as calcium carbonate. It circulates in this layer for long periods of time before either being deposited as sediment or, eventually, returned to the surface waters through thermohaline circulation.
Oceanic absorption of CO is one of the most important forms of carbon sequestering limiting the human - caused rise of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. However, this process is limited by a number of factors. Because the rate of CO dissolution in the ocean is dependent on the weathering of rocks and this process takes place slower than current rates of human greenhouse gas emissions, ocean CO uptake will decrease in the future. CO absorption also makes water more acidic, which affects ocean biosystems. The projected rate of increasing oceanic acidity could slow the biological precipitation of calcium carbonates, thus decreasing the ocean 's capacity to absorb carbon dioxide.
The geologic component of the carbon cycle operates slowly in comparison to the other parts of the global carbon cycle. It is one of the most important determinants of the amount of carbon in the atmosphere, and thus of global temperatures.
Most of the earth 's carbon is stored inertly in the earth 's lithosphere. Much of the carbon stored in the earth 's mantle was stored there when the earth formed. Some of it was deposited in the form of organic carbon from the biosphere. Of the carbon stored in the geosphere, about 80 % is limestone and its derivatives, which form from the sedimentation of calcium carbonate stored in the shells of marine organisms. The remaining 20 % is stored as kerogens formed through the sedimentation and burial of terrestrial organisms under high heat and pressure. Organic carbon stored in the geosphere can remain there for millions of years.
Carbon can leave the geosphere in several ways. Carbon dioxide is released during the metamorphosis of carbonate rocks when they are subducted into the earth 's mantle. This carbon dioxide can be released into the atmosphere and ocean through volcanoes and hotspots. It can also be removed by humans through the direct extraction of kerogens in the form of fossil fuels. After extraction, fossil fuels are burned to release energy, thus emitting the carbon they store into the atmosphere.
Since the industrial revolution, human activity has modified the carbon cycle by changing its components ' functions and directly adding carbon to the atmosphere.
The largest human impact on the carbon cycle is through direct emissions from burning fossil fuels, which transfers carbon from the geosphere into the atmosphere. The rest of this increase is caused mostly by changes in land - use, particularly deforestation.
Another direct human impact on the carbon cycle is the chemical process of calcination of limestone for clinker production, which releases CO. Clinker is an industrial precursor of cement.
Humans also influence the carbon cycle indirectly by changing the terrestrial and oceanic biosphere. Over the past several centuries, direct and indirect human - caused land use and land cover change (LUCC) has led to the loss of biodiversity, which lowers ecosystems ' resilience to environmental stresses and decreases their ability to remove carbon from the atmosphere. More directly, it often leads to the release of carbon from terrestrial ecosystems into the atmosphere. Deforestation for agricultural purposes removes forests, which hold large amounts of carbon, and replaces them, generally with agricultural or urban areas. Both of these replacement land cover types store comparatively small amounts of carbon, so that the net product of the process is that more carbon stays in the atmosphere.
Other human - caused changes to the environment change ecosystems ' productivity and their ability to remove carbon from the atmosphere. Air pollution, for example, damages plants and soils, while many agricultural and land use practices lead to higher erosion rates, washing carbon out of soils and decreasing plant productivity.
Humans also affect the oceanic carbon cycle. Current trends in climate change lead to higher ocean temperatures, thus modifying ecosystems. Also, acid rain and polluted runoff from agriculture and industry change the ocean 's chemical composition. Such changes can have dramatic effects on highly sensitive ecosystems such as coral reefs, thus limiting the ocean 's ability to absorb carbon from the atmosphere on a regional scale and reducing oceanic biodiversity globally.
Arctic methane emissions indirectly caused by anthropogenic global warming also affect the carbon cycle, and contribute to further warming in what is known as climate change feedback.
On 12 November 2015, NASA scientists reported that human - made carbon dioxide (CO) continues to increase above levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years: currently, about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels remains in the atmosphere and is not absorbed by vegetation and the oceans.
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man who tore his hamstring in the olympics | Derek Redmond - wikipedia
Derek Anthony Redmond (born 3 September 1965) is a retired British athlete. During his career, he held the British record for the 400 metres sprint, and won gold medals in the 4x400 metres relay at the World Championships and European Championships.
However, his career was blighted by a series of injuries. At the 1992 Olympic Games in Barcelona he tore his hamstring in the 400 metres semi-final but continued the race limping and, with assistance from his father, managed to complete a full lap of the track as the crowd gave him a standing ovation. Although Redmond was disqualified and listed as "Did Not Finish '' due to the outside assistance finishing the race, the incident has become a well - remembered moment in Olympic history, having been the subject of one of the International Olympic Committee 's "Celebrate Humanity '' videos and been used in advertisements by Visa as an illustration of the Olympic spirit and featured in Nike 's "Courage '' commercials in 2008.
Redmond was born in Bletchley in Buckinghamshire to West Indian immigrants and educated at Roade School, Northamptonshire, where a multi-use sports hall is named after him. He is a supporter of Newcastle United FC.
Redmond was married to the British Olympic swimmer Sharron Davies in 1994 in Northampton. They divorced in 2000. The couple had two children, Elliott Anthony (born 1993, Northampton) and Grace Elizabeth (born 1998, Gloucestershire).
On 26 August 2011, Redmond married Maria Yates.
In August 2014, Redmond was one of two hundred public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence in the run - up to September 's referendum on that issue.
Redmond first broke the British record for the 400 metres in 1985 with a run of 44.82 seconds. This record was subsequently broken by Roger Black, but Redmond reclaimed the record in 1987.
In 1986, Redmond was a member of the team that won the 4x400 metres relay gold medal Championships. The following year, he was on the team that won the 4x400 metres relay silver medal at the World Championships.
At the 1991 World Championships Redmond was a member of the British team that shocked the athletics world by beating the much - favoured American team into second place to claim the gold medal in the 4x400 metres relay. Redmond ran the second leg in the final and, together with teammates Roger Black, John Regis and Kriss Akabusi, ran what was then the second - fastest 4x400 metres relay in history.
Injuries consistently interrupted Redmond 's career. At the 1988 Olympics in Seoul, he pulled out of the opening round of the 400 metres 90 seconds before his heat because of an injury to his Achilles tendon. Before the 1992 Summer Olympics, he had undergone eight operations due to injuries.
Redmond was in good form by the time of the Barcelona Olympics. He posted the fastest time of the first round, and went on to win his quarter - final. In the semi-final, Redmond started well, but in the back straight about 250 metres from the finish, his hamstring tore. He hobbled to a halt, and then fell to the ground in pain. Stretcher bearers made their way over to him, but Redmond decided he wanted to finish the race. He began to hobble along the track. He was soon joined on the track by his father, Jim Redmond, who barged past security and on to the track to get to his son. Jim and Derek completed the lap of the track together, with Derek leaning on his father 's shoulder for support. As they crossed the finish line, the crowd of 65,000 spectators rose to give Derek a standing ovation. However, as his father had helped him finish, Derek was officially disqualified and Olympic records state that he "Did Not Finish '' the race.
Redmond 's struggle in the 1992 semi-final later became the subject of one of the International Olympic Committee 's "Celebrate Humanity '' videos, which proclaimed: "Force is measured in kilograms. Speed is measured in seconds. Courage? You ca n't measure courage ''. In 2008, Redmond was featured in the "Go World '' series of Visa advertisements promoting the Olympic Games. The advertisement highlights his 1992 injury, noting that "he and his father finished dead last, but he and his father finished '', narrated by actor Morgan Freeman.
On 10 January 2012, it was announced that his father Jim would be one of the Olympic torch bearers in London for the Summer Games.
Two years after the Olympics in Barcelona, he was told by a surgeon that he would never run again or represent his country in sport. However, after coming to terms with the loss of athletics as a career, he began to turn his attention, with the encouragement of his father, to other sports that he enjoyed. He went on to play professional basketball for the Birmingham Bullets.
Redmond formerly served as Director of Development for sprints and hurdles for UK Athletics.
In 1994, Redmond won Celebrity Gladiators, and during the third series of Gladiators (1994), he served as "Official Timekeeper '' to Referee John Anderson. Redmond has also served as a commentator for Eurosport, and presented a basketball show on ITV.
Redmond raced a motorcycle in the Hottrax Motorsport Racing Club with his team in conjunction with Maria Costello, as Costello Redmond Racing. The team finished second in the 2009 Senior 1000 Tag Endurance championship where three team members raced relay style over a six - hour period at seven national UK circuits.
Redmond currently does motivational speaking on the conference circuit, inspiring people with the story of the 4x400 gold medal triumph and his famous ordeal in the 1992 Barcelona Olympics. He currently co-owns a Superbike team.
In 2015, Redmond joined psychometric assessment provider Thomas International as their Group Performance Director.
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you been here four hours you go home | John Pinette - wikipedia
John Paul Pinette (/ pɪˈnɛt / pi - NET) (March 23, 1964 -- April 5, 2014) was an American actor, Broadway performer, and stand - up comedian. He toured the comedy club circuit beginning in the 1980s and appeared in cinema and on television. Besides stand - up, Pinette did impressions of The Chipmunks, Elvis Presley, Gollum from The Lord of the Rings, Hervé Villechaize (Tattoo from Fantasy Island), an Ewok, actor Marlon Brando (notably Brando 's role in The Godfather), as well as various ethnic accents. He occasionally sang, for example "Over the Rainbow '' from The Wizard of Oz, and "Do n't Cry for Me Argentina '' in stand - up routines.
John Pinette was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on March 23, 1964, and graduated from Malden Catholic High School in 1982. He was a practicing Catholic. He graduated from the University of Massachusetts Lowell in 1986 with a degree in accounting. He started a career in accounting, but on the advice of friends left to pursue a career in comedy.
Pinette was of Irish and French ancestry.
Pinette got a break when asked to tour with Frank Sinatra. Pinette was a regular guest on The Tonight Show and The View.
Pinette was in the films Duets, Dear God, and Junior. He was a regular on the series Parker Lewis Ca n't Lose, and in 1998, starred as the carjack victim in the final episode of Seinfeld. In 2004, Pinette was Bumpo in Artisan Entertainment 's The Punisher, starring Thomas Jane and John Travolta.
Pinette was named Stand - Up Comedian of the Year by the American Comedy Awards in 1999 and received a Gemini Award nomination for his televised performance at Montreal 's Just for Laughs Comedy Festival in 2000. As of his death, he still held the record for the highest - selling one - person show in the history of Just for Laughs.
In 2004, Pinette joined the touring cast of the musical Hairspray in the role of Edna Turnblad. He later went on to the Broadway production in 2005, and continued in the role until May 28, 2006. In his 2006 concert I 'm Starvin ', he said it was the first musical theater production he had been in since high school.
In 2004, Pinette 's stand up material was featured in Comedy Central 's animated series Shorties Watchin ' Shorties. In 2007, Pinette performed at the 42nd annual Jerry Lewis MDA Telethon. He performed at the Edinburgh Comedy Festival in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 2008, and toured in cities in 2010 beginning in April. During this tour, Pinette recorded a Comedy Central special titled John Pinette: Still Hungry. The taping took place at the Vic Theatre in Chicago. The world premiere of Still Hungry was on July 29, 2011, on Comedy Central.
Pinette was a host of the E4 Laughs at Edinburgh podcasts, showcasing comedians from the Edinburgh Festival in 2008.
In 2012, Pinette was one of the comedy acts in Ron White 's Comedy Salute to the Troops on CMT.
He was the host of All You Can Eat, a TV series taking a humorous look at American cuisine. The show debuted on the H2 network in the United States in late June 2013.
Pinette was pronounced dead at 2: 30 p.m. on April 5, 2014, at the Sheraton Station Square Hotel in Pittsburgh. The Allegheny County Medical Examiner 's office said Pinette had been suffering from liver and heart disease. An autopsy was not performed, as Pinette 's personal doctor signed off on his cause of death as pulmonary embolism.
Pinette 's funeral services were held near his home in Springfield, Pennsylvania.
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who won the world series of poker championship last night | List of World Series of Poker Main Event champions - wikipedia
The following is the list of World Series of Poker Main Event champions. The World Series of Poker (WSOP) is "the oldest, largest, most prestigious, and most media - hyped gaming competition in the world ''. It is held annually since 1970 in Las Vegas. Since 1972, the Main Event of the WSOP has been the $10,000 buy - in no - limit Texas Hold ' Em tournament. The winner of the WSOP Main Event receives a World Series of Poker bracelet, millions of dollars (with the exact amount based on the number of entrants), and the right to be considered the year 's World Champion of Poker. From 2008 to 2016, the nine players who made it to the final table of the Main Event were called the November Nine, a reference to the fact that the final table was completed in November, months after the Main Event 's preliminary rounds were completed.
Until 2005, the WSOP was held at Binion 's Horseshoe. In 2005, the event moved to the Rio All Suite Hotel and Casino. The 2005 Main Event was not played completely at the Rio. The final three tables, which comprised the final 27 players, played the conclusion of the event at Binion 's Horseshoe. All of the Main Events that proceeded the 2005 event were played completely at the Rio. Consequently, this made Joe Hachem the final player to win the Main Event at the original home of the World Series of Poker.
Johnny Moss was the first person to win the WSOP. Since then only Moss and Stu Ungar have won the Main Event three times; Ungar is the only one to have won three times in the freeze - out format. Moss, Ungar, Doyle Brunson and Johnny Chan are the only people who have won the Main Event two years in a row. Johnny Chan 's second victory in 1988 was featured on the 1998 film Rounders. Peter Eastgate was the youngest person to win the Main Event when he won it in 2008, at 22 years of age. He held that record for one year, when 21 - year - old Joe Cada became the youngest Main Event champion.
The World Series of Poker Europe (WSOPE) is the first expansion effort of World Series of Poker - branded poker tournaments outside the United States. Since 1970, the bracelet events have occurred every year in Las Vegas. The inaugural WSOPE, held in 2007, marked the first time that a WSOP bracelet was awarded outside Las Vegas. The 2007 Main Event, a GBP 10,000 buy - in no - limit hold ' em tournament, was won by Norwegian player Annette Obrestad on the day before her 19th birthday. This made her the youngest person to win a WSOP bracelet, a record that can not be broken in the Las Vegas WSOP under current laws because the minimum legal age for casino gaming in Nevada is 21. Obrestad could play in the WSOPE because the minimum age for casino gaming in the United Kingdom is 18. The World Series of Poker Europe has a unique identity from the Las Vegas WSOP, but according to Harrah 's will remain true to the traditions and heritage. The 2011 WSOP Europe main event was an 8 - handed event.
The World Series of Poker Asia Pacific (WSOP APAC) is the most recent expansion of World Series of Poker - branded tournaments outside the United States. On April 30, 2012, WSOP owner Caesars Entertainment and Australian casino Crown Melbourne announced that the first WSOP APAC would be launched with five bracelet events in April 2013.
The first World Series of Poker was not a freeze out tournament, but rather a game with a set start and stop time. Benny Binion took a secret ballot that asked the players who the best player was. According to poker lore, everybody said that they were the best player. Binion then asked who the second - best player was, and Johnny Moss won.
Jack Straus ' 1982 WSOP tournament victory is considered to be one of the greatest comebacks in poker history. At one point, Straus was down to one chip, and he came back to win. This victory is considered the origin of the poker saying, "A chip and a chair. '' A saying that means that as long as you have a chip and a chair you have a chance. Modern lore indicates that this happened at the final table, but the 1983 book The Biggest Game in Town implies this occurred on the first day of the tournament.
Chris Moneymaker won the entry into the WSOP Main Event via a $39 online satellite.
Joe Cada is the youngest person to have won the WSOP Main Event.
Annette Obrestad won the WSOPE at the age of 18 years, 364 days, making her the youngest person to have won a WSOP bracelet. She is also the first woman to have won a Main Event tournament and in 2007 was considered to be one of the best online multi-table tournament players in the world.
The final table at the 2008 WSOPE Main Event, was the longest final table in the WSOP history. The tournament lasted 22 hours (a WSOP record) and 434 hands (a WSOP record).
At the 2012 World Series of Poker Europe Main Event, Hellmuth won his record - breaking 13th bracelet. This also made him the first player ever to win the Main Events at both the WSOP and WSOPE. Hellmuth also holds the records for most WSOP cashes (100) and most WSOP final tables (53).
Doyle Brunson obtained the nickname of Texas Dolly when Jimmy The Greek mispronounced his name.
In recent years, the prize pool for the WSOP Main Event has become so large that the winner instantly becomes one of the top money winners in tournament poker. Jamie Gold (2006) is number eight on that list, Joe Hachem (2005) is number ten, and Peter Eastgate (2008) is number eleven.
The Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act of 2006 curtailed online gambling in the United States.
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when were car seats required in the us | Child safety seat - wikipedia
A child safety seat (infant safety seat, child restraint system, child seat, baby seat, restraining car seat, car seat, etc.) is a seat designed specifically to protect children from injury or death during vehicle collisions. Most commonly these seats are purchased and installed by consumers, but car manufacturers may integrate them directly into their vehicle 's design and generally are required to provide anchors and to ensure seat belt compatibility. Many jurisdictions require children defined by age, weight, and / or height to use a government - approved child safety seat when riding in a vehicle. Child safety seats provide passive restraints and must be properly used to be effective. However, research indicates many child safety restraints are often not used properly. To tackle this negative trend, health officials and child safety experts produce child safety videos to teach proper car seat installation to parents and caregivers.
Baby car seats are legally required in many countries, including most Western developed countries, to safely transport children up to the age of 2 or more years in cars and other vehicles.
Other car seats, also known as "booster seats, '' are required until the child is large enough to use an adult seat belt. This is usually, but not always, when the child is 1.45 m (4 ft 9 in) tall. The child needs to meet five criteria before moving out of the booster seat, including the child 's seating position, shoulder belt position, lap belt position, knee position, and ability to sit properly for the length of the trip.
Generally, countries that regulate passenger safety have child safety laws that require a child to be restrained appropriately depending on their age and weight. These regulations and standards are often minimums, and with each graduation to the next kind of safety seat, there is a step down in the amount of protection a child has in a collision. Some countries, such as Australia and the United States, forbid rear - facing child seats in a front seat that has an airbag. A rear - facing infant restraint put in the front seat of a vehicle places an infant 's head close to the airbag, which can cause severe head injuries or death if the airbag deploys. Some modern cars include a switch to disable the front passenger airbag for child - supporting seat use.
In 2003, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) suggested that infants "should spend minimal time in car seats (when not a passenger in a vehicle) or other seating that maintains supine positioning '' to avoid developing positional plagiocephaly ("flat head syndrome '').
In 1990, the ISO standard ISOFIX was launched in an attempt to provide a standard for fixing car seats into different makes of car. The standard now includes a top tether; the U.S. version of this system is called LATCH. Generally, the ISOFIX system can be used with Groups 0, 0 + and 1.
In 2013, a new car seat regulation was introduced: "i - Size '' is the name of a new European safety regulation that affects car seats for children under 15 months of age. It came into effect in July 2013 and provides extra protection in several ways, most notably by providing rearward facing travel for children up to 15 months instead of 9 to 12 months, which the previous EU regulation advised.
Since the first car was manufactured and put on the market in the early 1900s, many modifications and adjustments have been implemented to protect those that drive and ride in motorized vehicles. Most restraints were put into place to protect adults without regard for young children. Though child seats were beginning to be manufactured in the early 1930s, their purpose was not the safety of children. The purpose was to act as booster seats to bring the child to a height easier for the driving parent to see them. It was not until 1962 that two designs with the purpose of protecting a child were developed independently. British inventor Jean Ames created a rear - facing child seat with a Y - shaped strap similar to today 's models. American Leonard Rivkin, of Denver Colorado, designed a forward - facing seat with a metal frame to protect the child. It is noted that seat belts for adults were not standard equipment in automobiles until the 1960s.
There are several types of car seats, which vary in the position of the child and size of the seat. The United Nations European Regional standard ECE R44 / 04 categorizes these into 4 groups: 0 - 3. Many car seats combine the larger groups 1, 2 and 3. Some new car models includes stock restraint seats by default.
Group 0 baby seats, or infant carriers, keep the baby locked up in a rear - facing position and are secured in place by a standard adult seat belt and / or an ISOFIX fitting.
Group 0 carrycots hold the baby lying on its back.
Carrycots are secured by both seat belts in the rear seat of the car. Both types have handles to allow them to be easily moved into and out of the car.
Car Seat - Middle Back Seat
Car Seat - Not in Front Seat
Carrycots or infant car beds are used for children that can not sit in a regular baby seat, such as premature infants or infants that suffer from apnea. A carrycot is a restraint system intended to accommodate and restrain the child in a supine or prone position with the child 's spine perpendicular to the median longitudinal plane of the vehicle. Carrycots are designed to distribute the restraining forces over the child 's head and body, excluding its limbs, in the event of a big crash. It must be put on the rear seat of the car. Some models can be changed to face forward after the baby has reached the weight limit which is normally about 15 - 20 kilograms.
Carrycots generally include a stomach belt and a connection to the (three points) safety belt.
' Infant carrier ' means a restraint system intended to accommodate the child in a rearward - facing semi-recumbent position. This design distributes the restraining forces over the child 's head and body, excluding its limbs, in the event of the frontal collision.
For young infants, the seat used is an infant carrier with typical weight recommendations of 5 - 20 lb. Most infant seats made in the US can now be used up to at least 22 pounds (10.0 kg) and 29 inches (74 cm), with some going up to 35 pounds (16 kg). In the past, most infant seats in the US went to 20 pounds (9.1 kg) and 26 inches (66 cm). Infant carriers are often also called "Bucket Seats '' as they resemble a bucket with a handle. Some (but not all) seats can be used with the base secured, or with the carrier strapped in alone. Some seats do not have bases. Infant carriers are mounted rear - facing and are designed to "cocoon '' against the back of the vehicle seat in the event of a collision, with the impact being absorbed in the outer shell of the restraint. Rear - facing seats are deemed the safest, and in the US children must remain in this position until they are at least 1 year of age and at least 20 pounds (9.1 kg). although it is recommended to keep them rear - facing until at least 2 years old or until they outgrow the rear - facing car seat height and weight, whichever is longer.
Group 0 + car seats commonly have a chassis permanently fixed into the car by an adult seat belt and can be placed into some form of baby transport using the integral handle if it is the specific model. Rear - facing child seats are inherently safer than forward - facing child seats because they provide more support for the child 's head in the event of a sudden deceleration. Although some parents are eager to switch to a forward - facing child seat because it seems more "grown up, '' various countries and car seat manufacturers recommend that children continue to use a rear - facing child seat for as long as physically possible
Convertible seats can be used throughout many stages. Many convertible seats will transition from a rear - facing seat, to a forward - facing seat, and some then can be used as a booster seat. Many convertible seats allow for 2.3 -- 18 kg (5 - 40 lb.) rear - facing, allowing children to be in the safer rear - facing position up to a weight of 18 kg (40 lbs).
Convertible safety seats can be installed as either rear - facing or forward - facing. There is a large selection available to choose from and weight limits, height limits, and extra features vary from seat to seat and by manufacturer. Seats with a 5 - point harness are considered safer than those with an overhead shield
Convertibles are n't considered the best choice for a newborn because the bottom harness slots are often above the shoulders of most newborns. A seat with low bottom harness slots can be used if it is desired to use a convertible from birth.
Rear - facing weight limits range from 20 to 50 lb (9.1 to 22.7 kg) depending on the manufacturer and country of origin. Forward - facing limits range from 20 to 90 lb (9.1 to 40.8 kg) depending on the seat model and the manufacturer and country of origin.
Most convertible seats in the U.S. have at least a 35 pounds (16 kg) rear - facing weight limit, most now to go to 40 pounds (18 kg), some 45 pounds (20 kg) and a few 50 pounds (23 kg). The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that children remain rear - facing until they outgrow their convertible seat, regardless of how old they are. Children can remain in a rear - facing seat until they have either outgrown the weight limit for their seat, or the top of their head is within 1 inch (25 mm) of the top of the shell of the car seat.
A permanent fixture in the car using an adult seat belt to hold it in place and a five - point baby harness to hold the infant.
It is recommended that children sit rear - facing for as long as possible. In Scandinavian countries, for example, children sit rear - facing until around 4 years old. Rear - facing car seats are significantly safer in frontal collisions, which are the most likely to cause severe injury and death. Rear - facing group 1 car seats are becoming more widespread but are still difficult to source in many countries.
A larger seat than the Group 1 design. These seats use an adult seat belt to hold the child in place.
Also known as booster seats, these position the child so that the adult seat belt is held in the correct position for safety and comfort.
Booster seats are recommended for children until they are big enough to properly use a seat belt. Seat belts are engineered for adults, and are thus too big for small children. In the United States, for children under the age of 4 and / or under 40 pounds (18 kg), a seat with a 5 - point harness is suggested instead of a booster seat.
Booster seats lift the child and allow the seat belt to sit firmly across the collar bone and chest, with the lap portion fitted to the hips. If the seat belt is not across the collar bone and the hips, it will ride across the neck and the stomach and cause internal injuries in the event of a collision.
There are two main types of boosters: high back (some of which have energy absorbing foam) and no back. A new generation of booster seats comes with rigid Isofix (Latch) connectors that secure to the vehicle 's anchors, improving the seat 's stability in the event of a collision.
The consumer group Which? is calling on manufacturers and retailers to phase out backless boosters, as it says they do n't provide enough protection in side - impact crashes and could put children at risk. So while backless booster cushions are better than using no child seat at all, they do not provide adequate protection in all circumstances.
Used for Groups I, II and III.
After reaching one year of age and 20 pounds (9.1 kg), children may travel in forward - facing seats. Most Scandinavian countries require children to sit rear - facing until at least the age of 4 years. This has contributed to Sweden having the lowest rate of children killed in traffic in international comparisons.
By law (in Canada and some US states), children need to be restrained until they are 4 - years old and 40 pounds (18 kg). After the requirement is met, they can move into a booster seat.
All child restraints have an expiration date. Seats can expire 6 years from the date of manufacture, although this can vary by manufacturer. Expiration dates are highly debated, with proponents and manufacturers claiming that older car seats can degrade over time to be less effective and that changing laws and regulations necessitate an expiration date. Opponents argue that it is simply for their legal protection and to sell more car seats, and point out that manufacturers have noted that the plastics in most car seats long outlast the expiration date. As ageing is due to temperature swings and UV - light, a seat ages faster in a car than in a cool, dark cellar.
Like motorcycle and race car helmets, child restraints are tested for use in just one crash event. This means that if the restraint is compromised in any way (with or without the child in it), owners are strongly suggested to replace it. This is due to the uncertainty with how a compromised child restraint will perform in subsequent crashes.
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) provides guidance on the reuse of child restraint systems after a crash. Replacement of child restraints is recommended following a moderate or severe crash in order to ensure a continued high level of protection for child passengers. However, recent studies demonstrate that child restraints can withstand minor crash impacts without any documented degradation in subsequent performance.
A minor crash is defined by the NHTSA as one in which all of the following apply:
Crashes that meet all of these criteria are much less severe than the dynamic testing requirement for compliance with Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) 213 and are highly unlikely to affect future child safety seat performance.
Child restraints are sometimes the subject of manufacturing recalls. Recalls vary in severity; sometimes the manufacturer will send an additional part for the seat, other times they will provide an entirely new seat.
The purchase of a used seat is not recommended. Due to the aforementioned concerns regarding expiry dates, crash testing, and recalls, it is often impossible to determine the history of the child restraint when it is purchased second - hand.
Children traveling by plane are safer in a child safety seat than in a parent 's arms. The FAA and the AAP recommend that all children under 40 lb use a child safety seat on a plane. Booster seats can not be used on airplanes because they do n't have shoulder belts.
Parents should not put children into safety seats with thick winter coats on. The coat will flatten in an accident and the straps will not be snug enough to keep the child safe. An alternative would be placing a coat on the child backwards after buckling the child in.
Straps on the harness should be snug on the child, parents should not be able to pinch the straps away from the shoulders of the child. The straps also need to be placed at the proper height for the child.
A study of car crash data from 16 U.S. states found that children under the age of 3 were 43 % less likely to be injured in a car crash if their car seat was fastened in the center of the back seat rather than on one side. Results were based on data from 4,790 car crashes involving children aged 3 and younger between 1998 and 2006. According to data, the center position was the safest but least used position. However, economist Steven Levitt (see below) has demonstrated that car seats do not reduce fatalities when compared to regular seat belts.
The move from having car seats in the front passenger seat to having them in the back seat, facing backwards, may make it easier for a busy, distracted parent to leave an infant in the car. Each year, between 30 and 50 infants die of heat illness and hypothermia in the United States after being left in a car.
Directive 2003 / 20 / EC of the European Parliament and the Council has mandated the use of child - restraint systems in vehicles effective May 5, 2006. Children less than 135 centimetres (53 in) tall in vehicles must be restrained by an approved child restraint system suitable for the child 's size. In practice, child restraint systems must be able to be fitted to the front, or other rows of seats. Children may not be transported using a rearward - facing child restraint system in a passenger seat protected by a front air bag, unless the air bag has been deactivated.
For a child restraint to be sold or used within any of the 56 UNECE member states it must be approved by the standards of UNECE Regulation 44 / 04, Directive 77 / 541 / EEC or any other subsequent adaptation thereto. In order to be granted ECE R44 approval the child restraint must comply with several design, construction and production conformity standards. If approval is granted the seat can display an orange label with the unique approval license number, the type of approval, the mass group approved for and the details of the manufacturer.
However, until May 9, 2008 member states may have permitted the use of child restraint systems approved in accordance with their national standards. EuroNCAP has developed a child - safety - protection rating to encourage improved designs. Points are awarded for universal child - restraint anchorages ISOFIX, the quality of warning labels and deactivation systems for front - passenger airbags.
2013: New EU I - Size regulation is introduced: "i - Size '' is the name of a new European safety regulation, UNECE Regulation 129 that affects car seats for children under 15 months of age. It came into effect in July 2013 and provides extra protection in several ways, most notably by providing rearward facing travel for children up to 15 months instead of 9 to 12 months, which the previous EU regulation advised. Read more about I - Size. This new regulation is to be phased in between 2013 and 2018 and will be run in parallel to UNECE R44 / 04 until 2018 when it completely supersedes it.
Australian laws regarding infants in motor vehicles were revised on November 9, 2009.
By law every child restraint sold in Australia must carry the Australian Standard AS / NZ1754 sticker (pictured right). Most overseas child restraints, including restraints from Europe and the USA, do not comply with these Standards and can not legally be used in Australia. This also applies for ISOFIX child restraints imported from Europe or the USA.
In Australia there are six different types (Type A to Type F) of child restraints under the mandatory standard. Note: these restraints are NOT based on weight but on HEIGHT. All car seats with the AS / NZ1754 sticker will have height markers. These markers show clearly for what height the seat is appropriate.
The six types are:
Combination Type A / B: Child restraints can also be a combination of the above types. For example, a Type A / B converter seat.
The responsibility for children under the age of 16 using restraints or safety belts correctly rests with the driver. In Queensland, penalties for drivers not ensuring that passengers under the age of 16 are properly restrained involve a fine of A $300 and three demerit points. In Victoria the penalty is a fine of A $234 and three demerit points. Possible suspension or cancellation of license may also apply.
The Israeli regulation states that a Sal Kal (he: סל קל lit. easy basket) is equal to European group 0 and group 0 + regulations
An Urban legend in Israel states that nursery homes and hospitals will not allow exit with an infant if a SalKal (infant carry one safety seat) is not presented.
NZ Transport Agency governs the rules and sets standards for the health and safety aspects with respect to child restraints in New Zealand. Their guidelines dictate the minimum legal requirements for a New Zealand vehicle from the safety perspective. The correct fitting of a car seat can protect individuals and can be a lifesaver. This page provides details on qualified seat installation processes and approved standardized marks to look out for in child restraints. The Agency trains and certifies NZTA certified child restraint technicians who are authorized to install child safety seats.
Special rules apply to children travelling in vehicles first registered (in New Zealand or elsewhere) before 1 November 1979 since these vehicles are not required to be fitted with seat belts on all seats.
All child restraints must meet the standards set by the NZ Transport Agency. There are different marks to indicate this approval from the safety perspective. Approved marks / symbols are shown in the table below:
The number after ' E ' in the ECE 44 standard indicates as to which country certifies the child restraint. Hence the number differs between countries. The EU (European Union) also has similar symbols to indicate safety standards for children travelling in a vehicle.
From September 18, 2006, All children under the age of 12 have to use some form of child car seat, unless they are taller than 135 cm (4 ft 5in).
Though there are hundreds of variations of makes and models in the world of child safety seats, the materials used in the manufacturing process are basically the same. Factories in which the seats are put together receive loads of polypropylene pellets. Foam makes up the padding of the individual seats, while vinyl and fabrics are used to make up the covers for the seats as well as the harnesses.
A safety seat increases the safety of a properly restrained child in the case of a motor vehicle accident. The safety seat includes foam padding, fabric covers, a harness, and buckles or attaching mechanisms. Labels and instructions are also attached. Every child safety seat will have an expiration date on it. The Safe Kids USA organization does not recommend using a child safety seat that is more than 6 years old. Periodically, child safety seats are recalled by manufacturers for safety reasons. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration posts a link to recent recall information at nhtsa.gov.
There are different types of child safety seats for children of different sizes and ages.
Manufacturers have quality controls to ensure seats are properly put together and packaged. However, it is not guaranteed that the included instructions are always adhered to and correctly followed. Up to 95 % of the safety seats that are installed may not be the right seat for the child, may be hooked into the vehicle loosely, may be hooked with an incompatible belt in the vehicle, may have harnesses incorrectly fastened in some way, or may be incorrectly placed in front of air bags. In 1997, six out of ten children who were killed in vehicle crashes were not correctly restrained.
Along with the problem of instructions not being followed properly, there are other hazards that can affect children involving these safety seats. A recent study attributed many cases of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) to the prolonged sitting or lying position these infants are in when putting the safety seats to use. When researchers reviewed more than 500 infant deaths, it was found that 17 of these deaths occurred while the infant was in a device such as a child safety seat. The age of the most occurring rates of death by SIDS in a child safety device was found to be under one month, having six of the 17 deaths happen in this age group. Although SIDS has been found to be a high risk regarding child safety seats, a coroner in Quebec also stated that "putting infants in car seats... causes breathing problems and should be discouraged. '' His warning came after the death of a two - month - old boy who was left to nap in a child safety seat positioned inside his crib rather than the crib itself. The death was linked to positional asphyxiation. This means that the child was in a position causing him to slowly lose his supply of oxygen. Coroner Jacques Robinson said it 's common for a baby 's head to slump forward while in a car seat that is not properly installed in a car and that can diminish a baby 's ability to take in oxygen. "The car seat is for the car, '' he said. "It 's not for a bed or sleeping. '' Robinson added, however, he has nothing against car seats when they are properly used. The coroner said that it is common for a baby 's head to "slump forward while in a car seat and that it diminishes oxygen ''.
The American Academy of Pediatrics says to "make sure the seat is at the correct angle so your infant 's head does not flop forward. Many seats have angle indicators or adjusters that can help prevent this. If your seat does not have an angle adjuster, tilt the car safety seat back by putting a rolled towel or other firm padding (such as a pool noodle) under the base near the point where the back and bottom of the vehicle seat meet. '' Safety seats come with an instruction booklet with additional information on the appropriate angle for the seat.
There has been some criticism of forward - facing child safety seats, in particular by the economist Steven D. Levitt, author of the popular book Freakonomics. In a 2005 article in the New York Times, Levitt suggests that the available data does not support the necessity of forward - facing child safety seats for children over two years old, arguing that the cheaper and simpler alternative of seat belts offers similar protection as forward - facing seats. Levitt was a guest at the TED conference in the same year, and gave a lecture making the same case. Levitt 's study and findings have been criticized and refuted by subsequent peer reviewed studies, which found child safety seats offer a considerable safety advantage over seat belts alone.
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how many series are there of saving hope | List of Saving Hope episodes - wikipedia
Saving Hope is a Canadian television supernatural medical drama that debuted on the CTV and NBC networks simultaneously on June 7, 2012. The show 's central character is Dr. Alex Reid (Erica Durance), a doctor whose fiancé, Dr. Charles Harris (Michael Shanks), is in a coma after being in a car accident. The show follows the life of Harris in his coma state, and Reid dealing with patients, and "hoping '' that he will survive. Dr. Reid is the Chief Surgical Resident at Hope Zion Hospital in Toronto, and Dr. Harris would normally be the Chief of Surgery at Hope Zion, but had been replaced due to his current condition.
In September 2012, NBC pulled the last two episodes of the first season, and released them online, subsequently canceling their syndication of the series. On December 17, 2015, CTV ordered a fifth and final season of the series. During the course of the series, 85 episodes of Saving Hope aired over five seasons.
Shahir and Alex plan a last - resort procedure for Charlie, which forces Charlie to come to terms with his past. A female jockey undergoes risky surgery that results in partial paralysis, and Joel quits, feeling guilty for this outcome. Gavin crosses the line with a patient when he starts to become personally involved, and disaster ensues. After Alex urges Shahir to keep trying, Charlie finally wakes up.
Joel tries to save a patient from flesh - eating disease and Alex has some hard decisions to make. Charlie enjoys being back in the land of the living and plans on marrying Alex as soon as possible. Then he discovers he did n't leave the spiritual plane behind as much as he thought, when he realizes that a woman he 's been talking to, is in fact already dead.
Season 3 episode titles are named after films.
Season 4 episode titles are The Rolling Stones song titles.
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where is the canadian pickers store located in calgary | Canadian Pickers - wikipedia
Canadian Pickers is a Cineflix - produced cable television reality series filmed in Canada which airs in that country on the History channel. It is syndicated elsewhere under the name Cash Cowboys.
The series was canceled on November 19, 2013, with the final episodes airing on December 23, 2013.
Similar in format to Cineflix 's production, American Pickers, Canadian Pickers follows Scott Cozens and Sheldon Smithens as they travel across Canada looking for items in basements, garages, attics, sheds, barns, warehouses, storage units, flea markets, yard sales, and shops. Always clad in cowboy hats and Western wear, the pair make use of their folksy charm when negotiating the purchase of collectibles ranging from vintage furniture, antiques, and advertising to all things Canadiana in hopes of making a profit upon their resale.
Scott Cozens is a former electrician turned full - time attorney practicing in Calgary, Alberta. He can be found spending his free time traveling across Canada pursuing his childhood passion as a picker.
Sheldon Smithers is a third - generation antiques dealer, auctioneer, and appraiser with a vast knowledge of antiques and collectibles qualifying him as a professional picker. When not on picking expeditions, Sheldon teaches continuing education courses in antiques collecting at the University of Calgary located in Calgary, Alberta.
On April 12, 2011, Season 1 of Canadian Pickers debuted on History Television (which became History in August 2012). Building on the success of the first season, Season 2 aired from January 2012 to April 2012 followed by Season 3 which began airing in August 2012.
The series is syndicated outside of English Canada under the name Cash Cowboys, including in the following markets:
Additionally, reruns of the show under its original were seen in Canada on TVtropolis.
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who is performing at the all star game | 2018 NBA All - Star Game - wikipedia
The 2018 NBA All - Star Game was the 67th edition of an exhibition basketball game that was played on February 18, 2018. It was held at Staples Center in Los Angeles, home of the Los Angeles Lakers and Los Angeles Clippers. It was the sixth time that Los Angeles had hosted the All - Star Game and the first time since 2011. Team LeBron won against Team Stephen 148 - 145. The MVP of the game was LeBron James, scoring 29 points, 10 rebounds, 8 assists, winning his third NBA All - Star Game Most Valuable Player (MVP) award. The game was televised nationally by TNT for the 16th consecutive year.
On October 3, 2017, the NBA announced that the format would change from the traditional Eastern Conference versus Western Conference format, and would instead switch to a draft - style format, similar to the format used by the NHL All - Star Game from 2011 through 2015 and the NFL Pro Bowl from 2014 through 2016. The team captains were determined by the most votes received in their respective conference. Each team will pick a charity to play for, and the winning team will have money donated to their charity. The winning team will receive $100,000 for each player and the losing team $25,000 each.
The two teams were coached from their respected conference. Mike D'Antoni, coach of the Houston Rockets, was named as the head coach for Team Stephen. Dwane Casey, coach of the Toronto Raptors, was named as the head coach for Team LeBron.
The rosters for the All - Star Game were selected through a voting process. The starters were chosen by the fans, media, and current NBA players. Fans make up 50 % of the vote, and NBA players and media each comprise 25 % of the vote. The two guards and three frontcourt players who receive the highest cumulative vote totals are named the All - Star starters. NBA head coaches vote for the reserves for their respective conferences, none of which can be players on their own team. Each coach selects two guards, three frontcourt players and two wild cards, with each selected player ranked in order of preference within each category. If a multi-position player is to be selected, coaches are encouraged to vote for the player at the position that was "most advantageous for the All - Star team '', regardless of where the player was listed on the All - Star ballot or the position he was listed in box scores.
The All - Star Game starters were announced on January 18, 2018. Kyrie Irving of the Boston Celtics and DeMar DeRozan of the Toronto Raptors were named the backcourt starters in the East, earning their fifth and fourth all - star appearances, respectively. LeBron James was named a starter to his 14th career all - star game, breaking Dirk Nowitzki 's record for most selections among active players. Joining James in the East frontcourt was Joel Embiid of the Philadelphia 76ers, his first selection, and Giannis Antetokounmpo of the Milwaukee Bucks, his second selection.
Stephen Curry of the Golden State Warriors and James Harden of the Houston Rockets were named to the starting backcourt in the West, earning their fifth and sixth all - star appearances, respectively. In the frontcourt, Kevin Durant of the Golden State Warriors was named to his ninth career all - star game, along with DeMarcus Cousins and Anthony Davis of the New Orleans Pelicans, their fourth and fifth all - star selections, respectively.
The All - Star Game reserves were announced on January 23, 2018. The West reserves include Russell Westbrook of the Oklahoma City Thunder, his seventh selection, Klay Thompson and Draymond Green of the Golden State Warriors, their fourth and third all - star selections, respectively, LaMarcus Aldridge of the San Antonio Spurs, his sixth selection, Damian Lillard of the Portland Trailblazers, his third selection, and Karl - Anthony Towns and Jimmy Butler of the Minnesota Timberwolves, their first and fourth all - star selections, respectively.
The East reserves include Kyle Lowry of the Toronto Raptors, his fourth selection, Al Horford of the Boston Celtics, his fifth selection, John Wall and Bradley Beal of the Washington Wizards, their fifth and first all - star selections, respectively, Victor Oladipo of the Indiana Pacers, his first selection, Kevin Love of the Cleveland Cavaliers, his fifth selection, and Kristaps Porzingis of the New York Knicks, his first selection.
LeBron James and Stephen Curry were named as captains due to being the leading vote getter from the East and West, respectively. James had the first pick in the draft as the leading vote getter overall, while Curry has first choice of jersey color, due to the Western Conference having home team status for the game. The draft pool consisted of the eight other starters, with no regard to conference designation, and 14 reserves (seven from each conference), chosen by NBA head coaches. On January 25, 2018, LeBron James and Stephen Curry created their rosters via a draft, which would not be televised for various reasons. NBA Commissioner Adam Silver will select the replacement for any player unable to participate in the All - Star Game, choosing a player from the same conference as the player who is being replaced. Silver 's selection would join the team that drafted the replaced player. If a replaced player is a starter, the head coach of that team will choose a new starter from his cast of players instead.
^ INJ1 DeMarcus Cousins was unable to play due to an Achilles injury. ^ REP1 Paul George was selected as DeMarcus Cousins ' replacement. ^ INJ2 John Wall was unable to participate due to a knee injury. ^ REP2 Andre Drummond was selected as John Wall 's replacement. ^ INJ3 Kevin Love was unable to participate due to a hand injury. ^ REP3 Goran Dragić was selected as Kevin Love 's replacement. ^ INJ4 Kristaps Porziņģis was unable to participate due to a torn ACL. ^ REP4 Kemba Walker was named as Kristaps Porziņģis ' replacement. ^ ST Russell Westbrook was selected to start in place of Cousins.
Fergie 's performance of "The Star - Spangled Banner '' prior to the game received heavy negative criticism and mockery online. The rendition -- described as "unusual '' and "bizarre '' -- was met with laughter from the arena crowd, and All - Star Draymond Green was shown chuckling on the television broadcast. The following day, Fergie said she "wanted to try something special for the NBA, '' but it "did n't strike the intended tone. ''
The 2018 NBA All - Star Celebrity Game presented by Ruffles was played on Friday, February 16, 2018 at the Los Angeles Convention Center. Since the All - Star Weekend was held in Los Angeles, the competition was represented by the two NBA teams in the city with the Los Angeles Lakers (Team Lakers) and the Los Angeles Clippers (Team Clippers) instead of the typical West Vs. East affair like in previous years.
^ INJ1 Malcolm Brogdon is unable to participate due to a leg injury. ^ REP1 Taurean Prince was selected as Malcolm Brogdon 's replacement. ^ INJ2 Lonzo Ball is unable to participate due to a knee injury. ^ REP2 De'Aaron Fox was selected as Lonzo Ball 's replacement.
Team World won against Team USA 155 - 124.
^ OUT Donovan Mitchell was removed due to replacing Aaron Gordon in the Slam Dunk Contest. ^ ALT Buddy Hield was named as Donovan Mitchell 's replacement. ^ INJ Kristaps Porziņģis unable to participate due to a torn ACL. ^ REP Andre Drummond was named as Kristaps Porziņģis ' replacement.
^ INJ Aaron Gordon was unable to participate due to a hip injury. ^ REP Donovan Mitchell was named as Aaron Gordon 's replacement.
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who played colonel sink in band of brothers | Dale Dye - Wikipedia
Vietnam War
Captain Dale Adam Dye Jr., USMC (Ret.) (born October 8, 1944) is an American actor, technical advisor, radio personality and writer. A decorated Marine veteran of the Vietnam War, Dye is the founder and head of Warriors, Inc., a technical advisory company specializing in portraying realistic military action in Hollywood films. Dye has also offered his expertise to television, such as the HBO miniseries Band of Brothers and The Pacific, and video games, including the Medal of Honor series.
Dale Dye was born on October 8, 1944, in Cape Girardeau, Missouri, to Dale Adam Dye Sr. and Della Grace (née Koehler) Dye. His father was a liquor salesman in and around St. Louis and took Dale with him as he visited working - class taverns. There he heard war stories from World War II veterans. One particular story about man - to - man fighting told by a Marine who said he had fought in the Pacific Theater arrested Dale 's attention. He looked up the Battle of Iwo Jima that night and made up his mind to become a Marine. Dye was educated at St. Joseph 's Military Academy in Chicago and the Missouri Military Academy in Mexico, Missouri.
Dye had hoped to attend Annapolis, but after failing the entrance exam three times -- "my math and science skills were weak, and my English skills were huge '' -- and having exhausted his family 's meager funds getting through military academy, he enlisted in the Marines in January 1964. His unit was among the first to deploy to Vietnam in 1965. Officers in the unit noticed his keen observational skills and literary interest and encouraged him to reclassify as a combat correspondent. He became one of a very few Marine combat correspondents. He sent stories to military publications and to the home town newspapers of fellow Marines. As a correspondent, he saw more battle than many low - ranking infantrymen. Dye developed an immense respect for the grunts who took the brunt of any action.
Dye was wounded during the Tet Offensive in 1968. While recuperating in a rear area, the 2nd Battalion 3rd Marines, the unit he had traveled with, was preparing for Operation Ford. Dye persuaded the battalion commander to let him accompany the battalion as a war correspondent. During the next week, the battalion engaged in a number of fire fights with units of the North Vietnamese Army - NVA (People 's Army of Vietnam). On 18 March 1968, Dye replaced an assistant machine gunner who had been killed. The machine gun position was isolated forward of the remainder of the battalion. Although he was wounded, Dye exposed himself to "intense enemy fire '' to retrieve ammunition for the machine gun to help hold off NVA soldiers during an all - night firefight. During other engagements, he exposed himself to enemy fire in order to rescue several wounded Marines and a Navy corpsman. As a result of his actions, he was awarded the Bronze Star Medal with Combat "V '' for heroism.
"Dye 's heart is with the grunts, '' says Bob Rea, who worked with Dye as a combat correspondent during the worst of Tet. "He feels like he owes something to those people. He is a grunt wannabe. '' During three tours of duty in South Vietnam, he participated in 31 combat operations. During his 1967 to 1968 and 1969 to 1970 tours of duty, he was attached to two different battalions of the 1st Marine Division. Dye spent a total of 13 years as an enlisted Marine, rising to the rank of Master Sergeant before being appointed a warrant officer in 1976. Afterwards he entered into the Limited Duty Program and became commissioned as a captain. He is considered a "mustang '' (an enlisted man who receives a commission as an officer). While he was a captain, he was deployed to Beirut for duty with the Multinational Force in Lebanon in 1982 and 1983. Shortly after his return, the Marine barracks were attacked and 241 Americans died.
Fellow Marine correspondent Gustav Hasford dubbed him "Daddy D.A '' (as he was among the oldest of the correspondents) and included him as a character in his first semi-autobiographical Vietnam novel, The Short - Timers, and more extensively in his second, The Phantom Blooper. The movie based on Hasford 's first novel, Full Metal Jacket, included the "Daddy D.A '' character (played by Keith Hodiak), though neither the character nor Dye 's name is explicitly mentioned in the dialogue.
In his book Dispatches, journalist Michael Herr provides a vivid picture of Dye during the chaos of the Tet Offensive and the Battle of Huế:
And there was a Marine correspondent, Sergeant Dale Dye, who sat with a tall yellow flower sticking out of his helmet cover, a really outstanding target. He was rolling his eyes around and saying, ' Oh yes, oh yes, Charlie 's got his shit together here, this will be bad, '' and smiling happily. It was the same smile I saw a week later when a sniper 's bullet tore up a wall two inches above his head, odd cause for amusement in anyone but a grunt.
Dye retired from the Marine Corps in 1984 and founded Warriors, Inc. The company specializes in training actors in war films to portray their roles realistically and provides research, planning, staging, and on - set consultation for directors and other film production personnel. His company is the top military consultant to Hollywood. While on active duty, Dye was a combat correspondent and earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in English from the University of Maryland University College. After retiring, Dye became a correspondent for Soldier of Fortune Magazine. He worked for the magazine for one year during which he worked in Central America, providing guerrilla warfare training to troops in El Salvador and Nicaragua while reporting on conflicts in the region.
Dye has written several novels, including Run Between The Raindrops (1985, also published as Citadel) and Conduct Unbecoming (1992), and the novelization of the film Platoon. Along with wife Julia and comic book artist Gerry Kissell, Dye created the critically acclaimed and best - selling graphic novel Code Word: Geronimo (IDW Publishing, 2011), which tells the story of the Navy SEAL raid on Osama bin Laden 's compound.
Dye was determined to make Hollywood 's depictions of battle more realistic. After unsuccessfully offering his services to a number of directors, he pitched fellow Vietnam veteran Oliver Stone a plan to put actors through a mock boot camp before production of the movie Platoon. Dye put the principal actors -- including Charlie Sheen, Willem Dafoe, Johnny Depp and Forest Whitaker -- through an immersive 30 - day military - style training regimen. He limited how much food and water they received; when the actors slept, he fired blanks to keep the tired actors awake. Dye, who had a small role in the movie as Captain Harris, also wrote the novelization based on Stone 's screenplay. After Platoon 's critical success, Dye played a role in another Vietnam War movie, Casualties of War, and also played Colonel Robert Sink in the HBO miniseries Band of Brothers, on which his company also worked. Dye also worked as a military technical adviser on the HBO companion piece to Band of Brothers, the ten - part mini-series The Pacific, which was shot in Australia.
Dye appeared in Outbreak portraying Lieutenant Colonel Briggs, a U.S. Army officer. He played Theodore Roosevelt 's superior officer, Colonel Leonard Wood, in the TNT miniseries Rough Riders. He appeared in Saving Private Ryan as an aide to General George Marshall; in Under Siege and Under Siege 2: Dark Territory as Captain Garza, an admiral 's aide; in Spy Game as Commander Wiley during the rescue sequence; in Mission Impossible as Frank Barnes of the CIA; in JFK as General Y; and in Starship Troopers as a high - ranking officer in the aftermath of the Brain Bug capture. Dye played himself in Entourage, teaching Vince to scuba - dive in preparation for his role in Aquaman. He appeared in the 2011 Tom Hanks film Larry Crowne. He was the technical adviser for the 1994 Oliver Stone movie Natural Born Killers. Dye played Col. Porter in the TNT science fiction series Falling Skies from 2011 to 2013. As of 2015 he was preparing to direct two films, No Better Place to Die, which he wrote, and Citizen Soldiers.
During the Second Gulf War, Dye was hired as a military commentator by radio station KFI AM 640 in Los Angeles and given a two - hour radio show. He hosted The History Channel 's documentary series The Conquerors. Dye consulted during development of the Medal of Honor video games series. He was featured in two tracks on Hoobastank 's CD Every Man for Himself. Dye voiced Colonel Robert Sink in the Brothers In Arms video game series. Dye had a cameo appearance as New Founding Father Donald Talbott in the 2014 film The Purge: Anarchy.
Dye 's military decorations and awards include:
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who sang the original song sweet home alabama | Sweet Home Alabama - wikipedia
"Sweet Home Alabama '' is a song by Southern rock band Lynyrd Skynyrd that first appeared in 1974 on their second album, Second Helping.
It reached number 8 on the US chart in 1974 and was the band 's second hit single. The song was written in reply to "Southern Man '' and "Alabama '' by Neil Young; Young is name - checked in the song 's lyrics.
At a band practice shortly after bassist Ed King had switched to guitar, he heard fellow guitarist Gary Rossington playing a guitar riff that inspired him (in fact, this riff is still heard in the final version of the song and is played during the verses as a counterpoint to the main D -- C -- G chord progression). In interviews, King has said that during the night following the practice session, the chords and two main guitar solos came to him in a dream, note for note. King then introduced the song to the band the next day. Also written at this session was the track that followed "Sweet Home Alabama '' on the Second Helping album, "I Need You ''.
A live version of the track on the compilation album Collectybles places the writing of the song during the late summer of 1973, as the live set available on the album is dated October 30, 1973.
The track was recorded at Studio One in Doraville, Georgia, using just King, bassist Wilkeson, and drummer Burns to lay down the basic backing track. King used a Marshall amp belonging to Allen Collins. The guitar used on the track was a 1972 Fender Stratocaster. King has said that the guitar was a pretty poor model and had bad pickups, forcing him to turn the amp up all the way to get decent volume out of it. This guitar is now displayed at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum in Cleveland, Ohio.
The famous "Turn it up '' line uttered by Ronnie Van Zant at the beginning was actually not intended to be in the song. Van Zant was simply asking producer Al Kooper and engineer Rodney Mills to increase the volume in his headphones so that he could hear the track better.
There is a semi-hidden vocal line in the second verse after the line "Well, I heard Mr. Young sing about her ''. In the left channel, you can hear the phrase "Southern Man '' being sung lightly (approximately at 0: 55). This was producer Al Kooper doing a Neil Young impression and was just another instance of the band members amusing themselves in the studio while being recorded. According to Leon Wilkeson, it was Kooper 's idea to continue and echo the lines from "Southern Man '' after each of Van Zant 's lines. "Better... keep your head ''... "Do n't forget what your / good book says '', etc. But Van Zant insisted that Kooper remove it, not wanting to plagiarize or upset Young. Kooper left the one line barely audible in the left channel.
Following the two "woos '' (Wilkeson 's, the first; King 's, the second) at the start of the piano solo (at approximately 4: 08), Van Zant can be heard ad - libbing "My, Montgomery 's got the answer. '' The duplicate "my '' was produced by Kooper turning off one of the two vocal takes. For Lynyrd Skynyrd 's 1976 film Free Bird, this final line was changed to "Mr. (Jimmy) Carter got the answer. '' in a reference to the 1976 Presidential Election. While this line has many variations, and was commonly sung as "My Montgomery 's got the answer, '' in the original recording, the line was "Ma and Pop Stoneman got the answer, '' referring to Hattie and Ernest Stoneman, better known as Ma and Pop Stoneman of the bluegrass / country music group and a TV show of the same name, The Stoneman Family.
The count - in heard in the beginning of the track is spoken by King. The count - in to the first song on an album was a signature touch that producer Kooper usually put on albums that he made.
"Sweet Home Alabama '' was a major chart hit for a band whose previous singles had "lazily sauntered out into release with no particular intent ''. The hit led to two TV rock show offers, which the band turned down. In addition to the original appearance on Second Helping, the song has appeared on numerous Lynyrd Skynyrd collections and live albums.
None of the three writers of the song were from Alabama. Ronnie Van Zant and Gary Rossington were both born in Jacksonville, Florida. Ed King was from Glendale, California.
"Sweet Home Alabama '' was written as an answer to two songs, "Southern Man '' and "Alabama '' by Neil Young, which dealt with themes of racism and slavery in the American South. "We thought Neil was shooting all the ducks in order to kill one or two, '' said Ronnie Van Zant at the time. The following excerpt shows the Neil Young mention in the song:
Well, I heard Mister Young sing about her Well, I heard ol ' Neil put her down Well, I hope Neil Young will remember A Southern man do n't need him around anyhow
In his 2012 autobiography Waging Heavy Peace, Young commented on his role in the song 's creation, writing "My own song ' Alabama ' richly deserved the shot Lynyrd Skynyrd gave me with their great record. I do n't like my words when I listen to it. They are accusatory and condescending, not fully thought out, and too easy to misconstrue ''.
Van Zant 's other response was also controversial, with references to the Governor of Alabama, George Wallace (a noted supporter of segregation) and the Watergate scandal:
In Birmingham, they love the governor (boo boo boo) Now we all did what we could do Now Watergate does not bother me Does your conscience bother you? Tell the truth... Sweet home Alabama, oh, sweet home baby Where the skies are so blue and the governor 's true
Music historians point out that the choice of Birmingham in connection with the governor (rather than the capital Montgomery) is significant for the controversy as "In 1963, the city was the site of massive civil rights activism, as thousands of demonstrators led by Martin Luther King, Jr. sought to desegregate downtown businesses... (and) was the scene of some of the most violent moments of the Civil Rights Movement. Segregationist police chief Bull Connor unleashed attack dogs and high - pressure water cannons against peaceful marchers, including women and children; just weeks later, Ku Klux Klansmen bombed a black church, killing four little girls. ''
In 1975, Van Zant said: "The lyrics about the governor of Alabama were misunderstood. The general public did n't notice the words ' Boo! Boo! Boo! ' after that particular line, and the media picked up only on the reference to the people loving the governor. '' "The line ' We all did what we could do ' is sort of ambiguous, '' Al Kooper notes. "' We tried to get Wallace out of there ' is how I always thought of it. '' Towards the end of the song, Van Zant adds "where the governor 's true '' to the chorus 's "where the skies are so blue, '' a line rendered ironic by the previous booing of the governor. Journalist Al Swenson argues that the song is more complex than it is sometimes given credit for, suggesting that it only looks like an endorsement of Wallace. "Wallace and I have very little in common, '' Van Zant himself said, "I do n't like what he says about colored people. ''
Music historians examining the juxtaposition of invoking Richard Nixon and Watergate after Wallace and Birmingham note that one reading of the lyrics is an "attack against the liberals who were so outraged at Nixon 's conduct '' while others interpret it regionally: "the band was speaking for the entire South, saying to northerners, we 're not judging you as ordinary citizens for the failures of your leaders in Watergate; do n't judge all of us as individuals for the racial problems of southern society ''.
One verse of the song includes the line, "Now Muscle Shoals has got the Swampers / And they 've been known to pick a song or two. '' This refers to the town of Muscle Shoals, Alabama, a popular location for recording popular music because of the "sound '' crafted by local recording studios and back - up musicians. "The Swampers '' referred to in the lyrics are the Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section. These musicians, who crafted the "Muscle Shoals Sound '', were inducted into the Alabama Music Hall of Fame in 1995 for a "Lifework Award for Non-Performing Achievement '' and into the Musician 's Hall Of Fame in 2008 (the performers inducted into the latter were the four founding Swampers -- Barry Beckett, Roger Hawkins, David Hood, Jimmy Johnson -- plus Pete Carr, Clayton Ivey, Randy McCormack, Will McFarlane, and Spooner Oldham). The nickname "The Swampers '' was given to the Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section by producer Denny Cordell during a recording session by singer / songwriter Leon Russell, in reference to their ' swampy ' sound.
Part of the reference comes from the 1971 -- 1972 demo reels that Lynyrd Skynyrd had recorded in Muscle Shoals with Johnson as a producer / recording engineer. Johnson helped refine many of the songs first heard publicly on the Pronounced album, and it was Van Zant 's "tip of the hat '' to Johnson for helping out the band in the early years and essentially giving the band its first break.
Lynyrd Skynyrd remains connected to Muscle Shoals, having since recorded a number of works in the city and making it a regular stop on their concert tours.
The PBS show Independent Lens aired a documentary on Muscle Shoals and its place in music history in mid-April 2014.
Lynyrd Skynyrd
Additional personnel
sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Kid Rock 's 2008 song "All Summer Long '' samples "Sweet Home Alabama '' on the chorus and uses the guitar solo and piano outro, as well as the "turn it up '' shout before the guitar solo; Billy Powell is featured on the track. "All Summer Long '' also samples Warren Zevon 's "Werewolves of London '', which has similar chord progression to "Sweet Home Alabama ''. Since Kid Rock 's release, the original song has charted in the UK charts at number 44.
Zevon apparently hated "Sweet Home Alabama '' and referred to it as "that dead band 's song ''. He surmised that those who listen to it only do so because their own lives are miserable, and his views on the song are articulated in "Play It All Night Long '', which appears on his 1980 album Bad Luck Streak in Dancing School.
In the 1980 - 1990s, the song is played during warmups of the University of Alabama in Huntsville Charger Hockey team during home games. This song can also be heard before, during, and after many University of Alabama sporting events. Majority of the Alabama fan base have mixed the words "Roll Tide Roll '' in the middle of the chorus to relate Alabama sports to the Great State of Alabama.
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what time do they stop selling alcohol in alabama | List of alcohol laws of the United states - wikipedia
The following table of alcohol laws of the United States provides an overview of alcohol - related laws by first level jurisdictions throughout the US. This list is not intended to provide a breakdown of such laws by local jurisdiction within a state; see that state 's alcohol laws page for more detailed information.
On July 17, 1984, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act. The bill would force all states to raise their drinking age from 18, 19, or 20 to 21. States that did not choose to raise their drinking age to 21 would risk losing 8 % (10 % before 2012) of federal highway funding as a penalty. As of July 1988, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had a minimum purchase age of 21, with some grandfather clauses, and with the exception of Louisiana 's complicated legal situation that was not resolved until July 2, 1996. Prior to 1988, the minimum purchase age varied by jurisdiction. After Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act in July 1984, states not in compliance had a portion of their federal highway budget withheld. South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply, in mid-1988. However, most states continue to allow those under 21 to drink in certain circumstances. Examples are some states like Tennessee and Washington, which allow those under 21 to drink for religious purposes. States including Oregon and New York allow those under 21 to drink on private non-alcohol selling premises.
Unlike on the mainland, the U.S. territories of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands have a minimum purchase and drinking age of 18. The minimum purchase age is 21 in the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and US Minor Outlying Islands.
U.S. military reservations are exempt under federal law from state, county, and locally enacted alcohol beverage laws. Class Six stores in a base exchange facility, officers ' or NCO clubs, as well as other military commissaries which are located on a military reservation, may sell and serve alcohol beverages at any time during their prescribed hours of operation to authorized patrons.
Individual states remain free to restrict or prohibit the manufacture of beer, mead, hard cider, wine, and other fermented alcoholic beverages at home. Homebrewing beer became legal in all 50 states in 2013 as the governor of Mississippi signed a bill legalizing homebrewing on March 19, 2013 and as the governor of Alabama signed a bill legalizing homebrewing of beer and wine which came into effect on May 9, 2013. The Mississippi bill went into effect July 1, 2013. Most states allow brewing 100 US gallons (380 L) of beer per adult per year and up to a maximum of 200 US gallons (760 L) per household annually when there are two or more adults residing in the household. Because alcohol is taxed by the federal government via excise taxes, homebrewers are prohibited from selling any beer they brew. This similarly applies in most Western countries. In 1979, President Jimmy Carter signed into law a bill allowing home beers, which was at the time not permitted without paying the excise taxes as a holdover from the prohibition of alcoholic beverages (repealed in 1933). This change also exempted home brewers from posting a "penal bond '' (which is currently $1000.00).
Production of distilled alcohols is regulated at the National level under USC Title 26 subtitle E Ch51. Numerous requirements must be met to do so and production carries an excise tax. Owning or operating a distillation apparatus without filing the proper paperwork and paying the taxes carries federal criminal penalties.
In land or property that is being rented or owned by the federal government, state, territory, and federal district alcohol laws do not apply. Instead, only laws made by the federal government apply.
Distilled spirits (liquor) are purchasable in either state - owned retail liquor stores, known as ABC Stores, or privately - owned retail liquor stores. Privately - owned retail liquor stores tend to be open on Sundays, public (federal & state) holidays, and later hours than state - owned liquor stores.
3.2 beer: 5 a.m. - midnight
Beer can be purchased at grocery / convenience stores. Spirits and wine can be purchased only at liquor stores.
No off - premises alcohol sales on Thanksgiving, Christmas Day, and New Year 's Day.
Open container law applies only to drivers, not passengers.
8 a.m. -- 3 a.m. Fri. -- Sat.
9 a.m. -- midnight daily * Grocery Stores: 9 a.m. - 12 a.m. daily
No singles sold, but stores in some areas may apply for an exemption. Certain wards may be made dry by the decision of the local ANC, but as of 2005 none are The day before a federal or district holiday, on - premises retailers may sell / serve from 8 a.m. - 3 a.m. On New Yer 's Eve, on - premises retailers may sell / serve until 4 a.m. on January 1.
No retail sale of wine in containers larger than 1 gallon. FS 564.05 Supermarkets and other licensed business establishments may sell beer, low - alcohol liquors, and wine. Liquor must be sold in dedicated liquor stores which may be in a separate part of a grocery or a drug store. As of July 1, 2015, the restriction on 64 ounce refillable containers, or growlers, has been lifted and beer may be sold in quantities of 64 ounces, in addition to the previously legal 32 and 128 ounce sizes.
Sunday off - premises sales from 12: 30 p.m. to 11: 30 p.m. allowed only by local referendum. In general, one may not be drunk in public. Though there is no state law prohibiting drinking in public, most municipal corporations and political subdivisions limit the possession of open containers of alcohol to private property, with notable exceptions being Savannah and Roswell. A charge of public drunkenness is only warranted when one is drunk in public and his acts are either loud or disorderly.
No sales on Christmas Day (IC 7.1 - 5 - 10 - 1). Minors, including babies, are not allowed to enter a liquor store.
Indiana prohibits the sales of cold beer by grocery stores or gas stations, but allows cold beer to be sold from liquor stores (IC 7.1 - 5 - 10 - 11).
In 2010, Indiana enacted a stringent photo identification requirement for all off - premises transactions that initially required stores to verify the age of anyone purchasing alcohol by requiring him or her to produce a government - issued photo ID. The law applies to liquor stores, convenience stores, pharmacies and supermarkets in Indiana but not to restaurants, bars and other businesses where patrons consume alcohol onsite. However, due to significant backlash, the law was subsequently amended in the next legislative session (effective July 1, 2011) to pertain to anyone who is or reasonably appears to be less than forty (40) years of age. (See IC 7.1 - 5 - 10 - 23).
Public intoxication is a class B misdemeanor. (IC 7.1 - 5 - 1 - 3)
Alcohol sale restriction and wet / dry (both by drink and package) allowed by both county and city local option. Approximately 39 counties in the state (mostly eastern and southern counties) are dry, all alcohol sale and possession prohibited; 22 "moist '' counties (with "wet '' cities allowing package liquor sales in counties otherwise dry); 29 counties that are otherwise dry but have communities with local option that allow sales of liquor by the drink or under special exemptions allowing sales at wineries. Majority of wet counties are around major metropolitan areas (Louisville, Lexington, Covington, Bowling Green). Note: Beginning in 2013 Liquor by the drink and beer by the drink are available on Sundays in Louisville, KY beginning at 10: 00 am. Bowling Green, KY recently began allowing Sunday sales in December 2013 for carry - out beer, wine, and liquor. Prohibition on liquor sales on Election Day was repealed effective June 24, 2013. Kentucky was one of only two states to still have Election Day prohibition, the other being South Carolina.
Alcohol can be consumed in the streets of New Orleans as long as it is in an "unbreakable container '' (no glass) and may be taken from club to club if both establishments allow it. Otherwise, it depends on the locality. Most parishes other than Orleans Parish do not permit alcoholic beverages served on premises to be carried out. However, many parishes and municipalities permit consumption of packaged beverages (for example, cans of beer) on the street. Glass bottles on the streets are prohibited. One can enter most bars at 18 years of age but must be 21 years old to purchase or consume alcohol. Also, it is legal in the state of Louisiana for a legal parent or guardian to purchase alcoholic beverages for their underaged child.
Drive - thru frozen daiquiri stands are legal and common, but the police can arrest you for driving with an open container, if you have put the straw in the cup
noon - 2 a.m. (Sunday) * sales may begin at 7 a.m. with special license extension
noon - 2 a.m. (Sunday) * sales may begin at 7 a.m. with special license extension,
11: 00 a.m. - 6: 00 p.m. (Sun)
No sales on Christmas Day. No state open container laws. Complimentary alcohol all day and night in coastal casinos. In most counties, alcohol can not be sold on Sundays. There are many dry counties in which it is illegal to possess alcoholic beverages, though some cities within dry counties have voted in beer sales.
(Mon -- Sat) 6: 00am -- 1: 30am
(Sunday) 9: 00am -- 12: 00pm
Special licenses in Kansas City and St. Louis:
(Daily) 6: 00am -- 3: 00am
(Sunday) 9: 00am -- 12: 00am
Sales permitted until 3: 00 am in those Kansas City and St. Louis bars grandfathered into the ability to double as liquor stores.
Missouri law recognizes two types of alcoholic beverage: liquor, which is any beverage containing more than 0.5 % alcohol except "non-intoxicating beer ''; and "non-intoxicating beer, '' which is beer containing between 0.5 % and 3.2 % alcohol. Liquor laws apply to all liquor, and special laws apply to "non-intoxicating beer. ''
State law also renders public intoxication legal, and explicitly prohibits any local or state law from making it a public offence. Alcohol purchase is only controlled in Panaca.
Though there is not a ban on selling alcoholic beverages at grocery stores, New Jersey limits each chain to two licenses, so with only a few exceptions, most supermarkets / convenience stores / gas stations / pharmacies do not sell alcoholic beverages. In addition, liquor sales are only permitted in a separate department or attached sister store. Bars are allowed to off - sale packaged goods. With the exception of Jersey City and Newark, all municipalities MUST allow off - sales of beer and wine at any time on - sales are permitted. However, since alcoholic beverages are generally only found in package stores, this right is rarely exercised. Alcoholic beverages by the drink as well as off - sales of beer and wine are permitted 24 hours a day in Atlantic City and Brigantine.
7 a.m. -- 11 p.m., except Sundays, for restaurants with beer and wine license.
Some counties may retain the Sunday morning beer prohibition which the state discontinued as of July 30, 2006. Twelve dry towns, mostly in western region of state. Many counties have more restrictive off - premises hours, such as bans on beer sales overnight (hours vary). All liquor stores must be owned by a single owner, who owns that store and lives within a certain distance of it -- effectively banning chain liquor stores from the state. New York City law does not allow open containers of alcohol in public.
Beverages with less than 0.5 % ABV can be sold / given to people under the age of eighteen if given by a physician in the regular line of his practice or given for established religious purposes, or the underage person is accompanied by a parent, spouse who is not an underage person, or legal guardian.
Beer can be purchased at beverage outlets (> 128oz), or restaurants (six - packs / 192oz max. purchase (two six packs)) with Liquor Control Board -- issued licenses, but not supermarkets. Non-alcoholic beer is an exception, and may be sold in supermarkets, but persons buying it still must be at least 21 years of age. Prior to 2015 beverage centers could only sell 24 pack cases or greater. The rules were relaxed to permit sales of 12 and 18 packs.
Sunday sales were prohibited in LCB stores until 2003 (selected locations) and beverage outlets (owner 's option) until 2005.
There are currently seven state liquor stores located within supermarkets.
In 2010, a trial was initiated to test selling wine in grocery stores using vending machines. The buyer must present identification, look into a camera to allow an offsite PLCB employee to verify the identification, and blow into a breathalyzer to authorize the sale. This practice was ended in September 2011.
Starting in 2007, a number of groceries stores began selling beer within their supermarket cafe. They were granted restaurant liquor licenses by successfully arguing that the cafe is separate from the supermarket. Beer can only be purchased within the cafe; not at the general supermarket checkout, with a maximum of 192oz (two 16oz six packs.) Additionally, as of 2006, some gas stations have found a way to sell beer, such as Sheetz, by taking advantage of a loophole where they can classify themselves as restaurants, though this is rare throughout the state.
Special permits may be purchased for certain organizations for fundraisers once per calendar year, and are valid for a total of six days under the same rules governing restaurants. Grain alcohol prohibited as a beverage.
Liquor: Mon - Sat: 8 am - Midnight, Sun: Prohibited
Nonalcoholic beer is not regulated by state law.
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when does season 2 of spirit riding free come out | Spirit Riding Free - Wikipedia
Spirit Riding Free is an animated series based on the 2002 Oscar - nominated film, Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron. The series is produced by DreamWorks Animation Television and distributed by Netflix. Six episodes of the first season premiered on May 5, 2017. The series was renewed for a second season and it premiered on September 8, 2017.
In the small town of Miradero, Oregon, a 12 - year - old girl named Lucky, who had recently relocated from the city, encounters a wild horse named Spirit. Spirit, (the offspring of the main protagonists from Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron; Spirit and Rain), is caught by wranglers and brought to be "broken '' in Miradeo. Lucky gradually bonds with the stallion, and breaks him free. Lucky also meets two other girls, Prudence and Abigail, who both own horses, Chica Linda, a palomino, and Boomerang, a paint horse. They embark on everyday adventures across the land.
Voice director: Ginny McSwain
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where is the area code 516 in canada | Area code 516 - Wikipedia
North American area code 516 is a telephone area code in the state of New York. 516 serves the Nassau County portion of Long Island.
When the North American Numbering Plan was devised by AT&T in October 1947, Nassau and Suffolk counties, and the lower Hudson Valley, were assigned area code 914. In 1951, Nassau and Suffolk were split off as a separate numbering plan area (NPA) with area code 516.
Despite Long Island 's dramatic growth in both population and telephone service in the second half of the 20th century, this configuration remained in place for five decades. By the late 1990s, the proliferation of cell phones and pagers required further division to provide more telephone numbers for Long Island. On November 1, 1999, Suffolk was split off as a new numbering plan area with area code 631, while Nassau retained 516. Permissive dialing of 516 across Long Island continued until spring 2000.
A 2018 NANPA analysis of numbering resources projects exhaustion of NPA 516 in the fourth quarter of 2023.
Coordinates: 40 ° 44 ′ N 73 ° 38 ′ W / 40.74 ° N 73.63 ° W / 40.74; - 73.63
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what does a wide base on a population pyramid indicate | Population pyramid - wikipedia
A population pyramid, also called an "age - sex pyramid '', is a graphical illustration that shows the distribution of various age groups in a population (typically that of a country or region of the world), which forms the shape of a pyramid when the population is growing. This tool can be used to visualize and age of a particular population. It is also used in ecology to determine the overall age distribution of a population; an indication of the reproductive capabilities and likelihood of the continuation of a species.
Population pyramids often contain continuous stacked - histogram bars, making it a horizontal bar diagram. The population size is depicted on the x-axis (horizontal) while the age - groups are represented on the y - axis (vertical). The size of the population can either be measured as a percentage of the total population or by raw number. Males are conventionally shown on the left and females on the right. Population pyramids are often viewed as the most effective way to graphically depict the age and distribution of a population, partly because of the very clear image these pyramids represent. A great deal of information about the population broken down by age and sex can be read from a population pyramid, and this can shed light on the extent of development and other aspects of the population.
The measures of central tendency, mean, median, and mode, should be considered when assessing a population pyramid. since the data is not completely accurate. For example, the average age could be used to determine the type of population in a particular region. A population with an average age of 15 would have a young population compared to a population that has an average age of 55, which would be considered an older population. It is also important to consider these measures because the collected data is not completely accurate. The mid-year population is often used in calculations to account for the number of births and deaths that occur.
A population pyramid gives a clear picture of how a country transitions from high fertility to low fertility rate. The broad base of the pyramid means the majority of population lies between ages 0 -- 14, which tells us that the fertility rate of the country is high and above population sub-replacement fertility level. The older population is declining over time due to a shorter life expectancy of sixty years. However, there are still more females than males in these ranges since women have a longer life expectancy. As reported by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, women tend to live longer than men because women do not partake in risky behaviors. Also, Weeks ' Population: an Introduction to Concepts and Issues, considered that the sex ratio gap for the older ages will shrink due to women 's health declining due to the effects of smoking, as suggested by the United Nations and U.S. Census Bureau. Moreover, it can also reveal the age - dependency ratio of a population. Populations with a big base, young population, or a big top, an older population, shows that there is a higher dependency ratio. The dependency ratio refers to how many people are dependent on the working class (ages 15 - 64). According to Weeks ' Population: an Introduction to Concepts and Issues, population pyramids can be used to predict the future, known as a population forecast. Population momentum, when a population 's birth rates continue to increase even after replacement level has been reached, can even be predicted if a population has a low mortality rate since the population will continue to grow. This then brings up the term doubling time, which is used to predict when the population will double in size. Lastly, a population pyramid can even give insight on the economic status of a country from the age stratification since the distribution of supplies are not evenly distributed through a population.
In the demographic transition model, the size and shape of population pyramids vary. In stage one of the demographic transition model, the pyramids have the most defined shape. They have the ideal big base and skinny top. In stage two, the pyramid looks similar, but starts to widen in the middle age groups. In stage three, the pyramids start to round out and look similar in shape to a tombstone. In stage four, there is a decrease in the younger age groups. This causes the base of the widened pyramid to narrow. Lastly, in stage five, the pyramid starts to take on the shape of a kite as the base continues to decrease. The shape of the population is dependent upon what the economy is like in the country. More developed countries can be found in stages three four and five while the least developed countries have a population represented by the pyramids in stages one and two.
Each country will have different or unique population pyramids. However, most population pyramids will be defined as the following: Stationary, expansive, or constrictive. These types have been identified by the fertility and mortality rates of a country.
Gary Fuller (1995) described Youth bulge as a type of expansive pyramid. Gunnar Heinsohn (2003) argues that an excess in especially young adult male population predictably leads to social unrest, war and terrorism, as the "third and fourth sons '' that find no prestigious positions in their existing societies rationalize their impetus to compete by religion or political ideology.
Heinsohn claims that most historical periods of social unrest lacking external triggers (such as rapid climatic changes or other catastrophic changes of the environment) and most genocides can be readily explained as a result of a built - up youth bulge, including European colonialism, 20th - century fascism, rise of Communism during the Cold War, and ongoing conflicts such as that in Darfur and terrorism. This factor has been also used to account for the Arab Spring events. Economic recessions, such as the Great Depression of the 1930s and the Late 2000 's recession, are also claimed to be explained in part due to a large youth population who can not find jobs. Youth bulge can be seen as one factor among many in explaining social unrest and uprisings in society. A 2016 study finds that youth bulges increases the chances of non-ethnic civil wars, but not ethnic civil wars.
A large population of adolescents entering the labor force and electorate strains at the seams of the economy and polity, which were designed for smaller populations. This creates unemployment and alienation unless new opportunities are created quickly enough -- in which case a ' demographic dividend ' accrues because productive workers outweigh young and elderly dependents. Yet the 16 -- 30 age range is associated with risk - taking, especially among males. In general, youth bulges in developing countries are associated with higher unemployment and, as a result, a heightened risk of violence and political instability. For Cincotta and Doces (2011), the transition to more mature age structures is almost a sine qua non for democratization.
To reverse the effects of youth bulges, specific policies such as creating more jobs, improving family planning programs, and reducing over all infant mortality rates should be a priority.
Population pyramid of Egypt in 2005. Many of those 30 and younger are educated citizens who are experiencing difficulty finding work.
Nearly half of Libya 's 2011 population consists of children younger than age 20.
The Middle East and North Africa are currently experiencing a prominent youth bulge. "Across the Middle East, countries have experienced a pronounced increase in the size of their youth populations over recent decades, both in total numbers and as a percentage of the total population. Today, the nearly 111 million individuals aging between 15 to 29 living across the region make up nearly 27 percent of the region 's population. '' Structural changes in service provision, especially health care, beginning in the 1960s created the conditions for a demographic explosion, which has resulted in a population consisting primarily of younger people. It is estimated that around 65 % of the regional population is under the age of 30.
The Middle East has invested more in education, including religious education, than most other regions such that education is available to most children. However, that education has not led to higher levels of employment, and youth unemployment is currently at 25 %, the highest of any single region. Of this 25 %, over half are first time entrants into the job market.
The youth bulge in the Middle East and North Africa has been favorably compared to that of East Asia, which harnessed this human capital and saw huge economic growth in recent decades. The youth bulge has been referred to by the Middle East Youth Initiative as a demographic gift, which, if engaged, could fuel regional economic growth and development. "While the growth of the youth population imposes supply pressures on education systems and labor markets, it also means that a growing share of the overall population is made up of those considered to be of working age; and thus not dependent on the economic activity of others. In turn, this declining dependency ratio can have a positive impact on overall economic growth, creating a demographic dividend. The ability of a particular economy to harness this dividend, however, is dependent on its ability to ensure the deployment of this growing working - age population towards productive economic activity, and to create the jobs necessary for the growing labor force. ''
Additional References:
US Census Bureau, Demographic Internet Staff. "International Programs, International Data Base. '' Information Gateway - U.S. Census Bureau, 27 June 2011, www.census.gov/data-tools/demo/idb/informationGateway.php.
"Population Pyramids of the World from 1950 to 2100. '' PopulationPyramid.net, www.populationpyramid.net/world/2016/.
DataFinder U.S. and World Data by The Population Reference Bureau, www.prb.org/DataFinder.aspx.
"Databases. '' United Nations, United Nations, www.un.org/en/databases/index.html.
Boucher, Lauren. "What Are the Different Types of Population Pyramids? '' Population Education, 11 Mar. 2018, populationeducation.org/what-are-different-types-population-pyramids.
Weeks, John Robert. Population: an Introduction to Concepts and Issues. Cengage Learning, 2016.
Zarulli, Virginia, et al. "Women Live Longer than Men Even during Severe Famines and Epidemics. '' Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Sciences, 3 Jan. 2018, www.pnas.org/content/early/2018/01/03/1701535115.
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who sang the song nothing from nothing leaves nothing | Nothing from Nothing (Billy Preston song) - wikipedia
"Nothing from Nothing '' is a song written by Billy Preston and Bruce Fisher and recorded by Billy Preston for his 1974 album The Kids & Me. The song reached # 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for one week in October 1974, becoming Preston 's second solo chart - topper in the United States (following his 1973 hit "Will It Go Round in Circles ''). It spent four and a half months on the chart.
Preston performed "Nothing from Nothing '' later on Saturday Night Live -- the first musical performance ever on the show. The song was also used in late 2002 for all GM brand commercials, and prominently featured in the 2008 film Be Kind Rewind.
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how many ligue 1 titles does psg have | Paris Saint - Germain FC. - Wikipedia
Paris Saint - Germain Football Club, commonly known as Paris Saint - Germain (French pronunciation: (paʁi sɛ̃ ʒɛʁmɛ̃)) and familiarly as PSG or Paris SG, is a French professional football club based in the city of Paris. Founded in 1970, the club plays in the highest tier of French football, the Ligue 1.
The Parc des Princes, with a seating capacity of 47,929 spectators, has been the home ground of Paris Saint - Germain since 1974. PSG is the most successful French club in history in terms of trophies won, with 34. Domestically, the Parisians have won six Ligue 1 titles, a record eleven Coupe de France, a record seven Coupe de la Ligue, a record seven Trophée des Champions and one Ligue 2 title. In international club football, they have won one UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup and one UEFA Intertoto Cup.
Paris SG is also the only club to have never been relegated from Ligue 1, one of only two French clubs to have won a major European title, and the most popular football club in France. Moreover, the Red - and - Blues have a long - standing rivalry with Olympique de Marseille. The duo contest French football 's most notorious match, known as Le Classique.
Oryx Qatar Sports Investments (QSi) has been the club 's owner since 2011. The takeover made PSG the richest club in France and one of the wealthiest in the world. The capital club currently has active departments for youth football (PSG Academy), and women 's football (PSG Féminines).
Paris Saint - Germain was formed on 12 August 1970 after the fusion of Paris FC -- created a year earlier to fill the void of having no top - flight club in the capital -- and Stade Saint - Germain, founded in 1904 in Saint - Germain - en - Laye, the birth town of Louis XIV.
However, PSG really took flight in 1973, when fashion designer Daniel Hechter took over the club. Coached by French football legend Just Fontaine, PSG won promotion to Ligue 1 a year later and slowly began attracting the first stars of the Red - and - Blues such as Mustapha Dahleb and Carlos Bianchi.
In 1978, Daniel Hechter handed control of the club to Francis Borelli, under whose guidance the Red - and - Blues won their first silverware: the Coupe de France in 1982 and 1983 and the league in 1986, during a decade marked by players such as Safet Sušić, Luis Fernández and Dominique Rocheteau.
Canal+ took over the club in 1991, and propelled PSG to the forefront of the European game. Between 1993 and 1997, the club from the French capital made five European semi-finals in a row. Led by football icons David Ginola, George Weah and Valdo, amongst others, PSG won a second league title in 1994, two years before lifting the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup.
At the start of the 21st century, there were new stars. But despite the ability of Ronaldinho and the goals of Pauleta, PSG struggled to rescale the heights. This changed in 2011 with the arrival of new owners, Oryx Qatar Sports Investments (QSi) and president Nasser Al - Khelaifi.
Spearheaded by Zlatan Ibrahimović (156 goals between 2012 and 2016), QSi established an extremely ambitious project to take Paris SG to the summits of the European game. Since 2011, the club has won four league titles, three Coupe de France, four Coupe de la Ligue and five Trophée des Champions. In July 2013, Uruguay striker Edinson Cavani joined the club, followed by world - record transfer Neymar and 18 - year - old French prodigy Kylian Mbappé in the summer of 2017, immediately forming a formidable attacking trio.
Since its foundation, PSG has always represented both Paris and Saint - Germain - en - Laye. As a result, red, blue and white are the traditional colours of Paris Saint - Germain. The red and blue represent the city of Paris, while the white stands for the nearby commune of Saint - Germain - en - Laye.
In the club 's crest, the French capital is represented by the Eiffel Tower in red and the blue background. For its part, the white cradle with the white fleur de lys on top is a hint to the coat of arms of Saint - Germain - en - Laye and to French royalty. In France, white is the colour of royalty and the fleur de lys is a royal symbol. The cradle and the fleur de lys also recall that French King Louis XIV was born in Saint Germain - en - Laye in 1638.
Likewise, PSG 's home shirt has always featured the three colours of the club. The three main home jerseys worn by Paris SG throughout its history have been predominantly red, blue or white. The club 's first shirt was red, while the other two were predominantly blue ("Hechter shirt '') and white. However, all three have included the remaining two colours, as well as with further variations of the home jersey.
"Paris est magique! '' ("Paris is magic! '') and "Ici, c'est Paris! '' ("Here is Paris! '') have historically been the club 's most popular mottos. More recently, PSG introduced its official anthem and mascot. In commemoration of its 40th anniversary in 2010, the capital club revived its Tournoi de Paris pre-season competition. Ahead of the tournament, PSG unveiled "Allez Paris Saint - Germain '', to the tune of "Go West '' by Village People, and Germain the Lynx as the club 's anthem and mascot, respectively. "Ville Lumière '', to the tune of "Flower of Scotland '', is considered a club anthem as well.
The first crest of the club, also known as Paris FC logo, surfaced in 1970 and was used during the following two seasons. It featured a ball and a vessel, two powerful symbols of Paris. After the split from Paris FC in 1972, PSG created their historic crest, known as the Eiffel Tower logo. The Eiffel Tower logo finally represented both Paris and Saint - Germain - en - Laye. It mainly consisted of a blue background with the Eiffel Tower in red. But between the tower 's legs sat two Saint - Germain - en - Laye symbols in white: Louis XIV 's cradle and a fleur de lys.
According to former PSG manager Robert Vicot, club president Daniel Hechter introduced the Eiffel Tower in the crest. However, it was a draftsman called Mr. Vallot who had the idea of placing the birthplace of Louis XIV between the legs of the tower. Former Paris SG shareholder Canal+ was the first to replace the iconic crest in 1994. The new model had the acronym "PSG '' and underneath it "Paris Saint - Germain. '' Under pressure from supporters, the traditional crest returned in 1995.
In 2013, the Eiffel Tower crest received a makeover. PSG shareholder Oryx Qatar Sports Investments (QSi) wanted to take full advantage of the city 's global appeal and the new crest features the name "PARIS '' written in large bold letters. Additionally, Louis XIV 's cradle was left out as the fleur de lys now sits solely under the Eiffel Tower. Finally, "Saint - Germain '' took the place of the club 's founding year "1970 '' at the bottom.
The newly formed Paris Saint - Germain wore a red shirt during its first three seasons of existence. The jersey also featured a blue and white collar to bring together the three colours of the club: the red and blue of Paris, and the white of Saint - Germain - en - Laye. During the 2010 -- 11 season, PSG wore a red shirt in their home games to commemorate its 40th anniversary.
In 1973, fashion designer Daniel Hechter became club president and designed PSG 's iconic jersey. Hechter would later admit that his creation was influenced by Ajax 's outfit. The so - called "Hechter shirt '', first worn until 1980 -- 81, is blue with a red central and vertical band framed by white edgings. It returned as PSG 's home identity in 1993 -- 94, and has remained so ever since, despite Nike 's constant innovations.
PSG stars from the 1990s and 2000s eras such as Raí, Ronaldinho and Pauleta are associated with the blue - white - red - white - blue shirt. It was with the "Hechter shirt '' that PSG reached five European semi-finals in a row (1993 -- 1997), claimed the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup in 1995 -- 96, and achieved the (first) eight consecutive wins against Olympique de Marseille (2002 -- 2004).
Promoted by PSG president Francis Borelli, the club changed its home identity in 1981 -- 82. The new shirt, worn until 1992 -- 93, was white with blue and red vertical stripes on the left. PSG legends from the 1980s like Safet Sušić, Luis Fernández and Dominique Bathenay are associated with the white jersey. It was with this outfit that fans saw the first big PSG team that won two Coupe de France titles (1982, 1983), experienced its first European campaign in 1983, and claimed its maiden league crown in 1986.
The Parc des Princes (French pronunciation: (paʁk de pʁɛ̃s), literally "Princes ' Park '' in English) is an all - seater football stadium in Paris, France. The venue is located in the south - west of the French capital, inside the 16th arrondissement of Paris, in the immediate vicinity of the Stade Jean - Bouin (rugby venue) and within walking distance from the Stade Roland Garros (tennis venue).
The stadium, with a seating capacity of 47,929 spectators, has been the home pitch of Paris Saint - Germain since 1974. Before the opening of the Stade de France in 1998, it was also the home arena of the French national football and rugby union teams. The Parc des Princes pitch is surrounded by four covered all - seater stands, officially known as the Présidentielle Francis Borelli, Auteuil, Paris and Boulogne Stands.
Conceived by architect Roger Taillibert, the current version of the Parc des Princes officially opened on 4 June 1972, at a cost of 80 -- 150 million francs. The stadium is the third to have been built on the site, the first opening its doors in 1897 and the second following in 1932.
PSG registered its record home attendance in 1983, when 49,575 spectators witnessed the club 's 2 -- 0 win over Waterschei in the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup quarter - finals. However, the French national rugby team holds the stadium 's absolute attendance record. They defeated Wales 31 -- 12 in the 1989 Five Nations Championship in front of 50,370 spectators.
The Camp des Loges, also known as the Ooredoo Training Centre for sponsorship reasons, is a sports complex located in Saint - Germain - en - Laye. The current version of the Camp des Loges officially opened on 4 November 2008. It is the second to have been built on the site, the first opening its doors in 1904.
The sports complex has been the training centre of Paris Saint - Germain since the club 's foundation in 1970, as well as playing host to the Paris Saint - Germain Academy since its opening on 4 November 1975. In July 2016, PSG chose Poissy as the site of its future performance centre, baptised Campus Paris Saint - Germain, which is scheduled to open at the start of the 2019 -- 20 season.
The Stade Municipal Georges Lefèvre is a sports complex located on Président - Kennedy avenue in the forest of Saint - Germain - en - Laye, just across the street from Paris Saint - Germain 's training centre, the Camp des Loges.
The complex 's main football stadium, with a seating capacity of 2,164 spectators, was the home pitch of PSG until 1974, when the club moved into the Parc des Princes. Currently, the stadium -- as well as the other artificial turf and grass football pitches of the complex -- hosts training sessions and home matches for the Paris Saint - Germain Academy.
Paris Saint - Germain is the most popular football club in France ahead of arch - rivals Olympique de Marseille. Former French President Nicolas Sarkozy is one of the club 's most prominent supporters. Since the emergence of the Boulogne Boys in the 1980s, PSG fan groups or ultras have been linked to football hooliganism. PSG 's Boulogne Boys, considered one of the oldest hooligan groups in France, took their British neighbours as dubious role models and violence escalated in the early 1990s. PSG owners Canal+, France 's premium pay channel, even tried to break up the Boys without success.
The feared French riot police were expelled by the Boys and other minor fan groups in the Boulogne stand during a game against Caen in 1993. Incidents occurred wherever PSG travelled, and only multiplied with the emergence of the Supras Auteuil in the Autueil stand as a rival to Boulogne 's hegemony. Things came to a head in February 2010 shortly after Marseille beat PSG 3 -- 0 at Parc des Princes. PSG supporter Yann Lorence was involved in a violent exchange outside the Parc des Princes between the Boulogne Boys and their counterparts in the Auteuil stand at the other end of the stadium. The 37 - year - old was left in a critical condition and hospitalised but was pronounced clinically dead the following month because of the injuries he sustained that night. Lorence 's death forced then PSG president Robin Leproux to take action. All season tickets at Parc des Princes were revoked and all ultra groups were exiled in what was known as "Plan Leproux. '' The incident led to the dissolution of the Supras Auteuil.
The death of Yann Lorence was not even the first in recent memory. Julien Quemener, a Boulogne Boys member, was shot dead by an off - duty policeman during violence following PSG 's UEFA Cup tie with Hapoel Tel Aviv in November 2006. During the 2008 Coupe de la Ligue Final, the Boys also unfurled a banner which referred to Lens fans as incestuous, jobless paedophiles. The episode led to the dissolution of the Boulogne Boys. Before "Plan Leproux '' came into effect, Parc des Princes was one of the most intimidating stadiums to visit in Europe. The plan made PSG pay the price in terms of atmosphere, with one of Ligue 1 's most feared venues now subdued. For their part, many of the remaining supporter groups formed the Collectif Ultras Paris (Paris Ultras Collective or CUP) with the aim of returning to the Parc des Princes.
In early October 2016, after a six - year absence, the club and the CUP first agreed a Parc des Princes return for PSG 's 2 -- 0 home win over Bordeaux. The ultras have since been regrouped in the Auteuil end of the stadium. In April 2017, PSG 's ultras reportedly damaged areas of Lyon 's Parc OL during the 2017 Coupe de la Ligue Final against Monaco. As a result, the French Football League (LFP) hit PSG with a € 100,000 fine. In May 2017, PSG supporter groups Lista Nera Paris and Microbes Paris left the CUP. Additionally, the CUP dismissed the Karsud group from its ranks. The groups left in the CUP are the K - Soce Team, Liberte pour les Abonnes, Le Combat Continue, Le Parias and Nautecia. In August 2017, PSG and the CUP reached an agreement to allow the club 's Ultras to hold season tickets together in the Auteuil end for the first time since 2010.
Paris Saint - Germain shares an intense rivalry with Olympique de Marseille; matches between the two teams are referred to as Le Classique (French pronunciation: (lə klasik), The Classic). PSG vs. OM is considered France 's biggest rivalry, and one of the greatest in club football. At the very least, it is France 's most violent. Important security measures are taken to prevent confrontations between the fans, but violent episodes still often occur when the duo meet.
PSG and l'OM remain, along with Saint - Étienne, the only French clubs with a big history pre-millennium. The duo are the only two French clubs to have won major European trophies and were the dominant forces in the land prior to the emergence of Olympique Lyonnais at the start of the millennium. They are also the two most popular clubs in France, and the most followed French clubs outside the country. Both teams are at or near the top of the attendance lists every year as well.
Like all the game 's major rivalries, PSG vs. OM extends beyond the pitch. The fixture has a historical, cultural and social importance that makes it more than just a football match. It involves the two largest cities in France: Paris against Marseille, capital against province and north against south.
Paris Saint - Germain has hosted the Tournoi de Paris, also known as Trophée de Paris, at the Parc des Princes since 1975. The competition was founded in 1957 by former hosts Racing Paris to celebrate their 25th anniversary. Since the tournament 's inception, the winners have received different trophies.
Regarded as French football 's most prestigious friendly tournament, the Tournoi de Paris was held annually each summer between 1957 and 1966 by Racing Paris. It briefly returned in 1973 with new hosts Paris FC. In 1975, current hosts Paris Saint - Germain successfully relaunched the competition. After an almost uninterrupted 18 - year spell (the 1990 edition was not held), PSG abandoned the tournament in 1993 for financial reasons.
However, PSG revived the Tournoi de Paris in 2010 to commemorate its 40th anniversary. From 1957 to 1993, four teams (including the hosts) played in a knockout format. The tournament featured two semi-finals, a third - place play - off, and a final. Modeled off Arsenal 's Emirates Cup, the competition switched to a group - stage format in 2010. Not held in 2011, it was renamed Trophée de Paris in 2012, and featured a single prestigious match. This was the tournament 's last edition to date.
Brazilian team Vasco da Gama won the inaugural Tournoi de Paris in 1957, while Barcelona won the last edition in 2012. Paris Saint - Germain is the most successful club in the competition 's history, having lifted the trophy on seven occasions. Belgian outfit Anderlecht is next on the title count with three, while fellow French club Racing Paris and Brazilian sides Santos and Fluminense are the only other teams to have won the competition more than once. PSG arch - rivals Olympique de Marseille is among a group of clubs to have won the tournament once.
Paris Saint - Germain are today the city 's largest club by far. As of 2017, they have the sixth - highest revenue in the footballing world with an annual revenue of € 520.9 m, and are the world 's eleventh most valuable football club, worth $841 m. Throughout its history, though, the club has rarely been profitable.
Supported by a group of wealthy businessmen, as well as the capital 's media and 20,000 subscribers, the club grew quickly and the Red - and - Blues were Ligue 2 winners in their first year of existence. However, in 1972 the club split into two. One branch joined CA Montreuil and continued in Ligue 1 under the name of Paris FC, while PSG assumed amateur status and had to restart in Division 3. PSG really took flight in 1973, when fashion designer Daniel Hechter took over the club. A year later, PSG returned to Ligue 1.
In January 1978, Hechter was banned for life from football by the French Football Federation following a double ticketing scandal at the Parc des Princes. Francis Borelli replaced him as PSG president and the club 's first trophies arrived: two consecutive Coupe de France titles (1982, 1983) and a league championship (1986). Competition for recognition as the capital 's No1 sporting entity came from Matra Racing between 1984 and 1989, and PSG went into decline.
Canal+ 's takeover in 1991 revitalised the club with star signings (Valdo, David Ginola, George Weah, Raí, Youri Djorkaeff) that ensured several trophies (most notably the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup in 1996). However, PSG 's form slowly declined and eventually, a split from owners Canal+ became inevitable. In 2006, Canal+ sold PSG to investment firms Colony NorthStar, Butler Capital Partners and Morgan Stanley for € 41m. In 2009, Colony bought out Morgan 's shares to become 95 % owners, with Butler retaining a 5 % stake in the club.
Stability finally came back to PSG in 2011, when the club was purchased by Oryx Qatar Sports Investments after two solid years under president Robin Leproux. QSi bought a controlling 70 % of the shares and became the majority shareholder of PSG. Colony (29 %) and Butler (1 %) remained minority shareholders. The deal, worth € 50m, covered € 15 -- 20m in debt and € 19m in losses from the 2010 -- 11 season. QSi chairman Nasser Al - Khelaifi became PSG 's new president. In 2012, QSi purchased the remaining 30 % stake for € 30m to become the club 's sole shareholder. Prior to the Qatar buyout PSG had recorded losses for over a decade. The year before, the club recorded a loss of $37 m.
The takeover made Paris Saint - Germain not only the richest club in France but one of the wealthiest in the world. QSi pledged to form a team capable of winning the UEFA Champions League and making the club France 's biggest name. Big money signings Thiago Silva, Zlatan Ibrahimović, Edinson Cavani and David Luiz arrived to the club, though not without consequences. In May 2014, UEFA punished PSG for violating Financial Fair Play (FFP) rules. FFP sanctions included a € 60m fine (€ 40m suspended) and a Champions League squad limit of 21 players (instead of 25), amongst other sporting and financial measures. In September 2015, UEFA lifted the restrictions imposed on the Parisian club.
In August 2017, the capital club activated the € 222m release clause of Barcelona player Neymar, making him the most expensive transfer in football history. Later that month, PSG signed Kylian Mbappé from AS Monaco on loan with an option to buy for € 180m that could make him the second-most expensive player in the world. As a result, UEFA opened a new FFP investigation into PSG.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Source: LFP.fr
Source: LFP.fr
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phenacyl chloride has been used as a component of some tear gases | Tear gas - wikipedia
nti Sarkozy 487645695 abe4befd12 o. jpg thumb right upright Tear gas in use in France in 2007))
Tear gas, formally known as a lachrymator agent or lachrymator (from the Latin lacrima, meaning "tear ''), sometimes colloquially known as mace, is a chemical weapon that causes severe eye, respiratory, and skin irritation, pain, bleeding, and even blindness. In the eye, it stimulates the nerves of the lacrimal gland to produce tears. Common lachrymators include pepper spray (OC gas), PAVA spray (nonivamide), CS gas, CR gas, CN gas (phenacyl chloride), bromoacetone, xylyl bromide, syn - propanethial - S - oxide (from onions), and Mace (a branded mixture).
Lachrymatory agents are commonly used for riot control. Their use in warfare is prohibited by various international treaties. During World War I, increasingly toxic lachrymatory agents were used.
Tear "gas '' consists of aerosolized solid compounds, not gas. Tear gas works by irritating mucous membranes in the eyes, nose, mouth and lungs, and causes crying, sneezing, coughing, difficulty breathing, pain in the eyes, and temporary blindness. With CS gas, symptoms of irritation typically appear after 20 -- 60 seconds of exposure and commonly resolve within 30 minutes of leaving (or being removed from) the area. With pepper spray (also called "oleoresin capsicum '', capsaicinoid or OC gas), the onset of symptoms, including loss of motor control, is almost immediate. There can be considerable variation in tolerance and response, according to the National Research Council (US) Committee on Toxicology.
The California Poison Control System analyzed 3,671 reports of pepper spray injuries between 2002 and 2011. Severe symptoms requiring medical evaluation were found in 6.8 % of people, with the most severe injuries to the eyes (54 %), respiratory system (32 %) and skin (18 %). The most severe injuries occurred in law enforcement training, intentionally incapacitating people, and law enforcement (whether of individuals or crowd control).
Lachrymators are thought to act by attacking sulfhydryl functional groups in enzymes. One of the most probable protein targets is the TRPA1 ion channel that is expressed in sensory nerves (trigeminal nerve) of the eyes, nose, mouth and lungs.
As with all non-lethal, or less - lethal weapons, there is some risk of serious permanent injury or death when tear gas is used. This includes risks from being hit by tear gas cartridges, which include severe bruising, loss of eyesight, skull fracture, and even death. A case of serious vascular injury from tear gas shells has also been reported from Iran, with high rates of associated nerve injury (44 %) and amputation (17 %), as well as instances of head injuries in young people.
While the medical consequences of the gases themselves are typically limited to minor skin inflammation, delayed complications are also possible: people with pre-existing respiratory conditions such as asthma, who are particularly at risk, are likely to need medical attention and may sometimes require hospitalization or even ventilation support. Skin exposure to CS may cause chemical burns or induce allergic contact dermatitis. When people are hit at close range or are severely exposed, eye injuries involving scarring of the cornea can lead to a permanent loss in visual acuity. Frequent or high levels of exposure carry increased risks of respiratory illness.
Reports of expired tear gas canisters picked up by protesters in Egypt led to theories that it could be more toxic, but Steve Wright of Leeds Metropolitan University said if enough time has elapsed that the chemicals have broken down inside the can, then it makes the canister less effective. However, a study carried out by Mónica Krauter, a Venezuelan professor of Simón Bolívar University, collected thousands of tear gas canisters fired by Venezuelan authorities in 2014, showed that 72 % of the tear gas used was expired and noted that expired tear gas "breaks down into cyanide oxide, phosgenes and nitrogens that are extremely dangerous ''.
Use of tear gas in warfare (as with all other chemical weapons) is prohibited by various international treaties that most states have signed. Police and private self - defense use is not banned in the same manner. Armed forces can legally use tear gas for drills (practicing with gas masks) and for riot control. First used in 1914, xylyl bromide was a popular tearing agent since it was easily prepared.
The US Chemical Warfare Service developed tear gas grenades for use in riot control in 1919.
Certain lachrymatory agents are often used by police to force compliance, most notably tear gas. In some countries (e.g., Finland, Australia, and the United States), another common substance is mace. The self - defense weapon form of mace is based on pepper spray, and comes in small spray cans, and versions including CS are manufactured for police use. Xylyl bromide, CN and CS are the oldest of these agents, and CS is the most widely used. CN has the most recorded toxicity. Tear gas exposure is a standard in Australia for military, police and prison officer training programs.
Typical manufacturer warnings on tear gas cartridges state "Danger: Do not fire directly at person (s). Severe injury or death may result. '' Such warnings are not necessarily respected, and in some countries, disrespecting these warnings is routine. In the 2013 protests in Turkey, there were hundreds of injuries among protesters targeted with tear gas projectiles. In the Israeli - occupied territories, Israeli soldiers have been routinely documented by Israeli human rights group in firing direct tear gas canisters at activists, some of which resulted in fatalities. Amnesty International criticized the usage of tear gas by Venezuelan authorities noting canisters being fired directly at individuals while also being shot into residential buildings.
However, tear gas guns do not have a manual setting to adjust the range of fire. The only way to adjust the projectile 's range is to aim towards the ground at the correct angle. Incorrect aim will send the capsules away from the targets, causing risk for non-targets instead. For example, this occurred during the 2013 protests in Brazil, 2014 Hong Kong Protests and 2014 -- 17 Venezuelan protests.
Tear gas fired to disperse protesters outside government headquarters during 2014 Hong Kong Protests on 28 September 2014
Tear gas being used against opposition protesters during the 2014 Venezuelan protests
Tear gas grenade returned to Israeli soldiers using sling during Palestinian weekly protest in Ni'lin, July 2014
A variety of protective equipment may be used, including gas masks and respirators. In riot control situations, protesters sometimes use equipment (aside from simple rags or clothing over the mouth) such as swimming goggles and adapted water bottles.
It has been suggested that "The use of masks that filter solid particles is effective, if and only if, the membrane manages to catch particles with sizes smaller than 60 microns ''.
Activists in the United States, the Czech Republic, Venezuela and Turkey have reported using antacid solutions such as Maalox diluted with water to repel effects of tear gas attacks with Venezuelan chemist Mónica Krauter recommending the usage of diluted antacids as well as baking soda. There have also been reports of these antacids being helpful for tear gas, and for capsaicin - induced skin pain.
There is no specific antidote to common tear gases. Getting clear of gas and into fresh air is the first line of action. Removing contaminated clothing and avoiding shared use of contaminated towels could help reduce skin reactions. Immediate removal of contact lenses has also been recommended, as they can retain particles.
Once a person has been exposed, there are a variety of methods to remove as much chemical possible and relieve symptoms. The standard first aid for burning solutions in the eye is irrigation (spraying or flushing out) with water. There are reports that water may increase pain from CS gas, but the balance of limited evidence currently suggests water or saline are the best options. Some evidence suggests that Diphoterine solution, a first aid product for chemical splashes, may help with ocular burns or chemicals in the eye.
Bathing and washing the body vigorously with soap and water can remove particles that adhered to the skin while clothes, shoes and accessories that have came into contact with vapors must be washed well since all untreated particles can remain active for up to a week. Some advocate using fans or hair dryers to evaporate the spray, but this has not been shown to be better than washing out the eyes and it may spread contamination.
Oral analgesics may help relieve eye pain.
Vinegar, petroleum jelly, milk and lemon juice solutions have also been used by activists. It is unclear how effective these remedies are. In particular, vinegar itself can burn the eyes and prolonged inhalation can also irritate the airways. Though vegetable oil and vinegar have also been reported as helping relieve burning caused by pepper spray, Krauter does not suggest the usage of vinegar, toothpaste or menthol creams, stating that "they trap the particles emanating from the gas near the airways and make it more feasible to inhale ''. A small trial of baby shampoo for washing out the eyes did not show any benefit.
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pirates of the caribbean ship in a bottle black pearl | Black Pearl - wikipedia
The Black Pearl is a fictional ship in the Pirates of the Caribbean film series. (The physical ship used as a prop during filmmaking is actually named the Sunset.) In the screenplay, the Black Pearl is easily recognized by her distinctive black hull and sails. She was later raised from the sea floor by Davy Jones after making a pact with Jack Sparrow who rechristened her the Black Pearl. She is said to be "nigh uncatchable ''. Indeed, in the first three films she either overtakes or flees all other ships, including the Interceptor (regarded as the fastest ship in the Caribbean) and the Flying Dutchman (which is actually faster against the wind). Her speed is derived from the large amount of sails she carries. She is noted in At World 's End as being "The only ship that can outrun the Flying Dutchman. ''
Originally named Wicked Wench (Wicked Wench is the name of the ship from the Pirates of the Caribbean attraction at Disneyland Park, which is shown shelling a fort), the merchant ship fell to piracy and was captained by an unnamed pirate killed in a battle with Spanish Royal Navy Captain Armando Salazar. The helmsman, Jack Sparrow was granted captain of the Wicked Wench after out - maneuvering Salazar and saving the crew during battle.
Years later the Wicked Wench became registered to the East India Trading Co. and owned by Cutler Beckett, the EITC Director for West Africa. At the time, Jack Sparrow was in the employ of the East India Trading Co. and regained captaincy of the Wicked Wench (this fits in with reality as history notes that pirates did not build ships specifically to commit piracy. Instead, they either bought or stole small, fast vessels, then retrofitted them with heavy armaments).
(As detailed in the 2011 Disney Publishing novel, Pirates of the Caribbean: The Price of Freedom, written by A.C. Crispin)
Jack Sparrow captained the Wicked Wench for Cutler Beckett for about a year, hauling various cargoes, but he refused to haul slaves. Hoping to recruit Sparrow as one of his many "operatives '', Beckett indulged what he regarded as an odd peccadillo of Sparrow 's until he and the captain came to a parting of the ways. Beckett had dispatched Sparrow on a mission to find the lost island of Kerma, and the treasure at the heart of its underground labyrinth, but Sparrow double - crossed the EITC official and claimed he could n't locate the island. Suspicious that Sparrow had indeed found the island, and probably the treasure, but had not given him its accurate location, Beckett, determined to browbeat the captain into obedience, demanded that the young captain transport a cargo of slaves to the New World. Initially Sparrow agreed, but when he realized that he was betraying the Wicked Wench, as well as himself, he rebelled and freed the slaves by taking them to Kerma for safe asylum. Furious that Sparrow had flouted his orders and stolen the "cargo '' of "black gold '', Cutler Beckett had Sparrow thrown into jail. After allowing him to languish for a couple of months, he had him transported to the Wicked Wench 's anchorage, about a mile from the coast of West Africa, near Calabar on the Bight of Benin. After personally branding Sparrow with the "P '' brand (so he 'd be forever branded a pirate) Cutler Beckett gave the order to loose carcass charges at his own ship, the Wicked Wench, in order to totally demoralize his prisoner. Sparrow fought his way free from his guards, dove overboard and attempted to rescue his burning, foundering ship, but he was too late. The Wicked Wench turned into an inferno, then sank, taking Jack with her. But, while dying, the resourceful Sparrow called upon Davy Jones, and struck a bargain with him... his soul and one hundred years serving aboard the Flying Dutchman in return for a continued human existence of thirteen years as captain, plus saving the Wicked Wench and transforming her into the fastest, most dangerous pirate ship sailing the seven seas. Jack christened his resurrected Wench, now a black vessel with an angel figurehead, The Black Pearl.
In keeping with their bargain, Jones raised the ship with Jack aboard in the Harbor of Tortuga to find a crew for his ship. Two years after, the Black Pearl was heading to the mysterious Isla de Muerta where the legendary Chest of Cortés was hidden. Captain and crew agreed to equal shares of the treasure, but first mate Hector Barbossa persuaded Jack that equal shares included knowing the treasure 's location. Jack complied, and soon after Barbossa led a mutiny and marooned Jack on an island.
The crew found the Aztec gold, which was spent very quickly, not believing in the curse placed on it: that anyone who stole the coins would become an undead being, unable to feel anything but unsoothable hunger, and that only moonlight would reveal their true form. This curse being real, the pirates were soon hideous living skeletons with tattered flesh and clothing clinging to their bones. Even the Black Pearl was affected by the curse upon its crew, becoming constantly shrouded in an eerie mist and operating with tattered sails ripped in many places.
The curse could only be lifted when all eight hundred and eighty two coins were returned to the chest along with a trace of blood from each pirate who stole one. William "Bootstrap Bill '' Turner Sr., the only crew member who defended Jack during the mutiny, sent a coin to his young son Will Turner, believing the crew deserved to remain cursed. Barbossa, as Pintel put it, "strapped a cannon to old Bootstrap 's bootstraps and the last we saw of old Bill Turner, he was sinking to the crushing black oblivion of Davy Jones ' locker '' in retaliation. He later struck a deal with Davy Jones for one hundred years of service on the Flying Dutchman. Only then did they learn they also needed Bootstrap 's blood to break the curse, and by throwing him overboard they had, in fact, doomed themselves to continued damnation. Over the next decade, the Pearl menaced the Caribbean as the pirates searched for the coins until all but one was found. As a boy, Will Turner Jr. brought the gold medallion with him on his journey to the Caribbean, although Elizabeth Swann, the governor 's daughter, came into possession of it and kept it hidden for eight years. The Pearl later attacked Port Royal and abducted Elizabeth, believing she was Bootstrap 's child -- their only remaining source of Turner blood when it was really Will.
The Pearl is eventually commandeered by Sparrow with a new crew. While most of Barbossa 's pirates are battling the Royal Navy at the Dauntless the rest of the pirates were fighting Elizabeth, Will, and a cursed Jack Sparrow at Isla de Muerta. After Will puts his blood on the coin, making the crew mortal, Jack shoots Captain Barbossa with his pistol that had one bullet which he carried for ten years. After the battle the crew make off with the Pearl, leaving Jack behind. However, they later rescue him after he escapes execution in Port Royal.
The Black Pearl was pursued by Commodore James Norrington and the Royal Navy. Off of Tripoli, a large hurricane battered the Pearl (though it survived) and the Dauntless, which sank, along with most of its crew. Norrington survived, and later resigned from the Navy. He is later seen as a pirate in Tortuga.
The Black Pearl is still being captained by Jack Sparrow, although his crew is not content with him; they want to do more "pirating '' and are upset about the hurricane. Davy Jones sends Bootstrap Bill Turner to remind Jack that he owes his soul and the Black Pearl to Jones, and his time is now up. Jack is marked with the black spot, which means that the Kraken is now out to pull him and the ship into the Locker.
Jack has the ship sailed to the nearest land - Pelegosto, the cannibal island. Jack and the surviving crew escape the cannibals with Will Turner, and travel to Tia Dalma 's shack for advice. When Jack sends Will over to the Flying Dutchman, the Pearl is briefly commandeered by Jones ' crew. Jack makes a deal with Jones: 100 souls in three days. The crew (minus Will, who is a good - faith payment) travel to Tortuga to find 99 more souls.
Meanwhile, at the Dutchman, Will is reunited with his father Bootstrap Bill Turner. Jack meets Elizabeth and Norrington at Tortuga, and travels to Isla Cruces, the island where the dead man 's chest is buried. After Jack steals the Heart (which is stolen from him by Norrington) the Black Pearl is attacked by the Kraken and successfully fights it off twice but the ship still retains heavy damage and most of the crew dies in the second round. After figuring out that the Kraken is after Jack and not the Black Pearl, Elizabeth kisses Jack, and (while she 's kissing him) chains him to the ship 's mast and leaves him behind. He is swallowed whole by the kraken, and the ship is dragged down into Davy Jones ' Locker as the surviving crew watches. They go to Tia Dalma 's shack again and she asks them if they 're willing to go to Davy Jones ' Locker to get their captain and ship back. Elizabeth, Gibbs, Marty, Cotton 's parrot (who was speaking for him and his master), Pintel and Ragetti all agreed. Then Tia Dalma showed them their new captain, Hector Barbossa.
Will, Elizabeth, the surviving Pearl crew and the newly resurrected Barbossa vow to rescue Jack and his ship. After acquiring navigational charts that will lead them to the world 's end, the crew meets Jack in Davy Jones ' Locker, along with the Pearl, which is no longer damaged. Jack uses a clue from the map to return the Pearl to the living world. They flip the ship upside down in the water at sunset, and it shoots up into the living world at sunrise.
After the Pearl is resurrected, it is desired by many characters: Jack, as it is his ship; Barbossa, as it was his ship; Pintel, who just wanted to throw his name into the hat (and implied a future mutiny at the end of the film); Feng, who wants a new ship; Will, who desires to free his father from Jones; and Beckett, who wants the only ship that can outrun the Dutchman. The Pearl sails to the fourth meeting of the Brethren Court, and becomes the flagship of the Pirate Armada, led by the new Pirate King Elizabeth Swann, and Jack Sparrow, the real captain of the Black Pearl.
The Pearl and the Dutchman engage in a sea battle in a maelstrom during the battle between the pirates and Lord Cutler Beckett 's armada, with Davy Jones and the Dutchman under his command. The two ships are evenly matched, and both are damaged by the other 's cannons and later boarded. The ships ' masts are entangled during the fight. As the ships circle closer to the bottom of the maelstrom, the Dutchman begins to be pulled down. Barbossa orders a chain shot to be fired at the entangled masts, and the Pearl breaks away while the Dutchman sinks. The Pearl comes out of the maelstrom, still afloat but severely damaged. As the Endeavour advances on the Pearl, it is obvious that the Pearl is no match for it. However, the Dutchman resurfaces with Will Turner in command. After the battle, the Black Pearl and the Flying Dutchman sail alongside each other towards the East India Company Fleet and destroy the Endeavor, killing Lord Cutler Beckett, and forcing the massive armada to flee, as they no longer have somebody to lead them.
Afterwards, Jack loses his ship and crew yet again to Barbossa, with the exception of Gibbs who ends up staying behind in Tortuga. Yet the crew seems unsettled about leaving Jack behind.
At some point after departure from Tortuga, the Black Pearl was attacked by the Queen Anne 's Revenge, a ship captained by the infamous pirate Blackbeard. Using the powers of Triton 's Sword (able to control any ship and its inner workings), Blackbeard brought the rigging of the Black Pearl to life, and used it against Barbossa and his crew. Barbossa 's men were defeated and the Black Pearl captured, shrunk and put in a bottle by Blackbeard. Barbossa was allegedly the only survivor as he was apparently hanging by one leg, being forced to cut it off in order to set himself free, but it was later revealed that other members of the crew had managed to escape, although Jack the monkey was trapped on the ship.
After Blackbeard 's death, Jack regains the Pearl in a bottle, and Gibbs fills a large bag with the bottles of other fallen ships from Queen Anne 's Revenge; as the film concludes, Jack states that he is aware of a way of getting the Pearl back to full size, but it will require "a crossbow, an hourglass, three goats, one of (them) must learn to play the trumpet, whilst the other one goes like this '' (' This ' refers to motions similar to Jack 's usual stagger). Barbossa also claims the Queen Anne 's Revenge and its crew after Blackbeard 's death.
The Black Pearl appears in the fifth installment of the movie franchise in its original form (as the Wicked Wench). The Wicked Wench makes its appearance during a sequence where Captain Armando Salazar is reminiscing about how and when he first met Jack Sparrow. In the flashback, the Wicked Wench 's helmsmen is a young Jack Sparrow. While being chased by Salazar 's ship the Silent Mary into unknown water, the crew of the Wicked Wrench throw ropes around nearby reefs off the port side and use the rigging to slingshot the ship into the opposite direction. Jack steers the ship through the reef, saving the crew and the ship by changing the ship 's course at the last second. Afterward, on the deck of the Wicked Wench, the crew rewards Sparrow with "tribute '' and bestow Jack with his famous hat and other personal effects. They make Jack a captain on the deck of the ship. We also learn Jack also got the name "Sparrow '' by taunting Salazar, "chirping like a sparrow '' from the crow 's nest of the Wench.
In the present day, the Pearl has remained trapped in its bottle for ' five winters ', Jack keeping it in his pocket even as he is forced to use a smaller ship known as the Dying Gull to go to sea. Later in the film, Barbossa uses Blackbeard 's sword to restore the Pearl to its regular size; stabbing the bottle with Blackbeard 's sword cracks it, the bottle subsequently breaking as the Pearl grows to the size of a larger model, only regaining its full size when it returns to the sea. Barbossa then claims the ship for himself to battle the undead Captain Salazar, tying Jack to the rear of the ship. After tracking down the island where the Trident of Poseidon is located, triggering a mystical convergence that opens a trench in the ocean, Salazar claims the Trident for himself, but Henry Turner and Carina Smyth destroy the trident when Salazar attempts to use it to kill Jack. The destruction of the trident restores Salazar and his men to full life, but also causes the sea trench to collapse, with the Pearl 's crew lowering its anchor to pull Jack, Henry and Carina to safety. Salazar attempts to climb up the anchor to attack Jack, but Barbossa sacrifices himself to stab Salazar and save the others (Carina having been identified as his daughter). At the film 's conclusion, after witnessing Carina and Henry as they watch Will Turner 's reunion with Elizabeth Swan - the destruction of the Trident also freeing Will from his role as captain of the Flying Dutchman, Jack departs as he is restored to his traditional role as the captain of the Black Pearl with both his crew from the Dying Gull and Barbossa 's crew from the Queen Anne 's Revenge joining him.
The Black Pearl is moderately armed and carries 32 twelve - pound cannons: 18 on the gun deck and 14 on the upper deck. Its full broadside contains 16 cannonballs that weigh 192 lb (192 pounds (87 kg)). Extremely unusual for a pirate ship, the Pearl has no chase guns (cannons used while being chased or chasing, as a regular broadside volley can not be used in this situation) in her bow or stern, giving her a grave tactical disadvantage during a chase as the Pearl can not shoot a ship it is chasing or return fire at a pursuer; her high speed only partially negates this handicap. In Dead Man 's Chest another advantage the Black Pearl has over her enemies is her ability to hide in the sea at night, since if all the ship 's lamps are blown out the ship is no longer visible thanks to her black hull and sails. This is also seen in Curse of the Black Pearl where she is able to sneak unhindered into Port Royal under the cover of darkness.
In the first movie, the Black Pearl was a steel barge with wooden structures built on top to resemble a real ship. In addition, a soundstage set was used to achieve better control over fog machines. For the second and third movies, a floating sailing ship was actually built in the shipyards at Bayou La Batre in Alabama on the hull of the cargo ship Sunset to serve as the set, though it is not an authentic tall ship. Another version, mounted on a gimbal, was built for filming the Maelstrom battle. In 2010, the Sunset, which played the Black Pearl in most of the films, was reconstructed to portray the Queen Anne 's Revenge in Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides.
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what does mahoney teach hightower to do in the movie 'policy academy' | Police Academy (film) - wikipedia
Police Academy is a 1984 comedy film directed by Hugh Wilson, and starring Steve Guttenberg, Kim Cattrall, and G.W. Bailey. It grossed approximately $146 million worldwide, and spawned six more films in the Police Academy series.
Due to a shortage of police officers, the newly elected mayor of an unnamed American city has announced a policy requiring the police department to accept all willing recruits, effectively abolishing fitness requirements, educational levels, and medical standards. Not everyone in the police force is happy about the new changes.
Carey Mahoney (Steve Guttenberg) is an easy - going man who has repeatedly gotten himself in trouble with the law when standing up to arrogant people. Mahoney is forced to join the police force as an alternative to jail, a proposal by Captain Reed who has been lenient on Mahoney because of knowing his father, who was also a policeman. Mahoney reluctantly agrees to this, deciding that he will get himself thrown out as a loophole. However, the chief of police, Henry Hurst (George R. Robertson), outraged by the Mayor 's lowered requirements, decides that the new cadets should be forced to quit rather than being thrown out.
Lieutenant Thaddeus Harris (G.W. Bailey), who trains the cadets, agrees with the plan and employs tactics to make their lives as miserable as possible so that they do in fact quit. However, Commandant Eric Lassard (George Gaynes) is the only one who does not agree with both Harris and Hurst 's schemes. He wants to give the new cadets a chance. Harris is also implied to be seeking Lassard 's place as the leader of the academy. Harris asks for the help of two cadets he takes a liking to, Copeland (Scott Thomson) and Blankes (Brant von Hoffman), to inform him of any improper conduct done by the other cadets. Harris appoints them as squad leaders to help him force these cadets to quit.
Mahoney tries several schemes to get thrown out but eventually he has a change of heart and decides to stay for good, having fallen in love with another cadet, Karen Thompson (Kim Cattrall). While in the academy, Mahoney becomes friends with fellow cadets Larvell Jones (Michael Winslow) a human beatbox and sound effects man who was arrested with Mahoney before they came to the academy (Mahoney pulled some strings with Reed to let Jones go with Mahoney to attend the academy); George Martin (Andrew Rubin), a ladies man; Eugene Tackleberry (David Graf), a gun - obsessed adrenaline junkie who was an ex-security guard and was a military veteran; Leslie Barbara (Donovan Scott), an overweight cowardly man; and Moses Hightower (Bubba Smith), a giant of a man with incredible strength.
At Lt. Harris ' request, Blankes and Copeland try to learn where a weekend party, organized by Mahoney, is going to be held, to investigate it for any cadet unlawful behavior. Wary that they 're using an intimidated Barbara to force him to reveal where the party is, Mahoney tricks Blankes and Copeland into attending a party at the Blue Oyster gay bar where the horrified men are intimidated into dancing the whole night. Mahoney 's party turns out to be relatively sedate.
At night, Martin tries to sneak into the women 's bunk for some fun, as he always does, but is caught by Sgt. Callahan. He is pulled into a room by Callahan and she throws him on the bed, pounces on him and they have sex. The next day, after a voice training exercise, Martin confides to Mahoney that he had fallen in love with Sgt. Callahan and that he speaks with a fake Spanish accent in order to get girls.
Mahoney helps Hightower prepare for a critical driving test. They go for a practice drive the night before the exam by stealing cadet Copeland 's car. They are chased by the police for crashing into another car and speeding, but Hightower manages to escape and in the process greatly sharpens his driving skills. After he passes the driving test, Hightower is very thankful to Mahoney. Unfortunately, immediately afterwards, when Copeland racially insults fellow cadet Laverne Hooks (Marion Ramsey) for accidentally running over his feet during her driving test, Hightower is offended and lifts and overturns the police car in which Copeland is seated, despite Harris ' demands and Hooks ' pleas for him to stop. This leads Harris to promptly eject Hightower from the academy, much to Mahoney and many of the other cadets ' dismay.
Shortly after this, Mahoney and Barbara are having lunch in the cafeteria and talking about Hightower 's expulsion. Mahoney is finally fed up with the academy, but refuses to quit. Blankes and Copeland attempt to get Mahoney to fight them so they can give Harris a reason to expel him, but Mahoney resists. Having enough of their misconduct towards Mahoney, Barbara stands up for him and shocks everyone by throwing the first punch, hitting Copeland with a lunch tray. After watching Copeland faint, an offended Blankes punches Barbara back for foiling them, which promptly gets Mahoney involved in a brawl with him. After the fight, when Lt. Harris asks them who started the fight, Blankes originally told him that Barbara started it by hitting Copeland with a lunch tray. While cleaning his baton, Lt. Harris nonchalantly decides to expel the latter along with his dog. Soon Mahoney convinces Blankes to let him take the blame for throwing the first punch to protect Barbara, which finally gives Harris the green light to expel his most despised cadet.
Before Mahoney actually leaves the premises, however, a major riot breaks out downtown, inadvertently caused by cadet Fackler who always attracts accidents to others around him. Mahoney decides to join the academy students in the mission to pacify it. The resulting police emergency forces the cadets into real action for the first time, and they are accidentally transported to the very epicenter of the rioting instead of the planned peripheral area (due to Lassard giving the wrong location). During the riot, one criminal manages to steal two police revolvers from Blankes and Copeland. The two run to hide from the criminals but, to their horror, end up at the Blue Oyster bar again. Barbara manages to avoid the rioters, but finds himself confronted by the same men who bullied him when he was working at a picture developing booth, who are now apparently stealing some furniture. Despite their attempts to bully him again, Barbara gives them a beating after having learned self - defense. Soon he orders the men to return the furniture and leave, only to learn that the men were actually moving their own things out due to the riots.
The outlaw with the stolen police handguns then proceeds to capture Harris in the confusion, taking the officer to the roof of a nearby building as a hostage. Mahoney attempts a rescue but is taken as a second hostage. Just as both are about to be killed, Hightower suddenly appears on the rooftop. The former cadet manages to fool the madman into thinking he is a fellow crook and demands that he kill Harris. When the criminal tries to pull the trigger, Hightower knocks him unconscious and he falls onto the stairs. When he wakes up to kill Hightower, Hooks quickly apprehends him by entering the back door to the building (which she attempted to tell Sgt. Callahan about earlier, but she could n't hear her).
Mahoney and Hightower are both reinstated as cadets and graduate from the academy a few days later. For their rescue of Lt. Harris and capture of his kidnapper, they also receive the academy 's highest commendation and medals. All of the cadets graduate with flying colors (minus Blankes and Copeland), finally winning a respectful salute from the reluctant Harris.
Opening scenes were shot in Toronto, Ontario. The camera booth scene was shot on the Burlington Canal Lift Bridge, southwest of Toronto. The Academy itself was previously the site of the Lakeshore Psychiatric Hospital in Etobicoke, and has since become the Lakeshore campus of Humber College. The studio scenes were shot at Lakeshore Film Studios; the city scenes were filmed in various parts of Toronto.
Police Academy opened in the number 1 spot in 1,587 U.S. theaters on March 23, 1984 to a first weekend total gross of $8.6 million. It faced strong competition at the time of its release from such high - profile comedies as Ghostbusters, Gremlins, Romancing the Stone, Splash, Bachelor Party (which also featured a screenplay by Police Academy co-writers Neal Israel and Pat Proft), The Gods Must Be Crazy, Cannonball Run II, Moscow on the Hudson, Sixteen Candles and Rhinestone. Despite all of this, the film would go on to take in a final total of $81.2 million, becoming 6th highest grossing film of 1984. The film was also a success worldwide, grossing approximately $146 million.
Although it was a commercial success, it received a mixed reception. The film currently has a 39 % "Rotten '' rating at the film review aggregate site Rotten Tomatoes, based on 18 reviews. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times, gave the film zero stars out of four, commenting that "It 's really something. It 's so bad, maybe you should pool your money and draw straws and send one of the guys off to rent it so that in the future, whenever you think you 're sitting through a bad comedy, he could shake his head, and chuckle tolerantly, and explain that you do n't know what bad is ''. Critic Vincent Canby of The New York Times, however, gave the film a favorable review. The film 's critical reception, however, is still better than its six sequels, which have received universally negative reviews by critics.
In 2013 La - La Land Records issued a limited edition album of Robert Folk 's score.
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the brightest star in the sky marian keyes wiki | Marian Keyes - wikipedia
Marian Keyes (born 10 September 1963) is an Irish novelist and non-fiction writer, best known for her work in women 's literature. She is an Irish Book Awards winner. By March 2017 over 35 million copies of her twelve novels preceding The Break (2017) have been sold and been translated into 33 languages. She became known worldwide for Watermelon, Lucy Sullivan is Getting Married, Rachel 's Holiday, Last Chance Saloon, Anybody Out There, and This Charming Man, with themes including alcoholism, depression, addiction, cancer, bereavement, and domestic violence.
Born in Limerick and raised in Monkstown (Cork), Keyes graduated from Dublin University with a law degree. After completing her studies, Keyes took an administrative job before moving to London in 1986. During this period she developed alcoholism and clinical depression, culminating in a suicide attempt and subsequent rehabilitation in 1995 at the Rutland Centre in Dublin, Ireland. In an article for The Telegraph, Keyes details how her struggles with anxiety, depression, and alcoholism began from an early age.
Keyes began writing short stories while suffering from alcoholism. After her treatment at the Rutland Centre she returned to her job in London and submitted her short stories to Poolbeg Press. The publisher encouraged her to submit a full - length novel and Keyes began work on her first book, Watermelon. The novel was published the same year. Since 1995 she has published 13 novels and four works of nonfiction.
Keyes has written frankly about her clinical depression, which left her unable to sleep, read, write, or talk. After a long hiatus due to severe depression, a food title, Saved by Cake, was released in February 2012.
All in all this dark period lasted about four years. During this time Keyes also wrote The Mystery of Mercy Close, a novel where the heroine experiences similar battles with depression and suicide attempts that Keyes herself battled with. Keyes further describes this period of her life as "It was like being in an altered reality... I was always melancholic and prone to sadness and hopelessness but this was catastrophic and unimaginable. ''
In March 2017 Keyes was the guest for BBC Radio 4 's Desert Island Discs. Her favourite track was "You Have Been Loved '' by George Michael. She revealed that she had battled constant suicidal urges at the height of her mental illness. During her appearance on Desert Island Discs, Keyes also tells host Kirsty Young that in spite of all her efforts to treat her depression, ranging from cognitive behavioural therapy, medication, mindfulness, hospitalisation, diets, among others, what finally healed her was time. "It was an illness and it ran its course. ''
In 2014, after Keyes went on Marian Finucane 's RTÉ One show to talk about her new book, she told her Twitter followers that Finucane had the "compassion and empathy of a cardboard box. Even my mammy called her a bad word ''.
Keyes currently lives in Dún Laoghaire with her husband Tony Baines, after returning to Ireland from London in 1997.
Although many of her novels are known as comedies, they revolve around dark themes often drawn from Keyes ' own experiences, including domestic violence, drug abuse, mental illness, divorce and alcoholism. Keyes considers herself a feminist, and has chosen to reflect feminist issues in many of her books.
She is regarded as a pioneer of the ' chick - lit ' genre; her stories usually revolve around a strong female character who overcomes numerous obstacles to achieve lasting happiness. Regarding her decision to use an optimistic tone and hopeful ending, Keyes has said, "I 'm very bleak, really melancholic. But I 've always used humour as a survival mechanism. I write for me and I need to feel hopeful about the human condition. So no way I 'm going to write a downbeat ending. And it is n't entirely ludicrous to suggest that sometimes things might work out for the best. ''
During an author Q & A in 2014 with Canada 's Chatelaine magazine, when asked how she feels about being labeled as "Chick - lit '' Keyes replied, "Fine now. It used to bother me because it 's so belittling -- and it 's meant to be belittling. It 's as if it 's saying, "Oh you silly girls, with your pinkness and shoes, how will you ever run the world? '' But as I 've matured (haha) I 've realised that I 'm very proud of what I write about and I know that the books I write bring happiness and comfort to people. I wish that our world was far less patriarchal than it is, but we 're all doing our best to bring about positive changes.
Keyes ' gift for tackling difficult subjects and making them relatable to women all over, without sacrificing quality or tact, has been recognised by her peers. As told to The Irish Times by another Irish author, "It 's a rare gift... The only other writer I can think of who writes so hilariously and movingly about serious subjects was the late, great Sue Townsend. '' In the same interview Keyes further explains to Ingles how she suspects that gender bias is at play when recognising the impact of female authors in literary fiction. Despite her tremendous success and acclaim, male authors with less commercial success are held in higher regard. "Do you remember in the early noughties when a lot of Irish women writers like Cathy Kelly, Sheila O'Flanagan, Cecelia Ahern were selling all over the world? I do n't feel that was celebrated enough. I wonder if a group of young Irish men around the same age had been selling in huge numbers, I really think it would not have passed unremarked. ''
During her appearance on Desert Island Discs in March 2017, host Kirsty Young mentions how wrongly categorised Keyes ' works are and wonders why that is. Keyes remarked that by conditioning women to think that what they find empowering or valuable is worth less than what men consider to be worthwhile, women are prevented from reaching for parity and the gender gap in power and money between men and women is kept in the favour of men.
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top 10 public limited companies in the world | List of largest companies by revenue - wikipedia
This list comprises the world 's largest public, state - owned, and private businesses by consolidated revenue as of 2016, according to the Fortune Global 500 tally. The list is limited to 35 companies, all of which have annual revenues exceeding $100 billion US dollars.
The availability and reliability of up - to - date information on prior state - owned companies is limited and varies from country to country; thus, this list may be incomplete. This list is shown in U.S. dollars, but many of the companies on it prepare their accounts in other currencies. The dollar value of their revenue may change substantially in a short period of time due to exchange rate fluctuations.
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what is the united states public health service | United States Public Health Service - wikipedia
The United States Public Health Service (PHS) is a division of the Department of Health and Human Services concerned with public health. It contains eight out of the department 's eleven operating divisions. The Assistant Secretary for Health (ASH) oversees the PHS. The Public Health Service Commissioned Corps (PHSCC) is the federal uniformed service of the PHS, and is one of the seven uniformed services of the United States.
Its origins can be traced to the establishment of 1798 of a system of marine hospitals. In 1870 these were consolidated into the Marine Hospital Service, and the position of Surgeon General was established. In 1889, the PHSCC was established. As the system 's scope grew, it renamed the Public Health Service in 1912. The Public Health Service Act of 1944 consolidated and revised previous laws and is the current legal basis for the PHS. It became the primary division of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, established in 1953, which later became the Department of Health and Human Services in 1979.
Eight out of the eleven operating divisions of the Department of Health and Human Services are designated as part of the Public Health Service:
The three other divisions are designated human services agencies and are not part of the Public Health Service. These are the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, Administration for Children and Families, and Administration for Community Living.
The Assistant Secretary for Health is the senior official in change of the Public Health Service. The Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health contains the following core agencies:
The United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps (PHSCC) employs more than 6,000 uniformed public health professionals for the purpose of delivering public health promotion and disease prevention programs and advancing public health science. Members of the Commissioned Corps often serve on the frontlines in the fight against disease and poor health conditions.
The mission of the U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps is to protect, promote, and advance the health and safety of the people of the United States. According to the PHSCC, this mission is achieved through rapid and effective response to public health needs, leadership and excellence in public health practices, and advancement of public health science.
As one of the United States seven uniformed services, the PHS Commissioned Corps fills public health leadership and service roles within federal government agencies and programs. The PHS Commissioned Corps includes officers drawn from many professions, including environmental and occupational health, medicine, nursing, dentistry, pharmacy, psychology, social work, hospital administration, health record administration, nutrition, engineering, science, veterinary, health information technology, and other health - related occupations.
Officers of the Corps wear uniforms similar to those of the United States Navy with special PHSCC insignia, and the Corps uses the same commissioned officer ranks as the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Coast Guard, and the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps from ensign to admiral, uniformed services pay grades O - 1 through O - 10 respectively.
According to 5 U.S.C. § 8331, service in the PHSCC after June 30, 1960 is considered military service for retirement purposes. Under 42 U.S.C. § 213, active service in the PHSCC is considered active military service for the purposes of most veterans ' benefits and for antidiscrimination laws.
The origins of the Public Health Service can be traced to the passage, by the 5th Congress of the United States, of "An Act for the Relief of Sick and Disabled Seamen '' in 1798. This act created Marine Hospitals to care for sick seamen. They were initially located along the East Coast, at the harbors of the major port cities. As the boundaries of the United States expanded, and harbors were built on other coasts, so too were marine hospitals. The Marine Hospital Service was placed under the Revenue Marine Service (a forerunner of the present - day Coast Guard) within the Department of the Treasury.
A reorganization in 1870 converted the loose network of locally controlled marine hospitals into a centrally controlled Marine Hospital Service, with its headquarters in Washington, D.C. This reorganization made the Marine Hospital Service into its own bureau within the Department of the Treasury. The position of Supervising Surgeon (later titled the Surgeon General) was created to administer the Service, and John Maynard Woodworth, (1837 - 1879), was appointed as the first incumbent in 1871. He moved quickly to reform the system and adopted a military model for his medical staff; putting his physicians in uniforms, and instituting examinations for applicants. Woodworth created a cadre of mobile, career service physicians, who could be assigned as needed to the various Marine Hospitals. The commissioned officer corps was established by legislation in 1889, and signed by 22nd / 24th President Grover Cleveland.
The scope of activities of the Marine Hospital Service also began to expand well beyond the care of merchant seamen in the closing decades of the nineteenth century, beginning with the control of infectious disease. The National Quarantine Act of 1878 vested quarantine authority to the Marine Hospital Service. and the National Board of Health. The Marine Hospital Service was assigned the responsibility for the medical inspection of arriving immigrants at sites such as Ellis Island in New York Harbor. Because of the broadening responsibilities of the Service, its name was changed in 1902 to the "Public Health and Marine Hospital Service ''. As the emphasis of its responsibilities shifted from sailors to general public health and with the decommissioning of various old marine hospitals the name was changed again, in 1912, to just the "Public Health Service '' (PHS).
In 1939, the Public Health Service was transferred from the Department of the Treasury into the new Federal Security Agency. At that time the National Institute of Health (sic) was already established as a division of the PHS. In 1942 the Communicable Disease Center, which would become the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, was established within the PHS. All of the laws affecting the functions of the public health agencies were consolidated for the first time in the Public Health Service Act of 1944.
In 1953 the Federal Security Agency was abolished and most of its functions, including the PHS, were transferred to the newly formed Department of Health, Education and Welfare. In 1955 the Indian Health Service was established upon transfer of these functions from the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The Food and Drug Administration, which traces its origins to 1862, became part of the PHS in 1968.
In 1980 the Department of Health, Education and Welfare was renamed as the Department of Health and Human Services. The other four agencies of the PHS were formed between 1980 and 1992.
In the area of environmental protection and public health, a Public Health Service 1969 community water survey that looked at more than a thousand drinking water systems across the United States drew two important conclusions that supported a growing demand for stronger protections that were adopted in the 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act. The survey concluded, first, that the state supervision programs were very uneven and often lax, and, second, that the bacteriological quality of the water, particularly among small systems, was of concern.
The 1963 Clean Air Act gave the Public Health Service in the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare the authority to take abatement action against industries if it could be demonstrated that they were polluting across state lines, or of a governor requested. Some of these actions involved the Ohio River Valley, New York, and New Jersey. The service also began monitoring air pollution. the 1967 Clean Air Act redirected attention to larger air quality control regions.
In 1932, the Public Health Service, working with the Tuskegee Institute in Tuskegee, Alabama, began a study to record the natural history of syphilis in hopes of justifying treatment programs for blacks. It was titled the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male.
The study initially involved 600 black men -- 399 with syphilis, 201 who did not have the disease. The study was conducted without the benefit of patients ' informed consent. Researchers told the men they were being treated for "bad blood, '' a local term referring to several ailments, including syphilis, anemia, and fatigue. In truth, they did not receive the proper treatment needed to cure their illness. In exchange for taking part in the study, the men received free medical exams, free meals, and burial insurance. Although originally projected to last 6 months, the study actually went on for 40 years. Penicillin - which can be used to treat syphilis -- was discovered in the 1940s. However, the study continued and treatment was never given to the subjects. Because of this, it has been called "arguably the most ' infamous ' biomedical research study in U.S. history ''.
A USPHS physician who took part in the 1932 -- 1972 Tuskegee program, John Charles Cutler, was in charge of the U.S. government 's syphilis experiments in Guatemala, in which in the Central American Republic of Guatemala, Guatemalan prisoners, soldiers, orphaned children, and others were deliberately infected with syphilis and other sexually - transmitted diseases from 1946 to 1948, in order to scientifically study the disease, in a project funded by a grant from the National Institutes of Health of the United States in Bethesda, Maryland.
Secretary of State Hillary Clinton apologized to the Republic of Guatemala for this program in 2010, in light of the serious ethical lapses in moral judgement which occurred.
This article is based on the public domain text History of the Commissioned Corps, PHS
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Department of Health and Human Services.
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clonidine is used to treat which of the following | Clonidine - wikipedia
Clonidine (trade names Catapres, Kapvay, Nexiclon, Clophelin, and others) is a medication used to treat high blood pressure, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, anxiety disorders, tic disorders, withdrawal (from either alcohol, opioids, or smoking), migraine, menopausal flushing, diarrhea, and certain pain conditions. It is classified as a centrally acting α adrenergic agonist and imidazoline receptor agonist that has been in clinical use since 1966.
Clonidine was introduced in 1966. It was first used as a hypertension treatment under the trade name of Catapres. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved clonidine for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), under the trade name of Kapvay alone or with stimulants in 2010, for pediatric patients aged 6 -- 17 years. It was later approved for adults. In Australia, clonidine is an accepted but not approved use for ADHD by the TGA. Clonidine along with methylphenidate has been studied for treatment of ADHD. According to the clinical trials submitted to FDA its effectiveness is comparable to stimulants commonly used for ADHD. While not as effective as methylphenidate in treating ADHD, Clonidine does offer some benefit; it can also be useful in combination with stimulant medications. Some studies show clonidine more sedating than guanfacine, which may be better at bed time along with an arousing stimulant at morning. Clonidine can be used in the treatment of Tourette syndrome (specifically for tics).
Clonidine may be used to ease withdrawal symptoms associated with the long - term use of narcotics, alcohol, benzodiazepines and nicotine (smoking). It can alleviate opioid withdrawal symptoms by reducing the sympathetic nervous system response such as tachycardia and hypertension, as well as reducing sweating, hot and cold flashes, and general restlessness. It may also be helpful in aiding smokers to quit. The sedation effect is also useful. However, its side effects can include insomnia, thus exacerbating an already common feature of opioid withdrawal.
Clonidine also has several off - label uses, and has been prescribed to treat psychiatric disorders including stress, sleep disorders, and hyperarousal caused by post-traumatic stress disorder, borderline personality disorder, and other anxiety disorders. Clonidine is also a mild sedative, and can be used as premedication before surgery or procedures. Its epidural use for pain during heart attack, postoperative and intractable pain has also been studied extensively. Clonidine has also been suggested as a treatment for rare instances of dexmedetomidine withdrawal. Clonidine can be used in restless legs syndrome. It can also be used to treat facial flushing and redness associated with rosacea. It has also been successfully used topically in a clinical trial as a treatment for diabetic neuropathy. Clonidine can also be used for migraine headaches and hot flashes associated with menopause. Clonidine has also been used to treat diarrhea associated with irritable bowel syndrome, fecal incontinence, diabetes, withdrawal - associated diarrhea, intestinal failure, neuroendocrine tumors and cholera.
Clonidine 's effect on reducing circulating norepinephrine by a central mechanism was used in the past as an investigatory test for phaeochromocytoma, which is a catecholamine - synthesizing tumour, usually of the adrenal medulla. In a clonidine suppression test plasma catecholamine levels are measured before and 3 hours after a 0.3 mg oral test dose has been given to the patient. A positive test occurs if there is no decrease in plasma levels.
Clonidine is classed by the FDA as pregnancy category C. It is classified by the TGA of Australia as pregnancy category B3, which means that it has shown some detrimental effects on fetal development in animal studies, although the relevance of this to human beings is unknown. Clonidine can pass into breast milk and may harm a nursing baby; caution is warranted in women who are pregnant, planning to become pregnant, or are breastfeeding.
The principal adverse effects of clonidine are sedation, dry mouth, and hypotension (low blood pressure).
Adverse effects by frequency
Very common (> 10 % frequency):
Common (1 - 10 % frequency):
Uncommon (0.1 - 1 % frequency):
Rare (< 0.1 % frequency):
Clonidine suppresses sympathetic outflow resulting in lower blood pressure, but sudden discontinuation can cause rebound hypertension due to a rebound in sympathetic outflow.
Clonidine therapy should generally be gradually tapered when discontinuing therapy to avoid rebound effects from occurring. Treatment of clonidine withdrawal hypertension depends on the severity of the condition. Reintroduction of clonidine for mild cases, alpha and beta blockers for more urgent situations. Beta blockers never should be used alone to treat clonidine withdrawal as alpha vasoconstriction would still continue.
Clonidine treats high blood pressure by stimulating α receptors in the brain, which decreases peripheral vascular resistance, lowering blood pressure. It has specificity towards the presynaptic α receptors in the vasomotor center in the brainstem. This binding decreases presynaptic calcium levels, thus inhibiting the release of norepinephrine (NE). The net effect is a decrease in sympathetic tone.
It has also been proposed that the antihypertensive effect of clonidine is due to agonism on the I receptor (imidazoline receptor), which mediates the sympatho - inhibitory actions of imidazolines to lower blood pressure.
Its mechanism of action in the treatment of ADHD is to increase noradrenergic tone in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) directly by binding to postsynaptic α adrenergic receptors and indirectly by increasing norepinephrine input from the locus coeruleus.
As of June 2017 clonidine was marketed under many brand names worldwide: Arkamin, Aruclonin, Atensina, Catapin, Catapres, Catapresan, Catapressan, Chianda, Chlofazoline, Chlophazolin, Clonid - Ophtal, Clonidin, Clonidina, Clonidinã, Clonidine, Clonidine hydrochloride, Clonidinhydrochlorid, Clonidini, Clonidinum, Clonigen, Clonistada, Clonnirit, Clophelinum, Dixarit, Duraclon, Edolglau, Haemiton, Hypodine, Hypolax, Iporel, Isoglaucon, Jenloga, Kapvay, Klofelino, Kochaniin, Melzin, Menograine, Normopresan, Paracefan, Pinsanidine, Run Rui, and Winpress. It was marketed as a combination drug with chlortalidone as Arkamin - H, Bemplas, Catapres - DIU, and Clorpres, and in combination with bendroflumethiazide as Pertenso.
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who was the voice of the taco bell dog | Carlos Alazraqui - wikipedia
Carlos Jaime Alazraqui (born July 20, 1962) is an American stand - up comedian, actor, voice actor, singer, impressionist, producer and screenwriter possibly best known as Deputy James Garcia on Reno 911!. His extensive voice - over work includes the role of Bobbi Fabulous on Phineas and Ferb, the Taco Bell chihuahua in the Taco Bell commercials, Denzel Crocker and Juandissimo Magnifico on The Fairly OddParents, Rocko and Spunky on Rocko 's Modern Life, Lazlo and Clam in Camp Lazlo, Grandpapi Rivera in El Tigre: The Adventures of Manny Rivera, and as Mr. Weed in Family Guy. He is a weekly contributor on The Stephanie Miller Show.
Alazraqui was born on July 20, 1962, in Yonkers, New York, to Argentine parents. He moved with his family to Concord, California at an early age. He attended college at California State University, Sacramento, California from 1982 - 1986, where he began competing in open mic contests. After winning in his 4th year of competing at the San Francisco International Comedy Competition, Alazraqui took his prize money and moved to Los Angeles.
Alazraqui has since performed several voices for Nickelodeon cartoons, including Rocko on Rocko 's Modern Life, as well as Denzel Q. Crocker and Juandissimo Magnifico on The Fairly OddParents, Winslow T. Oddfellow and Lube on CatDog, and Scooter on SpongeBob SquarePants. Alazraqui also voiced several additional voices for the Cartoon Network shows, Cow and Chicken, KIDSCITY: The Village Dome of Kids and I Am Weasel during their runs in the mid-late 1990s. He also was the original voice of Spyro in the first game in the Spyro the Dragon series. He was later replaced by Tom Kenny, who voiced Spyro in Spyro 2: Ripto 's Rage!, Spyro: Year of the Dragon, and Spyro: Enter the Dragonfly. He also voiced the Taco Bell chihuahua, Rikochet in the first two seasons of ¡ Mucha Lucha! and Mr. Weed (the head of the "Happy Go Lucky '' toy factory) on Family Guy. It is mentioned in the DVD commentary track that Alazraqui was reluctant to leave the Family Guy series. In particular, Seth MacFarlane suggests that the death of Alazraqui 's character, Mr. Weed, took the actor by surprise.
In 2005, he added the voices for two Cartoon Network series -- The Life and Times of Juniper Lee where he played Monroe, a guardian dog with a Scottish accent and three characters in Camp Lazlo: Lazlo, Clam, and Chef McMuesli. In 2006 added Salty Mike from Squirrel Boy and Walden in Wow! Wow! Wubbzy! on Nick Jr. to his credits. He played Wisk in Glen Hill 's 2000 film version of L. Frank Baum 's The Life and Adventures of Santa Claus. He also provided the voice of Nestor in Happy Feet.
Jeff "Swampy '' Marsh, a storyboard writer for Rocko 's Modern Life, described Alazraqui 's normal voice as bearing "no accent at all ''. Marsh describes Alazraqui 's "Scottish accent '' as "one of the best '' and that he performs his other accents as "all very well ''. According to Marsh, Alazraqui uses various accents in his comedy routines. He has worked for the Disney Channel on the Disney Junior show Handy Manny. Alazraqui provides the voice for Felipe, the bilingual Phillips - head screwdriver, and for Abuelito, Manny 's grandfather. He was the original "voice guy '' on the Stephanie Miller Show. His replacement was voice actor Jim Ward, who had previously substituted for him. In January 2008, Alazraqui returned to fill in for Jim Ward briefly while he recovered from surgery. In 2014, he voiced Mesmo and Torts in Mixels. He currently voices Tio Tortuga in the new Disney Junior show, Sheriff Callie 's Wild West.
In addition, Alazraqui joined Miller 's Sexy Liberal Comedy Tour in 2014, playing some of the dates with Jim Ward, and he has a semi-regular segment on Miller 's radio show, "Coffee with Carlos ''.
Alazraqui is known for his live - action work in the mockumentary series Reno 911!, in which he played Deputy James Garcia for five seasons (2003 -- 2008). He played the same role in the series ' spinoff film, Reno 911! Miami. As a nod to this role, he also played a "bumbling '' Reno cop in the CSI episode "Let it Bleed ''. He has been a celebrity on the Tom Bergeron version of Hollywood Squares.
Alazraqui wrote and starred in The Last White Dishwasher, a short film, co-starring Tara Strong.
In 2009, he collaborated with Ted Nicolaou on a web series called The Club, which was released in November 2010. The series features Jill - Michele Meleán, Debra Wilson, Johnny A. Sanchez, Lori Alan, and Daran Norris.
In 2013, Alazraqui starred as a Cuban drug dealer in one episode of the Melinda Hill web series Romantic Encounters.
Currently, Alazraqui resides in Los Angeles, California with his wife and two children.
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which element of american culture of the early 1800s do you find most appealing why | American popular music - wikipedia
American popular music has had a profound effect on music across the world. The country has seen the rise of popular styles that have had a significant influence on global culture, including ragtime, blues, jazz, swing, rock, bluegrass, country, R&B, doo wop, gospel, soul, funk, heavy metal, punk, disco, house, techno, salsa, grunge and hip hop. In addition, the American music industry is quite diverse, supporting a number of regional styles such as zydeco, klezmer and slack - key.
Distinctive styles of American popular music emerged early in the 19th century, and in the 20th century the American music industry developed a series of new forms of music, using elements of blues and other genres of American folk music. These popular styles included country, R&B, jazz and rock. The 1960s and 1970s saw a number of important changes in American popular music, including the development of a number of new styles, such as heavy metal, punk, soul, and hip hop. Though these styles were not in the sense of mainstream, they were commercially recorded and are thus examples of popular music as opposed to folk or classical music.
The earliest songs that could be considered American popular music, as opposed to the popular music of a particular region or ethnicity, were sentimental parlor songs by Stephen Foster and his peers, and songs meant for use in minstrel shows, theatrical productions that featured singing, dancing and comic performances. Minstrel shows generally used African instruments and dance, and featured performers with their faces blackened, a technique called blackface. By the middle of the 19th century, touring companies had taken this music not only to every part of the United States, but also to the UK, Western Europe, and even to Africa and Asia. Minstrel shows were generally advertised as though the music of the shows was in an African American style, though this was often not true.
Black people had taken part in American popular culture prior to the Civil War era, at least dating back to the African Grove Theatre in New York in the 1820s and the publication of the first music by a black composer, Francis Johnson, in 1818. However, these important milestones still occurred entirely within the conventions of European music. The first extremely popular minstrel song was "Jump Jim Crow '' by Thomas "Daddy '' Rice, which was first performed in 1832 and was a sensation in London when Rice performed it there in 1836. Rice used a dance that he copied from a stable boy with a tune adopted from an Irish jig. The African elements included the use of the banjo, believed to derive from West African string instruments, and accented and additive rhythms. Many of the songs of the minstrel shows are still remembered today, especially those by Daniel Emmett and Stephen Foster, the latter being, according to David Ewen, "America 's first major composer, and one of the world 's outstanding writers of songs ''. Foster 's songs were typical of the minstrel era in their unabashed sentimentality, and in their acceptance of slavery. Nevertheless, Foster did more than most songwriters of the period to humanize the blacks he composed about, such as in "Nelly Was a Lady '', a plaintive, melancholy song about a black man mourning the loss of his wife.
The minstrel show marked the beginning of a long tradition of African American music being appropriated for popular audiences, and was the first distinctly American form of music to find international acclaim, in the mid-19th century. As Donald Clarke has noted, minstrel shows contained "essentially black music, while the most successful acts were white, so that songs and dances of black origin were imitated by white performers and then taken up by black performers, who thus to some extent ended up imitating themselves ''. Clarke attributes the use of blackface to a desire for white Americans to glorify the brutal existence of both free and slave blacks by depicting them as happy and carefree individuals, best suited to plantation life and the performance of simple, joyous songs that easily appealed to white audiences.
Blackface minstrel shows remained popular throughout the last part of the 19th century, only gradually dying out near the beginning of the 20th century. During that time, a form of lavish and elaborate theater called the extravaganza arose, beginning with Charles M. Barras ' The Black Crook. Extravaganzas were criticized by the newspapers and churches of the day because the shows were considered sexually titillating, with women singing bawdy songs dressed in nearly transparent clothing. David Ewen described this as the beginning of the "long and active careers in sex exploitation '' of American musical theater and popular song. Later, extravaganzas took elements of burlesque performances, which were satiric and parodic productions that were very popular at the end of the 19th century.
Like the extravaganza and the burlesque, the variety show was a comic and ribald production, popular from the middle to the end of the 19th century, at which time it had evolved into vaudeville. This form was innovated by producers like Tony Pastor who tried to encourage women and children to attend his shows; they were hesitant because the theater had long been the domain of a rough and disorderly crowd. By the early 20th century, vaudeville was a respected entertainment for women and children, and songwriters like Gus Edwards wrote songs that were popular across the country. The most popular vaudeville shows were, like the Ziegfeld Follies, a series of songs and skits that had a profound effect on the subsequent development of Broadway musical theater and the songs of Tin Pan Alley.
Tin Pan Alley was an area called Union Square in New York City, which became the major center for music publishing by the mid-1890s. The songwriters of this era wrote formulaic songs, many of them sentimental ballads. During this era, a sense of national consciousness was developing, as the United States became a formidable world power, especially after the Spanish -- American War. The increased availability and efficiency of railroads and the postal service helped disseminate ideas, including popular songs.
Some of the most notable publishers of Tin Pan Alley included Willis Woodward, M. Witmark & Sons, Charles K. Harris, and Edward B. Marks and Joseph W. Stern. Stern and Marks were among the more well - known Tin Pan Alley songwriters; they began writing together as amateurs in 1894. In addition to the popular, mainstream ballads and other clean - cut songs, some Tin Pan Alley publishers focused on rough and risqué. Coon songs were another important part of Tin Pan Alley, derived from the watered - down songs of the minstrel show with the "verve and electricity '' brought by the "assimilation of the ragtime rhythm ''. The first popular coon song was "New Coon in Town '', introduced in 1883, and followed by a wave of coon shouters like Ernest Hogan and May Irwin.
The early 20th century also saw the growth of Broadway, a group of theatres specializing in musicals. Broadway became one of the preeminent locations for musical theater in the world, and produced a body of songs that led Donald Clarke to call the era, the golden age of songwriting. The need to adapt enjoyable songs to the constraints of a theater and a plot enabled and encouraged a growth in songwriting and the rise of composers like George Gershwin, Vincent Youmans, Irving Berlin and Jerome Kern. These songwriters wrote songs that have remained popular and are today known as the Great American Songbook.
Foreign operas were popular among the upper - class throughout the 19th century, while other styles of musical theater included operettas, ballad operas and the opera bouffe. The English operettas of Gilbert and Sullivan were particularly popular, while American compositions had trouble finding an audience. George M. Cohan was the first notable American composer of musical theater, and the first to move away from the operetta, and is also notable for using the language of the vernacular in his work. By the beginning of the 20th century, however, black playwrights, composers and musicians were having a profound effect on musical theater, beginning with the works of Will Marion Cook, James Reese Europe and James P. Johnson; the first major hit black musical was Shuffle Along in 1921.
Imported operettas and domestic productions by both whites like Cohan and blacks like Cook, Europe and Johnson all had a formative influence on Broadway. Composers like Gershwin, Porter and Kern made comedic musical theater into a national pastime, with a feel that was distinctly American and not dependent on European models. Most of these individuals were Jewish, with Cole Porter the only major exception; they were the descendants of 19th century immigrants fleeing persecution in the Russian Empire, settled most influentially in various neighborhoods in New York City. Many of the early musicals were influenced by black music, showing elements of early jazz, such as In Dahomey; the Jewish composers of these works may have seen connections between the traditional African American blue notes and their own folk Jewish music.
Broadway songs were recorded around the turn of the century, but did not become widely popular outside their theatrical context until much later. Jerome Kern 's "They Did n't Believe Me '' was an early song that became popular nationwide. Kern 's later innovations included a more believable plot than the rather shapeless stories built around songs of earlier works, beginning with Show Boat in 1927. George Gershwin was perhaps the most influential composer on Broadway, beginning with "Swanee '' in 1919 and later works for jazz and orchestras. His most enduring composition may be the opera Porgy and Bess, a story about two blacks, which Gershwin intended as a sort of "folk opera '', a creation of a new style of American musical theater based on American idioms.
Ragtime was a style of dance music based around the piano, using syncopated rhythms and chromaticisms; the genre 's most well - known performer and composer was undoubtedly Scott Joplin. Donald Clarke considers ragtime the culmination of coon songs, used first in minstrel shows and then vaudeville, and the result of the rhythms of minstrelsy percolating into the mainstream; he also suggests that ragtime 's distinctive sound may have come from an attempt to imitate the African American banjo using the keyboard.
Due to the essentially African American nature of ragtime, it is most commonly considered the first style of American popular music to be truly black music; ragtime brought syncopation and a more authentic black sound to popular music. Popular ragtime songs were notated and sold as sheet music, but the general style was played more informally across the nation; these amateur performers played a more free - flowing form of ragtime that eventually became a major formative influence on jazz.
Thomas Edison 's invention of the phonograph cylinder kicked off the birth of recorded music. The first cylinder to be released was "Semper Fidelis '' by the U.S. Marine Band. At first, cylinders were released sparingly, but as their sales grew more profitable, distribution increased. These early recorded songs were a mix of vaudeville, barbershop quartets, marches, opera, novelty songs, and other popular tunes. Many popular standards, such as "The Good Old Summertime '', "Shine On Harvest Moon '', and "Over There '' come from this time. There were also a few early hits in the field of jazz, beginning with the Original Dixieland Jazz Band 's 1917 recordings, and followed by King Oliver 's Creole Jazz Band, who played in a more authentic New Orleans jazz style.
Blues had been around a long time before it became a part of the first explosion of recorded popular music in American history. This came in the 1920s, when classic female blues singers like Ma Rainey, Bessie Smith and Mamie Smith grew very popular; the first hit of this field was Mamie Smith 's "Crazy Blues ''. These urban blues singers changed the idea of popular music from being simple songs that could be easily performed by anyone to works primarily associated with an individual singer. Performers like Sophie Tucker, known for "Some of These Days '', became closely associated with their hits, making their individualized interpretations just as important as the song itself.
At the same time, record companies like Paramount Records and OKeh Records launched the field of race music, which was mostly blues targeted at African American audiences. The most famous of these acts went on to inspire much of the later popular development of the blues and blues - derived genres, including Charley Patton, Lonnie Johnson and Robert Johnson.
Jazz is a kind of music characterized by blue notes, syncopation, swing, call and response, polyrhythms, and improvisation. Though originally a kind of dance music, jazz has now been "long considered a kind of popular or vernacular music (and has also) become a sophisticated art form that has interacted in significant ways with the music of the concert hall ''. Jazz 's development occurred at around the same time as modern ragtime, blues, gospel and country music, all of which can be seen as part of a continuum with no clear demarcation between them; jazz specifically was most closely related to ragtime, with which it could be distinguished by the use of more intricate rhythmic improvisation, often placing notes far from the implied beat. The earliest jazz bands adopted much of the vocabulary of the blues, including bent and blue notes and instrumental "growls '' and smears.
Paul Whiteman was the most popular bandleader of the 1920s, and claimed for himself the title "The King of Jazz. '' Despite his hiring many of the other best white jazz musicians of the era, later generations of jazz lovers have often judged Whiteman 's music to have little to do with real jazz. Nonetheless, his notion of combining jazz with elaborate orchestrations has been returned to repeatedly by composers and arrangers of later decades.
Whiteman commissioned Gershwin 's "Rhapsody in Blue '', which was debuted by Whiteman 's Orchestra. Ted Lewis 's band was second only to the Paul Whiteman in popularity during the 1920s, and arguably played more real jazz with less pretension than Whiteman, especially in his recordings of the late 1920s. Some of the other "jazz '' bands of the decade included those of: Harry Reser, Leo Reisman, Abe Lyman, Nat Shilkret, George Olsen, Ben Bernie, Bob Haring, Ben Selvin, Earl Burtnett, Gus Arnheim, Rudy Vallee, Jean Goldkette, Isham Jones, Roger Wolfe Kahn, Sam Lanin, Vincent Lopez, Ben Pollack and Fred Waring.
In the 1920s, the music performed by these artists was extremely popular with the public and was typically labeled as jazz. Today, however, this music is disparaged and labeled as "sweet music '' by jazz purists. The music that people consider today as "jazz '' tended to be played by minorities. In the 1920s and early 1930s, however, the majority of people listened to what we would call today "sweet music '' and hardcore jazz was categorized as "hot music '' or "race music. ''
The largest and most influential recording label of the time, The Victor Talking Machine (RCA Victor after 1928) was a restraining influence on the development of "sweet jazz '' until the departure of Eddie King in October 1926. King was well known as an authoritarian who would not permit drinking on the job or severe departure from the written music, unless within solos acceptable by popular music standards of the time. This irritated many Victor jazz artists, including famed trumpeter Bix Beiderbecke. Sudhalter, in Lost Chords, cites an example of a 1927 recording by the Goldkette Orchestra in which musicians were allowed considerable freedom, and remarks "What, one wonders, would this performance have been if Eddie King had been in charge, and not the more liberal Nat Shilkret. Since the Victor ledgers show no less than five recording sessions in January and February 1926, when King actually conducted Goldkette 's Orchestra, comparison between the approach of Goldkette and King is readily available.
In 1935, swing music became popular with the public and quickly replaced jazz as the most popular type of music (although there was some resistance to it at first). Swing music is characterized by a strong rhythm section, usually consisting of a double bass and drums, playing in a medium to fast tempo, and rhythmic devices like the swung note. Swing is primarily a kind of 1930s jazz fused with elements of the blues and the pop sensibility of Tin Pan Alley. Swing used bigger bands than other kinds of jazz had and was headed by bandleaders that tightly arranged the material, discouraging the improvisation that had been an integral part of jazz. David Clarke called swing the first "jazz - oriented style (to be) at the center of popular music... as opposed to merely giving it backbone ''. By the end of the 1930s, vocalists became more and more prominent, eventually taking center stage following the American Federation of Musicians strike, which made recording with a large band prohibitively expensive. Swing came to be accompanied by a popular dance called the swing dance, which was very popular across the United States, among both white and black audiences, especially youth.
In addition to the popular jazz and swing music listened to by mainstream America, there were a number of other genres that were popular among certain groups of people -- e.g., minorities or rural audiences. Beginning in the 1920s and accelerating greatly in the 1940s, the blues began rapidly diversifying into a broad spectrum of new styles. These included an uptempo, energetic style called rhythm and blues (R&B), a merger of blues and Anglo - Celtic song called country music and the fusion of hymns and spirituals with blues structures called gospel music. Later than these other styles, in the 1940s, a blues, R&B and country fusion eventually called rock and roll developed, eventually coming to dominate American popular by the beginning of the 1960s.
Country music is primarily a fusion of African American blues and spirituals with Appalachian folk music, adapted for pop audiences and popularized beginning in the 1920s. Of particular importance was Irish and Scottish tunes, dance music, balladry and vocal styles, as well as Native American, Spanish, German, French and Mexican music. The instrumentation of early country revolved around the European - derived fiddle and the African - derived banjo, with the guitar added later. Country music instrumentation used African elements like a call - and - response format, improvised music and syncopated rhythms. Later still, string instruments like the ukulele and steel guitar became commonplace due to the popularity of Hawaiian music in the early 20th century and the influence of musicians such as Sol Hoʻopiʻi and Lani McIntyre. The roots of modern country music are generally traced to 1927, when music talent scout Ralph Peer recorded Jimmie Rodgers and The Carter Family. Their recordings are considered the foundation for modern country music. There had been popular music prior to 1927 that could be considered country, but, as Ace Collins points out, these recordings had "only marginal and very inconsistent '' effects on the national music markets, and were only superficially similar to what was then known as hillbilly music. In addition to Rodgers and the Carters, a musician named Bob Wills was an influential early performer known for a style called Western swing, which was very popular in the 1920s and 30s, and was responsible for bringing a prominent jazz influence to country music.
Rhythm and blues (R&B) is a style that arose in the 1930s and 1940s, a rhythmic and uptempo form of blues with more complex instrumentation. Author Amiri Baraka described early R&B as "huge rhythm units smashing away behind screaming blues singers (who) had to shout to be heard above the clanging and strumming of the various electrified instruments and the churning rhythm sections.. R&B was recorded during this period, but not extensively, and it was not widely promoted by record companies that felt it was not suited for most audiences, especially middle - class whites, because of the suggestive lyrics and driving rhythms. Bandleaders like Louis Jordan innovated the sound of early R&B. Jordan 's band featured a small horn section and prominent rhythm instrumentation and used songs with bluesy lyrical themes. By the end of the 1940s, he had produced nineteen major hits, and helped pave the way for contemporaries like Wynonie Harris, John Lee Hooker and Roy Milton.
Christian spirituals and rural blues music were the origin of what is now known as gospel music. Beginning in about the 1920s, African American churches featured early gospel in the form of worshipers proclaiming their religious devotion (testifying) in an improvised, often musical manner. Modern gospel began with the work of composers, most importantly Thomas A. Dorsey, who "(composed) songs based on familiar spirituals and hymns, fused to blues and jazz rhythms ''. From these early 20th - century churches, gospel music spread across the country. It remained associated almost entirely with African American churches, and usually featured a choir along with one or more virtuoso soloists.
Rock and roll is a kind of popular music, developed primarily out of country, blues and R&B. Easily the single most popular style of music worldwide, rock 's exact origins and early development have been hotly debated. Music historian Robert Palmer has noted that the style 's influences are quite diverse, and include the Afro - Caribbean "Bo Diddley beat '', elements of "big band swing '' and Latin music like the Cuban son and "Mexican rhythms ''. Another author, George Lipsitz claims that rock arose in America 's urban areas, where there formed a "polyglot, working - class culture (where the) social meanings previously conveyed in isolation by blues, country, polka, zydeco and Latin musics found new expression as they blended in an urban environment ''.
The middle of the 20th century saw a number of very important changes in American popular music. The field of pop music developed tremendously during this period, as the increasingly low price of recorded music stimulated demand and greater profits for the record industry. As a result, music marketing became more and more prominent, resulting in a number of mainstream pop stars whose popularity was previously unheard of. Many of the first such stars were Italian - American crooners like Dean Martin, Rudy Vallee, Tony Bennett, Perry Como, Frankie Laine and, most famously, the "first pop vocalist to engender hysteria among his fans '' Frank Sinatra. The era of the modern teen pop star, however, began in the 1960s. Bubblegum pop groups like The Monkees were chosen entirely for their appearance and ability to sell records, with no regard to musical ability. The same period, however, also saw the rise of new forms of pop music that achieved a more permanent presence in the field of American popular music, including rock, soul and pop - folk. By the end of the 1960s, two developments had completely changed popular music: the birth of a counterculture, which explicitly opposed mainstream music, often in tandem with political and social activism, and the shift from professional composers to performers who were both singers and songwriters.
Rock and roll first entered mainstream popular music through a style called rockabilly, which fused the nascent rock sound with elements of country music. Black - performed rock and roll previously had limited mainstream success, and some observers at the time believed that a white performer who could credibly sing in an R&B and country style would be a success. Sam Phillips, of Memphis, Tennessee 's Sun Records, found such a performer in Elvis Presley, who became one of the best - selling musicians in history, and brought rock and roll to audiences across the world. Presley 's success was preceded by Bill Haley, a white performer whose "Rock Around the Clock '' is sometimes pointed to as the start of the rock era. However, Haley 's music was "more arranged '' and "more calculated '' than the "looser rhythms '' of rockabilly, which also, unlike Haley, did not use saxophones or chorus singing.
R&B remained extremely popular during the 1950s among black audiences, but the style was not considered appropriate for whites, or respectable middle - class blacks, because of its suggestive nature. Many popular R&B songs instead were performed by white musicians like Pat Boone, in a more palatable, mainstream style, and turned into pop hits. By the end of the 1950s, however, there was a wave of popular black blues - rock and country - influenced R&B performers gaining unprecedented fame among white listeners; these included Bo Diddley and Chuck Berry. Over time, producers in the R&B field gradually turned to more rock - based acts like Little Richard and Fats Domino.
Doo wop is a kind of vocal harmony music performed by groups who became popular in the 1950s. Though sometimes considered a kind of rock, doo wop is more precisely a fusion of vocal R&B, gospel and jazz with the blues and pop structures, though until the 1960s, the lines separating rock from doo wop, R&B and other related styles were very blurry. Doo wop became the first style of R&B - derived music "to take shape, to define itself as something people recognized as new, different, strange, theirs '' (emphasis in original). As doo wop grew more popular, more innovations were added, including the use of a bass lead vocalist, a practice that began with Jimmy Ricks of The Ravens. Doo wop performers were originally almost all black, but a few white and integrated groups soon became popular. These included a number of Italian - American groups such as Dion & the Belmonts, while others added female vocalists and even formed all - female groups in the nearly universally male field; these included The Queens and The Chantels.
The 1950s saw a number of brief fads that went on to have a great impact on future styles of music. Performers like Pete Seeger and The Weavers popularized a form of old - time revival of Anglo - American music. This field eventually became associated with the political left - wing and Communism, leading to a decline in acceptability as artists were increasingly blacklisted and criticized. Nevertheless, this form of pop - folk exerted a profound influence in the form of 1950s folk - rock and related styles. Alongside the rather sporadic success of popularized Anglo folk music came a series of Latin dance fads, including mambo, rumba, chachachá and boogaloo. Though their success was again sporadic and brief, Latin music continued to exert a continuous influence on rock, soul and other styles, as well as eventually evolving into salsa music in the 1970s.
Beginning in the late 1920s, a distinctive style first called "old - timey '' or "hillbilly '' music began to be broadcast and recorded in the rural South and Midwest; early artists included the Carter Family, Charlie Poole and his North Carolina Ramblers, and Jimmie Rodgers. The performance and dissemination of this music was regional at first, but the population shifts caused by World War II spread it more widely. After the war, there was increased interest in specialty styles, including what had been known as race and hillbilly music; these styles were renamed to rhythm and blues and country and western, respectively. Major labels had some success promoting two kinds of country acts: Southern novelty performers like Tex Williams and singers like Frankie Laine, who mixed pop and country in a conventionally sentimental style. This period also saw the rise of Hank Williams, a white country singer who had learned the blues from a black street musician named Tee - Tot, in northwest Alabama. Before his death in 1953, Hank Williams recorded eleven singles that sold at least a million copies each and pioneered the Nashville sound.
The Nashville sound was a popular kind of country music that arose in the 1950s, a fusion of popular big band jazz and swing with the lyricism of honky - tonk country. The popular success of Hank Williams ' recordings had convinced record labels that country music could find mainstream audiences. Record companies then tried to strip the rough, honky - tonk elements from country music, removing the unapologetically rural sound that had made Williams famous. Nashville 's industry was reacting to the rise of rockabilly performer Elvis Presley by marketing performers that crossed the divide between country and pop. Chet Atkins, head of RCA 's country music division, did the most to innovate the Nashville sound by abandoning the rougher elements of country, while Owen Bradley used sophisticated production techniques and smooth instrumentation that eventually became standard in the Nashville Sound, which also grew to incorporate strings and vocal choirs. By the early part of the 1960s, the Nashville sound was perceived as watered - down by many more traditionalist performers and fans, resulting in a number of local scenes like the Lubbock sound and, most influentially, the Bakersfield sound.
Throughout the 1950s, the most popular kind of country music was the Nashville Sound, which was a slick and pop - oriented style. Many musicians preferred a rougher sound, leading to the development of the Lubbock Sound and Bakersfield Sound. The Bakersfield Sound was innovated in Bakersfield, California in the mid to late 1950s, by performers like Wynn Stewart, who used elements of Western swing and rock, such as the breakbeat, along with a honky tonk vocal style. He was followed by a wave of performers like Buck Owens and Merle Haggard, who popularized the style.
Soul music is a combination of R&B and gospel that began in the late 1950s in the United States. Soul music is characterized by its use of gospel techniques with a greater emphasis on vocalists, and the use of secular themes. The 1950s recordings of Sam Cooke, Ray Charles, and James Brown are commonly considered the beginnings of soul music. Solomon Burke 's early recordings for Atlantic Records codified the style, and as Peter Guralnick writes, "it was only with the coming together of Burke and Atlantic Records that you could see anything resembling a movement ''.
The Motown Record Corporation in Detroit, Michigan became successful with a string of heavily pop - influenced soul records, which were palatable enough to white listeners so as to allow R&B and soul to crossover to mainstream audiences. An important center of soul music recording was Florence, Alabama, where the FAME Studios operated. Jimmy Hughes, Percy Sledge and Arthur Alexander recorded at Fame; later in the 1960s, Aretha Franklin would also record in the area. Fame Studios, often referred to as Muscle Shoals, after a town neighboring Florence, enjoyed a close relationship with Stax, and many of the musicians and producers who worked in Memphis also contributed to recordings done in Alabama.
In Memphis, Stax Records produced recordings by soul pioneers Otis Redding, Wilson Pickett, and Don Covay. Other Stax artists such as Eddie Floyd and Johnnie Taylor also made significant contributions to soul music. By 1968, the soul music movement had begun to splinter, as James Brown and Sly & the Family Stone began to expand upon and abstract both soul and rhythm and blues into other forms. Guralnick wrote that more "than anything else... what seems to me to have brought the era of soul to a grinding, unsettling halt was the death of Martin Luther King in April 1968 ''.
Among the first of the major new rock genres of the 1960s was surf, pioneered by Californian Dick Dale. Surf was largely instrumental and guitar - based rock with a distorted and twanging sound, and was associated with the Southern California surfing - based youth culture. Dale had worked with Leo Fender, developing the "Showman amplifier and... the reverberation unit that would give surf music its distinctively fuzzy sound ''.
Inspired by the lyrical focus of surf, if not the musical basis, The Beach Boys began their career in 1961 with a string of hits like "Surfin ' U.S.A. ''. Their sound was not instrumental, nor guitar - based, but was full of "rich, dense and unquestionably special '' "floating vocals (with) Four Freshman - ish harmonies riding over a droned, propulsive burden ''. The Beach Boys ' songwriter Brian Wilson grew gradually more eccentric, experimenting with new studio techniques as he became associated with the burgeoning counterculture.
The counterculture was a youth movement that included political activism, especially in opposition to the Vietnam War, and the promotion of various hippie ideals. The hippies were associated primarily with two kinds of music: the folk - rock and country rock of people like Bob Dylan and Gram Parsons, and the psychedelic rock of bands like Jefferson Airplane and The Doors. This movement was very closely connected to the British Invasion, a wave of bands from the United Kingdom who became popular throughout much of the 1960s. The British Invasion initially included bands like the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, and The Zombies who were later joined by bands like the Moody Blues and The Who. The sound of these bands was hard - edged rock, with the Beatles originally known for songs that resembled classic black rock songs by Little Richard, Chuck Berry, Smokey Robinson, The Shirelles and the Isley Brothers. Later, as the counterculture developed, The Beatles began using more advanced techniques and unusual instruments, such as the sitar, as well as more original lyrics.
Folk - rock drew on the sporadic mainstream success of groups like the Kingston Trio and the Almanac Singers, while Woody Guthrie and Pete Seeger helped to politically radicalize rural white folk music. The popular musician Bob Dylan rose to prominence in the middle of the 1960s, fusing folk with rock and making the nascent scene closely connected to the Civil Rights Movement. He was followed by a number of country - rock bands like The Byrds and the Flying Burrito Brothers and folk - oriented singer - songwriters like Joan Baez and the Canadian Joni Mitchell. However, by the end of the decade, there was little political or social awareness evident in the lyrics of pop - singer - songwriters like James Taylor and Carole King, whose self - penned songs were deeply personal and emotional.
Psychedelic rock was a hard, driving kind of guitar - based rock, closely associated with the city of San Francisco, California. Though Jefferson Airplane was the only psychedelic San Francisco band to have a major national hit, with 1967 's "Somebody to Love '' and "White Rabbit '', the Grateful Dead, a folk, country and bluegrass - flavored jam band, "embodied all the elements of the San Francisco scene and came... to represent the counterculture to the rest of the country ''; the Grateful Dead also became known for introducing the counterculture, and the rest of the country, to the ideas of people like Timothy Leary, especially the use of hallucinogenic drugs like LSD for spiritual and philosophical purposes.
Following the turbulent political, social and musical changes of the 1960s and early 1970s, rock music diversified. What was formerly known as rock and roll, a reasonably discrete style of music, had evolved into a catchall category called simply rock music, an umbrella term which would eventually include diverse styles like heavy metal music, punk rock and, sometimes even hip hop music. During the 1970s, however, most of these styles were not part of mainstream music, and were evolving in the underground music scene.
The early 1970s saw a wave of singer - songwriters who drew on the introspective, deeply emotional and personal lyrics of 1960s folk - rock. They included James Taylor, Carole King and others, all known just as much for their lyric ability as for their performances. The same period saw the rise of bluesy Southern rock and country rock groups like the Allman Brothers Band and Lynyrd Skynyrd. In the 1970s, soft rock developed, a kind of simple, unobtrusive and mellow form of pop - rock, exemplified by a number of bands like America and Bread, most of whom are little remembered today; many were one - hit wonders. In addition, harder arena rock bands like Chicago and Styx also saw some major success.
The early 1970s saw the rise of a new style of country music that was as rough and hard - edged, and which quickly became the most popular form of country. This was outlaw country, a style that included such mainstream stars as Willie Nelson and Waylon Jennings. Outlaw country was very rock - oriented, and had lyrics that focused on the criminal, especially drug and alcohol - related, antics of its performers, who grew their hair long, wore denim and leather and looked like hippies in contrast to the clean - cut country singers that were pushing the Nashville sound.
By the mid-1970s, disco, a form of dance music, was becoming popular, evolving from underground dance clubs to mainstream America. Disco reached its zenith following the release of Saturday Night Fever and the phenomenon surrounding the movie and the soundtrack by The Bee Gees. Disco 's time was short, however, and by 1980 was soon replaced with a number of genres that evolved out of the punk rock scene, like new wave. Bruce Springsteen became a major star, first in the mid to late 1970s and then throughout the 1980s, with dense, inscrutable lyrics and anthemic songs that resonated with the middle and lower classes.
In the early 1970s, soul music was influenced by psychedelic rock and other styles. The social and political ferment of the times inspired artists like Marvin Gaye and Curtis Mayfield to release album - length statements with hard - hitting social commentary. Artists like James Brown led soul towards more dance - oriented music, which eventually evolved into funk. Funk was typified by 1970s bands like Parliament - Funkadelic, The Meters, and James Brown himself, while more versatile groups like War, The Commodores and Earth, Wind and Fire also became popular. During the 1970s, some highly slick and commercial blue - eyed soul acts like Philadelphia 's Hall & Oates achieved mainstream success, as well as a new generation of street - corner harmony or city - soul groups like The Delfonics and Howard University 's Unifics.
By the end of the 1970s, Philly soul, funk, rock and most other genres were dominated by disco - inflected tracks. During this period, funk bands like The O'Jays and The Spinners continued to turn out hits. After the death of disco in 1980, soul music survived for a short time before going through yet another metamorphosis. With the introduction of influences from electro music and funk, soul music became less raw and more slickly produced, resulting in a genre of music that was again called R&B, usually distinguished from the earlier rhythm and blues by identifying it as contemporary R&B.
By the 1960s, the term rhythm and blues had no longer been in wide use; instead, terms like soul music were used to describe popular music by black artists. In the 1980s, however, rhythm and blues came back into use, most often in the form of R&B, a usage that has continued to the present. Contemporary R&B arose when sultry funk singers like Prince became very popular, alongside dance - oriented pop stars like Michael Jackson and Madonna.
By the end of the 1980s, pop - rock largely consisted of the radio - friendly glam metal bands, who used images derived from the British glam movement with macho lyrics and attitudes, accompanied by hard rock music and heavy metal virtuosic soloing. Bands from this era included many British groups like Def Leppard, as well as heavy metal - influenced American bands Mötley Crüe, Guns N ' Roses, Bon Jovi and Van Halen.
The mid-1980s also saw Gospel music see its popularity peak. A new form of gospel had evolved, called Contemporary Christian music (CCM). CCM had been around since the late 1960s, and consisted of a pop / rock sound with slight religious lyrics. CCM had become the most popular form of gospel by the mid-1980s, especially with artists like Amy Grant, Michael W. Smith, and Kathy Troccoli. Amy Grant was the most popular CCM, and gospel, singer of the 1980s, and after experiencing unprecedented success in CCM, crossed over into mainstream pop in the 1980s and 1990s. Michael W. Smith also had considerable success in CCM before crossing over to a successful career in pop music as well. Grant would later produce CCM 's first # 1 pop hit ("Baby Baby ''), and CCM 's best - selling album (Heart In Motion).
In the 1980s, the country music charts were dominated by pop singers with only tangential influences from country music, a trend that has continued since. The 1980s saw a revival of honky - tonk - style country with the rise of people like Dwight Yoakam and the new traditionalists Emmylou Harris and Ricky Skaggs, as well as the development of alternative country performers like Uncle Tupelo. Later alternative country performers, like Whiskeytown 's Ryan Adams and Wilco, found some mainstream success.
During the 1970s, a number of diverse styles emerged in stark contrast to mainstream American popular music. Though these genres were not largely popular in the sense of selling many records to mainstream audiences, they were examples of popular music, as opposed to folk or classical music. In the early 1970s, African Americans and Puerto Ricans in New York City developed hip hop culture, which produced a style of music also called hip hop. At roughly the same time, Latinos, especially Cubans and Puerto Ricans, in New York also innovated salsa music, which combined many forms of Latin music with R&B and rock. The genres of punk rock and heavy metal were most closely associated with the United Kingdom in the 1970s, while various American derivatives evolved later in the decade and into the 1980s. Meanwhile, Detroit slowly evolved a series of electronic music genres like house and techno that later became a major part of popular music worldwide.
Hip hop is a cultural movement, of which music is a part, along with graffiti and breakdancing. The music is composed of two parts, rapping, the delivery of swift, highly rhythmic and lyrical vocals, and DJing, the production of instrumentation either through sampling, instrumentation, turntablism or beatboxing. Hip hop arose in the early 1970s in The Bronx, New York City. Jamaican immigrant DJ Kool Herc is widely regarded as the progenitor of hip hop; he brought with him the practice of toasting over the rhythms of popular songs. In New York, DJs like Kool Herc played records of popular funk, disco and rock songs. Emcees originally arose to introduce the songs and keep the crowd excited and dancing; over time, the DJs began isolating the percussion breaks (the rhythmic climax of songs), thus producing a repeated beat that the emcees rapped over.
Rapping included greetings to friends and enemies, exhortations to dance and colorful, often humorous boasts. By the beginning of the 1980s, there had been popular hip hop songs like "Rappers Delight '' by the Sugarhill Gang and a few major celebrities of the scene, like LL Cool J and Kurtis Blow. Other performers experimented with politicized lyrics and social awareness, while others performed fusions with jazz, heavy metal, techno, funk and soul. Hip hop began to diversify in the latter part of the 1980s. New styles appeared, like alternative hip hop and the closely related jazz rap fusion, pioneered by rappers like De La Soul and Guru. The crews Public Enemy and N.W.A did the most during this era to bring hip hop to national attention; the former did so with incendiary and politically charged lyrics, while the latter became the first prominent example of gangsta rap.
Salsa music is a diverse and predominantly Caribbean rhythm that is popular in many Latin American countries. Salsa incorporates multiple styles and variations; the term can be used to describe most any form of the popular Cuban - derived musical genres (like chachachá and mambo). Most specifically however, salsa refers to a particular style was developed by mid-1970s groups of New York City - area Cuban and Puerto Rican immigrants to the United States, and stylistic descendants like 1980s salsa romantica.
Salsa music always has a 4 / 4 meter. The music is phrased in groups of two bars, using recurring rhythmic patterns, and the beginning of phrases in the song text and instruments. Typically, the rhythmic patterns played on the percussion are rather complicated, often with several different patterns played simultaneously. The clave rhythm is an important element that forms the basis of salsa. Apart from percussion, a variety of melodic instruments are commonly used as accompaniment, such as a guitar, trumpets, trombones, the piano, and many others, all depending on the performing artists. Bands are typically divided into horn and rhythm sections, led by one or more singers (soneros or salseros).
Punk was a kind of rebellious rock music that began in the 1970s as a reaction against the popular music of the day - especially disco, which was seen as insipid and uninspired. Punk drew on American bands including the Velvet Underground, The Stooges and the New York Dolls. Punk was loud, aggressive and usually very simple, requiring little musical training to play. Later in the decade, British bands like the Sex Pistols and The Clash found short - lived fame at home and, to a lesser degree, in the United States. American bands in the field included most famously The Ramones, as well as groups like the Talking Heads that played a more artsy kind of music that was closely associated with punk before eventually evolving into pop - new wave. Other major acts include Blondie, Patti Smith and Television. Most of these bands got their start at what is considered "ground zero '' of punk rock, a club named CBGB. The small club in New York threw a festival in 1975 that showed off the "top 40 unrecorded rock bands ''. Among these bands were the previously mentioned The Ramones, Sex Pistols, Blondie and the like.
Hardcore punk was the response of American youths to the worldwide punk rock explosion of the late 1970s. Hardcore stripped punk rock and New Wave of its sometimes elitist and artsy tendencies, resulting in short, fast, and intense songs that spoke to disaffected youth. Hardcore exploded in the American metropolises of Los Angeles, Washington, DC, New York and Boston and most American cities had their own local scenes by the end of the 1980s.
Alternative rock is a diverse grouping of rock bands that in America developed largely from the hardcore scene in the 1980s in stark opposition to the mainstream music scene. Alternative rock subgenres that developed during the decade include indie rock, Gothic rock, noise rock, grunge, and college rock. Most alternative bands were unified by their collective debt to punk, which laid the groundwork for underground and alternative music in the 1970s. Though the genre is considered to be rock, some styles were influenced by American folk, reggae and jazz. Like punk and hardcore, alternative rock had little mainstream success in America in the 1980s, but via the grassroots establishment of an indie scene through touring, college radio, fanzines, and word - of - mouth, alternative bands laid the groundwork for the breakthrough of the genre in the American public consciousness in the next decade.
Heavy metal is a form of music characterized by aggressive, driving rhythms and highly amplified distorted guitars, generally with grandiose lyrics and virtuosic instrumentation. Heavy metal is a development of blues, blues rock, rock and prog rock. Its origins lie in the British hard rock bands who between 1967 and 1974 took blues and rock and created a hybrid with a heavy, guitar - and - drums - centered sound. Most of the pioneers in the field, like Black Sabbath, were English, though many were inspired by American performers like Blue Cheer and Jimi Hendrix.
In the early 1970s, the first major American bands began appearing, like Blue Öyster Cult and Aerosmith, and musicians like Eddie Van Halen began their career. Heavy metal remained, however, a largely underground phenomenon. During the 1980s, a pop - based form of hard rock, with a party - hearty spirit and a glam - influenced visual aesthetic (sometimes referred to as "hair metal '') dominated the music charts, led by superstars like Poison, Bon Jovi, Mötley Crüe, and Ratt. The 1987 debut of Guns N ' Roses, a hard rock band whose image reflected the grittier underbelly of the Sunset Strip, was at least in part a reaction against the overly polished image of hair metal, but that band 's wild success was in many ways the last gasp of the hard - rock and metal scene. By the mid-1980s, as the term "heavy metal '' became the subject of much contestation, the style had branched out in so many different directions that new classifications were created by fans, record companies, and fanzines, although sometimes the differences between various subgenres were unclear, even to the artists purportedly belonging to a given style. The most notable of the 1980s metal subgenres in the United States was the swift and aggressive thrash metal style, pioneered by bands like Anthrax, Megadeth, Metallica, and Slayer.
Perhaps the most important change in the 1990s in American popular music was the rise of alternative rock through the popularity of grunge. This was previously an explicitly anti-mainstream grouping of genres that rose to great fame beginning in the early 1990s. The genre in its early stages was largely situated on Sub Pop Records, a company founded by Bruce Pavitt and John Poneman. Significant grunge bands signed to the label were Green River (half of the members from this band would later become founding members of Pearl Jam), Sonic Youth (although not a grunge band they were influential on grunge bands and in fact it was upon the insistence of Kim Gordon that the David Geffen Company signed Nirvana) and Nirvana. Grunge is an alternative rock subgenre with a "dark, brooding guitar - based sludge '' sound, drawing on heavy metal, punk, and elements of bands like Sonic Youth and their use of "unconventional tunings to bend otherwise standard pop songs completely out of shape. '' With the addition of a "melodic, Beatlesque element '' to the sound of bands like Nirvana, grunge became wildly popular across the United States. Grunge became commercially successful in the early 1990s, peaking between 1991 and 1994. Bands from cities in the U.S. Pacific Northwest especially Seattle, Washington, were responsible for creating grunge and later made it popular with mainstream audiences. The supposed Generation X, who had just reached adulthood as grunge 's popularity peaked, were closely associated with grunge, the sound which helped "define the desperation of (that) generation. '' Later Post Grunge bands such as Foo Fighters and Creed became popular form of Alternative rock because it was and still is very radio friendly unlike the Grunge band of which they were musically influenced by. Pop punk bands like Green Day and Blink 182 also gained popularity. In the second half of the 1990s nu metal arose with bands such as Linkin Park, Korn, Limp Bizkit and Slipknot. The independent culture slumbered in the underground scenes with new genres such as lo - fi (Beck, Sparklehorse, Guided By Voices), math rock (Slint, Shellac) and post-rock (Mogwai, Explosions in the Sky). Emocore and Post-hardcore became more known with bands such as At the Drive - In and Fugazi.
Gangsta rap is a kind of hip hop, most importantly characterized by a lyrical focus on macho sexuality, physicality and a dangerous, criminal image. Though the origins of gangsta rap can be traced back to the mid-1980s raps of Philadelphia 's Schoolly D and the West Coast 's Ice - T, the style is usually said to have begun in the Los Angeles and Oakland area, where Too Short, NWA and others found their fame. This West Coast rap scene spawned the early 1990s G - funk sound, which paired gangsta rap lyrics with a thick and hazy tone, often relying on samples from 1970s P - funk; the best - known proponents of this sound were the breakthrough rappers Dr. Dre and Snoop Doggy Dogg.
By the end of the 1990s and into the early 2000s pop music consisted mostly of a combination of pop - hip hop and R&B - tinged pop, including a number of boy bands. Notable female singers also cemented their status in American and worldwide popular music, such as Beyoncé (with her solo career and as lead singer of Destiny 's Child), Britney Spears, Christina Aguilera, Katy Perry, Lady Gaga and Taylor Swift. Also notable was the influence of hip - hop producers on popular music in the mid-late 2000s, including the Neptunes and Timbaland, who made the sounds first heard on Justin Timberlake 's FutureSex / LoveSounds and Nelly Furtado 's Loose imitated throughout popular radio with artists Madonna, Akon and Lady Gaga. In the late 2000s into the early 2010s, pop music began to move towards being heavily influenced by the European electronic dance music scene, taking root in the college crowd through producers like David Guetta, Calvin Harris, Swedish House Mafia and Skrillex.
Hip hop / pop combination had also begun to dominate 2000s and early 2010s. In the early 2010s, prominent artists like Bruno Mars, Drake, Lil Wayne, 2 Chainz, Kendrick Lamar, Machine Gun Kelly, and Macklemore began to dominate the mainstream music scene.
The predominant sound in 1990s country music was pop with only very limited elements of country. This includes many of the best - selling artists of the 1990s, like Clint Black, Shania Twain, Faith Hill and the first of these crossover stars, Garth Brooks.
On the other hand a guitar revival took place and raised a new generation of alternative guitar bands often described as post-punk revival or garage rock revival. Prominent US bands of this generation are White Stripes, The Strokes, and The Killers. New Weird America or sometimes called Freak Folk is a new movement emphasizing the artistic individuality of genre crossing artists such as Antony and the Johnsons, Joanna Newsom, The Dodos, Animal Collective and Cat Power.
American popular music has become extremely popular internationally. Rock, hip hop, jazz, country and other styles have fans across the globe. The combination of parts of international and American popular music has been attempted between the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s. However, the results of synthesis were for the most part unsuccessful. BBC Radio DJ Andy Kershaw, for example, has noted that country music is popular across virtually the entire world. Indeed, out of "all the contributions made by Americans to world culture... (American popular music) has been taken (most) to heart by the entire world ''. Other styles of American popular music have also had a formative effect internationally, including funk, the basis for West African Afrobeat, R&B, a major source for Jamaican reggae, and rock, which has profoundly influenced most every genre of popular music worldwide. Rock, country, jazz and hip hop have become an entrenched part of many countries, leading to local varieties like Australian country music, Tanzanian Bongo Flava and Russian rock.
Rock has had a formative influence on popular music, which had the effect of transforming "the very concept of what popular music '' is. while Charlie Gillett has argued that rock and roll "was the first popular genre to incorporate the relentless pulse and sheer volume of urban life into the music itself ''.
The social impacts of American popular music have been felt both within the United States and abroad. Beginning as early as the extravaganzas of the late 19th century, American popular music has been criticized for being too sexually titillating and for encouraging violence, drug abuse and generally immoral behavior.
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what is the name of the school in to kill a mockingbird | To Kill a Mockingbird - wikipedia
To Kill a Mockingbird is a novel by Harper Lee published in 1960. It was immediately successful, winning the Pulitzer Prize, and has become a classic of modern American literature. The plot and characters are loosely based on Lee 's observations of her family, her neighbors and an event that occurred near her hometown of Monroeville, Alabama, in 1936, when she was 10 years old. The story is told by the six - year - old Jean Louise Finch.
The novel is renowned for its warmth and humor, despite dealing with the serious issues of rape and racial inequality. The narrator 's father, Atticus Finch, has served as a moral hero for many readers and as a model of integrity for lawyers. One critic explains the novel 's impact by writing, "In the twentieth century, To Kill a Mockingbird is probably the most widely read book dealing with race in America, and its protagonist, Atticus Finch, the most enduring fictional image of racial heroism. ''
As a Southern Gothic novel and a Bildungsroman, the primary themes of To Kill a Mockingbird involve racial injustice and the destruction of innocence. Scholars have noted that Lee also addresses issues of class, courage, compassion, and gender roles in the American Deep South. The book is widely taught in schools in the United States with lessons that emphasize tolerance and decry prejudice. Despite its themes, To Kill a Mockingbird has been subject to campaigns for removal from public classrooms, often challenged for its use of racial epithets.
Reaction to the novel varied widely upon publication. Despite the number of copies sold and its widespread use in education, literary analysis of it is sparse. Author Mary McDonough Murphy, who collected individual impressions of To Kill a Mockingbird by several authors and public figures, calls the book "an astonishing phenomenon ''. In 2006, British librarians ranked the book ahead of the Bible as one "every adult should read before they die ''. It was adapted into an Academy Award - winning film in 1962 by director Robert Mulligan, with a screenplay by Horton Foote. Since 1990, a play based on the novel has been performed annually in Harper Lee 's hometown.
To Kill a Mockingbird was Lee 's only published book until Go Set a Watchman, an earlier draft of To Kill a Mockingbird, was published on July 14, 2015. Lee continued to respond to her work 's impact until her death in February 2016, although she had refused any personal publicity for herself or the novel since 1964.
Born in 1926, Harper Lee grew up in the Southern town of Monroeville, Alabama, where she became close friends with soon - to - be famous writer Truman Capote. She attended Huntingdon College in Montgomery (1944 -- 45), and then studied law at the University of Alabama (1945 -- 49). While attending college, she wrote for campus literary magazines: Huntress at Huntingdon and the humor magazine Rammer Jammer at the University of Alabama. At both colleges, she wrote short stories and other works about racial injustice, a rarely mentioned topic on such campuses at the time. In 1950, Lee moved to New York City, where she worked as a reservation clerk for British Overseas Airways Corporation; there, she began writing a collection of essays and short stories about people in Monroeville. Hoping to be published, Lee presented her writing in 1957 to a literary agent recommended by Capote. An editor at J.B. Lippincott, who bought the manuscript, advised her to quit the airline and concentrate on writing.
Donations from friends allowed her to write uninterrupted for a year. After finishing the first draft and returning it to Lippincott, the manuscript, at that point titled "Go Set a Watchman '', fell into the hands of Therese von Hohoff Torrey, known professionally as Tay Hohoff. Hohoff was impressed, "(T) he spark of the true writer flashed in every line, '' she would later recount in a corporate history of Lippincott, but as Hohoff saw it, the manuscript was by no means fit for publication. It was, as she described it, "more a series of anecdotes than a fully conceived novel. '' During the following two and a half years, she led Lee from one draft to the next until the book finally achieved its finished form.
After the "Watchman '' title was rejected, it was re-titled Atticus but Lee renamed it To Kill a Mockingbird to reflect that the story went beyond a character portrait. The book was published on July 11, 1960. The editorial team at Lippincott warned Lee that she would probably sell only several thousand copies. In 1964, Lee recalled her hopes for the book when she said, "I never expected any sort of success with ' Mockingbird. '... I was hoping for a quick and merciful death at the hands of the reviewers but, at the same time, I sort of hoped someone would like it enough to give me encouragement. Public encouragement. I hoped for a little, as I said, but I got rather a whole lot, and in some ways this was just about as frightening as the quick, merciful death I 'd expected. '' Instead of a "quick and merciful death '', Reader 's Digest Condensed Books chose the book for reprinting in part, which gave it a wide readership immediately. Since the original publication, the book has never been out of print.
The story takes place during three years (1933 -- 35) of the Great Depression in the fictional "tired old town '' of Maycomb, Alabama, the seat of Maycomb County. It focuses on six - year - old Jean Louise Finch (nicknamed Scout), who lives with her older brother, Jeremy (nicknamed Jem), and their widowed father, Atticus, a middle - aged lawyer. Jem and Scout befriend a boy named Dill, who visits Maycomb to stay with his aunt each summer. The three children are terrified yet fascinated by their neighbor, the reclusive Arthur "Boo '' Radley. The adults of Maycomb are hesitant to talk about Boo, and few of them have seen him for many years. The children feed one another 's imagination with rumors about his appearance and reasons for remaining hidden, and they fantasize about how to get him out of his house. After two summers of friendship with Dill, Scout and Jem find that someone leaves them small gifts in a tree outside the Radley place. Several times the mysterious Boo makes gestures of affection to the children, but, to their disappointment, he never appears in person.
Judge Taylor appoints Atticus to defend Tom Robinson, a black man who has been accused of raping a young white woman, Mayella Ewell. Although many of Maycomb 's citizens disapprove, Atticus agrees to defend Tom to the best of his ability. Other children taunt Jem and Scout for Atticus 's actions, calling him a "nigger - lover ''. Scout is tempted to stand up for her father 's honor by fighting, even though he has told her not to. Atticus faces a group of men intent on lynching Tom. This danger is averted when Scout, Jem, and Dill shame the mob into dispersing by forcing them to view the situation from Atticus ' and Tom 's perspective.
Atticus does not want Jem and Scout to be present at Tom Robinson 's trial. No seat is available on the main floor, so by invitation of the Rev. Sykes, Jem, Scout, and Dill watch from the colored balcony. Atticus establishes that the accusers -- Mayella and her father, Bob Ewell, the town drunk -- are lying. It also becomes clear that the friendless Mayella made sexual advances toward Tom, and that her father caught her and beat her. Despite significant evidence of Tom 's innocence, the jury convicts him. Jem 's faith in justice becomes badly shaken, as is Atticus ', when the hapless Tom is shot and killed while trying to escape from prison.
Despite Tom 's conviction, Bob Ewell is humiliated by the events of the trial, Atticus explaining that he "destroyed (Ewell 's) last shred of credibility at that trial. '' Ewell vows revenge, spitting in Atticus ' face, trying to break into the judge 's house, and menacing Tom Robinson 's widow. Finally, he attacks the defenseless Jem and Scout while they walk home on a dark night after the school Halloween pageant. Jem suffers a broken arm in the struggle, but amid the confusion someone comes to the children 's rescue. The mysterious man carries Jem home, where Scout realizes that he is Boo Radley.
Sheriff Tate arrives and discovers that Bob Ewell has died during the fight. The sheriff argues with Atticus about the prudence and ethics of charging Jem (whom Atticus believes to be responsible) or Boo (whom Tate believes to be responsible). Atticus eventually accepts the sheriff 's story that Ewell simply fell on his own knife. Boo asks Scout to walk him home, and after she says goodbye to him at his front door he disappears again. While standing on the Radley porch, Scout imagines life from Boo 's perspective, and regrets that they had never repaid him for the gifts he had given them.
Scout then goes back home to Atticus and stays up with him for a while in Jem 's room. Soon Atticus takes her to bed and tucks her in, before leaving to go back to Jem.
Lee has said that To Kill a Mockingbird is not an autobiography, but rather an example of how an author "should write about what he knows and write truthfully ''. Nevertheless, several people and events from Lee 's childhood parallel those of the fictional Scout. Lee 's father, Amasa Coleman Lee, was an attorney, similar to Atticus Finch, and in 1919, he defended two black men accused of murder. After they were convicted, hanged and mutilated, he never tried another criminal case. Lee 's father was also the editor and publisher of the Monroeville newspaper. Although more of a proponent of racial segregation than Atticus, he gradually became more liberal in his later years. Though Scout 's mother died when she was a baby, Lee was 25 when her mother, Frances Cunningham Finch, died. Lee 's mother was prone to a nervous condition that rendered her mentally and emotionally absent. Lee 's older brother Edwin was the inspiration for Jem.
Lee modeled the character of Dill on her childhood friend, Truman Capote, known then as Truman Persons. Just as Dill lived next door to Scout during the summer, Capote lived next door to Lee with his aunts while his mother visited New York City. Like Dill, Capote had an impressive imagination and a gift for fascinating stories. Both Lee and Capote were atypical children: both loved to read. Lee was a scrappy tomboy who was quick to fight, but Capote was ridiculed for his advanced vocabulary and lisp. She and Capote made up and acted out stories they wrote on an old Underwood typewriter that Lee 's father gave them. They became good friends when both felt alienated from their peers; Capote called the two of them "apart people ''. In 1960, Capote and Lee traveled to Kansas together to investigate the multiple murders that were the basis for Capote 's nonfiction novel In Cold Blood.
Down the street from the Lees lived a family whose house was always boarded up; they served as the models for the fictional Radleys. The son of the family got into some legal trouble and the father kept him at home for 24 years out of shame. He was hidden until virtually forgotten; he died in 1952.
The origin of Tom Robinson is less clear, although many have speculated that his character was inspired by several models. When Lee was 10 years old, a white woman near Monroeville accused a black man named Walter Lett of raping her. The story and the trial were covered by her father 's newspaper which reported that Lett was convicted and sentenced to death. After a series of letters appeared claiming Lett had been falsely accused, his sentence was commuted to life in prison. He died there of tuberculosis in 1937. Scholars believe that Robinson 's difficulties reflect the notorious case of the Scottsboro Boys, in which nine black men were convicted of raping two white women on negligible evidence. However, in 2005, Lee stated that she had in mind something less sensational, although the Scottsboro case served "the same purpose '' to display Southern prejudices. Emmett Till, a black teenager who was murdered for allegedly flirting with a white woman in Mississippi in 1955, and whose death is credited as a catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement, is also considered a model for Tom Robinson.
-- Allan Gurganus
The strongest element of style noted by critics and reviewers is Lee 's talent for narration, which in an early review in Time was called "tactile brilliance ''. Writing a decade later, another scholar noted, "Harper Lee has a remarkable gift of story - telling. Her art is visual, and with cinematographic fluidity and subtlety we see a scene melting into another scene without jolts of transition. '' Lee combines the narrator 's voice of a child observing her surroundings with a grown woman 's reflecting on her childhood, using the ambiguity of this voice combined with the narrative technique of flashback to play intricately with perspectives. This narrative method allows Lee to tell a "delightfully deceptive '' story that mixes the simplicity of childhood observation with adult situations complicated by hidden motivations and unquestioned tradition. However, at times the blending causes reviewers to question Scout 's preternatural vocabulary and depth of understanding. Both Harding LeMay and the novelist and literary critic Granville Hicks expressed doubt that children as sheltered as Scout and Jem could understand the complexities and horrors involved in the trial for Tom Robinson 's life.
Writing about Lee 's style and use of humor in a tragic story, scholar Jacqueline Tavernier - Courbin states: "Laughter... (exposes) the gangrene under the beautiful surface but also by demeaning it; one can hardly... be controlled by what one is able to laugh at. '' Scout 's precocious observations about her neighbors and behavior inspired National Endowment of the Arts director David Kipen to call her "hysterically funny ''. To address complex issues, however, Tavernier - Courbin notes that Lee uses parody, satire, and irony effectively by using a child 's perspective. After Dill promises to marry her, then spends too much time with Jem, Scout reasons the best way to get him to pay attention to her is to beat him up, which she does several times. Scout 's first day in school is a satirical treatment of education; her teacher says she must undo the damage Atticus has wrought in teaching her to read and write, and forbids Atticus from teaching her further. Lee treats the most unfunny situations with irony, however, as Jem and Scout try to understand how Maycomb embraces racism and still tries sincerely to remain a decent society. Satire and irony are used to such an extent that Tavernier - Courbin suggests one interpretation for the book 's title: Lee is doing the mocking -- of education, the justice system, and her own society -- by using them as subjects of her humorous disapproval.
Critics also note the entertaining methods used to drive the plot. When Atticus is out of town, Jem locks a Sunday school classmate in the church basement with the furnace during a game of Shadrach. This prompts their black housekeeper Calpurnia to escort Scout and Jem to her church, which allows the children a glimpse into her personal life, as well as Tom Robinson 's. Scout falls asleep during the Halloween pageant and makes a tardy entrance onstage, causing the audience to laugh uproariously. She is so distracted and embarrassed that she prefers to go home in her ham costume, which saves her life.
Scholars have characterized To Kill a Mockingbird as both a Southern Gothic and a Bildungsroman. The grotesque and near - supernatural qualities of Boo Radley and his house, and the element of racial injustice involving Tom Robinson, contribute to the aura of the Gothic in the novel. Lee used the term "Gothic '' to describe the architecture of Maycomb 's courthouse and in regard to Dill 's exaggeratedly morbid performances as Boo Radley. Outsiders are also an important element of Southern Gothic texts and Scout and Jem 's questions about the hierarchy in the town cause scholars to compare the novel to Catcher in the Rye and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Despite challenging the town 's systems, Scout reveres Atticus as an authority above all others, because he believes that following one 's conscience is the highest priority, even when the result is social ostracism. However, scholars debate about the Southern Gothic classification, noting that Boo Radley is in fact human, protective, and benevolent. Furthermore, in addressing themes such as alcoholism, incest, rape, and racial violence, Lee wrote about her small town realistically rather than melodramatically. She portrays the problems of individual characters as universal underlying issues in every society.
As children coming of age, Scout and Jem face hard realities and learn from them. Lee seems to examine Jem 's sense of loss about how his neighbors have disappointed him more than Scout 's. Jem says to their neighbor Miss Maudie the day after the trial, "It 's like bein ' a caterpillar wrapped in a cocoon... I always thought Maycomb folks were the best folks in the world, least that 's what they seemed like ''. This leads him to struggle with understanding the separations of race and class. Just as the novel is an illustration of the changes Jem faces, it is also an exploration of the realities Scout must face as an atypical girl on the verge of womanhood. As one scholar writes, "To Kill a Mockingbird can be read as a feminist Bildungsroman, for Scout emerges from her childhood experiences with a clear sense of her place in her community and an awareness of her potential power as the woman she will one day be. ''
-- Claudia Johnson in To Kill a Mockingbird: Threatening Boundaries, 1994
Despite the novel 's immense popularity upon publication, it has not received the close critical attention paid to other modern American classics. Don Noble, editor of a book of essays about the novel, estimates that the ratio of sales to analytical essays may be a million to one. Christopher Metress writes that the book is "an icon whose emotive sway remains strangely powerful because it also remains unexamined ''. Noble suggests it does not receive academic attention because of its consistent status as a best - seller ("If that many people like it, it ca n't be any good. '') and that general readers seem to feel they do not require analytical interpretation.
Harper Lee has remained famously detached from interpreting the novel since the mid-1960s. However, she gave some insight into her themes when, in a rare letter to the editor, she wrote in response to the passionate reaction her book caused: "Surely it is plain to the simplest intelligence that To Kill a Mockingbird spells out in words of seldom more than two syllables a code of honor and conduct, Christian in its ethic, that is the heritage of all Southerners. ''
When the book was released, reviewers noted that it was divided into two parts, and opinion was mixed about Lee 's ability to connect them. The first part of the novel concerns the children 's fascination with Boo Radley and their feelings of safety and comfort in the neighborhood. Reviewers were generally charmed by Scout and Jem 's observations of their quirky neighbors. One writer was so impressed by Lee 's detailed explanations of the people of Maycomb that he categorized the book as Southern romantic regionalism. This sentimentalism can be seen in Lee 's representation of the Southern caste system to explain almost every character 's behavior in the novel. Scout 's Aunt Alexandra attributes Maycomb 's inhabitants ' faults and advantages to genealogy (families that have gambling streaks and drinking streaks), and the narrator sets the action and characters amid a finely detailed background of the Finch family history and the history of Maycomb. This regionalist theme is further reflected in Mayella Ewell 's apparent powerlessness to admit her advances toward Tom Robinson, and Scout 's definition of "fine folks '' being people with good sense who do the best they can with what they have. The South itself, with its traditions and taboos, seems to drive the plot more than the characters.
The second part of the novel deals with what book reviewer Harding LeMay termed "the spirit - corroding shame of the civilized white Southerner in the treatment of the Negro ''. In the years following its release, many reviewers considered To Kill a Mockingbird a novel primarily concerned with race relations. Claudia Durst Johnson considers it "reasonable to believe '' that the novel was shaped by two events involving racial issues in Alabama: Rosa Parks ' refusal to yield her seat on a city bus to a white person, which sparked the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott, and the 1956 riots at the University of Alabama after Autherine Lucy and Polly Myers were admitted (Myers eventually withdrew her application and Lucy was expelled, but reinstated in 1980). In writing about the historical context of the novel 's construction, two other literary scholars remark: "To Kill a Mockingbird was written and published amidst the most significant and conflict - ridden social change in the South since the Civil War and Reconstruction. Inevitably, despite its mid-1930s setting, the story told from the perspective of the 1950s voices the conflicts, tensions, and fears induced by this transition. ''
Scholar Patrick Chura, who suggests Emmett Till was a model for Tom Robinson, enumerates the injustices endured by the fictional Tom that Till also faced. Chura notes the icon of the black rapist causing harm to the representation of the "mythologized vulnerable and sacred Southern womanhood ''. Any transgressions by black males that merely hinted at sexual contact with white females during the time the novel was set often resulted in a punishment of death for the accused. Tom Robinson 's trial was juried by poor white farmers who convicted him despite overwhelming evidence of his innocence, as more educated and moderate white townspeople supported the jury 's decision. Furthermore, the victim of racial injustice in To Kill a Mockingbird was physically impaired, which made him unable to commit the act he was accused of, but also crippled him in other ways. Roslyn Siegel includes Tom Robinson as an example of the recurring motif among white Southern writers of the black man as "stupid, pathetic, defenseless, and dependent upon the fair dealing of the whites, rather than his own intelligence to save him ''. Although Tom is spared from being lynched, he is killed with excessive violence during an attempted escape from prison, being shot seventeen times.
The theme of racial injustice appears symbolically in the novel as well. For example, Atticus must shoot a rabid dog, even though it is not his job to do so. Carolyn Jones argues that the dog represents prejudice within the town of Maycomb, and Atticus, who waits on a deserted street to shoot the dog, must fight against the town 's racism without help from other white citizens. He is also alone when he faces a group intending to lynch Tom Robinson and once more in the courthouse during Tom 's trial. Lee even uses dreamlike imagery from the mad dog incident to describe some of the courtroom scenes. Jones writes, "(t) he real mad dog in Maycomb is the racism that denies the humanity of Tom Robinson... When Atticus makes his summation to the jury, he literally bares himself to the jury 's and the town 's anger. ''
-- Lee Smith
In a 1964 interview, Lee remarked that her aspiration was "to be... the Jane Austen of South Alabama. '' Both Austen and Lee challenged the social status quo and valued individual worth over social standing. When Scout embarrasses her poorer classmate, Walter Cunningham, at the Finch home one day, Calpurnia, their black cook, chastises and punishes her for doing so. Atticus respects Calpurnia 's judgment, and later in the book even stands up to his sister, the formidable Aunt Alexandra, when she strongly suggests they fire Calpurnia. One writer notes that Scout, "in Austenian fashion '', satirizes women with whom she does not wish to identify. Literary critic Jean Blackall lists the priorities shared by the two authors: "affirmation of order in society, obedience, courtesy, and respect for the individual without regard for status ''.
Scholars argue that Lee 's approach to class and race was more complex "than ascribing racial prejudice primarily to ' poor white trash '... Lee demonstrates how issues of gender and class intensify prejudice, silence the voices that might challenge the existing order, and greatly complicate many Americans ' conception of the causes of racism and segregation. '' Lee 's use of the middle - class narrative voice is a literary device that allows an intimacy with the reader, regardless of class or cultural background, and fosters a sense of nostalgia. Sharing Scout and Jem 's perspective, the reader is allowed to engage in relationships with the conservative antebellum Mrs. Dubose; the lower - class Ewells, and the Cunninghams who are equally poor but behave in vastly different ways; the wealthy but ostracized Mr. Dolphus Raymond; and Calpurnia and other members of the black community. The children internalize Atticus ' admonition not to judge someone until they have walked around in that person 's skin, gaining a greater understanding of people 's motives and behavior.
The novel has been noted for its poignant exploration of different forms of courage. Scout 's impulsive inclination to fight students who insult Atticus reflects her attempt to stand up for him and defend him. Atticus is the moral center of the novel, however, and he teaches Jem one of the most significant lessons of courage. In a statement that both foreshadows Atticus ' motivation for defending Tom Robinson and describes Mrs. Dubose, who is determined to break herself of a morphine addiction, Atticus tells Jem that courage is "when you 're licked before you begin but you begin anyway and you see it through no matter what ''.
Charles J. Shields, who wrote the first book - length biography of Harper Lee, offers the reason for the novel 's enduring popularity and impact is that "its lessons of human dignity and respect for others remain fundamental and universal ''. Atticus ' lesson to Scout that "you never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view -- until you climb around in his skin and walk around in it '' exemplifies his compassion. She ponders the comment when listening to Mayella Ewell 's testimony. When Mayella reacts with confusion to Atticus ' question if she has any friends, Scout offers that she must be lonelier than Boo Radley. Having walked Boo home after he saves their lives, Scout stands on the Radley porch and considers the events of the previous three years from Boo 's perspective. One writer remarks, "... (w) hile the novel concerns tragedy and injustice, heartache and loss, it also carries with it a strong sense (of) courage, compassion, and an awareness of history to be better human beings. ''
Just as Lee explores Jem 's development in coming to grips with a racist and unjust society, Scout realizes what being female means, and several female characters influence her development. Scout 's primary identification with her father and older brother allows her to describe the variety and depth of female characters in the novel both as one of them and as an outsider. Scout 's primary female models are Calpurnia and her neighbor Miss Maudie, both of whom are strong - willed, independent, and protective. Mayella Ewell also has an influence; Scout watches her destroy an innocent man in order to hide her desire for him. The female characters who comment the most on Scout 's lack of willingness to adhere to a more feminine role are also those who promote the most racist and classist points of view. For example, Mrs. Dubose chastises Scout for not wearing a dress and camisole, and indicates she is ruining the family name by not doing so, in addition to insulting Atticus ' intentions to defend Tom Robinson. By balancing the masculine influences of Atticus and Jem with the feminine influences of Calpurnia and Miss Maudie, one scholar writes, "Lee gradually demonstrates that Scout is becoming a feminist in the South, for with the use of first - person narration, she indicates that Scout / Jean Louise still maintains the ambivalence about being a Southern lady she possessed as a child. ''
Absent mothers and abusive fathers are another theme in the novel. Scout and Jem 's mother died before Scout could remember her, Mayella 's mother is dead, and Mrs. Radley is silent about Boo 's confinement to the house. Apart from Atticus, the fathers described are abusers. Bob Ewell, it is hinted, molested his daughter, and Mr. Radley imprisons his son in his house to the extent that Boo is remembered only as a phantom. Bob Ewell and Mr. Radley represent a form of masculinity that Atticus does not, and the novel suggests that such men, as well as the traditionally feminine hypocrites at the Missionary Society, can lead society astray. Atticus stands apart as a unique model of masculinity; as one scholar explains: "It is the job of real men who embody the traditional masculine qualities of heroic individualism, bravery, and an unshrinking knowledge of and dedication to social justice and morality, to set the society straight. ''
Allusions to legal issues in To Kill a Mockingbird, particularly in scenes outside of the courtroom, have drawn the attention of legal scholars. Claudia Durst Johnson writes that "a greater volume of critical readings has been amassed by two legal scholars in law journals than by all the literary scholars in literary journals ''. The opening quote by the 19th - century essayist Charles Lamb reads: "Lawyers, I suppose, were children once. '' Johnson notes that even in Scout and Jem 's childhood world, compromises and treaties are struck with each other by spitting on one 's palm, and laws are discussed by Atticus and his children: is it right that Bob Ewell hunts and traps out of season? Many social codes are broken by people in symbolic courtrooms: Mr. Dolphus Raymond has been exiled by society for taking a black woman as his common - law wife and having interracial children; Mayella Ewell is beaten by her father in punishment for kissing Tom Robinson; by being turned into a non-person, Boo Radley receives a punishment far greater than any court could have given him. Scout repeatedly breaks codes and laws and reacts to her punishment for them. For example, she refuses to wear frilly clothes, saying that Aunt Alexandra 's "fanatical '' attempts to place her in them made her feel "a pink cotton penitentiary closing in on (her) ''. Johnson states, "(t) he novel is a study of how Jem and Scout begin to perceive the complexity of social codes and how the configuration of relationships dictated by or set off by those codes fails or nurtures the inhabitants of (their) small worlds. ''
Songbirds and their associated symbolism appear throughout the novel. Their family name Finch is also Lee 's mother 's maiden name. The titular mockingbird is a key motif of this theme, which first appears when Atticus, having given his children air - rifles for Christmas, allows their Uncle Jack to teach them to shoot. Atticus warns them that, although they can "shoot all the bluejays they want '', they must remember that "it 's a sin to kill a mockingbird ''. Confused, Scout approaches her neighbor Miss Maudie, who explains that mockingbirds never harm other living creatures. She points out that mockingbirds simply provide pleasure with their songs, saying, "They do n't do one thing but sing their hearts out for us. '' Writer Edwin Bruell summarized the symbolism when he wrote in 1964, "' To kill a mockingbird ' is to kill that which is innocent and harmless -- like Tom Robinson. '' Scholars have noted that Lee often returns to the mockingbird theme when trying to make a moral point.
Tom Robinson is the chief example among several innocents destroyed carelessly or deliberately throughout the novel. However, scholar Christopher Metress connects the mockingbird to Boo Radley: "Instead of wanting to exploit Boo for her own fun (as she does in the beginning of the novel by putting on gothic plays about his history), Scout comes to see him as a ' mockingbird ' -- that is, as someone with an inner goodness that must be cherished. '' The last pages of the book illustrate this as Scout relates the moral of a story Atticus has been reading to her, and, in allusions to both Boo Radley and Tom Robinson, states about a character who was misunderstood, "when they finally saw him, why he had n't done any of those things... Atticus, he was real nice, '' to which he responds, "Most people are, Scout, when you finally see them. ''
The novel exposes the loss of innocence so frequently that reviewer R.A. Dave claims that because every character has to face, or even suffer defeat, the book takes on elements of a classical tragedy. In exploring how each character deals with his or her own personal defeat, Lee builds a framework to judge whether the characters are heroes or fools. She guides the reader in such judgments, alternating between unabashed adoration and biting irony. Scout 's experience with the Missionary Society is an ironic juxtaposition of women who mock her, gossip, and "reflect a smug, colonialist attitude toward other races '' while giving the "appearance of gentility, piety, and morality ''. Conversely, when Atticus loses Tom 's case, he is last to leave the courtroom, except for his children and the black spectators in the colored balcony, who rise silently as he walks underneath them, to honor his efforts.
Despite her editors ' warnings that the book might not sell well, it quickly became a sensation, bringing acclaim to Lee in literary circles, in her hometown of Monroeville, and throughout Alabama. The book went through numerous subsequent printings and became widely available through its inclusion in the Book of the Month Club and editions released by Reader 's Digest Condensed Books.
Initial reactions to the novel were varied. The New Yorker declared Lee "a skilled, unpretentious, and totally ingenuous writer '', and The Atlantic Monthly 's reviewer rated the book "pleasant, undemanding reading '', but found the narrative voice -- "a six - year - old girl with the prose style of a well - educated adult '' -- to be implausible. Time magazine 's 1960 review of the book states that it "teaches the reader an astonishing number of useful truths about little girls and about Southern life '' and calls Scout Finch "the most appealing child since Carson McCullers ' Frankie got left behind at the wedding ''. The Chicago Sunday Tribune noted the even - handed approach to the narration of the novel 's events, writing: "This is in no way a sociological novel. It underlines no cause... To Kill a Mockingbird is a novel of strong contemporary national significance. ''
Not all reviewers were enthusiastic. Some lamented the use of poor white Southerners, and one - dimensional black victims, and Granville Hicks labeled the book "melodramatic and contrived ''. When the book was first released, Southern writer Flannery O'Connor commented, "I think for a child 's book it does all right. It 's interesting that all the folks that are buying it do n't know they 're reading a child 's book. Somebody ought to say what it is. '' Carson McCullers apparently agreed with the Time magazine review, writing to a cousin: "Well, honey, one thing we know is that she 's been poaching on my literary preserves. ''
One year after its publication To Kill a Mockingbird had been translated into ten languages. In the years since, it has sold more than 30 million copies and been translated into more than 40 languages. The novel has never been out of print in hardcover or paperback, and has become part of the standard literature curriculum. A 2008 survey of secondary books read by students between grades 9 -- 12 in the U.S. indicates the novel is the most widely read book in these grades. A 1991 survey by the Book of the Month Club and the Library of Congress Center for the Book found that To Kill a Mockingbird was rated behind only the Bible in books that are "most often cited as making a difference ''. It is considered by some to be the "Great American Novel ''.
The 50th anniversary of the novel 's release was met with celebrations and reflections on its impact. Eric Zorn of the Chicago Tribune praises Lee 's "rich use of language '' but writes that the central lesson is that "courage is n't always flashy, is n't always enough, but is always in style ''. Jane Sullivan in the Sydney Morning Herald agrees, stating that the book "still rouses fresh and horrified indignation '' as it examines morality, a topic that has recently become unfashionable. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie writing in The Guardian states that Lee, rare among American novelists, writes with "a fiercely progressive ink, in which there is nothing inevitable about racism and its very foundation is open to question '', comparing her to William Faulkner, who wrote about racism as an inevitability. Literary critic Rosemary Goring in Scotland 's The Herald notes the connections between Lee and Jane Austen, stating the book 's central theme, that "one 's moral convictions are worth fighting for, even at the risk of being reviled '' is eloquently discussed.
Native Alabamian sports writer Allen Barra sharply criticized Lee and the novel in The Wall Street Journal calling Atticus a "repository of cracker - barrel epigrams '' and the novel represents a "sugar - coated myth '' of Alabama history. Barra writes, "It 's time to stop pretending that To Kill a Mockingbird is some kind of timeless classic that ranks with the great works of American literature. Its bloodless liberal humanism is sadly dated ''. Thomas Mallon in The New Yorker criticizes Atticus ' stiff and self - righteous demeanor, and calls Scout "a kind of highly constructed doll '' whose speech and actions are improbable. Although acknowledging that the novel works, Mallon blasts Lee 's "wildly unstable '' narrative voice for developing a story about a content neighborhood until it begins to impart morals in the courtroom drama, following with his observation that "the book has begun to cherish its own goodness '' by the time the case is over. Defending the book, Akin Ajayi writes that justice "is often complicated, but must always be founded upon the notion of equality and fairness for all. '' Ajayi states that the book forces readers to question issues about race, class, and society, but that it was not written to resolve them.
Many writers compare their perceptions of To Kill a Mockingbird as adults with when they first read it as children. Mary McDonagh Murphy interviewed celebrities including Oprah Winfrey, Rosanne Cash, Tom Brokaw, and Harper 's sister Alice Lee, who read the novel and compiled their impressions of it as children and adults into a book titled Scout, Atticus, and Boo.
-- Scott Turow
One of the most significant impacts To Kill a Mockingbird has had is Atticus Finch 's model of integrity for the legal profession. As scholar Alice Petry explains, "Atticus has become something of a folk hero in legal circles and is treated almost as if he were an actual person. '' Morris Dees of the Southern Poverty Law Center cites Atticus Finch as the reason he became a lawyer, and Richard Matsch, the federal judge who presided over the Timothy McVeigh trial, counts Atticus as a major judicial influence. One law professor at the University of Notre Dame stated that the most influential textbook he taught from was To Kill a Mockingbird, and an article in the Michigan Law Review claims, "No real - life lawyer has done more for the self - image or public perception of the legal profession, '' before questioning whether "Atticus Finch is a paragon of honor or an especially slick hired gun ''.
In 1992, an Alabama editorial called for the death of Atticus, saying that as liberal as Atticus was, he still worked within a system of institutionalized racism and sexism and should not be revered. The editorial sparked a flurry of responses from attorneys who entered the profession because of him and esteemed him as a hero. Critics of Atticus maintain he is morally ambiguous and does not use his legal skills to challenge the racist status quo in Maycomb. However, in 1997, the Alabama State Bar erected a monument to Atticus in Monroeville, marking his existence as the "first commemorative milestone in the state 's judicial history ''. In 2008, Lee herself received an honorary special membership to the Alabama State Bar for creating Atticus who "has become the personification of the exemplary lawyer in serving the legal needs of the poor ''.
To Kill a Mockingbird has been a source of significant controversy since its being the subject of classroom study as early as 1963. The book 's racial slurs, profanity, and frank discussion of rape have led people to challenge its appropriateness in libraries and classrooms across the United States. The American Library Association reported that To Kill a Mockingbird was number 21 of the 100 most frequently challenged books of 2000 -- 2009. Following parental complaints about the racist language it contains, the novel was removed from classrooms in Virginia in 2016 and Biloxi in 2017, where it was described as making people "uncomfortable. '' In the Mississippi case, the novel was removed from the required reading list but subsequently made available to interested students with parental consent. Such decisions have been criticised: the American Civil Liberties Union noted the importance of engaging with the novel 's themes in places where racial injustice persists. Becky Little of The History Channel and representatives of the Mark Twain House pointed out the value of classics lies in their power to "challenge the way we think about things '' (Twain 's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has attracted similar controversy). Arne Duncan, who served as Secretary of Education under President Obama, noted that removal of the book from reading lists was evidence of a nation with "real problems. '' In 1966, a parent in Hanover, Virginia protested that the use of rape as a plot device was immoral. Johnson cites examples of letters to local newspapers, which ranged from amusement to fury; those letters expressing the most outrage, however, complained about Mayella Ewell 's attraction to Tom Robinson over the depictions of rape. Upon learning the school administrators were holding hearings to decide the book 's appropriateness for the classroom, Harper Lee sent $10 to The Richmond News Leader suggesting it to be used toward the enrollment of "the Hanover County School Board in any first grade of its choice ''. The National Education Association in 1968 placed the novel second on a list of books receiving the most complaints from private organizations -- after Little Black Sambo.
With a shift of attitudes about race in the 1970s, To Kill a Mockingbird faced challenges of a different sort: the treatment of racism in Maycomb was not condemned harshly enough. This has led to disparate perceptions that the novel has a generally positive impact on race relations for white readers, but a more ambiguous reception by black readers. In one high - profile case outside the U.S., school districts in the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia attempted to have the book removed from standard teaching curricula in the 1990s, stating:
The terminology in this novel subjects students to humiliating experiences that rob them of their self - respect and the respect of their peers. The word ' Nigger ' is used 48 times (in) the novel... We believe that the English Language Arts curriculum in Nova Scotia must enable all students to feel comfortable with ideas, feelings and experiences presented without fear of humiliation... To Kill a Mockingbird is clearly a book that no longer meets these goals and therefore must no longer be used for classroom instruction.
Furthermore, despite the novel 's thematic focus on racial injustice, its black characters are not fully examined. In its use of racial epithets, stereotyped depictions of superstitious blacks, and Calpurnia, who to some critics is an updated version of the "contented slave '' motif and to others simply unexplored, the book is viewed as marginalizing black characters. One writer asserts that the use of Scout 's narration serves as a convenient mechanism for readers to be innocent and detached from the racial conflict. Scout 's voice "functions as the not - me which allows the rest of us -- black and white, male and female -- to find our relative position in society ''. A teaching guide for the novel published by The English Journal cautions, "what seems wonderful or powerful to one group of students may seem degrading to another ''. A Canadian language arts consultant found that the novel resonated well with white students, but that black students found it "demoralizing ''. Another criticism, articulated by Michael Lind, is that the novel indulges in classist stereotyping and demonization of poor rural "white trash ''.
The novel is cited as a factor in the success of the civil rights movement in the 1960s, however, in that it "arrived at the right moment to help the South and the nation grapple with the racial tensions (of) the accelerating civil rights movement ''. Its publication is so closely associated with the Civil Rights Movement that many studies of the book and biographies of Harper Lee include descriptions of important moments in the movement, despite the fact that she had no direct involvement in any of them. Civil Rights leader Andrew Young comments that part of the book 's effectiveness is that it "inspires hope in the midst of chaos and confusion '' and by using racial epithets portrays the reality of the times in which it was set. Young views the novel as "an act of humanity '' in showing the possibility of people rising above their prejudices. Alabama author Mark Childress compares it to the impact of Uncle Tom 's Cabin, a book that is popularly implicated in starting the U.S. Civil War. Childress states the novel "gives white Southerners a way to understand the racism that they 've been brought up with and to find another way. And most white people in the South were good people. Most white people in the South were not throwing bombs and causing havoc... I think the book really helped them come to understand what was wrong with the system in the way that any number of treatises could never do, because it was popular art, because it was told from a child 's point of view. ''
Diane McWhorter, Pulitzer Prize - winning historian of the Birmingham civil rights campaign, asserts that To Kill a Mockingbird condemns racism instead of racists, and states that every child in the South has moments of racial cognitive dissonance when they are faced with the harsh reality of inequality. This feeling causes them to question the beliefs with which they have been raised, which for many children is what the novel does. McWhorter writes of Lee, "for a white person from the South to write a book like this in the late 1950s is really unusual -- by its very existence an act of protest. '' Author James McBride calls Lee brilliant but stops short of calling her brave: "I think by calling Harper Lee brave you kind of absolve yourself of your own racism... She certainly set the standards in terms of how these issues need to be discussed, but in many ways I feel... the moral bar 's been lowered. And that 's really distressing. We need a thousand Atticus Finches. '' McBride, however, defends the book 's sentimentality, and the way Lee approaches the story with "honesty and integrity ''.
During the years immediately following the novel 's publication, Harper Lee enjoyed the attention its popularity garnered her, granting interviews, visiting schools, and attending events honoring the book. In 1961, when To Kill a Mockingbird was in its 41st week on the bestseller list, it was awarded the Pulitzer Prize, stunning Lee. It also won the Brotherhood Award of the National Conference of Christians and Jews in the same year, and the Paperback of the Year award from Bestsellers magazine in 1962. Starting in 1964, Lee began to turn down interviews, complaining that the questions were monotonous, and grew concerned that attention she received bordered on the kind of publicity celebrities sought. Since then, she declined talking with reporters about the book. She also steadfastly refused to provide an introduction, writing in 1995: "Introductions inhibit pleasure, they kill the joy of anticipation, they frustrate curiosity. The only good thing about Introductions is that in some cases they delay the dose to come. Mockingbird still says what it has to say; it has managed to survive the years without preamble. ''
In 2001, Lee was inducted into the Alabama Academy of Honor. In the same year, Chicago mayor Richard M. Daley initiated a reading program throughout the city 's libraries, and chose his favorite book, To Kill a Mockingbird, as the first title of the One City, One Book program. Lee declared that "there is no greater honor the novel could receive ''. By 2004, the novel had been chosen by 25 communities for variations of the citywide reading program, more than any other novel. David Kipen of the National Endowment of the Arts, who supervised The Big Read, states "people just seem to connect with it. It dredges up things in their own lives, their interactions across racial lines, legal encounters, and childhood. It 's just this skeleton key to so many different parts of people 's lives, and they cherish it. ''
In 2006, Lee was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Notre Dame. During the ceremony, the students and audience gave Lee a standing ovation, and the entire graduating class held up copies of To Kill a Mockingbird to honor her. Lee was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom on November 5, 2007 by President George W. Bush. In his remarks, Bush stated, "One reason To Kill a Mockingbird succeeded is the wise and kind heart of the author, which comes through on every page... To Kill a Mockingbird has influenced the character of our country for the better. It 's been a gift to the entire world. As a model of good writing and humane sensibility, this book will be read and studied forever. ''
The book was made into the well - received 1962 film with the same title, starring Gregory Peck as Atticus Finch. The film 's producer, Alan J. Pakula, remembered Universal Pictures executives questioning him about a potential script: "They said, ' What story do you plan to tell for the film? ' I said, ' Have you read the book? ' They said, ' Yes. ' I said, ' That 's the story. ' '' The movie was a hit at the box office, quickly grossing more than $20 million from a $2 - million budget. It won three Oscars: Best Actor for Gregory Peck, Best Art Direction - Set Decoration, Black - and - White, and Best Writing, Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium for Horton Foote. It was nominated for five more Oscars including Best Actress in a Supporting Role for Mary Badham, the actress who played Scout.
Harper Lee was pleased with the movie, saying: "In that film the man and the part met... I 've had many, many offers to turn it into musicals, into TV or stage plays, but I 've always refused. That film was a work of art. '' Peck met Lee 's father, the model for Atticus, before the filming. Lee 's father died before the film 's release. Lee was so impressed with Peck 's performance that she gave him her father 's pocket watch, which he had with him the evening he was awarded the Oscar for Best Actor. Years later, he was reluctant to tell Lee that the watch was stolen out of his luggage in London Heathrow Airport. When Peck eventually did tell Lee, he said she responded, "' Well, it 's only a watch. ' Harper -- she feels deeply, but she 's not a sentimental person about things. '' Lee and Peck shared a friendship long after the movie was made. Peck 's grandson was named "Harper '' in her honor.
In May 2005, Lee made an uncharacteristic appearance at the Los Angeles Public Library at the request of Peck 's widow Veronique, who said of Lee: "She 's like a national treasure. She 's someone who has made a difference... with this book. The book is still as strong as it ever was, and so is the film. All the kids in the United States read this book and see the film in the seventh and eighth grades and write papers and essays. My husband used to get thousands and thousands of letters from teachers who would send them to him. ''
The book has also been adapted as a play by Christopher Sergel. It debuted in 1990 in Monroeville, a town that labels itself "The Literary Capital of Alabama ''. The play runs every May on the county courthouse grounds and townspeople make up the cast. White male audience members are chosen at the intermission to make up the jury. During the courtroom scene the production moves into the Monroe County Courthouse and the audience is racially segregated. Author Albert Murray said of the relationship of the town to the novel (and the annual performance): "It becomes part of the town ritual, like the religious underpinning of Mardi Gras. With the whole town crowded around the actual courthouse, it 's part of a central, civic education -- what Monroeville aspires to be. ''
Sergel 's play toured in the UK starting at West Yorkshire Playhouse in Leeds in 2006, and again in 2011 starting at the York Theatre Royal, both productions featuring Duncan Preston as Atticus Finch. The play also opened the 2013 season at Regent 's Park Open Air Theatre in London where it played to full houses and starred Robert Sean Leonard as Atticus Finch, his first London appearance in 22 years. The production returned to the venue to close the 2014 season, prior to a UK tour.
According to a National Geographic article, the novel is so revered in Monroeville that people quote lines from it like Scripture; yet Harper Lee herself refused to attend any performances, because "she abhors anything that trades on the book 's fame ''. To underscore this sentiment, Lee demanded that a book of recipes named Calpurnia 's Cookbook not be published and sold out of the Monroe County Heritage Museum. David Lister in The Independent states that Lee 's refusal to speak to reporters made them desire to interview her all the more, and her silence "makes Bob Dylan look like a media tart ''. Despite her discouragement, a rising number of tourists made Monroeville their destination, hoping to see Lee 's inspiration for the book, or Lee herself. Local residents call them "Mockingbird groupies '', and although Lee was not reclusive, she refused publicity and interviews with an emphatic "Hell, no! ''
An earlier draft of To Kill a Mockingbird, titled Go Set a Watchman, was controversially released on July 14, 2015. This draft, which was completed in 1957, is set 20 years after the time period depicted in To Kill a Mockingbird but is not a continuation of the narrative. This earlier version of the story follows an adult Scout Finch who travels from New York City to visit her father, Atticus Finch, in Maycomb, Alabama, where she is confronted by the intolerance in her community. The Watchman manuscript was believed to have been lost until Lee 's lawyer Tonja Carter discovered it, but this claim has been widely disputed. Watchman contains early versions of many of the characters from To Kill a Mockingbird. According to Lee 's agent Andrew Nurnberg, Mockingbird was originally intended to be the first book of a trilogy: "They discussed publishing Mockingbird first, Watchman last, and a shorter connecting novel between the two. '' This assertion has been discredited, however, by rare - books expert James S. Jaffe, who reviewed the pages at the request of Lee 's attorney and found them to be only another draft of To Kill a Mockingbird. Nurnberg 's statement was also contrary to Jonathan Mahler 's description of how Watchman was seen as just the first draft of Mockingbird. Instances where many passages overlap between the two books, in some case word for word, also refutes this assertion.
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what country is the largest producer of blueberries | Blueberry - wikipedia
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Blueberries are perennial flowering plants with indigo - colored berries. They are classified in the section Cyanococcus within the genus Vaccinium. Vaccinium also includes cranberries, bilberries and grouseberries. Commercial "blueberries '' are native to North America, and the "highbush '' varieties were not introduced into Europe until the 1930s.
Blueberries are usually prostrate shrubs that can vary in size from 10 centimeters (3.9 in) to 4 meters (13 ft) in height. In the commercial production of blueberries, the smaller species are known as "lowbush blueberries '' (synonymous with "wild ''), while the larger species are known as "highbush blueberries ''.
The leaves can be either deciduous or evergreen, ovate to lanceolate, and 1 -- 8 cm (0.39 -- 3.15 in) long and 0.5 -- 3.5 cm (0.20 -- 1.38 in) broad. The flowers are bell - shaped, white, pale pink or red, sometimes tinged greenish. The fruit is a berry 5 -- 16 millimeters (0.20 -- 0.63 in) in diameter with a flared crown at the end; they are pale greenish at first, then reddish - purple, and finally dark purple when ripe. They are covered in a protective coating of powdery epicuticular wax, colloquially known as the "bloom ''. They have a sweet taste when mature, with variable acidity. Blueberry bushes typically bear fruit in the middle of the growing season: fruiting times are affected by local conditions such as altitude and latitude, so the peak of the crop, in the northern hemisphere, can vary from May to August.
The genus Vaccinium has a mostly circumpolar distribution, with species mainly being present in North America, Europe, and Asia.
Many commercially sold species with English common names including "blueberry '' are from North America. Many North American native species of blueberries are grown commercially in the Southern Hemisphere in Australia, New Zealand and South American nations.
Several other wild shrubs of the genus Vaccinium also produce commonly eaten blue berries, such as the predominantly European Vaccinium myrtillus and other bilberries, which in many languages have a name that translates to "blueberry '' in English. See the Identification section for more information.
Note: habitat and range summaries are from the Flora of New Brunswick, published in 1986 by Harold R. Hinds and Plants of the Pacific Northwest coast, published in 1994 by Pojar and MacKinnon.
Some other blue - fruited species of Vaccinium:
Commercially offered blueberries are usually from species that naturally occur only in eastern and north - central North America. Other sections in the genus, native to other parts of the world, including the Pacific Northwest and southern United States, South America, Europe, and Asia, include other wild shrubs producing similar - looking edible berries, such as huckleberries and whortleberries (North America) and bilberries (Europe). These species are sometimes called "blueberries '' and sold as blueberry jam or other products.
The names of blueberries in languages other than English often translate as "blueberry '', e.g., Scots blaeberry and Norwegian blåbær. Blaeberry, blåbær and French myrtilles usually refer to the European native bilberry (V. myrtillus), while bleuets refers to the North American blueberry. Russian голубика ("blue berry '') does not refer to blueberries, which are non-native and nearly unknown in Russia, but rather to their close relatives, bog bilberries (V. uliginosum).
Cyanococcus blueberries can be distinguished from the nearly identical - looking bilberries by their flesh color when cut in half. Ripe blueberries have light green flesh, while bilberries, whortleberries and huckleberries are red or purple throughout.
Blueberries may be cultivated, or they may be picked from semiwild or wild bushes. In North America, the most common cultivated species is V. corymbosum, the northern highbush blueberry. Hybrids of this with other Vaccinium species adapted to southern U.S. climates are known collectively as southern highbush blueberries.
So - called "wild '' (lowbush) blueberries, smaller than cultivated highbush ones, have intense color. The lowbush blueberry, V. angustifolium, is found from the Atlantic provinces westward to Quebec and southward to Michigan and West Virginia. In some areas, it produces natural "blueberry barrens '', where it is the dominant species covering large areas. Several First Nations communities in Ontario are involved in harvesting wild blueberries.
"Wild '' has been adopted as a marketing term for harvests of managed native stands of lowbush blueberries. The bushes are not planted or genetically manipulated, but they are pruned or burned over every two years, and pests are "managed ''.
Numerous highbush cultivars of blueberries are available, with diversity among them, each having individual qualities. A blueberry breeding program has been established by the USDA - ARS breeding program at Beltsville, Maryland, and Chatsworth, New Jersey. This program began when Frederick Vernon Coville of the USDA - ARS collaborated with Elizabeth Coleman White of New Jersey. In the early part of the 20th century, White offered pineland residents cash for wild blueberry plants with unusually large fruit. After 1910 Coville began to work on blueberry, and was the first to discover the importance of soil acidity (blueberries need highly acidic soil), that blueberries do not self - pollinate, and the effects of cold on blueberries and other plant. In 1911, he began a program of research in conjunction with White, daughter of the owner of the extensive cranberry bogs at Whitesbog in the New Jersey Pine Barrens. His work doubled the size of some strains ' fruit, and by 1916, he had succeeded in cultivating blueberries, making them a valuable crop in the Northeastern United States. For this work he received the George Roberts White Medal of Honor from the Massachusetts Horticultural Society.
The rabbiteye blueberry (Vaccinium virgatum syn. V. ashei) is a southern type of blueberry produced from the Carolinas to the Gulf Coast states. Other important species in North America include V. pallidum, the hillside or dryland blueberry. It is native to the eastern U.S., and common in the Appalachians and the Piedmont of the Southeast. Sparkleberry, V. arboreum, is a common wild species on sandy soils in the Southeast.
Successful blueberry cultivation requires attention to soil pH (acidity) measurements in the acidic range.
Blueberry bushes often require supplemental fertilization, but over-fertilzation with nitrogen can damage plant health shown by nitrogen - burn visible on the leaves.
Significant production of highbush blueberries occurs in British Columbia, Maryland, Western Oregon, Michigan, New Jersey, North Carolina, and Washington. The production of southern highbush varieties in California is rapidly increasing, as varieties originating from University of Florida, Connecticut, New Hampshire, North Carolina State University and Maine have been introduced. Southern highbush berries are now also cultivated in the Mediterranean regions of Europe, Southern Hemisphere countries and China.
According to a 2014 report by US Department of Agriculture, Washington was the nation 's largest producer of cultivated (highbush) blueberries with 96.1 million pounds, followed in order of "utilized production '' volume by Michigan and Georgia, Oregon, New Jersey, California and North Carolina. In terms of acres harvested for cultivated blueberries in 2014, the leading state was Michigan (19,000 acres) followed by Georgia, Oregon, Washington and New Jersey.
Hammonton, New Jersey claims to be the "Blueberry Capital of the World, with over 80 % of New Jersey 's cultivated blueberries coming from this town. Every year the town hosts a large festival that draws thousands of people to celebrate the fruit.
Resulting from cultivation of both lowbush (wild) and highbush blueberries, Maine accounts for 10 % of all blueberries grown in North America with 44,000 hectares (110,000 acres) farmed, but only half of this acreage is harvested each year due to variations in pruning practices. The wild blueberry is the official fruit of Maine.
Canadian production of wild and cultivated blueberries in 2015 was 166,000 tonnes valued at $262 million, the largest fruit crop produced nationally accounting for 29 % of all fruit value.
British Columbia was the largest Canadian producer of cultivated blueberries, yielding 70,000 tonnes in 2015, the world 's largest production of blueberries by region.
Atlantic Canada contributes approximately half of the total North American wild / lowbush annual production with New Brunswick having the largest in 2015, an amount expanding in 2016. Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and Québec are also major producers. Nova Scotia recognizes the wild blueberry as its official provincial berry, with the town of Oxford, Nova Scotia known as the Wild Blueberry Capital of Canada.
Québec is a major producer of wild blueberries, especially in the regions of Saguenay - Lac - Saint - Jean (where a popular name for inhabitants of the regions is bleuets, or "blueberries '') and Côte - Nord, which together provide 40 % of Québec 's total provincial production. This wild blueberry commerce benefits from vertical integration of growing, processing, frozen storage, marketing and transportation within relatively small regions of the province. On average, 80 % of Québec wild blueberries are harvested on farms (21 million kg), the remaining 20 % being harvested from public forests (5 million kg). Some 95 % of the wild blueberry crop in Québec is frozen for export out of the province.
Highbush blueberries were first introduced to Germany, Sweden and the Netherlands in the 1930s, and have since been spread to Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Romania, Poland, Italy, Hungary and other countries of Europe. Poland, Germany, and France were the largest European producers in 2014 (table).
The northeastern part of Turkey is one of the main sources of Caucasian whortleberry (V. arctostaphylos), bilberry (V. myrtillus) and bog blueberry, bog whortleberry or bog bilberry (V. uliginosum). This region from Artvin to Kırklareli, as well as parts of Bursa (including Rize, Trabzon, Ordu, Giresun, Samsun, Sinop, Kastamonu, Zonguldak, İstanbul, İzmit and Adapazari) have rainy, humid growing periods and naturally acidic soils suitable for blueberries (Çelik, 2005, 2006 and 2007).
Native Vaccinium species and open - pollinated types have been grown for over a hundred years around the Black Sea region of Turkey. These native blueberries are eaten locally as jelly or dried or fresh fruit (Çelik, 2005). Highbush blueberry cultivation started around the year 2000. The first commercial blueberry orchard was established by Osman Nuri Yildiz and supervised by Dr. Huseyin Celik, the founder of Turkish blueberry cultivation.
In the Southern Hemisphere, Peru, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia now export blueberries.
Blueberries were first introduced to Australia in the 1950s, but the effort was unsuccessful. In the early 1970s, David Jones from the Victorian Department of Agriculture imported seed from the U.S. and a selection trial was started. This work was continued by Ridley Bell, who imported more American varieties. In the mid-1970s, the Australian Blueberry Growers ' Association was formed.
The industry is new to Argentina: "Argentine blueberry production has increased over the last three years with planted area up to 400 percent '', according to a 2005 report by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. "Argentine blueberry production has thrived in four different regions: the province of Entre Rios in northeastern Argentina, the province of Tucuman, the province of Buenos Aires and the southern Patagonian valleys '', according to the report. In the Bureau of International Labor Affairs report of 2014 on child labor and forced labor, blueberries were listed among the goods produced in such working conditions in Argentina.
Chile is the biggest producer in South America and the largest exporter to the Northern Hemisphere, with an estimated area of 14,500 hectares (36,000 acres) in 2014. Chile exported about 104,505 tons of blueberry in the 2014 / 2015 season.
Introduction of the first plants into Chile occurred in 1979, brought from US and New Zealand, and commercial production started in the 1990s in the southern part of the country. Today, production ranges from Copiapó in the north to Puerto Montt in the south, allowing the country to offer blueberries from October through late March. Production has evolved rapidly in the last decade, becoming the fourth most important fruit exported in value terms. Blueberries are exported mainly to North America (79 %), followed by Europe (17 %), and Asia (South Korea, China and Japan).
In Peru, there are several private initiatives for the development of the crop. Also, the government through its agency Sierra Exportadora, has launched the program "Peru Berries '' to take advantage of the existence of the ideal soil and climate required by the blueberry.
In 2014, world production of blueberries (low - and highbush combined) was 525,620 tonnes, led by the United States with 50 % of total production and Canada with 35 %.
The blueberry harvest in North America varies. It can start as early as May and usually ends in late summer. The principal areas of production in the Southern Hemisphere (Australia, Chile, New Zealand and Argentina) have long periods of harvest. In Australia, for example, due to the geographic spread of blueberry farms and the development of new cultivation techniques, the industry is able to provide fresh blueberries for 10 months of the year -- from July through to April. Similar to other fruits and vegetables, climate - controlled storage allows growers to preserve picked blueberries. Harvest in the UK is from June to August. Mexico also can harvest from October to February.
Although blueberries were traditionally hand - picked with berry - picking rakes, modern farmers use machine harvesters that shake the fruit off the bush of cultivated highbush blueberries, while new machines are being developed for wild, lowbush blueberries. The fruit is then brought to a cleaning and packaging facility where it is cleaned, packaged, and then sold. In Mexico, each farmer packs on site and sells directly, or may transport to a warehouse for storage until the berries are sold. Tunnels are often used to grow blueberries in Europe and this makes the season longer. This creates an opportunity to move crops into earlier or later markets to get better prices.
Blueberries are sold fresh or are processed as individually quick frozen (IQF) fruit, purée, juice, or dried or infused berries. These may then be used in a variety of consumer goods, such as jellies, jams, blueberry pies, muffins, snack foods, or as an additive to breakfast cereals.
Blueberry jam is made from blueberries, sugar, water, and fruit pectin. Blueberry sauce is a sweet sauce prepared using blueberries as a primary ingredient.
Blueberry wine is made from the flesh and skin of the berry, which is fermented and then matured; usually the lowbush variety is used.
Blueberries consist of 14 % carbohydrates, 0.7 % protein, 0.3 % fat and 84 % water (table). They contain only negligible amounts of micronutrients, with moderate levels (relative to respective Daily Values) (DV) of the essential dietary mineral manganese, vitamin C, vitamin K and dietary fiber (table). Generally, nutrient contents of blueberries are a low percentage of the DV (table). One serving provides a relatively low caloric value of 57 kcal per 100 g serving and glycemic load score of 6 out of 100 per day.
Blueberries contain anthocyanins, other polyphenols and various phytochemicals under preliminary research for their potential role in the human body. Most polyphenol studies have been conducted using the highbush cultivar of blueberries (V. corymbosum), while content of polyphenols and anthocyanins in lowbush (wild) blueberries (V. angustifolium) exceeds values found in highbush cultivars.
The application of pesticides is common in large - scale blueberry monoculture in Maine. Because "wild '' is a marketing term generally used for all low - bush blueberries, it is not an indication that such blueberries are free from pesticides.
The Environmental Working Group, referencing the USDA, rates blueberries as a "significant concern ''.
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who does the voice for the coors light commercial | Sam Elliott - wikipedia
Samuel Pack Elliott (born August 9, 1944) is an American actor. His lanky physique, thick moustache, deep and resonant voice, and Western drawl have led to frequent roles as cowboys and ranchers. His other credits over the years have included playing The Stranger in The Big Lebowski (1998), Gar in Mask (1985), General John Buford in Gettysburg (1993), Virgil Earp in Tombstone (1993), Sergeant Major Basil L. Plumley in We Were Soldiers (2002) and Marvel Comics characters Thunderbolt Ross in Hulk (2003) and The Caretaker in Ghost Rider (2007).
Elliott was born in Sacramento, California, to a mother who was a physical training instructor and a father who worked for the Department of the Interior. He moved to Portland, Oregon, with his family during his teenage years, graduating from David Douglas High School. He attended Clark College in Vancouver, Washington, where he completed a two - year program and was cast as one of the leads in Guys and Dolls. The local newspaper suggested that Elliott should be a professional actor. Soon after, Elliott declared he was going to Hollywood to become a star.
Elliott is a member of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity at California State University, Los Angeles. He worked in construction while studying acting and served in the California Army National Guard. He also lived for a short time in Princeton, West Virginia. He has said that he has heritage from the west, specifically the state of Texas, with a relative who was in the Battle of the Alamo.
Elliott began his career as a character actor; his appearance, voice, and bearing were well - suited to Westerns. One of his first film roles was as a card player in Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969). In the 1970 -- 1971 television season, Elliott starred as Doug Robert in the hit series Mission: Impossible, and played the lead character Sam Damon in Once an Eagle, an NBC miniseries during the 1976 -- 1977 season. He played Tom Keating in the mini-series Aspen in 1977. He had the starring role as Rick Carlson in the summer hit sleeper Lifeguard (1976). In 1979, he played the oldest brother in the made - for - TV miniseries The Sacketts. He later played a wife killer in the miniseries Murder in Texas (1981) and A Death in California (1985).
Elliott 's breakthrough came with his supporting role in Mask (1985). He has made guest appearances on shows such as Felony Squad, Gunsmoke, Lancer, and Hawaii Five - O, and has been featured in many TV movies, including Prancer (1989) and Buffalo Girls (1995), in which he played Wild Bill Hickok. In 1986, he starred in TV movie Gone to Texas, based on a biography of Sam Houston. The role allowed him to play Houston as both fighter and a man who grew into a skillful political leader; the film depicted his disgrace as Governor of Tennessee, his return to his Cherokee Nation friends, and his pivotal role in the liberation of Texas from Mexico in 1836. Elliott played Wade Garrett in Road House (1989) and Virgil Earp in Tombstone (1993).
In 1998, Elliot was named the grand marshal of the Calgary Stampede parade and rode in the procession before an estimated 300,000 spectators. He co-starred in We Were Soldiers, which is based on the book We Were Soldiers Once... And Young, portraying Sgt. Maj. Basil L. Plumley. He portrayed General John Buford in the 1993 film Gettysburg. He played General Thunderbolt Ross in the 2003 film Hulk. Elliott played The Stranger, a character narrating the story of The Big Lebowski (1998). In 2005, he appeared in Thank You for Smoking, as a former Marlboro Man advertisement cowboy who has developed lung cancer. In 2007, Elliott joined the comic book adaptation Ghost Rider and The Golden Compass as Lee Scoresby. In 2009, Elliott had a small role in Up In The Air in which he portrayed the Chief Pilot of American Airlines. He has appeared three times on Parks and Recreation as Ron Dunn, the Eagleton equivalent of Ron Swanson; Dunn is a hippie, compared to Swanson 's staunch survivalist and Libertarian personality. He has a supporting role in the film The Company You Keep and played a college football coach in 2014 's Draft Day.
In 2015, Elliott played Karl in Paul Weitz 's film Grandma, appeared in the romance I 'll See You in My Dreams, and had a role in the independent film Digging for Fire. In 2015, he won the Critics ' Choice Television Award for best guest performer in a drama for his role in the FX Network 's show Justified.
In 2015, it was confirmed that Elliot would appear in the new Netflix series The Ranch. He plays Phil Millstein in the second season of Netflix 's Grace and Frankie.
In 2017 it was confirmed that Elliott will appear in the upcoming movie The Man Who Killed Hitler And Then The Bigfoot.
Elliott has performed voice - over narration for various commercials. He has lent his voice to campaigns for Dodge, IBM, Kinney Drugs, Union Pacific, and, most notably, the American Beef Council, succeeding Robert Mitchum in the latter. Since late 2007, Elliott has done voice - overs for Coors beer, bringing his deep, rich voice and "western '' appeal to the brand brewed in Colorado. In 2010, Ram Trucks hired Elliott to do the voice - over for their Ram Heavy Duty truck commercial; he has been voicing their commercials since. Starting in 2008, he has voiced Smokey Bear, and shares the mascot 's birth date (August 9, 1944). For animated films, Elliott lent his voice to Ben the Cow in Barnyard, Buster (a.k.a. Chupadogra) in Marmaduke, and Butch in The Good Dinosaur. He also narrated the Pittsburgh Steelers and Green Bay Packers team introductions to Super Bowl XLV, played at Cowboys Stadium in Arlington, Texas at the conclusion of the 2010 NFL season for NFL on Fox.
Elliott married actress Katharine Ross in 1984. Ross starred in Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, in which Elliott had a very small role, but the two did not meet and begin dating until 1978, when they both starred in The Legacy. They have a daughter, Cleo Rose Elliott (born 1984), who is now a musician in Malibu, California.
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what breed of dog was in little rascals | Pete the Pup - wikipedia
Pete the Pup (original, 1924 -- June 1930; second Pete, September 9, 1929 -- January 28, 1946) was a character in Hal Roach 's Our Gang comedies (later known as The Little Rascals) during the 1930s. Otherwise known as "Pete, the dog eith the ring around his rye '', or simply "Petey ''. He was well known for having a circled eye which was added by Hollywood make - up artist Max Factor and credited as an oddity in Ripley 's Believe It or Not. The original Pete (sired by "Tudor 's Black Jack '') was an American pit bull terrier named "Pal, the Wonder Dog '', and had a natural ring almost completely around his right eye; dye was used to finish it off.
When he was about six months old, Pal the Wonder Dog made a cameo appearance in the Harold Lloyd film The Freshman, in 1925.
Pal first started out as "Tige '' in the Buster Brown series in the 1920s. It was during this time that he acquired the circled eye, and when he was recruited to appear in the Our Gang comedies later that year, Hal Roach simply left it on, creating one of the most recognized dogs in film history.
Trainer and owner Lt. Harry Lucenay used one of Pal 's offspring as Pete in the series after Pal was poisoned and died in 1930. The dog, named Lucenay 's Peter, was bred by A.A. Keller. The second Pete looked very similar to the first Pete but was a mirror image; the circle around first Pete 's right eye was around the left eye of his son, the second Pete. The second Pete appeared as a puppy on Pups Is Pups and was nearly full - grown on his second appearance, School 's Out. The second Pete 's last Our Gang appearance was The Pooch in 1933. The plot had a dog catcher who attempts to catch Pete and euthanise him, but is unsuccessful. After Lucenay was fired from the Our Gang series in 1932, he retired Peter to Atlantic City, where he was photographed with children at the Steel Pier. Beginning with Hook and Ladder (filmed the same year), an unrelated dog played Pete, after which, various unrelated dogs would play the role through 1938.
In the 1982 cartoon series produced by Hanna - Barbera, he was voiced by Peter Cullen. In the 1994 feature film remake of The Little Rascals, Pete is an American Bulldog, and in the 2014 movie The Little Rascals Save the Day, Pete is a mutt.
A parody of Pete appeared breifly in the Bob Hope short Watch the Birdie, produced by competitor, Warner Bros.
Roach used a number of unrelated dogs to portray Pete in Our Gang until 1938. Lucenay 's Peter continued on and died of old age on January 28, 1946, in Los Angeles, California, at age 16 years / 4 months, two years after the Our Gang series ended. Pete is buried at Los Angeles Pet Memorial Park at Calabasas, Los Angeles County, California, United States.
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how much of canada's gdp is oil | Economy of Canada - Wikipedia
The economy of Canada is a highly developed mixed economy with 10th largest GDP by nominal and 17th largest GDP by PPP in the world. Canada is one of the world 's wealthiest nations with high standard of living and quality of life. As with other developed nations, the country 's economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three quarters of Canadians. Canada has the fourth highest total estimated value of natural resources, valued at US $33.2 trillion in 2016. It has the world 's third largest proven petroleum reserves and is the fourth largest exporter of petroleum. It is also the fourth largest exporter of natural gas. Canada is considered an "energy superpower '' due to its abundant natural resources.
Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of the primary sector, with the logging and oil industries being two of Canada 's most important. Canada also has a sizable manufacturing sector, based in Central Canada, with the automobile industry and aircraft industry being especially important. With a long coastline, Canada has the 8th largest commercial fishing and seafood industry in the world. Canada is one of the global leaders of the entertainment software industry. It is a member of the APEC, NAFTA, G7, G20, OECD and WTO.
With the exception of a few island nations in the Caribbean, Canada is the only major parliamentary democracy in the western hemisphere. As a result, Canada has developed its own social and political institutions, distinct from most other countries in the world. Though the Canadian economy is closely integrated with the American economy, it has developed unique economic institutions.
The Canadian economic system generally combines elements of private enterprise and public enterprise. Many aspects of public enterprise, most notably the development of an extensive social welfare system to redress social and economic inequities, were adopted after the end of World War Two in 1945.
Canada has a private to public (Crown) property ratio of 60: 40 and one of the highest levels of economic freedom in the world. Today Canada closely resembles the U.S. in its market - oriented economic system and pattern of production. According to the Forbes Global 2000 list of the world 's largest companies in 2008, Canada has 69 companies in the list, ranking 5th next to France.
International trade makes up a large part of the Canadian economy, particularly of its natural resources. In 2009, agriculture, energy, forestry and mining exports accounted for about 58 % of Canada 's total exports. Machinery, equipment, automotive products and other manufactures accounted for a further 38 % of exports in 2009. In 2009, exports accounted for approximately 30 % of Canada 's GDP. The United States is by far its largest trading partner, accounting for about 73 % of exports and 63 % of imports as of 2009. Canada 's combined exports and imports ranked 8th among all nations in 2006.
Approximately 4 % of Canadians are directly employed in primary resource fields, and they account for 6.2 % of GDP. They are still paramount in many parts of the country. Many, if not most, towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, exist because of a nearby mine or source of timber. Canada is a world leader in the production of many natural resources such as gold, nickel, uranium, diamonds, lead, and in recent years, crude petroleum, which, with the world 's second - largest oil reserves, is taking an increasingly prominent position in natural resources extraction. Several of Canada 's largest companies are based in natural resource industries, such as EnCana, Cameco, Goldcorp, and Barrick Gold. The vast majority of these products are exported, mainly to the United States. There are also many secondary and service industries that are directly linked to primary ones. For instance one of Canada 's largest manufacturing industries is the pulp and paper sector, which is directly linked to the logging business.
The reliance on natural resources has several effects on the Canadian economy and Canadian society. While manufacturing and service industries are easy to standardize, natural resources vary greatly by region. This ensures that differing economic structures developed in each region of Canada, contributing to Canada 's strong regionalism. At the same time the vast majority of these resources are exported, integrating Canada closely into the international economy. Howlett and Ramesh argue that the inherent instability of such industries also contributes to greater government intervention in the economy, to reduce the social impact of market changes.
Natural resource industries also raise important questions of sustainability. Despite many decades as a leading producer, there is little risk of depletion. Large discoveries continue to be made, such as the massive nickel find at Voisey 's Bay. Moreover, the far north remains largely undeveloped as producers await higher prices or new technologies as many operations in this region are not yet cost effective. In recent decades Canadians have become less willing to accept the environmental destruction associated with exploiting natural resources. High wages and Aboriginal land claims have also curbed expansion. Instead many Canadian companies have focused their exploration, exploitation and expansion activities overseas where prices are lower and governments more amenable. Canadian companies are increasingly playing important roles in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa.
The depletion of renewable resources has raised concerns in recent years. After decades of escalating overutilization the cod fishery all but collapsed in the 1990s, and the Pacific salmon industry also suffered greatly. The logging industry, after many years of activism, has in recent years moved to a more sustainable model, or to other countries.
Productivity measures are key indicators of economic performance and a key source of economic growth and competitiveness. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) The OECD Compendium of Productivity Indicators, published annually, presents a broad overview of productivity levels and growth in member nations, highlighting key measurement issues. It analyses the role of "productivity as the main driver of economic growth and convergence '' and the "contributions of labour, capital and MFP in driving economic growth. '' According to the definition above "MFP is often interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation '' (OECD 2008, 11). Measures of productivity include Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (OECD 2008, 11) and multifactor productivity.
The OECD provides data for example comparing labour productivity levels in the total economy of each member nation. In their 2011 report Canada 's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was $ CDN 1,720,748 million.
In the International Monetary Fund 's (IMF) quarterly World Economic Outlook released in April 2015, the IMF forecast that Canada 's real gross domestic product (GDP) would grow 2.2 percent. In the July World Economic Outlook the IMF forecast that Canada 's real GDP would grow by 1.5 per cent in 2015.
According to CTV News real estate accounts for half of all GDP growth.
Another productivity measure, used by the OECD, is the long - term trend in multifactor productivity (MFP) also known as total factor productivity (TFP). This indicator assesses an economy 's "underlying productive capacity ('' potential output "), itself an important measure of the growth possibilities of economies and of inflationary pressures. '' MFP measures the residual growth that can not be explained by the rate of change in the services of labour, capital and intermediate outputs, and is often interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation. (OECD 2008, 11)
According to the OECD 's annual economic survey of Canada in June 2012, Canada has experienced weak growth of multi-factor productivity (MFP) and has been declining further since 2002. One of the ways MFP growth is raised is by boosting innovation and Canada 's innovation indicators such as business R&D and patenting rates were poor. Raising MFP growth, is "needed to sustain rising living standards, especially as the population ages. ''
The Bank of Canada, a federal crown corporation, has the responsibility of Canada 's monetary system. During the period that John Crow was Governor of the Bank of Canada -- 1987 to 1994 -- there was a worldwide recession and the bank rate rose to around 14 % and unemployment topped 11 %. In 1991, with Prime Minister Brian Mulroney in office, the federal government and the Bank of Canada announced a new inflation targeting monetary policy that has been the cornerstone of Canada 's monetary and fiscal policy ever since. Although since that time inflation - targeting has been adopted by "most advanced - world central banks '', in 1991 it was innovative and Canada was an early adopter when the then - Finance Minister Michael Wilson approved the Bank of Canada 's first inflation - targeting in the 1991 federal budget. The inflation target was set at 2 per cent, which is the midpoint of an inflation range of 1 to 3 per cent. They established a set of inflation - reduction targets in order to keep inflation "low, stable and predictable '' and to foster "confidence in the value of money, '' contribute to Canada 's sustained growth, employment gains and improved standard of living. Inflation is measured by the total consumer price index (CPI). In 2011 the Government of Canada and the Bank of Canada extended Canada 's inflation - control target to December 31, 2016. The Bank of Canada uses three unconventional instruments to achieve the inflation target: "a conditional statement on the future path of the policy rate, '' quantitative easing, and credit easing.
As a result, interest rates and inflation eventually came down along with the value of the Canadian dollar. From 1991 to 2011 the inflation - targeting regime kept "price gains fairly reliable. ''
Following the Financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 the narrow focus of inflation - targeting as a means of providing stable growth in the Canadian economy, was questioned. By 2011, the then - Bank of Canada Governor Mark Carney argued that the central bank 's mandate would allow for a more flexible inflation - targeting in specific situations where he would consider taking longer "than the typical six to eight quarters to return inflation to 2 per cent. ''
The central bank -- the Bank of Canada -- issues its rate announcement through its Monetary Policy Report which is released eight times a year. On July 15, 2015 the Bank of Canada announced that it was lowering its target for the overnight rate by another one - quarter percentage point, to 0.5 per cent "to try to stimulate an economy that appears to have failed to rebound meaningfully from the oil shock woes that dragged it into decline in the first quarter. '' According to the Bank of Canada announcement, in the first quarter of 2015, the total Consumer price index (CPI) inflation was about 1 per cent. This reflects "year - over-year price declines for consumer energy products. '' Core inflation in the first quarter of 2015 was about 2 per cent with an underlying trend in inflation at about 1.5 to 1.7 per cent.
In response to the Bank of Canada 's July 15, 2015 rate adjustment, Prime Minister Stephen Harper explained that the Canadian economy was being dragged down by forces beyond Canadian borders such as global oil prices, the European debt crisis, and China 's economic slowdown '' which has made the global economy "fragile. ''
The Chinese stock market had lost about US $3 trillion of wealth by July 2015 when panicked investors sold stocks, which created declines in the commodities markets, which in turn negatively impacted resource - producing countries like Canada.
The Bank 's main priority has been to keep inflation at a moderate level. As part of that strategy, interest rates were kept at a low level for almost seven years. Since September 2010, the key interest rate (overnight rate) was 0.5 %. In mid 2017, inflation remained below the Bank 's 2 % target, (at 1.6 %) mostly because of reductions in the cost of energy, food and automobiles; as well, the economy was in a continuing spurt with a predicted GDP growth of 2.8 percent by year end. Early on 12 July 2017, the bank issued a statement that the benchmark rate would be increased to 0.75 %. "The economy can handle very well this move we have today and of course you need to preface that with an acknowledgment that of course interest rates are still very low, '' Governor Stephen Poloz subsequently said. In its press release, the bank had confirmed that the rate would continue to be evaluated at least partly on the basis of inflation. "Future adjustments to the target for the overnight rate will be guided by incoming data as they inform the bank 's inflation outlook, keeping in mind continued uncertainty and financial system vulnerabilities. '' Poloz refused to speculate on the future of the economy but said, "I do n't doubt that interest rates will move higher, but there 's no predetermined path in mind at this stage ''.
In 2012, the Canadian economy had the following relative weighting by industry, as percentage value of GDP:
The service sector in Canada is vast and multifaceted, employing about three quarters of Canadians and accounting for 70 % of GDP. The largest employer is the retail sector, employing almost 12 % of Canadians. The retail industry is mainly concentrated in a small number of chain stores clustered together in shopping malls. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of big - box stores, such as Wal - Mart (of the United States), Real Canadian Superstore, and Best Buy (of the United States). This has led to fewer workers in this sector and a migration of retail jobs to the suburbs.
The second largest portion of the service sector is the business service and hire only a slightly smaller percentage of the population. This includes the financial services, real estate, and communications industries. This portion of the economy has been rapidly growing in recent years. It is largely concentrated in the major urban centres, especially Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver (see Banking in Canada).
The education and health sectors are two of Canada 's largest, but both are largely under the influence of the government. The health care industry has been quickly growing, and is the third largest in Canada. Its rapid growth has led to problems for governments who must find money to fund it.
Canada has an important high tech industry, and a burgeoning film, television, and entertainment industry creating content for local and international consumption (see Media in Canada). Tourism is of ever increasing importance, with the vast majority of international visitors coming from the United States. Though the recent strength of the Canadian Dollar has hurt this sector, other nations such as China have increased tourism to Canada. Casino gaming is currently the fastest - growing component of the Canadian tourism industry, contributing $5 billion in profits for Canadian governments and employing 41,000 Canadians as of 2001.
The general pattern of development for wealthy nations was a transition from a primary industry based economy to a manufacturing based one, and then to a service based economy. Canada did not escape this pattern - at its (abnormally high World War II) peak in 1944, manufacturing accounted for 29 % of GDP, declining to 15.6 % in 2005. Canada has not suffered as greatly as most other rich, industrialized nations from the pains of the relative decline in the importance of manufacturing since the 1960s. A 2009 study by Statistics Canada also found that, while manufacturing declined as a relative percentage of GDP from 24.3 % in the 1960s to 15.6 % in 2005, manufacturing volumes between 1961 and 2005 kept pace with the overall growth in the volume index of GDP. Manufacturing in Canada was especially hit hard by the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08. As of 2010, manufacturing accounts for 13 % of Canada 's GDP, a relative decline of more than 2 % of GDP since 2005.
Central Canada is home to branch plants to all the major American and Japanese automobile makers and many parts factories owned by Canadian firms such as Magna International and Linamar Corporation. Central Canada today produces more vehicles each year than the neighbouring U.S. state of Michigan, the heart of the American automobile industry. Manufacturers have been attracted to Canada due to the highly educated population with lower labour costs than the United States. Canada 's publicly funded health care system is also an important attraction, as companies are exempt from the high health insurance costs US firms pay, though they are offset by corporate health care taxes.
Much of the Canadian manufacturing industry consists of branch plants of United States firms, though there are some important domestic manufacturers, such as Bombardier Inc... This has raised several concerns for Canadians. Branch plants provide mainly blue collar jobs, with research and executive positions confined to the United States.
Canada is one of the few developed nations that is a net exporter of energy -- in 2009 net exports of energy products amounted to 2.9 % of GDP. Most important are the large oil and gas resources centred in Alberta and the Northern Territories, but also present in neighbouring British Columbia and Saskatchewan. The vast Athabasca oil sands give Canada the world 's third largest reserves of oil after Saudi Arabia and Venezuela according to USGS. In British Columbia and Quebec, as well as Ontario, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and the Labrador region, hydroelectric power is an inexpensive and relatively environmentally friendly source of abundant energy. In part because of this, Canada is also one of the world 's highest per capita consumers of energy. Cheap energy has enabled the creation of several important industries, such as the large aluminium industries in British Columbia and Quebec.
Historically, an important issue in Canadian politics is the interplay between the oil and energy industry in Western Canada and the industrial heartland of Southern Ontario. Foreign investment in Western oil projects has fueled Canada 's rising dollar. This has raised the price of Ontario 's manufacturing exports and made them less competitive, a problem similar to the decline of the manufacturing sector in the Netherlands. Also, Ontario has relatively fewer native sources of power. However, it is cheaper for Alberta to ship its oil to the western United States than to eastern Canada. The eastern Canadian ports thus import significant quantities of oil from overseas, and Ontario makes significant use of nuclear power.
The National Energy Policy of the early 1980s attempted to force Alberta to sell low priced oil to eastern Canada. This policy proved deeply divisive, and quickly lost its importance as oil prices collapsed in the mid-1980s. One of the most controversial sections of the Canada - United States Free Trade Agreement of 1988 was a promise that Canada would never charge the United States more for energy than fellow Canadians.
Canada is also one of the world 's largest suppliers of agricultural products, particularly of wheat and other grains. Canada is a major exporter of agricultural products, to the United States and Asia. As with all other developed nations the proportion of the population and GDP devoted to agriculture fell dramatically over the 20th century.
As with other developed nations, the Canadian agriculture industry receives significant government subsidies and supports. However, Canada has been a strong supporter of reducing market influencing subsidies through the World Trade Organization. In 2000, Canada spent approximately CDN $4.6 billion on supports for the industry. Of this, $2.32 billion was classified under the WTO designation of "green box '' support, meaning it did not directly influence the market, such as money for research or disaster relief. All but $848.2 million were subsidies worth less than 5 % of the value of the crops they were provided for.
Canada is negotiating bilateral FTAs with the following countries and trade blocs:
Canada has been involved in negotiations to create the following regional trade blocks:
Canada and the United States share a common trading relationship. Canada 's job market continues to perform well along with the US, reaching a 30 - year low in the unemployment rate in December 2006, following 14 consecutive years of employment growth.
The United States is by far Canada 's largest trading partner, with more than $1.7 billion CAD in trade per day in 2005. In 2009, 73 % of Canada 's exports went to the United States, and 63 % of Canada 's imports were from the United States. Trade with Canada makes up 23 % of the United States ' exports and 17 % of its imports. By comparison, in 2005 this was more than U.S. trade with all countries in the European Union combined, and well over twice U.S. trade with all the countries of Latin America combined. Just the two - way trade that crosses the Ambassador Bridge between Michigan and Ontario equals all U.S. exports to Japan. Canada 's importance to the United States is not just a border - state phenomenon: Canada is the leading export market for 35 of 50 U.S. states, and is the United States ' largest foreign supplier of energy.
Bilateral trade increased by 52 % between 1989, when the U.S. - Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA) went into effect, and 1994, when the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) superseded it. Trade has since increased by 40 %. NAFTA continues the FTA 's moves toward reducing trade barriers and establishing agreed - upon trade rules. It also resolves some long - standing bilateral irritants and liberalizes rules in several areas, including agriculture, services, energy, financial services, investment, and government procurement. NAFTA forms the largest trading area in the world, embracing the 405 million people of the three North American countries.
The largest component of U.S. - Canada trade is in the commodity sector.
The U.S. is Canada 's largest agricultural export market, taking well over half of all Canadian food exports. Similarly, Canada is the largest market for U.S. agricultural goods, with nearly 20 % of American food exports going to its northern neighbour. Nearly two - thirds of Canada 's forest products, including pulp and paper, are exported to the United States; 72 % of Canada 's total newsprint production also is exported to the U.S.
At $73.6 billion in 2004, U.S. - Canada trade in energy is the largest U.S. energy trading relationship, with the overwhelming majority ($66.7 billion) being exports from Canada. The primary components of U.S. energy trade with Canada are petroleum, natural gas, and electricity. Canada is the United States ' largest oil supplier and the fifth - largest energy producing country in the world. Canada provides about 16 % of U.S. oil imports and 14 % of total U.S. consumption of natural gas. The United States and Canada 's national electricity grids are linked, and both countries share hydropower facilities on the western borders.
While most of U.S. - Canada trade flows smoothly, there are occasionally bilateral trade disputes, particularly in the agricultural and cultural fields. Usually these issues are resolved through bilateral consultative forums or referral to World Trade Organization (WTO) or NAFTA dispute resolution. In May 1999, the U.S. and Canadian governments negotiated an agreement on magazines that provides increased access for the U.S. publishing industry to the Canadian market. The United States and Canada also have resolved several major issues involving fisheries. By common agreement, the two countries submitted a Gulf of Maine boundary dispute to the International Court of Justice in 1981; both accepted the court 's 12 October 1984 ruling which demarcated the territorial sea boundary. A current issue between the United States and Canada is the ongoing softwood lumber dispute, as the U.S. alleges that Canada unfairly subsidizes its forestry industry.
In 1990, the United States and Canada signed a bilateral Fisheries Enforcement Agreement, which has served to deter illegal fishing activity and reduce the risk of injury during fisheries enforcement incidents. The U.S. and Canada signed a Pacific Salmon Agreement in June 1999 that settled differences over implementation of the 1985 Pacific Salmon Treaty for the next decade.
Canada and the United States signed an aviation agreement during Bill Clinton 's visit to Canada in February 1995, and air traffic between the two countries has increased dramatically as a result. The two countries also share in operation of the St. Lawrence Seaway, connecting the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean.
The U.S. is Canada 's largest foreign investor and the most popular destination for Canadian foreign investments; at the end of 2007, the stock of U.S. direct investment in Canada was estimated at $293 billion, while Canadian direct investment (stock) in the United States was valued at $213 billion. U.S. FDI accounts for 59.5 % of total foreign direct investment in Canada while Canadian FDI in the U.S. accounts for 10 % (5th largest foreign investor). US investments are primarily directed at Canada 's mining and smelting industries, petroleum, chemicals, the manufacture of machinery and transportation equipment, and finance, while Canadian investment in the United States is concentrated in manufacturing, wholesale trade, real estate, petroleum, finance, and insurance and other services.
The OECD reports the Central Government Debt as percentage of the GDP. In 2000 Canada 's was 40.9 percent, in 2007 it was 25.2 percent, in 2008 it was 28.6 percent and by 2010 it was 36.1 percent. The OECD reports net financial liabilities measure used by the OECD, reports the net number at 25.2 %, as of 2008, making Canada 's total government debt burden as the lowest in the G8. The gross number was 68 % in 2011.
The CIA World Factbook, updated weekly, measures financial liabilities by using gross general government debt, as opposed to net federal debt used by the OECD and the Canadian federal government. Gross general government debt includes both "intragovernmental debt and the debt of public entities at the sub-national level. '' For example, the CIA measured Canada 's public debt as 84.1 % of GDP in 2012 and 87.4 % of GDP in 2011 making it 22nd in the world.
In March 2015 the International Monetary Fund reported that Canada 's high household debt was one of two vulnerable domestic areas in Canada 's economy; the second is its overheated housing market.
According to a July 2015 report by Laura Cooper, an economist with the RBC -- the largest financial institution in Canada -- "outstanding household credit balances '' had reached $1.83 trillion. Canadian household credit growth had reached a peak in 2009 then plummeted to a cycle - low in late 2013. There was a quickened pace of growth in household debt in December 2012 and another in April and May 2015.
According to the August 2013 third annual Ipsos Reid Debt Poll only 24 per cent of Canadians were debt free in 2013 compared to 26 per cent in 2012. The average personal non-mortgage debt in 2013 was $15,920 up from $13,141 in 2012. According to an IPSOS chart produced in 2013 debt levels increased "a staggering 35 per cent '' in Western Canada compared to 10 per cent in Eastern Canada since 2012 even before the Alberta floods. In Alberta in 2013 household debt rose 63 per cent to $24,271 per household from 2012 after the 2013 Alberta floods. In 2013 the average personal debt load in British Columbia was "up 38 per cent to $15,549; '' in "Manitoba and Saskatchewan, up 32 per cent to $16,145; '' in Ontario, "up 13 per cent to $17,416, '' in Quebec up "3 per cent to $10,458; '' and in Atlantic Canada, "up 12 per cent to $15,243. ''
Statistics Canada announced in December 2014 that Canada 's household debt - to - income ratio "hit a record high in the third quarter of 2014, climbing to 162.6 percent from 161.5 percent in the second quarter. '' However "household assets and net worth increased much faster than debt, '' with the national net worth at C $8.12 trillion in the third quarter of 2014, a increase of 2.8 percent from the second quarter. Also through the inflation - targeting policy of the Bank of Canada, interest rates are kept low improving the ability of households to service their debt. "The debt - service ratio, or interest paid as a proportion of disposable income, fell to a record low 6.8 percent in the third quarter. ''
By 2015 according to the Globe and Mail, "The total debt owed by all Canadians at the end of March 2015 was a record $1.8 - trillion with mortgage debt making up $1.29 - trillion. ''
According to Philip Cross of the Fraser Institute, in May 2015, while the Canadian household debt - to - income ratio is similar to that in the US, however lending standards in Canada are tighter than those in the United States to protect against high - risk borrowers taking out unsustainable debt.
Household debt, the amount of money that all adults in the household owe financial institutions, includes consumer debt and mortgage loans. Paul Krugman argued that by 2007 household debt in the United States, prior to the financial crisis, had reached 130 percent of household income. Krugman distinguished between the total domestic non-financial debt (public plus private) relative to GDP which is "money we owe to ourselves '' and net foreign debt. Statistics Canada reported in March 2013 that "credit - market debt such as mortgages rose to 165 % of disposable income, compared with 164.7 % in the prior three - month period '' in 2013 According to the IMF in 2012, "Housing - related debt (mortgages) comprises about 70 percent of gross household debt in advanced economies. The remainder consists mainly of credit card debt and auto loans. ''
As shown in the table below -- based on the RBC Economic and Financial Market Outlook March 11, 2016 report -- in Canada in 2015 -- while business investments decreased -- consumption, housing and government spending along with net exports contributed to a real GDP increase at a subpar 1.2 % pace. In December 2015 export volumes reached $1.2 billion -- the sixth time since 2010 with sales growing by such a large amount - evidence that the Canadian economy is transitioning. In November and December 2015, with the weakening in the Canadian dollar, manufacturing sales and exports increased and employment rose. Job losses in construction, mining, oil and gas were countered by gains in the service sector.
Between early December, 2015 and mid-January the price of oil unexpectedly dropped 24 %. RBC economists argued that fear not fundamentals led the shift in financial conditions. Risk adverse investors contributed to a global double - digit decline in the first six weeks of 2016. In Canada, the US, UK and Euro - area yields on long - term government bonds reached an all - time low. As financial market volatility continued in March 2016 the Bank of Canada and Bank of England held their policy rate at 0.5 %.
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the output of an and gate is high when | AND gate - wikipedia
The AND gate is a basic digital logic gate that implements logical conjunction - it behaves according to the truth table to the right. A HIGH output (1) results only if all the inputs to the AND gate are HIGH (1). If none or not all inputs to the AND gate are HIGH, a LOW output results. The function can be extended to any number of inputs.
There are three symbols for AND gates: the American (ANSI or ' military ') symbol and the IEC (' European ' or ' rectangular ') symbol, as well as the deprecated DIN symbol. Additional inputs can be added as needed. For more information see Logic Gate Symbols.
The AND gate with inputs A and B and output C implements the logical expression C = A ⋅ B (\ displaystyle C = A \ cdot B).
An AND gate is usually designed using N - channel (pictured) or P - channel MOSFETs. The digital inputs a and b cause the output F to have the same result as the AND function.
If no specific AND gates are available, one can be made from NAND or NOR gates, because NAND and NOR gates are considered the "universal gates, '' meaning that they can be used to make all the others.
AND gates are available in IC packages. The 7408 IC is a well known QUAD 2 - Input AND GATES and contains four independent gates each of which performs the logic AND function.
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when was the last time clemson was in the sweet 16 | Clemson Tigers men 's basketball - wikipedia
Littlejohn Coliseum (1966 -- 2015, 2016 -- present)
The Clemson Tigers men 's basketball team is a college basketball program that represents Clemson University and competes in the NCAA Division I. Clemson is a founding member of the Atlantic Coast Conference.
Clemson sponsored its first men 's basketball team in the 1911 -- 12 season, winning its first conference championship in 1939, and in the Atlantic Coast Conference in 1990. The Tigers have reached the NCAA Tournament 12 times in the modern era (1980, 1987, 1989, 1990, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2018) since the tournament expansion in 1980, advancing to the NCAA Sweet 16 four times (1980, 1990, 1997, 2018), with their best performance reaching the Elite Eight that very same year.
Clemson 's home court is Littlejohn Coliseum and has been the scene of 55 Clemson wins over ranked teams (23 in the Top 10) since 1968, including a victory over # 1 Duke in 1980, a 75 -- 65 victory over # 1 North Carolina in 2001, and a 74 -- 47 victory over # 3 Duke in 2009. The Clemson basketball programs have won roughly 75 % of their games played in Littlejohn, making it one of the ACC 's toughest road venues.
Clemson 's current head coach is Brad Brownell.
Clemson 's basketball history had an unusual beginning. The Tigers first two basketball games were both played in Greenville, South Carolina on February 9, 1912, a 46 -- 12 win at Furman, followed by a 78 -- 6 victory over the Butler Guards later that evening. Brothers John and Frank Erwin scored a combined 74 points in their second game; John Erwin 's 58 points still stand as Clemson 's single game scoring record, unique in college basketball for not being broken in over a century since the program 's inaugural day. Clemson won its first seven games in the program 's history, the longest streak to open a program among the current 15 ACC schools. Former Pittsburgh Nationals player Frank Dobson was Clemson 's first basketball coach, taking the Tigers to a 13 -- 5 record in the first two seasons.
Southern Conference: The Tigers began play in the Southern Conference in 1921, and in 1922 -- 23 had an 11 -- 6 finish. Josh Cody, coached for five seasons, the longest tenure for a Clemson Basketball coach in the first 25 years. In 1928 -- 29 the Tigers won 15 games, a school record, and then followed that with a 16 -- 9 mark. Cody pulled off the first huge upset in Clemson basketball history when the Tigers defeated Adolph Rupp 's 10 -- 1 Kentucky Wildcats, 29 -- 26, at Clemson on Valentine 's Day in 1931. From 1931 -- 40, Joe Davis coached Clemson to 101 victories, including 44 wins on the road. Davis still has the best winning percentage in Clemson history on the road and led the Tigers to a 15 -- 3 (. 833) mark in 1934 -- 35. In the 1938 -- 39 season, the Tigers won 10 of their last 11 games to close the regular season. Banks McFadden, eventual All - American in both football and basketball averaged 11.8 points per game to lead the team as the starting pivot to four victories. It was an incredible run in the tournament as Clemson beat North Carolina, 44 -- 43, Wake Forest, 30 -- 28, Davidson 49 -- 33 and Maryland 39 -- 27 to clench the Southern Conference title. McFadden 's best year as coach was the 1951 -- 52 season when the Tigers were 17 -- 7 overall and 11 -- 4 in the Conference.
In 1953, Clemson became a founding member of the Atlantic Coast Conference. In the 1954 -- 55 season, Bill Yarborough averaged 28.3 points per game, 4th best in the nation, and best in the ACC. Press Maravich, father of basketball legend Pete Maravich, coached the Tigers to a 96 -- 94 double overtime victory against a # 8 NC State team. Jim Brennan became the first Clemson player to make first - team All - ACC Tournament in 1962 with 34 - points against # 8 Duke in the semifinals before losing to Billy Packer and the Wake Forest Demon Deacons, 77 -- 66. In 1963 -- 64, coach Bobby Roberts guided the Tigers to an 8 -- 6 record in the ACC. The season included the only regular season sweep of North Carolina in school history. Roberts beat the Tar Heels and Dean Smith, 66 -- 64, in double overtime at Clemson to open the season; and beat them again, 97 -- 90, in double overtime in Charlotte at the North -- South Doubleheader. In 1966 -- 67. Clemson won seven straight ACC games including consecutive wins over Wake Forest, # 14 Duke, North Carolina State and # 4 North Carolina. It was the first sweep of "the North Carolina ACC schools '' in ACC history. Clemson finished with a 17 -- 8 record and 9 -- 5 record in the ACC. Randy Mahaffey was a first - team All - ACC selection who went on to become Clemson 's first professional player. His teammate Jim Sutherland averaged 17 points a game and was the first Clemson athlete in any sport to win the Jim Weaver Award as the ACC 's top scholar athlete.
Tree Rollins ushered in a new era in Clemson basketball when he matriculated to Tigertown for the 1973 -- 74 season. He changed the image of Clemson basketball more than any other player under head coach Tates Locke. At 7 -- 2 he was a shot - blocking phenomenon who burst on the national scene in just his second game when he had 22 points, 20 rebounds and nine blocked shots against St. John 's. Rollins started 110 games in a row, a national record at the time. His sophomore year, 1974 -- 75, he joined forces with Skip Wise to take Clemson to its first top 20 final ranking and its first postseason NIT tournament bid. The Tigers defeated 3rd ranked Maryland, 10th ranked North Carolina and 4th ranked NC State at home. Wise was named first - team All - ACC the first true freshman in league history to obtain that honor. Bill Foster was brought in to further build the program. He had an impeccable reputation and was coming from a UNC Charlotte program that he started in 1970. When Rollins decided not to turn professional, Foster and Rollins motivated the Tigers to 22 -- 6 record, the program 's ninth straight year with an improved winning percentage. Prior to his final game, Rollins had his # 30 jersey retired, the first athlete in Clemson history so honored. It was a fitting way to honor Rollins who averaged a double - double for four years and is still first in ACC history in blocked shots, before starting his 18 - year career in the NBA. Bill Foster did a remarkable job in keeping Clemson at a winning level. He won 100 games in his first 147, still fifth in ACC history in terms of fewest games required to get 100 wins. He had an ability to find diamonds in the rough that kept Clemson competitive in the ACC: Bobby Conrad, Horace Grant, Harvey Grant, & Larry Nance an eventual All - West regional choice in the 1980 NCAA tournament and NBA All - Star. Foster 's 1979 -- 80 team defeated six top 20 teams during the year, including # 1 ranked Duke on January 9, 1980 in overtime, 87 -- 82. Clemson went to the NCAA Tournament defeating Danny Ainge and BYU in Round 2 before being eliminated by Larry Brown and UCLA in the Elite Eight.
Cliff Ellis became the winningest coach in Clemson basketball history on a total victories basis (177 -- 128). He took the Tigers to eight post-season tournaments, including three NCAA tournaments, and won a record 25 games in 1987. Ellis coached Clemson to the ACC regular season title in 1990, with the Tigers posting a 24 -- 8 record that year behind Dale Davis and Elden Campbell, ending in a last second shot by UConn in the Sweet 16. Ellis set 33 Clemson coaching records, including ACC regular season victories, victories at home and home winning percentage. The Tigers won 22 games over top 25 teams in Ellis ' ten years at Clemson, including an upset of 12th - ranked Florida State in the 1993 ACC Tournament, and a victory over # 2 North Carolina in 1994. Ellis was also named ACC Coach - of - the - Year in 1987 and 1990, the only Clemson coach to win that award.
Rick Barnes was the first coach in Clemson history to take the Tigers to the NCAA Tournament three consecutive years. Barnes coached Clemson into post-season play every year of his tenure, and to the NCAA 's in 1996, 1997, and 1998. The Tiger 's top season was his third year, when he coached the Tigers to a 16 -- 1 start and a # 2 national ranking. The season opened with a 79 -- 71 overtime victory against defending National Champion Kentucky. The team ended the season 23 -- 10 and ranked # 8 in the final USA Today poll. Picked last in the ACC prior to his first season, he shocked the basketball world by winning his first ten games, including a 75 -- 70 victory over 9th ranked Duke in Cameron Indoor Stadium. His second season featured an 18 -- 11 record, including Clemson 's first - ever ACC Tournament victory over # 20 North Carolina. The Tigers were ranked fifth in the nation in the pre-season poll of 1997 -- 1998, an example of the level of respect that Barnes had brought back to the program. His fiery on the floor interactions with Dean Smith and teams ' physical style of play made him a basketball fan favorite. Clemson defeated three top - 25 teams in 1997 -- 1998, including sixth - ranked South Carolina. Barnes concluded his four years with a 74 -- 48 record, a 60.7 percent winning mark before leaving for the University of Texas.
Barnes ' assistant Larry Shyatt, who was a part of Clemson 's success in the three seasons prior, took over as head coach for five seasons from 1998 -- 2003. In his first season, Shyatt led the Tigers to a 20 - win season (20 -- 15). The Tigers advanced to the 1999 NIT Championship Game before losing by one point, 60 -- 61, to California. At the time, Shyatt became only the fourth first - year coach in Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) history to guide his team to a 20 - win season. Also during his time as head coach at Clemson, the 2000 -- 01 team set a school record for three - point field goals in a season and recorded one of the biggest wins in school history with a 75 -- 65 win over No. 1 ranked North Carolina on Feb. 18, 2001, ending an 18 - game winning streak for the Tar Heels.
After several lackluster seasons and renovations to Littlejohn Coliseum, Oliver Purnell rebuilt the program steadily, improving each subsequent season. The trademark of Purnell 's teams was full court pressure defense. In 2008, he guided the Tigers to a third - place 10 -- 6 record in the Atlantic Coast Conference and a runner - up position in the ACC Tournament in Charlotte, losing to North Carolina by 5 points. The 2008 -- 09 season was record - breaking on many fronts. Purnell 's team finished with a 23 -- 9 record, a. 719 winning percentage, and a No. 24 final ranking in the Associated Press poll. Among Clemson 's victims that season were # 3 Duke, who lost to the # 10 Tigers by a score of 74 -- 47 at Littlejohn Coliseum. It was the largest margin of victory ever for Clemson against a ranked opponent. Coaching players such as Cliff Hammonds, K.C. Rivers, and Trevor Booker, Purnell finished with a record of 138 -- 88 and guided the Tigers to 3 NCAA appearances.
Currently, Brad Brownell is the Clemson head basketball coach. In his first season in 2010, Brownell guided the Tigers to a 4th place ACC finish, and a 2nd round finish in the NCAA Tournament and set a record with 22 wins (9 ACC), the most ever by a rookie coach. Jerai Grant and Demontez Stitt became the first scholarship players in school history to be consistent contributors to four straight NCAA Tournament teams. Brownell 's second team went 16 -- 15 and 8 -- 8 in ACC play, a record fifth straight season the Tigers were. 500 or better in conference games, defeating three teams that advanced to the NCAA Tournament, including NC State. In 2013, the Tigers suffered a 13 -- 18 overall record but were impressive in several statistical categories, yielding just 60.1 points per game, finishing 2nd in the ACC in Scoring Defense, and setting a record for fewest turnovers. Brownell 's defensive style of play continued to stifle teams into the 2014 season, as the Tigers, led by blocking and scoring leader K.J. McDaniels, were ranked 2nd in the nation in Scoring Defense (56.8 ppg), which helped elevate Clemson to a 72 -- 59 upset of # 16 Duke on January 11. The Tigers were seeded 6th in the 2014 ACC Tournament and advanced to the semifinals of the NIT at Madison Square Garden. On January 16, 2016 the Clemson Tigers defeated # 8 Miami marking the first time Clemson has defeated three consecutive top 25 opponents. The two games prior Clemson defeated # 16 Louisville and # 9 Duke. After the 2016 - 2017 season, it was announced that Brownell would stay on as Clemson head coach with a contract extension until 2021.
All - Americans
Clemson Ring of Honor
Retired Jerseys
ACC Player of the Year
ACC Defensive Player of the Year
ACC Freshman of the Year
ACC Most Improved Player
ACC All - Defensive Team
ACC Coach of the Year
All - Southern Conference
All - ACC First Team
All - ACC Second Team
All - ACC Third Team
NBA Players
The Tigers have appeared in the NCAA Tournament 12 times. Their combined record is 11 -- 12.
The Tigers have appeared in the National Invitation Tournament (NIT) 16 times. Their combined record is 18 -- 16.
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why is the first program always hello world | "Hello, world! '' Program - wikipedia
A "Hello, World! '' program is a computer program that outputs or displays the message "Hello, World! ''. Being a very simple program in most programming languages, it is often used to illustrate the basic syntax of a programming language and is often the first program people write.
A "Hello, World! '' program is traditionally used to introduce novice programmers to a programming language.
"Hello, world! '' is also traditionally used in a sanity test to make sure that a computer language is correctly installed, and that the operator understands how to use it.
While small test programs have existed since the development of programmable computers, the tradition of using the phrase "Hello, world! '' as a test message was influenced by an example program in the seminal book The C Programming Language. The example program from that book prints "hello, world '' (without capital letters or exclamation mark), and was inherited from a 1974 Bell Laboratories internal memorandum by Brian Kernighan, Programming in C: A Tutorial:
The C version was preceded by Kernighan 's own 1972 A Tutorial Introduction to the Language B, where the first known version of the program is found in an example used to illustrate external variables:
The program prints hello, world! on the terminal, including a newline character. The phrase is divided into multiple variables because in B, a character constant is limited to four ASCII characters. The previous example in the tutorial printed hi! on the terminal, and the phrase hello, world! was introduced as a slightly longer greeting that required several character constants for its expression.
It is also claimed that hello, world originated instead with BCPL (1967). This claim is supported by the archived notes of the inventors of BCPL, Prof. Brian Kernighan at Princeton and Martin Richards at Cambridge.
For modern languages, hello, world programs vary in sophistication. For example, the Go programming language introduced a multilingual program, Sun demonstrated a Java hello, world based on scalable vector graphics, and the XL programming language features a spinning Earth hello, world using 3D graphics. While some languages such as Perl, Python or Ruby may need only a single statement to print "hello, world '', a low - level assembly language may require dozens of commands. Mark Guzdial and Elliot Soloway have suggested that the "hello, world '' test message may be outdated now that graphics and sound can be manipulated as easily as text.
There are many variations on the punctuation and casing of the phrase. Variations include the presence or absence of the comma and exclamation mark, and the capitalization of the ' H ', both the ' H ' and the ' W ', or neither. Some languages are forced to implement different forms, such as "HELLO WORLD '', on systems that support only capital letters, while many "hello, world '' programs in esoteric languages print out a slightly modified string. For example, the first non-trivial Malbolge program printed "HEllO WORld '', this having been determined to be good enough.
There are variations in spirit, as well. Functional programming languages, like Lisp, ML and Haskell, tend to substitute a factorial program for Hello, World, as functional programming emphasizes recursive techniques, whereas the original examples emphasize I / O, which violates the spirit of pure functional programming by producing side effects. Languages otherwise capable of Hello, World (Assembly, C, VHDL) may also be used in embedded systems, where text output is either difficult (requiring additional components or communication with another computer) or nonexistent. For devices such as microcontrollers, field - programmable gate arrays, and CPLD 's, "Hello, World '' may thus be substituted with a blinking LED, which demonstrates timing and interaction between components.
The Debian and Ubuntu Linux distributions provide the "hello, world '' program through the apt packaging system; this allows users to simply type "apt - get install hello '' for the program to be installed, along with any software dependencies. While of itself useless, it serves as a sanity check and a simple example to newcomers of how to install a package. It is significantly more useful for developers, however, as it provides an example of how to create a. deb package, either traditionally or using debhelper, and the version of hello used, GNU Hello, serves as an example of how to write a GNU program.
Time to "Hello World '' (TTHW) is a metric for how long it takes to get a "Hello World '' program running from scratch.
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melanocytes are produced in which layer of the skin | Melanocyte - wikipedia
Melanocytes (/ məˈlænəˌsaɪt, - noʊ - / (listen) or / ˈmɛlənəˌsaɪt, - noʊ - /) are melanin - producing neural - crest derived cells located in the bottom layer (the stratum basale) of the skin 's epidermis, the middle layer of the eye (the uvea), the inner ear, meninges, bones, and heart. Melanin is the pigment primarily responsible for skin color. Once synthesised, melanin is contained in a special organelle called a melanosome and moved along arm - like structures called dendrites, so as to reach the keratinocytes.
Through a process called melanogenesis, melanocytes produce melanin, which is a pigment found in the skin, eyes, and hair. This melanogenesis leads to a long - lasting pigmentation, which is in contrast to the pigmentation that originates from oxidation of already - existing melanin.
There are both basal and activated levels of melanogenesis; in general, lighter - skinned people have low basal levels of melanogenesis. Exposure to UV - B radiation causes an increased melanogenesis. The purpose of the melanogenesis is to protect the hypodermis, the layer under the skin, from the UV - B light that can damage it (DNA photodamage). The color of the melanin is black, allowing it to absorb a majority of the UV - B light and block it from passing through this skin layer.
Since the action spectrum of sunburn and melanogenesis are virtually identical, they are assumed to be induced by the same mechanism. The agreement of the action spectrum with the absorption spectrum of DNA points towards the formation of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) - direct DNA damage.
Typically, between 1000 and 2000 melanocytes per square millimeter of skin are found. Melanocytes comprise from 5 % to 10 % of the cells in the basal layer of epidermis. Although their size can vary, melanocytes are typically 7 μm in length.
The difference in skin color between lightly and darkly pigmented individuals is due not to the number (quantity) of melanocytes in their skin, but to the melanocytes ' level of activity (quantity and relative amounts of eumelanin and pheomelanin). This process is under hormonal control, including the MSH and ACTH peptides that are produced from the precursor proopiomelanocortin.
People with oculocutaneous albinism typically have a very low level of melanin production. Albinism is often but not always related to the TYR gene coding the tyrosinase enzyme. Tyrosinase is required for melanocytes to produce melanin from the amino acid tyrosine. Albinism may be caused by a number of other genes as well, like OCA2, SLC45A2, TYRP1, and HPS1 to name some. In all, already 17 types of oculocutaneous albinism have been recognized. Each gene is related to different protein having a role in pigment production.
People with Chédiak -- Higashi_syndrome have a buildup of melanin granules due to abnormal function of microtubules.
Numerous stimuli are able to alter melanogenesis, or the production of melanin by cultured melanocytes, although the method by which it works is not fully understood. Certain melanocortins have been shown in laboratory testing to have effect on appetite and sexual activity in mice. Vitamin D metabolites, retinoids, melanocyte - stimulating hormone, forskolin, cholera toxin, isobutylmethylxanthine, diacylglycerol analogues, and UV irradiation all trigger melanogenesis and, in turn, pigmentation. Increased melanin production is seen in conditions where Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) is elevated, such as Cushing 's disease. This is mainly a consequence of alpha - MSH being secreted along with the hormone associated with reproductive tendencies in primates. Alpha - MSH is a cleavage product of ACTH that has an equal affinity for the MC1 receptor on melanocytes as ACTH.
Melanosomes are vesicles that package the chemical inside a plasma membrane. The melanosomes are organized as a cap protecting the nucleus of the keratinocyte.
When ultraviolet rays penetrate the skin and damage DNA, thymidine dinucleotide (pTpT) fragments from damaged DNA will trigger melanogenesis and cause the melanocyte to produce melanosomes, which are then transferred by dendrites to the top layer of keratinocytes.
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what are the two dots above a letter in german called | Diaeresis (diacritic) - wikipedia
The diaeresis (/ daɪˈɛrɪsɪs / dy - ERR - i - sis; plural: diaereses; also spelled diæresis or dieresis and also known as the tréma or trema) and the umlaut are two homoglyphic diacritical marks that consist of two dots (_̈) placed over a letter, usually a vowel. When that letter is an i or a j, the diacritic replaces the tittle: ï.
The diaeresis and the umlaut are diacritics marking two distinct phonological phenomena. The diaeresis represents the phenomenon also known as diaeresis or hiatus in which a vowel letter is pronounced separately from an adjacent vowel and not as part of a digraph or diphthong. The umlaut (/ ˈʊmlaʊt /), in contrast, indicates a sound shift. These two diacritics originated separately; the diaeresis is considerably older. Nevertheless, in modern computer systems using Unicode, the umlaut and diaeresis diacritics are identically encoded, e.g. U + 00E4 ä LATIN SMALL LETTER A WITH DIAERESIS (HTML & # 228; ä) represents both a-umlaut and a-diaeresis (much like the hyphen - minus code point represents both a hyphen and often a minus sign).
The same symbol is also used as a diacritic in other cases, distinct from both diaeresis and umlaut. For example, in Albanian and Tagalog ë represents a schwa.
The word diaeresis is from Greek diaíresis (διαίρεσις), meaning "division '', "separation '', or "distinction ''.
The word trema (plural: tremas or tremata), used in French linguistics and also classical scholarship, is from the Greek trē̂ma (τρῆμα) and means a "perforation '', "orifice '', or "pip '' (as on dice), thus describing the form of the diacritic rather than its function.
Umlaut is the German name of both the Germanic umlaut, a sound - law also known as i - mutation, and the corresponding diacritic.
The diaeresis indicates that two adjoining letters that would normally form a digraph and be pronounced as one are instead to be read as separate vowels in two syllables. The diaeresis indicates that a vowel should be pronounced apart from the letter that precedes it. For example, in the spelling coöperate, the diaeresis reminds the reader that the word has four syllables co-op - er - ate, not three, * coop - er - ate. In British English this usage has been considered obsolete for many years, and in US English, although it persisted for longer, it is now considered archaic as well. Nevertheless, it is still used by the US magazine The New Yorker. In English language texts it is perhaps most familiar in the spellings naïve, Noël, and Chloë, and is also used officially in the name of the island Teän. Languages such as Dutch, Catalan, French, Galician and Spanish make regular use of the diaeresis.
Two dots, called a trema, were used in the Hellenistic period on the letters ι and υ, most often at the beginning of a word, as in ϊδων, ϋιος, and ϋβριν, to separate them from a preceding vowel, as writing was scriptio continua, where spacing was not yet used as a word divider (see Coptic alphabet, for example). However, it was also used to indicate that a vowel formed its own syllable (in phonological hiatus), as in ηϋ and Αϊδι.
In Modern Greek, αϊ and οϊ represent the diphthongs / ai̯ / and / oi̯ /, and εϊ the disyllabic sequence / e.i /, whereas αι, οι, and ει transcribe the simple vowels / e /, / i /, and / i /. The diacritic can be the only one on a vowel, as in ακαδημαϊκός akadimaïkos "academic '', or in combination with an acute accent, as in πρωτεΐνη proteïni "protein ''.
Ÿ is sometimes used in transcribed Greek, where it represents the Greek letter υ (upsilon) in hiatus with α. For example, it can be seen in the transcription Artaÿctes of the Persian name Ἀρταΰκτης (Artaüktēs) at the very end of Herodotus, or the name of Mount Taÿgetus on the southern Peloponnesus peninsula, which in modern Greek is spelled Ταΰγετος.
The diaeresis was borrowed for this purpose in several languages of western and southern Europe, among them Occitan, Catalan, French, Dutch, Welsh, and (rarely) English.
When a vowel in Greek was stressed, it did not assimilate to a preceding vowel but remained as a separate syllable. Such vowels were marked with an accent such as the acute, a tradition that has also been adopted by other languages, such as Spanish and Portuguese. For example, the Portuguese words saia (ˈsajɐ) "skirt '' and the imperfect saía (saˈi. ɐ) "(I / he / she) used to leave '' differ in that the sequence / ai / forms a diphthong in the former (synaeresis), but is a hiatus in the latter (diaeresis).
In Catalan, the digraphs ai, ei, oi, au, eu, and iu are normally read as diphthongs. To indicate exceptions to this rule (hiatus), a diaeresis mark is placed on the second vowel: without this the words raïm (rəˈim) ("grape '') and diürn (diˈurn) ("diurnal '') would be read * (ˈrajm) and * (ˈdiwrn), respectively. The Occitan use of diaeresis is very similar to that of Catalan: ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ou are diphthongs consisting of one syllable but aï, eï, oï, aü, eü, oü are groups consisting of two distinct syllables.
In Welsh, where the diaeresis appears, it is usually on the stressed vowel, and this is most often on the first of the two adjacent vowels; a typical example is copïo (kɔ. ˈpi. ɔ) (to copy), cf. mopio (ˈmɔ. pjɔ) (to mop). It is also used on the first of two vowels that would otherwise form a diphthong (crëir (ˈkreː. ɪr) rather than creir (ˈkrəi̯r)) and on the first of three vowels to separate it from a following diphthong: crëwyd is pronounced (ˈkreː. ʊi̯d) rather than (ˈkrɛu̯. ɨd).
In Dutch, spellings such as coëfficiënt are necessary because the digraphs oe and ie normally represent the simple vowels (u) and (i), respectively. However, hyphenation is now preferred for compound words so that zeeëend (sea duck) is now spelled zee - eend.
In German, diaeresis occurs in a few proper names, such as Ferdinand Piëch and Bernhard Hoëcker.
In Galician, diaeresis is employed to indicate hiatus in the first and second persons of the plural of the imperfect tense of verbs ended in - aer, - oer, - aír and - oír (saïamos, caïades). This stems from the fact that an unstressed - i - is left between vowels, but constituting its own syllable, ending with a form identical in writing but different in pronunciation with those of the Present subjunctive, as those have said i forming a diphthong with the following a.
As a further extension, some languages began to use a diaeresis whenever a vowel letter was to be pronounced separately. This included vowels that would otherwise form digraphs with consonants or simply be silent.
In the orthographies of Spanish, Catalan, French, Galician, and Occitan, the graphemes gu and qu normally represent a single sound, (ɡ) or (k), before the front vowels e and i (or before nearly all vowels in Occitan). In the few exceptions where the u is pronounced, a diaeresis is added to it. Before the 1990 Orthographic Agreement, a diaeresis ("trema '') was also used in (mainly Brazilian) Portuguese in this manner, in words like sangüíneo (sɐ̃ˈɡwiniu) "sanguineous ''; after the implementation of the Orthographic Agreement, it was abolished altogether from all Portuguese words. In French, in the aforementioned cases the diaeresis is usually written over the following vowel.
Examples:
This has been extended to Ganda, where a diaeresis separates y from n: anya (aɲa), anÿa (aɲja).
In French, some diphthongs that were written with pairs of vowel letters were later reduced to monophthongs, which led to an extension of the value of this diacritic. It often now indicates that the second vowel letter is to be pronounced separately from the first, rather than merge with it into a single sound. For example, the French words maïs (ma.is) and naïve (na. iv) would be pronounced * (mɛ) and * (nɛv), respectively, without the diaeresis mark, since the digraph ai is pronounced (ɛ). The English spelling of Noël "Christmas '' (French (nɔ. ɛl)) comes from this use. Ÿ occurs in French as a variant of ï in a few proper nouns, as in the name of the Parisian suburb of L'Haÿ - les - Roses (la. i le ʁoz).
The diaeresis is also used when a silent e is added to the sequence gu, to show that it is to be pronounced (ɡy) rather than as a digraph for (ɡ). For example, when the feminine - e is added to aigu (eɡy) "sharp '', the pronunciation does not change: aiguë (eɡy). Similar is the feminine noun ciguë (siɡy) "hemlock ''; compare figue (fiɡ) "fig ''. In the ongoing French spelling reform of 1990, this was moved to the u (aigüe, cigüe), though the earlier orthography continues to be widely used. (In canoë (kanɔ. e) the e is not silent, and so is not affected by the spelling reform.)
In some names, a diaeresis is used to show what used to be two vowels in hiatus, although the second vowel has since fallen silent, as in Saint - Saëns (sɛ̃sɑ̃s) and de Staël (də stal).
The grave accent and the diaeresis are the only diacritics native to Modern English (apart from diacritics used in loanwords, such as the acute accent, the cedilla, or the tilde). The use of both, however, is considered to be largely archaic.
The diaeresis mark is sometimes used in English personal first and last names to indicate that two adjacent vowels should be pronounced separately, rather than as a diphthong. Examples include the given names Chloë and Zoë, which otherwise might be pronounced with a silent e. To discourage a similar mispronunciation, the mark is also used in the surname Brontë. It may be used optionally for words that do not have a morphological break at the diaeresis point, such as naïve, Boötes, and Noël. However, it is far less commonly used in words such as coöperate and reënter except in a very few publications -- notably The New Yorker.
Germanic umlaut is a specific historical phenomenon of vowel - fronting in German and other languages. In German it causes back vowels / a /, / o / and / u / to shift forward in the mouth to / æ /, / ø / and / y /, respectively. In modern German orthography, the affected graphemes ⟨ a ⟩, ⟨ o ⟩ and ⟨ u ⟩ are written as ⟨ ä ⟩, ⟨ ö ⟩ and ⟨ ü ⟩, i.e. they are written with diacritical marks identical to the diaeresis mark. Therefore, in German (and in some languages influenced by German orthography), the diacritical symbol itself is sometimes called umlaut.
German phonological umlaut was present in the Old High German period and continued to develop in Middle High German. From the Middle High German period, it was sometimes denoted in written German by adding an e to the affected vowel, either after the vowel or, in small form, above it. This can still be seen in some names, e.g. Goethe, Goebbels, Staedtler.
In blackletter handwriting as used in German manuscripts of the later Middle Ages, and also in many printed texts of the early modern period, the superscript ⟨ e ⟩ still had a form that would be recognisable to us as an ⟨ e ⟩, but in manuscript writing, umlauted vowels could be indicated by two dots since the late medieval period.
In the forms of handwriting that emerged in the early modern period (of which Sütterlin is the latest and best - known example) the letter ⟨ e ⟩ was composed of two short vertical lines very close together, and the superscript ⟨ e ⟩ looked like two tiny strokes. Even from the 16th century, the handwritten convention of indicating umlaut by two dots placed above the affected vowel is also found in printed texts.
In modern handwriting, the umlaut sometimes resembles a tilde, quotation mark, dash, miniature u or other small mark.
Unusual umlaut designs are sometimes also created for graphic design purposes, such as to fit an umlaut into tightly - spaced lines of text. This may include umlauts placed vertically or inside the body of the letter.
When typing German, if umlaut letters are not available, it is usual to replace them with the underlying vowel followed by an ⟨ e ⟩. So, for example, "Schröder '' becomes "Schroeder ''. As the pronunciation differs greatly between the normal letter and the umlaut, simply omitting the dots is incorrect. The result might often be a different word, as in schon ' already ', schön ' beautiful '; or a different grammatic form, e.g. Mutter ' mother ', Mütter ' mothers '.
Despite this, the umlauted letters are not considered as separate letters of the alphabet proper in German, in contrast to other Germanic languages.
When alphabetically sorting German words, the umlaut is usually not distinguished from the underlying vowel, although if two words differ only by an umlaut, the umlauted one comes second, for example:
There is a second system in limited use, mostly for sorting names (colloquially called "telephone directory sorting ''), which treats ü like ue, and so on.
Austrian telephone directories insert ö after oz.
In Switzerland, capital umlauts are sometimes printed as digraphs, in other words, ⟨ Ae ⟩, ⟨ Oe ⟩, ⟨ Ue ⟩, instead of ⟨ Ä ⟩, ⟨ Ö ⟩, ⟨ Ü ⟩ (see German alphabet for an elaboration.) This is because the Swiss typewriter keyboard contains the French accents on the same keys as the umlauts (selected by Shift). To write capital umlauts the _̈ - key is pressed followed by the capital letter to which the umlaut should apply.
Some languages have borrowed some of the forms of the German letters Ä, Ö, or Ü, including Azerbaijani, Estonian, Finnish, Hungarian, Karelian, some of the Sami languages, Slovak, Swedish, and Turkish. This indicates sounds similar to the corresponding umlauted letters in German. In spoken Scandinavian languages the grammatical umlaut change is used (singular to plural, derivations etc.) but the character used differs between languages. In Finnish, a / ä and o / ö change systematically in suffixes according to the rules of vowel harmony. In Hungarian, where long vowels are indicated with an acute accent, the umlaut notation has been expanded with a version of the umlaut which looks like double acute accents, indicating a blend of umlaut and acute. Contrast: short ö; long ő. The Estonian alphabet has borrowed ⟨ ä ⟩, ⟨ ö ⟩, and ⟨ ü ⟩ from German; Swedish and Finnish have ⟨ ä ⟩ and ⟨ ö ⟩; and Slovak has ⟨ ä ⟩. In Estonian, Swedish, Finnish, and Sami ⟨ ä ⟩ and ⟨ ö ⟩ denote (æ) and (ø), respectively. Hungarian has ⟨ ö ⟩ and ⟨ ü ⟩. The Slovak language uses the letter ⟨ ä ⟩ to denote (ɛ) (or a bit archaic but still correct (æ)). The sign is called dve bodky ("two dots ''), and the full name of the letter ä is as dvomi bodkami ("a with two dots ''). The similar word dvojbodka ("double dot '') however refers to the colon. In these languages, with the exception of Hungarian, the replacement rule for situations where the umlaut character is not available, is to simply use the underlying unaccented character instead. Hungarian follows the German rules and replaces ⟨ ö ⟩ and ⟨ ü ⟩ with ⟨ oe ⟩ and ⟨ ue ⟩ respectively -- at least for telegrams and telex messages. The same rule is followed for the near - lookalikes ⟨ ő ⟩ and ⟨ ű ⟩.
In Luxembourgish (Lëtzebuergesch), the umlaut diacritic in ⟨ ä ⟩ and ⟨ ë ⟩ represents a stressed schwa. The letters ⟨ ü ⟩ and ⟨ ö ⟩ do not occur in native Luxembourgish words, but at least the former is common in words borrowed from standard German.
When Turkish switched from the Arabic to the Latin alphabet in 1928, it adopted a number of diacritics borrowed from various languages, including ⟨ ü ⟩ and ⟨ ö ⟩ from German (probably reinforced by their use in languages like Swedish, Hungarian, etc.). These Turkish graphemes represent sounds similar to their respective values in German (see Turkish alphabet).
As the borrowed diacritic has lost its relationship to Germanic i - mutation, they are in some languages considered independent graphemes, and can not be replaced with ⟨ ae ⟩, ⟨ oe ⟩, or ⟨ ue ⟩ as in German. In Estonian and Finnish, for example, these latter diphthongs have independent meanings. Even some Germanic languages, such as Swedish (which does have a transformation analogous to the German umlaut, called omljud), treat them always as independent letters. In collation, this means they have their own positions in the alphabet, for example at the end ("A -- Ö '' or "A -- Ü '', not "A -- Z '') as in Swedish, Estonian and Finnish, which means that the dictionary order is different from German. The transformations ä → ae and ö → oe can, therefore, be considered less appropriate for these languages, although Swedish and Finnish passports use the transformation to render ö and ä (and å as aa) in the machine - readable zone. In contexts of technological limitation, e.g. in English based systems, Swedes can either be forced to omit the diacritics or use the two letter system.
When typing in Norwegian, the letters Æ and Ø might be replaced with Ä and Ö respectively if the former are not available. If ä is not available either, it is appropriate to use ae. The same goes for ö and oe. While ae has a great resemblance to the letter æ and, therefore, does not impede legibility, the digraph oe is likely to reduce the legibility of a Norwegian text. This especially applies to the digraph øy, which would be rendered in the more cryptic form oey. Also in Danish, Ö has been used in place of Ø in some older texts and to distinguish between open and closed ö - sounds and when confusion with other symbols could occur, e.g. on maps. The Danish / Norwegian Ø is like the German Ö a development of OE, to be compared with the French Œ.
Early Volapük used Fraktur a, o and u as different from Antiqua ones. Later, the Fraktur forms were replaced with umlauted vowels.
The usage of umlaut - like diacritic vowels, particularly ü, occurs in the transcription of languages that do not use the Roman alphabet, such as Chinese. For example, 女 (female) is transcribed as nǚ in proper Mandarin Chinese pinyin, while nv is sometimes used as a replacement for convenience since the letter v is not used in pinyin. Tibetan pinyin uses ä, ö, ü with approximately their German values.
The Cyrillic letters ӓ, ӧ, ӱ are used in Mari, Khanty, and other languages for approximately (æ), (ø), and (y). These directly parallel the German umlaut ä, ö, ü. Other vowels using a double dot to modify their values in various minority languages of Russia are ӛ, ӫ, and ӹ.
The umlaut diacritic can be used in "sensational spellings '' or foreign branding, for example in advertising, or for other special effects. Häagen - Dazs is an example of such usage.
A double dot is also used as a diacritic in cases where it functions as neither a diaeresis nor an umlaut. In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), a double dot is used for a centralized vowel, a situation more similar to umlaut than to diaeresis. In other languages it is used for vowel length, nasalization, tone, and various other uses where diaeresis or umlaut was available typographically. The IPA uses a double dot below letters to indicate a breathy - voice or murmur.
Jacaltec (a Mayan language) and Malagasy are among the very few languages with a diaeresis on the letter "n ''; in both, n̈ is the velar nasal (ŋ).
In Udmurt, a double dot is also used with the consonant letters ӝ (dʒ) (from ж (ʒ)), ӟ (dʑ) (from з (z) ~ (ʑ)) and ӵ (tʃ) (from ч (tɕ)).
Ḧ and ẍ are used for (ħ) and (ʁ) in the unified Kurdish alphabet. These are foreign sounds borrowed from Arabic.
Ẅ and ÿ: Ÿ is generally a vowel, but it is used as the (semi-vowel) consonant (ɰ) (a (w) without the use of the lips) in Tlingit. This sound is also found in Coast Tsimshian, where it is written ẅ.
A number of languages in Vanuatu use double dots on consonants, to represent linguolabial (or apicolabial) phonemes in their orthography. Thus Araki contrasts bilabial p (p) with linguolabial p̈ (t̼); bilabial m (m) with linguolabial m̈ (n̼); and bilabial v (β) with linguolabial v̈ (ð̼).
Seneca uses ⟨ s̈ ⟩ for (ʃ).
The letter ẗ is used in the ISO 233 transliteration of Arabic for tāʾ marbūṭah ة.
Syriac uses a two dots above a letter, called Siyame, to indicate that the word should be understood as plural. For instance, ܒܝܬܐ (bayta) means ' house ', while ܒܝ̈ܬܐ (bayte) means ' houses '. The sign is used especially when no vowel marks are present, which could differentiate between the two forms. Although the origin of the Siyame is different from that of the Diaeresis sign, in modern computer systems both are represented by the same Unicode character. This, however, often leads to wrong rendering of the Syriac text.
Character encoding generally treats the umlaut and the diaeresis as the same diacritic mark.
If letters with double dots are not present on the keyboard (or if they are not recognized by the operating system), there are a number of ways to input them into a computer system.
On Windows when using Microsoft Word or Outlook, a letter with double dots can be produced by pressing Ctrl - Shift -:, then the letter.
In some Linux desktop environments, a letter with double dots can be produced by pressing AltGr - Shift -:, then the letter
Using Mac OS or OS X, a letter with double dots can be produced by pressing ⌥ Option + U, then the letter. This works on English and other keyboards and is documented further in the supplied manuals.
X-based systems with a Compose key set in the system can usually insert characters with double dots by typing Compose, quotedbl (i.e. ") followed by the letter. Compose + ⇧ Shift, letter may also work, depending on the system 's set - up. However, most modern UNIX - like systems also accept the sequence Compose + ⇧ Shift + U to initiate the direct input of a Unicode value. Thus, typing Compose + ⇧ Shift + U, 00F6, finishing with Space or ↵ Enter, will insert ö into the document.
Microsoft Windows allows users to set their US layout keyboard language to International, which allows for something similar, by turning keys (rather characters) into dead keys. If the user enters ", nothing will appear on screen, until the user types another character, after which the characters will be merged if possible, or added independently at once if not.
On several operating systems, double - dotted letters can be written by entering Alt codes. On Microsoft Windows keyboard layouts that do not have double dotted characters, one can especially use Windows Alt keycodes. Double dots are then entered by pressing the left Alt key, and entering the full decimal value of the character 's position in the Windows code page on the numeric keypad, provided that the compatible code page is used as a system code page. One can also use numbers from Code page 850; these lack a leading 0. On a Swedish / Finnish keyboard both letters å, ä and ö are present, as well as _̈ to combine with any vowel character, in the same way as _́ ` ^ and ~ accentuation signs.
The early 21st century has seen noticeable growth in stylus - and touch - operated interfaces, making the use of on - screen keyboards operated by pointing devices (mouse, stylus, or finger) more important. These "soft '' keyboards may replicate the modifier keys found on hardware keyboards, but they may also employ other means of selecting options from a base key, such as right - click or press - and - hold. Soft keyboards may also have multiple contexts, such as letter, numeric, and symbol.
In Windows 8, the standard (but not extended) touch US keyboard allows entry of ä ë ï ö ü ẅ ÿ by holding the corresponding un-accented keys, and of spacing _̈ by holding ~ or ^. Upper - case equivalents are accessed with the Shift key, as would be expected.
iOS provides accented letters through press - and - hold on most European Latin - script keyboards, including English. Some keyboard layouts feature combining - accent keys that can add accents to any appropriate letter.
The German keyboard has dedicated keys for ü ö ä. Scandinavian and Turkish keyboards have dedicated keys for their respective language - specific letters, including ö for Swedish, Finnish, and Icelandic, and both ö and ü for Turkish.
For non-Latin scripts, Greek and Russian use press - and - hold for double - dot diacritics on only a few characters. The Greek keyboard has dialytica and dialytica -- tonos variants for upsilon and iota (ϋ ΰ ϊ ΐ), but not for ε ο α η ω, following modern monotonic usage. Russian keyboards feature separate keys for е and ё.
The ISO 8859 - 1 character encoding includes the letters ä, ë, ï, ö, ü, and their respective capital forms, as well as ÿ in lower case only, with Ÿ added in the revised edition ISO 8859 - 15 and Windows - 1252.
Unicode includes all of ISO - 8859 and also provides the double dot as U + 00A8 _̈ DIAERESIS and as U + 0308 ◌ ̈ COMBINING DIAERESIS. Mainly for compatibility with older character encodings, dozens of codepoints with letters with double dots are available.
Both the combining character U + 0308 and the precombined codepoints can be used as umlaut or diaeresis.
Sometimes, there 's a need to distinguish between the umlaut sign and the diaeresis sign. ISO / IEC JTC 1 / SC 2 / WG 2 recommends the following for these cases:
As of version 3.2. 0, Unicode also provides U + 0364 ◌ ͤ COMBINING LATIN SMALL LETTER E which can produce the older umlaut typography.
Unicode provides a combining double dot below as U + 0324 ◌ ̤ COMBINING DIAERESIS BELOW.
In HTML, vowels with double dots can be entered with an entity reference of the form &? uml;, where? can be any of a, e, i, o, u, y or their majuscule counterparts. With the exception of the uppercase Ÿ, these characters are also available in all of the ISO 8859 character sets and thus have the same codepoints in ISO - 8859 - 1 (- 2, - 3, - 4, - 9, - 10, - 13, - 14, - 15, - 16) and Unicode. The uppercase Ÿ is available in ISO 8859 - 15 and Unicode, and Unicode provides a number of other letters with double dots as well.
Note: when replacing umlaut characters with plain ASCII, use ae, oe, etc. for German language, and the simple character replacements for all other languages.
TeX (and its derivatives, most notably LaTeX) also allows double dots to be placed over letters. The standard way is to use the control sequence \ '' followed by the relevant letter, e.g. \ "u. It is good practice to set the sequence off with curly braces: (\ '' u) or \ "(u).
TeX 's "German '' package can be used: it adds the "control sequence (without the backslash) to produce the Umlaut. However, this can cause conflicts if the main language of the document is not German. Since the integration of Unicode through the development of XeTeX and XeLaTeX, it is also possible to input the Unicode character directly into the document, using one of the recognized methods such as Compose key or direct Unicode input.
TeX 's traditional control sequences can still be used and will produce the same output (in very early versions of TeX these sequences would produce double dots that were too far above the letter 's body).
All these methods can be used with all available font variations (italic, bold etc.).
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how deep is the blue lagoon in iceland | Blue Lagoon (geothermal spa) - wikipedia
The Blue Lagoon (Icelandic: Bláa lónið) geothermal spa is one of the most visited attractions in Iceland. The spa is located in a lava field in Grindavík on the Reykjanes Peninsula, southwestern Iceland in a location favourable for Geothermal power, and is supplied by water used in the nearby Svartsengi geothermal power station. Bláa lónið is situated approximately 20 km (12 mi) from the Keflavík International Airport and 39 km (24 mi) from the capital city of Reykjavík, roughly a 21 - minute drive from the airport and a 50 - minute drive from Reykjavík.
The warm waters are rich in minerals like silica and sulfur and bathing in the Blue Lagoon is reputed to help some people suffering from skin diseases such as psoriasis. The water temperature in the bathing and swimming area of the lagoon averages 37 -- 39 ° C (99 -- 102 ° F). The Blue Lagoon also operates a research and development facility to help find cures for other skin ailments using the mineral - rich water.
The lagoon is a man - made lagoon which is fed by the water output of the nearby geothermal power plant Svartsengi and is renewed every two days. Superheated water is vented from the ground near a lava flow and used to run turbines that generate electricity. After going through the turbines, the steam and hot water passes through a heat exchanger to provide heat for a municipal water heating system. Then the water is fed into the lagoon for recreational and medicinal users to bathe in.
Iceland has a strict code of hygiene and guests are required to shower prior to enjoying the geothermal spa. The communal showers are split up by gender.
Children age 8 and under are only allowed entry with the use of arm floaters, provided free of charge. The lagoon is not suitable for children under the age of 2 years.
The Blue Lagoon is accessible for wheelchair users with a ramp that extends into the water and a shower chair. There is also a private changing room available for those with special needs, complete with a roll - in shower.
The rich mineral content is provided by the underground geological layers and pushed up to the surface by the hot water (at about 1.2 MPa (170 psi) pressure and 240 ° C (464 ° F) temperature) used by the plant. Because of its mineral concentration, water can not be recycled and must be disposed of in the nearby landscape, a permeable lava field that varies in thickness from 50 cm (20 in) to 1 m (3.3 ft). The silicate minerals is the primary cause of that water 's milky blue shade. After the minerals have formed a deposit, the water reinfiltrates the ground, but the deposit renders it impermeable over time, hence the necessity for the plant to continuously dig new ponds in the nearby lava field.
A small experimental facility is still visible near the plant, where the engineers made decantation tests to evaluate the speed of mineral deposition, which is clearly a limiting factor both to the plant 's rentability and sustainability. Hence, geothermal energy exploitation at this location is not without environmental impact.
The Blue Lagoon was used as the pit stop for the first leg of The Amazing Race 6. The Blue Lagoon was used for the thermal spa scenes in the filming of Hostel: Part II. It was also shown in the Incubus documentary Look Alive, when the band visited Iceland, in the fifth cycle of Britain 's Next Top Model which used as photoshoot location as well as Keeping up with the Kardashians.
The Blue Lagoon is situated close to the world 's first renewable methanol plant, which uses Carbon Recycling International 's carbon dioxide to methanol fuel process.
In 1976, a pool formed at the site from the waste water of the geothermal power plant that had just been built there. In 1981, people started bathing in it after its supposed healing powers were popularized. In 1992, the Blue Lagoon company was established, and the bathing facility was opened for the public.
In recent years, several cosmetics companies have begun marketing skin care products using mud purportedly extracted from the Blue Lagoon, their effectiveness still subject to debate.
Coordinates: 63 ° 52 ′ 48 '' N 22 ° 26 ′ 53 '' W / 63.88000 ° N 22.44806 ° W / 63.88000; - 22.44806
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who plays the main character in pacific rim | Rinko Kikuchi - wikipedia
Rinko Kikuchi (菊地 凛子, Kikuchi Rinko) (born Yuriko Kikuchi (菊地 百合子, Kikuchi Yuriko); January 6, 1981) is a Japanese film actress. She was the first Japanese actress to be nominated for an Academy Award in 50 years, for her work in Babel (2006). Kikuchi 's other notable films include Norwegian Wood (2010), which screened in competition at the 67th Venice Film Festival and Guillermo del Toro 's science fiction action film Pacific Rim (2013). For her role in the drama film Kumiko, the Treasure Hunter (2014), Kikuchi received an Independent Spirit Award nomination for Best Female Lead.
Kikuchi was born on January 6, 1981, in Hadano, Kanagawa, the youngest of three children. She was discovered by a talent agent on the street at the age of 15.
Kikuchi made her debut in 1999, under her birth name, Yuriko Kikuchi, with the Kaneto Shindo film Will to Live. Soon after, in 2001, she starred in the celebrated Kazuyoshi Komuri film Sora no Ana (空 の 穴), which was featured at several international festivals, including the Rotterdam Film Festival. In 2004, Kikuchi appeared in the well - received Katsuhito Ishii film The Taste of Tea, which was selected for the Cannes Film Festival.
In 2006, Kikuchi was chosen by Japanese film producer Yoko Narahashi for the Alejandro González Iñárritu film Babel, where she played Chieko Wataya, a deaf - mute teenage girl, for which she received international attention including a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. She won several awards, such as the National Board of Review Award for Best Breakthrough Female Performance (tying with Jennifer Hudson) and the Gotham Award for Breakthrough Actor.
Kikuchi is the fifth actress in Academy Award history to be nominated for an award for a role in which she does not speak. She has appeared in two of Mamoru Oshii 's films: The Sky Crawlers (2008) and Assault Girls (2009). Kikuchi starred in Rian Johnson 's second film, The Brothers Bloom (2009), which was her first full English - language feature. Though she plays a main character, she only speaks three words; her character is said to only know three words of English.
In 2010, Kikuchi was cast as Naoko in Tran Anh Hung 's adaptation of Haruki Murakami 's novel Norwegian Wood. In March 2011, she was added to the cast of 47 Ronin, the first English - language adaptation of the Chushingura legend, Japan 's most famous tale of samurai loyalty and revenge. Kikuchi described her villain character to the American version of Glamour as "a real bitch. '' In 2013, she starred in the Guillermo del Toro film Pacific Rim, having improved her English by watching the American television series The Voice. In 2014, Kikuchi starred in Kumiko, the Treasure Hunter, directed by David Zellner. In 2018, Kikuchi joined the cast of the second season of HBO series Westworld.
Kikuchi married Japanese actor Shōta Sometani on December 31, 2014. In October 2016, Kikuchi gave birth to their first child.
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when were the hawaiian islands annexed by the united states | Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii - wikipedia
Hawaiian League / United States victory
The overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii began on January 17, 1893, with a coup d'état against Queen Liliuokalani on the island of Oahu by foreign residents residing in Honolulu, mostly United States citizens, and subjects of the Kingdom of Hawaii. They prevailed upon American minister John L. Stevens to call in the U.S. Marines to protect American interests, an action that effectively buttressed the rebellion. The revolutionaries established the Republic of Hawaii, but their ultimate goal was the annexation of the islands to the United States, which finally occurred in 1898.
The Kamehameha Dynasty was the reigning monarchy of the Kingdom of Hawaii, beginning with its founding by Kamehameha I in 1795, until the death of Kamehameha V in 1872 and Lunalilo in 1874. On July 6, 1846, U.S. Secretary of State John C. Calhoun, on behalf of President Tyler, afforded formal recognition of Hawaiian independence under the reign of Kamehameha III. As a result of the recognition of Hawaiian independence, the Hawaiian Kingdom entered into treaties with the major nations of the world and established over ninety legations and consulates in multiple seaports and cities. The kingdom would continue for another 21 years until its overthrow in 1893 with the fall of the House of Kalākaua.
Sugar had been a major export from Hawaii since Captain James Cook 's arrival in 1778. The first permanent plantation in the islands was on Kauai in 1835. William Hooper leased 980 acres of land from Kamehameha III and began growing sugar cane. Within thirty years there would be plantations on four of the main islands. Sugar had completely altered Hawaii 's economy.
American influence in Hawaiian government began with American - born plantation owners demanding a say in Kingdom politics. This was driven by missionary religion and the economics of the sugar industry. Pressure from these foreign born politicians was being felt by the King and chiefs with demands of land tenure. After the 1843 takeover by the British, Kamehameha III relented to the foreign advisors to private land demands with the Great Māhele, distributing the lands as pushed on heavily by the missionaries, including Gerrit P. Judd. During the 1850s, the U.S. import tariff on sugar from Hawaii was much higher than the import tariffs Hawaiians were charging the U.S., and Kamehameha III sought reciprocity. The monarch wished to lower the tariffs being paid out to the U.S. while still maintaining the Kingdom 's sovereignty and making Hawaiian sugar competitive with other foreign markets. In 1854 Kamehameha III proposed a policy of reciprocity between the countries but the proposal died in the U.S. Senate.
As early as 1873, a United States military commission recommended attempting to obtain Ford Island in exchange for the tax - free importation of sugar to the U.S. Major General John Schofield, U.S. commander of the military division of the Pacific, and Brevet Brigadier General Burton S. Alexander arrived in Hawaii to ascertain its defensive capabilities. American control of Hawaii was considered vital for the defense of the west coast of the United States, and they were especially interested in Pu'uloa, Pearl Harbor. The sale of one of Hawaii 's harbors was proposed by Charles Reed Bishop, a foreigner who had married into the Kamehameha family, had risen in the government to be Hawaiian Minister of Foreign Affairs, and owned a country home near Pu'uloa. He showed the two U.S. officers around the lochs, although his wife, Bernice Pauahi Bishop, privately disapproved of selling Hawaiian lands. As monarch, William Charles Lunalilo, was content to let Bishop run almost all business affairs but the ceding of lands would become unpopular with the native Hawaiians. Many islanders thought that all the islands, rather than just Pearl Harbor, might be lost and opposed any cession of land. By November 1873, Lunalilo canceled negotiations and returned to drinking, against his doctor 's advice; his health declined swiftly, and he died on February 3, 1874.
Lunalilo left no heirs. The legislature was empowered by the constitution to elect the monarch in these instances and chose David Kalākaua as the next monarch. The new ruler was pressured by the U.S. government to surrender Pearl Harbor to the Navy. Kalākaua was concerned that this would lead to annexation by the U.S. and to the contravention of the traditions of the Hawaiian people, who believed that the land (' Āina) was fertile, sacred, and not for sale to anyone. In 1874 through 1875, Kalākaua traveled to the United States for a state visit to Washington DC to help gain support for a new treaty. Congress agreed to the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 for seven years in exchange for Ford Island. After the treaty, sugar production expanded from 12,000 acres of farm land to 125,000 acres in 1891. At the end of the seven - year reciprocity agreement, the United States showed little interest in renewal.
On January 20, 1887, the United States began leasing Pearl Harbor. Shortly afterwards, a group of mostly non-Hawaiians calling themselves the Hawaiian Patriotic League began the Rebellion of 1887. They drafted their own constitution on July 6, 1887. The new constitution was written by Lorrin Thurston, the Hawaiian Minister of the Interior who used the Hawaiian militia as threat against Kalākaua. Kalākaua was forced under threat of assassination to dismiss his cabinet ministers and sign a new constitution which greatly lessened his power. It would become known as the "Bayonet Constitution '' due to the force used.
The Bayonet Constitution allowed the monarch to appoint cabinet ministers, but had stripped him of the power to dismiss them without approval from the Legislature. Eligibility to vote for the House of Nobles was also altered, stipulating that both candidates and voters were now required to own property valuing at least three thousand dollars, or have an annual income of no less than six hundred dollars. This resulted in disenfranchising two thirds of the native Hawaiians as well as other ethnic groups who had previously held the right to vote but were no longer able to meet the new voting requirements. This new constitution benefited the white, foreign plantation owners. With the legislature now responsible for naturalizing citizens, Americans and Europeans could retain their home country citizenship and vote as citizens of the kingdom. Along with voting privileges, Americans could now run for office and still retain their American citizenship, something not afforded in any other nation of the world and even allowed Americans to vote without becoming naturalized. Asian immigrants were completely shut out and were no longer able to acquire citizenship or vote at all.
The Wilcox Rebellion of 1888 was a plot to overthrow King David Kalākaua, king of Hawaii, and replace him with his sister in a coup d'état in response to increased political tension between the legislature and the king after the 1887 constitution. Kalākaua 's sister, Princess Lili ʻuokalani and his wife, Queen Kapiolani, returned from Queen Victoria 's Golden Jubilee immediately after news reached them in Great Britain.
Kalākaua 's distant cousin, a native Hawaiian officer and veteran of the Italian military, Robert William Wilcox returned to Hawaii at about the same time as Lili ʻuokalani in October 1887 when the funding for his study program stopped when the new constitution was signed. Wilcox, Charles B. Wilson, Princess Lili ʻuokalani, and Sam Nowlein plotted to overthrow King Kalākaua to replace him with his sister, Lili ʻuokalani. They had 300 Hawaiian conspirators hidden in ʻIolani Barracks and an alliance with the Royal Guard, but the plot was accidentally discovered in January 1888, less than 48 hours before the revolt would have been initiated. No one was prosecuted but Wilcox was exiled. So on February 11, 1888, Wilcox left Hawaii for San Francisco, intending to return to Italy with his wife.
Princess Lili ʻuokalani was offered the throne several times by the Missionary Party who had forced the Bayonet Constitution on her brother, but she believed she would become a powerless figurehead like her brother and rejected the offers outright.
In November 1889, Kalākaua traveled to San Francisco for his health, staying at the Palace Hotel. He died there on January 20, 1890. His sister Lili ʻuokalani assumed the throne in the middle of an economic crisis. The McKinley Act had crippled the Hawaiian sugar industry by removing the duties on sugar imports from other countries into the US, eliminating the previous Hawaiian advantage gained via the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875. Many Hawaii businesses and citizens felt pressure from the loss of revenue; in response Lili ʻuokalani proposed a lottery system to raise money for her government. Also proposed was a controversial opium licensing bill. Her ministers, and closest friends, were all opposed to this plan; they unsuccessfully tried to dissuade her from pursuing these initiatives, both of which came to be used against her in the brewing constitutional crisis.
Lili ʻuokalani 's chief desire was to restore power to the monarch by abrogating the 1887 Bayonet Constitution and promulgating a new one, an idea that seems to have been broadly supported by the Hawaiian population. The 1893 Constitution would have increased suffrage by reducing some property requirements, and eliminated the voting privileges extended to European and American residents. It would have disfranchised many resident European and American businessmen who were not citizens of Hawaii. The Queen toured several of the islands on horseback, talking to the people about her ideas and receiving overwhelming support, including a lengthy petition in support of a new constitution. However, when the Queen informed her cabinet of her plans, they withheld their support due to an understanding of what her opponents ' likely response to these plans would be.
Though there were threats to Hawaii 's sovereignty throughout the Kingdom 's history, it was not until the signing of the Bayonet Constitution in 1887 that this threat began to be realized. The precipitating event leading to the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii on January 17, 1893, was the attempt by Queen Lili ʻuokalani to promulgate a new constitution that would have strengthened the power of the monarch relative to the legislature, where Euro - American business elites held disproportionate power. The stated goals of the conspirators, who were non-native Hawaiian Kingdom subjects (five American nationals, one English national, and one German national) were to depose the queen, overthrow the monarchy, and seek Hawaii 's annexation to the United States.
The overthrow itself was started by newspaper publisher Lorrin Thurston, a Hawaiian subject and former Minister of the Interior who was the grandson of American missionaries, and formally led by the Chairman of the Committee of Safety, Henry E. Cooper, an American lawyer. They derived their support primarily from the American and European business class residing in Hawaii and other supporters of the Reform Party of the Hawaiian Kingdom. Most of the leaders of the Committee of Safety that deposed the queen were American and European citizens who were also Kingdom subjects. They included legislators, government officers, and a Supreme Court Justice of the Hawaiian Kingdom.
On January 16, the Marshal of the Kingdom, Charles B. Wilson was tipped off by detectives to the imminent planned overthrow. Wilson requested warrants to arrest the 13 - member council of the Committee of Safety, and put the Kingdom under martial law. Because the members had strong political ties with United States Government Minister John L. Stevens, the requests were repeatedly denied by Attorney General Arthur P. Peterson and the Queen 's cabinet, fearing if approved, the arrests would escalate the situation. After a failed negotiation with Thurston, Wilson began to collect his men for the confrontation. Wilson and Captain of the Royal Household Guard, Samuel Nowlein, had rallied a force of 496 men who were kept at hand to protect the Queen.
The events began on January 17, 1893, when John Good, a revolutionist, shot Leialoha, a native policeman who was trying to stop a wagon carrying weapons to the Honolulu Rifles, the paramilitary wing of the Committee of Safety led by Lorrin Thurston. The Committee of Safety feared the shooting would bring government forces to rout out the conspirators and stop the overthrow before it could begin. The Committee of Safety initiated the overthrow by organizing the Honolulu Rifles, consisting of approximately 1,500 armed local (non-native) men, under their leadership, intending to depose Queen Lili ʻuokalani. The Rifles garrisoned Ali'iolani Hale across the street from ʻIolani Palace and waited for the Queen 's response.
As these events were unfolding, the Committee of Safety expressed concern for the safety and property of American residents in Honolulu.
On January 17, 1893, the Chairman of the Committee of Safety, Henry E. Cooper, addressed a crowd assembled in front of ʻIolani Palace (the official royal residence) and read aloud a proclamation that formally deposed Queen Lili ʻuokalani, abolished the Hawaiian monarchy, and established a Provisional Government of Hawaii under President Sanford B. Dole.
The overthrow efforts were supported by United States Government Minister John L. Stevens with an invasion of U.S. Marines, who came ashore at the request of the conspirators. Advised about supposed threats to non-combatant American lives and property by the Committee of Safety, Stevens obliged their request and summoned a company of uniformed U.S. Marines from the USS Boston and 162 sailors to land on the Kingdom under orders of neutrality and take up positions at the U.S. Legation, Consulate, and Arion Hall on the afternoon of January 16, 1893.
The overthrow left the queen imprisoned in ʻIolani Palace under house arrest. The American sailors and Marines did not enter the Palace grounds or take over any buildings, and never fired a shot, but their presence served effectively in intimidating royalist defenders. Historian William Russ states, "the injunction to prevent fighting of any kind made it impossible for the monarchy to protect itself. '' Due to the Queen 's desire "to avoid any collision of armed forces, and perhaps the loss of life '' for her subjects and after some deliberation, at the urging of advisers and friends, the Queen ordered her forces to surrender. The Honolulu Rifles took over government buildings, disarmed the Royal Guard, and declared a provisional government.
According to the Queen 's Book, her friend and minister J.S. Walker "came and told me that he had come on a painful duty, that the opposition party had requested that I should abdicate. '' After consulting with her ministers, including Walker, the Queen concluded that "since the troops of the United States had been landed to support the revolutionists, by the order of the American minister, it would be impossible for us to make any resistance ''. Despite repeated claims that the overthrow was "bloodless '', the Queen 's Book notes that Lili ʻuokalani received "friends (who) expressed their sympathy in person; amongst these Mrs. J.S. Walker, who had lost her husband by the treatment he received from the hands of the insurgents. He was one of many who from persecution had succumbed to death. ''
Immediate annexation was prevented by the speech given by President Grover Cleveland to Congress at this time, in which he stated that:
... the military demonstration upon the soil of Honolulu was of itself an act of war; unless made either with the consent of the government of Hawaii or for the bona fide purpose of protecting the imperiled lives and property of citizens of the United States. But there is no pretense of any such consent on the part of the government of the queen... the existing government, instead of requesting the presence of an armed force, protested against it. There is as little basis for the pretense that forces were landed for the security of American life and property. If so, they would have been stationed in the vicinity of such property and so as to protect it, instead of at a distance and so as to command the Hawaiian Government Building and palace... When these armed men were landed, the city of Honolulu was in its customary orderly and peaceful condition...
The Republic of Hawaii was nonetheless declared in 1894 by the same parties which had established the provisional government. Among them were Lorrin A. Thurston, a drafter of the Bayonet Constitution, and Sanford Dole who appointed himself President of the forcibly instated Republic on July 4, 1894.
A provisional government was set up with the strong support of the Honolulu Rifles, a militia group who had defended the system of government promulgated by the Bayonet Constitution against the Wilcox rebellion of 1889.
The Queen 's statement yielding authority, on January 17, 1893, protested the overthrow:
I Lili ʻuokalani, by the Grace of God and under the Constitution of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Queen, do hereby solemnly protest against any and all acts done against myself and the Constitutional Government of the Hawaiian Kingdom by certain persons claiming to have established a Provisional Government of and for this Kingdom.
That I yield to the superior force of the United States of America whose Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency John L. Stevens, has caused United States troops to be landed at Honolulu and declared that he would support the Provisional Government.
Now to avoid any collision of armed forces, and perhaps the loss of life, I do this under protest and impelled by said force yield my authority until such time as the Government of the United States shall, upon facts being presented to it, undo the action of its representatives and reinstate me in the authority which I claim as the Constitutional Sovereign of the Hawaiian Islands.
On December 19, 1898 the queen would amend the declaration with the "Memorial of Queen Liliuokalani in relation to the Crown lands of Hawaii '', further protesting the overthrow and loss of property.
Newly inaugurated President Grover Cleveland called for an investigation into the overthrow. This investigation was conducted by former Congressman James Henderson Blount. Blount concluded in his report on July 17, 1893, "United States diplomatic and military representatives had abused their authority and were responsible for the change in government. '' Minister Stevens was recalled, and the military commander of forces in Hawai ʻi was forced to resign his commission. President Cleveland stated, "Substantial wrong has thus been done which a due regard for our national character as well as the rights of the injured people requires we should endeavor to repair the monarchy. '' Cleveland further stated in his 1893 State of the Union Address that, "Upon the facts developed it seemed to me the only honorable course for our Government to pursue was to undo the wrong that had been done by those representing us and to restore as far as practicable the status existing at the time of our forcible intervention. '' The matter was referred by Cleveland to Congress on December 18, 1893, after the Queen refused to accept amnesty for the traitors as a condition of reinstatement. Hawaii President Sanford Dole was presented a demand for reinstatement by Minister Willis, who had not realized Cleveland had already sent the matter to Congress -- Dole flatly refused Cleveland 's demands to reinstate the Queen.
The Senate Foreign Relations Committee, chaired by Senator John Tyler Morgan (D - Alabama) and composed mostly of senators in favor of annexation, initiated their own investigation to discredit Blount 's earlier report, using pro-annexationist affidavits from Hawaii, and testimony provided to the U.S. Senate in Washington, D.C. Not surprisingly, the Morgan Report contradicted the Blount Report, and exonerated Minister Stevens and the U.S. military troops finding them "not guilty '' of involvement in the overthrow. Cleveland became stalled with his earlier efforts to restore the queen, and adopted a position of recognition of the so - called Provisional Government and the Republic of Hawaii which followed.
The Native Hawaiian Study Commission of the United States Congress in its 1983 final report found no historical, legal, or moral obligation for the U.S. government to provide reparations, assistance, or group rights to Native Hawaiians.
In 1993, the 100th anniversary of the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii, Congress passed a resolution, which President Bill Clinton signed into law, offering an apology to Native Hawaiians on behalf of the United States for its involvement in the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii. This law is known as the Apology Resolution.
Every government with a diplomatic presence in Hawaii, except for the United Kingdom, recognized the Provisional Government within 48 hours of the overthrow via their consulates. Countries recognizing the new Provisional Government included Chile, Austria - Hungary, Mexico, Russia, the Netherlands, Imperial Germany, Sweden, Spain, Imperial Japan, Italy, Portugal, Denmark, Belgium, China, Peru, and France. When the Republic of Hawaii was declared on July 4, 1894, immediate de facto recognition was given by every nation with diplomatic relations with Hawaii, except for Britain, whose response came in November 1894.
A four - day uprising between January 6 and 9, 1895, began with an attempted coup d'état to restore the monarchy, and included battles between Royalists and the republican rebels. Later, after a weapons cache was found on the palace grounds after the attempted rebellion in 1895, Queen Lili ʻuokalani was placed under arrest, tried by a military tribunal of the Republic of Hawai ʻi, convicted of misprision of treason and imprisoned in her own home. On January 24, Lili ʻuokalani abdicated, formally ending the Hawaiian monarchy.
The Committee of Safety declared Sanford Dole to be President of the new Provisional Government of the Kingdom of Hawai ʻi on January 17, 1893, removing only the Queen, her cabinet, and her marshal from office. On July 4, 1894, the Republic of Hawai ʻi was proclaimed. Dole was president of both governments. As a republic, it was the intention of the government to campaign for annexation with the United States of America. The rationale behind annexation included a strong economic component -- Hawaiian goods and services exported to the mainland would not be subject to American tariffs, and would benefit from domestic bounties, if Hawaii was part of the United States.
In 1897, William McKinley succeeded Cleveland as president. A year later he signed the Newlands Resolution, which provided for the annexation of Hawaii on July 7, 1898. The formal ceremony marking the annexation was held at Iolani Palace on August 12, 1898. Almost no Native Hawaiians attended, and those few who were on the streets wore royalist ilima blossoms in their hats or hair, and, on their breasts Hawaiian flags with the motto: Kuu Hae Aloha ("my beloved flag ''). Most of the 40,000 Native Hawaiians, including Lili ʻuokalani and the royal family, shuttered themselves in their homes, protesting what they considered an illegal transaction. "When the news of Annexation came it was bitterer than death to me '', Liliʻuokalani 's niece, Princess Kaʻiulani, told the San Francisco Chronicle. "It was bad enough to lose the throne, but infinitely worse to have the flag go down. '' The Hawaiian flag was lowered for the last time while the Royal Hawaiian Band played the Hawaiian national anthem, Hawaiʻi Ponoʻī.
The Hawaiian Islands, together with the distant Palmyra Island and Stewart Islands, became the Territory of Hawaii, a United States territory, with a new government established on February 22, 1900. Sanford Dole was appointed as the first governor. ʻIolani Palace served as the capitol of the Hawaiian government until 1969.
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where did free rural mail delivery service begin in the us on october 1 1896 | Rural Free delivery - wikipedia
Rural Free Delivery (RFD) is a service which began in the United States in the late 19th century, to deliver mail directly to rural farm families. Prior to RFD, individuals living in more remote homesteads had to pick up mail themselves at sometimes distant post offices or pay private carriers for delivery. RFD became a political football, with politicians promising it to voters and using it themselves to reach voters. The proposal to offer free rural delivery was not universally embraced. Private carriers and local shopkeepers feared a loss of business. The United States Post Office Department began experiments with Rural Free Delivery as early as 1890. However, it was not until 1893, when Georgia Congressman Thomas E. Watson pushed through legislation, that the practice was mandated. However, universal implementation was slow; RFD was not adopted generally in the United States Post Office until 1902. The rural delivery service uses a network of rural routes traveled by carriers to deliver and pick up mail to and from roadside mailboxes.
Until the late 19th century, residents of rural areas had to either travel to a distant post office to pick up their mail, or else pay for delivery by a private carrier. Postmaster General John Wanamaker, owner of a major department store, was ardently in favor of Rural Free Delivery (RFD), with many thousands of Americans living in rural communities who wanted to send and receive retail orders inexpensively. However, the adoption of a nationwide RFD system had many opponents. Some were simply opposed to the cost of the service. Private express carriers thought inexpensive rural mail delivery would eliminate their business, and many town merchants worried the service would reduce farm families ' weekly visits to town to obtain goods and merchandise, or that mail order merchants selling through catalogs, such as Sears, Roebuck and Company might present significant competition.
Support for the introduction of a nationwide rural mail delivery service came from The National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry, the nation 's oldest agricultural organization.
Fayette County in east - central Indiana claims to be the birthplace of Rural Free Delivery. Milton Trusler, a leading farmer in the county, began advocating the idea in 1880; as the president of the Indiana Grange, he spoke to farmers statewide frequently over the following sixteen years.
The Post Office Department first experimented with the idea of rural mail delivery on October 1, 1891 to determine the viability of RFD. They began with five routes covering ten miles, 33 years after free delivery in cities had begun. The first routes to receive RFD during its experimental phase were in Jefferson County, West Virginia, near Charles Town, Halltown, and Uvilla.
Legislation by U.S. Congressman Thomas E. Watson of Georgia mandated the practice, and RFD finally became an official service in 1896. That year, 82 rural routes were put into operation. A massive undertaking, nationwide RFD service took several years to implement, and remains the "biggest and most expensive endeavor '' ever instituted by the U.S. postal service.
The service has grown steadily. By 1901, the mileage had increased to over 100,000; the cost was $1,750,321 and over 37,000 carriers were employed. In 1910 the mileage was 993,068; cost $36,915,000; carriers 40,997. In 1913 came the introduction of parcel post delivery, which caused another boom in rural deliveries. Parcel post service allowed the distribution of national newspapers and magazines, and was responsible for millions of dollars of sales in mail - order merchandise to customers in rural areas. In 1930 there were 43,278 rural routes serving about 6,875,321 families -- that is about 25,471,735 persons. The cost was $106,338,341. In 1916, the Rural Post "Good '' Roads Act authorized federal funds for rural post roads.
The following is a list of the first rural routes established in each state, along with the names of the (up to three) Post Offices served and the date of establishment.
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they don't know about us tracey ullman | They Do n't Know (Kirsty MacColl song) - wikipedia
"They Do n't Know '' is a song composed and first recorded in 1979 by Kirsty MacColl, which became a Top Ten hit via a 1983 recording by Tracey Ullman.
Recorded in Stiff Records mobile studio the China Shop in the spring of 1979, Kirsty MacColl 's original recording of "They Do n't Know '' "emphasized layered harmonies in which MacColl turns her own voice into a chorus of over-dubbed parts '' - an evocation of a long - standing admiration for the Beach Boys engendered at age 7 by hearing her brother 's copy of the "Good Vibrations '' single (MacColl quote: '' I played it so much he just said: ' Have it '... I played it incessantly for about twelve hours a day, working out all the different parts and harmonies. "). Besides the regular vinyl single release of 1 June 1979 a picture disc edition was issued 6 July 1979. The B - side to "They Do n't Know '' was MacColl 's recording of her composition "Turn My Motor On '' - some copies read "Motor On '' -, a setlist staple of Drug Addix, the band MacColl had recently left (consideration had been given to making "Turn My Motor On '' the A-side).
MacColl 's "They Do n't Know '' reached number two on the Music Week airplay chart without generating sufficient sales to reach the UK Singles Chart - a shortfall blamed on a strike at the distributors for Stiff Records keeping the single out of stores, although its producer Liam Sternberg attributes the failure of "They Do n't Know '' to ill feeling which developed between MacColl and Stiff Records president Dave Robinson: (Sternberg quote:) "Kirsty and Dave did n't get along... She did n't want to sign a longer deal, so Dave did n't promote the record. (Despite) airplay... they did n't press any more (so) no records (were) sold because there were no records out there. '' Promo copies of a followup single: "You Caught Me Out '', were pressed in October 1979 but Stiff opted to shelve the single, with MacColl 's first release subsequent to "They Do n't Know '' being her remake of "Keep Your Hands Off My Baby '' released in 1981 on Polydor.
MacColl 's version of "They Do n't Know '' would not make its album debut until 1995 on the singer 's retrospective album Galore.
In October of 1983 Tracey Ullman reached number two on the UK Singles Chart with her recording of "They Do n't Know '' for Stiff Records: the track would be included on Ullman 's debut album You Broke My Heart in 17 Places.
Well known in the UK as an actress / comedienne, Ullman had had a surprise Top Ten hit with her debut single "Breakaway '': Pete Waterman, whose Loose End Productions had recently provided Stiff with the Belle Stars hit singles, suggested to his friend Kirsty MacColl that she pitch her compositon "They Do n't Know '' for Ullman to record as a her second single.
The production of Ullman 's "They Do n't Know '' was credited to Peter Collins, Waterman 's Loose Ends partner: Waterman himself would hone the track, including having MacColl and Rosemary Robinson - the latter the wife of Stiff Records president Dave Robinson - (Pete Waterman quote:) "add Shangri - La - type backing vocals '', and having MacColl reprise her original "bay - ay - be-ee '' to intro the third verse (as Ullman had a limited high - end range).
Held off from the number one position on the UK singles charts dated the 15th and 22nd of October 1983 by "Karma Chameleon '' by Culture Club - the eventual number one single for the year, then in the fourth and fifth week of its six week number one tenure -, "They Do n't Know '' would be ranked at number 23 on the year - end tally of UK chart singles, and would afford Ullman a number one hit in Ireland for two weeks, also spending nine weeks at number one in Norway.
MTV - cofounder Robert Pittman saw the video made to promote Ullman 's "They Do n't Know '' (see section 3.3 below) and, despite Ullman having nil exposure in the US, Pittman invited her to be a guest MTV vj for the week of February 13 - 18 1984 with a resultant positive response which caused MCA Records to rush release "They Do n't Know '' as Ullman 's debut US single. to eventually reach number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 11 on the Adult Contemporary.
"They Do n't Know '' would be Ullman 's only Top 40 hit in the US: although she would have three more entries in the UK Top 30 - including the Top Ten hit "Move Over Darling '' - Ullman would in a 2017 Guardian interview answer the question: "If you could edit your past, what would you change? '' by saying: "I would have stopped making records after ' They Do n't Know '. ''
In 1997, "They Do n't Know '' became the theme song for the final three seasons of Ullman 's HBO television series Tracey Takes On... The Ullman version was also used as the theme for the opening credits of Our Nixon, a 2013 documentary about U.S. President Richard Nixon.
Although it has been alleged that Ullman 's version of "They Do n't Know '' utilizes the backing track of the Kirsty MacColl original version, Ullman 's recording - produced by Peter Collins - was in fact brand - new in all respects, noticeably differing from MacColl 's recording (produced by Liam Sternberg by being in a different key, and featuring a slightly faster tempo, a distinctly different arrangement and a guitar solo that differs substantially from the one played on MacColl 's version, which was. The confusion may stem from the fact that Ullman did use a previously - existing MacColl backing track when recording her own version of MacColl 's "Terry '' in 1984. (Both versions of "Terry '' were co-produced by MacColl.)
A video was filmed to promote Ullman 's version of "They Do n't Know '' in which Paul McCartney, then filming Give My Regards to Broad Street in which Ullman had a cameo role, appeared as himself. Directed by Stiff Records president Dave Robinson, the video for "They Do n't Know '' had a storyline devised by Ullman herself showing the song 's "protagonist 's bittersweet fidelity to a once idyllic love... sustained only by her fantasy life with Paul McCartney (concluding) with a pregnant Ullman grocery shopping and dance - dragging her pom - pom scuff slippers along with a resigned bravado. ''
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who won the 1983 ncaa men's basketball tournament | 1983 NCAA Division I Men 's basketball tournament - wikipedia
The 1983 NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament involved 52 schools playing in single - elimination play to determine the national champion of men 's NCAA Division I college basketball. It began on March 17, 1983, and ended with the championship game on April 4 at The Pit, then officially known as University Arena, on the campus of the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque. A total of 51 games were played.
North Carolina State, coached by Jim Valvano, won the national title with a 54 -- 52 victory in the final game over Houston, coached by Guy Lewis. The ending of the final game is one of the most famous in college basketball history, with a buzzer - beating dunk by Lorenzo Charles off a desperation pass from 30 feet out by Dereck Whittenburg.
Both Charles 's dunk and Valvano 's running around the court in celebration immediately after the game have been staples of NCAA tournament coverage ever since. North Carolina State 's victory has often been considered one of the greatest upsets in college basketball history, and is the fourth biggest point - spread upset in Championship Game history.
Akeem Olajuwon of Houston was named the tournament 's Most Outstanding Player, becoming the last player to date to earn this award while playing for a team that failed to win the national title.
In the final game, played in Albuquerque, New Mexico, NC State led at halftime by a score of 33 -- 25. Houston was hampered by foul trouble that plagued star Clyde Drexler, who picked up four first half fouls. In the second half, the Cougars came out with a second wind and established control of the game, eventually taking a seven - point lead.
However, things were not all good for Houston. Since the game was played in Albuquerque, players had to deal with the city 's mile - high altitude. The Cougars ' star center, Akeem Olajuwon, had problems adjusting to the environment and tired quickly, needing to check out of the game multiple times so he could put on an oxygen mask and recover. With Olajuwon on the bench, Houston head coach Guy Lewis decided that in order to protect the lead and the health of his big man at the same time, the Cougars needed to start slowing the game down.
Once again, this enabled the Wolfpack to return to their standby strategy of extending the game. Houston 's free throw shooting was very suspect entering the game, which worked greatly in NC State 's favor as they were able to rally back and even the score at 52 in the final two minutes. On what would be the last Houston possession, Valvano called for his players to back off and let freshman guard Alvin Franklin bring the ball up the court. The Wolfpack defenders would let the Cougars employ their slowdown strategy of passing it around. Once the ball got back to Franklin he was to be fouled immediately. With 1: 05 left, the freshman was fouled and sent to the line for a one - and - one. The idea to foul Franklin sprung from the enormity of the moment; NC State believed that the relatively inexperienced Franklin could not withstand the pressure of going to the line with the championship at stake and knowing that fifty million viewers were tuned in to watch the game. The theory proved correct as Franklin failed to convert and the Wolfpack grabbed the rebound. Valvano called timeout with 44 seconds left and drew up a play for senior guard Dereck Whittenburg during the timeout, which called for the team to pass him the ball with ten seconds left on the clock so he could take the final shot.
Houston needed a defensive stop so they could get another chance to close out the game. Lewis decided to move from the man - to - man defense his team had been running the whole game to a half court zone trap defense. The Wolfpack, who were not expecting the defensive adjustment, were forced to deviate and began passing the ball around just to keep the Cougars from stealing it. Houston nearly got the turnover it was looking for when Whittenburg made an errant pass to Gannon that Drexler nearly came away with before the sophomore regained control of the ball. The ball eventually wound up in the hands of guard Sidney Lowe, who gave it to forward and fellow senior Thurl Bailey in the corner.
Trying to keep the ball moving, as he had been double teamed as soon as he received the pass, Bailey looked back toward Whittenburg, who was approximately thirty feet away from the hoop near midcourt. Bailey threw what Whittenburg would later call a "poor fundamental '' overhanded pass which Houston 's Benny Anders, guarding Whittenburg on the play, was in position to steal. At this point, Whittenburg hearkened back to his high school days with Morgan Wootten at DeMatha Catholic High School, where he was taught to always catch the basketball with both hands. If Whittenburg had not attempted to do so in this case, Anders may have gotten the steal and a game - winning breakaway layup. In college basketball at the time, the game clock continued to run after a made field goal, and the Wolfpack likely would not have had time even to inbound the ball. As it was, Anders knocked the ball out of Whittenburg 's hands, but Whittenburg quickly regained control.
The clock, meanwhile, had ticked down to five seconds and Whittenburg was still standing a significant distance from the goal. Once he regained control, Whittenburg turned and launched a desperation shot, later claimed by Whittenburg to be a pass, to try and win the game for NC State. The shot 's trajectory took it to the front of the basket where Olajuwon was covering Wolfpack center Lorenzo Charles. As he watched the shot, Olajuwon said he knew the shot was going to come up short but he also did not want to go for the ball too early because of the potential for goaltending. Charles took advantage of the indecision by Olajuwon and went up for the air ball, and, in one motion, he scored the go - ahead points with a two - handed dunk. The final second ticked off the clock before Houston could inbound the ball, and with that, the game ended, and the Wolfpack were the national champions.
Albuquerque became the 20th host city, and The Pit the 21st host venue, for the Final Four. Albuquerque was the third smallest metropolitan area to host a Final Four, ahead of only Lexington and Greensboro. While it is not on the main campus of the University of New Mexico, the arena is part of the south campus of the school (which includes Dreamstyle Stadium, Santa Ana Star Field, and most other campus athletics facilities, as well as neighboring Isotopes Park), making this the last Final Four held on a campus of any kind. The 1983 tournament saw five new host cities - Boise, Evansville, Hartford, Syracuse and Tampa. Of the five, only Evansville has not repeated as a host city yet. The tournament also saw two venues returning after long absences, with Kansas City (first time since 1964) and Corvallis, Oregon (first time since 1967). While Kansas City, Kemper Arena and its successor venue the Sprint Center have continued to host tournament games, this would be the last time Corvallis has hosted since. Any future tournament games to be played in Tampa would be at the Amalie Arena or Tropicana Field.
* -- Denotes overtime period
The Louisville vs. Houston semi-final was a matchup of the # 1 vs. # 2 team. The # 1 ranked Houston Cougars (nicknamed Phi Slama Jama) vs. # 2 the Louisville Cardinals (nicknamed "The Doctors of Dunk '') was considered likely to produce the national champion. It featured two strong offensive teams that specialized in the slam dunk. Both teams put on a show of offense, with Houston winning out over Louisville 94 - 81. This would have been the biggest game of the tournament had it not been eclipsed by the North Carolina State win over Houston in the championship game.
Another historically significant game in this tournament was the Mideast Regional final between Kentucky and Louisville, in - state rivals that had not played one another in basketball since the 1959 NCAA tournament, and had not played in the regular season since 1922. After regulation time ended with Kentucky tying the game at the buzzer, Louisville dominated the overtime to advance to the Final Four. This result directly led to the start of the Battle for the Bluegrass annual basketball series between the two schools that November.
A historically significant run in the tournament was that of Georgia, who became the last team to date to advance to the Final Four in its first - ever NCAA Tournament appearance. But the N.C. State team led by Jim Valvano became the archetype of the "Cinderella team '', the underdog that many fans look to as a possible spoiler over top - ranked teams. This label has, since then, been applied to many programs, including Villanova in 1985, Gonzaga in 1999, George Mason in 2006, Butler in 2010 and 2011, VCU in 2011, and Wichita State in 2013. Not only did N.C. State beat Houston to win the championship, but they also beat # 1 seeded Virginia on their way to the Final Four. The Wolfpack did not assure themselves of a tournament bid until they upset Virginia in the championship game of the ACC tournament. North Carolina State became the first team in tournament history to win six games en route to the title (the tournament being 32 teams or less prior to 1979, and all champions from 1979 to 1982 had first - round byes).
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who was the last person to win the triple crown in major league baseball | List of Major League Baseball Batting champions - wikipedia
In baseball, batting average (AVG) is a measure of a batter 's success rate in achieving a hit during an at bat. In Major League Baseball (MLB), it is calculated by dividing a player 's hits by his at bats (AB). In MLB, a player in each league wins the "batting title '' each season for having the highest batting average that year. The American League (AL) winner is known as the "Rod Carew American League Batting Champion '', while the National League (NL) leader is designated the "Tony Gwynn National League Batting Champion ''. Under current rules, a player must have 3.1 plate appearances (PA) per team game (for a total of 502 over the current 162 - game season) to qualify for the batting title. However, if a player 's lead in AVG is sufficiently large that enough hitless at bats can be added to reach this requirement and the player still would have the highest batting average, he wins the title. Tony Gwynn, for example, had 159 hits in 451 ABs in 1996 (. 353 average) but only 498 PAs. Gwynn 's batting average would have dropped to. 349 (159 hits in 455 ABs) with four hitless ABs added to reach the 502 PA requirement, but this would still have been higher than the next - highest eligible player (. 344 average), so he was awarded the 1996 NL batting title.
The first batting average champion in the NL was Ross Barnes; in the league 's inaugural 1876 season, Barnes batted. 429 for the Chicago White Stockings. The AL was established in 1901, and Hall of Fame second baseman Nap Lajoie led that league with a. 426 average for the Philadelphia Athletics. Ty Cobb of the Detroit Tigers, who also holds the highest career batting average of. 366, led the AL in average in 11 (or 12) seasons. Honus Wagner and Gwynn are tied for the second-most titles, with eight apiece in the NL. It is unclear whether Lajoie or Cobb won the 1910 AL title, with some sources attributing the title to each man. If Cobb is credited with the 1910 title, he won 9 consecutive titles from 1907 to 1915 and 12 total titles for his career. Otherwise, Rogers Hornsby won the most consecutive titles, with six from 1920 to 1925. Without the 1910 title, Cobb still led the league in five consecutive seasons from 1911 to 1915. Cobb holds the record for highest average in two and three consecutive seasons (. 414 from 1911 to 1912 and. 408 from 1911 to 1913), but Hornsby holds the record for four and five consecutive seasons (. 404 from 1922 to 1925 and. 402 from 1921 to 1925). Wagner, Rod Carew, Wade Boggs, and Gwynn have each won four consecutive titles. Lajoie also had a streak of four league - leading seasons from 1901 to 1904 if he is credited with the contested AL title in 1902. At the 2016 MLB All - Star Game in San Diego, MLB announced that the AL and NL batting champions would henceforth be named in honor of Carew and Gwynn, respectively. Gwynn won all eight titles in the NL with the San Diego Padres, while Carew was a seven - time AL batting champion.
Barnes ' initial NL - leading average of. 4286 in 1876 set the single - season record which stood for a decade. Tip O'Neill topped this total with a. 4352 average in 1887 (that batting average had to be calculated without counting walks as hits, because of the walk - as - base - hit rule being in effect that year only), and Hugh Duffy set the current record mark in 1894 by posting a. 4397 batting average. Under the current 3.1 PA qualification, players have posted a. 400 batting average for a season 28 times. Ted Williams '. 4057 in 1941 is the most recent such season, one of 13 to occur since 1900. George Brett in 1980 is the only player to maintain a. 400 average into September since 1941. Additionally, only Brett and John Olerud in 1993 maintained such an average into August. With the modern scarcity of. 400 hitters, recent players who have been above. 400 early in the season, such as Chipper Jones in 2008, have drawn significant attention in the media. Brett 's. 390 in 1980 and Gwynn 's. 394 in 1994 are the only seasons in which a player reached. 390 since 1941. Carl Yastrzemski 's. 301 in the 1968 American League was the lowest batting average ever to lead a league. Willie Keeler 's 1897 and Zack Wheat 's 1918 are the only two title seasons in which the winner hit no home runs. Joe Mauer 's 2006 title made him the first catcher to ever win an AL batting title, and his third title in 2009 surpassed Ernie Lombardi 's previous record of two titles for a catcher in any league.
The closest finish in a batting race came in 1945 when Snuffy Stirnweiss batted. 309, topping Tony Cuccinello 's. 308 average for the American League title by. 00008. George Kell beat out Williams in 1949 by. 00015. The closest race in the National League came in 2003 when Albert Pujols held off Todd Helton on the last day of the season by. 00022. The closest National League race before that was in 1931 with Chick Hafey edging out Bill Terry by. 00028. Lajoie 's. 426 average in 1901 was 86 points higher than runner - up Mike Donlin 's. 340, the largest margin of victory for a batting champion. Cap Anson 's. 399 in 1881 was 71 points higher than Joe Start in 1881, the widest margin in the National League. No player has definitively won batting titles in both the American and National Leagues. However, Ed Delahanty has if he is credited with the disputed 1902 American League title, as he was also the 1899 National League champion. The only other player to win titles in multiple leagues was Pete Browning, who won American Association titles in 1882 and 1885, along with the lone Players ' League championship in 1890. Barnes and Deacon White each won National Association and National League titles, but the National Association is not regarded as an official league.
In 1990, Willie McGee posted a. 335 average over 542 at - bats in the NL before being traded to the AL on August 29. Although McGee finished the season in the AL, he had enough PA 's in the NL to qualify for the NL batting title, which he won narrowly over Eddie Murray 's. 330. However, McGee batted. 274 that season in the AL, bringing down his overall average to. 324 and allowing Murray to lead the majors in batting average.
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how many admirals does the us navy have | Admiral (United States) - wikipedia
Admiral (abbreviated as ADM) is a four - star commissioned naval flag officer rank in the United States Navy, the United States Coast Guard, and the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, with the pay grade of O - 10. Admiral ranks above vice admiral and below fleet admiral in the Navy; the Coast Guard and the Public Health Service do not have an established grade above admiral. Admiral is equivalent to the rank of general in the other uniformed services. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps has never had an officer hold the grade of admiral. However, 37 U.S.C. § 201 of the U.S. Code established the grade for the NOAA Corps, in case a position is created that merits the four - star grade.
Since the five - star grade of fleet admiral has not been used since 1946, the grade of admiral is effectively the highest appointment an officer can achieve in the United States Navy, the United States Coast Guard, and the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps.
The United States Navy did not have any admirals until 1862, because many people felt the title too reminiscent of royalty -- such as the British Royal Navy -- to be used in the country 's navy. Others saw the need for ranks above captain, among them John Paul Jones, who pointed out that the Navy had to have officers who "ranked '' with army generals. He also felt there must be ranks above captain to avoid disputes among senior captains. The various secretaries of the navy repeatedly recommended to Congress that admiral ranks be created because the other navies of the world used them and American senior officers were "often subjected to serious difficulties and embarrassments in the interchange of civilities with those of other nations. '' Congress finally authorized nine rear admirals on July 16, 1862, although that was probably more for the needs of the rapidly expanding navy during the American Civil War than any international considerations. Two years later Congress authorized the appointment of a vice admiral from among the nine rear admirals: David Farragut. Another bill allowed the President of the United States to appoint Farragut to admiral on July 25, 1866, and David Dixon Porter to vice admiral. When Farragut died in 1870, Porter became admiral and Stephen C. Rowan was promoted to vice admiral. Even after they died, Congress did not allow the promotion of any of the rear admirals to succeed them, so there were no more admirals or vice admirals by promotion until 1915 when Congress authorized an admiral and a vice admiral each for the Atlantic, Pacific and Asiatic Fleets.
There was one admiral in the interim, however. In 1899, Congress recognized George Dewey 's accomplishments during the Spanish -- American War by authorizing the President to appoint him Admiral of the Navy. He held that rank until he died in 1917. Nobody has since held that title. In 1944, Congress approved the five - star grade of fleet admiral. The first to hold it were William D. Leahy, Ernest J. King, and Chester W. Nimitz. The Senate confirmed their appointments December 15, 1944. Fleet Admiral William F. Halsey got his fifth star in December 1945. None have been appointed since.
The sleeve stripes now used by admirals and vice admirals in the United States date from March 11, 1869, when General Order Number 90 specified that for their "undress '' uniforms admirals would wear a two - inch stripe with three half - inch stripes above it and vice admirals the two - inch stripe with two half - inch stripes above it. The rear admiral got his two - inch stripe and one half - inch stripe in 1866.
The sleeve stripes had been more elaborate. When the rear admiral rank started in 1862 the sleeve arrangement was three stripes of three - quarter - inch lace alternating with three stripes of quarter - inch lace. It was some ten inches from top to bottom. The vice admiral, of course, had even more stripes and when Farragut became admiral in 1866, he had so many stripes they reached from his cuffs almost to his elbow. On their dress uniforms the admirals wore bands of gold embroidery of live oak leaves and acorns.
The admirals of the 1860s wore the same number of stars on their shoulders as admirals of corresponding grades do today. In 1899, the navy 's one admiral (Dewey) and 18 rear admirals put on the new shoulder marks, as did the other officers when wearing their white uniforms, but kept their stars instead of repeating the sleeve cuff stripes.
During the 20th century, the ranks of the modern U.S. admiralty were firmly established. An oddity that did exist was that the navy did not have a one - star rank except briefly during World War II when Congress established a temporary war rank of commodore. The one - star rank was later established permanently in 1986.
U.S. law limits the number of four - star admirals that may be on active duty at any time. The total number of active - duty flag officers is capped at 160 for the Navy. For the Army, Navy, and Air Force, no more than about 25 % of the service 's active - duty general or flag officers may have more than two stars, and statute sets the total number of four - star officers allowed in each service. This is set at 6 four - star Navy admirals.
Some of these slots are reserved by statute. For the Navy, the chief of naval operations, vice chief of naval operations; for the Coast Guard the commandant of the coast guard and vice commandant of the coast guard are admirals; for the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, the Assistant Secretary for Health is an admiral if he or she holds an appointment to the regular corps.
There are several exceptions to these limits allowing more than allotted within the statute. A Navy admiral serving as Chairman or Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff does not count against the Navy 's flag - officer cap. A Navy admiral serving in one of several joint positions does not count against his or her service 's four - star limit; these positions include the commander of a unified combatant command, the commander of U.S. Forces Korea, and the deputy commander of U.S. European Command but only if the commander of that command is also the Supreme Allied Commander, Europe. Officers serving in certain intelligence positions are not counted against either limit, including the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. The President may also add admirals to the Navy if they are offset by removing an equivalent number of four - stars from other services. Finally, all statutory limits may be waived at the President 's discretion during time of war or national emergency.
Four - star grades go hand - in - hand with the positions of office they are linked to, so these ranks are temporary. Officers may only achieve four - star grade if they are appointed to positions that require the officer to hold such a rank. Their rank expires with the expiration of their term of office, which is usually set by statute. Admirals are nominated for appointment by the President from any eligible officers holding the rank of rear admiral (lower half) or above, who also meets the requirements for the position, under the advice and / or suggestion of their respective department secretary, service secretary, and if applicable the joint chiefs. For some specific positions, statute allows the President to waive those requirements for a nominee whom he deems would serve national interests. The nominee must be confirmed via majority vote by the Senate before the appointee can take office and thus assume the rank. The standard tour length for most four - star positions is three years, bundled as a two - year term plus a one - year extension, with the following exceptions:
Extensions of the standard tour length can be approved, within statutory limits, by their respective service secretaries, the secretary of defense, the President, and / or Congress but these are rare, as they block other officers from being promoted. Some statutory limits under the U.S. Code can be waived in times of national emergency or war. Admiral ranks may also be given by act of Congress but this is extremely rare.
Other than voluntary retirement, statute sets a number of mandates for retirement. Four - star officers must retire after 40 years of service unless reappointed to grade to serve longer. Otherwise all flag officers must retire the month after their 64th birthday. However, the secretary of defense can defer a four - star officer 's retirement until the officer 's 66th birthday and the President can defer it until the officer 's 68th birthday.
Flag officers typically retire well in advance of the statutory age and service limits, so as not to impede the upward career mobility of their juniors. Since there are a limited number of four - star slots available to each service, typically one officer must leave office before another can be promoted. Maintaining a four - star rank is a game of musical chairs; once an officer vacates a position bearing that rank, he or she has no more than 60 days to be appointed or reappointed to a position of equal importance before he or she must involuntarily retire. Historically, officers leaving four - star positions were allowed to revert to their permanent two - star ranks to mark time in lesser jobs until statutory retirement, but now such officers are expected to retire immediately to avoid obstructing the promotion flow.
U.S. Navy, U.S. Coast Guard, USPHSCC, NOAACOC insignia
A U.S. Coast Guard admiral 's flag (unrestricted line officer)
The stars, shoulder boards, and sleeve stripes of a U.S. Coast Guard admiral
The stars, shoulder boards, and sleeve stripes of a U.S. Public Health Service admiral
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when was season 4 of jane the virgin filmed | Jane the Virgin (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth season of Jane the Virgin aired on The CW from October 13, 2017 to April 20, 2018. The season consisted of 17 episodes and stars Gina Rodriguez as a young Latina university student accidentally artificially inseminated with sperm from her boss, Rafael Solano (Justin Baldoni). In this season, Jane deals with her romantic feelings for Rafael while reuniting with an ex-boyfriend while Rafael loses ownership of the Marbella and gets back together with his ex-wife, Petra Solano (Yael Grobglas). Also, Rogelio de la Vega (Jaime Camil), Jane 's father, is expecting a baby with an ex-girlfriend and marries Jane 's mother, Xiomara Villanueva (Andrea Navedo).
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who sings so nice to be with you | Nice to Be With You - Wikipedia
"Nice to Be With You '' is a 1972 song by Gallery, written by Jim Gold. It became an international Top 5 hit, reaching # 4 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and # 1 on the U.S. Cash Box Top 100. It also reached # 1 in Canada. The song reached # 4 in Australia and # 2 in New Zealand. It became a gold record.
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who is likely to bear the greater burden of a tax is placed on medicine | Tax incidence - wikipedia
In economics, tax incidence or tax burden is the analysis of the effect of a particular tax on the distribution of economic welfare. The introduction of a tax drives a wedge between the price consumers pay and the price producers receive for a product, which typically imposes an economic burden on both producers and consumers. The concept was brought to attention by the French Physiocrats, in particular François Quesnay, who argued that the incidence of all taxation falls ultimately on landowners and is at the expense of land rent. Tax incidence is said to "fall '' upon the group that ultimately bears the burden of, or ultimately has to pay, the tax. The key concept is that the tax incidence or tax burden does not depend on where the revenue is collected, but on the price elasticity of demand and price elasticity of supply.
The theory of tax incidence has a number of practical results. For example, United States Social Security payroll taxes are paid half by the employee and half by the employer. However, some economists think that the worker bears almost the entire burden of the tax because the employer passes the tax on in the form of lower wages. The tax incidence is thus said to fall on the employee. However, it could equally well be argued that in some cases the incidence of the tax falls on the employer. This is because both the price elasticity of demand and price elasticity of supply affect on whom the incidence of the tax falls. Price controls such as the minimum wage which sets a price floor and market distortions such as subsidies or welfare payments also complicate the analysis.
Imagine a $1 tax on every barrel of apples an apple farmer produces. If the product (apples) is price inelastic to the consumer the farmer is able to pass the entire tax on to consumers of apples by raising the price by $1. In this example, consumers bear the entire burden of the tax; the tax incidence falls on consumers. On the other hand, if the apple farmer is unable to raise prices because the product is price elastic the farmer has to bear the burden of the tax or face decreased revenues: the tax incidence falls on the farmer. If the apple farmer can raise prices by an amount less than $1, then consumers and the farmer are sharing the tax burden. When the tax incidence falls on the farmer, this burden will typically flow back to owners of the relevant factors of production, including agricultural land and employee wages.
Where the tax incidence falls depends (in the short run) on the price elasticity of demand and price elasticity of supply. Tax incidence falls mostly upon the group that responds least to price (the group that has the most inelastic price - quantity curve). If the demand curve is inelastic relative to the supply curve the tax will be disproportionately borne by the buyer rather than the seller. If the demand curve is elastic relative to the supply curve, the tax will be born disproportionately by the seller. If PED = PES the tax burden is split equally between buyer and seller.
Tax incidence can be calculated using the pass - through fraction. The pass - through fraction for buyers is PES / (PES - PED). So if PED for apples is - 0.4 and PES is 0.5 then the pass - through fraction to buyer would be calculated as follows: PES / (PES - PED) = 0.5 / (0.5 - (-. 0.4)) = 0.5 / 0.9 = 56 %. 56 % of any tax increase would be "paid '' by the buyer; 44 % would be "paid '' by the seller. From the perspective of the seller, the formula is - PED / (PES - PED) = - (- 0.4) / (0.5 - (- 0.4)) = 0.4 ∕. 9 = 44 %
Because the producer is perfectly inelastic, they will produce the same quantity no matter the price. Because the consumer is elastic, the consumer is very sensitive to price. A small increase in price leads to a large drop in the quantity demanded. The imposition of the tax causes the market price to increase from P without tax to P with tax and the quantity demanded to fall from Q without tax to Q with tax. Because the consumer is elastic, the quantity change is significant. Because the producer is inelastic, the price does n't change much. The producer is unable to pass the tax onto the consumer and the tax incidence falls on the producer. In this example, the tax is collected from the producer and the producer bears the tax burden. This is known as back shifting. Tax incidence or burden does not in any way depend on where the revenue has been collected. It rather depends on the price elasticity of demand as well as the price elasticity of the supply. Tax burden as seen refers to the people who pay the taxes whether producer or consumer and considers the societal effects that result. It is said to fall entirely on the group that bears the burden or who has to pay the tax.
If, in contrast to the previous example, the producer is perfectly inelastic, he will continue producing the same quantity no matter the price. In case that the consumer is elastic; the consumer becomes very sensitive and weary of the price (Melville 24). A small increase in the price of something leads to a large drop in the quantity that is being demanded. The imposition of taxes causes the market price to have an increase from P without taxes. It rises to P with taxes. In most markets, elasticities of the supply and demand are similar to the short - run and result in the burden of the taxes that has been imposed. The tax that has been imposed is shared between two groups and in varying proportions. In general, the group that will have a greater tax burden is the one that exhibits greater relative inelasticity (Prasad 49). When there is an increase in elasticity in one place, the demand for the quantity changes so that it can suit the different needs that have been set by the tax burden. Tax burden, therefore, varies a lot with elasticity in materials.
Most markets fall between these two extremes, and ultimately the incidence of tax is shared between producers and consumers in varying proportions. In this example, the consumers pay more than the producers, but not all of the tax. The area paid by consumers is obvious as the change in equilibrium price (between P without tax and P with tax); the remainder, being the difference between the new price and the cost of production at that quantity, is paid by the producers.
The supply and demand for a good is deeply intertwined with the markets for the factors of production and for alternate goods and services that might be produced or consumed. Although legislators might be seeking to tax the apple industry, in reality it could turn out to be truck drivers who are hardest hit, if apple companies shift toward shipping by rail in response to their new cost. Or perhaps orange manufacturers will be the group most affected, if consumers decide to forgo oranges to maintain their previous level of apples at the now higher price. Ultimately, the burden of the tax falls on people -- the owners, customers, or workers.
However, the true burden of the tax can not be properly assessed without knowing the use of the tax revenues. If the tax proceeds are employed in a manner that benefits owners more than producers and consumers then the burden of the tax will fall on producers and consumers. If the proceeds of the tax are used in a way that benefits producers and consumers, then owners suffer the tax burden. These are class distinctions concerning the distribution of costs and are not addressed in current tax incidence models. The US military offers major benefit to owners who produce offshore. Yet the tax levy to support this effort falls primarily on American producers and consumers. Corporations simply move out of the tax jurisdiction but still receive the property rights enforcement that is the mainstay of their income.
Consider a 7 % import tax applied equally to all imports (oil, autos, hula hoops, and brake rotors; steel, grain, everything) and a direct refund of every penny of collected revenue in the form of a direct egalitarian "Citizen 's Dividend '' to every person who files Income Tax returns. At the macro level (aggregate) the people as a whole will break even. But the people who consume foreign produced goods will bear more of the burden than the people who consume a mix of goods. The people who consume no foreign goods will bear none of the burden and actually receive an increase in utility. On the producer side, the tax burden distribution will depend on whether a firm produces its goods within the sovereignty or outside the sovereignty. Firms that produce goods inside the sovereignty will increase their market share and their profits when compared to firms who offshore their production. And if the current mix of firms is tilted toward offshore production then the owners of firms will be burdened more than the consumers while the workers / employees will benefit from greater employment opportunities.
A country or state 's tax burden as a percentage of GDP is the ratio of tax collection against the national gross domestic product (GDP). This is one way of illustrating how high and broad the tax base is in any particular place. Some countries, like Sweden, have a high tax - to - GDP ratio (as high as 54 %). Other countries, like India, have a low ratio. Some states increase the tax - to - GDP ratio by a certain percentage in order to cover deficiencies in the state budget revenue. In states where the tax revenue has gone up significantly, the percentage of tax revenue that is applied towards state revenue and foreign debt is sometimes higher. When tax revenues grow at a slower rate than the GDP of a country, the tax - to - GDP ratio drops. Taxes paid by individuals and corporations often account for the majority of tax receipts, especially in developed countries.
The burden from taxation is not just the quantity of tax paid (directly or indirectly), but the magnitude of the lost consumer surplus or producer surplus. The concepts are related but different. For example, imposing a $1000 per gallon of milk tax will raise no revenue (because legal milk production will stop), but this tax will cause substantial economic harm (lost consumer surplus and lost producer surplus). When examining tax incidence, it is the lost consumer and producer surplus that is important. See the tax article for more discussion.
The theory of tax incidence has a large number of practical results, although economists dispute the magnitude and significance of these results:
Assessing tax incidence is a major economics subfield within the field of public finance.
Most public finance economists acknowledge that nominal tax incidence (i.e. who writes the check to pay a tax) is not necessarily identical to actual economic burden of the tax, but disagree greatly among themselves on the extent to which market forces disturb the nominal tax incidence of various types of taxes in various circumstances.
The effects of certain kinds of taxes, for example, the property tax, including their economic incidence, efficiency properties and distributional implications, have been the subject of a long and contentious debate among economists.
The empirical evidence tends support different economic models under different circumstances. For example, empirical evidence on property tax incidents tends to support one economic model, known as the "benefit tax '' view in suburban areas, while tending to support another economic model, known as the "capital tax '' view in urban and rural areas.
There is an inherent conflict in any model between considering many factors, which complicates the model and makes it hard to apply, and using a simple model, which may limit the circumstances in which its predictions are empirically useful.
Lower and higher taxes were tested in the United States from 1980 to 2010 and it was found that the periods of greatest economic growth occurred during periods of higher taxation. This does not prove causation. It is possible that the time of higher economic growth provided government with more leeway to impose higher taxes.
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do i need a visa for east timor | Visa policy of East Timor - wikipedia
Visa policy of East Timor differentiates between several different groups of passengers and arrival points. In accordance with the law, citizens of all countries except Cape Verde and the Schengen Area must obtain a visa upon arrival or prior to arrival.
There is also a visa exemption for holders of diplomatic or service passports of China.
All visitors (except for citizens of Indonesia who can apply on arrival at any border post) arriving at a land border post must apply in advance for a Visa Application Authorization which is then presented to an immigration official at the border. If other conditions are met a single or multiple entry visa valid for up to 90 days is granted for a fee of US $30.
Visitors may apply for visa on arrival at the Presidente Nicolau Lobato International Airport or at the Dili Sea Port. If other conditions are met a single entry visa valid for up to 30 days is granted for a fee of US $30. Transit visas are available for stays less than 3 days for a fee of US $20. There is no transit without a visa option in East Timor.
Visa application may also be submitted online or at one of the East Timor diplomatic missions prior to arrival.
Aside from holding a passport valid for not less than 6 months from the date of entry all travellers also must meet strict conditions to be allowed entry to East Timor:
All nationals with a visa may extend their stay to a total cumulative stay of 90 days by submitting their application to the Immigration Department. The fees are US $35 for a 30 - day extension, or US $75 for an extension between 30 and 60 days.
Most visitors arriving to East Timor by air were from the following countries of nationality:
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai peninsula. Partially recognized.
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how many movies of the hunger games will there be | The Hunger Games (film series) - wikipedia
The Hunger Games film series consists of four science fiction dystopian adventure films based on The Hunger Games trilogy of novels, by the American author Suzanne Collins. Distributed by Lionsgate and produced by Nina Jacobson and Jon Kilik, it stars Jennifer Lawrence as Katniss Everdeen, Josh Hutcherson as Peeta Mellark, Woody Harrelson as Haymitch Abernathy, Elizabeth Banks as Effie Trinket, Philip Seymour Hoffman as Plutarch Heavensbee, Stanley Tucci as Caesar Flickerman, Donald Sutherland as President Snow and Liam Hemsworth as Gale Hawthorne. Gary Ross directed the first film, while Francis Lawrence directed the next three films.
The first three films set records at the box office. The Hunger Games (2012) set records for the opening day and the biggest opening weekend for a non-sequel film. The Hunger Games: Catching Fire (2013) set the record for biggest opening weekend in the month of November. The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1 (2014) had the largest opening day and weekend of 2014. The films, including The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 2 (2015), received a positive reception from critics, with praise aimed at its themes and messages, as well as Jennifer Lawrence 's portrayal of the main protagonist, Katniss Everdeen.
The Hunger Games is the 18th highest - grossing film franchise of all time, having grossed over US $2.9 billion worldwide.
Following the release of Suzanne Collins ' novel The Hunger Games, on September 14, 2008, Hollywood film studios began looking to adapt the book into film. In March 2009, Color Force, an independent studio founded by producer Nina Jacobson, bought the film rights to the book. Jacobson then sought out production company Lionsgate to help her produce the film. Collins was also attached to adapt the novel; she began the first draft after completing the third novel in the series, Mockingjay (2010). The search for a director began in 2010 with three directors in the running; David Slade, Sam Mendes, and Gary Ross. Ross was ultimately chosen to direct. By the time Collins had finished the script, Ross decided to go through the script with Collins and screenwriter Billy Ray.
In October 2010, scripts were sent to the actors, and casting occurred between March and May 2011. The first role cast was of the protagonist, Katniss Everdeen. As many as 30 actresses were in talks to play the part, with Jennifer Lawrence, Hailee Steinfeld, Abigail Breslin, and Chloë Grace Moretz being mentioned most. The role was given to Lawrence.
The roles of Peeta Mellark, Katniss ' fellow tribute, and Gale Hawthorne, her best friend, began casting later that month. Top contenders for Peeta included Josh Hutcherson, Alexander Ludwig (later cast as Cato), Hunter Parrish, Evan Peters, and Lucas Till. Contenders for Gale included Robbie Amell, Liam Hemsworth, David Henrie, and Drew Roy. On April 4, it was reported that Hemsworth had been cast as Gale, and Hutcherson had been cast as Peeta.
Filming for the franchise began on May 23, 2011 and finished on June 20, 2014.
Suzanne Collins and Louise Rosner acted as executive producers on the first two films. Other executive producers of the first film include Robin Bissell and Shantal Feghali. Co-producers are Diana Alvarez, Martin Cohen, Louis Phillips, Bryan Unkeless, and Aldric La'auli Porter. Color Force and Lionsgate collaborated on all four films. It was announced on November 1, 2012 that the studio had decided to split the final book, Mockingjay (2010), into two films: The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1 (2014) and The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 2 (2015), much like Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 1 (2010) and 2 (2011), and The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 1 (2011) and 2 (2012).
Gary Ross directed the first film (The Hunger Games), and despite initially stating otherwise on April 10, 2012, Lionsgate announced that Ross would not return to direct the sequel. On April 19, 2012, it was confirmed that Francis Lawrence would direct the sequel instead, and on November 1, 2012, it was confirmed that he would return and direct the final two films in the series, based on the novel Mockingjay.
Suzanne Collins began adapting the first book to film after she finished writing Mockingjay. Collins had experience in writing screenplays after writing Clifford 's Puppy Days and other children 's television shows. When Gary Ross was announced as director for the film in 2010, he began to work with Collins and veteran writer Billy Ray to bring the novel to life. The script was large and resulted in a two - hour and 20 minute film.
After Francis Lawrence took over as director, he brought in Simon Beaufoy and Michael Arndt to write the script for Catching Fire.
The final two films of the series were written by Danny Strong and Peter Craig.
Once the three leads were cast, casting shifted to the other tributes. Jack Quaid was cast as Marvel, Leven Rambin as Glimmer, Amandla Stenberg as Rue, and Dayo Okeniyi as Thresh. Alexander Ludwig (who auditioned for Peeta) was cast as Cato, Isabelle Fuhrman (who auditioned for Katniss) as Clove, and Jacqueline Emerson as Foxface. Following the casting of tributes, the adult cast began to come together. Elizabeth Banks was cast as Effie Trinket, the District 12 escort. Woody Harrelson was cast as Haymitch Abernathy, District 12 's mentor. Lenny Kravitz was cast as Cinna, Katniss ' stylist. Wes Bentley was cast as game maker Seneca Crane. Stanley Tucci was cast as Caesar Flickerman, Panem 's celebrity host. Donald Sutherland was cast as Coriolanus Snow, Panem 's President. Willow Shields was cast as Primrose Everdeen, Katniss ' younger sister.
In July 2012, the cast for the second film was announced. Jena Malone would play Johanna Mason. Philip Seymour Hoffman would play Plutarch Heavensbee, Sam Claflin would play Finnick Odair. It was later announced that Jeffrey Wright was cast as Beetee, Alan Ritchson as Gloss, Lynn Cohen as Mags, and Amanda Plummer as Wiress.
In August and September 2013, it was revealed that Stef Dawson would play Annie Cresta, Natalie Dormer would play Cressida, Evan Ross would play Messalla, and Julianne Moore would play President Alma Coin in the final two films.
Principal photography for The Hunger Games began on May 24, 2011 and concluded on September 15, 2011. The entirety of filming for the first movie took place in North Carolina including the following cities; Asheville, Barnardsville, Black Mountain, Cedar Mountain, Charlotte, Concord, Hildebran and Shelby. All of the Games scenes were filmed on location. All of the Capitol scenes were filmed in a studio in Shelby and Charlotte, North Carolina.
Principal photography for The Hunger Games: Catching Fire began on September 10, 2012 in Atlanta, Georgia and concluded in April 2013. In November 2012, production moved to Hawaii to film the arena scenes. Filming took a Christmas break before filming resumed for two weeks in mid-January. In March 2013, the film went back to Hawaii for re-shoots. Atlanta was used for all the Capitol scenes, Hawaii for the arena scenes, and Oakland, New Jersey for District 12 scenes.
Principal photography for The Hunger Games: Mockingjay began on September 23, 2013 and concluded on June 20, 2014. The majority of filming for the Mockingjay films was filmed in soundstages in a studio in Atlanta, until April 18, 2014. Production then moved to Paris, France, with filming beginning there on May 5, 2014.
Philip Seymour Hoffman, who portrays Plutarch Heavensbee, was found dead on February 2, 2014. At the time of his death, he had completed filming his scenes for The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1 and had a week left of shooting for Part 2. Lionsgate released a statement stating that, since the majority of Hoffman 's scenes were completed, the release date for Part 2 would not be affected.
Every year, in the ruins of what was once North America, the Capitol of the nation of Panem forces each of its 12 districts to send a teenage boy and girl, between the ages of 12 and 18, to compete in the Hunger Games: a nationally televised event in which ' tributes ' fight each other within an arena, until one survivor remains. When Primrose Everdeen is ' reaped ', her older sister Katniss Everdeen volunteers in her place to enter the games and is forced to rely upon her sharp instincts when she 's pitted against highly trained tributes.
Along with fellow District 12 victor Peeta Mellark, Katniss Everdeen returns home safely after winning the 74th Annual Hunger Games. Winning means that they must leave their loved ones behind and embark on a Victory Tour throughout the districts. Along the way Katniss senses a rebellion simmering - one that she and Peeta may have sparked - but the Capitol is still in control as President Snow prepares the 75th Hunger Games - the Quarter Quell - that could change Panem forever.
Katniss Everdeen finds herself in District 13 after she shatters the games forever. Under the leadership of President Alma Coin and the advice of her trusted friends, Katniss spreads her wings as she fights to save Peeta, along with other victors and a nation moved by her courage.
Realizing the stakes are no longer just for survival, Katniss Everdeen teams up with her closest friends and allies, including Peeta, Gale, and Finnick, for the ultimate mission. Together, they leave District 13 to liberate the citizens of war - torn Panem and assassinate President Snow.
All the Hunger Games films finished first at the North American box office during both their opening and second weekend. In North America, The Hunger Games film series is the second highest - grossing film series based on young adult books, after the Harry Potter series, earning over $1.4 billion. Worldwide, it is the third highest - grossing film series based on young - adult books after the film series of Harry Potter and The Twilight Saga, respectively, having grossed over $2.9 billion. In North America, it is the eighth highest - grossing film franchise of all time. Worldwide, it is the 15th or 16th highest - grossing film franchise of all time.
All The Hunger Games films received a "Fresh Rating '' in the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, with the first two films receiving a "Certified Rating '' stub.
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who plays regina in once upon a time | Lana Parrilla - wikipedia
Lana Maria Parrilla (born July 15, 1977) is an American actress. Parrilla is best known for her roles on television and radio. She was a regular cast member in the fifth season of the ABC sitcom Spin City from 2000 to 2001. She later starred in Boomtown (2002 - 2003), Windfall (2006), Swingtown (2008) and as Doctor Eva Zambrano in the short - lived medical drama Miami Medical (2010). She also played the role of Sarah Gavin during the fourth season of the Fox series 24 in 2005. In 2011, Parrilla began starring as The Evil Queen / Regina Mills in the ABC fantasy drama series, Once Upon a Time. In 2016 Parrilla won a Teen Choice Award for Choice Sci - Fi / Fantasy TV Actress.
Parrilla was born in the Brooklyn borough of New York City on 1977. Her mother is Dolores Dee Azzara and her father was Sam Parrilla (1943 -- 94), a Puerto Rico - born baseball player who played professionally for 11 seasons (1963 -- 73), including one season with the Major League Philadelphia Phillies in 1970 as an outfielder.. She is also Candice Azzara _́ s niece, an american Broadway and Tv actress.
Lana studied acting at the Beverly Hills Playhouse in Los Angeles - California.
In her early career, Parrilla appeared in several movies, including Very Mean Men (2000), Spiders (2000), and Frozen Stars (2003). She made her television debut in 1999, on the UPN sitcom Grown Ups. In 2000, she joined the cast of the ABC comedy series Spin City, playing Angie Ordonez for one season. She left the show in 2001. After that she joined Donnie Wahlberg and Neal McDonough in the short lived crime drama Boomtown, for which she received the Imagen Award for Best Supporting Actress, for her portrayal of Teresa, a paramedic. Initially a success, Boomtown began to struggle, and Parrilla 's character became a police academy rookie, to tie her more closely to the rest of the show. "Boomtown '' was cancelled just two episodes into its second season.
Parrilla guest - starred in a number of television dramas, including JAG, Six Feet Under, Covert Affairs, Medium, The Defenders and Chase. She had a recurring role in 2004 as Officer Janet Grafton in NYPD Blue. In 2005, Parrilla took a recurring guest role on the fourth season of the Fox series 24 as Sarah Gavin, a Counter Terrorist Unit agent. After just six episodes, Lana was made a regular cast member; but in the thirteenth episode, her character was written out after she tried to thwart another character 's promotion from temporary to permanent CTU head Michelle Dessler (Reiko Aylesworth).
In 2006, Parrilla starred in the NBC summer series Windfall alongside Luke Perry, fellow former 24 cast member Sarah Wynter, and Parilla 's former Boomtown castmate Jason Gedrick. In 2007, she guest starred as Greta during the third season of ABC 's Lost in the episodes "Greatest Hits '' and "Through the Looking Glass '' In 2008, she had a leading role on the Lifetime movie The Double Life of Eleanor Kendall, in which she played Nellie, a divorcee whose identity has been stolen. Also in 2008, she starred in the CBS summer series Swingtown as Trina Decker, a woman who is part of a Swinging couple. In 2010, Parrilla had a female lead role in the Jerry Bruckheimer - produced Miami Medical on CBS, which had a short run towards the end of the 2009 -- 10 television season before it was canceled in July 2010. Windfall, Swingtown and Miami Medical were all canceled after 13 episodes.
In February 2011, she was cast as Mayor Regina Mills / The Evil Queen, in the ABC adventure fantasy drama pilot, Once Upon a Time created by Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz. The series debuted in October 2011. The pilot episode was watched by 12.93 million viewers and achieved an adult 18 -- 49 rating / share of 4.0 / 10 during the first season, receiving generally favorable reviews from critics.
Parrilla 's performance also received positive reviews from critics. In 2012 and 2013, she was regarded as a promising contender for an Emmy Award in the Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series category, though she did not receive a nomination. She won the TV Guide Award for Favorite Villain and the ALMA Award for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series in 2012. Parrilla also received a nomination for Best Supporting Actress on Television from the 38th Saturn Awards.
Parrilla became engaged with Alfredo Di Blasio, an Chief Marketing Officer, on April 28, 2013, while traveling in Israel. They married on July 5, 2014, in British Columbia..
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what is the highest court in the united states | Supreme Court of the United States - wikipedia
The Supreme Court of the United States (sometimes colloquially referred to by the acronym SCOTUS) is the highest federal court of the United States. Established pursuant to Article Three of the United States Constitution in 1789, it has ultimate (and largely discretionary) appellate jurisdiction over all federal courts and state court cases involving issues of federal law plus original jurisdiction over a small range of cases. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is generally the final interpreter of federal law including the United States Constitution, but it may act only within the context of a case in which it has jurisdiction. The Court may decide cases having political overtones but does not have power to decide nonjusticiable political questions, and its enforcement arm is in the executive rather than judicial branch of government.
According to federal statute, the Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight associate justices who are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Once appointed, justices have lifetime tenure unless they resign, retire, or are removed after impeachment (though no justice has ever been removed). In modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and it is worth noting that while a far greater number of cases in recent history have been decided unanimously, decisions in cases of the highest profile have often come down to just one single vote, thereby exposing the justices ' ideological beliefs that track with those philosophical or political categories. The Court meets in the Supreme Court Building in Washington, D.C.
The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789. Its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court was the only court specifically established by the Constitution while all other federal courts were created by Congress. Congress is also responsible for conferring the title of "justice '' to its members, who are known to scold lawyers for inaccurately referring to them as "judge '', even though it is the term used in the Constitution.
The Court first convened on February 2, 1790, with six judges where only five of its six initial positions were filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session: "(T) he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street, a few steps from Federal Hall. Symbolically, the moment was pregnant with promise for the republic, this birth of a new national institution whose future power, admittedly, still existed only in the eyes and minds of just a few visionary Americans. Impressively bewigged and swathed in their robes of office, Chief Justice John Jay and three associate justices -- William Cushing of Massachusetts, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, and John Blair of Virginia -- sat augustly before a throng of spectators and waited for something to happen. Nothing did. They had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, and everyone went home. ''
The sixth member, James Iredell, was not confirmed until May 12, 1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was also made by two - thirds (voting four to two). However, Congress has always allowed less than the Court 's full membership to make decisions, starting with a quorum of four justices in 1789.
Under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth (1789 -- 1801), the Court heard few cases; its first decision was West v. Barnes (1791), a case involving a procedural issue. The Court lacked a home of its own and had little prestige, a situation not helped by the highest - profile case of the era, Chisholm v. Georgia (1793), which was reversed within two years by the adoption of the Eleventh Amendment.
The Court 's power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court (1801 -- 35). Under Marshall, the Court established the power of judicial review over acts of Congress, including specifying itself as the supreme expositor of the Constitution (Marbury v. Madison) and made several important constitutional rulings giving shape and substance to the balance of power between the federal government and the states (prominently, Martin v. Hunter 's Lessee, McCulloch v. Maryland and Gibbons v. Ogden).
The Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshall 's tenure, although beyond the Court 's control, the impeachment and acquittal of Justice Samuel Chase in 1804 -- 05 helped cement the principle of judicial independence.
The Taney Court (1836 -- 64) made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Sill, which held that while Congress may not limit the subjects the Supreme Court may hear, it may limit the jurisdiction of the lower federal courts to prevent them from hearing cases dealing with certain subjects. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts (1864 -- 1910) interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution and developed the doctrine of substantive due process (Lochner v. New York; Adair v. United States).
Under the White and Taft Courts (1910 -- 30), the Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment had incorporated some guarantees of the Bill of Rights against the states (Gitlow v. New York), grappled with the new antitrust statutes (Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States), upheld the constitutionality of military conscription (Selective Draft Law Cases) and brought the substantive due process doctrine to its first apogee (Adkins v. Children 's Hospital).
During the Hughes, Stone, and Vinson Courts (1930 -- 53), the Court gained its own accommodation in 1935 and changed its interpretation of the Constitution, giving a broader reading to the powers of the federal government to facilitate President Franklin Roosevelt 's New Deal (most prominently West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish, Wickard v. Filburn, United States v. Darby and United States v. Butler). During World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens (Korematsu v. United States) and the mandatory pledge of allegiance (Minersville School District v. Gobitis). Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated (West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette), and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend.
The Warren Court (1953 -- 69) dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection (Brown v. Board of Education, Bolling v. Sharpe and Green v. County School Bd.) and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote (Reynolds v. Sims). It created a general right to privacy (Griswold v. Connecticut), limited the role of religion in public school (most prominently Engel v. Vitale and Abington School District v. Schempp), incorporated most guarantees of the Bill of Rights against the States -- prominently Mapp v. Ohio (the exclusionary rule) and Gideon v. Wainwright (right to appointed counsel), -- and required that criminal suspects be apprised of all these rights by police (Miranda v. Arizona). At the same time, however, the Court limited defamation suits by public figures (New York Times v. Sullivan) and supplied the government with an unbroken run of antitrust victories.
The Burger Court (1969 -- 86) marked a conservative shift. It also expanded Griswold 's right to privacy to strike down abortion laws (Roe v. Wade), but divided deeply on affirmative action (Regents of the University of California v. Bakke) and campaign finance regulation (Buckley v. Valeo), and dithered on the death penalty, ruling first that most applications were defective (Furman v. Georgia), then that the death penalty itself was not unconstitutional (Gregg v. Georgia).
The Rehnquist Court (1986 -- 2005) was noted for its revival of judicial enforcement of federalism, emphasizing the limits of the Constitution 's affirmative grants of power (United States v. Lopez) and the force of its restrictions on those powers (Seminole Tribe v. Florida, City of Boerne v. Flores). It struck down single - sex state schools as a violation of equal protection (United States v. Virginia), laws against sodomy as violations of substantive due process (Lawrence v. Texas), and the line item veto (Clinton v. New York), but upheld school vouchers (Zelman v. Simmons - Harris) and reaffirmed Roe 's restrictions on abortion laws (Planned Parenthood v. Casey). The Court 's decision in Bush v. Gore, which ended the electoral recount during the presidential election of 2000, was especially controversial.
The Roberts Court (2005 -- present) is regarded by some as more conservative than the Rehnquist Court. Some of its major rulings have concerned federal preemption (Wyeth v. Levine), civil procedure (Twombly - Iqbal), abortion (Gonzales v. Carhart), climate change (Massachusetts v. EPA), same - sex marriage (United States v. Windsor and Obergefell v. Hodges) and the Bill of Rights, notably in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (First Amendment), Heller - McDonald (Second Amendment) and Baze v. Rees (Eighth Amendment).
Article III of the United States Constitution does not specify the number of justices. The Judiciary Act of 1789 called for the appointment of six "judges ''. Although an 1801 act would have reduced the size of the court to five members upon its next vacancy, an 1802 act promptly negated the 1801 act, legally restoring the court 's size to six members before any such vacancy occurred. As the nation 's boundaries grew, Congress added justices to correspond with the growing number of judicial circuits: seven in 1807, nine in 1837, and ten in 1863.
In 1866, at the behest of Chief Justice Chase, Congress passed an act providing that the next three justices to retire would not be replaced, which would thin the bench to seven justices by attrition. Consequently, one seat was removed in 1866 and a second in 1867. In 1869, however, the Circuit Judges Act returned the number of justices to nine, where it has since remained.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt attempted to expand the Court in 1937. His proposal envisioned appointment of one additional justice for each incumbent justice who reached the age of 70 years 6 months and refused retirement, up to a maximum bench of 15 justices. The proposal was ostensibly to ease the burden of the docket on elderly judges, but the actual purpose was widely understood as an effort to "pack '' the Court with justices who would support Roosevelt 's New Deal. The plan, usually called the "court - packing plan '', failed in Congress. Nevertheless, the Court 's balance began to shift within months when Justice van Devanter retired and was replaced by Senator Hugo Black. By the end of 1941, Roosevelt had appointed seven justices and elevated Harlan Fiske Stone to Chief Justice.
The U.S. Constitution states that the President "shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Judges of the Supreme Court. '' Most presidents nominate candidates who broadly share their ideological views, although a justice 's decisions may end up being contrary to a president 's expectations. Because the Constitution sets no qualifications for service as a justice, a president may nominate anyone to serve, subject to Senate confirmation.
In modern times, the confirmation process has attracted considerable attention from the press and advocacy groups, which lobby senators to confirm or to reject a nominee depending on whether their track record aligns with the group 's views. The Senate Judiciary Committee conducts hearings and votes on whether the nomination should go to the full Senate with a positive, negative or neutral report. The committee 's practice of personally interviewing nominees is relatively recent. The first nominee to appear before the committee was Harlan Fiske Stone in 1925, who sought to quell concerns about his links to Wall Street, and the modern practice of questioning began with John Marshall Harlan II in 1955. Once the committee reports out the nomination, the full Senate considers it. Rejections are relatively uncommon; the Senate has explicitly rejected twelve Supreme Court nominees, most recently Robert Bork, nominated by President Ronald Reagan in 1987.
Although Senate rules do not necessarily allow a negative vote in committee to block a nomination, prior to 2017 a nomination could be blocked by filibuster once debate had begun in the full Senate. President Lyndon Johnson 's nomination of sitting Associate Justice Abe Fortas to succeed Earl Warren as Chief Justice in 1968 was the first successful filibuster of a Supreme Court nominee. It included both Republican and Democratic senators concerned with Fortas 's ethics. President Donald Trump 's nomination of Neil Gorsuch to the seat vacated by Antonin Scalia was the second. Unlike the Fortas filibuster, however, only Democratic Senators voted against cloture on the Gorsuch nomination, citing his perceived conservative judicial philosophy, and the Republican majority 's prior refusal to take up President Barack Obama 's nomination of Merrick Garland to fill the vacancy. This led the Republican majority to change the rules and eliminate the filibuster for Supreme Court nominations.
Not every Supreme Court nominee has received a floor vote in the Senate. A president may withdraw a nomination before an actual confirmation vote occurs, typically because it is clear that the Senate will reject the nominee; this occurred most recently with the nomination of Harriet Miers in 2006. The Senate may also fail to act on a nomination, which expires at the end of the session. For example, President Dwight Eisenhower 's first nomination of John Marshall Harlan II in November 1954 was not acted on by the Senate; Eisenhower re-nominated Harlan in January 1955, and Harlan was confirmed two months later. Most recently, as previously noted, the Senate failed to act on the March 2016 nomination of Merrick Garland; the nomination expired in January 2017, and the vacancy was later filled by President Trump 's appointment of Neil Gorsuch.
Once the Senate confirms a nomination, the president must prepare and sign a commission, to which the Seal of the Department of Justice must be affixed, before the new justice can take office. The seniority of an associate justice is based on the commissioning date, not the confirmation or swearing - in date. The importance of commissioning is underscored by the case of Edwin M. Stanton. Although appointed to the court on Dec. 19, 1869 by President Ulysses S. Grant and confirmed by the Senate a few days later, Stanton died on Dec. 24, prior to receiving his commission. He is not, therefore, considered to have been an actual member of the court.
Before 1981, the approval process of justices was usually rapid. From the Truman through Nixon administrations, justices were typically approved within one month. From the Reagan administration to the present, however, the process has taken much longer. Some believe this is because Congress sees justices as playing a more political role than in the past. According to the Congressional Research Service, the average number of days from nomination to final Senate vote since 1975 is 67 days (2.2 months), while the median is 71 days (or 2.3 months).
When the Senate is in recess, a president may make temporary appointments to fill vacancies. Recess appointees hold office only until the end of the next Senate session (less than two years). The Senate must confirm the nominee for them to continue serving; of the two chief justices and eleven associate justices who have received recess appointments, only Chief Justice John Rutledge was not subsequently confirmed.
No president since Dwight D. Eisenhower has made a recess appointment to the Court, and the practice has become rare and controversial even in lower federal courts. In 1960, after Eisenhower had made three such appointments, the Senate passed a "sense of the Senate '' resolution that recess appointments to the Court should only be made in "unusual circumstances. '' Such resolutions are not legally binding but are an expression of Congress 's views in the hope of guiding executive action.
The Supreme Court 's 2014 decision in National Labor Relations Board v. Noel Canning limited the ability of the President to make recess appointments (including appointments to the Supreme Court), ruling that the Senate decides when the Senate is in session (or in recess). Writing for the Court, Justice Breyer stated, "We hold that, for purposes of the Recess Appointments Clause, the Senate is in session when it says it is, provided that, under its own rules, it retains the capacity to transact Senate business. '' This ruling allows the Senate to prevent recess appointments through the use of pro-forma sessions.
The Constitution provides that justices "shall hold their offices during good behavior '' (unless appointed during a Senate recess). The term "good behavior '' is understood to mean justices may serve for the remainder of their lives, unless they are impeached and convicted by Congress, resign, or retire. Only one justice has been impeached by the House of Representatives (Samuel Chase, March 1804), but he was acquitted in the Senate (March 1805). Moves to impeach sitting justices have occurred more recently (for example, William O. Douglas was the subject of hearings twice, in 1953 and again in 1970; and Abe Fortas resigned while hearings were being organized in 1969), but they did not reach a vote in the House. No mechanism exists for removing a justice who is permanently incapacitated by illness or injury, but unable (or unwilling) to resign.
Because justices have indefinite tenure, timing of vacancies can be unpredictable. Sometimes vacancies arise in quick succession, as in the early 1970s when Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr. and William Rehnquist were nominated to replace Hugo Black and John Marshall Harlan II, who retired within a week of each other. Sometimes a great length of time passes between nominations, such as the eleven years between Stephen Breyer 's nomination in 1994 to succeed Harry Blackmun and the nomination of John Roberts in 2005 to fill the seat of Sandra Day O'Connor (though Roberts ' nomination was withdrawn and resubmitted for the role of Chief Justice after Rehnquist died).
Despite the variability, all but four presidents have been able to appoint at least one justice. William Henry Harrison died a month after taking office, though his successor (John Tyler) made an appointment during that presidential term. Likewise, Zachary Taylor died 16 months after taking office, but his successor (Millard Fillmore) also made a Supreme Court nomination before the end of that term. Andrew Johnson, who became president after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, was denied the opportunity to appoint a justice by a reduction in the size of the Court. Jimmy Carter is the only person elected president to have left office after at least one full term without having the opportunity to appoint a justice. Somewhat similarly, presidents James Monroe, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and George W. Bush each served a full term without an opportunity to appoint a justice, but made appointments during their subsequent terms in office. No president who has served more than one full term has gone without at least one opportunity to make an appointment.
Three presidents have appointed justices who together served more than a century. Andrew Jackson, Abraham Lincoln, and Franklin D. Roosevelt.
The court is currently filled with nine Justices. The most recent justice to join the court was Neil Gorsuch, who was nominated by President Donald Trump on January 31, 2017, and confirmed on April 7, 2017, by the U.S. Senate.
Roberts, John John Roberts (Chief Justice)
Kennedy, Anthony Anthony Kennedy
Thomas, Clarence Clarence Thomas
Ginsburg, Ruth Bader Ruth Bader Ginsburg
Breyer, Stephen Stephen Breyer
Alito, Samuel Samuel Alito
Sotomayor, Sonia Sonia Sotomayor
Kagan, Elena Elena Kagan
Gorsuch, Neil Neil Gorsuch
The Court currently has six male and three female justices. Among the nine justices, there is one African - American (Justice Thomas) and one Hispanic (Justice Sotomayor). Two of the justices were born to at least one immigrant parent: Justice Alito 's parents were born in Italy, and Justice Ginsburg 's father was born in Russia. At least five justices are Roman Catholics and three are Jewish; it is unclear whether Neil Gorsuch considers himself a Catholic or an Episcopalian. The average age is 67 years and 4 months. Every current justice has an Ivy League background. Four justices are from the state of New York, two from California, one from New Jersey, one from Georgia, and one from Colorado. In the 19th century, every justice was a man of European descent (usually Northern European), and almost always Protestant. Concerns about diversity focused on geography, to represent all regions of the country, rather than religious, ethnic, or gender diversity.
Most justices have been Protestants, including 36 Episcopalians, 19 Presbyterians, 10 Unitarians, 5 Methodists, and 3 Baptists. The first Catholic justice was Roger Taney in 1836, and 1916 saw the appointment of the first Jewish justice, Louis Brandeis. Several Catholic and Jewish justices have since been appointed, and in recent years the situation has reversed. The Court currently has at least five Catholic justices, and three Jewish justices.
Racial, ethnic, and gender diversity began to increase in the late 20th century. Thurgood Marshall became the first African American justice in 1967. Sandra Day O'Connor became the first female justice in 1981. Marshall was succeeded by African - American Clarence Thomas in 1991. O'Connor was joined by Ruth Bader Ginsburg in 1993. After O'Connor's retirement Ginsburg was joined in 2009 by Sonia Sotomayor, the first Hispanic and Latina justice; and in 2010 by Elena Kagan, for a total of four female justices in the Court 's history.
There have been six foreign - born justices in the Court 's history: James Wilson (1789 -- 1798), born in Caskardy, Scotland; James Iredell (1790 -- 1799), born in Lewes, England; William Paterson (1793 -- 1806), born in County Antrim, Ireland; David Brewer (1889 -- 1910), born in Smyrna, Turkey; George Sutherland (1922 -- 1939), born in Buckinghamshire, England; and Felix Frankfurter (1939 -- 1962), born in Vienna, Austria.
There are currently three living retired justices of the Supreme Court of the United States: John Paul Stevens, Sandra Day O'Connor and David Souter. As retired justices, they no longer participate in the work of the Supreme Court, but may be designated for temporary assignments to sit on lower federal courts, usually the United States Courts of Appeals. Such assignments are formally made by the Chief Justice, on request of the chief judge of the lower court and with the consent of the retired justice. In recent years, Justice O'Connor has sat with several Courts of Appeals around the country, and Justice Souter has frequently sat on the First Circuit, the court of which he was briefly a member before joining the Supreme Court.
The status of a retired justice is analogous to that of a circuit or district court judge who has taken senior status, and eligibility of a supreme court justice to assume retired status (rather than simply resign from the bench) is governed by the same age and service criteria.
In recent times, justices tend to strategically plan their decisions to leave the bench with personal, institutional, ideological, partisan and sometimes even political factors playing a role. The fear of mental decline and death often motivates justices to step down. The desire to maximize the Court 's strength and legitimacy through one retirement at a time, when the Court is in recess, and during non-presidential election years suggests a concern for institutional health. Finally, especially in recent decades, many justices have timed their departure to coincide with a philosophically compatible president holding office, to ensure that a like - minded successor would be appointed.
John Paul Stevens
Sandra Day O'Connor
David Souter
Many of the internal operations of the Court are organized by seniority of justices; the chief justice is considered the most senior member of the court, regardless of the length of his or her service. The associate justices are then ranked by the length of their service.
During Court sessions, the justices sit according to seniority, with the Chief Justice in the center, and the Associate Justices on alternating sides, with the most senior Associate Justice on the Chief Justice 's immediate right, and the most junior Associate Justice seated on the left farthest away from the Chief Justice. Therefore, the current court sits as follows from left to right, from the perspective of those facing the Court: Kagan, Alito, Ginsburg, Kennedy (most senior Associate Justice), Roberts (Chief Justice), Thomas, Breyer, Sotomayor, and Gorsuch. In the official yearly Court photograph, justices are arranged similarly, with the five most senior members sitting in the front row in the same order as they would sit during Court sessions (The most recent photograph includes Ginsburg, Kennedy, Roberts, Thomas, Breyer), and the four most junior justices standing behind them, again in the same order as they would sit during Court sessions (Kagan, Alito, Sotomayor, Gorsuch).
In the justices ' private conferences, current practice is for them to speak and vote in order of seniority to begin with the chief justice first and end with the most junior associate justice. The most junior associate justice in these conferences is charged with any menial tasks the justices may require as they convene alone, such as answering the door of their conference room, serving beverages and transmitting orders of the court to the clerk. Justice Joseph Story served the longest as junior justice, from February 3, 1812, to September 1, 1823, for a total of 4,228 days. Justice Stephen Breyer follows very closely behind serving from August 3, 1994, to January 31, 2006, for a total of 4,199 days. Justice Elena Kagan comes in at a distant third serving from August 6, 2010, to April 10, 2017, for a total of 2,439 days.
As of 2017, associate justices are paid $251,800 and the chief justice $263,300. Article III, Section 1 of the U.S. Constitution prohibits Congress from reducing the pay for incumbent justices. Once a justice meets age and service requirements, the justice may retire. Judicial pensions are based on the same formula used for federal employees, but a justice 's pension, as with other federal courts judges, can never be less than their salary at the time of retirement.
Although justices are nominated by the president in power, justices do not represent or receive official endorsements from political parties, as is accepted practice in the legislative and executive branches. Jurists are, however, informally categorized in legal and political circles as being judicial conservatives, moderates, or liberals. Such leanings, however, generally refer to legal outlook rather than a political or legislative one. The nominations of justices are endorsed by individual politicians in the legislative branch who vote their approval or disapproval of the nominated justice.
Following the confirmation of Neil Gorsuch in 2017, the Court consists of five justices appointed by Republican presidents and four appointed by Democratic presidents. It is popularly accepted that Chief Justice Roberts and associate justices Thomas, Alito, and Gorsuch, appointed by Republican presidents, comprise the Court 's conservative wing. Justices Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan, appointed by Democratic presidents, comprise the Court 's liberal wing. Justice Kennedy, appointed by Republican president Reagan, is generally considered "a conservative who has occasionally voted with liberals '', and up until Justice Scalia 's death, he was often the swing vote that determined the outcome of cases divided between the conservative and liberal wings. Gorsuch had a track record as a reliably conservative judge in the 10th circuit.
Tom Goldstein argued in an article in SCOTUSblog in 2010, that the popular view of the Supreme Court as sharply divided along ideological lines and each side pushing an agenda at every turn is "in significant part a caricature designed to fit certain preconceptions. '' He pointed out that in the 2009 term, almost half the cases were decided unanimously, and only about 20 % were decided by a 5 - to - 4 vote. Barely one in ten cases involved the narrow liberal / conservative divide (fewer if the cases where Sotomayor recused herself are not included). He also pointed to several cases that defied the popular conception of the ideological lines of the Court. Goldstein further argued that the large number of pro-criminal - defendant summary dismissals (usually cases where the justices decide that the lower courts significantly misapplied precedent and reverse the case without briefing or argument) were an illustration that the conservative justices had not been aggressively ideological. Likewise, Goldstein stated that the critique that the liberal justices are more likely to invalidate acts of Congress, show inadequate deference to the political process, and be disrespectful of precedent, also lacked merit: Thomas has most often called for overruling prior precedent (even if long standing) that he views as having been wrongly decided, and during the 2009 term Scalia and Thomas voted most often to invalidate legislation.
According to statistics compiled by SCOTUSblog, in the twelve terms from 2000 to 2011, an average of 19 of the opinions on major issues (22 %) were decided by a 5 -- 4 vote, with an average of 70 % of those split opinions decided by a Court divided along the traditionally perceived ideological lines (about 15 % of all opinions issued). Over that period, the conservative bloc has been in the majority about 62 % of the time that the Court has divided along ideological lines, which represents about 44 % of all the 5 -- 4 decisions.
In the October 2010 term, the Court decided 86 cases, including 75 signed opinions and 5 summary reversals (where the Court reverses a lower court without arguments and without issuing an opinion on the case). Four were decided with unsigned opinions, two cases affirmed by an equally divided Court, and two cases were dismissed as improvidently granted. Justice Kagan recused herself from 26 of the cases due to her prior role as United States Solicitor General. Of the 80 cases, 38 (about 48 %, the highest percentage since the October 2005 term) were decided unanimously (9 -- 0 or 8 -- 0), and 16 decisions were made by a 5 -- 4 vote (about 20 %, compared to 18 % in the October 2009 term, and 29 % in the October 2008 term). However, in fourteen of the sixteen 5 -- 4 decisions, the Court divided along the traditional ideological lines (with Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor, and Kagan on the liberal side, and Roberts, Scalia, Thomas, and Alito on the conservative, and Kennedy providing the "swing vote ''). This represents 87 % of those 16 cases, the highest rate in the past 10 years. The conservative bloc, joined by Kennedy, formed the majority in 63 % of the 5 -- 4 decisions, the highest cohesion rate of that bloc in the Roberts Court.
In the October 2011 term, the Court decided 75 cases. Of these, 33 (44 %) were decided unanimously, and 15 (20 %, the same percentage as in the previous term) were decided by a vote of 5 -- 4. Of the latter 15, the Court divided along the perceived ideological lines 10 times with Justice Kennedy joining the conservative justices (Roberts, Scalia, Thomas and Alito) five times and with the liberal justices (Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan) five times.
In the October 2012 term, the Court decided 78 cases. Five of them were decided in unsigned opinions. 38 out of the 78 decisions (representing 49 % of the decisions) were unanimous in judgement, with 24 decisions being completely unanimous (a single opinion with every justice that participated joining it). This was the largest percentage of unanimous decisions that the Court had in ten years, since the October 2002 term (when 51 % of the decisions handed down were unanimous). The Court split 5 -- 4 in 23 cases (29 % of the total); of these, 16 broke down along the traditionally perceived ideological lines, with Chief Justice Roberts and Justices Scalia, Thomas, and Alito on one side, Justices Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan on the other, and Justice Kennedy holding the balance. Of these 16 cases, Justice Kennedy sided with the conservatives on 10 cases, and with the liberals on 6. Three cases were decided by an interesting alignment of justices, with Chief Justice Roberts joined by Justices Kennedy, Thomas, Breyer and Alito in the majority, with Justices Scalia, Ginsburg, Sotomayor, and Kagan in the minority. The greatest agreement between justices was between Ginsburg and Kagan, who agreed on 72 of the 75 (96 %) cases, in which both voted; the lowest agreement between justices was between Ginsburg and Alito, who agreed only on 45 out of 77 (54 %) cases, in which they both participated. Justice Kennedy was in the majority of 5 -- 4 decisions on 20 out of 24 (83 %) cases, and in 71 of 78 (91 %) cases during the term, in line with his position as the "swing vote '' of the Court.
The Supreme Court first met on February 1, 1790, at the Merchants ' Exchange Building in New York City. When Philadelphia became the capital, the Court met briefly in Independence Hall before settling in Old City Hall from 1791 until 1800. After the government moved to Washington, D.C., the Court occupied various spaces in the United States Capitol building until 1935, when it moved into its own purpose - built home. The four - story building was designed by Cass Gilbert in a classical style sympathetic to the surrounding buildings of the Capitol and Library of Congress, and is clad in marble. The building includes the courtroom, justices ' chambers, an extensive law library, various meeting spaces, and auxiliary services including a gymnasium. The Supreme Court building is within the ambit of the Architect of the Capitol, but maintains its own police force separate from the Capitol Police.
Located across First Street from the United States Capitol at One First Street NE and Maryland Avenue, the building is open to the public from 9 am to 4: 30 pm weekdays but closed on weekends and holidays. Visitors may not tour the actual courtroom unaccompanied. There is a cafeteria, a gift shop, exhibits, and a half - hour informational film. When the Court is not in session, lectures about the courtroom are held hourly from 9: 30 am to 3: 30 pm and reservations are not necessary. When the Court is in session the public may attend oral arguments, which are held twice each morning (and sometimes afternoons) on Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays in two - week intervals from October through late April, with breaks during December and February. Visitors are seated on a first - come first - served basis. One estimate is there are about 250 seats available. The number of open seats varies from case to case; for important cases, some visitors arrive the day before and wait through the night. From mid-May until the end of June, the court releases orders and opinions beginning at 10 am, and these 15 to 30 - minute sessions are open to the public on a similar basis. Supreme Court Police are available to answer questions.
Congress is authorized by Article III of the federal Constitution to regulate the Supreme Court 's appellate jurisdiction. The Supreme Court has original and exclusive jurisdiction over cases between two or more states, but may decline to hear such cases. It also possesses original, but not exclusive, jurisdiction to hear "all actions or proceedings to which ambassadors, other public ministers, consuls, or vice consuls of foreign states are parties; all controversies between the United States and a State; and all actions or proceedings by a State against the citizens of another State or against aliens. ''
In 1906, the Court asserted its original jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for contempt of court in United States v. Shipp. The resulting proceeding remains the only contempt proceeding and only criminal trial in the Court 's history. The contempt proceeding arose from the lynching of Ed Johnson in Chattanooga, Tennessee the evening after Justice John Marshall Harlan granted Johnson a stay of execution to allow his lawyers to file an appeal. Johnson was removed from his jail cell by a lynch mob -- aided by the local sheriff who left the prison virtually unguarded -- and hung from a bridge, after which a deputy sheriff pinned a note on Johnson 's body reading: "To Justice Harlan. Come get your nigger now. '' The local sheriff, John Shipp, cited the Supreme Court 's intervention as the rationale for the lynching. The Court appointed its deputy clerk as special master to preside over the trial in Chattanooga with closing arguments made in Washington before the Supreme Court justices, who found nine individuals guilty of contempt, sentencing three to 90 days in jail and the rest to 60 days in jail.
In all other cases, however, the Court has only appellate jurisdiction, including the ability to issue writs of mandamus and writs of prohibition to lower courts. It considers cases based on its original jurisdiction very rarely; almost all cases are brought to the Supreme Court on appeal. In practice, the only original jurisdiction cases heard by the Court are disputes between two or more states.
The Court 's appellate jurisdiction consists of appeals from federal courts of appeal (through certiorari, certiorari before judgment, and certified questions), the United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces (through certiorari), the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico (through certiorari), the Supreme Court of the Virgin Islands (through certiorari), the District of Columbia Court of Appeals (through certiorari), and "final judgments or decrees rendered by the highest court of a State in which a decision could be had '' (through certiorari). In the last case, an appeal may be made to the Supreme Court from a lower state court if the state 's highest court declined to hear an appeal or lacks jurisdiction to hear an appeal. For example, a decision rendered by one of the Florida District Courts of Appeal can be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court if (a) the Supreme Court of Florida declined to grant certiorari, e.g. Florida Star v. B.J.F., or (b) the district court of appeal issued a per curiam decision simply affirming the lower court 's decision without discussing the merits of the case, since the Supreme Court of Florida lacks jurisdiction to hear appeals of such decisions. The power of the Supreme Court to consider appeals from state courts, rather than just federal courts, was created by the Judiciary Act of 1789 and upheld early in the Court 's history, by its rulings in Martin v. Hunter 's Lessee (1816) and Cohens v. Virginia (1821). The Supreme Court is the only federal court that has jurisdiction over direct appeals from state court decisions, although there are several devices that permit so - called "collateral review '' of state cases. It has to be noted that this "collateral review '' often only applies to individuals on death row and not through the regular judicial system.
Since Article Three of the United States Constitution stipulates that federal courts may only entertain "cases '' or "controversies '', the Supreme Court can not decide cases that are moot and it does not render advisory opinions, as the supreme courts of some states may do. For example, in DeFunis v. Odegaard, 416 U.S. 312 (1974), the Court dismissed a lawsuit challenging the constitutionality of a law school affirmative action policy because the plaintiff student had graduated since he began the lawsuit, and a decision from the Court on his claim would not be able to redress any injury he had suffered. However, the Court recognizes some circumstances where it is appropriate to hear a case that is seemingly moot. If an issue is "capable of repetition yet evading review '', the Court will address it even though the party before the Court would not himself be made whole by a favorable result. In Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973), and other abortion cases, the Court addresses the merits of claims pressed by pregnant women seeking abortions even if they are no longer pregnant because it takes longer than the typical human gestation period to appeal a case through the lower courts to the Supreme Court. Another mootness exception is voluntary cessation of unlawful conduct, in which the Court considers the probability of recurrence and plaintiff 's need for relief.
The United States is divided into thirteen circuit courts of appeals, each of which is assigned a "circuit justice '' from the Supreme Court. Although this concept has been in continuous existence throughout the history of the republic, its meaning has changed through time.
Under the Judiciary Act of 1789, each justice was required to "ride circuit '', or to travel within the assigned circuit and consider cases alongside local judges. This practice encountered opposition from many justices, who cited the difficulty of travel. Moreover, there was a potential for a conflict of interest on the Court if a justice had previously decided the same case while riding circuit. Circuit riding was abolished in 1891.
Today, the circuit justice for each circuit is responsible for dealing with certain types of applications that, under the Court 's rules, may be addressed by a single justice. These include applications for emergency stays (including stays of execution in death - penalty cases) and injunctions pursuant to the All Writs Act arising from cases within that circuit, as well as routine requests such as requests for extensions of time. In the past, circuit justices also sometimes ruled on motions for bail in criminal cases, writs of habeas corpus, and applications for writs of error granting permission to appeal. Ordinarily, a justice will resolve such an application by simply endorsing it "granted '' or "denied '' or entering a standard form of order. However, the justice may elect to write an opinion -- referred to as an in - chambers opinion -- in such matters if he or she wishes.
A circuit justice may sit as a judge on the Court of Appeals of that circuit, but over the past hundred years, this has rarely occurred. A circuit justice sitting with the Court of Appeals has seniority over the chief judge of the circuit.
The chief justice has traditionally been assigned to the District of Columbia Circuit, the Fourth Circuit (which includes Maryland and Virginia, the states surrounding the District of Columbia), and since it was established, the Federal Circuit. Each associate justice is assigned to one or two judicial circuits.
As of June 27, 2017, the allotment of the justices among the circuits is:
Four of the current justices are assigned to circuits on which they previously sat as circuit judges: Chief Justice Roberts (D.C. Circuit), Justice Breyer (First Circuit), Justice Alito (Third Circuit), and Justice Kennedy (Ninth Circuit).
A term of the Supreme Court commences on the first Monday of each October, and continues until June or early July of the following year. Each term consists of alternating periods of around two weeks known as "sittings '' and "recesses. '' Justices hear cases and deliver rulings during sittings; they discuss cases and write opinions during recesses.
Nearly all cases come before the court by way of petitions for writs of certiorari, commonly referred to as "cert ''. The Court may review any case in the federal courts of appeals "by writ of certiorari granted upon the petition of any party to any civil or criminal case. '' Court may only review "final judgments rendered by the highest court of a state in which a decision could be had '' if those judgments involve a question of federal statutory or constitutional law. The party that appealed to the Court is the petitioner and the non-mover is the respondent. All case names before the Court are styled petitioner v. respondent, regardless of which party initiated the lawsuit in the trial court. For example, criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of the state and against an individual, as in State of Arizona v. Ernesto Miranda. If the defendant is convicted, and his conviction then is affirmed on appeal in the state supreme court, when he petitions for cert the name of the case becomes Miranda v. Arizona.
There are situations where the Court has original jurisdiction, such as when two states have a dispute against each other, or when there is a dispute between the United States and a state. In such instances, a case is filed with the Supreme Court directly. Examples of such cases include United States v. Texas, a case to determine whether a parcel of land belonged to the United States or to Texas, and Virginia v. Tennessee, a case turning on whether an incorrectly drawn boundary between two states can be changed by a state court, and whether the setting of the correct boundary requires Congressional approval. Although it has not happened since 1794 in the case of Georgia v. Brailsford, parties in an action at law in which the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction may request that a jury determine issues of fact. Two other original jurisdiction cases involve colonial era borders and rights under navigable waters in New Jersey v. Delaware, and water rights between riparian states upstream of navigable waters in Kansas v. Colorado.
A cert petition is voted on at a session of the court called a conference. A conference is a private meeting of the nine Justices by themselves; the public and the Justices ' clerks are excluded. The rule of four permits four of the nine justices to grant a writ of certiorari. If it is granted, the case proceeds to the briefing stage; otherwise, the case ends. Except in death penalty cases and other cases in which the Court orders briefing from the respondent, the respondent may, but is not required to, file a response to the cert petition.
The court grants a petition for cert only for "compelling reasons '', spelled out in the court 's Rule 10. Such reasons include:
When a conflict of interpretations arises from differing interpretations of the same law or constitutional provision issued by different federal circuit courts of appeals, lawyers call this situation a "circuit split. '' If the court votes to deny a cert petition, as it does in the vast majority of such petitions that come before it, it does so typically without comment. A denial of a cert petition is not a judgment on the merits of a case, and the decision of the lower court stands as the final ruling in the case.
To manage the high volume of cert petitions received by the Court each year (of the more than 7,000 petitions the Court receives each year, it will usually request briefing and hear oral argument in 100 or fewer), the Court employs an internal case management tool known as the "cert pool. '' Currently, all justices except for Justices Alito and Gorsuch participate in the cert pool.
When the Court grants a cert petition, the case is set for oral argument. Both parties will file briefs on the merits of the case, as distinct from the reasons they may have argued for granting or denying the cert petition. With the consent of the parties or approval of the Court, amici curiae, or "friends of the court '', may also file briefs. The Court holds two - week oral argument sessions each month from October through April. Each side has thirty minutes to present its argument (the Court may choose to give more time, though this is rare), and during that time, the Justices may interrupt the advocate and ask questions. The petitioner gives the first presentation, and may reserve some time to rebut the respondent 's arguments after the respondent has concluded. Amici curiae may also present oral argument on behalf of one party if that party agrees. The Court advises counsel to assume that the Justices are familiar with and have read the briefs filed in a case.
In order to plead before the court, an attorney must first be admitted to the court 's bar. Approximately 4,000 lawyers join the bar each year. The bar contains an estimated 230,000 members. In reality, pleading is limited to several hundred attorneys. The rest join for a one - time fee of $200, earning the court about $750,000 annually. Attorneys can be admitted as either individuals or as groups. The group admission is held before the current justices of the Supreme Court, wherein the Chief Justice approves a motion to admit the new attorneys. Lawyers commonly apply for the cosmetic value of a certificate to display in their office or on their resume. They also receive access to better seating if they wish to attend an oral argument. Members of the Supreme Court Bar are also granted access to the collections of the Supreme Court Library.
At the conclusion of oral argument, the case is submitted for decision. Cases are decided by majority vote of the Justices. It is the Court 's practice to issue decisions in all cases argued in a particular Term by the end of that Term. Within that Term, however, the Court is under no obligation to release a decision within any set time after oral argument. At the conclusion of oral argument, the Justices retire to another conference at which the preliminary votes are tallied, and the most senior Justice in the majority assigns the initial draft of the Court 's opinion to a Justice on his or her side. Drafts of the Court 's opinion, as well as any concurring or dissenting opinions, circulate among the Justices until the Court is prepared to announce the judgment in a particular case. Since recording devices are banned inside the courtroom of the United States Supreme Court Building, the delivery of the decision to the media is done via paper copies and is known as the Running of the Interns.
It is possible that, through recusals or vacancies, the Court divides evenly on a case. If that occurs, then the decision of the court below is affirmed, but does not establish binding precedent. In effect, it results in a return to the status quo ante. For a case to be heard, there must be a quorum of at least six justices. If a quorum is not available to hear a case and a majority of qualified justices believes that the case can not be heard and determined in the next term, then the judgment of the court below is affirmed as if the Court had been evenly divided. For cases brought to the Supreme Court by direct appeal from a United States District Court, the Chief Justice may order the case remanded to the appropriate U.S. Court of Appeals for a final decision there. This has only occurred once in U.S. history, in the case of United States v. Alcoa (1945).
The Court 's opinions are published in three stages. First, a slip opinion is made available on the Court 's web site and through other outlets. Next, several opinions and lists of the court 's orders are bound together in paperback form, called a preliminary print of United States Reports, the official series of books in which the final version of the Court 's opinions appears. About a year after the preliminary prints are issued, a final bound volume of U.S. Reports is issued. The individual volumes of U.S. Reports are numbered so that users may cite this set of reports -- or a competing version published by another commercial legal publisher but containing parallel citations -- to allow those who read their pleadings and other briefs to find the cases quickly and easily.
As of the beginning of October 2016 term, there are:
As of March 2012, the U.S. Reports have published a total of 30,161 Supreme Court opinions, covering the decisions handed down from February 1790 to March 2012. This figure does not reflect the number of cases the Court has taken up, as several cases can be addressed by a single opinion (see, for example, Parents v. Seattle, where Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education was also decided in the same opinion; by a similar logic, Miranda v. Arizona actually decided not only Miranda but also three other cases: Vignera v. New York, Westover v. United States, and California v. Stewart). A more unusual example is The Telephone Cases, which comprise a single set of interlinked opinions that take up the entire 126th volume of the U.S. Reports.
Opinions are also collected and published in two unofficial, parallel reporters: Supreme Court Reporter, published by West (now a part of Thomson Reuters), and United States Supreme Court Reports, Lawyers ' Edition (simply known as Lawyers ' Edition), published by LexisNexis. In court documents, legal periodicals and other legal media, case citations generally contain cites from each of the three reporters; for example, citation to Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission is presented as Citizens United v. Federal Election Com'n, 585 U.S. 50, 130 S. Ct. 876, 175 L. Ed. 2d 753 (2010), with "S. Ct. '' representing the Supreme Court Reporter, and "L. Ed. '' representing the Lawyers ' Edition.
Lawyers use an abbreviated format to cite cases, in the form "vol U.S. page, pin (year) '', where vol is the volume number, page is the page number on which the opinion begins, and year is the year in which the case was decided. Optionally, pin is used to "pinpoint '' to a specific page number within the opinion. For instance, the citation for Roe v. Wade is 410 U.S. 113 (1973), which means the case was decided in 1973 and appears on page 113 of volume 410 of U.S. Reports. For opinions or orders that have not yet been published in the preliminary print, the volume and page numbers may be replaced with "___ ''.
The Federal court system and the judicial authority to interpret the Constitution received little attention in the debates over the drafting and ratification of the Constitution. The power of judicial review, in fact, is nowhere mentioned in it. Over the ensuing years, the question of whether the power of judicial review was even intended by the drafters of the Constitution was quickly frustrated by the lack of evidence bearing on the question either way. Nevertheless, the power of judiciary to overturn laws and executive actions it determines are unlawful or unconstitutional is a well - established precedent. Many of the Founding Fathers accepted the notion of judicial review; in Federalist No. 78, Alexander Hamilton wrote: "A Constitution is, in fact, and must be regarded by the judges, as a fundamental law. It therefore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning, as well as the meaning of any particular act proceeding from the legislative body. If there should happen to be an irreconcilable variance between the two, that which has the superior obligation and validity ought, of course, to be preferred; or, in other words, the Constitution ought to be preferred to the statute. ''
The Supreme Court firmly established its power to declare laws unconstitutional in Marbury v. Madison (1803), consummating the American system of checks and balances. In explaining the power of judicial review, Chief Justice John Marshall stated that the authority to interpret the law was the particular province of the courts, part of the duty of the judicial department to say what the law is. His contention was not that the Court had privileged insight into constitutional requirements, but that it was the constitutional duty of the judiciary, as well as the other branches of government, to read and obey the dictates of the Constitution.
Since the founding of the republic, there has been a tension between the practice of judicial review and the democratic ideals of egalitarianism, self - government, self - determination and freedom of conscience. At one pole are those who view the Federal Judiciary and especially the Supreme Court as being "the most separated and least checked of all branches of government. '' Indeed, federal judges and justices on the Supreme Court are not required to stand for election by virtue of their tenure "during good behavior '', and their pay may "not be diminished '' while they hold their position (Section 1 of Article Three). Though subject to the process of impeachment, only one Justice has ever been impeached and no Supreme Court Justice has been removed from office. At the other pole are those who view the judiciary as the least dangerous branch, with little ability to resist the exhortations of the other branches of government. The Supreme Court, it is noted, can not directly enforce its rulings; instead, it relies on respect for the Constitution and for the law for adherence to its judgments. One notable instance of nonacquiescence came in 1832, when the state of Georgia ignored the Supreme Court 's decision in Worcester v. Georgia. President Andrew Jackson, who sided with the Georgia courts, is supposed to have remarked, "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it! ''; however, this alleged quotation has been disputed. Some state governments in the South also resisted the desegregation of public schools after the 1954 judgment Brown v. Board of Education. More recently, many feared that President Nixon would refuse to comply with the Court 's order in United States v. Nixon (1974) to surrender the Watergate tapes. Nixon, however, ultimately complied with the Supreme Court 's ruling.
Supreme Court decisions can be (and have been) purposefully overturned by constitutional amendment, which has happened on five occasions:
When the Court rules on matters involving the interpretation of laws rather than of the Constitution, simple legislative action can reverse the decisions (for example, in 2009 Congress passed the Lilly Ledbetter act, superseding the limitations given in Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. in 2007). Also, the Supreme Court is not immune from political and institutional consideration: lower federal courts and state courts sometimes resist doctrinal innovations, as do law enforcement officials.
In addition, the other two branches can restrain the Court through other mechanisms. Congress can increase the number of justices, giving the President power to influence future decisions by appointments (as in Roosevelt 's Court Packing Plan discussed above). Congress can pass legislation that restricts the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and other federal courts over certain topics and cases: this is suggested by language in Section 2 of Article Three, where the appellate jurisdiction is granted "with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make. '' The Court sanctioned such congressional action in the Reconstruction case ex parte McCardle (1869), though it rejected Congress ' power to dictate how particular cases must be decided in United States v. Klein (1871).
On the other hand, through its power of judicial review, the Supreme Court has defined the scope and nature of the powers and separation between the legislative and executive branches of the federal government; for example, in United States v. Curtiss - Wright Export Corp. (1936), Dames & Moore v. Regan (1981), and notably in Goldwater v. Carter (1979), (where it effectively gave the Presidency the power to terminate ratified treaties without the consent of Congress or the Senate). The Court 's decisions can also impose limitations on the scope of Executive authority, as in Humphrey 's Executor v. United States (1935), the Steel Seizure Case (1952), and United States v. Nixon (1974).
Each Supreme Court justice hires several law Clerks to review petitions for writ of certiorari, research them, prepare bench memorandums, and draft opinions. Associate justices are allowed four clerks. The chief justice is allowed five clerks, but Chief Justice Rehnquist hired only three per year, and Chief Justice Roberts usually hires only four. Generally, law clerks serve a term of one to two years.
The first law clerk was hired by Associate Justice Horace Gray in 1882. Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. and Louis Brandeis were the first Supreme Court justices to use recent law school graduates as clerks, rather than hiring a "stenographer - secretary ''. Most law clerks are recent law school graduates.
The first female clerk was Lucile Lomen, hired in 1944 by Justice William O. Douglas. The first African - American, William T. Coleman, Jr., was hired in 1948 by Justice Felix Frankfurter. A disproportionately large number of law clerks have obtained law degrees from elite law schools, especially Harvard, Yale, the University of Chicago, Columbia, and Stanford. From 1882 to 1940, 62 % of law clerks were graduates of Harvard Law School. Those chosen to be Supreme Court law clerks usually have graduated in the top of their law school class and were often an editor of the law review or a member of the moot court board. By the mid-1970s, clerking previously for a judge in a federal court of appeals had also become a prerequisite to clerking for a Supreme Court justice.
Seven Supreme Court justices previously clerked for other justices: Byron White for Frederick M. Vinson, John Paul Stevens for Wiley Rutledge, William Rehnquist for Robert H. Jackson, Stephen Breyer for Arthur Goldberg, John Roberts for William Rehnquist, Elena Kagan for Thurgood Marshall and Neil Gorsuch for both Byron White and Anthony Kennedy. Gorsuch is the first justice to serve alongside a justice for whom he or she clerked.
Several current Supreme Court justices have also clerked in the federal courts of appeals: John Roberts for Judge Henry Friendly of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, Justice Samuel Alito for Judge Leonard I. Garth of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, Elena Kagan for Judge Abner J. Mikva of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, and Neil Gorsuch for Judge David B. Sentelle of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia.
Clerks hired by each of the justices of the Supreme Court are often given considerable leeway in the opinions they draft. "Supreme Court clerkship appeared to be a nonpartisan institution from the 1940s into the 1980s '', according to a study published in 2009 by the law review of Vanderbilt University Law School. "As law has moved closer to mere politics, political affiliations have naturally and predictably become proxies for the different political agendas that have been pressed in and through the courts '', former federal court of appeals judge J. Michael Luttig said. David J. Garrow, professor of history at the University of Cambridge, stated that the Court had thus begun to mirror the political branches of government. "We are getting a composition of the clerk workforce that is getting to be like the House of Representatives '', Professor Garrow said. "Each side is putting forward only ideological purists. ''
According to the Vanderbilt Law Review study, this politicized hiring trend reinforces the impression that the Supreme Court is "a superlegislature responding to ideological arguments rather than a legal institution responding to concerns grounded in the rule of law. '' A poll conducted in June 2012 by The New York Times and CBS News showed just 44 % of Americans approve of the job the Supreme Court is doing. Three - quarters said justices ' decisions are sometimes influenced by their political or personal views.
The court has been the object of criticisms on a range of issues. Among them:
The Supreme Court has been criticized for not keeping within Constitutional bounds by engaging in judicial activism, rather than merely interpreting law and exercising judicial restraint. Claims of judicial activism are not confined to any particular ideology. An often cited example of conservative judicial activism is the 1905 decision in Lochner v. New York, which has been criticized by many prominent thinkers, including Robert Bork, Justice Antonin Scalia, and Chief Justice John Roberts, and which was reversed in the 1930s. An often cited example of liberal judicial activism is Roe v. Wade (1973), which legalized abortion in part on the basis of the "right to privacy '' inferred from the Fourteenth Amendment, a reasoning that some critics argued was circuitous. Legal scholars, justices, and presidential candidates have criticized the Roe decision. The progressive Brown v. Board of Education decision has been criticized by conservatives such as Patrick Buchanan and former presidential contender Barry Goldwater. More recently, Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission was criticized for expanding upon the precedent in First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti (1978) that the First Amendment applies to corporations. Lincoln warned, referring to the Dred Scott decision, that if government policy became "irrevocably fixed by decisions of the Supreme Court... the people will have ceased to be their own rulers. '' Former justice Thurgood Marshall justified judicial activism with these words: "You do what you think is right and let the law catch up. '' During different historical periods, the Court has leaned in different directions. Critics from both sides complain that activist - judges abandon the Constitution and substitute their own views instead. Critics include writers such as Andrew Napolitano, Phyllis Schlafly, Mark R. Levin, Mark I. Sutherland, and James MacGregor Burns. Past presidents from both parties have attacked judicial activism, including Franklin D. Roosevelt, Richard Nixon, and Ronald Reagan. Failed Supreme Court nominee Robert Bork wrote: "What judges have wrought is a coup d'état, -- slow - moving and genteel, but a coup d'état nonetheless. '' Senator Al Franken quipped that when politicians talk about judicial activism, "their definition of an activist judge is one who votes differently than they would like. '' One law professor claimed in a 1978 article that the Supreme Court is in some respects "certainly a legislative body. ''
Court decisions have been criticized for failing to protect individual rights: the Dred Scott (1857) decision upheld slavery; Plessy v Ferguson (1896) upheld segregation under the doctrine of separate but equal; Kelo v. City of New London (2005) was criticized by prominent politicians, including New Jersey governor Jon Corzine, as undermining property rights. Some critics suggest the 2009 bench with a conservative majority has "become increasingly hostile to voters '' by siding with Indiana 's voter identification laws which tend to "disenfranchise large numbers of people without driver 's licenses, especially poor and minority voters '', according to one report. Senator Al Franken criticized the Court for "eroding individual rights. '' However, others argue that the Court is too protective of some individual rights, particularly those of people accused of crimes or in detention. For example, Chief Justice Warren Burger was an outspoken critic of the exclusionary rule, and Justice Scalia criticized the Court 's decision in Boumediene v. Bush for being too protective of the rights of Guantanamo detainees, on the grounds that habeas corpus was "limited '' to sovereign territory.
This criticism is related to complaints about judicial activism. George Will wrote that the Court has an "increasingly central role in American governance. '' It was criticized for intervening in bankruptcy proceedings regarding ailing carmaker Chrysler Corporation in 2009. A reporter wrote that "Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg 's intervention in the Chrysler bankruptcy '' left open the "possibility of further judicial review '' but argued overall that the intervention was a proper use of Supreme Court power to check the executive branch. Warren E. Burger, before becoming Chief Justice, argued that since the Supreme Court has such "unreviewable power '' it is likely to "self - indulge itself '' and unlikely to "engage in dispassionate analysis ''. Larry Sabato wrote "excessive authority has accrued to the federal courts, especially the Supreme Court. ''
British constitutional scholar Adam Tomkins sees flaws in the American system of having courts (and specifically the Supreme Court) act as checks on the Executive and Legislative branches; he argues that because the courts must wait, sometimes for years, for cases to navigate their way through the system, their ability to restrain other branches is severely weakened. In contrast, the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany for example, can directly declare a law unconstitutional upon request.
There has been debate throughout American history about the boundary between federal and state power. While Framers such as James Madison and Alexander Hamilton argued in The Federalist Papers that their then - proposed Constitution would not infringe on the power of state governments, others argue that expansive federal power is good and consistent with the Framers ' wishes. The Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution explicitly grants "powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. '' The Supreme Court has been criticized for giving the federal government too much power to interfere with state authority. One criticism is that it has allowed the federal government to misuse the Commerce Clause by upholding regulations and legislation which have little to do with interstate commerce, but that were enacted under the guise of regulating interstate commerce; and by voiding state legislation for allegedly interfering with interstate commerce. For example, the Commerce Clause was used by the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals to uphold the Endangered Species Act, thus protecting six endemic species of insect near Austin, Texas, despite the fact that the insects had no commercial value and did not travel across state lines; the Supreme Court let that ruling stand without comment in 2005. Chief Justice John Marshall asserted Congress 's power over interstate commerce was "complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations, other than are prescribed in the Constitution. '' Justice Alito said congressional authority under the Commerce Clause is "quite broad. '' Modern day theorist Robert B. Reich suggests debate over the Commerce Clause continues today. Advocates of states ' rights such as constitutional scholar Kevin Gutzman have also criticized the Court, saying it has misused the Fourteenth Amendment to undermine state authority. Justice Brandeis, in arguing for allowing the states to operate without federal interference, suggested that states should be laboratories of democracy. One critic wrote "the great majority of Supreme Court rulings of unconstitutionality involve state, not federal, law. '' However, others see the Fourteenth Amendment as a positive force that extends "protection of those rights and guarantees to the state level. ''
The Court has been criticized for keeping its deliberations hidden from public view. According to a review of Jeffrey Toobin 's expose The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court; "Its inner workings are difficult for reporters to cover, like a closed ' cartel ', only revealing itself through ' public events and printed releases, with nothing about its inner workings. ' The reviewer writes: "few (reporters) dig deeply into court affairs. It all works very neatly; the only ones hurt are the American people, who know little about nine individuals with enormous power over their lives. '' Larry Sabato complains about the Court 's "insularity. '' A Fairleigh Dickinson University poll conducted in 2010 found that 61 % of American voters agreed that televising Court hearings would "be good for democracy '', and 50 % of voters stated they would watch Court proceedings if they were televised. In recent years, many justices have appeared on television, written books and made public statements to journalists. In a 2009 interview on C - SPAN, journalists Joan Biskupic (of USA Today) and Lyle Denniston (of SCOTUSblog) argued that the Court is a "very open '' institution with only the justices ' private conferences inaccessible to others. In October 2010, the Court began the practice of posting on its website recordings and transcripts of oral arguments on the Friday after they occur.
Some Court decisions have been criticized for injecting the Court into the political arena, and deciding questions that are the purview of the other two branches of government. The Bush v. Gore decision, in which the Supreme Court intervened in the 2000 presidential election and effectively chose George W. Bush over Al Gore, has been criticized extensively, particularly by liberals. Another example are Court decisions on apportionment and re-districting: in Baker v. Carr, the court decided it could rule on apportionment questions; Justice Frankfurter in a "scathing dissent '' argued against the court wading into so - called political questions.
Senator Arlen Specter said the Court should "decide more cases ''. On the other hand, although Justice Scalia acknowledged in a 2009 interview that the number of cases that the Court hears now is smaller today than when he first joined the Supreme Court, he also stated that he has not changed his standards for deciding whether to review a case, nor does he believe his colleagues have changed their standards. He attributed the high volume of cases in the late 1980s, at least in part, to an earlier flurry of new federal legislation that was making its way through the courts.
Critic Larry Sabato wrote: "The insularity of lifetime tenure, combined with the appointments of relatively young attorneys who give long service on the bench, produces senior judges representing the views of past generations better than views of the current day. '' Sanford Levinson has been critical of justices who stayed in office despite medical deterioration based on longevity. James MacGregor Burns stated lifelong tenure has "produced a critical time lag, with the Supreme Court institutionally almost always behind the times. '' Proposals to solve these problems include term limits for justices, as proposed by Levinson and Sabato as well as a mandatory retirement age proposed by Richard Epstein, among others. However, others suggest lifetime tenure brings substantial benefits, such as impartiality and freedom from political pressure. Alexander Hamilton in Federalist 78 wrote "nothing can contribute so much to its firmness and independence as permanency in office. ''
The 21st century has seen increased scrutiny of justices accepting expensive gifts and travel. All of the members of the Roberts Court have accepted travel or gifts. In 2012, Justice Sonia Sotomayor received $1.9 million in advances from her publisher Knopf Doubleday. Justice Scalia and others took dozens of expensive trips to exotic locations paid for by private donors. Private events sponsored by partisan groups that are attended by both the justices and those who have an interest in their decisions have raised concerns about access and inappropriate communications. Stephen Spaulding, the legal director at Common Cause, said: "There are fair questions raised by some of these trips about their commitment to being impartial. ''
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how did spirit and opportunity land on mars | Spirit (rover) - wikipedia
The launch patch for Spirit, featuring Marvin the Martian
Spirit, also known as MER - A (Mars Exploration Rover -- A) or MER - 2, is a robotic rover on Mars, active from 2004 to 2010. It was one of two rovers of NASA 's ongoing Mars Exploration Rover Mission. It landed successfully on Mars at 04: 35 Ground UTC on January 4, 2004, three weeks before its twin, Opportunity (MER - B), landed on the other side of the planet. Its name was chosen through a NASA - sponsored student essay competition. The rover became stuck in late 2009, and its last communication with Earth was sent on March 22, 2010.
The rover completed its planned 90 - sol mission. Aided by cleaning events that resulted in more energy from its solar panels, Spirit went on to function effectively over twenty times longer than NASA planners expected. Spirit also logged 7.73 km (4.8 mi) of driving instead of the planned 600 m (0.4 mi), allowing more extensive geological analysis of Martian rocks and planetary surface features. Initial scientific results from the first phase of the mission (the 90 - sol prime mission) were published in a special issue of the journal Science.
On May 1, 2009 (5 years, 3 months, 27 Earth days after landing; 21.6 times the planned mission duration), Spirit became stuck in soft soil. This was not the first of the mission 's "embedding events '' and for the following eight months NASA carefully analyzed the situation, running Earth - based theoretical and practical simulations, and finally programming the rover to make extrication drives in an attempt to free itself. These efforts continued until January 26, 2010 when NASA officials announced that the rover was likely irrecoverably obstructed by its location in soft soil, though it continued to perform scientific research from its current location.
The rover continued in a stationary science platform role until communication with Spirit stopped on sol 2210 (March 22, 2010). JPL continued to attempt to regain contact until May 24, 2011, when NASA announced that efforts to communicate with the unresponsive rover had ended, calling the mission complete. A formal farewell took place at NASA headquarters after the 2011 Memorial Day holiday and was televised on NASA TV.
The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, manages the Mars Exploration Rover project for NASA 's Office of Space Science, Washington.
The scientific objectives of the Mars Exploration Rover mission were to:
NASA sought evidence of life on Mars, beginning with the question of whether the Martian environment was ever suitable for life. Life forms known to science require water, so the history of water on Mars is a critical piece of knowledge. Although the Mars Exploration Rovers did not have the ability to detect life directly, they offered very important information on the habitability of the environment during the planet 's history.
Spirit (and its twin, Opportunity) are six - wheeled, solar - powered robots standing 1.5 meters (4.9 ft) high, 2.3 meters (7.5 ft) wide and 1.6 meters (5.2 ft) long and weighing 180 kilograms (400 lb). Six wheels on a rocker - bogie system enable mobility over rough terrain. Each wheel has its own motor. The vehicle is steered at front and rear and is designed to operate safely at tilts of up to 30 degrees. Maximum speed is 5 centimetres per second (2.0 in / s); 0.18 kilometers per hour (0.11 mph), although average speed is about 1 centimetre per second (0.39 in / s). Both Spirit and Opportunity have pieces of the fallen World Trade Center 's metal on them that were "turned into shields to protect cables on the drilling mechanisms ''.
Solar arrays generate about 140 watts for up to four hours per Martian day (sol) while rechargeable lithium ion batteries store energy for use at night. Spirit 's onboard computer uses a 20 MHz RAD6000 CPU with 128 MB of DRAM, 3 MB of EEPROM, and 256 MB of flash memory. The rover 's operating temperature ranges from − 40 to + 40 ° C (− 40 to 104 ° F) and radioisotope heater units provide a base level of heating, assisted by electrical heaters when necessary. A gold film and a layer of silica aerogel provide insulation.
Communications depends on an omnidirectional low - gain antenna communicating at a low data rate and a steerable high - gain antenna, both in direct contact with Earth. A low gain antenna is also used to relay data to spacecraft orbiting Mars.
Fixed science instruments include
The rover arm holds the following instruments
The cameras produce 1024 - pixel by 1024 - pixel images, the data is compressed, stored, and transmitted later.
The primary surface mission for Spirit was planned to last at least 90 sols. The mission received several extensions and lasted about 2,208 sols. On August 11, 2007, Spirit obtained the second longest operational duration on the surface of Mars for a lander or rover at 1282 Sols, one sol longer than the Viking 2 lander. Viking 2 was powered by a nuclear cell whereas Spirit is powered by solar arrays. Until Opportunity overtook it on May 19, 2010, the Mars probe with longest operational period was Viking 1 that lasted for 2245 Sols on the surface of Mars. On March 22, 2010, Spirit sent its last communication, thus falling just over a month short of surpassing Viking 1 's operational record. An archive of weekly updates on the rover 's status can be found at the Spirit Update Archive.
Spirit 's total odometry as of March 22, 2010 (sol 2210) is 7,730.50 meters (4.80 mi).
The Spirit Mars rover and lander arrived successfully on the surface of Mars on 04: 35 Ground UTC on January 4, 2004. This was the start of its 90 - sol mission, but solar cell cleaning events would mean it was the start of a much longer mission, lasting until 2010.
Spirit was targeted to a site that appears to have been affected by liquid water in the past, the crater Gusev, a possible former lake in a giant impact crater about 10 km (6.2 mi) from the center of the target ellipse at 14 ° 34 ′ 18 '' S 175 ° 28 ′ 43 '' E / 14.5718 ° S 175.4785 ° E / - 14.5718; 175.4785.
After the airbag - protected landing craft settled onto the surface, the rover rolled out to take panoramic images. These give scientists the information they need to select promising geological targets and drive to those locations to perform on - site scientific investigations. The panoramic image below shows a slightly rolling surface, littered with small rocks, with hills on the horizon up to 3 kilometers (1.9 mi) away. The MER team named the landing site "Columbia Memorial Station, '' in honor of the seven astronauts killed in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.
"Sleepy Hollow, '' a shallow depression in the Mars ground at the right side of the above picture, was targeted as an early destination when the rover drove off its lander platform. NASA scientists were very interested in this crater. It is 9 meters (30 ft) across and about 12 meters (39 ft) north of the lander.
To the right is the first color image derived from images taken by the panoramic camera on the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit. It was the highest resolution image taken on the surface of another planet. According to the camera designer Jim Bell of Cornell University, the panoramic mosaic consists of four pancam images high by three wide. The picture shown originally had a full size of 4,000 by 3,000 pixels. However, a complete pancam panorama is even 8 times larger than that, and could be taken in stereo (i.e., two complete pictures, making the resolution twice as large again.) The colors are fairly accurate. (For a technical explanation, see colors outside the range of the human eye.)
The MER pancams are black - and - white instruments. Thirteen rotating filter wheels produce multiple images of the same scene at different wavelengths. Once received on Earth, these images can be combined to produce color images.
On January 21, 2004 (sol 17), Spirit abruptly ceased communicating with mission control. The next day the rover radioed a 7.8 bit / s beep, confirming that it had received a transmission from Earth but indicating that the craft believed it was in a fault mode. Commands would only be responded to intermittently. This was described as a very serious anomaly, but potentially recoverable if it were a software or memory corruption issue rather than a serious hardware failure. Spirit was commanded to transmit engineering data, and on January 23 sent several short low - bitrate messages before finally transmitting 73 megabits via X band to Mars Odyssey. The readings from the engineering data suggested that the rover was not staying in sleep mode. As such, it was wasting its battery energy and overheating -- risk factors that could potentially destroy the rover if not fixed soon. On sol 20, the command team sent it the command SHUTDWN_DMT_TIL ("Shutdown Dammit Until ") to try to cause it to suspend itself until a given time. It seemingly ignored the command.
The leading theory at the time was that the rover was stuck in a "reboot loop ''. The rover was programmed to reboot if there was a fault aboard. However, if there was a fault that occurred during reboot, it would continue to reboot forever. The fact that the problem persisted through reboot suggested that the error was not in RAM, but in either the flash memory, the EEPROM, or a hardware fault. The last case would likely doom the rover. Anticipating the potential for errors in the flash memory and EEPROM, the designers had made it so that the rover could be booted without ever touching the flash memory. The radio itself could decode a limited command set -- enough to tell the rover to reboot without using flash. Without access to flash memory the reboot cycle was broken.
On sol 19 (January 24, 2004) the rover repair team announced that the problem was with Spirit 's flash memory and the software that wrote to it. The flash hardware was believed to be working correctly but the file management module in the software was "not robust enough '' for the operations the Spirit was engaged in when the problem occurred, indicating that the problem was caused by a software bug as opposed to faulty hardware. NASA engineers finally came to the conclusion that there were too many files on the file system, which was a relatively minor problem. Most of these files contained unneeded in - flight data. After realizing what the problem was, the engineers deleted some files, and eventually reformatted the entire flash memory system. On February 6 (sol 33), the rover was restored to its original working condition, and science activities resumed.
The round, shallow depression in this image resulted from the first intentional grinding of a rock on Mars. The Rock Abrasion Tool (aka "RAT '') on NASA 's Spirit rover ground off the surface of a patch 45.5 millimeters (1.79 in) in diameter on a rock called Adirondack during sol 32 (February 6, 2004). The hole is 2.65 millimeters (0.104 in) deep, exposing fresh interior material of the rock for close inspection with the rover 's microscopic imager and two spectrometers on the robotic arm. This image was taken by Spirit 's panoramic camera, providing a quick visual check of the success of the grinding.
"The RAT performed beyond our expectations, '' beamed Steve Gorevan, of Honeybee Robotics, New York, lead scientist for the rock abrasion tools on both rovers. "With the docile cutting parameters we set, I did n't think that it would cut this deep. In fact, when we saw virtually a complete circle, I was thrilled beyond anything I could have ever dreamed. Following up that glorious circular brushing -- it 's like back - to - back homers. ''
This color image taken by the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit 's panoramic camera on sol 39 (February 13, 2004) is centered on an unusually flaky rock called Mimi. Mimi is only one of many features in the area known as "Stone Council '', but looks very different from any rock that scientists have seen at the Gusev crater site so far. Mimi 's flaky appearance leads scientists to a number of hypotheses. Mimi could have been subjected to pressure either through burial or impact, or may have once been a dune that was cemented into flaky layers, a process that sometimes involves the action of water.
On March 5, 2004, NASA announced that Spirit had found hints of water history on Mars in a rock dubbed "Humphrey ''. Raymond Arvidson, the McDonnell University Professor and chair of Earth and Planetary Sciences at Washington University in St. Louis, reported during a NASA press conference: "If we found this rock on Earth, we would say it is a volcanic rock that had a little fluid moving through it. '' In contrast to the rocks found by the twin rover Opportunity, this one was formed from magma and then acquired bright material in small crevices, which look like crystallized minerals. If this interpretation holds true, the minerals were most likely dissolved in water, which was either carried inside the rock or interacted with it at a later stage, after it formed.
On sol 65 March 11, 2004, Spirit reached Bonneville crater after a 400 - yard (370 m) journey. This crater is about 200 meters (220 yd) across with a floor about 10 meters (11 yd) below the surface. JPL decided that it would be a bad idea to send the rover down into the crater, as they saw no targets of interest inside. Spirit drove along the southern rim and continued to the southwest towards the Columbia Hills.
Spirit reached Missoula crater on sol 105. The crater is roughly 100 yards (91 m) across and 20 yards (18 m) deep. Missoula crater was not considered a high priority target due to the older rocks it contained. The rover skirted the northern rim, and continued to the southeast. It then reached Lahontan crater on sol 118, and drove along the rim until sol 120. Lahontan is about 60 yards (55 m) across and about 10 yards (9.1 m) deep. A long, snaking sand dune stretches away from its southwestern side, and Spirit went around it, because loose sand dunes present an unknown risk to the ability of the rover wheels to get traction.
Spirit drove from Bonneville crater in a direct line to the Columbia Hills. The route was only directly controlled by the engineers when the terrain was difficult to navigate; otherwise, the rover drove in an autonomous mode. On sol 159, Spirit reached the first of many targets at the base of the Columbia Hills called West Spur. Hank 's Hollow was studied for 23 sols. Within Hank 's Hollow was the strange - looking rock dubbed "Pot of Gold ''. Analysing this rock was difficult for Spirit, because it lay in a slippery area. After a detailed analysis with the AXPS - and the Mößbauer instrument it was detected that it contains hematite. This kind of rock can be built in connection with water.
As the produced energy from the solar panels was lowering due to the setting sun and dust the Deep Sleep Mode was introduced. In this mode the rover was shut down completely during the night in order to save energy, even if the instruments would fail. The route was selected so that the rover 's panels were tilted as much as possible towards the winter sun.
From here, Spirit took a northerly path along the base of the hill towards the target Wooly Patch, which was studied from sol 192 to sol 199. By sol 203, Spirit had driven southward up the hill and arrived at the rock dubbed "Clovis ''. Clovis was ground and analyzed from sol 210 to sol 225. Following Clovis came the targets of Ebenezer (Sols 226 -- 235), Tetl (sol 270), Uchben and Palinque (Sols 281 -- 295), and Lutefisk (Sols 296 -- 303). From Sols 239 to 262, Spirit powered down for solar conjunction, when communications with the Earth are blocked. Slowly, Spirit made its way around the summit of Husband Hill, and at sol 344 was ready to climb over the newly designated "Cumberland Ridge '' and into "Larry 's Lookout '' and "Tennessee Valley ''. Spirit also did some communication tests with the ESA orbiter Mars Express though most of the communication was usually done with the NASA orbiters Mars Odyssey and Mars Global Surveyor.
Spirit had now been on Mars for one Earth year and was driving slowly uphill towards the top of Husband Hill. This was difficult because there were many rocky obstacles and sandy parts. This lead frequently to a slippage and the route could not be driven as planned. In February Spirit 's computer received a software update in order to drive more autonomously. On sol 371, Spirit arrived at a rock named "Peace '' near the top of Cumberland Ridge. Spirit ground Peace with the RAT on sol 373. By sol 390 (mid-February 2005), Spirit was advancing towards "Larry 's Lookout '', by driving up the hill in reverse. The scientists at this time were trying to conserve as much energy as possible for the climb.
Spirit also investigated some targets along the way, including the soil target, "Paso Robles '', which contained the highest amount of salt found on the red planet. The soil also contained a high amount of phosphorus in its composition, however not nearly as high as another rock sampled by Spirit, "Wishstone ''. Squyres said of the discovery, "We 're still trying to work out what this means, but clearly, with this much salt around, water had a hand here ''.
Pot of Gold rock
Spirit 's traverse up Husband Hill
Spirit artificially added to image (taken by itself) of Larry 's Lookout
Martian sunset by Spirit at Gusev crater, May 19, 2005.
On March 9, 2005 (probably during the Martian night), the rover 's solar panel efficiency jumped from around 60 % of what it had originally been to 93 %, followed on March 10, by the sighting of dust devils. NASA scientists speculate a dust devil must have swept the solar panels clean, possibly significantly extending the duration of the mission. This also marks the first time dust devils had been spotted by either Spirit or Opportunity, easily one of the top highlights of the mission to date. Dust devils had previously been photographed by only the Pathfinder probe.
Mission members monitoring Spirit on Mars reported on sol 421 March 12, 2005, that a lucky encounter with a dust devil had cleaned the robot 's solar panels. Energy levels dramatically increased and daily science work was anticipated to be expanded.
As of August Spirit was only 100 meters away from the top. Here it was found that Husband Hill has two summits, with one a little higher than the other. On September 29, the 618th sol Spirit reached the real summit of Husband Hill. The rover was the first spacecraft to climb atop a mountain on another planet. The whole distance driven totaled 4971 meters. The summit itself was flat. Spirit took a 360 degree panorama in real color, which included the whole Gusev crater. At night the rover observed the moons Phobos and Deimos in order to determine their orbits better. On sol 656 Spirit surveyed the Mars sky and the opacity of the atmosphere with its pancam to make a coordinated science campaign with the Hubble Space Telescope in Earth orbit.
From the peak Spirit spotted a striking formation, which was dubbed "Home Plate ''. This was an interesting target, but Spirit would be driven later to the McCool Hill to tilt its solar panels towards the sun in the coming winter. At the end of October the rover was driven downhill and to Home Plate. On the way down Spirit reached the rock formation named "Comanche '' on sol 690. Scientists used data from all three spectrometers to find out that about one - fourth of the composition of Comanche is magnesium iron carbonate. That concentration is 10 times higher than for any previously identified carbonate in a Martian rock. Carbonates originate in wet, near - neutral conditions but dissolve in acid. The find at Comanche is the first unambiguous evidence from the Mars Exploration Mission rovers for a past Martian environment that may have been more favorable to life than the wet but acidic conditions indicated by the rovers ' earlier finds.
In 2006 Spirit drove towards an area dubbed Home Plate, and reached it in February. For events in 2006 by NASA see NASA Spirit Archive 2006
Spirit 's next stop was originally planned to be the north face of McCool Hill, where Spirit would receive adequate sunlight during the Martian winter. On March 16, 2006 JPL announced that Spirit 's troublesome front wheel had stopped working altogether. Despite this, Spirit was still making progress toward McCool Hill because the control team programmed the rover to drive toward McCool Hill backwards, dragging its broken wheel. In late March, Spirit encountered loose soil that was impeding its progress toward McCool Hill. A decision was made to terminate attempts to reach McCool Hill and instead park on a nearby ridge named Low Ridge Haven.
Spirit arrived at the north west corner of Home Plate, a raised and layered outcrop on sol 744 (February 2006) after an effort to maximize driving. Scientific observations were conducted with Spirit 's robotic arm.
Reaching the ridge on April 9, 2006 and parking on the ridge with an 11 ° incline to the north, Spirit spent the next eight months on the ridge, spending that time undertaking observations of changes in the surrounding area. No drives were attempted because of the low energy levels the rover was experiencing during the Martian winter. The rover made its first drive, a short turn to position targets of interest within reach of the robotic arm, in early November 2006, following the shortest days of winter and solar conjunction when communications with Earth were severely limited.
While at Low Ridge, Spirit imaged two rocks of similar chemical nature to that of Opportunity 's Heat Shield Rock, a meteorite on the surface of Mars. Named "Zhong Shan '' for Sun Yat - sen and "Allan Hills '' for the location in Antarctica where several Martian meteorites have been found, they stood out against the background rocks that were darker. Further spectrographic testing is being done to determine the exact composition of these rocks, which may turn out to also be meteorites.
On sol 1067, January 4, 2007, both rovers received new flight software to the onboard computers. The update was received just in time for the third anniversary of their landing. The new systems let the rovers decide whether or not to transmit an image, and whether or not to extend their arms to examine rocks, which would save much time for scientists as they would not have to sift through hundreds of images to find the one they want, or examine the surroundings to decide to extend the arms and examine the rocks.
Spirit 's dead wheel turned out to be a mixed blessing. As it was traveling in March 2007, pulling the dead wheel behind, the wheel scraped off the upper layer of the Martian soil, uncovering a patch of ground that scientists say shows evidence of a past environment that would have been perfect for microbial life. It is similar to areas on Earth where water or steam from hot springs came into contact with volcanic rocks. On Earth, these are locations that tend to teem with bacteria, said rover chief scientist Steve Squyres. "We 're really excited about this, '' he told a meeting of the American Geophysical Union (AGU). The area is extremely rich in silica -- the main ingredient of window glass. The researchers have now concluded that the bright material must have been produced in one of two ways. One: hot - spring deposits produced when water dissolved silica at one location and then carried it to another (i.e. a geyser). Two: acidic steam rising through cracks in rocks stripped them of their mineral components, leaving silica behind. "The important thing is that whether it is one hypothesis or the other, the implications for the former habitability of Mars are pretty much the same, '' Squyres explained to BBC News. Hot water provides an environment in which microbes can thrive and the precipitation of that silica entombs and preserves them. Squyres added, "You can go to hot springs and you can go to fumaroles and at either place on Earth it is teeming with life -- microbial life. ''
During 2007 Spirit spent several months near the base of the Home Plate plateau. On sol 1306 Spirit climbed onto the eastern edge of the plateau. In September and October it examined rocks and soils at several locations on the southern half of the plateau. On November 6, Spirit had reached the western edge of Home Plate, and started taking pictures for a panoramic overview of the western valley, with Grissom Hill and Husband Hill visible. The panorama image was published on NASA 's website on January 3, 2008 to little attention, until January 23, when an independent website published a magnified detail of the image that showed a rock feature a few centimeters high resembling a humanoid figure seen from the side with its right arm partially raised.
Towards the end of June 2007, a series of dust storms began clouding the Martian atmosphere with dust. The storms intensified and by July 20, both Spirit and Opportunity were facing the real possibility of system failure due to lack of energy. NASA released a statement to the press that said (in part) "We 're rooting for our rovers to survive these storms, but they were never designed for conditions this intense ''. The key problem caused by the dust storms was a dramatic reduction in solar energy caused by there being so much dust in the atmosphere that it was blocking 99 percent of direct sunlight to Opportunity, and slightly more to Spirit.
Normally the solar arrays on the rovers are able to generate up to 700 watt - hours (2,500 kJ) of energy per Martian day. After the storms, the amount of energy generated was greatly reduced to 128 watt - hours (460 kJ). If the rovers generate less than 150 watt - hours (540 kJ) per day they must start draining their batteries to run survival heaters. If the batteries run dry, key electrical elements are likely to fail due to the intense cold. Both rovers were put into the lowest - power setting in order to wait out the storms. In early August the storms began to clear slightly, allowing the rovers to successfully charge their batteries. They were kept in hibernation in order to wait out the remainder of the storm.
The main concern was the energy level for Spirit. To increase the amount of light hitting the solar panels, the rover was parked in the northern part of Home Plate on as steep a slope as possible. It was expected that the level of dust cover on the solar panels would increase by 70 percent and that a slope of 30 degrees would be necessary to survive the winter. In February, a tilt of 29.9 degrees was achieved. Extra energy was available at times, and a high definition panorama named Bonestell was produced. At other times there was only enough solar energy to recharge the batteries, communication with Earth was minimized and all unnecessary instruments were switched off. At winter solstice the energy production declined to 235 watt hours per sol.
On November 10, 2008, a large dust storm further reduced the output of the solar panels to 89 watt - hours (320 kJ) per day -- a critically low level. NASA officials were hopeful that Spirit would survive the storm, and that the energy level would rise once the storm had passed and the skies started clearing. They attempted to conserve energy by shutting down systems for extended periods of time, including the heaters. On November 13, 2008 the rover awoke and communicated with mission control as scheduled.
From sols 1728 to 1734, November 14, 2008 to November 20, 2008 Spirit averaged 169 watt - hours (610 kJ) per day. The heaters for the thermal emission spectrometer, which used about 27 watt - hours (97 kJ) per day, were disabled on November 11, 2008. Tests on the thermal emission spectrometer indicate that it was undamaged, and the heaters would be enabled with sufficient energy. The solar conjunction, where the Sun is between Earth and Mars, started on November 29, 2008 and communication with the rovers was not possible until December 13, 2008.
On February 6, 2009, a beneficial wind blew off some of the dust accumulated on the panels. This led to an increase in energy output to 240 watt - hours (860 kJ) per day. NASA officials stated that this increase in energy was to be used predominantly for driving.
On sol 1879 April 18, 2009 and sol 1889 April 28, 2009 energy output of the solar arrays were increased by cleaning events. The energy output of Spirit 's solar arrays climbed from 223 watt - hours (800 kJ) per day on March 31, 2009 to 372 watt - hours (1,340 kJ) per day on April 29, 2009.
On sol 1892 (May 1, 2009), the rover became stuck in soft soil, the machine resting upon a cache of iron (III) sulfate (jarosite) hidden under a veneer of normal - looking soil. Iron sulfate has very little cohesion, making it difficult for the rover 's wheels to gain traction.
JPL team members simulated the situation by means of a rover mock - up and computer models in an attempt to get the rover back on track. To reproduce the same soil mechanical conditions on Earth as those prevailing on Mars under low gravity and under very weak atmospheric pressure, tests with a lighter version of a mock - up of Spirit were conducted at JPL in a special sandbox to attempt to simulate the cohesion behavior of poorly consolidated soils under low gravity. Preliminary extrication drives began on November 17, 2009.
On sol 2116 December 17, 2009, the right - front wheel suddenly began to operate normally for the first three out of four rotations attempts. It was unknown what effect it would have on freeing the rover if the wheel became fully operational again. The right rear wheel had also stalled on sol 2097 November 28 and remained inoperable for the remainder of the mission. This left the rover with only four fully operational wheels. If the team could not gain movement and adjust the tilt of the solar panels, or gain a beneficial wind to clean the panels, the rover would only be able to sustain operations until May 2010.
On sol 2155 January 26, 2010, after several months attempting to free the rover, NASA decided to redefine the mobile robot mission by calling it a stationary research platform. Efforts were directed in preparing a more suitable orientation of the platform in relation to the Sun in an attempt to allow a more efficient recharge of the platform 's batteries. This was needed to keep some systems operational during the Martian winter. On March 30, 2010, Spirit skipped a planned communication session and as anticipated from recent power - supply projections, had probably entered a low - power hibernation mode.
The last communication with the rover was on sol 2210 (March 22, 2010) and there is a strong possibility the rover 's batteries lost so much energy at some point that the mission clock stopped. In previous winters the rover was able to park on a Sun - facing slope and keep its internal temperature above − 40 ° C, but since the rover was stuck on flat ground it is estimated that its internal temperature dropped to − 55 ° C. If Spirit had survived these conditions and there had been a cleaning event, there was a possibility that with the southern summer solstice in March 2011, solar energy would increase to a level that would wake up the rover.
Spirit remains silent at its location, called "Troy, '' on the west side of Home Plate. As of 2016, there has been no communication with the rover since Sol 2210 (March 22, 2010).
It is likely that Spirit experienced a low - power fault and had turned off all sub-systems, including communication, and gone into a deep sleep, trying to recharge its batteries. It is also possible that the rover had experienced a mission clock fault. If that had happened, the rover would have lost track of time and tried to remain asleep until enough sunlight struck the solar arrays to wake it. This state is called "Solar Groovy. '' If the rover woke up from a mission clock fault, it would only listen. Starting on Sol 2333 (July 26, 2010), a new procedure to address the possible mission clock fault was implemented.
Each sol, the Deep Space Network mission controllers sent a set of X-band "Sweep & Beep '' commands. If the rover had experienced a mission clock fault and then had been awoken during the day, it would have listened during brief, 20 - minute intervals during each hour awake. Due to the possible clock fault, the timing of these 20 - minute listening intervals was not known, so multiple "Sweep & Beep '' commands were sent. If the rover heard one of these commands, it would have responded with an X-band beep signal, updating the mission controllers on its status and allowing them to investigate the state of the rover further. But even with this new strategy, there was no response from the rover.
The rover had driven 7,730.50 meters (4.80 miles) until it became immobile.
JPL continued attempts to regain contact with Spirit until May 25, 2011, when NASA announced the end of contact efforts and the completion of the mission. According to NASA, the rover likely experienced excessively cold "internal temperatures '' due to "inadequate energy to run its survival heaters '' that, in turn, was a result of "a stressful Martian winter without much sunlight. '' Many critical components and connections would have been "susceptible to damage from the cold. '' Assets that had been needed to support Spirit were transitioned to support Spirit 's "still - active twin '', Opportunity, as well as the next - generation Mars rover Curiosity. Two NASA Mars orbiters and the Deep Space Network of antennas were prepared for the Curiosity launch that took place on November 26, 2011.
The rocks on the plains of Gusev are a type of basalt. They contain the minerals olivine, pyroxene, plagioclase, and magnetite, and they look like volcanic basalt as they are fine - grained with irregular holes (geologists would say they have vesicles and vugs).
Much of the soil on the plains came from the breakdown of the local rocks. Fairly high levels of nickel were found in some soils; probably from meteorites.
Analysis shows that the rocks have been slightly altered by tiny amounts of water. Outside coatings and cracks inside the rocks suggest water deposited minerals, maybe bromine compounds. All the rocks contain a fine coating of dust and one or more harder rinds of material. One type can be brushed off, while another needed to be ground off by the Rock Abrasion Tool (RAT).
There are a variety of rocks in the Columbia Hills (Mars), some of which have been altered by water, but not by very much water.
The dust in Gusev Crater is the same as dust all around the planet. All the dust was found to be magnetic. Moreover, Spirit found the magnetism was caused by the mineral magnetite, especially magnetite that contained the element titanium. One magnet was able to completely divert all dust hence all Martian dust is thought to be magnetic. The spectra of the dust was similar to spectra of bright, low thermal inertia regions like Tharsis and Arabia that have been detected by orbiting satellites. A thin layer of dust, maybe less than one millimeter thick covers all surfaces. Something in it contains a small amount of chemically bound water.
Observations of rocks on the plains show they contain the minerals pyroxene, olivine, plagioclase, and magnetite. These rocks can be classified in different ways. The amounts and types of minerals make the rocks primitive basalts -- also called picritic basalts. The rocks are similar to ancient terrestrial rocks called basaltic komatiites. Rocks of the plains also resemble the basaltic shergottites, meteorites that came from Mars. One classification system compares the amount of alkali elements to the amount of silica on a graph; in this system, Gusev plains rocks lie near the junction of basalt, picrobasalt, and tephite. The Irvine - Barager classification calls them basalts. Plains rocks have been very slightly altered, probably by thin films of water because they are softer and contain veins of light colored material that may be bromine compounds, as well as coatings or rinds. It is thought that small amounts of water may have gotten into cracks inducing mineralization processes). Coatings on the rocks may have occurred when rocks were buried and interacted with thin films of water and dust. One sign that they were altered was that it was easier to grind these rocks compared to the same types of rocks found on Earth.
Cross-sectional drawing of a typical rock from the plains of Gusev crater. Most rocks contain a coating of dust and one or more harder coatings. Veins of water - deposited minerals are visible, along with crystals of olivine. Veins may contain bromine salts.
Scientists found a variety of rock types in the Columbia Hills, and they placed them into six different categories. The six are: Clovis, Wishbone, Peace, Watchtower, Backstay, and Independence. They are named after a prominent rock in each group. Their chemical compositions, as measured by APXS, are significantly different from each other. Most importantly, all of the rocks in Columbia Hills show various degrees of alteration due to aqueous fluids. They are enriched in the elements phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine, and bromine -- all of which can be carried around in water solutions. The Columbia Hills ' rocks contain basaltic glass, along with varying amounts of olivine and sulfates. The olivine abundance varies inversely with the amount of sulfates. This is exactly what is expected because water destroys olivine but helps to produce sulfates.
Acid fog is believed to have changed some of the Watchtower rocks. This was in a 200 meter long section of Cumberland Ridge and the Husband Hill summit. Certain places became less crystalline and more amorphous. Acidic water vapor from volcanoes dissolved some minerals forming a gel. When water evaporated a cement formed and produced small bumps. This type of process has been observed in the lab when basalt rocks are exposed to sulfuric and hydrochloric acids.
The Clovis group is especially interesting because the Mössbauer spectrometer (MB) detected goethite in it. Goethite forms only in the presence of water, so its discovery is the first direct evidence of past water in the Columbia Hills 's rocks. In addition, the MB spectra of rocks and outcrops displayed a strong decline in olivine presence, although the rocks probably once contained much olivine. Olivine is a marker for the lack of water because it easily decomposes in the presence of water. Sulfate was found, and it needs water to form. Wishstone contained a great deal of plagioclase, some olivine, and anhydrate (a sulfate). Peace rocks showed sulfur and strong evidence for bound water, so hydrated sulfates are suspected. Watchtower class rocks lack olivine consequently they may have been altered by water. The Independence class showed some signs of clay (perhaps montmorillonite a member of the smectite group). Clays require fairly long term exposure to water to form. One type of soil, called Paso Robles, from the Columbia Hills, may be an evaporate deposit because it contains large amounts of sulfur, phosphorus, calcium, and iron. Also, MB found that much of the iron in Paso Robles soil was of the oxidized, Fe form, which would happen if water had been present.
Towards the middle of the six - year mission (a mission that was supposed to last only 90 days), large amounts of pure silica were found in the soil. The silica could have come from the interaction of soil with acid vapors produced by volcanic activity in the presence of water or from water in a hot spring environment.
After Spirit stopped working scientists studied old data from the Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer, or Mini-TES and confirmed the presence of large amounts of carbonate - rich rocks, which means that regions of the planet may have once harbored water. The carbonates were discovered in an outcrop of rocks called "Comanche. ''
In summary, Spirit found evidence of slight weathering on the plains of Gusev, but no evidence that a lake was there. However, in the Columbia Hills there was clear evidence for a moderate amount of aqueous weathering. The evidence included sulfates and the minerals goethite and carbonates that only form in the presence of water. It is believed that Gusev crater may have held a lake long ago, but it has since been covered by igneous materials. All the dust contains a magnetic component that was identified as magnetite with some titanium. Furthermore, the thin coating of dust that covers everything on Mars is the same in all parts of Mars.
Spirit pointed its cameras towards the sky and observed a transit of the Sun by Mars ' moon Deimos (see Transit of Deimos from Mars). It also took the first photo of Earth from the surface of another planet in early March 2004.
In late 2005, Spirit took advantage of a favorable energy situation to make multiple nighttime observations of both of Mars ' moons Phobos and Deimos. These observations included a "lunar '' (or rather phobian) eclipse as Spirit watched Phobos disappear into Mars ' shadow. Some of Spirit 's star gazing was designed to look for a predicted meteor shower caused by Halley 's Comet, and although at least four imaged streaks were suspect meteors, they could not be unambiguously differentiated from those caused by cosmic rays.
A transit of Mercury from Mars took place on January 12, 2005 from about 14: 45 UTC to 23: 05 UTC. Theoretically, this could have been observed by both Spirit and Opportunity; however, camera resolution did not permit seeing Mercury 's 6.1 '' angular diameter. They were able to observe transits of Deimos across the Sun, but at 2 ' angular diameter, Deimos is about 20 times larger than Mercury 's 6.1 '' angular diameter. Ephemeris data generated by JPL Horizons indicates that Opportunity would have been able to observe the transit from the start until local sunset at about 19: 23 UTC Earth time, while Spirit would have been able to observe it from local sunrise at about 19: 38 UTC until the end of the transit.
Both rovers have passed their original mission time of 90 sols many times over and the extended time on the surface, and therefore additional stress on components, has resulted in some issues developing.
On sol 778 (March 13, 2006), the right front wheel ceased working after having covered 4.2 mi (7 km) on Mars. Engineers began driving the rover backwards, dragging the dead wheel. Although this resulted in changes to driving techniques, the dragging effect became a useful tool, partially clearing away soil on the surface as the rover traveled, thus allowing areas to be imaged that would normally be inaccessible. However, in mid-December 2009, to the surprise of the engineers, the right front wheel showed slight movement in a wheel - test on sol 2113 and clearly rotated with normal resistance on three of four wheel - tests on sol 2117, but stalled on the fourth. On sols 2100 -- 2101 (Nov 29, 2009), the right rear wheel also stalled and remained inoperable for the remainder of the mission.
Scientific instruments also experienced degradation as a result of exposure to the harsh Martian environment and use over a far longer period than had been anticipated by the mission planners. Over time, the diamond in the resin grinding surface of the Rock Abrasion Tool wore down, after that the device could only be used to brush targets. All of the other science instruments and engineering cameras continued to function until contact was lost; however, towards the end of Spirit 's life, the MIMOS II Mössbauer spectrometer took much longer to produce results than it did earlier in the mission because of the decay of its cobalt - 57 gamma ray source that has a half life of 271 days.
To commemorate Spirit 's great contribution to the exploration of Mars, the asteroid 37452 Spirit has been named after it. The name was proposed by Ingrid van Houten - Groeneveld who along with Cornelis Johannes van Houten and Tom Gehrels discovered the asteroid on September 24, 1960.
Reuben H. Fleet Science Center and the Liberty Science Center also have an IMAX show called Roving Mars that documents the journey of both Spirit and Opportunity, using both CG and actual imagery.
January 4, 2014 was celebrated as the tenth anniversary of its landing on many news sites, despite nearly four years since loss of communications.
To honor the rover, the JPL team named an area near Endeavour Crater explored by the Opportunity rover, ' Spirit Point '.
On 22 January 27, 2004 NASA memorialized the crew of Apollo 1 by naming three hills to the north of "Columbia Memorial Station '' as the Apollo 1 Hills. On 28 February 2, 2004 the astronauts on Space Shuttle Columbia 's final mission were further memorialized when NASA named a set of hills to the east of the landing site the Columbia Hills Complex, denoting seven peaks in that area as "Anderson '', "Brown '', "Chawla '', "Clark '', "Husband '', "McCool '', and "Ramon ''; NASA has submitted these geographical feature names to the IAU for approval.
The rover can take pictures with its different cameras. But only the PanCam camera has the ability to photograph a scene with different color filters. The panorama views are usually built up from PanCam images. Spirit has transferred 128,224 pictures in its lifetime.
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where does the yellow river start and end | Yellow River - wikipedia
The Yellow River or Huang He (listen) is the third longest river in Asia, after the Yangtze River and Yenisei River, and the sixth longest river system in the world at the estimated length of 5,464 km (3,395 mi). Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai province of Western China, it flows through nine provinces, and it empties into the Bohai Sea near the city of Dongying in Shandong province. The Yellow River basin has an east -- west extent of about 1,900 kilometers (1,180 mi) and a north -- south extent of about 1,100 km (680 mi). Its total drainage area is about 752,546 square kilometers (290,560 sq mi).
Its basin was the birthplace of ancient Chinese civilization, and it was the most prosperous region in early Chinese history. However, because of frequent devastating floods and course changes produced by the continual elevation of the river bed, sometimes above the level of its surrounding farm fields, it is also regarded as China 's Sorrow and Scourge of the Han People.
Early Chinese literature including the Yu Gong or Tribute of Yu dating to the Warring States period (475 -- 221 BC) refers to the Yellow River as simply 河 (Old Chinese: * C. gʕaj, modern Chinese (Pinyin) Hé), a character that has come to mean "river '' in modern usage. The first appearance of the name 黃河 (Old Chinese: * N - kwʕaŋ C. gʕaj; Middle Chinese: Huang Ha) is in the Book of Han written during the Eastern Han dynasty about the Western Han dynasty. The adjective "yellow '' describes the perennial color of the muddy water in the lower course of the river, which arises from soil (loess) being carried downstream.
One of its older Mongolian names was the "Black River '', because the river runs clear before it enters the Loess Plateau, but the current name of the river among Inner Mongolians is Ȟatan Gol (Хатан гол, "Queen River ''). In Mongolia itself, it is simply called the Šar Mörön (Шар мөрөн, "Yellow River '').
In Qinghai, the river 's Tibetan name is "River of the Peacock '' (Tibetan: རྨ ་ ཆུ །, Ma Chu; Chinese: s 玛 曲, t 瑪 曲, p Mǎ Qū ')
The Yellow River is one of several rivers that are essential for China 's very existence. At the same time, however, it has been responsible for several deadly floods, including the only natural disasters in recorded history to have killed more than a million people. The deadliest was a 1332 -- 33 flood that killed 7 million people. Close behind is the 1887 flood, which killed anywhere from 900,000 to 2 million people, and a 1931 flood (part of a massive number of floods that year) that killed 1 -- 4 million people.
The cause of the floods is the large amount of fine - grained loess carried by the river from the Loess Plateau, which is continuously deposited along the bottom of its channel. The sedimentation causes natural dams to slowly accumulate. These subaqueous dams were unpredictable and generally undetectable. Eventually, the enormous amount of water has to find a new way to the sea, forcing it to take the path of least resistance. When this happens, it bursts out across the flat North China Plain, sometimes taking a new channel and inundating any farmland, cities or towns in its path. The traditional Chinese response of building higher and higher levees along the banks sometimes also contributed to the severity of the floods: When flood water did break through the levees, it could no longer drain back into the river bed as it would after a normal flood as the river bed was sometimes now higher than the surrounding countryside. These changes could cause the river 's mouth to shift as much as 480 km (300 mi), sometimes reaching the ocean to the north of Shandong Peninsula and sometimes to the south.
Another historical source of devastating floods is the collapse of upstream ice dams in Inner Mongolia with an accompanying sudden release of vast quantities of impounded water. There have been 11 such major floods in the past century, each causing tremendous loss of life and property. Nowadays, explosives dropped from aircraft are used to break the ice dams before they become dangerous.
Before modern dams came to China, the Yellow River was extremely prone to flooding. In the 2,540 years from 595 BCE to 1946 CE, the Yellow River has been reckoned to have flooded 1,593 times, shifting its course 26 times noticeably and nine times severely. These floods include some of the deadliest natural disasters ever recorded. Before modern disaster management, when floods occurred, some of the population might initially die from drowning but then many more would suffer from the ensuing famine and spread of diseases.
In Chinese mythology, the giant Kua Fu drained the Yellow River and the Wei River to quench his burning thirst as he pursued the Sun. Historical documents from the Spring and Autumn period and Qin Dynasty indicate that the Yellow River at that time flowed considerably north of its present course. These accounts show that after the river passed Luoyang, it flowed along the border between Shanxi and Henan Provinces, then continued along the border between Hebei and Shandong before emptying into Bohai Bay near present - day Tianjin. Another outlet followed essentially the present course.
The river left these paths in 602 BC and shifted completely south of the Shandong Peninsula. Sabotage of dikes, canals, and reservoirs and deliberate flooding of rival states became a standard military tactic during the Warring States period. As the Yellow River valley was the major entryway to the Guanzhong area and the state of Qin from the North China Plain, Qin heavily fortified the Hangu Pass; it saw numerous battles and was also an important chokepoint protecting the Han capitals of Chang'an and Luoyang. Major flooding in AD 11 is credited with the downfall of the short - lived Xin dynasty, and another flood in AD 70 returned the river north of Shandong on essentially its present course.
From around the beginning of the 3rd century, the importance of the Hangu Pass was reduced, with the major fortifications and military bases moved upriver to Tongguan. In AD 923, the desperate Later Liang general Duan Ning again broke the dikes, flooding 1,000 square miles (2,600 km) in a failed attempt to protect his realm 's capital from the Later Tang. A similar proposal from the Song engineer Li Chun concerning flooding the lower reaches of the river to protect the central plains from the Khitai was overruled in 1020: the Treaty of Shanyuan between the two states had expressly forbidden the Song from establishing new moats or changing river courses.
Breaches occurred regardless: one at Henglong in 1034 divided the course in three and repeatedly flooded the northern regions of Dezhou and Bozhou. The Song worked for five years futilely attempting to restore the previous course -- using over 35,000 employees, 100,000 conscripts, and 220,000 tons of wood and bamboo in a single year -- before abandoning the project in 1041. The more sluggish river then occasioned a breach at Shanghu that sent the main outlet north towards Tianjin in 1048 and by 1194 blocked the mouth of the Huai River. The buildup of silt deposits was such that even after the Yellow River later shifted its course, the Huai could no longer flow along its historic course, but instead, its water pools into Hongze Lake and then runs southward toward the Yangtze River.
A flood in 1344 returned the Yellow River south of Shandong. The Yuan dynasty was waning, and the emperor forced enormous teams to build new embankments for the river. The terrible conditions helped to fuel rebellions that led to the founding of the Ming dynasty. The course changed again in 1391 when the river flooded from Kaifeng to Fengyang in Anhui. It was finally stabilized by the eunuch Li Xing during the public works projects following the 1494 flood. The river flooded many times in the 16th century, including in 1526, 1534, 1558, and 1587. Each flood affected the river 's lower course.
The 1642 flood was man - made, caused by the attempt of the Ming governor of Kaifeng to use the river to destroy the peasant rebels under Li Zicheng who had been besieging the city for the past six months. He directed his men to break the dikes in an attempt to flood the rebels, but destroyed his own city instead: the flood and the ensuing famine and plague are estimated to have killed 300,000 of the city 's previous population of 378,000. The once - prosperous city was nearly abandoned until its rebuilding under the Kangxi Emperor in the Qing Dynasty.
Between 1851 and 1855, it returned to the north amid the floods that provoked the Nien and Taiping Rebellions. The 1887 flood has been estimated to have killed between 900,000 and 2 million people, and is the second - worst natural disaster in history (excluding famines and epidemics). The Yellow River more or less adopted its present course during the 1897 flood.
The 1931 flood killed an estimated 1,000,000 to 4,000,000, and is the worst natural disaster recorded (excluding famines and epidemics).
On 9 June 1938, during the Second Sino - Japanese War, Nationalist troops under Chiang Kai - shek broke the levees holding back the river near the village of Huayuankou in Henan, causing what has been called by Canadian historian, Diana Lary, a "war - induced natural disaster ''. The goal of the operation was to stop the advancing Japanese troops by following a strategy of "using water as a substitute for soldiers '' (yishui daibing). The 1938 flood of an area covering 54,000 km (20,800 sq mi) took some 500,000 to 900,000 Chinese lives, along with an unknown number of Japanese soldiers. The flood prevented the Japanese Army from taking Zhengzhou, on the southern bank of the Yellow River, but did not stop them from reaching their goal of capturing Wuhan, which was the temporary seat of the Chinese government and straddles the Yangtze River.
According to the China Exploration and Research Society, the source of the Yellow River is at 34 ° 29 ' 31.1 '' N, 96 ° 20 ' 24.6 '' E in the Bayan Har Mountains near the eastern edge of the Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture. The source tributuaries drain into Gyaring Lake and Ngoring Lake on the western edge of Golog Prefecture high in the Bayan Har Mountains of Qinghai. In the Zoige Basin along the boundary with Gansu, the Yellow River loops northwest and then northeast before turning south, creating the "Ordos Loop '', and then flows generally eastward across the North China Plain to the Gulf of Bohai, draining a basin of 752,443 square kilometers (290,520 sq mi) which nourishes 140 million people with drinking water and irrigation.
The Yellow River passes through seven present - day provinces and two autonomous regions, namely (from west to east) Qinghai, Gansu, Ningxia, Inner Mongolia, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Henan, and Shandong. Major cities along the present course of the Yellow River include (from west to east) Lanzhou, Yinchuan, Wuhai, Baotou, Luoyang, Zhengzhou, Kaifeng, and Jinan. The current mouth of the Yellow River is located at Kenli County, Shandong.
The river is commonly divided into three stages. These are roughly the northeast of the Tibetan Plateau, the Ordos Loop, and the North China Plain. However, different scholars have different opinions on how the three stages are divided. This article adopts the division used by the Yellow River Conservancy Commission.
The upper reaches of the Yellow River constitute a segment starting from its source in the Bayan Har Mountains and ending at Hekou Town (Togtoh County), Inner Mongolia just before it turns sharply to the south. This segment has a total length of 3,472 kilometers (2,157 mi) and total basin area of 386,000 square kilometers (149,000 sq mi), 51.4 % of the total basin area. Along this length, the elevation of the Yellow River drops 3,496 meters (11,470 ft), with an average grade of 0.10 %.
The source section flows mainly through pastures, swamps, and knolls between the Bayan Har Mountains, and the Anemaqen (Amne Machin) Mountains in Qinghai. The river water is clear and flows steadily. Crystal clear lakes are characteristic of this section. The two main lakes along this section are Lake Zhaling (扎 陵 湖) and Lake Eling (鄂 陵 湖), with capacities of 4.7 billion and 10.8 billion m3 (166 and 381 billion ft), respectively. At elevations over 4,290 m (14,070 ft)) above sea level they are the two largest plateau freshwater lakes nationwide. A significant amount of land in the Yellow River 's source area has been designated as the Sanjiangyuan ("' Three Rivers ' Sources '') National Nature Reserve, to protect the source region of the Yellow River, the Yangtze, and the Mekong.
Flowing east at the eastern edge of the Amne Machin Mountains, the Yellow River enters Maqu County in Gansu. Here, the river skirts through the high - altitude peat bog known as the Zoigê Wetlands and makes a sharp turn towards the northwest forming the border between Maqu and Zoigê County in Sichuan. Flowing now along the northern edge of Amne Machin, the river reenters Qinghai and gradually curves north towards the Longyang Gorge at Xinghai.
The valley section stretches from Longyang Gorge in Qinghai to Qingtong Gorge in Gansu. Steep cliffs line both sides of the river. The water bed is narrow and the average drop is large, so the flow in this section is extremely turbulent and fast. There are 20 gorges in this section, the most famous of these being the Longyang, Jishi, Liujia, Bapan, and Qingtong gorges. The flow conditions in this section makes it the best location for hydroelectric plants. The Yellow River exits Qinghai for the second and final time in these gorges and enters Gansu for the second time just before Liujia Gorge. Downstream from the Yanguo Gorge, the provincial capital of Lanzhou is built upon the Yellow River 's banks. The Yellow River flows northeasterly out of Gansu and into Ningxia before the Qingtong Gorge.
After emerging from the Qingtong Gorge, the river comes into a section of vast alluvial plains, the Yinchuan Plain and Hetao Plain. In this section, the regions along the river are mostly deserts and grasslands, with very few tributaries. The flow is slow. The Hetao Plain has a length of 900 km (560 mi) and width of 30 to 50 km (19 to 31 mi). It is historically the most important irrigation plain along the Yellow River.
The Ordos Loop formed by an enormous twist of the Yellow River, beginning at Zhongning County in Ningxia and ending with a drastic eastward turn at its confluence with the Wei at Tongguan in Shaanxi. However, the official division for the middle reaches of the river run from Hekou in Togtoh County, Inner Mongolia, to Zhengzhou, Henan. The middle reaches are 1,206 km (749 mi) long, with a basin area of 344,000 square kilometers (133,000 sq mi), 45.7 % of the total, with a total elevation drop of 890 m (2,920 ft), an average drop of 0.074 %. There are 30 large tributaries along the middle reaches, and the water flow is increased by 43.5 % on this stage. The middle reaches contribute 92 % of the river 's silts.
The middle stream of the Yellow River passes through the Loess Plateau, where substantial erosion takes place. The large amount of mud and sand discharged into the river makes the Yellow River the most sediment - laden river in the world. The highest recorded annual level of silts discharged into the Yellow River is 3.91 billion tons in 1933. The highest silt concentration level was recorded in 1977 at 920 kg / m3 (57.4 lb / ft). These sediments later deposit in the slower lower reaches of the river, elevating the river bed and creating the famous "river above ground ''. From Hekou to Yumenkou, the river passes through the longest series of continuous valleys on its main course, collectively called the Jinshan Valley. The abundant hydrodynamic resources stored in this section make it the second most suitable area to build hydroelectric power plants. The famous Hukou Waterfall is in the lower part of this valley on the border of Shanxi and Shaanxi.
In the lower reaches, from Zhengzhou, Henan to its mouth, a distance of 786 km (488 mi), the river is confined to a levee - lined course as it flows to the northeast across the North China Plain before emptying into the Bohai Sea. The basin area in this stage is only 23,000 square kilometers (8,900 sq mi), a mere 3 % of the total, because few tributaries add to the flow in this stage; nearly all rivers to the south drain into the Huai River, whereas those to the north drain into the Hai River. The total drop in elevation of the lower reaches is 93.6 m (307 ft), with an average grade of 0.012 %.
The silts received from the middle reaches form sediments here, elevating the river bed. During 2,000 years of levee construction, excessive sediment deposits have raised the riverbed several meters above the surrounding ground.
At Kaifeng, Henan, the Yellow River is 10 meters (33 ft) above the ground level.
Tributaries of the Yellow River listed from its source to its mouth include:
The Yellow River is notable for the large amount of silt it carries -- 1.6 billion tons annually at the point where it descends from the Loess Plateau. If it is running to the sea with sufficient volume, 1.4 billion tons are carried to the sea annually. One estimate gives 34 kilograms of silt per cubic meter as opposed to 10 for the Colorado and 1 for the Nile.
Its average discharge is said to be 2,110 cubic meters per second (32,000 for the Yangtze), with a maximum of 25,000 and minimum of 245. However, since 1972, it often runs dry before it reaches the sea. The low volume is due to increased agricultural irrigation, increased by a factor of five since 1950. Water diverted from the river as of 1999 served 140 million people and irrigated 74,000 km2 (48,572 mi2) of land. The Yellow River delta totals 8,000 square kilometers (3,090 mi2). However, with the decrease in silt reaching the sea, it has been reported to be shrinking slightly each year since 1996 through erosion.
The highest volume occurs during the rainy season from July to October, when 60 % of the annual volume of the river flows. Maximum demand for irrigation is needed between March and June. In order to capture excess water for use when needed and for flood control and electricity generation, several dams have been built, but their expected life is limited due to the high silt load. A proposed South -- North Water Transfer Project involves several schemes to divert water from the Yangtze River: one in the western headwaters of the rivers where they are closest to one another, another from the upper reaches of the Han River, and a third using the route of the old Grand Canal.
Due to its heavy load of silt the Yellow River is a depositing stream -- that is, it deposits part of its carried burden of soil in its bed in stretches where it is flowing slowly. These deposits elevate the riverbed which flows between natural levees in its lower reaches. Should a flood occur, the river may break out of the levees into the surrounding lower flood plain and take a new channel. Historically this has occurred about once every hundred years. In modern times, considerable effort has been made to strengthen levees and control floods.
Below is the list of hydroelectric power stations built on the Yellow River, arranged according to the first year of operation (in brackets):
As reported in 2000, the 7 largest hydro power plants (Longyangxia, Lijiaxia, Liujiaxia, Yanguoxia, Bapanxia, Daxia and Qinglongxia) had the total installed capacity of 5,618 MW.
The main bridges and ferries by the province names in the order of downstream to upstream are:
Shandong
Shandong -- Henan
Henan
Shanxi -- Henan
Shaanxi -- Henan
Ningxia
Inner Mongolia
Gansu
Qinghai
The Yellow River is generally less suitable for aquaculture than the rivers of central and southern China, such as the Yangtze or the Pearl River, but aquaculture is also practiced in some areas along the Yellow River. An important aquaculture area is the riverside plain in Xingyang City, upstream from Zhengzhou. Since the development of fish ponds started in Xingyang 's riverside Wangcun Town in 1986, the pond systems in Wangcun have grown to the total size of 15,000 mu (10 km), making the town the largest aquaculture center in North China.
A variety of the Chinese softshell turtle popular with China 's gourmets is called the Yellow River Turtle (黄河 鳖). Nowadays most of the Yellow River Turtles eaten in China 's restaurants comes from turtle farms, which may or may not be near the Yellow River. In 2007, construction started in Wangcun on a large farm for raising this turtle variety. With the capacity for raising 5 million turtles a year, the facility was expected to become Henan 's largest farm of this kind.
On 25 November 2008, Tania Branigan of The Guardian filed a report "China 's Mother River: the Yellow River '', claiming that severe pollution has made one - third of China 's Yellow River unusable even for agricultural or industrial use, due to factory discharges and sewage from fast - expanding cities. The Yellow River Conservancy Commission had surveyed more than 8,384 mi (13,493 km) of the river in 2007 and said 33.8 % of the river system registered worse than "level five '' according to the criteria used by the UN Environment Program. Level five is unfit for drinking, aquaculture, industrial use, or even agriculture. The report said waste and sewage discharged into the system last year totaled 4.29 b tons. Industry and manufacturing made up 70 % of the discharge into the river with households accounting for 23 % and just over 6 % coming from other sources.
In ancient times, it was believed that the Yellow River flowed from Heaven as a continuation of the Milky Way. In a Chinese legend, Zhang Qian is said to have been commissioned to find the source of the Yellow River. After sailing up - river for many days, he saw a girl spinning and a cow herd. Upon asking the girl where he was, she presented him with her shuttle with instructions to show it to the astrologer Yen Chün - p'ing. When he returned, the astrologer recognized it as the shuttle of the Weaving Girl (Vega), and, moreover, said that at the time Zhang received the shuttle, he had seen a wandering star interpose itself between the Weaving Girl and the cow herd (Altair).
The provinces of Hebei and Henan derive their names from the Yellow River. Their names mean, respectively, "North of the River '' and "South of the River ''.
Traditionally, it is believed that the Chinese civilization originated in the Yellow River basin. The Chinese refer to the river as "the Mother River '' and "the cradle of the Chinese civilization ''. During the long history of China, the Yellow River has been considered a blessing as well as a curse and has been nicknamed both "China 's Pride '' (simplified Chinese: 中国 的 骄傲; traditional Chinese: 中 國 的 驕 傲; pinyin: Zhōngguó de Jiāo'ào) and "China 's Sorrow '' (simplified Chinese: 中国 的 痛; traditional Chinese: 中 國 的 痛; pinyin: Zhōngguó de Tòng).
Sometimes the Yellow River is poetically called the "Muddy Flow '' (simplified Chinese: 浊 流; traditional Chinese: 濁 流; pinyin: Zhuó Liú). The Chinese idiom "when the Yellow River flows clear '' is used to refer to an event that will never happen and is similar to the English expression "when pigs fly ''.
"The Yellow River running clear '' was reported as a good omen during the reign of the Yongle Emperor, along with the appearance of such auspicious legendary beasts as qilin (an African giraffe brought to China by a Bengal embassy aboard Zheng He 's ships in 1414) and zouyu (not positively identified) and other strange natural phenomena.
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where does the name new mexico come from | New Mexico - wikipedia
New Mexico (Spanish: Nuevo México pronounced (ˈnweβo ˈmexiko), Navajo: Yootó Hahoodzo pronounced (jòːtxó xɑ̀xwòːtsò)) is a state in the Southwestern Region of the United States of America. With a population of approximately two million, New Mexico is the 36th most populous state. With a total area of 121,590 sq mi (314,900 km), it is the fifth largest and fifth least densely populated of the fifty states. It is one of the Mountain States and shares the Four Corners region with Utah, Colorado, and Arizona. Its capital and cultural center is Santa Fe, while its largest city is Albuquerque. Due to its geographic location, Northern and Eastern New Mexico exhibits a colder, alpine climate while Western and Southern New Mexico exhibits a warmer, arid climate.
The economy of New Mexico is dependent on oil drilling, mineral extraction, dryland farming, cattle ranching, lumber milling, and retail trade. As of 2016 - 17, its total gross domestic product (GDP) was $95 billion with a GDP per capital of $45,465. A tax haven, New Mexico collects low to moderate personal income taxes on residents and military personnel, and gives tax credits and exemptions to favorable industries. Because of this, its film industry has grown and contributed $1.23 billion to its overall economy. Due to its large area and economic climate, New Mexico has a large U.S. military presence marked notably with the White Sands Missile Range. Various U.S. national security agencies base their research and testing arms in New Mexico such as the Sandia and Los Alamos National Laboratories.
Its history has given New Mexico the highest percentage of Spanish - origin Hispanics and the second - highest percentage of Native Americans as a population proportion (after Alaska). Three federally - protected Native American tribes -- the Navajo, Pueblo, and Apache peoples -- inhabit New Mexico. The flag of New Mexico features the same scarlet and gold coloration as Spain 's Cross of Burgundy, along with the ancient sun symbol of the Zia, a Pueblo - related tribe.
Inhabited by Native Americans for thousands of years before European exploration, it was colonized by the Spanish in 1598 as part of the Imperial Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain. Contrary to popular belief, the present - day state of New Mexico is not part of, nor is it even named for, the present - day nation of Mexico. In fact, New Mexico was so named as early as 1561, whereas the country of Mexico did not receive that name until 1821. It was named Nuevo México after the Aztec Valley of Mexico by Spanish settlers, 223 years before the establishment of the present - day country of Mexico. Being on the periphery of two empires -- Spanish and Comancheria -- made settlement and effective political control difficult, even when it became part of Mexico after 1821. New Mexico 's longstanding economic ties to the Comanche made integration with Mexico difficult, which helped spark the Revolt of 1837 and a growing economic association with the expanding United States. The 1848 Mexican -- American War indirectly capitalized on this tension and created the U.S. New Mexico Territory. It was admitted to the Union as the 47th state on January 6, 1912. During the 1940s, Project Y of the Manhattan Project developed and built the world 's first atomic bomb and nuclear test, Trinity, in northern and central New Mexico, respectively.
New Mexico received its name long before the present - day nation of Mexico won independence from Spain and adopted that name in 1821. Spanish explorers recorded this region as New Mexico (Nuevo México in Spanish) in 1563. In 1581, the Chamuscado and Rodríguez Expedition named the region north of the Rio Grande "San Felipe del Nuevo México. '' The Spaniards hoped to find wealthy Mexican Indian cultures there similar to those of the Aztec (Mexica) Empire of the Valley of Mexico. The indigenous cultures of New Mexico, however, proved to be unrelated to the Aztecs and were not wealthy. Before statehood, the name "New Mexico '' was applied to various configurations of the U.S. Territory, to a Mexican state, and to a province of New Spain, all in the same general area but of varying extensions.
At total area 121,699 square miles (315,200 km), the state is fifth largest state of the US and slightly larger than British Isles. New Mexico 's eastern border lies along 103 ° W longitude with the state of Oklahoma, and (due to a 19th century surveying error) 2.2 miles (3.5 km) west of 103 ° W longitude with Texas. On the southern border, Texas makes up the eastern two - thirds, while the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora make up the western third, with Chihuahua making up about 90 % of that. The western border with Arizona runs along the 109 ° 03 ' W longitude. The southwestern corner of the state is known as the Bootheel. The 37 ° N latitude parallel forms the northern boundary with Colorado. The states of New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, and Utah come together at the Four Corners in New Mexico 's northwestern corner. New Mexico, although a large state, has very little water. Its surface water area is about 250 square miles (650 km).
The New Mexican landscape ranges from wide, rose - colored deserts to broken mesas to high, snow - capped peaks. Despite New Mexico 's arid image, heavily forested mountain wildernesses cover a significant portion of the state, especially towards the north. The Sangre de Cristo Mountains, the southernmost part of the Rocky Mountains, run roughly north - south along the east side of the Rio Grande in the rugged, pastoral north. The most important of New Mexico 's rivers are the Rio Grande, Pecos, Canadian, San Juan, and Gila. The Rio Grande is tied for the fourth - longest river in the United States.
The U.S. government protects millions of acres of New Mexico as national forests, including:
Areas managed by the National Park Service include:
Visitors also frequent the surviving native pueblos of New Mexico. Tourists visiting these sites bring significant money to the state. Other areas of geographical and scenic interest include Kasha - Katuwe Tent Rocks National Monument and the Gila Wilderness in the southwest of the state.
The climate of New Mexico is generally semiarid to arid, though areas of continental and alpine climates exist, and its territory is mostly covered by mountains, high plains, and desert. The Great Plains (High Plains) are in Eastern New Mexico, similar to the Colorado high plains in eastern Colorado. The two states share similar terrain, with both having plains, mountains, basins, mesas, and desert lands. New Mexico 's average precipitation rate is 13.9 inches (350 mm) a year. The average annual temperatures can range from 64 ° F (18 ° C) in the southeast to below 40 ° F (4 ° C) in the northern mountains. During the summer, daytime temperatures can often exceed 100 ° F (38 ° C) at elevations below 5,000 feet (1,500 m), the average high temperature in July ranges from 97 ° F (36 ° C) at the lower elevations down to 78 ° F (26 ° C) at the higher elevations. Many cities in New Mexico can have temperature lows in the teens. The highest temperature recorded in New Mexico was 122 ° F (50 ° C) at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant near Loving on June 27, 1994, and the lowest recorded temperature is − 50 ° F (− 46 ° C) at Gavilan on February 1, 1951.
Astronomical observatories in New Mexico take advantage of unusually clear skies, including the Apache Point Observatory, the Very Large Array, the Magdalena Ridge Observatory, and others.
New Mexico contains extensive habitat for many plants and animals, especially in desert areas and piñon - juniper woodlands. Creosote bush, mesquite, cacti, yucca, and desert grasses, including black grama, purple three - awn, tobosa, and burrograss, cover the broad, semiarid plains of the southern portion of the state. The northern portion of the state is home to many tree species such as ponderosa pine, aspen, cottonwood, spruce, fir, and Russian olive, which is an invasive species. Native birds include the greater roadrunner (Geococcyx californianus, the state bird of New Mexico) and wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo). Other fauna present in New Mexico include black bears, cougars, jaguars, coyotes, porcupines, skunks, Mexican gray wolves, deer, elk, Plains bison, collared peccary, bighorn sheep, squirrels, chipmunks, pronghorns, western diamondbacks, kangaroo rats, jackrabbits, and a multitude of other birds, reptiles, and rodents. The black bear native to New Mexico, Ursus americanus amblyceps, was formally adopted as the state 's official animal in 1953.
The first known inhabitants of New Mexico were members of the Clovis culture of Paleo - Indians. Later inhabitants include American Indians of the Mogollon and Ancestral Pueblo peoples cultures. By the time of European contact in the 16th century, the region was settled by the villages of the Pueblo peoples and groups of Navajo, Apache, and Ute.
Francisco Vásquez de Coronado assembled an enormous expedition at Compostela in 1540 -- 1542 to explore and find the mythical Seven Golden Cities of Cibola as described by Fray Marcos de Niza. The name Nuevo México was first used by a seeker of gold mines named Francisco de Ibarra, who explored far to the north of New Spain in 1563 and reported his findings as being in "a New Mexico ''. Juan de Oñate officially established the name when he was appointed the first governor of the new Province of New Mexico in 1598. The same year, he founded the San Juan de los Caballeros colony, the first permanent European settlement in the future state of New Mexico, on the Rio Grande near Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo. Oñate extended El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro, Royal Road of the Interior, by 700 miles (1,100 km) from Santa Bárbara, Chihuahua, to his remote colony.
The settlement of Santa Fe was established at the foot of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, the southernmost subrange of the Rocky Mountains, around 1608. The city, along with most of the settled areas of the state, was abandoned by the Spanish for 12 years (1680 -- 92) as a result of the successful Pueblo Revolt. After the death of the Pueblo leader Popé, Diego de Vargas restored the area to Spanish rule. While developing Santa Fe as a trade center, the returning settlers founded Albuquerque in 1706 from existing surrounding communities, naming it for the viceroy of New Spain, Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 10th Duke of Alburquerque.
As a part of New Spain, the claims for the province of New Mexico passed to independent Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence. The Republic of Texas claimed the portion east of the Rio Grande when it seceded from Mexico in 1836, when it incorrectly assumed the older Hispanic settlements of the upper Rio Grande were the same as the newly established Mexican settlements of Texas. Texas ' only attempt to establish a presence or control in the claimed territory was the failed Texan Santa Fe Expedition. Their entire army was captured and jailed by Hispanic New Mexico militia.
At the turn of the 19th century, the extreme northeastern part of New Mexico, north of the Canadian River and east of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, was still claimed by France, which sold it in 1803 to the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase. The United States assigned this portion of New Mexico as part of the Louisiana Territory until 1812; that year Louisiana was admitted as a state. The US then reclassified this area as part of the Missouri Territory. This region of the state (along with territory that makes up present - day southeastern Colorado, the Texas and Oklahoma Panhandles, and southwestern Kansas) was ceded to Spain under the Adams - Onis Treaty in 1819.
The independent Republic of Texas also claimed this portion of New Mexico. By 1800, the Spanish population had reached 25,000, but Apache and Comanche raids on Hispanic settlers were common until well into the period of U.S. occupation.
Following the victory of the United States in the Mexican -- American War (1846 -- 48), under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, Mexico ceded its northern holdings, today known as the American Southwest and California, to the United States of America. The United States vowed to accept the residents ' claims to their lands and to accept them as full citizens with rights of suffrage. This acquisition of territory and residents resulted in Mexicans legally being classified as white, since at that time, in most of the southern United States, only whites could vote. Nevertheless, Texas and other western states raised barriers to voting and political participation by ethnic Mexicans, including barring them from serving on juries.
After Texas was admitted as a state to the Union, it continued to claim the northeastern portion of present - day New Mexico. Finally, in the Compromise of 1850, Texas ceded these claims to the United States of the area in New Mexico lying east of the Rio Grande, in exchange for $10 million.
Congress established the separate New Mexico Territory in September 1850. It included most of the present - day states of Arizona and New Mexico, and part of Colorado. When the boundary was fixed, a surveyor 's error awarded the Permian Basin to the State of Texas. New Mexico dropped its claims to the Permian in a bid to gain statehood in 1911.
In 1853, the United States acquired the mostly desert southwestern boot heel of the state and southern Arizona below the Gila River in the Gadsden Purchase. It wanted to control lands needed for the right - of - way in order to encourage construction of a transcontinental railroad.
New Mexico played a role in the Trans - Mississippi Theater of the American Civil War. Both Confederate and Union governments claimed ownership and territorial rights over New Mexico Territory. In 1861, the Confederacy claimed the southern tract as its own Arizona Territory and waged the ambitious New Mexico Campaign in an attempt to control the American Southwest and open up access to Union California. Confederate power in the New Mexico Territory was effectively broken after the Battle of Glorieta Pass in 1862. However, the Confederate territorial government continued to operate out of Texas, and Confederate troops marched under the Arizona flag until the end of the war. Additionally, more than 8,000 men from New Mexico Territory served in the Union Army.
In the late 19th century, the majority of officially European - descended residents in New Mexico were ethnic Mexicans, many of whom had deep roots in the area from early Spanish colonial times. Politically, they still controlled most of the town and county offices through area elections, and wealthy sheepherder families commanded considerable influence. The Anglo - Americans tended to have more ties to the territorial governor and judges, who were appointed by officials out of the region. The two groups struggled for power and the future of the territory. The Anglo minority was "outnumbered, but well - organized and growing. '' Anglo - Americans made distinctions between the wealthy Mexicans and poor, ill - educated laborers.
Congress admitted New Mexico as the 47th state in the Union on January 6, 1912.
European - American settlers in the state had an uneasy relationship with the large Native American tribes, most of whose members lived on reservations at the beginning of the 20th century. Although Congress passed a law in 1924 that granted all Native Americans with US citizenship, as well as the right to vote in federal and state elections, New Mexico was among several states that restricted Indian voting by raising barriers to voter registration. Their constitution said that Indians who did not pay taxes could not vote, in their interpretation disqualifying those Native Americans who lived on reservations (but only the land was tax free.)
A major oil discovery in 1928 brought prosperity to the state, especially Lea County and the town of Hobbs. The town was named after James Hobbs, a homesteader there in 1907. The Midwest State No. 1 well, begun in late 1927 with a standard cable - tool drilling rig, revealed the first signs of oil from the Hobbs field on June 13, 1928. Drilled to 4,330 feet and completed a few months later, the well produced 700 barrels of oil per day on state land. The Midwest Refining Company 's Hobbs well produced oil until 2002. The New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources called it "the most important single discovery of oil in New Mexico 's history ''.
During World War II, the first atomic bombs were designed and manufactured at Los Alamos, a site developed by the federal government specifically to support a high - intensity scientific effort to rapidly complete research and testing of this weapon. The first bomb was tested at Trinity site in the desert between Socorro and Alamogordo on what is now White Sands Missile Range.
Native Americans from New Mexico fought for the United States in both the First and Second World Wars. Veterans were disappointed to return and find their civil rights limited by state discrimination. In Arizona and New Mexico, veterans challenged state laws or practices prohibiting them from voting. In 1948, after veteran Miguel Trujillo, Sr. of Isleta Pueblo was told by the county registrar that he could not register to vote, he filed suit against the county in federal district court. A three - judge panel overturned as unconstitutional New Mexico 's provisions that Indians who did not pay taxes (and could not document if they had paid taxes) could not vote.
Judge Phillips wrote:
Any other citizen, regardless of race, in the State of New Mexico who has not paid one cent of tax of any kind or character, if he possesses the other qualifications, may vote. An Indian, and only an Indian, in order to meet the qualifications to vote must have paid a tax. How you can escape the conclusion that makes a requirement with respect to an Indian as a qualification to exercise the elective franchise and does not make that requirement with respect to the member of any race is beyond me.
New Mexico has benefited greatly from federal government spending on major military and research institutions in the state. It is home to three Air Force bases, White Sands Missile Range, and the federal research laboratories Los Alamos National Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories. The state 's population grew rapidly after World War II, growing from 531,818 in 1940 to 1,819,046 in 2000. Both residents and businesses moved to the state; some northerners came at first for the mild winters; others for retirement.
In the late 20th century, Native Americans were authorized by federal law to establish gaming casinos on their reservations under certain conditions, in states which had authorized such gaming. Such facilities have helped tribes close to population centers to generate revenues for reinvestment in economic development and welfare of their peoples.
In the 21st century, employment growth areas in New Mexico include microelectronics, call centers, and Indian casinos.
The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of New Mexico was 2,085,109 on July 1, 2015, a 1.26 % increase since the 2010 United States Census. The 2000 United States Census recorded the population of New Mexico to be 1,819,046; ten years later the 2010 United States Census recorded a population of 2,059,179, an 11.7 % increase.
Of the people residing in New Mexico, 51.4 % were born in New Mexico, 37.9 % were born in a different US state, 1.1 % were born in Puerto Rico, U.S. Island areas, or born abroad to American parent (s), and 9.7 % were foreign born.
As of May 1, 2010, 7.5 % of New Mexico 's population was reported as under 5 years of age, 25 % under 18, and 13 % were 65 or older; women make up around 51 % of the population.
As of 2000, 8 % of the residents of the state were foreign - born.
Among U.S. states, New Mexico has the highest percentage of Hispanic ancestry, at 47 % (as of July 1, 2012). This classification covers people of very different cultures and histories, including descendants of Spanish colonists with deep roots in the region, and recent immigrants from a variety of nations in Latin America, each with their own cultures.
According to the United States Census Bureau Model - based Small Area Income & Poverty Estimates, the number of persons in poverty has increased to 400,779 (19.8 % of the population) persons in 2010 from 2000. At that time, the estimated number of persons in poverty was recorded at 309,193 (17.3 % of the population). The latest available estimates for 2014 estimate the number of persons in poverty at 420,388 (20.6 % of the population).
Note: Births in table do n't add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.
New Mexico is a majority -- minority state.
The U.S. Census Bureau estimated that 48 % of the total 2015 population was Hispanic or Latino of any race, the highest of any state. The majority of Hispanics in New Mexico claim to be descendants of Spanish colonists who settled here during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. They speak New Mexican Spanish and / or English at home.
The state also has a large Native American population, second in percentage behind that of Alaska. The 2016 racial composition of the population was estimated to be:
According to the United States Census Bureau, 1.5 % of the population identifies as multiracial / mixed - race, a population larger than both the Asian and NHPI population groups. In 2008, New Mexico had the highest percentage (47 %) of Hispanics (of any race) of any state, with 83 % native - born and 17 % foreign - born.
According to the 2000 United States Census, the most commonly claimed ancestry groups in New Mexico were:
According to the 2010 U.S. Census, 28.45 % of the population aged 5 and older speak Spanish at home, while 3.50 % speak Navajo. Speakers of New Mexican Spanish dialect are mainly descendants of Spanish colonists who arrived in New Mexico in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. New Mexican Spanish is an archaic form of 17th century Castilian Spanish.
The original state constitution of 1912 provided for a bilingual government with laws being published in both English and Spanish; this requirement was renewed twice, in 1931 and 1943. Nonetheless, the constitution does not declare any language as "official ''. While Spanish was permitted in the legislature until 1935, all state officials are required to have a good knowledge of English. Cobarrubias and Fishman therefore argue that New Mexico can not be considered a bilingual state as not all laws are published in both languages. Others, such as Juan Perea, claim that the state was officially bilingual until 1953. In either case, Hawaii is the only state that remains officially bilingual in the 21st century.
With regard to the judiciary, witnesses have the right to testify in either of the two languages, and monolingual speakers of Spanish have the same right to be considered for jury - duty as do speakers of English. In public education, the state has the constitutional obligation to provide for bilingual education and Spanish - speaking instructors in school districts where the majority of students are hispanophone.
In 1995, the state adopted an official bilingual song, "New Mexico -- Mi Lindo Nuevo México ''. In 1989, New Mexico became the first state to officially adopt the English Plus resolution, and in 2008, the first to officially adopt a Navajo textbook for use in public schools.
According to Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA), the largest denominations in 2010 were the Catholic Church with 684,941; the Southern Baptist Convention with 113,452; The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints with 67,637, and the United Methodist Church with 36,424 adherents. According to a 2008 survey by the Pew Research Center, the most common self - reported religious affiliation of New Mexico residents are mentioned in reference.
Within the hierarchy of the Catholic Church, New Mexico belongs to the Ecclesiastical Province of Santa Fe. New Mexico has three dioceses, one of which is an archdiocese: Archdiocese of Santa Fe, Diocese of Gallup, Diocese of Las Cruces.
Oil and gas production, tourism, and federal government spending are important drivers of the state economy. State government has an elaborate system of tax credits and technical assistance to promote job growth and business investment, especially in new technologies.
In 2010 New Mexico 's Gross Domestic Product was $80 billion and an estimated $85 billion for 2013. In 2007 the per capita personal income was $31,474 (rank 43rd in the nation). In 2005 the percentage of persons below the poverty level was 18.4 %. The New Mexico Tourism Department estimates that in Fiscal Year 2006 the travel industry in New Mexico generated expenditures of $6.5 billion. As of April 2012, the state 's unemployment rate was 7.2 %. During the Late 2000s Recession New Mexico 's unemployment rate peaked at 8.0 % for the period June -- October 2010.
New Mexico is the fourth leading crude oil and eighth leading natural gas producer (EIA.gov 2015) in the United States. The Permian Basin (part of the Mid-Continent Oil Field) and San Juan Basin lie partly in New Mexico. In 2006 New Mexico accounted for 3.4 % of the crude oil, 8.5 % of the dry natural gas, and 10.2 % of the natural gas liquids produced in the United States. In 2000 the value of oil and gas produced was $8.2 billion.
Federal government spending is a major driver of the New Mexico economy. In 2005 the federal government spent $2.03 on New Mexico for every dollar of tax revenue collected from the state. This rate of return is higher than any other state in the Union.
Many of the federal jobs relate to the military; the state hosts three air force bases (Kirtland Air Force Base, Holloman Air Force Base, and Cannon Air Force Base); a testing range (White Sands Missile Range); and an army proving ground and maneuver range (Fort Bliss -- McGregor Range). A May 2005 estimate by New Mexico State University is that 11.65 % of the state 's total employment arises directly or indirectly from military spending. Other federal installations include the technology labs of Los Alamos National Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories.
New Mexico provides a number of economic incentives to businesses operating in the state, including various types of tax credits and tax exemptions. Most of the incentives are based on job creation.
New Mexico law allows governments to provide land, buildings, and infrastructure to businesses to promote job creation. Several municipalities have imposed an Economic Development Gross Receipts Tax (a form of Municipal Infrastructure GRT) that is used to pay for these infrastructure improvements and for marketing their areas.
The state provides financial incentives for film production. The New Mexico Film Office estimated at the end of 2007 that the incentive program had brought more than 85 film projects to the state since 2003 and had added $1.2 billion to the economy.
Since 2008, personal income tax rates for New Mexico have ranged from 1.7 % to 4.9 %, within four income brackets. As of 2007, active - duty military salaries are exempt from state income tax.
New Mexico imposes a Gross Receipts Tax (GRT) on many transactions, which may even include some governmental receipts. This resembles a sales tax but, unlike the sales taxes in many states, it applies to services as well as tangible goods. Normally, the provider or seller passes the tax on to the purchaser, however legal incidence and burden apply to the business, as an excise tax. GRT is imposed by the state and there may an additional locality component to produce a total tax rate. As of July 1, 2013 the combined tax rate ranged from 5.125 % to 8.6875 %.
Property tax is imposed on real property by the state, by counties, and by school districts. In general, personal - use personal property is not subject to property taxation. On the other hand, property tax is levied on most business - use personal property. The taxable value of property is 1 / 3 of the assessed value. A tax rate of about 30 mills is applied to the taxable value, resulting in an effective tax rate of about 1 %. In the 2005 tax year the average millage was about 26.47 for residential property and 29.80 for non-residential property. Assessed values of residences can not be increased by more than 3 % per year unless the residence is remodeled or sold. Property tax deductions are available for military veterans and heads of household.
New Mexico has long been an important corridor for trade and migration. The builders of the ruins at Chaco Canyon also created a radiating network of roads from the mysterious settlement. Chaco Canyon 's trade function shifted to Casas Grandes in the present - day Mexican state of Chihuahua, however, north - south trade continued. The pre-Columbian trade with Mesoamerican cultures included northbound exotic birds, seashells and copper. Turquoise, pottery, and salt were some of the goods transported south along the Rio Grande. Present - day New Mexico 's pre-Columbian trade is especially remarkable for being undertaken on foot. The north - south trade route later became a path for colonists with horses arriving from New Spain as well as trade and communication. The route was called El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.
The Santa Fe Trail was the 19th century US territory 's vital commercial and military highway link to the Eastern United States. All with termini in Northern New Mexico, the Camino Real, the Santa Fe Trail and the Old Spanish Trail are all recognized as National Historic Trails. New Mexico 's latitude and low passes made it an attractive east - west transportation corridor. As a territory, the Gadsden Purchase increased New Mexico 's land area for the purpose of the construction of a southern transcontinental railroad, that of the Southern Pacific Railroad. Another transcontinental railroad was completed by the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway. The railroads essentially replaced the earlier trails but brought on a population boom. Early transcontinental auto trails later crossed the state bringing more migrants. Railroads were later supplemented or replaced by a system of highways and airports. Today, New Mexico 's Interstate Highways approximate the earlier land routes of the Camino Real, the Santa Fe Trail and the transcontinental railroads.
New Mexico has had a problem with drunk driving, but that has lessened. According to the Los Angeles Times, for years the state had the highest alcohol - related crash rates in the U.S., but ranked 25th in alcohol - related fatal crash rates, as of July 2009.
The automobile changed the character of New Mexico, marking the start of large scale immigration to the state from elsewhere in the United States. Settlers moving West during the Great Depression and post-World War II American culture immortalized the National Old Trails Highway, later U.S. Route 66. Today, the automobile is heavily relied upon in New Mexico for transportation.
New Mexico had 59,927 route miles of highway as of 2000, of which 7,037 receive federal - aid. In that same year there were 1,003 miles (1,614 km) of freeways, of which 1000 were the route miles of Interstate Highways 10, 25 and 40. The former number has increased with the upgrading of roads near Pojoaque, Santa Fe and Las Cruces to freeways. The highway traffic fatality rate was 1.9 fatalities per million miles traveled in 2000, the 13th highest rate among U.S. states. Notable bridges include the Rio Grande Gorge Bridge near Taos. As of 2001, 703 highway bridges, or one percent, were declared "structurally deficient '' or "structurally obsolete ''.
Rural and intercity public transportation by road is provided by Americanos USA, LLC, Greyhound Lines and several government operators.
The New Mexico Rail Runner Express is a commuter rail system serving the metropolitan area of Albuquerque, New Mexico. It began operation on July 14, 2006. The system runs from Belen to downtown Santa Fe. Larger cities in New Mexico typically have some form of public transportation by road; ABQ RIDE is the largest such system in the state.
There were 2,354 route miles of railroads in the year 2000, this number increased with the opening of the Rail Runner 's extension to Santa Fe. In addition to local railroads and other tourist lines, the state jointly owns and operates a heritage narrow - gauge steam railroad, the Cumbres and Toltec Scenic Railway, with the state of Colorado. Narrow gauge railroads once connected many communities in the northern part of the state, from Farmington to Santa Fe. No fewer than 100 railroads of various names and lineage have operated in the jurisdiction at some point. New Mexico 's rail transportation system reached its height in terms of length following admission as a state; in 1914 eleven railroads operated 3124 route miles.
Railroad surveyors arrived in New Mexico in the 1850s. The first railroads incorporated in 1869. The first operational railroad, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway (ATSF), entered the territory by way of the lucrative and contested Raton Pass in 1878. It eventually reached El Paso, Texas in 1881 and with the Southern Pacific Railroad created the nation 's second transcontinental railroad with a junction at Deming. The Southern Pacific Railroad entered the territory from the Territory of Arizona in 1880. The Denver & Rio Grande Railway, who would generally use narrow gauge equipment in New Mexico, entered the territory from Colorado and began service to Española on December 31, 1880. These first railroads were built as long - distance corridors, later railroad construction also targeted resource extraction.
New Mexico is served by two class I railroads, the BNSF Railway and the Union Pacific Railroad. Combined, they operate 2,200 route miles of railway in the state.
A commuter rail operation, the New Mexico Rail Runner Express, connects the state 's capital, its largest city, and other communities. The privately operated state owned railroad began operations in July 2006. The BNSF Railway 's entire line from Belen to Raton, New Mexico was sold to the state, partially for the construction of phase II of this operation, which opened in December 2008. Phase II of Rail Runner extended the line northward to Santa Fe from the Sandoval County station, the northernmost station under Phase I service. The service now connects Santa Fe, Sandoval, Bernalillo, and Valencia counties. The trains connect Albuquerque 's population base and central business district to downtown Santa Fe with up to eight roundtrips in a day. The section of the line running south to Belen is served less frequently. Rail Runner operates scheduled service seven days per week.
With the rise of rail transportation many settlements grew or were founded and the territory became a tourist destination. As early as 1878, the ATSF promoted tourism in the region with emphasis on Native American imagery. Named trains often reflected the territory they traveled: Super Chief, the streamlined successor to the Chief; Navajo, an early transcontinental tourist train; and Cavern, a through car operation connecting Clovis and Carlsbad (by the early 1950s as train 23 -- 24), were some of the named passenger trains of the ATSF that connoted New Mexico.
Passenger train service once connected nine of New Mexico 's present ten most populous cities (the exception is Rio Rancho), while today passenger train service connects two: Albuquerque and Santa Fe. With the decline of most intercity rail service in the United States in the late 1960s, New Mexico was left with minimal services. No less than six daily long - distance roundtrip trains supplemented by many branch line and local trains served New Mexico in the early 1960s. Declines in passenger revenue, but not necessarily ridership, prompted many railroads to turn over their passenger services in truncated form to Amtrak, a state owned enterprise. Amtrak, also known as the National Passenger Railroad Corporation, began operating the two extant long - distance routes in May 1971. Resurrection of passenger rail service from Denver to El Paso, a route once plied in part by the ATSF 's El Pasoan, has been proposed over the years. As early as the 1980s former Governor Toney Anaya proposed building a high - speed rail line connecting the two cities with New Mexico 's major cities. Front Range Commuter Rail is a project to connect Wyoming and New Mexico with high - speed rail.
Amtrak 's Southwest Chief passes through daily at stations in Gallup, Albuquerque, Lamy, Las Vegas, and Raton, offering connections to Los Angeles, Chicago and intermediate points. The Southwest Chief is a fast Amtrak long distance train, being permitted a maximum speed of 90 mph (140 km / h) in various places on the tracks of the BNSF Railway. It also operates on New Mexico Rail Runner Express trackage. The Southwest Chief is the successor to the Super Chief and El Capitan. The streamliner Super Chief, a favorite of early Hollywood stars, was one of the most famous named trains in the United States and one of the most esteemed for its luxury and exoticness -- train cars were named for regional Native American tribes and outfitted with the artwork of many local artists -- but also for its speed: as few as 39 hours 45 minutes westbound.
The Sunset Limited makes stops three times a week in both directions at Lordsburg, and Deming, serving Los Angeles, New Orleans and intermediate points. The Sunset Limited is the successor to the Southern Pacific Railroad 's train of the same name and operates exclusively on Union Pacific trackage in New Mexico.
The Albuquerque International Sunport is the state 's primary port of entry for air transportation.
Upham, near Truth or Consequences is the location of the world 's first operational and purpose - built commercial spaceport, Spaceport America. Rocket launches began in April 2007. It is undeveloped and has one tenant, UP Aerospace, launching small payloads. Virgin Galactic, a space tourism company, plans to make this their primary operating base.
The Constitution of New Mexico established New Mexico 's governmental structure. The executive branch of government is fragmented as outlined in the state constitution. The executive is composed of the Governor and other statewide elected officials including the Lieutenant Governor (elected on the same ticket as the Governor), Attorney General, Secretary of State, State Auditor, State Treasurer, and Commissioner of Public Lands. The governor appoints a cabinet that leads agencies statutorily designated under his / her jurisdiction. The New Mexico Legislature consists of the House of Representatives and Senate. The judiciary is composed of the New Mexico Supreme Court and lower courts. There is also local government, consisting of counties, municipalities and special districts.
Current Governor Susana Martinez (R) and Lieutenant Governor John Sanchez (R), were first elected in 2010 and re-elected in 2014. Terms for both the Governor and Lieutenant Governor expire in January 2019. Governors serve a term of four years and may seek re-election for one additional term (limit of two terms). Other constitutional officers, all of whose terms also expire in January 2019, include Secretary of State Maggie Toulouse Oliver (D), Attorney General Hector Balderas (D), State Auditor Wayne Johnson (R), State Land Commissioner Aubrey Dunn (L), and State Treasurer Tim Eichenberg (D).
Currently, both chambers of the New Mexico State Legislature have Democratic majorities. There are 26 Democrats and 16 Republicans in the Senate, and 38 Democrats and 32 Republicans in the House of Representatives.
New Mexico 's members of the United States Senate are Democrats Martin Heinrich and Tom Udall. Democrats Michelle Lujan Grisham, and Ben R. Luján represent the first and third congressional districts, respectively, and Republican Steve Pearce represents the second congressional district in the United States House of Representatives. See New Mexico congressional map.
New Mexico had been considered a swing state, whose population has favored both Democratic and Republican presidential candidates, but it became more of a Democratic stronghold after the presidential election of 2008. The governor is Susana Martinez (R), who succeeded Bill Richardson (D) on January 1, 2011 after he served two terms as governor from 2003 to 2011. Before Richardson, Gary Johnson served as governor from 1995 to 2003. Johnson served as a Republican, but in 2012 and 2016, he ran for President from the Libertarian Party. In previous presidential elections, Al Gore carried the state (by 366 votes) in 2000; George W. Bush won New Mexico 's five electoral votes in 2004, and the state 's electoral votes were won by Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton in 2008, 2012, and 2016. Since achieving statehood in 1912, New Mexico has been carried by the national popular vote victor in every presidential election of the past 104 years except 1976 when Gerald Ford won the state by 2 % but lost the national popular vote by 2 %.
Democratic strongholds in the state include the Santa Fe Area, various areas of the Albuquerque Metro Area (such as the southeast and central areas, including the affluent Nob Hill neighborhood and the vicinity of the University of New Mexico), Northern and West Central New Mexico, and most of the Native American reservations, particularly the Navajo Nation. Republicans have traditionally had their strongholds in the eastern and southern parts of the state, the Farmington area, Rio Rancho, and the newly developed areas in the Northwest mesa. Albuquerque 's Northeast Heights have historically leaned Republican, but have become a key swing area for Democrats in recent election cycles. While registered Democrats outnumber registered Republicans by nearly 200,000, New Mexico voters have favored moderate to conservative candidates of both parties at the state and federal levels.
On major political issues, New Mexico abolished its death penalty statute, though not retroactively, effective July 1, 2009. This means individuals on New Mexico 's Death Row can still be executed. On March 18, 2009, then Governor Bill Richardson signed the law abolishing the death penalty in New Mexico following the assembly and senate vote the week before, thus becoming the 15th U.S. state to abolish the penalty.
On gun control, New Mexico arguably has some of the least restrictive firearms laws in the country. State law pre-empts all local gun control ordinances. Unlike states with strong gun control laws, a New Mexico resident may purchase any firearm deemed legal under federal law. There are no waiting periods under state law for picking up a firearm after it has been purchased, and there are no restrictions on magazine capacity. Additionally, New Mexico allows open carry of a loaded firearm without a permit, and is "shall - issue '' for concealed carry permits.
Before December 2013 New Mexico law neither explicitly allowed nor prohibited same - sex marriage. Policy concerning the issuance of marriage licenses to same - sex couples was determined at the county level; that is, some county clerks issued marriage licenses to same - sex couples, while others did not. In December 2013, the New Mexico Supreme Court issued a unanimous ruling directing all county clerks to issue marriage licenses to same - sex couples, thereby making New Mexico the 17th state to recognize same - sex marriage at the statewide level.
Due to its relatively low population in combination with numerous federally funded research facilities, New Mexico had the highest concentration of PhD holders of any state in 2000. Despite this, the state routinely ranks near the bottom in surveys of quality of primary and secondary school education.
New Mexico has a higher concentration of persons who do not finish high school or have some college without a degree than the nation as a whole. For the state, 23.9 % of people over 25 years of age have gone to college but not earned a degree. This is compared with 21.0 % of the nation as a whole according to United States Census Bureau 2014 American Community Survey estimates. Los Alamos County has the highest number percent of post secondary degree holders of any county in New Mexico with 38.7 % of the population (4,899 persons) estimated by the 2010 - 2014 American Community Survey.
The New Mexico Public Education Department oversees the operation of primary and secondary schools.
Zimmerman Library at The University of New Mexico
Zuhl Library at New Mexico State University
Walkway outside Golden Library at Eastern New Mexico University
Donnelly Library at New Mexico Highlands University
With a Native American population of 134,000 in 1990, New Mexico still ranks as an important center of Native American culture. Both the Navajo and Apache share Athabaskan origin. The Apache and some Ute live on federal reservations within the state. With 16 million acres (6,500,000 ha), mostly in neighboring Arizona, the reservation of the Navajo Nation ranks as the largest in the United States. The prehistorically agricultural Pueblo Indians live in pueblos scattered throughout the state. Almost half of New Mexicans claim Hispanic origin; many are descendants of colonial settlers. They settled in the state 's northern portion. Most of the Mexican immigrants reside in the southern part of the state. Also 10 - 15 % of the population, mainly in the north, may contain Hispanic Jewish ancestry.
Many New Mexicans speak a unique dialect of Spanish. Because of the historical isolation of New Mexico from other speakers of the Spanish language, some of the vocabulary of New Mexican Spanish is unknown to other Spanish speakers. It uses numerous Native American words for local features and includes anglicized words that express American concepts and modern inventions.
Albuquerque has the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science, the National Hispanic Cultural Center, and the National Museum of Nuclear Science & History, as well as hosts the famed annual Albuquerque International Balloon Fiesta every fall.
The earliest New Mexico artists whose work survives today are the Mimbres Indians, whose black and white pottery could be mistaken for modern art, except for the fact that it was produced before 1130 CE. See Mimbres culture. Many examples of this work can be seen at the Deming Luna Mimbres Museum and at the Western New Mexico University Museum.
A large artistic community thrives in Santa Fe, and has included such people as Bruce Nauman, Richard Tuttle, John Connell and Steina Vasulka. The capital city has several art museums, including the New Mexico Museum of Art, Museum of Spanish Colonial Art, Museum of International Folk Art, Museum of Indian Arts and Culture, Museum of Contemporary Native Arts, SITE Santa Fe and others. Colonies for artists and writers thrive, and the small city teems with art galleries. In August, the city hosts the annual Santa Fe Indian Market, which is the oldest and largest juried Native American art showcase in the world. Performing arts include the renowned Santa Fe Opera which presents five operas in repertory each July to August, the Santa Fe Chamber Music Festival held each summer, and the restored Lensic Theater a principal venue for many kinds of performances. Santa Fe is also home to Frogville Records, an indie record label. The weekend after Labor Day boasts the burning of Zozobra, a 50 ft (15 m) marionette, during Fiestas de Santa Fe.
Art is also a frequent theme in Albuquerque, New Mexico 's largest city. The National Hispanic Cultural Center has held hundreds of performing arts events, art showcases, and other events related to Spanish culture in New Mexico and worldwide in the centerpiece Roy E Disney Center for the Performing Arts or in other venues at the 53 acre facility. New Mexico residents and visitors alike can enjoy performing art from around the world at Popejoy Hall on the campus of the University of New Mexico. Popejoy Hall hosts singers, dancers, Broadway shows, other types of acts, and Shakespeare. Albuquerque also has the unique and memorable KiMo Theater built in 1927 in the Pueblo Revival Style architecture. The KiMo presents live theater and concerts as well as movies and simulcast operas. In addition to other general interest theaters, Albuquerque also has the African American Performing Arts Center and Exhibit Hall which showcases achievements by people of African descent and the Indian Pueblo Cultural Center which highlights the cultural heritage of the First Nations people of New Mexico.
New Mexico holds strong to its Spanish heritage. Old Spanish traditions such zarzuelas and flamenco are popular in New Mexico. Flamenco dancer and native New Mexican María Benítez founded the Maria Benítez Institute for Spanish Arts "to present programs of the highest quality of the rich artistic heritage of Spain as expressed through music, dance, visual arts and other art forms. '' There is also the Festival Flamenco Internacional de Alburquerque held each year in which native Spanish and New Mexican flamenco dancers perform at the University of New Mexico.
In the mid-20th century there was a thriving Hispano school of literature and scholarship being produced in both English and Spanish. Among the more notable authors were: Angélico Chávez, Nina Otero - Warren, Fabiola Cabeza de Baca, Aurelio Espinosa, Cleofas Jaramillo, Juan Bautista Rael, and Aurora Lucero - White Lea. As well, writer D.H. Lawrence lived near Taos in the 1920s at the D.H. Lawrence Ranch where there is a shrine said to contain his ashes.
New Mexico 's strong Spanish, Native American, and Wild West frontier motifs have provided material for many authors in the state, including internationally recognized Rudolfo Anaya and Tony Hillerman.
Silver City, in the southwestern mountains of the state, was originally a mining town, and at least one nearby mine still operates. It is perhaps better known now as the home of and / or exhibition center for large numbers of artists, visual and otherwise. Another former mining town turned art haven is Madrid, New Mexico. It was brought to national fame as the filming location for the movie Wild Hogs in 2007. The City of Las Cruces, in southern New Mexico, has a museum system that is affiliated with the Smithsonian Institution Affiliations Program. Las Cruces also has a variety of cultural and artistic opportunities for residents and visitors.
Aside from the aforementioned Wild Hogs, other movies filmed in New Mexico include Sunshine Cleaning and Vampires.
The various seasons of the A&E / Netflix series Longmire have been filmed in several locations in New Mexico, including Las Vegas, Santa Fe, Eagle Nest, and Red River.
No major league professional sports teams are based in New Mexico, but the Albuquerque Isotopes are a Pacific Coast League Triple - A baseball affiliate of the MLB Colorado Rockies. New Mexico is home to several baseball teams of the Pecos League: Santa Fe Fuego, Roswell Invaders and the White Sands Pupfish. The Duke City Gladiators of the CIF are an indoor football team that plays their home games at the Tingley Coliseum. The Albuquerque Sol F.C are a soccer club that plays in the PDL (the 4th tier of the American soccer pyramid).
Collegiate athletics in New Mexico involve various University of New Mexico Lobos and New Mexico State Aggies teams in many sports. For many years the two universities have had a rivalry often referred to as the "Rio Grande Rivalry '' or the "Battle of I - 25 '' in recognition of the campuses both located along that interstate highway. NMSU also has a rivalry with the University of Texas at El Paso that is called "The Battle of I - 10. '' The winner of the NMSU - UTEP football game receives the Silver Spade trophy.
Olympic gold medalist Tom Jager, who is an advocate of controversial high - altitude training for swimming, has conducted training camps in Albuquerque (elevation 5,312 ft (1,619.1 m)) and Los Alamos (7,320 ft (2,231 m)).
NRA Whittington Center in Raton is the United States ' largest and most comprehensive competitive shooting range and training facility.
Primary sources
Coordinates: 34 ° N 106 ° W / 34 ° N 106 ° W / 34; - 106
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when did st louis bread company become panera | Panera Bread - Wikipedia
Panera Bread Company is an American chain of bakery - café fast casual restaurants in the United States and Canada. Its headquarters are in Sunset Hills, Missouri, a suburb of St. Louis, and operates as Saint Louis Bread Company in the St. Louis metropolitan area. Offerings include soups, salads, pasta, sandwiches, specialty drinks, and bakery items.
St. Louis Bread was founded by Ken Rosenthal in 1987 when he opened the first location in Kirkwood, Missouri. In 1993, Au Bon Pain Co. purchased the St. Louis Bread Company. In 1997, Au Bon Pain changed the company name to Panera, a word that has roots meaning "bread basket '' in Latin. At the same time, the St. Louis Bread Company was renovating its 20 bakery - cafés in the St. Louis area.
In May 1999, to expand Panera Bread into a national restaurant, Au Bon Pain Co. sold its other chains, including Au Bon Pain, which is now owned by Compass Group North America. Panera Bread moved into its new headquarters in Richmond Heights, Missouri in 2000. The company operates or franchises more than 1900 Panera Bread bakery - cafés in 46 states and 20 facilities that deliver fresh dough to the bakery - cafés every day. Panera Bread 's CEO is Ron Shaich.
In the St. Louis area where it was founded, Panera Bread still operates under the name St. Louis Bread Company. The St. Louis metropolitan area has over 101 locations.
In 2005, Panera ranked 37th on BusinessWeek 's list of "Hot Growth Companies '', earning $38.6 million with a 42.9 % increase in profits. In 2007, Panera Bread purchased a majority stake in Paradise Bakery & Café, a Phoenix - based concept with over 70 locations in 10 states (predominantly in the west and southwest). The company purchased the balance of Paradise in June 2009. On January 25, 2008, a class action lawsuit was filed against Panera Bread alleging Panera failed to disclose material adverse facts about the company 's financial well - being, business relationships, and prospects. Panera settled the lawsuit and agreed to pay $5.75 million to shareholders while admitting no wrongdoing. In 2008 Panera Bread expanded into Canada, beginning with Richmond Hill, Thornhill, Oakville, and Mississauga in the Toronto area. In 2009 and 2012, the restaurant review service Zagat named Panera one of the most popular restaurants for eating on the go. Panera was also rated No. 1 for Best Healthy Option, Best Salad, and Best Facilities, among restaurants with fewer than 5,000 locations.
In November 2010, Panera Bread relocated its headquarters to Sunset Hills while vacating its Richmond Heights headquarters and Brentwood offices. In 2011, revenue was US $2.7 billion, operating income was US $259 million, net income was US $160 million, assets were S $1.5 billion, and equity was US $497.3 million. In mid-2014, Panera unveiled "Panera 2.0, '' a series of integrated technologies to enhance the guest experience.
In 2015, annual revenues were $2,681,580,000 up from $2,529,195,000 the year prior. Net income came to $149,325,000 down from $179,293,000 the year prior. Total assets equaled $1,475,318,000. In January 2017, many Paradise Bakery & Café locations were rebranded as Panera Bread. In April 2017, Panera announced that it was being acquired by Luxembourg - based JAB Holding Company for $315 per share, or over $7 billion. The companies expect the deal to close in the third quarter of 2017.
In 2015, there were 1,972 Panera outlets and stores, up from 1,880 the year before. 901 of those stores were company owned, while 1,071 were franchised. Panera opened its 2000th location in Elyria, Ohio on March 23, 2016.
In 2006 and 2007, Panera was the largest provider of free Wi - Fi in the United States. Many locations restrict the duration of free Wi - Fi to 30 or 60 minutes during peak hours.
In mid-2014, Panera unveiled "Panera 2.0, '' a series of integrated technologies to enhance the guest experience for all consumers no matter how they choose to use Panera. Panera 2.0 brings together new capabilities for digital ordering, payment, operations and, ultimately, consumption to create an enhanced guest experience for "to go '' and "eat in '' customers. A notable feature of Panera 2.0 involves interactive tablet kiosks, which the company calls Fast Lane, where customers may place an order and pay without approaching the counter. The kiosks consist of iPads. In addition to the kiosks, customers could also place orders and pay via an app on their own smartphone or tablet.
In a 2008 Health magazine study, Panera Bread was judged North America 's healthiest fast casual restaurant.
In June 2014, Panera unveiled its official Food Policy which detailed commitments to clean ingredients, transparency and a positive impact on the food system. This policy outlines the company 's values and sets a course for continuous improvement. Panera also made a commitment to remove artificial additives (colors, flavors, sweeteners, and preservatives) on its ' No No List ' from the food in its US bakery - cafes by the end of 2016. In January 2017, it announced its US food menu was free of artificial colors, flavors, sweeteners, and preservatives.
Panera stylizes themselves as a peaceful "Bakery - Cafe '' and offers a wide array of pastries and baked goods, such as croissants, bagels, cookies, scones, muffins and brownies. These, along with Panera 's artisan breads, are typically baked before dawn by an on - staff baker. Some locations also participate in a program that donates their unsold baked goods to local charities after closing hours. Aside from the bakery section, Panera has a regular menu for dine - in or takeout that is broken down into the following categories:
Panera also has a selection of seasonal offerings, such as the Strawberry Poppy Seed Chicken salad offered during the summer season and the Roasted Turkey Cranberry Flatbread in the winter.
Panera announced the addition of more plant - based proteins, such as edamame and organic quinoa, to its menu on November 5, 2015. Being one of the first fast - casual restaurants to discuss plant - based proteins caused Fortune reporter Beth Kowitt to speculate that "other restaurants will likely follow the soup - and - sandwich chain 's lead. ''
In 2016, a lawsuit was filed after an employee at a Natick, Massachusetts store willingly put peanut butter on a sandwich, despite being informed that the person receiving the sandwich was allergic to peanuts. It was alleged that the restaurant chain acted negligently, and charged those involved with intentional or reckless infliction of emotional distress as well as assault and battery, which resulted in the recipient of the sandwich being hospitalized briefly. Less than one month after the incident involved in this case, another restaurant reportedly had a nearly identical incident with another person who had a severe allergy to peanuts.
In 2009, the company 's non-profit foundation created Panera Cares, a non-profit "Pay what you can '' restaurant in its home market of St. Louis. CEO Ron Shaich based the idea on an NBC profile of the SAME Cafe in Denver, Colorado. It has since expanded the concept to Dearborn, Michigan; Portland, Oregon; Chicago; and Boston. Each site serves approximately 3,500 people every week. The Panera Cares in Chicago shut down at the end of January 2015. The Panera Cares in Portland, Oregon shut down at the end of June 2016, leaving just three locations.
On November 5, 2015, Panera announced that it will use cage - free eggs in all of its stores by 2020. At the time of the announcement, the company said it was 21 percent cage - free in the roughly 70 million eggs it used in 2015. In December 2016, it published its third animal welfare progress report, announcing new efforts to improve broiler hen welfare.
The Day - End Dough - Nation program provides unsold bread and baked goods to local area hunger relief agencies and charities. In 2014, Panera Bread bakery - cafes donated a retail value of approximately $100 million worth of unsold bread and baked goods to local organizations in need. Panera also supports events held by non-profit organizations serving those in need by donating a certificate or fresh bakery products.
In 2003, a lawsuit was filed by a former employee who claimed he was fired after allegedly refusing to carry out discriminatory policies set forth by his superiors. In 2009 and 2011, class action lawsuits were filed by former workers alleging that the company violated the California Labor Code, failed to pay overtime, failed to provide meal and rest periods, failed to pay employees upon termination, and violated California 's Unfair Competition Law. Panera set aside $5 million for the payment of claims and denied any wrongdoing.
In 2011, a former employee filed a racial discrimination lawsuit alleging that he was eventually fired after repeatedly having a black man work the cash register instead of putting him in a less visible location and having "pretty young girls '' be the cashiers, as requested by supervisors. The plaintiff also said he was fired after requesting another month off after returning from three months of medical leave. Panera said it "does not discriminate based on national origin, race or sex, '' and that the plaintiff "was terminated because he had used all of his medical leave and was unable to return to work. '' The plaintiff worked in a store owned by franchisee Sam Covelli, who also owns the stores that were involved in the 2003 racial discrimination lawsuit. Covelli Enterprises is the single largest franchisee of Panera Bread with nearly 200 stores in Northeast Ohio, Western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Florida.
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carmelite sisters of the sacred heart los angeles | Carmelite Sisters of the Most Sacred Heart of Los Angeles - wikipedia
The Carmelite Sisters of the Most Sacred Heart of Los Angeles is a Roman Catholic religious institute of the Carmelite Order founded by Venerable Mother Maria Luisa Josefa of the Most Blessed Sacrament, also known as Mother Luisita. It is based in Alhambra, California, outside Los Angeles.
The way of life of the Carmelite Sisters of the Most Sacred Heart of Los Angeles is rooted in the Gospel, the Church, and the spirituality of Carmel as lived out through the charism of their foundress, Venerable Mother Maria Luisa Josefa of the Most Blessed Sacrament. Their mission statement is three-fold: "Educating for Life with the Mind and Heart of Christ '' in schools; being "At the Service of the Family for Life '' through eldercare; and "Fostering a Deeper Spiritual Life '' through individual and group retreats.
In the 1920s during the revolution and religious persecution in Mexico, Mother Luisita established schools, hospitals, and orphanages despite being scrutinized by the government. The very persecution which sought to destroy her work only spread it to another land when Mother Luisita and two companions entered the United States as religious refugees in 1927. They established roots in the Archdiocese of Los Angeles.
The community has grown since its humble beginnings with 3 sisters in 1927. Today, the Carmelite Sisters of the Most Sacred Heart of Los Angeles has grown to 143 professed sisters.
Although most Carmelites are cloistered nuns, the Carmelite Sisters of the Most Sacred Heart of Los Angeles are an active community combining the contemplative charism of Carmel and bringing this spirit out to the world through services in elder care, education and retreat work. They carry out this work at 13 sites located in the states of California, Arizona, Colorado and Florida, serving tens of thousands of people yearly.
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who plays tara's boss on sons of anarchy | List of Sons of Anarchy characters - wikipedia
Becomes SAMCRO 's President following Jax stepping down and being voted to "meet Mr. Mayhem ''.
Alexander "Tig '' Trager (Kim Coates) Is Clay 's most entrusted and right - hand man as his Sergeant - at - Arms. He does much of the dirty work and killings for Clay. He has 2 daughters, Dawn (deceased) and Fawn. He has strange and unusual sexual desires that are mentioned throughout the series. Later he becomes Vice President under Chibs following Jax stepping down and being voted to "meet Mr. Mayhem '' in the series finale.
Happy Lowman (David LaBrava) is SAMCRO 's Sergeant - at - Arms as of Season 6. His real name is never revealed and has the nickname happy because he gets a happy face tattoo every time he does a hit or kill.
Rane Quinn (Rusty Coones) is the former president of the Nomad Charter. He appears in Season 5 to help track down one of his former Nomad soldiers. He becomes a member of the Redwood Original charter.
Allesandro Montez (Jacob Vargas) is a member of the Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club 's Reno, NV chapter.
George "Ratboy '' Skogstrom (Niko Nicotera) was originally introduced as a prospect during Season 4. He becomes a patched member and is often entrusted to look after Gemma and the other women.
Taddarius Orwell "T.O. '' Cross (Michael Beach) is the former president of the Grim Bastards Motorcycle Club. He is voted in as full member of SAMCRO in the series finale, after Jax makes a pact with the other SOA clubs to abolish the unwritten bylaw prohibiting blacks as members, and the Grim Bastards are patched over.
Lenny "The Pimp '' Janowitz (Sonny Barger) is convicted of murdering three ATF agents. He is the only surviving member of the First 9.
Jackson "Jax '' Teller (Charlie Hunnam) was the president of the Sons of Anarchy mother charter from the end of season 4 to the end of season 7. Previously he was vice president under the leadership of his stepfather Clay Morrow. Jax took over as president by force at the end of season 4.
Juan Carlos "Juice '' Ortiz (Theo Rossi) was the club 's hacker and intelligence officer. He was stabbed and killed by Ron Tully in prison during a riot that Tully (Marilyn Manson) creates.
Bobby "Elvis '' Munson (Mark Boone Junior) is the even - tempered treasury secretary of SAMCRO. He later becomes vice president when Jax takes over as president. He is murdered by August Marks after being taken hostage and having his eye cut out and fingers cut off and delivered to Jax. He was a victim of Gemma 's lies about how Tara died.
Orlin West, a.k.a. "West '' (Douglas Bennett) is one of the three Sons Bobby recruited into the Redwood Original Charter in Season 6. He was killed at the port warehouse by Lin 's men, in season 7, while guarding the guns the Sons had stolen from Lin.
Clarence "Clay '' Morrow (Ron Perlman), Jax 's stepfather, is the former president of SAMCRO and the youngest original member of the club. He has been married to Gemma since the death of her first husband, John Teller, in 1993. Clay has been struggling with his age and developing arthritis. He is responsible for the death of Donna Winston, Piney Winston and an attempt on Tara 's life, leading Jax to strip him of his patch. Jax frames him for the murder of Damon Pope and later kills him for killing his father, John Teller and his other sins against the club.
GoGo (Chris Browning), a Nomad who comes to Charming, appears in Season 5 and is voted into the club when the Nomad charter closes. He, Frankie, and Greg the Peg are working for Clay and are behind the breakins and attacks. GoGo is killed by Unser with a double - barrel shotgun when he and Greg the Peg go to kill Unser, unaware that Clay is there and has double - crossed them.
Greg the Peg (Kurt Yaeger) is a Nomad who is missing a leg. He appears in Season 5, when he and two other Nomads - Frankie, and GoGo - come to Charming when the Nomad chapter closes, and are voted into SAMCRO. Greg, Frankie, and GoGo are working for Clay and are behind the home invasion attacks. Clay kills Greg by shooting him in the head, when Greg and GoGo attempt to kill Unser, unaware that Clay is there and has double - crossed them.
Frankie Diamonds (Chuck Zito), a New York Nomad who comes to Charming, appears in Season 5 and is voted into the club when the Nomad charter closes. He, GoGo, and Greg the Peg work for Clay and are behind the attacks and break - ins. Frankie kidnaps Nero (Jimmy Smits), and requests $200,000 from the club from the "cartel money. '' Nero hands over $130,000 in cash and a couple of "nice watches '' as payment, in an effort to get Frankie to leave. Frankie shoots Opie 's wife Lyla, and takes Chibs as a hostage. He eventually leaves Charming with Mafia protection and is murdered by the same men he thought would protect him, before giving up Clay as the source of the home invasions.
Kyle Hobart is excommunicated from the club after abandoning Opie during an arson job, leading to Opie 's five - year incarceration. With Clay 's blessing, he returns to Charming to see his teenage son, Charlie Hobart (William F. Nicol), and ends up trying to offer SAMCRO a business deal involving stolen goods to serve as repayment for his past mistake. Opie confronts Kyle and the two settle their beef, but Kyle has failed to perform the club mandate to remove his Sons of Anarchy back tattoo, so he is given a choice of removal methods ("fire or knife? ''). Choosing fire, the tattoo is burned off Kyle 's back with a cutting torch. He loses consciousness during the process, and it is unknown if Kyle is still alive after being left on the steps of St. Thomas Hospital, where his ex-wife, April Hobart (Liane Curtis) is waiting to aid him after being tipped off by Gemma that Kyle would likely need medical care.
Herman Kozik (Kenny Johnson) was a member of the Tacoma chapter of the Sons of Anarchy. He first appeared in the Season 2 episode "The Culling '' where he provided extra muscle when the Charming clubhouse was on lockdown. He is a Former US Marine and an ex-junkie. He appeared again in the Season 3 premiere at Half - Sack 's wake, where he told Clay and Bobby that he wanted to come back to the Charming chapter. When Kozik showed up at SAMCRO with transfer papers, Tig vetoed the vote due to lack of trust. Kozik then decided to stick around to earn Tig 's trust. He and Piney lured the Mayans heroin shipment into SAMCRO 's hands after flattening the van 's tire. Later Kozik and Tig sneak into St. Thomas to silence the Calaveras member from the drive - by as part of SAMCRO 's new deal with the Mayans. Kozik has a contentious relationship with Tig and in episode 3.8, Tig states that it involves a female from both of their pasts. When Tara Knowles and Margaret Murphy are taken hostage, Kozik proves to be useful. When Salazar demands that the club kills Marcus Alvarez, Kozik is the one who convinces Alvarez to play along to help buy time so SAMCRO can find a way to get the women back. Following Tara 's rescue, Tig once again votes against Kozik 's transfer. It is revealed that the "woman '' from both of their pasts was a female dog named Missy. In Season 4, Kozik is revealed to have been patched into SAMCRO after Tig went to Stockton Prison, a fact Tig happily accepts upon being released. He was killed in the episode "Call of Duty '' by stepping on a landmine that exploded while fighting the Cartel, his last words were "You got ta be shittin ' me ''.
Edward Kip "Half - Sack '' Epps (whom Gemma calls Eddie, Cherry calls Kip, and Tig sometimes calls Kippy) was nicknamed Half - Sack because he lost his right testicle in the Iraq War. He is a prospect in seasons 1 - 2, tasked with doing all menial jobs SAMCRO members do n't want to do. He 's not overly bright (he stores a bloody deer 's head under the club 's pool table with the intention of mounting it on the wall, but does n't understand when Jax says it has to be stuffed). He 's loyal, brave, obedient, and earns Jax 's trust. When Clay overhears Half - Sack saying Gemma gives him a "MILF chubby '', Clay evens the score during a run to Indian Hills, Nevada by having sex with Cherry, whom Half - Sack shows romantic interest in. Half - Sack is a lightweight boxing champion, and in season 1 the club earns money from purses and bets on Half - Sack in order to buy guns from the Irish. In season 2, Cameron Hayes stabs Half - Sack to death at Jax 's house, where Half - Sack is trying to protect Jax 's family. He is posthumously made a full patch member of SAMCRO.
In Season 3, Eric Miles a.k.a. "Miles '' (Frank Potter) is SAMCRO 's newest patched - in member. He is introduced in the episode "The Push '' as a prospect. Miles assists the club with tasks such as cleaning the clubhouse, providing backup when they break into Salazar 's house, and watching Gemma to make sure she does n't leave the clubhouse when she is hiding from the law. Miles is murdered by Juice to cover up what really happened with the cocaine stolen from the warehouse.
John Thomas "J.T. '' Teller (May 5, 1940 -- November 13, 1993) (voiced by Nicholas Guest) founded the Sons of Anarchy with Piney Winston and was the club 's first president. He was Gemma 's first husband, and they had two children together, Jax and Thomas. Thomas "Tommy '' Teller (January 8, 1984 -- April 4, 1990), died from a congenital heart defect at only six years old. As Jax reiterates to Opie in Season 2, episode 10 ("Balm ''), J.T. died from injuries sustained from a vehicular accident while riding on I - 580 in California. Gemma states in an earlier episode and is shown in a Charming Police Department report in Season 4, Episode 2 ("Booster ''): after J.T. 's Harley was "sideswiped '' by a semi-trailer truck on November 11, 1993 at 13: 54; J.T. was dragged 178 yards, taken to St. Thomas Hospital, and died two days later. His home address on the police report is 8824 Sandy Creek in Charming, California. Deputy Chief Wayne Unser signed the report. In Season 4, Episode 5 ("Brick ''), Unser says Clay killed J.T. and had Unser cover it up; Clay responds he merely asked Unser to "lose a little paperwork ''. Unser retorts that J.T. had written that Clay would make two attempts on his life. Several times in Season 7, SAMCRO members are seen touching the roadside memorial dedicated to J.T. (e.g., in episode 7 "Greensleeves '' and episode 13 "Papa 's Goods '').
Harry "Opie '' Winston (Ryan Hurst), the son of SAMCRO co-founder Piney, a member of SAMCRO, and best friend of Jax since childhood. Opie 's mother took him away from Piney and Charming when he was 16, but he left her and returned to his father and the club. While married to Donna, Opie is sent to prison for five years, after being caught by police when his getaway driver (Kyle Hobart) abandons him at a crime scene, thus leaving Opie 's wife and two children, Ellie and Kenny, to fend for themselves during his incarceration. Upon his release, Opie 's family has difficulty making ends meet, which contributes to Opie 's decision to resume illegal activity with SAMCRO, against Donna 's wishes. After Donna is murdered, Lyla forms a relationship with Opie, who ultimately marries her. Opie purposely gets himself sent back to prison to help protect Jax and sacrifices himself when Pope wants one of the Sons dead. He is given a final farewell in the clubhouse with all of SAMCRO honouring him.
"Big Otto '' Delaney (Kurt Sutter), was born in Colma, California on September 29, 1963 and was a member of the Sons of Anarchy 's Charming chapter. He was imprisoned in Stockton state prison on charges of second - degree murder and vehicle theft, but is still in contact with the club. He is a powerful man on the inside and is the leader of the "Big House Crew '', a gang of imprisoned Sons of Anarchy members. He takes Chucky Marstein under his protection, and arranges, when Chucky is released, to have SAMCRO protect him from Lin. In Season 2, Zobelle has the Aryan Brotherhood severely beat Otto, to "humble '' Clay, and in the process the AB puts out Otto 's one good eye, leaving him almost blind. Also that season, Otto is heartbroken when Luann is murdered. In Season 6, US Marshall Lee Toric targets Otto, in retaliation for Otto 's having killied Toric 's sister, and has Otto repeatedly raped and beaten in prison. Clay smuggles Otto a shank, which Otto uses to kill Toric and then to threaten the guards, in order to commit "suicide by cop ''.
"Filthy '' Phil (Christopher Douglas Reed) was one of three new prospects taken on after the death of Kip "Half Sack '' Epps. Phil is responsible for guarding the first shipment of cocaine the club receives from the Galindo cartel along with Miles, new prospect Ratboy and Rafi from the Mayans Oakland Chapter. When some of the shipment is stolen Phil and the other guards are the main suspects despite Juice being the true culprit.
Piermont "Piney '' Winston (William Lucking) was a co-founder of SAMCRO and father of Opie Winston. He was a veteran of the Vietnam War and must carry an oxygen tank with him at all times due to emphysema.
"Uncle '' Jury (Michael Shamus Wiles) is President of the friendly Devil 's Tribe Motorcycle Club in Indian Hills, Nevada, which SAMCRO patched over without prior warning in Season 1. Jury and John Teller ("J.T. '') had served together in the same platoon in Vietnam and remained close friends afterwards.
In season 7, SAMCRO called upon "Indian Hills '', and in turn Jury recruited "local muscle '', to help take down Lin 's gun buy (which turned out to include an exchange of guns for heroin) in Selma, and kill Lin 's men and customers. Jax, Chibs, and Bobby later killed the "local muscle '', and framed them for the takedown in Selma. When Jax later learns one of the murdered "local muscle '', Gib O'Leary, was Jury 's son, Jax erroneously assumes Jury took revenge by ratting out SAMCRO to Lin.
In season 7, episode 8 ("Separation of Crows ''), Jury tells Jax that his father did n't die as rumored, in a motorcycle accident resulting from Clay 's having sabotaged his bike (on which John died days after colliding with and being dragged by a semi truck). Rather, Jury said, J.T. deliberately "checked out '' (committed suicide), as "That Panhead was an extension of John. He would have known if anything was wrong with it the second he kicked it over. (...) Maybe it was his sacrifice. A way of letting his club and family survive. '' Jax disagreed, saying: "My old man did n't kill himself. '' After exchanging further words, Jax knocked down Jury, who dropped his gun. When Jury reached for and grabbed it, Jax killed him with a single shot to the head. That action, witnessed by Jury 's VP and SAMCRO members, and Jax 's confession to it, led to Jax 's receiving a unanimous Mayhem vote in the series finale ("Papa 's Goods '').
Needles (Jay Thames) is vice president of the Devil 's Tribe Motorcycle Club chapter. He follows Jury in patching over into a Sons of Anarchy chapter.
Hopper (Steve Howey) is a Sons of Anarchy North Vegas charter member. He is approached by Bobby Munson to join SAMCRO and says he wants in, but changes his mind after being scared off by the bombing of the SAMCRO clubhouse.
Sometime after the events of season one, Needles is no longer the VP of the Indian Hills charter and has been replaced by Gaines. Gaines is voted in as the charter 's President after Jury is killed. Mickey is then voted in as Gaines ' new VP.
"The First 9 '' refers to co-founders John Teller and Piermont "Piney '' Winston, plus the first seven members of the Sons of Anarchy. Lenny "The Pimp '' Janowitz, who is serving a life sentence and speaks through a voicebox, is the only First 9 member still alive. John Teller died in a motorcycle accident in 1993 (purportedly caused by Clay Morrow 's having sabotaged J.T. 's bike, with Gemma 's blessing. Clay was shown to have executed both former SAMBEL president Keith McGee in Belfast, Northern Ireland (by pushing him off a rooftop), for betraying the club, and Piermont "Piney '' Winston at Piney 's cabin (via a shotgun blast to the chest), when Piney threatened to reveal John Teller 's incriminating letters to the rest of the Sons of Anarchy. The other four First 9 members were Wally Grazer, Thomas "Uncle Tom '' Whitney, Chico Villenueva, and Otto "Li'l Killer '' Moran.
Keith McGee (Andy McPhee) was the president of the Sons of Anarchy Belfast chapter (SAMBEL) in Northern Ireland and a member of the First 9.
Liam O'Neill (Arie Verveen) was the Sergeant - At - Arms of the Belfast charter of the Sons of Anarchy for 10 years and was in a relationship with Cherry.
Seamus Ryan (Darin Heames) is the current president of SAMBEL. McGee was the original SAMBEL president and Ryan was the SAMBEL vice president during the betrayals and executions of McGee and Sergeant - at - Arms Liam O'Neill. After McGee and O'Neill are executed, Ryan is tapped as president.
Luther Barkwill (Dominic Keating), is the current vice president of SAMBEL. He was the road captain for the SOA Newcastle chapter and eventually for SAMBEL. Although hesitant at times, he is a quick reactor. An example includes him being hesitant to run the police off the road to prevent them from hauling off SAMCRO, but after Gemma jumped on the accelerator and ran them off the road, Luther jumped out and started firing rapidly.
Padraic Telford (Lorcan O'Toole), Chibs ' nephew, was accidentally killed in an explosion triggered by Liam O'Neill in an attempt to take out SAMCRO.
Following SAMCRO 's arrival in Ireland, in an attempt to bring back Abel, several additional members of the Belfast chapter have appeared on the scene, including Geezer (Jason McDonald), and Scrum (Darren Keefe).
Armando (Lobo Sebastian), president of the Sons of Anarchy Tucson chapter (SAMTAZ) in Tucson, Arizona, was beheaded by a cartel. The rest of his body was discovered in the back of a truck by the Sons of Anarchy and the Mayans, and his body was sent back to his club in Tucson, along with his head.
Benny (Rolando Molina), the Sergeant - at - Arms for the Tucson chapter, was kicked out with vice president Huff for blackmailing a fellow member, Reggie, and murdering another member in order to cover up a non-club - sanctioned meth cook shop.
Huff (Brian Goodman), the vice president of the Tucson chapter, was kicked out for blackmailing a fellow member, Reggie, and murdering another member in order to cover up a non-club - sanctioned meth cook shop.
Reggie (John Bishop), a member of the Sons of Anarchy Tucson chapter (SAMTAZ) in Tucson, Arizona, was caught by former vice president Huff sleeping with another member 's wife. Huff used this information to blackmail Reggie in order to cover up a non-club - sanctioned meth cook shop and the murder of another member, who happened to be Reggie 's sponsor.
Little Paul, a SAMTAZ member, was murdered by Huff and Benny. Another yet - to - be-named member has also appeared, played by Burton Perez.
The Sons of Anarchy San Bernardino chapter (SAMDINO) is led by president Les Packer (Robert Patrick), while John Hensley portrayed Yates - the two actors having previously played father and son, David and Eric Scatino, in The Sopranos.
The Tacoma chapter 's president is Lee (Lee "Hamco '' Staskunas), while other, still unseen, members include Bowie, Donut, and Lorca.
The yet - to - be-named president of the Oregon chapter (Joe Rose) has made one appearance, as have Reno chapter members Montez (Jacob Vargas) and West (Douglas Bennet), and a yet - to - be-named nomad member (Eric "Mancow '' Muller).
Alive
Wendy Case (Drea de Matteo) is Jax Teller 's ex-wife and Abel Teller 's biological mother. Wendy intentionally became pregnant in hopes of it would keep Jax with her. She is a drug addict who used methamphetamine during her pregnancy, which nearly killed Abel, who was born 10 weeks premature with a hereditary heart malfunction and a defect in his abdominal wall (gastroschisis).
Lyla Dvorak - Winston (Winter Ave Zoli), a porn star employed by Luann Delaney, is introduced in Season 2. She and Opie begin to grow close from the time they meet. A single parent like Opie, she helps him with his children and marries him in the first episode of Season 4. After Opie 's death, she continues to raise his children and goes on to run Red Woody in Season 7.
Fiona Larkin (Bellina Logan) is Chibs ' estranged wife, introduced in Season 2. Fiona first appears at Chibs ' bedside when he is hospitalized after nearly being killed by a car bomb. They have a daughter together, and Fiona still loves Chibs, but was taken as Jimmy O 's prize after Jimmy banished Chibs from Ireland.
Precious Ryan (Eileen Grubba) is Bobby 's ex-wife and mother of his son.
Cherry (Taryn Manning) is a "sweet butt '' (pass around club groupie) from Indian Hills, Nevada, whose real name is Rita Zambell. After leaving her abusive husband and burning down their condo, she aligns herself with the Devil 's Tribe. She bonds with Kip "Half - Sack '' Epps and eventually becomes his old lady, but SAMCRO sends her to Canada, then Ireland, to escape arrest for arson. She becomes Liam 's lover in Ireland.
Mary Winston (Julie Ariola) is Piney Winston 's ex-wife and Opie 's mother. She moved away from Charming and took Opie with her after divorcing Piney. However, she returns to temporarily look after her grandchildren when Opie is arrested. She consoles the distraught Opie after Donna 's murder.
Deceased
Gemma Teller - Morrow (Katey Sagal) was the queen of Charming under Clay 's rule and also the female main character from the show. A Machiavellian schemer and expert in psychological manipulation, Gemma was the wife of Clay Morrow, the widow of John Teller and mother of Jax Teller.
Dr. Tara Knowles - Teller (Maggie Siff) was Jax 's main love interest. In Season 5, Jax and Tara become husband and wife. She was also the mother of his son Thomas and stepmother to Abel.
Luann Delaney (Dendrie Taylor) is Gemma 's best friend and runs a pornography studio, CaraCara, having received financial backing from Big Otto, her husband. She reluctantly partners with SAMCRO for protection, after her rival Georgie Caruso makes escalating attacks on her business. She begins a sexual relationship with Bobby Munson to buy his silence, after he discovers she has been skimming money from the CaraCara partnership. Ultimately, Georgie has her killed, which devastates Otto.
Donna Lerner - Winston (Sprague Grayden) is Opie 's wife and the mother of his two children. She does n't trust SAMCRO after Opie serves extensive jail time for the club.
Kerrianne Larkin - Telford (Q'orianka Kilcher) is the teenage daughter of Chibs Telford and Fiona Larkin, raised by Fiona and Jimmy O'Phelan.
Abel Teller is the son of Jax Teller and Wendy Case. Wendy purposely gets pregnant with Abel to try to hold onto Jax.
Thomas Teller is the son of Jax Teller and Tara Knowles. The younger half - brother of Abel Teller, Thomas is named after Jax 's dead brother and Gemma 's second son.
Dawn Trager (Rachel Miner) and Fawn Trager (Lexi Sakowitz) are the daughters of Alex "Tig '' Trager and his ex-wife Colleen. Dawn first appears in the episode "With An X. ''
Ellie and Kenny Winston (Lela Jane Cortines and John Abendroth) are the daughter and son of Opie and Donna Winston.
Agent Estevez (Marcos de la Cruz) is an agent of the Department of Justice, working under Agent Stahl to bring SAMCRO down.
David Hale (Taylor Sheridan) is the deputy chief of the Charming Police Department. Chief Unser nicknames him "Captain America '' for his black - and - white views and squeaky clean image (prior to his involvement with L.O.A.N. and sexual encounter with an ATF agent), adherence to the law and, possibly, because of his square - jawed all - American looks. Who is
Lieutenant Althea Jarry (Annabeth Gish) is the Lieutenant of the San Joaquin Sheriff Department, who is sent to replace the late Eli Roosevelt after his murder. Unser becomes her consultant and helps out in Tara 's murder case. Jarry is also shown to have an attraction to SAMCRO member Chibs Telford, which is mutual as they are shown kissing and even sleeping together. She accepts bribe money from the club as a means to earn their trust and establish a working relationship.
Agent Joshua "Josh '' Kohn (Jay Karnes) is a Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives agent pretending to investigate SAMCRO. He and Dr. Tara Knowles dated in Chicago until he became threatening and she obtained a restraining order against him. He later stalks Tara in Charming becoming increasingly violent and unhinged. This culminates in him trying to rape Tara, who shoots him in the gut. Tara calls Jax because she does n't know what to do with the bleeding out Kohn, and when he insults Tara, Jax kills him. The Santa Rosa Press Democrat called the character "terrifically creepy. ''
Agent Grad Nicholas (David Rees Snell) is an FBI agent assigned to investigate the SAMCRO 's arms trafficking business. He works closely with Assistant U.S. Attorney Lincoln Potter, often by his side during various points in the investigation. The character 's name is a reference to FX network executive Nicholas Grad.
District Attorney Thyne Patterson (C.C.H. Pounder) is the San Joaquin County District Attorney from Stockton assigned to aggressively address the violence plaguing Charming, specifically from a school shooting resulting in the deaths of four children using a gun acquired from the Sons of Anarchy motorcycle club. To do so, she works with former U.S. Marshal Lee Toric to investigate the Sons.
Lincoln "Linc '' Potter (Ray McKinnon), who in Season 4, Episode 2 says he is a Modesto, California native, is an eccentric, manipulative assistant U.S. attorney operating out of Charming in Season 4 and the head of a joint agency task force targeting the Sons of Anarchy 's arms trafficking business under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, as well as the Real IRA and the Galindo cartel. He rides a motorcycle, dresses like a biker, and somewhat resembles John Teller, which causes Gemma to ask Lincoln if she knows him. Lincoln disapproves of Hale 's conflict of interest as both a real estate developer and local government representative, and in the Season 4 finale produces evidence at the Charming city council meeting about Hale 's investor that kiboshes Hale 's proposed luxury real estate project.
Lieutenant Eli Roosevelt (Rockmond Dunbar) is a member of the San Joaquin County Sheriff 's Department and the head of Charming 's law enforcement following the dissolution of the Charming Police Department. Prior to his assignment in Charming, he spent 15 years in Oakland working as part of an anti-gang task force. In the Season 6 finale, Eli finds Tara 's corpse and, while he 's chastising Gemma, Juice shoots him dead to protect Gemma.
In Season 4, Episode 2 Eli 's wife is shown to have fertility problems, and in later episodes that season she helps Gemma, who visits her flower shop for assistance with wilting plants, successfully solicits a $5,000 "Gold Circle Club '' donation from Gemma (donated in Tara 's name), and receives a $75,000 joint donation from Clay and Oswalt, to save the community garden where Gemma 's father taught Gemma to plant seeds. Later in the series Eli 's wife is murdered by men Clay hired to scare the town.
Agent Smith (Derwin Jordan) is Agent Stahl 's ATF partner during the first season.
Agent June Stahl (Ally Walker) is an ATF agent investigating the club 's involvement in arms trafficking after Deputy Chief Hale calls in the ATF in retaliation when Chief Unser does not retire as previously expected. Stahl is responsible for the death of Donna Winston, Opie Winston 's wife, when she frames Opie as a rat to Clay. Later Stahl attempts to frame Chibs. Stahl and Jax make an agreement to get Gemma out of her charges, (that happened when Stahl framed her murder) and for a lighter sentence for the members of SAMCRO. Stahl is killed at the end of season 3, by Opie who tells her, "put your hands on the wheel. This is what she felt '', referring to the moment his wife, Donna, (killer thought was Opie) was mistakenly gunned down, & shot in the back of the head, all because of her lies in framing Opie as a rat to Clay.
Victor "Vic '' Trammel (Glenn Plummer) was the local sheriff, and an ally of the SAMCRO. A close friend of his is murdered by survivalists using guns provided by the Sons, prompting Vic to seriously question his ties to the club.
Amy Tyler (Pamela J. Gray) is an ATF agent who is both June Stahl 's professional and personal partner during the third season.
Wayne Unser (Dayton Callie) is the chief of the Charming Police Department. He also owns Unser Shipping trucking company, and is not above using the SOA for protection and other questionable activities related to his business. He is an ally of Clay Morrow, a longtime resident of Charming, and cares for the town deeply.
Lee Toric (Donal Logue) is a former U.S. Marshal forced into retirement for a variety of reasons, including excessive use of force and racial profiling. His only family is his sister Pamela Toric, who works as a nurse at Stockton prison 's infirmary. When she is killed by former SAMCRO member Otto Delaney to end the RICO case facing the club, Toric vows revenge. Toric has Otto repeatedly beaten up and raped in prison, hoping to force him into confessing against SAMCRO (as well as satisfying his vengeance for Pamela) and even takes Clay to see the injured Otto in the prison infirmary, though Clay slips Otto a shiv. Believing his tactics are working and he has convinced Otto to bring down SAMCRO, he instead finds a vulgar message about Pamela written on the notepad, prompting him to attack Otto. Otto stabs him multiple times with the shiv and finally slits his throat as the prison guards arrive.
Charles "Charlie '' Barosky (Peter Weller) is a corrupt former police officer who still has ties with the local police agency and controls rackets in Stockton. He makes numerous deals with people to provide police protection for money. His main operation center is a bakery he owns in Stockton.
Father Kellan Ashby (James Cosmo) is the consigliere of the Real IRA in Belfast.
Maureen Ashby (Paula Malcomson) is the widow of Keith McGee. She has ties to the SOA through her late husband and ties to the Real IRA through her older brother, Father Kellan Ashby. abel lost
Trinity Ashby (Zoe Boyle) is Maureen Ashby 's adult daughter and McGee 's stepdaughter. Her mother Maureen was 18 when she gave birth to Trinity, who is unaware that John Teller, the founder of the Sons of Anarchy, was her real father.
Declan Brogan (Bart McCarthy), Peter Dooley (Paul Collins) and Brendan Roarke (Bob McCracken) are the council of the Real IRA in Belfast. First seen thanking SAMCRO for proving Jimmy O. to have gone rogue, they later propose developing the relationship between the Sons and True IRA even further.
Brothers Sean and Michael Casey (Dan Hildebrand and Glenn Keogh) are members of the Real IRA in Belfast, and very close to Father Ashby. Maureen Ashby describes them as "being like sons to him. '' Following Father Ashby 's order, they kill Cameron Hayes and dispose of his body. Michael is executed by Jimmy O., who attacks Maureen Ashby 's home when the SOA are on a protection run in the episode "Turas. ''
Donny (Joel Tobeck) is Jimmy 's right - hand man in Belfast. He is a man of reason that tries to keep Jimmy 's wild tendencies under control. He successfully tortures Sean Casey for information about Abel Teller.
Cameron Hayes (Jamie McShane) is McKeavey 's cousin and a member of the Real IRA. He becomes SAMCRO 's new contact and gun runner after McKeavey 's death. Cameron gives back the $200,000 SAMCRO paid for a gun shipment in addition to a month of free guns, as payment for killing Oakland Port Authority Commissioner Brenan Hefner.
Edmond Hayes (Callard Harris) is Cameron Hayes ' son and business partner. He is from South Armagh. Throughout Season 2, he has as much clout in the business as his father, often making deals and judgment calls on his own. Edmond becomes a rat and is later killed by Agent June Stahl when he starts to run, after punching her in abdomen when she says his, "da raised an Irish p * ssy ''. Edmond 's death is framed on Gemma, by Agent Stahl, after she follows Polly inside, and kills her in self - defense, just after Stahl kills Edmond.
Michael McKeavey (Kevin Chapman) is a powerful member of the True IRA who serves as SAMCRO 's contact and helps sell illegal weapons through the Sons of Anarchy. His date of birth was April 1, 1966. McKeavey is an old friend to SAMCRO members, including Clay and Piney.
Luke Moran (Kevin P. Kearns) is Jimmy O. 's second in command in the U.S., and he is glad to follow his boss ' every order. When Jax finds out that Jimmy has been lying to him about Abel 's whereabouts, he kidnaps Luke and delivers him to Agent June Stahl as part of his deal with her.
James O'Phelan (Titus Welliver), better known as "Jimmy O., '' is the leader of the Real IRA group who sells guns to SAMCRO. Jimmy O. makes his first appearance in Season 2 to personally rectify the Hayes ' betrayal of SAMCRO, since the Real IRA has long been dependent on the Sons Of Anarchy 's Belfast chapter. Jimmy is generally regarded as Chibs Telford 's archenemy. When the real IRA have proof of him going behind their backs, he takes Jax 's son, Abel, to exchange for a safe passage back to the US. After a long hunt and search, SAMCRO finds out the Russians are hiding him. SAMCRO makes a deal to hand Jimmy over to them. When Agent Stahl gets custody of Jimmy O from SAMCRO, Chief Unser pulls them over with a ruse about Jimmy 's members waiting ahead in a road block for them. With Stahl 's other agents gone, Chibs & a few other members of SAMCRO show up by bus. Chibs pulls Jimmy O out of the car and slices his mouth, (in the same manner as Jimmy did him years before, scarring Chibs) and then stabs him to death.
Galen O'Shay (Timothy V. Murphy) is a high - ranking member of the Real IRA, directly involved in SAMCRO 's affairs with the Galindo Cartel. He views Jax as impulsive and reckless following an incident stateside and holds him responsible for the death of Father Kellan Ashby. Cutthroat, stubborn, and ruthless, Galen has no remorse for killing anybody who gets in the way of his business arrangements; for example, he has two members of SAMCRO killed to simply send a message after Jax announces his intention to move away from the gun business. Upon breaking Clay out of prison, Galen is shot dead by Jax.
Esai Alvarez (Kevin Alejandro) is a member of the Mayans Motorcycle Club and the son of Marcus Alvarez. Marcus selects his son to perform hits on both the Nords ' leader Ernest Darby and SAMCRO leader Clay Morrow, but Esai and his men botch both hits. Esai was killed by Happy (with his father 's approval) shortly afterwards, in a deal to achieve peace with the Nords and SAMCRO.
Marcus Alvarez (Emilio Rivera) is the president of the Mayans Motorcycle Club, an Oakland - based rival motorcycle club that has allied itself with the Nords in order to break SAMCRO 's iron - fisted control over Charming. He and the Mayans are bitter rivals with the Niners gang.
Lander Jackson (Marcello Thedford) is the vice president of the Grim Bastards Motorcycle Club. He and T.O. had been childhood friends, since age four. He is brutally killed by Edgar, the Sergeant - at - Arms of the rival Calaveras Motorcycle Club; T.O. later kills Edgar in revenge.
Roscoe (Joseph Julian Soria) is a member of the Calaveras Motorcycle Club Lodi chapter. He is appointed the new president by Marcus Alvarez, following the removal of Hector Salazar.
Hector Salazar (Jose Pablo Cantillo) is the former president of the Lodi chapter of the Calaveras Motorcycle Club, a low - ranking club that does dirty work for the Mayans. The Calaveras perform the drive - by at Half - Sack 's wake. He kidnaps Tara and Margaret Murphy and holds them hostage in his sister 's house. This eventually leads to his death by Jax Teller.
James "Jimmy '' Cacuzza (Jeff Wincott) is the leader of a Mafia family and a friend of Clay 's. He and his crew buy weapons from SAMCRO. When the Mayans and Nords blow up SAMCRO 's warehouse, delaying SAMCRO 's delivery of one of the weapons shipments, the SAMCRO hijacks one of Unser 's trucks and gives the contents to the Mafia, taking only 10 % return, as a goodwill gesture.
Ernest Darby (Mitch Pileggi) is the head of the Nordics (also known as "Nords ''), a white supremacist gang mainly involved in meth trafficking. Darby colludes, at various points, with Alvarez, L.O.A.N., and Hale to discredit and eliminate SAMCRO, to bring drugs into Charming, and to burn down CaraCara. He also, initially, accepts money from Hale to persuade Lumpy to sell his boxing club but refuses to use violence and returns the money.
Henry Lin (Chinese: 林 亨利; played by Kenneth Choi) was the Chinese - American leader of a San Francisco - based Triad. His gang is after a man named Chuck Marstein, who was a bookkeeper for their illegal businesses but eventually stole from them. In season 7, he was killed by Juice.
Nate Meineke (Tim De Zarn) is the leader of a local state militia and terrorist group. He served in Vietnam alongside Piney Winston. He and his son, Russell Meineke (James Harvey Ward), buy weapons from SAMCRO and use them to ambush a prison convoy to free one of their members. They plan to go into hiding in Mexico. However, the Sons of Anarchy kill them by bombing their hideout bunker, as they had brought heat onto SAMCRO with the shootings.
Nero Padilla (Jimmy Smits) is a Mexican - American pimp (who refers to himself as a "companionator '') and the head of a Mexican gang known as the Byz Lats. In the Season 5 premiere, "Sovereign '', he is shown to have bonded with Gemma. In Episode 5.2, "Authority Vested '', he provides sanctuary to the Sons, who hide out at his brothel Diosa, when SAMCRO is under attack and planning their next move. Over the next few episodes, Nero forms an alliance with Jax and offers mentorly advice, such as how to deal with Gemma (in "Toad 's Wild Ride ''). Nero has a young son who is disabled and lives in a home.
Romero "Romeo '' Parada (Danny Trejo) is a high - ranking member of the Jose Galindo drug cartel, who has connections to Marcus Alvarez and the Mayans. He is a former Mexican commando that was enlisted by José Galindo to head up the cartel 's strategic enforcement unit. At the end of season 4 its revealed that he and his lieutenant Luis Torres are NCS members working with the CIA to take down rival drug cartels and thus control the Mexican drug trade and stabilize Mexico. Parada and the CIA shut down the RICO case against SAMCRO at the end of season 4 and force Jax to take over leadership of SAMCRO and keep Clay alive to continue the gunrunning operation.
Damon Pope (Harold Perrineau) is first mentioned in Season 4 's finale as the most dangerous gangster in Oakland. A powerful businessman, Damon Pope is also a bloodthirsty, ruthless, and calculating individual who wields influence over many black gangs. He does not hesitate to use extreme violence to demonstrate his power or to make things go his way. After Tig inadvertently kills Pope 's daughter by hitting her with a car aimed at Laroy, Pope orders his henchmen to burn one of Tig 's daughters alive in front of her father. Later, Pope forces SAMCRO to work for him; however, Jax eventually outsmarts him and tricks Pope to meet in a remote area by promising to give up Tig, whom at Jax 's request, Pope agreed to delay killing. After killing Pope 's guards who did not expect an attack, Jax gives a gun to Tig, who shoots Pope in the head.
August Marks (Billy Brown), introduced in Season 5, is Damon Pope 's right - hand man. Like Pope, Marks projects a courteous and friendly front, but is also extremely ruthless. He states he has been working for Pope since he was 17. He also tells Jax what separates him from Pope is that "Damon made his name on the streets by being the smartest. I (August) made mine by being the deadliest ''. In the series finale, Jax shoots him dead in revenge for Bobby 's murder.
Viktor Putlova (Keith Szarabajka) handles the dealings of the Russian mob in California. An old acquaintance of Jimmy O. 's, Putlova is hired by Jimmy to help him escape the Real IRA and SAMCRO. However, Putlova betrays Jimmy and makes a deal with SAMCRO to hand over Jimmy in exchange for $2 million.
Luis Torres (Benito Martinez) is Romeo Parada 's chief lieutenant in the Jose Galindo drug cartel. He is often at Romeo 's side. He is a former Lieutenant first class in the Mexican Special Forces Airmobile Group and Intelligence. He has a masters in Logistics from Universidad Veracruzana. Parada was his commanding officer and Torres left Special Forces two weeks after Parada left. Torres ' last known tour of duty was fighting the Galindo Cartel. Like Parada, Torres was recruited into NCS working with the CIA to fight rival drug cartels and thus control the Mexican drug trade and stabilize Mexico.
Ron Tully (Marilyn Manson) is the leader of the Aryan Brotherhood in the Stockton, California area. He is currently incarcerated in Stockton State prison, where he has great influence as many guards are on his payroll. He becomes an ally to Jax and SAMCRO in Season 7, after Jax viciously beats an AB rat and brings Tully two of the rat 's teeth. Tully develops a romantic interest in Juice, who gets himself arrested purposely so he can kill Lin, after which Tully is charged by SAMCRO to assassinate Juice.
Ule (Jason Matthew Smith) is a member of the League of American Nationals (L.O.A.N.). He has an antagonistic and distrustful relationship with A.J. Weston, and believes that, as Zobelle 's right - hand man, Weston 's ardent white supremacist beliefs are not allowing L.O.A.N. to broaden their horizons. Gradually, Ule takes Weston 's place in L.O.A.N. 's covert activities with the Mayans. When A.J. Weston finds out about the drug trade with the Mayans, he kills the female heroin cookers and executes Ule.
Laroy Wayne (Tory Kittles) is SAMCRO 's contact in the One - Niners street gang and the gang 's leader. Laroy buys weapons from SAMCRO and is often in the company of a man with a burned face called Gill (E.R. Ruiz), possibly his second in command. The fictional One - Niners gang also appears in The Shield. Laroy ends up dead when his body ends up in Damon Pope 's fire pit that Tig is made to watch go up in flames, as it also contains his daughter, Dawn (goes by Margeoux), as retaliation for the death of Pope 's daughter.
A.J. Weston (Henry Rollins) is the muscle, or street leader, of the League of American Nationalists (also known as "L.O.A.N. ''), a white separatist gang trying to gain control in Charming and force SAMCRO out.
Ethan Zobelle (Adam Arkin) is the head of the League of American Nationalists ("L.O.A.N. ''), a white separatist gang who desires to gain a foothold in Charming and force SAMCRO out.
Polly Zobelle (Sarah Jones) is the scheming daughter and accomplice of Ethan Zobelle. She is the one who initially tricks and subdues Gemma prior to her rape. She also rigs the car bomb which nearly kills Chibs. Deputy Hale extorts her to get information about her father 's whereabouts, but she feeds him partially false information, which has extreme repercussions for SAMCRO.
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when was amazon founded (52 answered correctly) | Amazon (company) - Wikipedia
Amazon.com, Inc., doing business as Amazon (/ ˈæməˌzɒn /), is an American electronic commerce and cloud computing company based in Seattle, Washington, that was founded by Jeff Bezos on July 5, 1994. The tech giant is the largest Internet retailer in the world as measured by revenue and market capitalization, and second largest after Alibaba Group in terms of total sales. The amazon.com website started as an online bookstore and later diversified to sell video downloads / streaming, MP3 downloads / streaming, audiobook downloads / streaming, software, video games, electronics, apparel, furniture, food, toys, and jewelry. The company also produces consumer electronics -- Kindle e-readers, Fire tablets, Fire TV, and Echo -- and is the world 's largest provider of cloud infrastructure services (IaaS and PaaS). Amazon also sells certain low - end products under its in - house brand AmazonBasics.
Amazon has separate retail websites for the United States, the United Kingdom and Ireland, France, Canada, Germany, Italy, Spain, Netherlands, Australia, Brazil, Japan, China, India, and Mexico. In 2016, Dutch, Polish, and Turkish language versions of the German Amazon website were also launched. Amazon also offers international shipping of some of its products to certain other countries.
In 2015, Amazon surpassed Walmart as the most valuable retailer in the United States by market capitalization. Amazon is the fourth most valuable public company in the world (behind only Apple, Alphabet, and Microsoft), the largest Internet company by revenue in the world, and after Walmart, the second largest employer in the United States. In 2017, Amazon acquired Whole Foods Market for $13.4 billion, which vastly increased Amazon 's presence as a brick - and - mortar retailer. The acquisition was interpreted by some as a direct attempt to challenge Walmart 's traditional retail stores. In 2018, for the first time, Jeff Bezos released in Amazon 's shareholder letter the number of Amazon Prime subscribers, which at 100 million, is approximately 64 % of households in the United States.
The company was founded as a result of what Jeff Bezos called his "regret minimization framework, '' which described his efforts to fend off any regrets for not participating sooner in the Internet business boom during that time. In 1994, Bezos left his employment as vice-president of D.E. Shaw & Co., a Wall Street firm, and moved to Seattle, Washington, where he began to work on a business plan for what would become Amazon.com.
On July 5, 1994, Bezos initially incorporated the company in Washington State with the name Cadabra, Inc. He later changed the name to Amazon.com, Inc. a few months later, after a lawyer misheard its original name as "cadaver ''. In September 1994, Bezos purchased the URL Relentless.com and briefly considered naming his online store Relentless, but friends told him the name sounded a bit sinister. The domain is still owned by Bezos and still redirects to the retailer.
Bezos selected the name Amazon by looking through the dictionary; he settled on "Amazon '' because it was a place that was "exotic and different '', just as he had envisioned for his Internet enterprise. The Amazon River, he noted, was the biggest river in the world, and he planned to make his store the biggest bookstore in the world. Additionally, a name that began with "A '' was preferential due to the probability it would occur at the top of an alphabetized list. Bezos placed a premium on his head start in building a brand and told a reporter, "There 's nothing about our model that ca n't be copied over time. But you know, McDonald 's got copied. And it 's still built a huge, multibillion - dollar company. A lot of it comes down to the brand name. Brand names are more important online than they are in the physical world. ''
After reading a report about the future of the Internet that projected annual web commerce growth at 2,300 %, Bezos created a list of 20 products that could be marketed online. He narrowed the list to what he felt were the five most promising products, which included: compact discs, computer hardware, computer software, videos, and books. Bezos finally decided that his new business would sell books online, due to the large worldwide demand for literature, the low price points for books, along with the huge number of titles available in print. Amazon was founded in the garage of Bezos ' rented home in Bellevue, Washington. Bezos ' parents invested almost $250,000 in the start - up.
In July 1995, the company began service as an online bookstore. The first book sold on Amazon.com was Douglas Hofstadter 's Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies: Computer Models of the Fundamental Mechanisms of Thought. In the first two months of business, Amazon sold to all 50 states and over 45 countries. Within two months, Amazon 's sales were up to $20,000 / week. In October 1995, the company announced itself to the public. In 1996, it was reincorporated in Delaware. Amazon issued its initial public offering of stock on May 15, 1997, at $18 per share, trading under the NASDAQ stock exchange symbol AMZN.
Barnes & Noble sued Amazon on May 12, 1997, alleging that Amazon 's claim to be "the world 's largest bookstore '' was false because it "... is n't a bookstore at all. It 's a book broker. '' The suit was later settled out of court and Amazon continued to make the same claim. Walmart sued Amazon on October 16, 1998, alleging that Amazon had stolen Walmart 's trade secrets by hiring former Walmart executives. Although this suit was also settled out of court, it caused Amazon to implement internal restrictions and the reassignment of the former Walmart executives.
In 1999, Amazon first attempted to enter the publishing business by buying a defunct imprint, "Weathervane '', and publishing some books "selected with no apparent thought '', according to The New Yorker. The imprint quickly vanished again, and as of 2014 Amazon representatives said that they had never heard of it. Also in 1999, Time magazine named Bezos the Person of the Year when it recognized the company 's success in popularizing online shopping.
Since June 19, 2000, Amazon 's logotype has featured a curved arrow leading from A to Z, representing that the company carries every product from A to Z, with the arrow shaped like a smile.
According to sources, Amazon did not expect to make a profit for four to five years. This comparatively slow growth caused stockholders to complain that the company was not reaching profitability fast enough to justify their investment or even survive in the long - term. The dot - com bubble burst at the start of the 21st century and destroyed many e-companies in the process, but Amazon survived and moved forward beyond the tech crash to become a huge player in online sales. The company finally turned its first profit in the fourth quarter of 2001: $5 million (i.e., 1 ¢ per share), on revenues of more than $1 billion. This profit margin, though extremely modest, proved to skeptics that Bezos ' unconventional business model could succeed.
In 2011, Amazon had 30,000 full - time employees in the USA, and by the end of 2016, it had 180,000 employees.
In June 2017, Amazon announced that it would acquire Whole Foods, a high - end supermarket chain with over 400 stores, for $13.4 billion. The acquisition was seen by media experts as a move to strengthen its physical holdings and challenge Walmart 's supremacy as a brick and mortar retailer. This sentiment was heightened by the fact that the announcement coincided with Walmart 's purchase of men 's apparel company Bonobos. On August 23, 2017, Whole Foods shareholders, as well as the Federal Trade Commission, approved the deal.
In September 2017, Amazon announced plans to locate a second headquarters in a metropolitan area with at least a million people. Cities needed to submit their presentations by October 19, 2017 for the project called HQ2. The $5 billion second headquarters, starting with 500,000 square feet and eventually expanding to as much as 8 million square feet, may have as many as 50,000 employees. In 2017, Amazon announced it would build a new downtown Seattle building with space for Mary 's Place, a local charity in 2020.
As of January 2018, the company employed 306,800 people worldwide in full and part - time jobs.
According to an August 8, 2018 story in Bloomberg Businessweek, Amazon has about a 5 percent share of U.S. retail spending (excluding cars and car parts and visits to restaurants and bars), and a 43.5 share of American online spending in 2018. The forecast is for Amazon to own 49 percent of the total American online spending in 2018, with two - thirds of Amazon 's revenue coming from the U.S.
On January 22, 2018, Amazon Go, a store that uses cameras and sensors to detect items that a shopper grabs off shelves and automatically charges a shopper 's Amazon account, was opened to the general public in Seattle. Customers scan their Amazon Go app as they enter, and are required to have an Amazon Go app installed on their smartphone and a linked Amazon account to be able to enter. The technology is meant to elminate the need for checkout lines. Amazon Go was initially opened for Amazon employees in December 2016.
Amazon has grown through a number of mergers and acquisitions over the years.
The company has also invested in a number of growing firms, both in the United States and Internationally. In 2014, Amazon purchased top level domain. buy in auction for over $4 million. The company has invested in brands that offer a wide range of services and products, including Engine Yard, a Ruby - on - Rails platform as a service company, and Living Social, a local deal site.
As of May 2018, the board of directors is:
Until June 30, 2006, typing ToysRUs.com into a browser would bring up Amazon. com 's "Toys & Games '' tab; however, this relationship was terminated due to a lawsuit. Amazon also hosted and managed the website for Borders bookstores but this ceased in 2008. From 2001 until August 2011, Amazon hosted the retail website for Target.
Amazon.com operates retail websites for Sears Canada, Bebe Stores, Marks & Spencer, Mothercare, and Lacoste. For a growing number of enterprise clients, including the UK merchants Marks & Spencer, Benefit Cosmetics ' UK entity, edeals.com and Mothercare, Amazon provides a unified multichannel platform where a customer can interact with the retail website, standalone in - store terminals or phone - based customer service agents. Amazon Web Services also powers AOL 's Shop@AOL.
On October 18, 2011, Amazon.com announced a partnership with DC Comics for the exclusive digital rights to many popular comics, including Superman, Batman, Green Lantern, The Sandman, and Watchmen. The partnership has caused well - known bookstores like Barnes & Noble to remove these titles from their shelves.
In November 2013, Amazon.com announced a partnership with the United States Postal Service to begin delivering orders on Sundays. The service, included in Amazon 's standard shipping rates, initiated in metropolitan areas of Los Angeles and New York due to the high - volume and inability to deliver timely, with plans to expand into Dallas, Houston, New Orleans and Phoenix by 2014.
In July 2016, Amazon.com announced a partnership with the UK Civil Aviation Authority to test some of the technologies and may use delivery service via prime air drone in the future.
In June 2017, Nike confirmed a partnership with Amazon, stating it to be in an initial phase where they 'll be selling goods on Amazon.
As of October 11, 2017, AmazonFresh sells a range of Booths branded products for home delivery in selected areas.
Amazon. com 's product lines available at its website include several media (books, DVDs, music CDs, videotapes and software), apparel, baby products, consumer electronics, beauty products, gourmet food, groceries, health and personal - care items, industrial & scientific supplies, kitchen items, jewelry, watches, lawn and garden items, musical instruments, sporting goods, tools, automotive items and toys & games.
Amazon is now gearing up in India to play a role in the grocery retail sector aimed at delivering customer needs.
Amazon.com has a number of products and services available, including:
Amazon owns over 40 subsidiaries, including Zappos, Shopbop, Diapers.com, Kiva Systems (now Amazon Robotics), Audible, Goodreads, Teachstreet and IMDb.
A9.com, a company focused on researching and building innovative technology, has been a subsidiary since 2003.
Amazon Maritime, Inc. holds a Federal Maritime Commission license to operate as a non-vessel - owning common carrier (NVOCC), which enables the company to manage its own shipments from China into the United States.
Audible.com is a seller and producer of spoken audio entertainment, information and educational programming on the Internet. Audible sells digital audiobooks, radio and TV programs and audio versions of magazines and newspapers. Through its production arm, Audible Studios, Audible has also become the world 's largest producer of downloadable audiobooks. On January 31, 2008, Amazon announced it would buy Audible for about $300 million. The deal closed in March 2008 and Audible became a subsidiary of Amazon.
Beijing Century Joyo Courier Services is a subsidiary of Amazon and it applied for a freight forwarding license with the US Maritime Commission. Amazon is also building out its logistics in trucking and air freight to potentially compete with UPS and FedEx.
Brilliance Audio is an audiobook publisher founded in 1984 by Michael Snodgrass in Grand Haven, Michigan. The company produced its first 8 audio titles in 1985. The company was purchased by Amazon in 2007 for an undisclosed amount. At the time of the acquisition, Brilliance was producing 12 -- 15 new titles a month. It operates as an independent company within Amazon.
In 1984, Brilliance Audio invented a technique for recording twice as much on the same cassette. The technique involved recording on each of the two channels of each stereo track. It has been credited with revolutionizing the burgeoning audiobook market in the mid-1980s since it made unabridged books affordable.
ComiXology is a cloud - based digital comics platform with over 200 million comic downloads as of September 2013. It offers a selection of more than 40,000 comic books and graphic novels across Android, iOS, Fire OS and Windows 8 devices and over a web browser. Amazon bought the company in April 2014.
CreateSpace, which offers self - publishing services for independent content creators, publishers, film studios and music labels became a subsidiary in 2009.
Goodreads is a "social cataloging '' website founded in December 2006 and launched in January 2007 by Otis Chandler, a software engineer, and entrepreneur, and Elizabeth Chandler. The website allows individuals to freely search Goodreads ' extensive user - populated database of books, annotations, and reviews. Users can sign up and register books to generate library catalogs and reading lists. They can also create their own groups of book suggestions and discussions. In December 2007, the site had over 650,000 members and over 10 million books had been added. Amazon bought the company in March 2013.
Lab126, developers of integrated consumer electronics such as the Kindle became a subsidiary in 2004.
Shelfari was a social cataloging website for books. Shelfari users built virtual bookshelves of the titles which they owned or had read and they could rate, review, tag and discuss their books. Users could also create groups that other members could join, create discussions and talk about books, or other topics. Recommendations could be sent to friends on the site for what books to read. Amazon bought the company in August 2008. Shelfari continued to function as an independent book social network within the Amazon until January 2016, when Amazon announced that it would be merging Shelfari with Goodreads and closing down Shelfari.
Twitch is a live streaming platform for video, primarily oriented towards video gaming content. The service was first established as a spin - off of a general - interest streaming service known as Justin.tv. Its prominence was eclipsed by that of Twitch, and Justin.tv was eventually shut down by its parent company in August 2014 in order to focus exclusively on Twitch. Later that month, Twitch was acquired by Amazon for $970 million. Through Twitch, Amazon also owns Curse, Inc., an operator of video gaming communities and a provider of VoIP services for gaming. Since the acquisition, Twitch began to sell games directly through the platform, and began offering special features for Amazon Prime subscribers.
The site 's rapid growth had been boosted primarily by the prominence of major esports competitions on the service, leading GameSpot senior esports editor Rod Breslau to have described the service as "the ESPN of esports ''. As of 2015, the service had over 1.5 million broadcasters and 100 million monthly viewers.
Whole Foods Market is an American supermarket chain exclusively featuring foods without artificial preservatives, colors, flavors, sweeteners, and hydrogenated fats.
On August 23, 2017, it was reported that the Federal Trade Commission approved the merger between Amazon.com and Whole Foods Market. The following day it was announced that the deal would be closed on August 28, 2017.
Junglee is a former online shopping service provided by Amazon that enabled customers to search for products from online and offline retailers in India. Junglee started off as a virtual database that was used to extract information off the internet and deliver it to enterprise applications. As it progressed, Junglee started to use its database technology to create a single window marketplace on the internet by making every item from every supplier available for purchase. Web shoppers could locate, compare and transact millions of products from across the Internet shopping mall through one window.
Amazon acquired Junglee in 1998, and the website Junglee.com was launched in India in February 2012 as a comparison - shopping website. It curated and enabled searching for a diverse variety of products such as clothing, electronics, toys, jewelry and video games, among others, across thousands of online and offline sellers. Millions of products are browse - able, whereby the client selects a price, and then they are directed to a seller. In November 2017, Amazon closed down Junglee.com and the former domain currently redirects to Amazon India.
The domain amazon.com attracted at least 615 million visitors annually by 2008. Amazon attracts over 130 million customers to its US website per month by the start of 2016. The company has also invested heavily on a massive amount of server capacity for its website, especially to handle the excessive traffic during the December Christmas holiday season.
Results generated by Amazon 's search engine are partly determined by promotional fees.
Amazon 's localized storefronts, which differ in selection and prices, are differentiated by top - level domain and country code:
Amazon allows users to submit reviews to the web page of each product. Reviewers must rate the product on a rating scale from one to five stars. Amazon provides a badging option for reviewers which indicate the real name of the reviewer (based on confirmation of a credit card account) or which indicate that the reviewer is one of the top reviewers by popularity. Customers may comment or vote on the reviews, indicating whether they found a review helpful to them. If a review is given enough "helpful '' hits, it appears on the front page of the product. In 2010, Amazon was reported as being the largest single source of Internet consumer reviews.
When publishers asked Bezos why Amazon would publish negative reviews, he defended the practice by claiming that Amazon.com was "taking a different approach... we want to make every book available -- the good, the bad and the ugly... to let truth loose ''.
There have been cases of positive reviews being written and posted by public relations companies on behalf of their clients and instances of writers using pseudonyms to leave negative reviews of their rivals ' works.
"Search Inside the Book '' is a feature which allows customers to search for keywords in the full text of many books in the catalog. The feature started with 120,000 titles (or 33 million pages of text) on October 23, 2003. There are about 300,000 books in the program. Amazon has cooperated with around 130 publishers to allow users to perform these searches.
To avoid copyright violations, Amazon does not return the computer - readable text of the book. Instead, it returns a picture of the matching page, instructs the web browser to disable printing and puts limits on the number of pages in a book a single user can access. Additionally, customers can purchase online access to some of the same books via the "Amazon Upgrade '' program.
Amazon derives many of its sales (around 40 % in 2008) from third - party sellers who sell products on Amazon. Associates receive a commission for referring customers to Amazon by placing links to Amazon on their websites if the referral results in a sale. Worldwide, Amazon has "over 900,000 members '' in its affiliate programs. In the middle of 2014, the Amazon Affiliate Program is used by 1.2 % of all websites and it is the second most popular advertising network after Google Ads. It is frequently used by websites and non-profits to provide a way for supporters to earn them a commission. Amazon reported over 1.3 million sellers sold products through Amazon 's websites in 2007. Unlike eBay, Amazon sellers do not have to maintain separate payment accounts; all payments are handled by Amazon.
Associates can access the Amazon catalog directly on their websites by using the Amazon Web Services (AWS) XML service. A new affiliate product, aStore, allows Associates to embed a subset of Amazon products within another website, or linked to another website. In June 2010, Amazon Seller Product Suggestions was launched (rumored to be internally called "Project Genesis '') to provide more transparency to sellers by recommending specific products to third - party sellers to sell on Amazon. Products suggested are based on customers ' browsing history.
The Amazon sales rank (ASR) provides an indication of the popularity of a product sold on any Amazon locale. It is a relative indicator of popularity that is updated hourly. Effectively, it is a "best sellers list '' for the millions of products stocked by Amazon. While the ASR has no direct effect on the sales of a product, it is used by Amazon to determine which products to include in its bestsellers lists. Products that appear in these lists enjoy additional exposure on the Amazon website and this may lead to an increase in sales. In particular, products that experience large jumps (up or down) in their sales ranks may be included within Amazon 's lists of "movers and shakers ''; such a listing provides additional exposure that might lead to an increase in sales. For competitive reasons, Amazon does not release actual sales figures to the public. However, Amazon has now begun to release point of sale data via the Nielsen BookScan service to verified authors. While the ASR has been the source of much speculation by publishers, manufacturers, and marketers, Amazon itself does not release the details of its sales rank calculation algorithm. Some companies have analyzed Amazon sales data to generate sales estimates based on the ASR, though Amazon states:
Please keep in mind that our sales rank figures are simply meant to be a guide of general interest for the customer and not definitive sales information for publishers -- we assume you have this information regularly from your distribution sources
Amazon runs data centers for its online services and owns generators or purchases electricity corresponding to its consumption, mostly renewable energy. Amazon contracted with Avangrid to build and operate the first wind farm in North Carolina to power Amazon 's Virginia data centers. The wind farm was built and began operating in December 2016 despite opposition from President Trump and some North Carolina Republican legislators.
Amazon records data on customer buyer behavior which enables them to offer or recommend to an individual specific item or bundles of items based upon preferences demonstrated through purchases or items visited.
On May 5, 2014, Amazon unveiled a partnership with Twitter. Twitter users can link their accounts to an Amazon account and automatically add items to their shopping carts by responding to any tweet with an Amazon product link bearing the hashtag # AmazonCart. This allows customers to never leave their Twitter feed and the product is waiting for them when they go to the Amazon website.
Amazon employs a multi-level e-commerce strategy. Amazon started by focusing on business - to - consumer relationships between itself and its customers and business - to - business relationships between itself and its suppliers and then moved to facilitate customer - to - customer with the Amazon marketplace which acts as an intermediary to facilitate transactions. The company lets anyone sell nearly anything using its platform. In addition to an affiliate program that lets anyone post-Amazon links and earn a commission on click - through sales, there is now a program which lets those affiliates build entire websites based on Amazon 's platform.
Some other large e-commerce sellers use Amazon to sell their products in addition to selling them through their own websites. The sales are processed through Amazon.com and end up at individual sellers for processing and order fulfillment and Amazon leases space for these retailers. Small sellers of used and new goods go to Amazon Marketplace to offer goods at a fixed price. Amazon also employs the use of drop shippers or meta sellers. These are members or entities that advertise goods on Amazon who order these goods direct from other competing websites but usually from other Amazon members. These meta sellers may have millions of products listed, have large transaction numbers and are grouped alongside other less prolific members giving them credibility as just someone who has been in business for a long time. Markup is anywhere from 50 % to 100 % and sometimes more, these sellers maintain that items are in stock when the opposite is true. As Amazon increases their dominance in the marketplace these drop shippers have become more and more commonplace in recent years.
In November 2015, Amazon opened its first physical bookstore location. It is named Amazon Books and is located in University Village in Seattle. The store is 5,500 square feet and prices for all products match those on its website. Amazon will open its tenth physical book store in 2017; media speculation suggests Amazon plans to eventually roll out 300 to 400 bookstores around the country. Amazon plans to open brick and mortar bookstores in Germany.
Amazon.com is primarily a retail site with a sales revenue model; Amazon takes a small percentage of the sale price of each item that is sold through its website while also allowing companies to advertise their products by paying to be listed as featured products.
Since its founding, the company has attracted criticism and controversy from multiple sources over its actions. These include: luring customers away from the site 's brick and mortar competitors, poor warehouse conditions for workers; anti-unionization efforts; Amazon Kindle remote content removal; taking public subsidies; its "1 - Click patent '' claims; anti-competitive actions; price discrimination; various decisions over whether to censor or publish content such as the WikiLeaks website; LGBT book sales rank; and works containing libel, facilitating dogfight, cockfight, or pedophile activities. In December 2011, Amazon faced a backlash from small businesses for running a one - day deal to promote its new Price Check app. Shoppers who used the app to check prices in a brick - and - mortar store were offered a 5 % discount to purchase the same item from Amazon. Companies like Groupon, eBay and Taap.it countered Amazon 's promotion by offering $10 off from their products. The company has also faced accusations of putting undue pressure on suppliers to maintain and extend its profitability. One effort to squeeze the most vulnerable book publishers was known within the company as the Gazelle Project, after Bezos suggested, according to Brad Stone, "that Amazon should approach these small publishers the way a cheetah would pursue a sickly gazelle. '' In July 2014, the Federal Trade Commission launched a lawsuit against the company alleging it was promoting in - app purchases to children, which were being transacted without parental consent.
On October 16, 2016, Apple filed a trademark infringement case against Mobile Star LLC for selling counterfeit Apple products to Amazon. In the suit, Apple provided evidence that Amazon was selling these counterfeit Apple products and advertising them as genuine. Through purchasing, Apple was able to identify that nearly 90 % of the Apple accessories sold and fulfilled by Amazon were counterfeit. Amazon was sourcing and selling items without properly determining if they are genuine. Mobile Star LLC settled with Apple for an undisclosed amount on April 27, 2017.
Amazon state sales tax collection policy has changed over the years since it did not collect any sales taxes in its early years. In the U.S., state and local sales taxes are levied by state and local governments, not at the federal level. In most countries where Amazon operates, a sales tax or value added tax is uniform throughout the country, and Amazon is obliged to collect it from all customers. Proponents of forcing Amazon.com to collect sales tax -- at least in states where it maintains a physical presence -- argue the corporation wields an anti-competitive advantage over storefront businesses forced to collect sales tax.
Many U.S. states in the 21st century have passed online shopping sales tax laws designed to compel Amazon.com and other e-commerce retailers to collect state and local sales taxes from its customers. Amazon.com originally collected sales tax only from five states as of 2011, but as of April 2017, Amazon collects sales taxes from customers in all 45 states that have a state sales tax and in Washington, D.C.
In 2018, President Donald Trump repeatedly criticized Amazon 's use of the United States Postal Service and pricing of its deliveries, stating, "I am right about Amazon costing the United States Post Office massive amounts of money for being their Delivery Boy, '' Trump tweeted. "Amazon should pay these costs (plus) and not have them bourne (sic) by the American Taxpayer. '' Amazon 's shares fell as much as 6 percent on Trump 's comments although no actual facts were presented supporting the President 's claims.
Amazon has attracted widespread criticism for poor working conditions by both current employees, who refer to themselves as Amazonians, and former employees, as well as the media and politicians. In 2011, it was publicized that at the Breinigsville, Pennsylvania warehouse, workers had to carry out work in 100 ° F (38 ° C) heat, resulting in employees becoming extremely uncomfortable and suffering from dehydration and collapse. Loading - bay doors were not opened to allow in fresh air, due to the company 's concerns over theft. Amazon 's initial response was to pay for an ambulance to sit outside on call to cart away overheated employees. The company eventually installed air conditioning at the warehouse.
Some workers, "pickers '', who travel the building with a trolley and a handheld scanner "picking '' customer orders can walk up to 15 miles during their workday and if they fall behind on their targets, they can be reprimanded. The handheld scanners give real - time information to the employee on how fast or slowly they are working; the scanners also serve to allow Team Leads and Area Managers to track the specific locations of employees and how much "idle time '' they gain when not working. In a German television report broadcast in February 2013, journalists Diana Löbl and Peter Onneken conducted a covert investigation at the distribution center of Amazon in the town of Bad Hersfeld in the German state of Hessen. The report highlights the behavior of some of the security guards, themselves being employed by a third party company, who apparently either had a neo-Nazi background or deliberately dressed in neo-Nazi apparel and who were intimidating foreign and temporary female workers at its distribution centers. The third party security company involved was delisted by Amazon as a business contact shortly after that report.
In March 2015, it was reported in The Verge that Amazon will be removing non-compete clauses of 18 months in length from its US employment contracts for hourly - paid workers, after criticism that it was acting unreasonably in preventing such employees from finding other work. Even short - term temporary workers have to sign contracts that prohibit them from working at any company where they would "directly or indirectly '' support any good or service that competes with those they helped support at Amazon, for 18 months after leaving Amazon, even if they are fired or made redundant.
A 2015 front - page article in The New York Times profiled several former Amazon employees who together described a "bruising '' workplace culture in which workers with illness or other personal crises were pushed out or unfairly evaluated. Bezos responded by writing a Sunday memo to employees, in which he disputed the Times 's account of "shockingly callous management practices '' that he said would never be tolerated at the company.
In an effort to boost employee morale, on November 2, 2015, Amazon announced that it would be extending six weeks of paid leave for new mothers and fathers. This change includes birth parents and adoptive parents and can be applied in conjunction with existing maternity leave and medical leave for new mothers.
In 2013, Amazon secured a US $600 million contract with the CIA, which poses a potential conflict of interest involving the Bezos - owned The Washington Post and his newspaper 's coverage of the CIA. Kate Martin, director of the Center for National Security Studies, said, "It 's a serious potential conflict of interest for a major newspaper like The Washington Post to have a contractual relationship with the government and the most secret part of the government. ''
In May 2018, Amazon threatened the Seattle City Council over an employee head tax proposal that would 've funded houselessness services and low - income housing. The tax would 've cost Amazon about $800 per employee, or 0.7 % of their average salary. In retaliation, Amazon paused construction on a new building, threatened to limit further investment in the city, and funded a repeal campaign. Although originally passed, the measure was soon repealed after an expensive repeal campaign spearheaded by Amazon.
Amazon lobbies the United States federal government and state governments on issues such as the enforcement of sales taxes on online sales, transportation safety, privacy and data protection and intellectual property. According to regulatory filings, Amazon.com focuses its lobbying on the United States Congress, the Federal Communications Commission and the Federal Reserve. Amazon.com spent roughly $3.5 million, $5 million and $9.5 million on lobbying, in 2013, 2014 and 2015, respectively.
Amazon.com was a corporate member of the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC) until it dropped membership following protests at its shareholders ' meeting on May 24, 2012.
In 2014, Amazon expanded its lobbying practices as it prepared to lobby the Federal Aviation Administration to approve its drone delivery program, hiring the Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld lobbying firm in June. Amazon and its lobbyists have visited with Federal Aviation Administration officials and aviation committees in Washington, D.C. to explain its plans to deliver packages.
A number of companies have been started and founded by former Amazon employees.
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when's the last time easter was on april 1st | List of dates for Easter - wikipedia
This is a list of dates for Easter. The Easter dates also affect when Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, Holy Saturday, Maundy Thursday, the Ascension of the Lord and Pentecost occur. Easter may occur on different dates in the Gregorian Calendar and the Julian Calendar. The accompanying table provides both sets of dates, for recent decades and forthcoming years -- see the computus article for more details on the calculation.
In 1818 the Paschal Full Moon fell on Saturday, March 21 (the equinox). Therefore, the following day, March 22, was Easter. It will not fall as early again until 2285, a span of 467 years. The next earliest Easter between 1818 and 2285 (March 23) occurred in 1845, 1856, 1913 and 2008, and will occur again in 2160 -- an 11, 57, 95 and 152 - year gap, respectively.
The earliest dates for Easter in the Eastern Orthodox Church between 1875 and 2099 are April 4, 1915 and April 4, 2010 (Gregorian). Both dates are equivalent to March 22 in the Julian Calendar.
In 1943 Easter fell on Sunday, April 25. The ecclesiastical full moon did not occur until Saturday, March 20; because it came before the vernal equinox, the paschal full moon did not happen until Sunday, April 18. Consequently, Easter was the following Sunday (April 25). Easter will not fall as late again until 2038 -- a span of 95 years. The second latest date for Easter, April 24, occurred in 2011. The last time this occurred was in 1859 and will not happen again until 2095 -- spans of 152 and 84 years. However between years 5121 and 6482, Easter will be no later than April 24.
The latest dates for Orthodox Easter between 1875 and 2099 are May 8, 1983, and May 8, 2078 (Gregorian). Both dates are equivalent to April 25 in the Julian Calendar. Orthodox Easter has never fallen on Gregorian May 7 yet; it will happen in 2051 unless these churches change to another calendar.
Despite using calendars that are apart by 13 days, Easter 2014 fell on the same date. According to the Western (Gregorian) calendar, the first Paschal Full Moon after the Spring Equinox (March 20) fell on Monday, April 14, 2014. The following Sunday, April 20, was, therefore, Easter Day.
According to the Orthodox (Julian) calendar (which is 13 days behind the Gregorian calendar), the Spring Equinox also falls on March 21. However, in the Gregorian Calendar, this is April 3. The first Orthodox Full Moon after the Equinox falls on (Julian) Tuesday, April 2, 2014 (Gregorian April 15). The following Sunday, (Julian) April 7, is, therefore, Easter Day (Gregorian April 20).
Both calendars (Gregorian and Julian) calculate Easter as falling on dates between March 22 and April 25 on their calendars. However, because of the 13 - day difference, any member of an Orthodox church would observe that the Western Easter falls between March 10 and April 12 on the Julian calendar. Conversely, any member of a Western church would observe that Orthodox Easter falls between April 4 and May 8 on the Gregorian calendar.
Beginning March 14, 2100 (February 29, 2100, in the Julian Calendar), the difference between the Julian and Gregorian calendars will increase to 14 days.
In Hungary, the United Kingdom except Scotland, Australia, Canada, South Africa, Germany, Switzerland and New Zealand, Easter comprises two public holidays, Good Friday and Easter Monday, making a four - day weekend. The moveable date of Easter sometimes brings it into conflict with other, fixed, public holidays.
Easter is not a federal holiday in the United States. In North Carolina, however, it was a public holiday from 1935 to 1987.
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what did a reeve do in medieval times | Reeve (England) - wikipedia
Originally in Anglo - Saxon England the reeve was a senior official with local responsibilities under the Crown, e.g., as the chief magistrate of a town or district. Subsequently, after the Norman conquest, it was an office held by a man of lower rank, appointed as manager of a manor and overseer of the peasants. In this later role, historian H.R. Loyn observes, "he is the earliest English specialist in estate management. ''
Before the Conquest, a reeve (Old English ġerēfa; similar to the titles greve / gräfe in the Low Saxon languages of Northern Germany) was an administrative officer who generally ranked lower than the ealdorman or earl. The Old English word ġerēfa was originally a general term, but soon acquired a more technical meaning.
Land was divided into a large number of hides -- an area containing enough farmable land to support one household. Ten hides constituted a tithings, and the families living upon it (in theory, 10 families) were obliged to undertake an early form of neighbourhood watch, by a collective responsibility system called frankpledge.
Tithings were organised into groups of 10, called hundreds due to containing 100 hides; in modern times, these ancient hundreds still mostly retain their historic boundaries, despite each generally now containing vastly more than a mere 100 families. Each hundred was supervised by a constable, and groups of hundreds were combined to form shires, with each shire being under the control of an earl. Each unit had a court, and an officer to implement decisions of that court: the reeve. Thus different types of reeves were attested, including high - reeve, town - reeve, port - reeve, shire - reeve (predecessor to the sheriff), reeve of the hundred, and the reeve of a manor.
The word is often rendered in Latin as prefectus (Modern English prefect), by the historian Bede, and some early Anglo - Saxon charters. West - Saxon charters prefer to reserve the term prefectus for the ealdormen (earls) themselves.
After the Norman conquest, feudalism was introduced, forming a parallel administrative system to the local courts. The feudal system organised land on a manorial basis, with stewards acting as managers for the landlords. The Norman term describing the court functionary -- bailiff -- came to be used for reeves associated with lower level courts, and with the equivalent role in the feudal courts of landlords.
Courts fulfilled administrative, as well as judicial, functions, and on the manorial level its decisions could concern mundane field management, not just legal disputes. The manorial bailiff thus could be set tasks such as ensuring certain crops were gathered, as well as those like enforcing debt repayment. Sometimes, bailiffs would have assistants to carry out these tasks, and the term reeve now came to be used for this position -- someone essentially assisting the steward, and sometimes a bailiff, by effectively performing day - to - day supervision of the work done on the land within a particular manor.
This reeve has been described as "the pivot man of the manorial system ''. He had to oversee the work which the peasants were bound to perform, as an obligation attached to their holding of land in the Manor, for the lord of the manor on the demesne land; such reeves acted generally as the overseer of the serfs and peasants on the estate. He was also responsible for many aspects of the finances of the manor such as the sale of produce, collection of monies and payment of accounts.
He was usually himself a peasant, and was chosen once a year, generally at Michaelmas. In some manors the reeve was appointed by the lord of the manor, but in others he was elected by the peasants, subject or not to a right of veto by the lord. It depended on the custom of the manor, but there was an increasing tendency for election to be favoured. No doubt an elected reeve was more willingly obeyed, and sometimes the peasants generally would be made financially liable if an elected reeve defaulted.
Although this reeve was subject to the steward, the steward might not always be resident within the manor, and may manage many, and would not usually concern himself with day - to - day working. A good reeve who carried out his duties efficiently, and was trusted by the lord and the peasants alike, was likely to stay in office more or less permanently. By the 14th century the reeve was often a permanent officer of the manor.
With the subsequent decline of the feudal system, and the subversion of its courts by the introduction of Justices of the Peace (magistrates), this use of reeve fell out of practice.
There is an exceptional literary portrait of a reeve in the second half of the 14th century. The reeve is one of the pilgrims who are making their way to Canterbury in Chaucer 's Canterbury Tales and the Prologue paints a vivid picture of this man, who had originally been a carpenter but had served as reeve of a manor for many years and had grown old in service. Chaucer describes a highly efficient servant, impossible for any man to deceive or outwit, never in debt and knowing exactly how much the manor should produce. It is an early picture of a completely reliable accountant, rather a cold individual but indispensable.
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where does the phrase houston we have a problem come from | Houston, we have a problem - wikipedia
"Houston, we have a problem '' is a popular but erroneous quote from the radio communications between the Apollo 13 astronaut John Swigert and the NASA Mission Control Center ("Houston '') during the Apollo 13 spaceflight, as the astronauts communicated their discovery of the explosion that crippled their spacecraft. The erroneous wording was popularized by the 1995 film Apollo 13, a dramatization of the Apollo 13 mission, in which actor Tom Hanks, portraying Mission Commander Jim Lovell, uses that wording, which became one of the film 's taglines.
The words actually spoken, initially by Command Module Pilot Jack Swigert, were "Okay, Houston, we 've had a problem here '' (emphasis added). After being prompted to repeat the transmission by CAPCOM Jack R. Lousma, Lovell responded, "Uh, Houston, we 've had a problem. ''
Since then, the phrase has become popular, being used to account, informally, the emergence of an unforeseen problem.
The dialogue occurred between the base and the astronaut was as follows:
Swigert: "Okay, Houston, we 've had a problem here. '' Lousma: "This is Houston. Say again, please. '' Lovell: "Uh, Houston, we 've had a problem. '' Lovell: "We 've had a MAIN B BUS UNDERVOLT. '' Lousma: "Roger, MAIN B UNDERVOLT. '' Lousma: "Okay, stand by, Thirteen, we 're looking at it. ''
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sticks and stones will break my bones meaning | Sticks and stones - Wikipedia
"Sticks and Stones '' is an English language children 's rhyme. The rhyme persuades the child victim of name - calling to ignore the taunt, to refrain from physical retaliation, and to remain calm and good - living.
Alexander William Kinglake in his EOTHEN (written 1830, published in London, J. Ollivier, 1844) used "golden sticks and stones ''.
It is reported to have appeared in The Christian Recorder of March 1862, a publication of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, where it is presented as an "old adage '' in this form:
Sticks and stones may break my bones, but words will never break me.
The phrase also appeared in 1872, where it is presented as advice in Tappy 's Chicks: and Other Links Between Nature and Human Nature, by Mrs. George Cupples. The version used in that work runs:
Sticks and stones may break my bones But names will never harm me.
Also throughout the web there are different essays about why each statement is true or false.
Sticks and stones may break my bones But names will never down you
This version was featured in The Who 's 1981 song, "The Quiet One '', in which the vocals were performed by bassist John Entwistle, where he mentioned this term from another source he picked up and sang this term twice where he changed "your '' from the first set to "my '' in the second set.
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who sang i think i'm alone now | I Think We 're Alone Now - wikipedia
"I Think We 're Alone Now '' is a song written and composed by Ritchie Cordell that was the title selection from a same - named album released by the American recording artists Tommy James and the Shondells. "I Think We 're Alone Now '' was a 1967 US hit for James and the Shondells, reaching number 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. The song has since been covered several times by other artists. The late 1987 recording by Tiffany reached number 1 on the charts of various countries including the US, UK, Canada, and New Zealand. Other cover versions have also charted, including those by The Rubinoos (number 45 US, 1977) and Girls Aloud (number 4 UK, 2006).
"I Think We 're Alone Now '' was a 1967 hit song for Tommy James and the Shondells, reaching number 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart during a 17 - week stay. The recording was produced by Ritchie Cordell and Bo Gentry. Cordell wrote or co-wrote many songs for James, including the follow - up single "Mirage '' and its B - side "Run, Run, Baby, Run '', and 1968 's "Mony Mony ''. Rock critic Lester Bangs called the single "the bubblegum apotheosis ''.
Like many early Tommy James and the Shondells releases, only band members Tommy James and Eddie Gray were featured on the record. (The rest of the band provided background vocals.) Studio musicians were used as the rest of the rhythm section to back up the Shondells. These musicians include Artie Butler playing Ondioline electric keyboard, Al Gorgoni on guitar, Joe Macho on bass, Paul Griffin on piano, and Bobby Gregg on drums.
"I Think We 're Alone Now '' stands out as one of James 's most successful recordings. It was featured in the horror film Mother 's Day (1980) and the science - fiction thriller 10 Cloverfield Lane (2016).
The version that James and the Shondells originally performed uses hard - driving arrangements for its two verses, both fiercely performed so as to convey a sense of urgency. However, the refrain (performed twice) is almost whispered and indeed followed by a sound effect of crickets chirping, giving an atmosphere of forbidden activities that are being deliberately kept hidden. The fade - out uses the lyrics of the refrain, but this time, the hard - driving arrangements are resumed.
The lyrics themselves speak of parental prohibition, especially against sexual activities, and have both the narrator and the person being addressed "trying to get away into the night '' to avoid, evade, or defy such prohibition.
In 1978, the American singer Lene Lovich recorded a cover version of "I Think We 're Alone Now ''. Her version was originally released with her hit song "Lucky Number '' as a B - side. Lovich recorded the song after contacting the radio presenter Charlie Gillett, who helped her get signed by Dave Robinson of Stiff Records. Robinson liked the record and immediately proposed it to be released as a single. However, her song "Lucky Number '' gained so much more attention that it was later re-released as a lead single, as which it peaked at number 3 on the UK Singles Chart.
"I Think We 're Alone Now '' appeared on Lovich 's 1978 debut album, Stateless, and she would later record the song in other languages, including German and Japanese.
"I Think We 're Alone Now '' was re-popularized when American pop singer Tiffany covered the song for her debut studio album, Tiffany, which was released in 1987 on the MCA Records label. When George Tobin, Tiffany 's manager and producer, gave her the cassette of the original version by Tommy James & the Shondells, Tiffany hated the idea of recording a version of her own for her album, mostly because she thought the song was neither modern enough nor hip enough.
Tiffany 's version is referenced in the alternative group Weezer 's song "Heart Songs '' on the band 's 2008 Red Album. Weezer incorrectly referred to it as having been performed by Debbie Gibson, who performed a similar style of pop music and was popular during the same time as Tiffany. Rivers Cuomo admitted that he noticed the mistake while writing the song, but left it in the finished song.
Tiffany and Tobin made no attempt to contrast the verses and the refrain, as James and the Shondells had, instead keeping the "peppy '' arrangements they used all throughout her recording and performances.
"I Think We 're Alone Now '' proved to be Tiffany 's biggest hit once she did record and release it. Her version of the song spent two weeks at number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart (coincidentally, another Tommy James & the Shondells cover, Billy Idol 's version of "Mony, Mony '', followed it on the top spot) and three weeks at number 1 on the UK Singles Chart.
"I Think We 're Alone Now '' was not the first single from Tiffany 's debut album. The first single was "Danny '', but radio started picking up "I Think We 're Alone Now '', another selection on the album. It became a runaway number 1 hit and was the eighteenth highest selling single for 1987 and the thirty - second highest selling single in Australia for 1988.
The music video was shot in a shopping mall in Ogden, Utah, which echoed the way her early career had been promoted. Elements of the video were filmed in the now demolished Bull Ring Centre in Birmingham, UK. The video was featured in the 2012 film Ted and the song was also on the soundtrack and appears in its sequel.
7 "/ CD single
12 '' vinyl single
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
In 1989, Snuff covered the song for their first album, Snuff Said. In 1998, Snuff again covered the song for the compilation album Punk Chartbusters Vol 3. Unlike the original, this version is very punk - heavy. In addition to the original length of the song that was released, many different length versions of the song exist: there is such an extended version with a length from 6: 36 minutes, a 3: 00 minutes long remix, and an a capella version, which contains a length from 5: 50 minutes. On the B - side of the song is the single "Christmas Song ''.
7 ''
CD single
In 2006, the British all - female pop group Girls Aloud recorded a cover version of "I Think We 're Alone Now '' for their greatest hits album The Sound of Girls Aloud and the soundtrack of It 's a Boy Girl Thing. Girls Aloud 's version was produced by Brian Higgins and his production team Xenomania. The song was recorded just days before the group 's greatest hits was sent to be manufactured. Following a single remix, "I Think We 're Alone Now '' was released as a contender for the Christmas number one. It reached the top five on the UK Singles Chart.
The music video, inspired by heist films, features Girls Aloud robbing a Las Vegas casino. "I Think We 're Alone Now '' was promoted through various live appearances and was featured on 2007 's The Sound of Girls Aloud: The Greatest Hits Tour. The track was criticised and labelled "pointless '' by contemporary music critics.
Until three days before the greatest hits was manufactured, a cover of Irene Cara 's "What A Feeling '' was going to be in place of "I Think We 're Alone Now ''. But members of Girls Aloud had called their record label on a Friday afternoon to say that they would rather record "I Think We 're Alone Now ''; the group recorded the song the following morning, and the album was mastered on Monday, three days afterwards. The album version was drastically reworked for the single release, due to the initial version having been so hastily recorded. Higgins said that "Xenomania used the only idea they could think of, which was to make the song sound like ' Something Kinda Ooooh. ' '' Sarah Harding said, "We 've given it a Girls Aloud twist, made it a bit clubbier, and also brought it up to date. '' The single features an alternative vocal arrangement and an entirely new backing track. Later pressings of the greatest hits include the single version of "I Think We 're Alone Now ''.
The song was released on 18 December 2006. It was available on two CD single formats and as a digital download. The first disc included a previously unreleased track entitled "Why Do It? '', co-written by Girls Aloud. The second CD format features a number of remixes, as well as a cover of the Christmas classic "Jingle Bell Rock ''. Girls Aloud 's cover of "Jingle Bell Rock '' was originally featured on the Christmas bonus disc that came with the limited edition of 2005 's Chemistry. The artwork for the second disc features Girls Aloud draped over a Fender guitar amplifier.
Girls Aloud 's version of "I Think We 're Alone Now '' appears on the soundtrack to the film It 's a Boy Girl Thing (2006), starring Samaire Armstrong and Kevin Zegers. The film was produced by Elton John 's partner David Furnish.
Girls Aloud 's cover of the song was widely slated by music critics. An unidentified staff writer at WalesOnline described it as "cheap, obnoxious, totally pointless and, destined to be loved only by people too out of their heads on Christmas spirit to know any better ''. Adam Burling of musicOMH exclaimed, "Christmas does funny things to people. Even pop groups as reliably excellent at singles as Girls Aloud toss out pointless, lazy covers in a ruthless attempt to snare that coveted seasonal chart - topper from the X-Factor's clutches. '' A BBC Music review of The Sound of Girls Aloud chose to "ignore the Xmas party cover ''. Yahoo! Music stated "the karaoke rendition (s) of (...) Tiffany 's ' I Think We 're Alone Now ' really drag this collection down ''. On the other hand, John Murphy of musicOMH said the cover "actually does the impossible by making Tiffany 's version sound good ''.
The single debuted at number 50 on the UK Singles Chart a week prior to its physical release, due to download sales. The following week, "I Think We 're Alone Now '' peaked at number 4 on the Christmas chart, being beaten by Leona Lewis ' "A Moment Like This ''. The song slipped to number 7 in its second week. It spent a total of seven weeks in the top 75. The song also peaked at number 11 on the Irish Singles Chart and spent six weeks in Ireland 's top 50. As their 17th best selling single it has sold a total of 85,000 copies.
The video, directed by Alex Hemming and Nick Collett, is based, as stated above, on films like Ocean 's 11 and Casino. During the video, the group attempt to rob a Las Vegas casino.
Three different endings to the video were shot. The first shows the girls getting caught and tied up after opening a box full of money in the casino 's safe; the second features Kimberley Walsh (with her back to the camera) removing her clothes in front of casino owners, causing them to faint; and the third features the girls playing with the money. 3 customers were allowed to vote on their favourite ending from November 8 to November 15, 2006. This last ending won the vote, despite the version with Kimberley stripping being uploaded to the internet. In March 2007, all versions of the video were made available to download on iTunes, though in the UK Store only.
The band performed the song at the following events:
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of "I Think We 're Alone Now ''.
UK CD1 (Fascination / 1714586)
UK CD2 (Fascination / 1714587)
The Singles Boxset (CD14)
The song has also been covered by a number of other artists, including The Killers, The Turtles, Trust Company, Gary Lewis and the Playboys, The Spinto Band, Pascal featuring Karen Parry, The Click Five, Bel 's Boys, The Birthday Massacre, Comadre, The Pipettes, Ratcat on their EP Ratcat, Screeching Weasel, The Crimea, The Rubinoos, Kids Incorporated, and Me First and the Gimme Gimmes.
A Japanese adaptation "Futari no Sekai '' (ふたり の 世界) was recorded by Yōko Nagayama on her album Tokyo Menu (トーキョー ・ メニュー). A Spanish adaptation "Ahora estoy solo '' was recorded by Los Hitters.
The Tiffany version of the song was spoofed by "Weird Al '' Yankovic on his 1988 album, Even Worse, as "I Think I 'm a Clone Now ''.
Dave Garr, who wrote a good deal of song parodies about computers, covered this as "I Think We 're a Clone Now ''. The parody dealt with the licensing of the Macintosh from Apple Computer to other companies during the short period in which Macintosh clones were made. The video was recorded in 1995 at Apple 's headquarters and features the building and its landmarks of the day, references to former Apple CEOs Mike Spindler and John Sculley, and some vintage Macintosh computers including a Macintosh Classic and an Apple Lisa.
Also, as part of RadioShack 's "TheShack '' commercial campaign, one commercial features a man in an office cubicle with headphones on singing part of the bridge and chorus in a falsetto range to Tiffany 's version.
Swedish group Cosmo4 covered Tiffany 's version of "I Think We 're Alone Now '' for their debut album "Around The World '' as requested by the Russian record label Style Records. Despite the album having been shelved, the song was released to the compilation Dance 2008, Vol. 2 in Thailand by the record label Red Beat in 2008.
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who played the oompa loompas in charlie and the chocolate factory | Deep Roy - wikipedia
Deep Roy (born Mohinder Purba; 1 December 1957), sometimes credited as Roy Deep, is a Anglo - Indian actor, stuntman, puppeteer and comedian. Due to his diminutive size (stated by IMDB to be 4'4 '' or 132 cm), he has appeared in a number of similar - sized roles, such as the Oompa - Loompas in Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, Keenser in Star Trek and subsequent films ("Kelvin Timeline ''), and in television series such as The X-Files, Doctor Who and Eastbound & Down.
Roy was born in Nairobi, Kenya, to Indian parents. He made his professional screen acting debut in a 1976 episode of The New Avengers, titled "Target! '' as a character named Klokoe. He would later make his film debut that same year, in The Pink Panther Strikes Again, as the Italian Assassin. Another early role was as Mr. Sin, the "pig - brained Peking Homunculus '', a villain with a distinct appetite for homicide, in the Doctor Who serial The Talons of Weng - Chiang. In 1979, Roy also played a genetically engineered life form "Decima '' in the first season Blake 's 7 episode "The Web '', as well as the diminutive chess genius, "The Klute '', in the second season Blake 's 7 episode "Gambit ''.
He has played apes in two movies -- Greystoke: The Legend of Tarzan, Lord of the Apes and again in the Tim Burton remake of Planet of the Apes (2001) in two roles, one as a young gorilla boy and as Thade 's niece. He has worked for Burton in three other films, Big Fish (2003), Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2005), and Corpse Bride (also 2005), where he supplied General Bonesapart 's voice. He played all the Oompa - Loompas (165 of them) in Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. Deep had extensive training for the role in dance, yoga, and some minor instrument playing.
He has performed many other roles in movies and on television, including The X-Files, Flash Gordon, Return to Oz (as the Tin Woodman), Jim Henson 's The Dark Crystal as a puppeteer extra, The NeverEnding Story as Teeny Weeny, the rider of the "racing snail '', Alien from L.A., Howling VI: The Freaks as Mr Toones and Return of the Jedi as Droopy McCool and in The Haunted Mansion.
He appeared in Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen (2009) as an Egyptian border guard and in the film Star Trek (also 2009) as Keenser, Scotty 's assistant on the ice planet Delta Vega; he reprised the Keenser role in the sequels Star Trek Into Darkness and Star Trek Beyond. In one of his more prominent speaking roles, Roy played Aaron, a violent Mumbai - born Mexican criminal, in second season of the HBO comedy, Eastbound & Down. Deep starred as Sandeep Majumdar in the 2012 short film The Ballad of Sandeep.
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what is the difference between a bay and a lagoon | Lagoon - wikipedia
A lagoon is a shallow body of water separated from a larger body of water by barrier islands or reefs. Lagoons are commonly divided into coastal lagoons and atoll lagoons. They have also been identified as occurring on mixed - sand and gravel coastlines. There is an overlap between bodies of water classified as coastal lagoons and bodies of water classified as estuaries. Lagoons are common coastal features around many parts of the world.
Lagoons can also be man - made and used for wastewater treatment, as is the case for e.g. aerated lagoons and anaerobic lagoons.
Lagoons are shallow, often elongated bodies of water separated from a larger body of water by a shallow or exposed shoal, coral reef, or similar feature. Some authorities include fresh water bodies in the definition of "lagoon '', while others explicitly restrict "lagoon '' to bodies of water with some degree of salinity. The distinction between "lagoon '' and "estuary '' also varies between authorities. Richard A. Davis Jr. restricts "lagoon '' to bodies of water with little or no fresh water inflow, and little or no tidal flow, and calls any bay that receives a regular flow of fresh water an "estuary ''. Davis does state that the terms "lagoon '' and "estuary '' are "often loosely applied, even in scientific literature. '' Timothy M. Kusky characterizes lagoons as normally being elongated parallel to the coast, while estuaries are usually drowned river valleys, elongated perpendicular to the coast. When used within the context of a distinctive portion of coral reef ecosystems, the term "lagoon '' is synonymous with the term "back reef '' or "backreef '', which is more commonly used by coral reef scientists to refer to the same area. Coastal lagoons are classified as inland bodies of water.
Many lagoons do not include "lagoon '' in their common names. Albemarle and Pamlico sounds in North Carolina, Great South Bay between Long Island and the barrier beaches of Fire Island in New York, Isle of Wight Bay, which separates Ocean City, Maryland from the rest of Worcester County, Maryland, Banana River in Florida, Lake Illawarra in New South Wales, Montrose Basin in Scotland, and Broad Water in Wales have all been classified as lagoons, despite their names. In England, The Fleet at Chesil Beach has also been described as a lagoon.
In Latin America, the term laguna in Spanish, which lagoon translates to, may be used for a small fresh water lake in a similar way a creek is considered a small river. However, sometimes it is popularly used to describe a full - sized lake, such as Laguna Catemaco in Mexico, which is actually the third largest lake by area in the country. The brackish water lagoon may be thus explicitly identified as a "coastal lagoon '' (laguna costera). In Portuguese the same usage is found: lagoa may be a body of shallow sea water, or a small freshwater lake not linked to the sea.
Lagoon is derived from the Italian laguna, which refers to the waters around Venice, the Lagoon of Venice. Laguna is attested in English by at least 1612, and had been Anglicized to "lagune '' by 1673. In 1697 William Dampier referred to a "Lagune or Lake of Salt water '' on the coast of Mexico. Captain James Cook described an island "of Oval form with a Lagoon in the middle '' in 1769.
Atoll lagoons form as coral reefs grow upwards while the islands that the reefs surround subside, until eventually only the reefs remain above sea level. Unlike the lagoons that form shoreward of fringing reefs, atoll lagoons often contain some deep (> 20m) portions.
Coastal lagoons form along gently sloping coasts where barrier islands or reefs can develop off - shore, and the sea - level is rising relative to the land along the shore (either because of an intrinsic rise in sea - level, or subsidence of the land along the coast). Coastal lagoons do not form along steep or rocky coasts, or if the range of tides is more than 4 metres (13 ft). Due to the gentle slope of the coast, coastal lagoons are shallow. They are sensitive to changes in sea level due to global warming. A relative drop in sea level may leave a lagoon largely dry, while a rise in sea level may let the sea breach or destroy barrier islands, and leave reefs too deep under water to protect the lagoon. Coastal lagoons are young and dynamic, and may be short - lived in geological terms. Coastal lagoons are common, occurring along nearly 15 percent of the world 's shorelines. In the United States, lagoons are found along more than 75 percent of the eastern and Gulf coasts.
Coastal lagoons are usually connected to the open ocean by inlets between barrier islands. The number and size of the inlets, precipitation, evaporation, and inflow of fresh water all affect the nature of the lagoon. Lagoons with little or no interchange with the open ocean, little or no inflow of fresh water, and high evaporation rates, such as Lake St. Lucia, in South Africa, may become highly saline. Lagoons with no connection to the open ocean and significant inflow of fresh water, such as the Lake Worth Lagoon in Florida in the middle of the 19th century, may be entirely fresh. On the other hand, lagoons with many wide inlets, such as the Wadden Sea, have strong tidal currents and mixing. Coastal lagoons tend to accumulate sediments from inflowing rivers, from runoff from the shores of the lagoon, and from sediment carried into the lagoon through inlets by the tide. Large quantities of sediment may be occasionally be deposited in a lagoon when storm waves overwash barrier islands. Mangroves and marsh plants can facilitate the accumulation of sediment in a lagoon. Benthic organisms may stabilize or destabilize sediments.
River - mouth lagoons on mixed sand and gravel (MSG) beaches form at the river - coast interface where a typically braided, although sometimes meandering, river interacts with a coastal environment that is significantly affected by longshore drift. The lagoons which form on the MSG coastlines are common on the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand and have long been referred to as hapua by the Māori. This classification differentiates hapua from similar lagoons located on the New Zealand coast termed waituna. Hapua are often located on paraglacial coastal areas where there is a low level of coastal development and minimal population density. Hapua form as the river carves out an elongated coast - parallel area, blocked from the sea by a MSG barrier which constantly alters its shape and volume due to longshore drift. Longshore drift continually extends the barrier behind which the hapua forms by transporting sediment along the coast. Hapua are defined as a narrow shore - parallel extensions of the coastal riverbed. They discharge the majority of stored water to the ocean via an ephemeral and highly mobile drainage channel or outlet. The remainder percolates through the MSG barrier due to its high levels of permeability. Hapua systems are driven by a wide range of dynamic processes that are generally classified as fluvial or marine; changes in the balance between these processes as well as the antecedent barrier conditions can cause shifts in the morphology of the hapua, in particular the barrier. New Zealand examples include the Rakaia, Ashburton and Hurunui river - mouths.
Hapua have been identified as establishing in the Canterbury Bight coastal region on the east coast of the South Island. They are often found in areas of coarse - grained sediment where contributing rivers have moderately steep bed gradients. MSG beaches in the Canterbury Bight region contain a wide range of sediment sizes from sand to boulders and are exposed to the high energy waves that make up an east coast swell environment. MSG beaches are reflective rather than dissipative energy zones due to their morphological characteristics. They have a steep foreshore which is known as the ' engine room ' of the beach profile. In this zone, swash and backwash are dominating processes alongside longshore transport. MSG beaches do not have a surf zone; instead a single line of breakers is visible in all sea conditions. Hapua are associated with MSG beaches as the variation in sediment size allows for the barrier to be permeable.
The east coast of the South Island has been identified as being in a period of chronic erosion of approximately 0.5 metres per year. This erosion trend is a result of a number of factors. According to the classification scheme of Zenkovich, the rivers on the east coast can be described as ' small '; this classification is not related to their flow rate but to the insufficient amount of sediment that they transport to the coast to nourish it. The sediment provided is not adequate to nourish the coast against its typical high energy waves and strong longshore drift. These two processes constantly remove sediment depositing it either offshore or further up drift. As the coastline becomes eroded the hapua have been ' rolling back ' by eroding the backshore to move landwards.
Hapua or river - mouth lagoons form in micro-tidal environments. A micro-tidal environment is where the tidal range (distance between low tide and high tide) is less than two metres. Tidal currents in a micro-tidal zone are less than those found on meso - tidal (two -- four metres) and macro-tidal (greater than four metres) coastlines. Hapua form in this type of tidal environment as the tidal currents are unable to compete with the powerful freshwater flows of the rivers therefore there is no negligible tidal penetration to the lagoon. A fourth element of the environment in which hapua form is the strong longshore drift component. Longshore or littoral drift is the transportation of sediments along the coast at an angle to the shoreline. In the Canterbury Bight coastal area; the dominant swell direction is northwards from the Southern Ocean. Therefore, the principal movement of sediment via longshore drift is north towards Banks Peninsula. Hapua are located in areas dominated by longshore drift; because it aids the formation of the barrier behind which the hapua is sited.
A hapua also requires sediment to form the lagoon barrier. Sediment which nourishes the east coast of New Zealand can be sourced from three different areas. Material from the highly erodible Southern Alps is removed via weathering; then carried across the Canterbury Plains by various braided rivers to the east coast beaches. The second source of sediment is the high cliffs which are located in the hinterland of lagoons. These can be eroded during the occurrence of high river flow or sea storm events. Beaches further south provide nourishment to the northern coast via longshore transport.
Hapua have a number of characteristics which includes shifts between a variety of morphodynamic states due to changes in the balance between marine and fluvial processes as well as the antecedent barrier conditions. The MSG barrier constantly changes size and shape as a result of the longshore drift. Water stored in the hapua drains to the coast predominately though an outlet; although it can also seep through the barrier depending on the permeability of the material.
Changes in the level of the lagoon water do not occur as a result of saltwater or tidal intrusion. Water in a hapua is predominately freshwater originating from the associated river. Hapua are non-estuarine, there is no tidal inflow however the tide does have an effect on the level of water in the lagoon. As the tide reaches its peak, the lagoon water has a much smaller amount of barrier to permeate through so the lagoon level rises. This is related to a physics theory known as hydraulic head. The lagoon level has a similar sinusoidal wave shape as the tide but reaches its peak slightly later. In general, any saltwater intrusion into the hapua will only occur during a storm via wave overtopping or sea spray.
Hapua can act as both a source and sink of sediment. The majority of sediment in the hapua is fluvial sourced. During medium to low river flows, coarser sediment generally collects in the hapua; while some of the finer sediment can be transported through the outlet to the coast. During flood events the hapua is ' flushed out ' with larger amounts of sediment transferred through the outlet. This sediment can be deposited offshore or downdrift of the hapua replenishing the undernourished beach. If a large amount of material is released to the coast at one time it can be identified as a ' slug '. These can often be visible from aerial photographs.
Antecedent barrier conditions combined with changes in the balance between marine and fluvial processes results in shifts between a variety of morphological states in a hapua or river - mouth lagoon on a MSG beach. Marine processes includes the direction of wave approach, wave height and the coincidence of storm waves with high tides. Marine processes tend to dominate the majority of morphodynamic conditions until there is a large enough flood event in the associated river to breach the barrier. The level and frequency of base or flood flows are attributed to fluvial processes. Antecedent barrier conditions are the permeability, volume and height of the barrier as well as the width and presence of previous outlet channels. During low to medium river flows, the outlet from the lagoon to the sea becomes offset in the direction of longshore drift. Outlet efficiency tends to decrease the further away from the main river - mouth the outlet is. A decrease in efficiency can cause the outlet to become choked with sediment and the hapua to close temporarily. The potential for closure varies between different hapua depending on whether marine or fluvial processes are the bigger driver in the event. A high flow event; such as a fresh or flood can breach the barrier directly opposite the main river channel. This causes an immediate decrease in the water level of the hapua; as well as transporting previously deposited sediments into the ocean. Flood events are important for eroding lagoon back shores; this is a behaviour which allows hapua to retreat landward and thus remain coastal landforms even with coastal transgression and sea level rise. During high flow events there is also the possibility for secondary breaches of the barrier or lagoon truncation to occur.
Storm events also have the ability to close hapua outlets as waves overtop the barrier depositing sediment and choking the scoured channel. The resultant swift increase in lagoon water level causes a new outlet to be breached rapidly due to the large hydraulic head that forms between the lagoon and sea water levels. Storm breaching is believed to be an important but unpredictable control on the duration of closures at low to moderate river flow levels in smaller hapua.
Hapua are extremely important for a number of reasons. They provide a link between the river and sea for migrating fish as well as a corridor for migratory birds. To lose this link via closure of the hapua outlet could result in losing entire generations of specific species as they may need to migrate to the ocean or the river as a vital part of their lifecycle. River - mouth lagoons such as hapua were also used a source for mahinga kai (food gathering) by the Māori people. However, this is no longer the case due to catchment degradation which has resulted in lagoon deterioration. River - mouth lagoons on MSG beaches are not well explained in international literature.
The hapua located at the mouth of the Rakaia River stretches approximately three kilometres north from where the river - mouth reaches the coast. The average width of the hapua between 1952 and 2004 was approximately 50 metres; whilst the surface area has stabilised at approximately 600,000 square metres since 1966. The coastal hinterland is composed of erodible cliffs and a low - lying area commonly known as the Rakaia Huts. This area has changed notably since European Settlement; with the drainage of ecologically significant wetlands and development of the small bach community.
The Rakaia River begins in the Southern Alps, providing approximately 4.2 Mt per year of sediment to the east coast. It is a braided river with a catchment area of 3105 kilometres squared and a mean flow of 221 cubic metres per second. The mouth of the Rakaia River reaches the coast south of Banks Peninsula. As the river reaches the coast it diverges into two channels; with the main channel flowing to the south of the island. As the hapua is located in the Canterbury Bight it is in a state of constant morphological change due to the prevailing southerly sea swells and resultant northwards longshore drift.
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where is the world's hottest chilli grown | Carolina Reaper - wikipedia
The Carolina Reaper, originally named the HP22B, is a cultivar of the Capsicum chinense plant. The pepper is red and gnarled, with a small pointed tail. In 2012, Guinness World Records declared it the hottest chili pepper in the world, surpassing the previous record holder, the Trinidad Scorpion "Butch T ''. Certain varieties are claimed to be spicier, but are not confirmed by Guinness.
The sensory heat or pungency detected when consuming a Carolina Reaper derives from the density of capsaicinoids, particularly capsaicin, which relates directly to intensity of chili pepper heat and Scoville scale. Bred in a Rock Hill, South Carolina greenhouse by "Smokin '' Ed Currie, proprietor of the PuckerButt Pepper Company in Fort Mill, the Carolina Reaper was certified as the world 's hottest chili pepper by the Guinness World Records since August 7, 2013. The official Guinness World Record heat level was 1,569,300 Scoville Heat Units (SHU) in 2013, according to tests conducted by Winthrop University in South Carolina. The figure is an average for the tested batch; the hottest individual pepper was measured at 2.2 million SHU.
The crossbreed is between a "really nastily hot '' La Soufriere pepper from the Caribbean island of St. Vincent and a Naga pepper from Pakistan, and is named ' Reaper ' due to the shape of its tail. It has been described as having a fruity taste, with the initial bite being sweet and then immediately turning to "molten lava ''.
In May 2017, Mike Smith of St Asaph working with Nottingham Trent University claimed to have surpassed the Carolina Reaper with his Dragon 's Breath pepper, reported to be 2.4 million SHUs, and applied to Guinness World Records for confirmation. As of September 2017, the hottest chili pepper known was Pepper X, having a reported Scoville scale of 3.18 million units.
In April 2018, a case report of "thunderclap headaches '' in a 34 year old man -- who was hospitalized a few days after consuming one Carolina Reaper pepper of unspecified size in a contest -- included a presumptive diagnosis of reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS). With no reason to believe pepper compounds had a role in the mechanism of RCVS, other clinical interpretations, such as a stress response from eating such a hot pepper, may explain the headaches.
For growing, the pepper has been described as "a good all - rounder to try at home '' by UK ethnobotanist James Wong, who said that they require temperatures of at least 18 -- 20 ° C (64 -- 68 ° F) and suggested growing in 30 -- 40 cm (12 -- 16 in) pots to restrict growth and produce fruit sooner. When fully ripe, two peppers occupy the palm of the hand.
30 - day - old Carolina Reaper plant
Mature plant
Mature plant
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what american actor played in the most movies | List of actors who played the President of the United States - wikipedia
This is a partial list of actors and actresses who have played the role of a real or fictitious President of the United States in films or television.
Only speaking / performing roles in non-televised productions with over 5 million views are included.
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who wants to be a millionaire life line | Who Wants to Be a Millionaire (U.S. game show) - wikipedia
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire (often informally called Millionaire) is an American television game show based on the same - titled British program and developed for the United States by Michael Davies. The show features a quiz competition in which contestants attempt to win a top prize of $1,000,000 by answering a series of multiple - choice questions of increasing difficulty (although, for a time, most of the questions were of random difficulty). The program has endured as one of the longest - running and most successful international variants in the Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? franchise.
The original U.S. version aired on ABC from August 16, 1999, to June 27, 2002, and was hosted by Regis Philbin. The daily syndicated version of the show began airing on September 16, 2002, and was hosted for eleven seasons by Meredith Vieira until May 31, 2013. Later hosts included Cedric the Entertainer in the 2013 -- 14 season, Terry Crews in the following season (2014 -- 15), and Chris Harrison, who began hosting on September 14, 2015.
As the first U.S. network game show to offer a million - dollar top prize, the show made television history by becoming one of the highest - rated game shows in the history of American television. The U.S. Millionaire has won seven Daytime Emmy Awards, and TV Guide ranked it No. 6 in its 2013 list of the 60 greatest game shows of all time.
At its core, the game is a quiz competition in which the goal is to correctly answer a series of fourteen (originally fifteen) consecutive multiple - choice questions. The questions are of increasing difficulty, except in the 2010 -- 15 format overhaul, where the contestants were faced with a round of ten questions of random difficulty, followed by a round of four questions of increasing difficulty. Each question is worth a specified amount of money; the amounts are cumulative in the first round, but not in the second. If the contestant gives a wrong answer to any question, their game is over and their winnings are reduced (or increased, in the first two questions) to $1,000 for tier - one questions, $5,000 for tier - two questions, and $50,000 for tier - three questions. However, the contestant has the option of "walking away '' without giving an answer after being presented with a question, in which case the game ends and the contestant is guaranteed to walk away with all the money they have previously received. With the exception of the shuffle format, upon correctly answering questions five and ten, contestants are guaranteed at least the amount of prize money associated with that level. If the contestant gives an incorrect answer, their winnings drop down to the last milestone achieved. Since 2015, if the contestant answers a question incorrectly before reaching question five, he or she leaves with $1,000, even on the first question that is worth only $500. For celebrities, the minimum guarantee for their nominated charities is $10,000. Prior to the shuffle format, a contestant left with nothing if (s) he answered a question incorrectly before reaching the first milestone. In the shuffle format era, contestants who incorrectly answered a question had their winnings reduced to $1,000 in round one and $25,000 in round two.
On the ABC versions, ten contestants competed in a preliminary "Fastest Finger '' round for the right to play the main game on each episode. The contestants were presented with a question and a list of four answers which needed to be put in a specific order. Using keys on their podiums, each of the contestants attempted to enter the correct order in the shortest amount of time, with a maximum time limit of 20 seconds. If the main game ended and there was still time available for another game, the remaining contestants played another Fastest Finger round for a chance to play the main game. In the event of a tie between two or more contestants, those contestants played an additional Fastest Finger question to break the tie. If all contestants answered the question incorrectly, the round was repeated with another question. Fastest Finger was eliminated from the gameplay when the syndicated version premiered in 2002.
From 2008 to 2010, time limits were used for each question. Contestants were given up to 15 seconds each for questions one through five, 30 seconds each for questions six through ten, and 45 seconds each for questions eleven through fourteen. Unused time was banked, and if the contestant reached question fifteen, he or she was given 45 seconds plus the amount of time previously banked. If the clock reached zero before a contestant could provide a final answer, the contestant was forced to walk away with the winnings they had at that point. During the clock format era, a "Millionaire Menu '' was introduced, in which categories are revealed for each question at the beginning of the game, and are made visible to the contestant for their future reference. Some prize levels also changed at the start of season eight. Most of the episodes in season eight (from the "Million Dollar Tournament of Ten '' onward) featured special "Celebrity Questions '' that were mid-level in monetary value, and were provided by notable individuals whose identities were not revealed until the contestant reached their special questions.
When the ninth syndicated season began on September 13, 2010, the format was overhauled. Ten questions were asked in round one, each assigned one of ten different money amounts which were randomized at the beginning of the game, as were the questions themselves. The difficulty of the questions was not tied to the dollar value. The dollar values for each question remained hidden until a contestant either provided a correct answer or chose to "jump '' the question. The value of each question answered correctly was added to the contestant 's bank, for a maximum total of $68,600. A contestant who completed the round successfully could walk at any subsequent point with all the money in their bank, or could walk without completing the round with half that amount (e.g., a contestant who banked $30,000 would leave with $15,000). After completing round one, the contestant moved on to a second round of gameplay (the "Classic Millionaire '' round), in which four non-categorized questions were played for set non-cumulative values and a correct answer augmented the contestant 's winnings to that point, as in the older formats. The shuffle format changes, including the randomization and double - round distribution of questions, were reverted for the fourteenth syndicated season.
From 2011 to 2014, certain weeks of the show were designated as "Double Your Money '' weeks. In those, a pre-selected question in round one was designated the "Double Money Question. '' When a contestant answered such a question correctly, the monetary value behind the question was doubled and added to his or her bank, giving him or her the possibility of adding up to $50,000 to his or her bank on a single question; under these special rules, it was possible for a contestant to finish round one with a maximum total of $93,600 in their bank. Using Jump the Question forfeited the doubled money.
In the event that a contestant leaves and very little time remains (in the final part of an episode), a randomly selected audience member is given one chance to win $1,000 by answering the next question intended for the previous contestant (or $2,000 if the next question was on a Double Money episode). Regardless of the outcome, the audience member receives a special prize. In seasons nine and ten, the prize was a copy of the Millionaire video game; as of season eleven, audience members now receive 20 free playings for a Facebook game based on the show 's format. In season thirteen, which gave this game the name "Thousandaire '', the question the audience player faced did not come from the previous player 's stack, but was instead a separate question. Two additional audience games were also introduced and played in season thirteen: "Team Millionaire '', where two audience members are both presented with a single question and lock in their individual answers separately for the chance to win $500 and a bonus question with which they can double their money; and "Fastest Feet '', a variation of Fastest Finger which four audience members play for the chance to split $1,000.
Five different ladders have been used for a season or more over the course of the series.
The original primetime payment structure was also used for the first two seasons of the syndicated version. The third syndicated season saw a reduction in the values for questions ten through twelve. In the eighth syndicated season, the lower question values were adjusted to raise the first safe haven to $5,000. When the "shuffle format '' was used, the first ten questions had random amounts from $100 to $25,000, as listed above. In addition, the number of questions needed to win the million was reduced to 14, removing the $50,000 level, the last four values remained the same for round two. When the shuffle format ended at the start of the 2015 -- 16 season, the switch to 14 questions was retained, the first safe haven was kept at $5,000, but the second was raised to $50,000.
The $500,000 and $1,000,000 prizes were initially lump - sum payments, but were changed to annuities in September 2002 when the series moved to syndication. Contestants winning either of these prizes receive $250,000 thirty days after their show broadcasts and the remainder paid in equal annual payments. The $500,000 prize consists of $25,000 per year for 10 years, while the $1,000,000 prize consists of $37,500 per year for 20 years.
Contestants on the current season of the syndicated show who answer one of the first five questions incorrectly receive a $1,000 consolation prize; on the original primetime version and on the earlier seasons of the syndicated version prior to 2010, contestants who missed one of the first five questions left with no winnings.
Contestants are given a series of lifelines to aid them with difficult questions. They can use as many lifelines as desired per question, but each lifeline can only be used once per game. Three lifelines are available from the start of the game. Depending on the format of the show, additional lifelines may become available after the contestant correctly answers the fifth or tenth question. In the clock format, usage of lifelines temporarily paused the clock while the lifelines were played.
The show 's original three lifelines were "50: 50 '', in which the computer eliminates two of the incorrect answers; "Phone - a-Friend '', which allowed the contestant to make a 30 - second call to one of a number of friends (who provided their phone numbers in advance) and read them the question and answer choices, after which the friend provided input; and "Ask the Audience '', in which audience members use touch pads to designate what they believe the correct answer to be, after which the percentage of the audience choosing each specific option is displayed to the contestant. 50: 50 was eliminated at the end of the show 's sixth syndicated season, only to be restored in season fourteen. Phone - a-Friend was removed on the episode aired January 11, 2010, after it was determined that there was an increasing trend of contestants ' friends using search engines and other Internet resources, unfairly privileging individuals who had computer access over those who did not, and that it was contrary to the original intent of the lifeline where friends were supposed to provide assistance based on what they already knew. From 2004 to 2008, there was a fourth lifeline called "Switch the Question '', earned upon answering question ten, in which the computer replaced, at the contestant 's request, one question with another of the same monetary value; however, any lifelines used on the original question were not reinstated for the new question. Switch the Question returned as "Cut the Question '' on a special week of shows with child contestants aired in 2014.
The Super Millionaire spin - off introduced two new lifelines: "Double Dip '', which allowed the contestant to make two guesses at a question, but required them to play out the question, forbidding them to walk away or use any further lifelines; and "Three Wise Men '', in which the contestant was allowed to ask a sequestered panel of three people chosen by the producers, appearing via face - to - face audio and video feeds, which answer they believed was correct, within a time limit of 30 seconds. When the clock format was implemented, Double Dip replaced 50: 50, and the show introduced a new lifeline called "Ask the Expert '', which was like Three Wise Men but had one person (usually a celebrity or a former Millionaire contestant) functioning as an expert instead of a panel of three people, lacked the time limit of its predecessor, and allowed the contestant and expert to discuss the question. Ask the Expert was originally available after the fifth question, but was moved to the beginning of the game after Phone - a-Friend was removed.
The show 's lifelines sometimes used corporate sponsorship. The Phone - a-Friend lifeline was sponsored by the original AT&T throughout the run of the ABC primetime show and in the first season of the syndicated version, then by the current AT&T for the 2009 primetime episodes. From 2004 to 2006, Ask the Audience was sponsored by AOL, which allowed users of its Instant Messenger to add the screen name MillionaireIM to their buddy list and receive an instant message with the question and the four possible answers, to which the users replied with their choices. In addition, the Ask the Expert lifeline was sponsored by Skype for its live audio and video feeds.
During the shuffle format, the show introduced a new lifeline, "Jump the Question '', which could be used twice in a single game. At any point prior to selecting a final answer, a contestant could use Jump the Question to skip the current question and move on to the next one, thus reducing the number of questions they had to correctly answer. However, a contestant who used Jump the Question did not earn any money for the question they chose to skip (for example, a contestant who Jumped the $100,000 question would retain his or her winnings from round one, and would then see the $250,000 question). This lifeline could not be used on the final $1 million question. The "Plus One '' lifeline, introduced in season thirteen, allows a contestant to bring a companion with him or her to the podium for help in answering a question. The introduction of this lifeline reduced the number of Jump the Question lifelines available from two to one. On occasional specially designated weeks, starting with a Halloween - themed week that aired from October 29 to November 2, 2012, the shuffle format used a special lifeline called "Crystal Ball '', which allows the contestant to see the money value of a round one question prior to giving an answer. Jump the Question was removed at the end of the show 's thirteenth syndicated season. For the show 's fourteenth season, during a special week of college shows, players got another lifeline called "Extra Help '', played similarly to "Plus One '' and allowing for another companion to help the player; however, it could only be used after "Plus One '' was used.
The first contestant to correctly answer all 15 questions and win the top prize of $1,000,000 was John Carpenter, on the episode aired November 19, 1999. In 2000, the million dollar top prize was awarded five times: to Dan Blonsky on the episode aired January 18, to Joe Trela on March 23, to Bob House on June 13, to Kim Hunt on July 6, and to David Goodman on July 11.
In January 2001, when no contestant had won $1 million in any show that aired over a period of five months, the top prize was then changed from a flat $1 million to an accumulating jackpot that increased by $10,000 for each episode where the top prize was not won. On April 10, 2001, Kevin Olmstead correctly answered the final question and won $2,180,000, making him the biggest winner in television history at the time. The top prize for correctly answering the final question returned to $1 million following Olmstead 's win and has remained unchanged since; just five days after Olmstead 's win, the standard $1 million prize was awarded to Bernie Cullen. The last top prize winner on the original network version was Ed Toutant, on the episode aired September 7, 2001; he had previously appeared on the episode aired January 31, 2001 when the jackpot was $1,860,000, where he was ruled to have answered his $16,000 question incorrectly, but when it was discovered that there was a mistake in that question, Toutant was invited back and won the $1,860,000 jackpot. On the Super Millionaire spin - off, Robert Essig won $1,000,000 after answering the twelfth question and then walked away, not reaching the final question for $10,000,000.
On the syndicated version 's first season, two contestants correctly answered all 15 questions and won the top prize of $1,000,000: Kevin Smith on February 18, 2003, and Nancy Christy on May 8 of the same year. During the Million Dollar Tournament of Ten, which aired in November 2009, Sam Murray (who had previously supplied correct responses for eleven questions) risked his winnings on a special $1,000,000 question; he was the only contestant to answer his question correctly.
The original network version of the U.S. Millionaire and the subsequent primetime specials were hosted by Regis Philbin. When the syndicated version was being developed, the production team felt that it was not feasible for Philbin to continue hosting, as the show recorded four episodes in a single day, and that the team was looking for qualities in a new host: it had to be somebody who would love the contestants and be willing to root for them. Rosie O'Donnell was initially offered a hosting position on this new edition, but declined the opportunity almost immediately. Eventually Meredith Vieira, who had previously competed in a celebrity charity event on the original network version, was named host of the new syndicated edition.
ABC originally offered Vieira hosting duties on the syndicated Millionaire to sweeten one of her re-negotiations for the network 's daytime talk show The View, which she was moderating at the time. When the show was honored by GSN on its Gameshow Hall of Fame special, Vieira herself further explained her motivation for hosting the syndicated version as follows:
From 2007 to 2011, when Vieira was concurrently working as a co-host of Today, guest hosts appeared in the second half of each season of the syndicated version. Guest hosts who filled in for Vieira included Philbin, Al Roker, Tom Bergeron, Tim Vincent, Dave Price, Billy Bush, Leeza Gibbons, Cat Deeley, Samantha Harris, Shaun Robinson, Steve Harvey, John Henson, Sherri Shepherd, Tim Gunn, and D.L. Hughley.
On January 10, 2013, Vieira announced that after eleven seasons with the syndicated Millionaire, she would be leaving the show as part of an effort to focus on other projects in her career. She finalized taping of her last episodes with the show in November 2012. While Philbin briefly considered a return to the show, Cedric the Entertainer was introduced as her successor when season twelve premiered on September 2, 2013. On April 30, 2014, Deadline announced that Cedric had decided to leave the show in order to lighten his workload, resulting in him being succeeded by Terry Crews for the 2014 -- 15 season. Crews was succeeded by Chris Harrison, host of The Bachelor and its spin - offs, when season 14 premiered on September 14, 2015.
The original executive producers of the U.S. Millionaire were British television producers Michael Davies and Paul Smith, the latter of whom undertook the responsibility of licensing Millionaire to American airwaves as part of his effort to transform the UK program into a global franchise. Smith served until 2007 and Davies until 2010; additionally, Leigh Hampton (previously co-executive producer in the later days of the network version and in the syndicated version 's first two seasons) served as an executive producer from 2004 to 2010. Rich Sirop, who was previously a supervising producer, became the executive producer in 2010 and held that position until 2014, when he left Millionaire to hold the same position with Vieira 's newly launched syndicated talk show, and was replaced by James Rowley. Vincent Rubino, who had previously been the syndicated Millionaire 's supervising producer for its first two seasons, served as that version 's co-executive producer for the 2004 -- 05 season, after which he was succeeded by Vieira herself, who continued to hold the title until her departure in 2013 (sharing her position with Sirop for the 2009 -- 10 season).
Producers of the network version included Hampton, Rubino, Leslie Fuller, Nikki Webber, and Terrence McDonnell. For its first two seasons the syndicated version had Deirdre Cossman for its managing producer, then Dennis F. McMahon became producer for the next two seasons (joined by Dominique Bruballa as his line producer), after which Jennifer Weeks produced the next four seasons of syndicated Millionaire shows, initially accompanied by Amanda Zucker as her line producer, but later joined for the 2008 -- 09 season by Tommy Cody (who became sole producer in the 2009 -- 10 season). The first 65 shuffle format episodes were produced by McPaul Smith, and as of 2011, the title of producer is held by Bryan Lasseter. The network version had Ann Miller and Tiffany Trigg for its supervising producers; they were joined by Wendy Roth in the first two seasons, and by Michael Binkow in the third and final season. After Rubino 's promotion to co-executive producer, the syndicated version 's later supervising producers included Sirop (2004 -- 09), Geena Gintzig (2009 -- 10), Brent Burnette (2010 -- 12), Geoff Rosen (2012 -- 14), and Liz Harris (2014 -- 16), who currently serves as the co-executive producer.
The original network version of Millionaire was directed by Mark Gentile, who later served as the syndicated version 's consulting producer for its first two seasons, and then as the director of Duel, which ran on ABC from December 2007 to July 2008. The syndicated version was directed by Matthew Cohen from 2002 to 2010, by Rob George from 2010 to 2013, and by Brian McAloon in the 2013 -- 14 season. Former Price Is Right director Rich DiPirro became Millionaire 's director in 2014.
The U.S. version of Millionaire is a co-production of 2waytraffic, a division of Sony Pictures Entertainment, and Valleycrest Productions, a division of The Walt Disney Company. 2waytraffic purchased Millionaire 's original production company Celador in 2008, while Valleycrest has produced the series since its beginning, and holds the copyright on all U.S. Millionaire episodes to date. The show is distributed by Valleycrest 's corporate sibling Disney - ABC Home Entertainment & Television Distribution (previously known as Buena Vista Television).
The U.S. Millionaire was taped at ABC 's Television Center East studio on the Upper West Side of Manhattan in New York from 1999 to 2012. Tapings were moved to NEP Broadcasting 's Metropolis Studios in East Harlem in 2013, and production moved to studios located in Stamford, Connecticut the following year. For the 2016 -- 17 season, production relocated to Bally 's Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas, Nevada. Episodes of the syndicated version are produced from June to December. The show originally taped four episodes in a single day, but that number has since been changed to five.
When the U.S. version of Millionaire was first conceived in 1998, Michael Davies was a young television producer who was serving as the head of ABC 's little - noticed reality programming division (at a time when reality television had not yet become a phenomenon in America). At that time, ABC was lingering in third place in the ratings indexes among U.S. broadcast networks, and was on the verge of losing its status as one of the "Big Three '' networks. Meanwhile, the popularity of game shows was at an all - time nadir, as with the exception of The Price Is Right, the genre was absent from networks ' daytime lineups at that point. Having earlier created Debt for Lifetime Television and participated with Al Burton and Donnie Brainard in the creation of Win Ben Stein 's Money for Comedy Central, Davies decided to create a primetime game show that would save the network from collapse and revive interest in game shows.
Davies originally considered reviving CBS 's long - lost quiz show The $64,000 Question for a new era, with a new home on ABC. However, this effort 's development was limited as when the producer heard that the British Millionaire was about to make its debut, he got his friends and family members in the UK to record the show, and subsequently ended up receiving about eight FedEx packages from different family members, each containing a copy of Millionaire 's first episode. Davies was so captivated by everything that he had seen and heard, from host Chris Tarrant 's intimate involvement with the contestant to the show 's lighting system and music tracks, that he chose to abandon his work on the $64,000 Question revival in favor of introducing Millionaire to American airwaves, convinced that it would become extraordinarily popular.
When Davies presented his ideas for the U.S. Millionaire to ABC, the network 's executives initially rejected them, so he resigned his position there and became an independent producer. Determined to bring his idea for the show to fruition, Davies decided that he was betting his whole career on Millionaire 's production, and the first move that he made was planning to attach a celebrity host to the show. Along with Philbin, a number of other popular television personalities were considered for hosting positions on the U.S. Millionaire during its development, including Peter Jennings, Bob Costas, Phil Donahue, and Montel Williams, but among those considered, it was Philbin who wanted the job the most, and when he saw an episode of the British Millionaire and was blown away by his content, Davies and his team ultimately settled on having him host the American show. When Davies approached ABC again after having hired Philbin, the network finally agreed to accept the U.S. Millionaire. With production now ready to begin, the team had only five months to finish developing the show and get it launched, with Davies demanding perfection in every element of Millionaire 's production.
With few exceptions, any legal resident of the United States who is 18 years of age or older has the potential of becoming a contestant through Millionaire 's audition process. Those ineligible include employees, immediate family or household members, and close acquaintances of SPE, Disney, or any of their respective affiliates or subsidiaries; television stations that broadcast the syndicated version; or any advertising agency or other firm or entity engaged in the production, administration, or judging of the show. Also ineligible are current candidates for political office and individuals who have appeared on a different game show outside of cable that has been broadcast within the past year, is intended to be broadcast within the next year, or played the main game on any of the U.S. versions of Millionaire itself.
Potential contestants of the original primetime version had to compete in a telephone contest which had them dial a toll - free number and answer three questions by putting objects or events in order. Callers had ten seconds to enter the order on a keypad, with any incorrect answer ending the game / call. The 10,000 to 20,000 candidates who answered all three questions correctly were selected into a random drawing in which approximately 300 contestants competed for ten spots on the show using the same phone quiz method. Accommodations for contestants outside the New York City area included round trip airfare (or other transportation) and hotel accommodations.
The syndicated version 's potential contestants, depending on tryouts, are required to pass an electronically scored test comprising a set of thirty questions which must be answered within a 10 - minute time limit. Contestants who fail the test are eliminated, while those who pass are interviewed for an audition by the production staff, and those who impress the staff the most are then notified by postal mail that they have been placed into a pool for possible selection as contestants. At the producers ' discretion, contestants from said pool are selected to appear on actual episodes of the syndicated program; these contestants are given a phone call from staff and asked to confirm the information on their initial application form and verify that they meet all eligibility requirements. Afterwards, they are given a date to travel to the show 's taping facilities to participate in a scheduled episode of the show. Unlike its ABC counterpart, the syndicated version does not offer transportation or hotel accommodations to contestants at the production company 's expense; that version 's contestants are instead required to provide transportation and accommodations of their own.
The syndicated Millionaire also conducts open casting calls in various locations across the United States to search for potential contestants. These are held in late spring or early summer, with all dates and locations posted on the show 's official website. The producers make no guarantee on how many applicants will be tested at each particular venue; however, the show will not test any more than 2,500 individuals per audition day.
In cases when the show features themed episodes with two people playing as a team, auditions for these episodes ' contestants are announced on the show 's website. Both members of the team must pass the written test and the audition interview successfully in order to be considered for selection. If only one member of the team passes, he or she is placed into the contestant pool alone and must continue the audition process as an individual in order to proceed.
Originally, the U.S. Millionaire carried over the musical score from the British version, composed by father - and - son duo Keith and Matthew Strachan. Unlike older game show musical scores, Millionaire 's musical score was created to feature music playing almost throughout the entire show. The Strachans ' main Millionaire theme song took some inspiration from the "Mars '' movement of Gustav Holst 's The Planets, and their question cues from the $2,000 to the $32,000 / $25,000 level, and then from the $64,000 / $50,000 level onwards, took the pitch up a semitone for each subsequent question, in order to increase tension as the contestant progressed through the game. On GSN 's Gameshow Hall of Fame special, the narrator described the Strachan tracks as "mimicking the sound of a beating heart, '' and stated that as the contestant worked their way up the money ladder, the music was "perfectly in tune with their ever - increasing pulse. ''
The original Millionaire musical score holds the distinction of being the only game show soundtrack to be acknowledged by the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers, as the Strachans were honored with numerous ASCAP awards for their work, the earliest of them awarded in 2000. The original music cues were given minor rearrangements for the clock format in 2008; for example, the question cues were synced to the "ticking '' sounds of the game clock. Even later, the Strachan score was removed from the U.S. version altogether for the introduction of the shuffle format in 2010, in favor of a new musical score with cues written by Jeff Lippencott and Mark T. Williams, co-founders of the Los Angeles - based company Ah2 Music.
The U.S. Millionaire 's basic set is a direct adaptation of the British version 's set design, which was conceived by Andy Walmsley. Paul Smith 's original licensing agreement for the U.S. Millionaire required that the show 's set design, along with all other elements of the show 's on - air presentation (musical score, lighting system, host 's wardrobe, etc.), adhere faithfully to the way in which they were presented in the British version; this same licensing agreement applied to all other international versions of the show, making Walmsley 's Millionaire set design the most reproduced scenic design in television history. The original version of the U.S. Millionaire 's set cost $200,000 to construct. The U.S. Millionaire 's production design is handled by George Allison, whose predecessors have included David Weller and Jim Fenhagen.
Unlike older game shows whose sets are or were designed to make the contestant (s) feel at ease, Millionaire 's set was designed to make the contestant feel uncomfortable, so that the program feels more like a movie thriller than a typical quiz show. The floor is made of Plexiglas beneath which lies a huge dish covered in mirror paper. Before the shuffle format was implemented in 2010, the main game had the contestant and host sit in chairs in the center of the stage, known as "Hot Seats ''; these measured 3 feet (0.91 m) high, were modeled after chairs typically found in hair salons, and each seat featured a computer monitor directly facing it to display questions and other pertinent information. Shortly after the shuffle format was introduced to Millionaire, Vieira stated in an interview with her Millionaire predecessor on his morning talk show that the Hot Seat was removed because it was decided that the seat, which was originally intended to make the contestant feel nervous, actually ended up having contestants feel so comfortable in it that it did not service the production team any longer.
The lighting system is programmed to darken the set as the contestant progresses further into the game. There are also spotlights situated at the bottom of the set area that zoom down on the contestant when they answer a major question; to increase the visibility of the light beams emitted by such spotlights, oil is vaporized, creating a haze effect. Media scholar Dr. Robert Thompson, a professor at Syracuse University, stated that the show 's lighting system made the contestant feel as though they were outside of prison when an escape was in progress.
When the shuffle format was introduced, the Hot Seats and corresponding monitors were replaced with a single podium, and as a result, the contestant and host stand throughout the game and are also able to walk around the stage. Also, two video screens were installed -- one that displays the current question in play, and another that displays the contestant 's cumulative total and progress during the game. In September 2012, the redesigned set was improved with a modernized look and feel, in order to take into account the show 's transition to high - definition broadcasting, which had just come about the previous year. The two video screens were replaced with two larger ones, having twice as many projectors as the previous screens had; the previous contestant podium was replaced with a new one; and light - emitting diode (LED) technology was integrated into the lighting system to give the lights more vivid colors and the set and gameplay experience a more intimate feel.
The U.S. version of Millionaire was launched by ABC as a half - hour primetime program on August 16, 1999. When it premiered, it became the first U.S. network game show to offer a million - dollar top prize to contestants. After airing thirteen episodes and reaching an audience of 15 million viewers by the end of the show 's first week on the air, the program expanded to an hour - long format when it returned in November. The series, of which episodes were originally shown only a day after their initial taping, was promoted to regular status on January 18, 2000 and, at the height of its popularity, was airing on ABC five nights a week. The show was so popular during its original primetime run that rival networks created or re-incarnated game shows of their own (e.g., Greed, Twenty One, etc.), as well as importing various game shows of British and Australian origin to America (such as Winning Lines, Weakest Link, and It 's Your Chance of a Lifetime).
The nighttime version initially drew in up to 30 million viewers a day three times a week, an unheard - of number in modern network television. In the 1999 -- 2000 season, it averaged No. 1 in the ratings against all other television shows, with 28,848,000 viewers. In the next season (2000 -- 01), three nights out of the five weekly episodes placed in the top 10. However, the show 's ratings began to fall during the 2000 -- 01 season, so that at the start of the 2001 -- 02 season, the ratings were only a fraction of what they had been one year before, and by season 's end, the show was no longer even ranked among the top 20. ABC 's reliance on the show 's popularity led the network to fall quickly from its former spot as the nation 's most watched network.
As ABC 's overexposure of the primetime Millionaire led the public to tire of the show, there was speculation that the show would not survive beyond the 2001 -- 02 season. The staff planned on switching it to a format that would emphasize comedy more than the game and feature a host other than Philbin, but in the end, the primetime show was canceled, with its final episode airing on June 27, 2002.
In 2001, Millionaire producers began work on a half - hour daily syndicated version of the show, with the idea being that it would serve as an accompaniment to the network series which was still in production. ABC 's cancellation of the network Millionaire ended that idea; however, the syndicated Millionaire still had enough interest to be greenlit and BVT sold the series to local stations for the 2002 -- 03 season. The syndicated series nearly met the same fate as its predecessor, however, due in part to worries that stemmed from a decision made by one of its affiliates.
In the New York media market, BVT sold the syndicated Millionaire to CBS 's flagship station, WCBS - TV. In the season that had passed, WCBS ' mid-afternoon schedule included the syndicated edition of NBC 's Weakest Link, which aired at 4 pm from its January 2002 premiere. Joining Millionaire as a new syndicated series was a spinoff of The Oprah Winfrey Show hosted by Dr. Phil McGraw. WCBS picked up both series for 2002 -- 03, with Dr. Phil serving as lead - in for the syndicated Millionaire, which was plugged into the time slot that Weakest Link had been occupying.
At mid-season, WCBS announced that for the 2003 -- 04 season it had acquired the broadcast rights to The People 's Court after WNBC, which had been airing the revived series since its 1997 debut, dropped it from its lineup. WCBS announced plans to move The People 's Court into the time slot that was occupied by Millionaire and the still - airing 4: 30 pm local newscast once it joined the station 's lineup in September 2003. This led to speculation that the syndicated Millionaire would not be returning for a second season, and BVT 's concerns over losing its New York affiliate were compounded by the fact that there were not many time slots available for the show in New York outside of the undesirable late - night slots that syndicators try to avoid.
In June 2003, a shakeup at one of BVT 's corporate siblings provided the series with an opening. ABC announced that it would be returning the 12: 30 pm network time slot to its affiliates in October of that year following the cancellation of the soap opera Port Charles. ABC 's flagship, WABC - TV, was thus in need of a program to fill the slot and BVT went to them asking if the station would pick up Millionaire. WABC agreed to do this and when the new season launched that fall, the station began airing Millionaire at 12: 30 pm. Millionaire continued to air on WABC in the afternoon until the end of the 2014 -- 15 season, when it acquired the broadcast rights to FABLife for the 2015 -- 16 season. To make room for FABLife, the afternoon airing of Millionaire was moved to independent station WLNY - TV; however, FABLife was canceled in January 2016, and as a result, Millionaire moved back to WABC for the 2016 -- 17 season.
According to e-mails released in the Sony Pictures Entertainment hack, Millionaire narrowly avoided cancellation after the 2014 -- 15 season. The show 's declining ratings prompted DADT to demand a dramatically reduced licensing fee for renewal, which SPE was hesitant to accept. The series was nonetheless renewed for the 2015 -- 16 season, with various cuts to the show 's production budget and a return to the original format (but with only 14 questions). Had the show not been renewed, SPE would have placed the show on extended hiatus for three years, reclaimed full rights to the show (without the innovations and format added in the syndicated run, to which DADT owns intellectual property rights), and shopped the revived show to another network or syndicator. On January 17, 2017, it was announced that Millionaire has been renewed through 2018.
Millionaire was subsequently renewed through the 2018 -- 19 season on January 17, 2018.
Game Show Network (GSN) acquired the rerun rights to the U.S. Millionaire in August 2003. The network initially aired only episodes from the three seasons of the original prime - time run; however, additional episodes were later added. These included the Super Millionaire spin - off, which aired on GSN from May 2005 to January 2007, and the first two seasons of the syndicated version, which began airing on November 10, 2008. On December 4, 2017, GSN acquired the rerun rights to the Harrison episodes of Millionaire (seasons fourteen and fifteen), which began airing December 18, 2017.
Various special editions and tournaments have been conducted which feature celebrities playing the game and donating winnings to charities of their choice. During celebrity editions on the original ABC version, contestants were allowed to receive help from their fellow contestants during the first ten questions. The most successful celebrity contestants throughout the show 's run have included Drew Carey, Rosie O'Donnell, Norm Macdonald, and Chip Esten, all of whom won $500,000 for their respective charities. The episode featuring O'Donnell's $500,000 win averaged 36.1 million viewers, the highest number for a single episode of the show.
There have also been special weeks featuring two or three family members or couples competing as a team, a "Champions Edition '' where former big winners returned and split their winnings with their favorite charities, a "Zero Dollar Winner Edition '' featuring contestants who previously missed one of the first - tier questions and left with nothing, and a "Tax - Free Edition '' in which H&R Block calculated the taxes of winnings to allow contestants to earn stated winnings after taxes, and various theme weeks featuring college students, teachers, brides - to - be, etc. as contestants. Additionally, the syndicated version once featured an annual "Walk In & Win Week '' with contestants who were randomly selected from the audience without having to take the audition test.
Special weeks have also included shows featuring questions concerning specific topics, such as professional football, celebrity gossip, movies, and pop culture. During a week of episodes in November 2007, to celebrate the 1,000 th episode of the syndicated Millionaire, all contestants that week started with $1,000 so that they could not leave empty - handed, and only had to answer ten questions to win $1,000,000. During that week, twenty home viewers per day also won $1,000 each.
In 2004, Philbin returned to host 12 episodes of a spin - off program titled Who Wants to Be a Super Millionaire in which contestants could potentially win $10,000,000. ABC aired five episodes of this spin - off during the week of February 22, 2004, and an additional seven episodes later that year in May. As usual, contestants had to answer a series of 15 multiple - choice questions of increasing difficulty, but the dollar values rose substantially. The first five questions for Super Millionaire were worth $1,000, $2,000, $3,000, $4,000, $5,000 (the first safe haven); the remaining ten questions were worth $10,000, $20,000, $30,000, $50,000, $100,000 (the second safe haven), $500,000, $1,000,000, $2,500,000, $5,000,000, and $10,000,000.
Contestants were given the standard three lifelines in place at the time (50: 50, Ask the Audience, and Phone - a-Friend) at the beginning of the game. However, after correctly answering the $100,000 question, the contestant earned two additional lifelines: Three Wise Men and Double Dip. The Three Wise Men lifeline involved a panel of three experts, one of whom was always a former Millionaire contestant and at least one of whom was female. When this lifeline was used, the contestant and panel had 30 seconds to discuss the question and choices before the audio and video feeds were dropped. Double Dip gave a contestant two chances to answer a question. Once used, the contestant must answer the question without using any further lifelines; moreover, if the "first final answer '' was incorrect, the contestant could not walk away. If the "second final answer '' was also wrong, the contestant left with $100,000.
To celebrate the tenth anniversary of Millionaire 's U.S. debut, the show returned to ABC primetime for an eleven - night event hosted by Philbin, which aired August 9 -- 23, 2009. The Academy Award - winning movie Slumdog Millionaire and the 2008 economic crisis helped boost interest of renewal of the game show.
The episodes featured game play based on the previous rule set of the syndicated version (including the rule changes implemented in season seven) but used the Fastest Finger round to select contestants. Various celebrities also made special guest appearances at the end of every episode; each guest played one question for a chance at $50,000 for a charity of their choice, being allowed to use any one of the four lifelines in place at the time (Phone - a-Friend, Ask the Audience, Double Dip, and Ask the Expert), but still earned a minimum of $25,000 for the charity if they answered the question incorrectly.
On August 18, 2009, New York City resident Nik Bonaddio appeared on the program, winning $100,000 with the help of the audience and later, Gwen Ifill as his lifelines. Bonaddio then used the proceeds to start the sports analytics firm numberFire, which was sold in September 2015 to FanDuel, a fantasy sports platform.
The finale of the tenth anniversary special, which aired on August 23, 2009, featured Ken Basin, an entertainment lawyer, Harvard Law graduate, and former Jeopardy! contestant, who went on to become the first contestant to play a $1,000,000 question in the "clock format '' era. With a time of 4: 39 (45 seconds + 3: 54 banked time), Basin was given a question involving President Lyndon Baines Johnson 's fondness for Fresca. Using his one remaining lifeline, Basin asked the audience, which supported his own hunch of Yoo - hoo rather than the correct answer. He decided to answer the question and lost $475,000, becoming the first contestant in the U.S. version to answer a $1,000,000 question incorrectly. After Basin finished his run, Vieira appeared on - camera and announced that all remaining Fastest Finger contestants would play with her on the first week of the syndicated version 's eighth season. After this, the million dollar question was not played again on a standard episode until September 25, 2013, when Josina Reaves became the second U.S. Millionaire contestant to incorrectly answer her $1,000,000 question, about a 1555 treatise written by Nostradamus, but only lost $75,000 as she used her Jump the Question lifelines on her $250,000 and $500,000 questions.
Although the syndicated Millionaire had produced two millionaires in its first season, Nancy Christy 's May 2003 win was still standing as the most recent when the program began its eighth season in fall of 2009. Deciding that six - plus years had been too long since someone had won the top prize, producers conducted a tournament to find a third million dollar winner. For the first nine weeks of the 2009 -- 10 season, each episode saw contestants attempt to qualify for what was referred to as the "Tournament of Ten ''. Contestants were seeded based on how much money they had won, with the biggest winner ranked first and the lowest ranked tenth. Ties were broken based on how much time a contestant had banked when they had walked away from the game.
The tournament began on the episode aired November 9, 2009, and playing in order from the lowest to the highest seed, tournament contestants played one at a time at the end of that episode and the next nine. The rules were exactly the same as they were for a normal million dollar question under the clock format introduced the season before, except here, the contestants had no lifelines at their disposal. Each contestant received a base time of 45 seconds. For each question they had answered before walking away, the contestants received any unused seconds that were left when they gave their answers. The accumulated total of those unused seconds was then added to the base time to give the contestants their final question time limit.
Each contestant had the same decision facing them as before, which was whether to attempt to answer the question or walk away with their pre-tournament total intact. Attempting the question and answering incorrectly incurred the same penalty as in regular play, with a reduction of their pre-tournament winnings to $25,000. If the question was answered correctly, the player that did so became the tournament leader. If another player after him / her answered correctly, that player assumed the lead and the previous leader kept their pre-tournament winnings. The highest remaining seed to have attempted and correctly answered their question at the end of the tournament on November 20, 2009 would be declared the winner and become the syndicated series ' third millionaire.
The first contestant to attempt to answer the million dollar question was Sam Murray, the tournament 's eighth - seeded qualifier. On November 11, Murray was asked approximately how many people had lived on Earth in its history and correctly guessed 100 billion. Murray was still atop the leaderboard entering the November 20 finale as he remained the only contestant to even attempt to answer his or her question. The only person who could defeat him was top seed and $250,000 winner Jehan Shamsid - Deen, who was asked a question regarding the Blorenge, cited as "a rare example of a word that rhymes with orange ''. Shamsid - Deen considered taking the risk, believing (correctly) that the name belonged to a mountain in Wales. However, she decided that the potential of losing $225,000 did not justify the risk and elected to walk away from the question, giving Murray the win and the million dollar prize.
Since its introduction to the United States, GSN credited Who Wants to Be a Millionaire with not only single - handedly reviving the game show genre, but also breaking new ground for it. The series revolutionized the look and feel of game shows with its unique lighting system, dramatic music cues, and futuristic set. The show also became one of the highest - rated and most popular game shows in U.S. television history, and has been credited with paving the way for the rise of the primetime reality TV phenomenon to prominence throughout the 2000s.
The U.S. Millionaire also made catchphrases out of various lines used on the show. In particular, "Is that your final answer? '', asked by Millionaire 's hosts whenever a contestant 's answer needs to be verified, was popularized by Philbin during his tenure as host, and was also included on TV Land 's special "100 Greatest TV Quotes and Catch Phrases '', which aired in 2006. Meanwhile, during his tenure as host, Cedric signed off shows with a catchphrase of his own, "Watch yo ' wallet! ''
The original primetime version of the U.S. Millionaire won two Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show in 2000 and 2001. Philbin was honored with a Daytime Emmy in the category of Outstanding Game Show Host in 2001, while Vieira received one in 2005, and another in 2009. TV Guide ranked the U.S. Millionaire # 7 on its 2001 list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time, and later ranked it # 6 on its 2013 "60 Greatest Game Shows '' list. GSN ranked Millionaire # 5 on its August 2006 list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time, and later honored the show in January 2007 on its only Gameshow Hall of Fame special.
In 2000, Pressman released two board game adaptions of Millionaire as well as a junior edition recommended for younger players. Several video games based on the varying gameplay formats of Millionaire have also been released throughout the course of the show 's U.S. history.
Between 1999 and 2001, Jellyvision produced five video game adaptations based upon the original primetime series for personal computers and Sony 's PlayStation console, all of them featuring Philbin 's likeness and voice. The first of these adaptations was published by Disney Interactive, while the later four were published by Buena Vista Interactive which had just been spun off from DI when it reestablished itself in attempts to diversify its portfolio. Of the five games, three featured general trivia questions, one was sports - themed, and another was a "Kids Edition '' featuring easier questions. In 2008, Imagination Games released a DVD version of the show, based on the 2004 -- 08 format and coming complete with Vieira 's likeness and voice, as well as a quiz book and a 2009 desktop calendar. Additionally, two Millionaire video games were released by Ludia in conjunction with Ubisoft in 2010 and 2011; the first of these was a game for Nintendo 's Wii console and DS handheld system based on the clock format, while the second, for Microsoft 's Xbox 360, was based on the shuffle format.
Ludia has also created a Facebook game based on Millionaire, which debuted on March 21, 2011. This game features an altered version of the shuffle format, condensing the number of questions to twelve -- eight in round one, and four in round two. A contestant can compete against eight other Millionaire fans in round one, and play round two alone if they make it into the top three. There is no "final answer '' rule; the contestant 's responses are automatically locked in. Answering a question correctly earns a contestant the value of that question, multiplied by the number of people who responded incorrectly. Contestants are allowed to use two of their Facebook friends as Jump the Question lifelines in round one, and to use the Ask the Audience lifeline in round two to invite up to 50 such friends of theirs to answer a question for a portion of the prize money of the current question.
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire -- Play It! was an attraction at the Disney 's Hollywood Studios theme park (when it was known as Disney - MGM Studios) at the Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando, Florida and at Disney California Adventure Park in Anaheim, California. Both the Florida and California Play It! attractions opened in 2001; the California version closed in 2004, and the Florida version closed in 2006 and was replaced by Toy Story Midway Mania!
The format in the Play It! attraction was very similar to that of the television show that inspired it. When a show started, a "Fastest Finger '' question was given, and the audience was asked to put the four answers in order; the person with the fastest time was the first contestant in the Hot Seat for that show. However, the main game had some differences: for example, contestants competed for points rather than dollars, the questions were set to time limits, and the Phone - a-Friend lifeline became Phone a Complete Stranger which connected the contestant to a Disney cast member outside the attraction 's theater who would find a guest to help. After the contestant 's game was over, they were awarded anything from a collectible pin, to clothing, to a Millionaire CD game, to a 3 - night Disney Cruise.
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when was the last time kansas state university was in the final four | Kansas State Wildcats Men 's basketball - wikipedia
The Kansas State Wildcats men 's basketball team represents Kansas State University in college basketball competition. The program is classified in the NCAA Division I, and is a member of the Big 12 Conference. The current head coach is Bruce Weber.
The program began competition in 1902, and has a long history of success. The first two major - conference titles captured by the school were won in the sport, in 1917 and 1919 (in the Missouri Valley Intercollegiate Athletic Association). Kansas State has gone on to capture 18 regular season conference crowns in the sport. Street & Smith ranked K - State 22nd in its 2005 list of the greatest college basketball programs of all time, while Jeff Sagarin listed the program 27th in his all - time rankings in the ESPN College Basketball Encyclopedia. Following the 2017 -- 2018 season, the Wildcats have a record of 1,658 -- 1,147.
Through the years Kansas State University has appeared in 30 NCAA basketball tournaments, most recently in 2018. The team 's all - time record in the NCAA tournament is 37 -- 34 (. 521). Kansas State 's best finish at the tournament came in 1951, when it lost to Kentucky in the national championship game. The school has reached the Final Four 4 times, the Elite Eight 13 times, and the Sweet Sixteen 17 times. Included among K - State 's tournament wins are some all - time classics, including an 83 -- 80 win over Oscar Robertson 's Cincinnati team in 1958, which Sports Illustrated called "the most exciting game of the 1958 season, '' and a 50 -- 48 win over second - ranked Oregon State in 1981, which USA Today listed as one of the greatest games in NCAA tournament history.
The team also had some notably successful seasons before the creation of the NIT (1938) and the NCAA tournament (1939), including conference titles in 1917 and 1919 under coach Zora G. Clevenger. The Helms Athletic Foundation named Frank Reynolds the program 's first All - American player in 1917, and the Premo - Porretta Power Poll retroactively ranked Kansas State # 12 in 1910, # 18 in 1916, # 8 in 1917 and # 7 in 1919.
The best season in the school 's history may have been 1959, when the team finished the season ranked # 1 in the final Associated Press Poll and Coaches Poll. K - State has finished ranked in the Top 10 of one of the two polls on ten occasions (most recently in 2010), and in the final top 25 polls twenty total times. The team has also posted a winning record at home every year since 1946.
After a lengthy period with little success during the 1990s and 2000s, the team returned to prominence under head coach Frank Martin. Following a twelve - year absence, the team returned to the NCAA tournament after the 2007 -- 08 season. Following that season, Kansas State freshman Michael Beasley was named an All - American and Big 12 Conference Player of the Year. In the 2009 -- 10 season, the team spent much of the year ranked in the Top 10 of the AP Poll and finished second in the Big 12 with an 11 -- 5 record. The team received a # 2 seed in the 2010 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament, and beat North Texas and BYU to advance to the Sweet Sixteen, where the Wildcats faced Xavier. The game was a double - overtime thriller won by Kansas State 101 -- 96, which CBSSports.com called "one of the best games in the history of the Sweet 16. '' Kansas State lost in the next round to Butler, the eventual national runner - up.
On March 31, 2012, Bruce Weber was announced as head coach after Frank Martin left for South Carolina. During the 2012 -- 2013 season, Weber 's first in Manhattan, Kansas State won its first regular season conference title since 1977 and advanced to the NCAA tournament. K - State has appeared in the NCAA tournament four times in Weber 's six seasons.
Kansas State has a total of 36 All - Americans, 18 regular - season conference championships and nine conference tournament championships.
Kansas State University has finished in the final rankings of the AP Poll or Coaches Poll on twenty occasions throughout its history, including one season at # 1 in the final polls (pre-NCAA Tournament). The AP Poll first appeared in 1948, and has been published continuously since 1950 -- 51. The Coaches Poll began in the 1950 -- 51 season. Currently, the final AP Poll is released before the tournament and the final Coaches Poll is released after the tournament.
Kansas State 's main rivalry is with the Kansas Jayhawks. The rivalry peaked in the 1950s when both teams were annually national title contenders. The 1987 -- 88 season also proved to be momentous in the rivalry. In the first matchup of the season, on January 30, 1988, Mitch Richmond scored 35 points to lead Kansas State to a 72 -- 61 win to halt KU 's then - record 55 - game home winning streak. On February 18, KU turned the tables, prevailing 64 -- 63 at Ahearn Field House in Manhattan to deny K - State a victory over KU in the old field house 's last year. In what was supposed to be the rubber game, in the 1988 Big Eight Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament, Kansas State won a decisive victory by a 69 -- 54 score. However, the biggest was yet to come. Both teams qualified for the NCAA tournament, and after three wins each in the tournament they faced each other on March 27 in Pontiac, Michigan, for the right to advance to the Final Four. Led by Danny Manning 's 20 points, KU turned a tight game into a runaway and prevailed 71 -- 58. Kansas would go on to win the national championship.
The rivalry slipped in significance after the 1988 season, and from 1994 to 2005 KU won 31 straight games against K - State, the longest streak for either school in the series. KU also posted a 24 - game win streak against the Wildcats in Manhattan, which ended on January 30, 2008, when # 22 Kansas State upset # 2 Kansas 84 -- 75.
Jeff Sagarin 's rankings of the nation 's top programs by decade in the ESPN College Basketball Encyclopedia nicely track the history of the rivalry. In the 1950s, when the rivalry was at its peak, Kansas State finished the decade ranked as the # 3 program in the nation and KU was ranked as # 4. In the 1960s KU was ranked # 9 for the decade and KSU was ranked # 11. In the 1970s, the programs were again nearly even, with Kansas State ranked at # 24 and KU at # 25. In the 1980s some separation appeared, as KU finished the decade ranked at # 19 and Kansas State at # 31. The big difference appeared in the 1990s and 2000s when KU was ranked at # 4 and # 2 for the decades, while Kansas State does not appear anywhere in the top 40.
The rivalry has become more relevant again in recent years, with both teams ranked in the AP Top 25 for many of their match - ups.
As of the 2014 -- 15 season, Missouri is Kansas State 's second most - played rival, with 235 games dating back to 1907. Kansas State leads the series 119 -- 116. The series was last played in the 2011 -- 12 season, before Missouri moved to the Southeastern Conference. For nearly a century beforehand, the two schools shared conferences, beginning in the 1913 -- 14 season in the Missouri Valley Conference, then in the Big Eight Conference and its predecessors from 1928 to 1996, and finally the Big 12 Conference from 1996 to 2012.
Kansas State had an ongoing in - state, out - of - conference rivalry with Wichita State, dating back to 1932 and last played in 2003. Kansas State leads the series 20 -- 11. The series had six games from 1932 to 1964, then six games on a home - and - home rotation from the 1969 -- 70 to 1971 -- 72 seasons, and most recently 19 home - and - home games every season from 1985 -- 86 to 2003 -- 04.
When Wichita State became a Top 25 regular in the early 2010s, there came interest in reviving the series. In February 2013, Kansas state senator Michael O'Donnell introduced a bill requiring Kansas and Kansas State to schedule Wichita State.
The Wildcats have appeared in the NCAA Tournament 30 times. Their overall record in the NCAA Tournament is 37 -- 34 (. 521) through the 2018 tournament.
From 2011 -- 2015 the round of 64 was known as the Second Round, round of 32 was Third Round
The NCAA began seeding the tournament with the 1979 edition.
The Wildcats have appeared in the National Invitation Tournament (NIT) seven times. Their combined record is 6 -- 8.
The Wildcats appeared in one of the only two ever National Commissioners Invitational Tournaments. Their record is 0 -- 1.
The following players ' jerseys have been retired by Kansas State. They represent the finest basketball players to come through Kansas State. The criteria for determining the honor includes statistical achievement, conference and national records, honors received (such as all - conference, All - American, Academic All - American), character and sportsmanship.
The following Kansas State players and coaches are in the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame (with induction year):
The following Kansas State players and coaches are in the National Collegiate Basketball Hall of Fame (with induction year):
Kansas State players and coaches have won the following national awards:
Player honors
Coaching honors
The Big Eight Conference established the Conference Player of the Year and Coach of the Year awards in 1957. These awards have continued into the Big 12 Conference era.
The following former Wildcats have gone on to play professionally, either in the NBA or elsewhere. Kansas State University has had two overall # 1 draft picks in the NBA since the draft began in 1947: Howie Shannon (1949) and Bob Boozer (1959).
A number of former Wildcat players have gone to successful careers as head basketball coaches, including:
Kansas State has had 23 head coaches. A number of notable and successful coaches have led the Wildcats through the years. Following are all the coaches that have been at Kansas State.
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who wrote the classic defense of personal freedom and individuality entitled on liberty | On Liberty - wikipedia
On Liberty is a philosophical work by the English philosopher John Stuart Mill, originally intended as a short essay. The work, published in 1859, applies Mill 's ethical system of utilitarianism to society and the state. Mill attempts to establish standards for the relationship between authority and liberty. He emphasizes the importance of individuality, which he conceived as a prerequisite to the higher pleasures -- the summum bonum of utilitarianism. Furthermore, Mill criticizes the errors of past attempts to defend individuality where, for example, democratic ideals resulted in the "tyranny of the majority ''. Among the standards established in this work are Mill 's three basic liberties of individuals, his three legitimate objections to government intervention, and his two maxims regarding the relationship of the individual to society.
On Liberty was a greatly influential and well received work, although it did not go without criticism. Some attacked it for its apparent discontinuity with Utilitarianism, while others criticized its vagueness. The ideas presented in On Liberty have remained the basis of much liberal political thought. It has remained in print continuously since its initial publication. To this day, a copy of On Liberty is passed to the president of the British Liberal Democrats as a symbol of office. A copy of the same book is also presented to and then held by the president of the Liberal Party as a symbol of office.
Mill 's marriage to his wife Harriet Taylor Mill greatly influenced the concepts in On Liberty, which was largely finished prior to her death, and published shortly after she died.
According to Mill 's Autobiography, On Liberty was first conceived as a short essay in 1854. As the ideas developed, the essay was expanded, rewritten and "sedulously '' corrected by Mill and his wife, Harriet Taylor. Mill, after suffering a mental breakdown and eventually meeting and subsequently marrying Harriet, changed many of his beliefs on moral life and women 's rights. Mill states that On Liberty "was more directly and literally our joint production than anything else which bears my name. ''
The final draft was nearly complete when his wife died suddenly in 1858. Mill suggests that he made no alterations to the text at this point and that one of his first acts after her death was to publish it and to "consecrate it to her memory. '' The composition of this work was also indebted to the work of the German thinker Wilhelm von Humboldt, especially his essay On the Limits of State Action. Finally published in 1858 On Liberty was one of Mill 's two most influential books (the other being Utilitarianism).
John Stuart Mill opens his essay by discussing the historical "struggle between authority and liberty, '' describing the tyranny of government, which, in his view, needs to be controlled by the liberty of the citizens. He divides this control of authority into two mechanisms: necessary rights belonging to citizens, and the "establishment of constitutional checks by which the consent of the community, or of a body of some sort, supposed to represent its interests, was made a necessary condition to some of the more important acts of the governing power. '' Because society was -- in its early stages -- subjected to such turbulent conditions (i.e. small population and constant war), it was forced to accept rule "by a master. '' However, as mankind progressed, it became conceivable for the people to rule themselves. Mill admits that this new form of society seemed immune to tyranny because "there was no fear of tyrannizing over self. '' Despite the high hopes of the Enlightenment, Mill argues that the democratic ideals were not as easily met as expected. First, even in democracy, the rulers were not always the same sort of people as the ruled. Second, there is a risk of a "tyranny of the majority '' in which the many oppress the few who, according to democratic ideals, have just as much a right to pursue their legitimate ends.
In Mill 's view, tyranny of the majority is worse than tyranny of government because it is not limited to a political function. Where one can be protected from a tyrant, it is much harder to be protected "against the tyranny of the prevailing opinion and feeling. '' The prevailing opinions within society will be the basis of all rules of conduct within society; thus there can be no safeguard in law against the tyranny of the majority. Mill 's proof goes as follows: the majority opinion may not be the correct opinion. The only justification for a person 's preference for a particular moral belief is that it is that person 's preference. On a particular issue, people will align themselves either for or against that issue; the side of greatest volume will prevail, but is not necessarily correct. In conclusion to this analysis of past governments, Mill proposes a single standard for which a person 's liberty may be restricted:
That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant... Over himself, over his body and mind, the individual is sovereign.
Mill clarifies that this standard is solely based on utility. Therefore, when it is not useful, it may be ignored. For example, according to Mill, children and "barbarian '' nations are benefited by limited freedom. Just despots, such as Charlemagne and Akbar the Great, were historically beneficial to people not yet fit to rule themselves.
J.S. Mill concludes the Introduction by discussing what he claimed were the three basic liberties in order of importance:
While Mill admits that these freedoms could -- in certain situations -- be pushed aside, he claims that in contemporary and civilised societies there is no justification for their removal.
In the second chapter, J.S. Mill attempts to prove his claim from the first chapter that opinions ought never to be suppressed. Looking to the consequences of suppressing opinions, he concludes that opinions ought never to be suppressed, stating, "Such prejudice, or oversight, when it (i.e. false belief) occurs, is altogether an evil; but it is one from which we can not hope to be always exempt, and must be regarded as the price paid for an inestimable good. '' He claims that there are three sorts of beliefs that can be had -- wholly false, partly true, and wholly true -- all of which, according to Mill, benefit the common good:
Mill spends a large portion of the chapter discussing implications of and objections to the policy of never suppressing opinions. In doing so, Mill explains his opinion of Christian ethics, arguing that, while they are praiseworthy, they are incomplete on their own. Therefore, Mill concludes that suppression of opinion based on belief in infallible doctrine is dangerous. Among the other objections Mill answers is the objection that the truth will necessarily survive persecution and that society need only teach the grounds for truth, not the objections to it. Near the end of Chapter 2, Mill states that "unmeasured vituperation, enforced on the side of prevailing opinion, deters people from expressing contrary opinion, and from listening to those who express them. ''
In the third chapter, J.S. Mill points out the inherent value of individuality since individuality is ex vi termini (i.e. by definition) the thriving of the human person through the higher pleasures. He argues that a society ought to attempt to promote individuality as it is a prerequisite for creativity and diversity. With this in mind, Mill believes that conformity is dangerous. He states that he fears that Western civilization approaches this well - intentioned conformity to praiseworthy maxims characterized by the Chinese civilization. Therefore, Mill concludes that actions in themselves do not matter. Rather, the person behind the action and the action together are valuable. He writes:
In the fourth chapter, J.S. Mill explains a system in which a person can discern what aspects of life should be governed by the individual and which by society. Generally, he holds that a person should be left as free to pursue his own interests as long as this does not harm the interests of others. In such a situation, "society has jurisdiction over (the person 's conduct). '' He rejects the idea that this liberty is simply for the purpose of allowing selfish indifference. Rather, he argues that this liberal system will bring people to the good more effectively than physical or emotional coercion. This principle leads him to conclude that a person may, without fear of just punishment, do harm to himself through vice. Governments, he claims, should only punish a person for neglecting to fulfill a duty to others (or causing harm to others), not the vice that brought about the neglect.
J.S. Mill spends the rest of the chapter responding to objections to his maxim. He notes the objection that he contradicts himself in granting societal interference with youth because they are irrational but denying societal interference with certain adults though they act irrationally. Mill first responds by restating the claim that society ought to punish the harmful consequences of the irrational conduct, but not the irrational conduct itself which is a personal matter. Furthermore, he notes the societal obligation is not to ensure that each individual is moral throughout adulthood. Rather, he states that, by educating youth, society has the opportunity and duty to ensure that a generation, as a whole, is generally moral.
Where some may object that there is justification for certain religious prohibitions in a society dominated by that religion, he argues that members of the majority ought make rules that they would accept should they have been the minority. He states, "unless we are willing to adopt the logic of persecutors, and say that we may persecute others because we are right, and that they must not persecute us because they are wrong, we must beware of admitting a principle of which we should resent as a gross injustice the application to ourselves. '' In saying this, he references an earlier claim that morals and religion can not be treated in the same light as mathematics because morals and religion are vastly more complex. Just as with living in a society which contains immoral people, Mill points out that agents who find another 's conduct depraved do not have to socialise with the other, merely refrain from impeding their personal decisions. While Mill generally opposes the religiously motivated societal interference, he admits that it is conceivably permissible for religiously motivated laws to prohibit the use of what no religion obligates. For example, a Muslim state could feasibly prohibit pork. However, Mill still prefers a policy of society minding its own business.
This last chapter applies the principles laid out in the previous sections. He begins by summarising these principles:
Mill first applies these principles to the economy. He concludes that free markets are preferable to those controlled by governments. While it may seem, because "trade is a social act, '' that the government ought intervene in the economy, Mill argues that economies function best when left to their own devices. Therefore, government intervention, though theoretically permissible, would be counterproductive. Later, he attacks government - run economies as "despotic. '' He believes that if the government ran the economy, then all people would aspire to be part of a bureaucracy that had no incentive to further the interests of any but itself.
Next Mill investigates in what ways a person may try to prevent harm. He first admits that a person should not wait for injury to happen, but ought try to prevent it. Second, he states that agents must consider whether that which can cause injury can cause injury exclusively. He gives the example of selling poison. Poison can cause harm. However, he points out that poison can also be used for good. Therefore, selling poison is permissible. Yet, due to the risk entailed in selling poison or like products (e.g. alcohol), he sees no danger to liberty to require warning labels on the product. Again, Mill applies his principle. He considers the right course of action when an agent sees a person about to cross a condemned bridge without being aware of the risk. Mill states that because the agent presumably has interest in not crossing a dangerous bridge (i.e. if he knew the facts concerned with crossing the bridge, he would not desire to cross the bridge), it is permissible to forcibly stop the person from crossing the bridge. He qualifies the assertion stating that, if the means are available, it is better to warn the unaware person.
With regard to taxing to deter agents from buying dangerous products, he makes a distinction. He states that to tax solely to deter purchases is impermissible because prohibiting personal actions is impermissible and "(e) very increase of cost is a prohibition, to those whose means do not come up to the augmented price. '' However, because a government must tax to some extent in order to survive, it may choose to take its taxes from what it deems most dangerous.
Mill expands upon his principle of punishing the consequences rather than the personal action. He argues that a person who is empirically prone to act violently (i.e. harm society) from drunkenness (i.e. a personal act) should be uniquely restricted from the drinking. He further stipulates that repeat offenders should be punished more than first time offenders.
On the subject of fornication and gambling, Mill has no conclusive answer, stating, "(t) here are arguments on both sides. '' He suggests that while the actions might be "tolerated '' in private, promoting the actions (i.e. being a pimp or keeping a gambling house) "should not be permitted. '' He reaches a similar conclusion with acts of indecency, concluding that public indecency is condemnable.
Mill continues by addressing the question of social interference in suicide. He states that the purpose of liberty is to allow a person to pursue their interest. Therefore, when a person intends to terminate their ability to have interests it is permissible for society to step in. In other words, a person does not have the freedom to surrender their freedom. To the question of divorce, Mill argues that marriages are one of the most important structures within society; however, if a couple mutually agrees to terminate their marriage, they are permitted to do so because society has no grounds to intervene in such a deeply personal contract.
Mill believes that government run education is an evil because it would destroy diversity of opinion for all people to be taught the curriculum developed by a few. The less evil version of state run schooling, according to Mill, is that which competes against other privately run schools. In contrast, Mill believes that governments ought to require and fund private education. He states that they should enforce mandatory education through minor fines and annual standardised testing that tested only uncontroversial fact. He goes on to emphasise the importance of a diverse education that teaches opposing views (e.g. Kant and Locke). He concludes by stating that it is legitimate for states to forbid marriages unless the couple can prove that they have "means of supporting a family '' through education and other basic necessities.
J.S. Mill concludes by stating three general reasons to object to governmental interference:
He summarises his thesis, stating:
The worth of a State, in the long run, is the worth of the individuals composing it; and a State which postpones the interests of their mental expansion and elevation to a little more of administrative skill, or of that semblance of it which practice gives, in the details of business; a State which dwarfs its men, in order that they may be more docile instruments in its hands even for beneficial purposes -- will find that with small men no great thing can really be accomplished; and that the perfection of machinery to which it has sacrificed everything will in the end avail it nothing, for want of the vital power which, in order that the machine might work more smoothly, it has preferred to banish.
On Liberty was enormously popular in the years following its publication. Thomas Hardy recalled later in life that undergraduates in the 1860s knew the book almost by heart. Criticisms of the book in the 19th century came chiefly from thinkers who felt that Mill 's concept of liberty left the door open for barbarism, such as James Fitzjames Stephen and Matthew Arnold.
In more recent times, although On Liberty garnered adverse criticism, it has been largely received as an important classic of political thought for its ideas and accessibly lucid style. Denise Evans and Mary L. Onorato summarise the modern reception of On Liberty, stating: "(c) ritics regard his essay On Liberty as a seminal work in the development of British liberalism. Enhanced by his powerful, lucid, and accessible prose style, Mill 's writings on government, economics, and logic suggest a model for society that remains compelling and relevant. '' As one sign of the book 's importance, a copy of On Liberty is the symbol of office for the president of the Liberal Democrat Party in England.
Mill makes it clear throughout On Liberty that he "regard (s) utility as the ultimate appeal on all ethical questions '', a standard he inherited from his father, a follower of Jeremy Bentham. Though J.S. Mill claims that all of his principles on liberty appeal to the ultimate authority of utilitarianism, according to Nigel Warburton, much of the essay can seem divorced from his supposed final court of appeals. Mill seems to idealize liberty and rights at the cost of utility. For instance, Mill writes:
This claim seems to go against the principle of utilitarianism, that it is permissible that one should be harmed so that the majority could benefit.
Warburton argues that Mill is too optimistic about the outcome of free speech. Warburton suggests that there are situations in which it would cause more happiness to suppress truth than to permit it. For example, if a scientist discovered a comet about to kill the planet in a matter of weeks, it may cause more happiness to suppress the truth than to allow society to discover the impending danger.
While David Brink concedes that Mill 's apparently categorical appeal to rights seems to contradict utilitarianism, he points out that Mill does not believe rights are truly categorical because Mill opposes unrestrained liberty (e.g. offensive public exposure).
Furthermore, David Brink tries to reconcile Mill 's system of rights with utilitarianism in three ways:
Some thinkers have criticised Mill 's writing for its apparent narrow or unclear focus in several areas. Mill makes clear that he only considers adults in his writing, failing to account for how irrational members of society, such as children, ought to be treated. Yet Mill 's theory relies upon the proper upbringing of children. Plank has asserted that Mill fails to account for physical harm, solely concerning himself with spiritual wellbeing. He also argues that, while much of Mill 's theory depends upon a distinction between private and public harm, Mill seems not to have provided a clear focus on or distinction between the private and public realms.
Nigel Warburton states that though Mill encourages religious tolerance, because he does not speak from the perspective of a specific religion, some claim that he does not account for what certain religious beliefs would entail when governing a society. Some religions believe that they have a God given duty to enforce religious norms. For them, it seems impossible for their religious beliefs to be wrong, i.e. the beliefs are infallible. Therefore, according to Warburton, Mill 's principle of total freedom of speech may not apply.
The harm principle is central to the principles in On Liberty. Nigel Warburton says that Mill appears unclear about what constitutes harm. Early in the book, he claims that simply being offensive does not constitute harm. Later, he writes that certain acts which are permissible and harmless in private are worthy of being prohibited in public. This seems to contradict his earlier claim that merely offensive acts do not warrant prohibition because, presumably, the only harm done by a public act which is harmless in private is that it is offensive.
Warburton notes that some people argue that morality is the basis of society, and that society is the basis of individual happiness. Therefore, if morality is undermined, so is individual happiness. Hence, since Mill claims that governments ought to protect the individual 's ability to seek happiness, governments ought to intervene in the private realm to enforce moral codes.
Mill is clear that his concern for liberty does not extend to all individuals and all societies. He states that "Despotism is a legitimate mode of government in dealing with barbarians ''. Contemporary philosophers Domenico Losurdo and David Theo Goldberg have strongly criticised Mill as a racist and an apologist for colonialism. However, during his term as a Member of Parliament, he chaired the extraparliamentary Jamaica Committee, which for two years unsuccessfully sought the prosecution of Governor Eyre and his subordinates for military violence against Jamaican Blacks.
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what is the song rocky mountain way about | Rocky Mountain Way (song) - wikipedia
"Rocky Mountain Way '' is a 1973 song by rock guitarist Joe Walsh and his band Barnstorm, with writing credits given to Walsh, Rocke Grace, Kenny Passarelli, and Joe Vitale. The song was originally released on the album The Smoker You Drink, the Player You Get.
Walsh appeared in studio on The Howard Stern Show on June 12, 2012 and talked about how the lyrics to the song came to him in 1972 shortly after releasing his first solo effort, Barnstorm.
"I 'm living in Colorado and I 'm mowing the lawn. I look up and there 's the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains and there 's snow on them in the summer. And it knocked me back because it was just beautiful. And I thought, ' Well I have committed. I 'm already in Colorado and it 's too late to regret the James Gang. The Rocky Mountain way is better than the way I had, because the music was better. ' I got the words. Bam! ''
Walsh has varied that story over the years, however, telling the Rocky Mountain News that he wrote the lyrics while up recording the album at Caribou Ranch Recording Studio.
The song was used as the title to Walsh 's 1985 compilation album, which featured previously released singles and tracks from albums Barnstorm, The Smoker You Drink, the Player You Get and So What.
In 1976, Walsh recorded the song on his You Ca n't Argue with a Sick Mind album.
Walsh played the song frequently while on tour with the Eagles, including the 1977 Hotel California Tour, again in 1979 and later into the first half of 1980 's Long Run tour, also being added yet again to the set in the 1994 reunion tour with Eagles.
In 1985, Walsh joined Australian rock band, The Party Boys, and while touring they recorded a live album, You Need Professional Help, which featured an extended guitar duel between Walsh and Kevin Borich on "Rocky Mountain Way ''.
In 1990, Walsh played an eight - minute version in the Ringo Starr 's All Starr Band, starting with a slide arrangement of "Amazing Grace. ''
In October 19, 1991 Joe Walsh performed this song with Brian May, Steve Vai, Joe Satriani and Nuno Bettencourt at the Guitar Legends festival in Seville.
In 2004 it was sung by Walsh at Crossroads Guitar Festival and along with Eagles on their Farewell I Tour.
In 2010, "Rocky Mountain Way '' was one of three songs played during the encore each night during the Eagles ' Long Road Out of Eden Tour. The other two songs performed in the encore were "Desperado '' and "Take it Easy ''.
In 2012, "Rocky Mountain Way '' was the first of six songs performed live by Walsh in the Joe Walsh episode (episode 60) of Live from Daryl 's House, which also includes discussion of the song.
On May 24, 2016, Walsh performed "Rocky Mountain Way '' on the season 10 finale of the NBC reality television singing competition The Voice, along with contestant Laith Al - Saadi.
The Colorado Rockies Major League Baseball franchise has played the song after every home win at Coors Field since 1995.
In 1998, ABC Records wanted to use a classic rock song for Monday Night Football that year, so they asked Walsh to rewrite the lyrics to "Rocky Mountain Way '' for the quarterback John Elway of the Denver Broncos. "Rocky Mountain Elway '' was the new title of the song and Walsh appeared in a video that ABC Sports showed on the Monday Night Football.
The Denver Broncos currently play the Godsmack cover version of the song during home games at Sports Authority Field at Mile High.
In 2001 the song was used in the Tony Scott film Spy Game twice - at 19'18 '' (for 1 minute) to describe Vietnamese actions, and during final credits in full length.
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who has the record for most goals in a calendar year | Premier League records and Statistics - wikipedia
The top tier of English football was renamed the Premier League for the start of the 1992 -- 93 season. The following page details the football records and statistics of the Premier League.
This is a list of the top 10 youngest players to score a goal in the Premier League.
The all - time Premier League table is a cumulative record of all match results, points and goals of every team that has played in the Premier League since its inception in 1992. The table that follows is accurate as of the end of the 2017 -- 18 season. Teams in bold are part of the 2018 -- 19 Premier League. Numbers in bold are the record (highest either positive or negative) numbers in each column.
League or status at 2018 -- 19:
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what is the name of the cigarette holder | Cigarette holder - wikipedia
A cigarette holder is a fashion accessory, a slender tube in which a cigarette is held for smoking. Most frequently made of silver, jade or bakelite (popular in the past but now wholly replaced by modern plastics), cigarette holders were considered an essential part of ladies ' fashion from the early 1910s through the mid 1970s.
The holder was also used as a practical accessory, as before the advent of filtered cigarettes in the 1960s, the holder served several purposes. A holder kept tobacco flakes out of the smoker 's mouth, kept the thin cigarette paper from sticking and tearing on the smoker 's lips, prevented nicotine stains on fingers, cooled and mellowed the smoke and kept side - stream smoke from stinging the smoker 's eyes. Occasionally the holder would be built to encase a filter for taste and, later, for health reasons. Though modern cigarettes are generally manufactured with an existing filter, filtered cigarette holders are occasionally used as a secondary filtration system, and to prevent nicotine staining of the fingers.
Cigarette holders range from the simplest single material constructs to incredibly ornate styles with complex inlays of metal and gemstones. Rarer examples of these can be found in enamel, horn, tortoiseshell, or more precious materials such as amber and ivory.
A similar holder made of wood, meerschaum or bakelite and with an amber mouthpiece was used for cigars and was a popular accessory for men from the Edwardian period until the 1920s.
As with evening gloves, ladies ' cigarette holders are measured by four traditional formal standard lengths:
Traditionally, men 's cigarette holders were no more than 4 inches long.
Well - known women who used cigarette holders include Audrey Hepburn, Lucille Ball, Jayne Mansfield, Jacqueline Kennedy, Rita Hayworth, Princess Margaret, Wendy Richard, Madalena Barbosa, Natalie Wood, Louise Brooks, Cleo Trumbo and Ayn Rand. Scarlett Johansson is a contemporary example.
Among the best - known men who used cigarette holders were Franklin D. Roosevelt, Enrico Caruso, Vladimir Horowitz, Ian Fleming, Noël Coward, Hunter S. Thompson (though he regarded his as only a filter), Tennessee Williams, Fulgencio Batista, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Josip Broz Tito,, and Hans von Bülow.
Holders can be seen in period films like Titanic, and are immortalized in films of the 1950s and 1960s. Holly Golightly, the naïve and eccentric café society girl in the iconic 1961 classic Breakfast at Tiffany 's who is portrayed by Audrey Hepburn, is famously seen carrying an oversized cigarette holder; the image of Hepburn wearing the famous Givenchy little black dress, with the foot - long cigarette holder in her hand, is considered one of the most iconic images of 20th century American cinema. Lucille Ball can be seen using one in certain episodes of I Love Lucy. In Troop Beverly Hills Shelly Long 's character is seen throughout the movie using one. Cruella de Vil is seen using one repeatedly in the 1961 animated Disney film, One Hundred and One Dalmatians and in the 1996 remake portrayed by Glenn Close. Margo Lane (portrayed by Penelope Ann Miller) used one in The Shadow, as did Jade in Jonny Quest. Comedian Phyllis Diller had a stage persona which included holding a long cigarette holder from which she pretended to smoke (though she was a nonsmoker in real life).
Fictional Peter Pan character Captain Hook possessed a unique double - holder, which allowed him to smoke two cigars (not cigarettes) at once. Batman 's nemesis The Penguin also commonly uses a cigarette holder in the comics and the 1960s television series, as well as in the live - action film Batman Returns. Edna Mode from The Incredibles franchise is often seen with an unlit cigarette holder.
Johnny Depp uses a cigarette holder in his role as Raoul Duke (alter ego of gonzo journalist Hunter S. Thompson) in the film Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas. In cartoons, the Pink Panther, Colonel Sponsz from The Adventures of Tintin, and Jade from Jonny Quest use cigarette holders.
The lyrics to Satin Doll by Duke Ellington and the cover art of the album Badfinger feature a cigarette holder. The video to Into the Great Wide Open by Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers features Faye Dunaway using her cigarette holder as a magic wand.
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how did writers developed many of the features of the modern novel | History of Modern literature - wikipedia
The history of literature in the Modern period in Europe begins with the Age of Enlightenment and the conclusion of the Baroque period in the 18th century, succeeding the Renaissance and Early Modern periods.
In the classical literary cultures outside of Europe, the Modern period begins later, in Ottoman Turkey with the Tanzimat reforms (1820s), in Qajar Persia under Nasser al - Din Shah (1830s), in India with the end of the Mughal era and the establishment of the British Raj (1850s), in Japan with the Meiji restoration (1860s), and in China with the New Culture Movement (1910s).
The early 18th century sees the conclusion of the Baroque period and the incipient Age of Enlightenment with authors such as Immanuel Kant, Voltaire, Jean - Jacques Rousseau or Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. European cultural influence begins to spread to other continents, notably Edo period Japan, with notable authors of the period including Ueda Akinari and Santō Kyōden. Early American literature appears towards the end of the century, e.g. with The Power of Sympathy by William Hill Brown (1789). The late 18th century in Germany sees the beginning Romantic (Novalis) and Sturm und Drang (Goethe und Schiller) movements.
The 19th century was perhaps the most literary of all centuries, because not only were the forms of novel, short story and magazine serial all in existence side - by - side with theatre and opera, but since film, radio and television did not yet exist, the popularity of the written word and its direct enactment were at their height.
The romantic movement was well under way and along with it developed the splintering of fiction writing into genres and the rise of speculative fiction. There was a romantic tendency toward the exploration of folk traditions and old legends. In 1802 Sir Walter Scott published Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border. Amelia Opie, another romantic, was publishing poetry in the early 19th century and was an active anti-war campaigner. Anne Bannerman (1765 -- 1829) reworked legends of King Arthur and Merlin. William Blake worked in words and pictures to share his visions and mysticism. In 1807 Thomas Moore published Irish Melodies. Lord Byron produced many influential poems during this period. In 1808 Goethe published part one of Faust. In 1810 Sir Walter Scott published Lady of the Lake. Percy Shelley published a gothic novel: Zastrozzi. The term "Gothic '' had, by this time, come to mean a desire for a romantic return to the times before the renaissance. Percy Shelley also published a gothic novella: St. Irvyne in 1811.
North Americans who would later produce great literature were being born in the first third of the century. In 1803 the great American poet and essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson was born (May 25) in Boston and in 1804 Nathaniel Hawthorne. In 1807 Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and then Edgar Allan Poe in 1809. Phillipe - Ignace François Aubert du Gaspe, author of the first French Canadian novel was born in 1814 followed by Henry David Thoreau in 1817 and Herman Melville in 1819. Canadian poets Octave Crémazie and James McIntyre were both born in 1827. In 1830 was the birth of Emily Dickinson and, just over a third of the way through the century, in 1835 Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain) arrived in this world. Before all of them was Washington Irving, said to be the first American "Literary Lion '' and mentor to several other American writers. Washington Irving wrote "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow '' (a short story contained in his collection The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent.) while he was living in Birmingham, England and it was first published in 1819.
In 1807, Charles and Mary Lamb published Tales from Shakespeare, a simple retelling of some of Shakespeare 's plays in the form of little stories accessible to a child readership. Along with all the other genres born in the 19th century came the genre of Children 's literature.
In 1809 Schlegel published On Dramatic Art and Literature. Alfred, Lord Tennyson was born. Nikolai Gogol was born.
In 1811 Jane Austen published (anonymously) Sense and Sensibility
In 1812, George Crabbe published Tales in Verse. Byron published Childe Harold 's Pilgrimage Cantos I and II. Samuel Taylor Coleridge published Remorse. On February 7 Charles Dickens was born. On May 7 Robert Browning was born in London. On October 4, in London, Percy Shelley first met William Godwin (3 March 1756 - 7 April 1836), an English writer, husband of feminist writer Mary Wollstonecraft and father of Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin (who would eventually marry Shelley and become Mary Shelley).
In 1813, Jane Austen published (anonymously) Pride and Prejudice. Byron published The Giaour and The Bride of Abydos. January 23 Drury Lane reopened with Coleridge 's Remorse. In May Percy Shelley published his poem Queen Mab. In September Sir Walter Scott declined the offer of being made Poet Laureate, Robert Southey accepted the post. Wilhelm Richard Wagner born 22 May.
In 1814, Sir Walter Scott published Waverley. Jane Austen 's Mansfield Park was published anonymously. Robert Southey published Roderick, the Last of the Goths. An English translation of Dante 's Divine Comedy appeared. On July 28 Percy Shelley and Mary Godwin (Mary Shelley) eloped. Mikhail Lermontov was born.
In 1815, Jane Austen anonymously published Emma.
In 1816, Thomas Love Peacock published Headlong Hall. Coleridge published Christabel and Kubla Khan. E.T.A. Hoffmann published Undine. Mary Shelley and Percy Shelley went to Geneva and met Byron (with his physician John Polidori). At Byron 's villa they told ghost stories and invented the basic ideas which led eventually to Mary Shelley 's book Frankenstein and Polidori 's novel The Vampyre. Their stay at Byron 's villa was one of the most famous events in the Gothic / Romantic movement.
In 1817, John Keats published a volume of Poems. Sir Walter Scott published Harold the Dauntless. Byron published Manfred.
In 1818, Mary Shelley anonymously published Frankenstein which came to be known, eventually, as the first science fiction novel and the template for the mad scientist subgenre. Byron published Childe Harold Canto IV. John Keats published Endymion. Thomas Love Peacock published Rhododaphne and Nightmare Abbey. Jane Austen 's Northanger Abbey and Persuasion were published posthumously. Sir Walter Scott published Rob Roy. Ivan Turgenev was born.
In 1819, John Polidori published The Vampyre.
In 1820, John Keats published Lamia, Isabella and Hyperion. Percy Shelley published Prometheus Unbound. Elizabeth Barrett published The Battle of Marathon. Sir Walter Scott published Ivanhoe, The Abbot and The Monastery. James Catnach: Street Ballads. A gothic novel, Melmoth the Wanderer was published by Charles Robert Maturin.
In 1821, February 23: John Keats died. Percy Shelley published Adonais: An Elegy on the Death of John Keats and Epipsychidion. Byron published The Prophecy of Dante. Sir Walter Scott published Kenilworth. Fyodor Dostoevsky was born.
In 1822, Alexander Pushkin published Ruslan and Ludmila, his first poem. Thomas De Quincey published Confessions of an English Opium Eater. Percy Shelley published Hellas.
In 1823 Mary Shelley published Valperga. Byron published The Age of Bronze and The Island. Charles Lamb published Essays of Elia. Sir Walter Scott published Quentin Durward. An English translation of Jacob Grimm, Grimms ' Fairy Tales appeared.
In 1824, Sir Walter Scott published Redgauntlet. Byron died in Greece.
In 1826, Mary Shelley published The Last Man, a novel set in the 21st century.
In 1827, Alfred and Charles Tennyson Turner published Poems by Two Brothers. August 12: William Blake died.
In 1828, Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy was born 9 September.
In 1828, Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel died 11 January. Edgar Allan Poe published a poem: "Al Aaraaf ''.
In 1831, Sir Walter Scott published Castle Dangerous. Edgar Allan Poe published a poem: "The City in the Sea ''.
In 1832, Percy Shelley published his poem The Masque of Anarchy, a reaction to the Peterloo massacre. Johann Wolfgang Goethe published part II of Faust. On March 20 Goethe died. Jerrold Douglas published The Factory Girl, The Golden Calf and The Rent - Day.
In 1833, Alexander Pushkin published Eugene Onegin. Caroline Bowles published Tales of the Factories. Charles Lamb published The Last Essays of Elia.
In 1834, Frederick Marryat published Peter Simple and Jacob Faithful. Balzac published Le Pere Goriot. William Morris was born. On July 25 Samuel Taylor Coleridge died.
The first modern Arabic compilation of The Book of One Thousand and One Nights was published in Cairo.
In the mid-19th century magazines publishing short stories and serials began to be popular. Some of them were more respectable, while others were referred to by the derogatory name of penny dreadfuls. In 1844 Alexandre Dumas, père published a novel The Three Musketeers (Les Trois Mousquetaires) and wrote The Count of Monte Cristo which was published in installments over the next two years. William Makepeace Thackeray published The Luck of Barry Lyndon. In Britain Charles Dickens published several of his books in installments in magazines: The Pickwick Papers, followed, in the next few years, by Oliver Twist (1837 -- 1839), Nicholas Nickleby (1838 -- 1839), The Old Curiosity Shop (1840 -- 1841), Barnaby Rudge (1841), A Christmas Carol (1843) and Martin Chuzzlewit (1843 -- 1844). In America a version of the penny dreadful became popularly known as a dime novel. In the dime novels the reputations of gunfighters and other wild west heroes or villains were created or exaggerated. The western genre came into existence. James Fenimore Cooper began a series of stories featuring the characters Hawkeye and Chingachgook. These stories were not only "westerns '' but also historical novels, the earliest setting being approximately 100 years earlier than the year James Fenimore Cooper was writing it. The series was called the Leatherstocking Tales and comprised five volumes: The Deerslayer (1841), The Last of the Mohicans (1826), The Pathfinder (1840), The Pioneers (1823), The Prairie (1827).
In 1836, Nikolai Gogol published The Government Inspector
In 1837, Edgar Allan Poe published a poem: "The Conqueror Worm ''. Alexander Pushkin died of injuries sustained in a duel.
In 1838 Edgar Allan Poe published a short story: "Ligeia '' and a novel: The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket. Elizabeth Barrett published The Seraphim. Lady Charlotte Guest published Mabinogion, a collection of ancient Celtic stories from Wales.
In 1839 the Canadian writer Louis Fréchette was born. Edgar Allan Poe published three short stories: "William Wilson '', "The Devil in the Belfry '' and "The Fall of the House of Usher ''.
In 1840 the Westcountry author Thomas Hardy was born. Mikhail Lermontov published A Hero of Our Time
In 1841 Phillipe - Ignace François Aubert de Gaspé died. Edgar Allan Poe published two short stories: "A Descent into the Maelström '' and "The Murders in the Rue Morgue ''. The latter introduced the fictional detective C. Auguste Dupin. Mikhail Lermontov was killed in a duel.
In 1842, Nikolai Gogol published Dead Souls.
In 1843 the transatlantic author Henry James was born. Edgar Allan Poe published a poem: "Lenore '' and four short stories: "The Gold - Bug '', "The Black Cat '', "The Tell - Tale Heart '' and a C. Auguste Dupin short story called "The Mystery of Marie Roget ''.
In 1844, Edgar Allan Poe published several works: "The Spectacles '', "The Balloon - Hoax '' and his final Dupin story "The Purloined Letter ''.
In 1845, Edgar Allan Poe published his poem "The Raven '' and a short story "The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar ''. August Wilhelm von Schlegel died 12 May.
In 1846, Elizabeth Barrett married Robert Browning. Charlotte, Emily, and Anne Brontë published Poems by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell. Edward Lear published his Book of Nonsense. Fyodor Dostoevsky published Poor Folk.
In 1847, Anne Brontë published Agnes Grey, Emily Brontë published Wuthering Heights, and Charlotte Brontë published Jane Eyre. Rymer published Varney the Vampire; or, the Feast of Blood. Edgar Allan Poe published the poem "Ulalume ''.
In 1848, William Makepeace Thackeray 's novel, Vanity Fair was published. Elizabeth Gaskell published Mary Barton. Anne Brontë published The Tenant of Wildfell Hall. Grant Allen was born. Edgar Allan Poe published a book - length essay he called a prose poem: Eureka: A Prose Poem.
In 1849, both Anne Brontë and Edgar Allan Poe died. Poe 's poems "Annabel Lee '' and "The Bells '' were published posthumously. Dostoyevski published Netochka Nezvanova. The poet Emma Lazarus was born 22 July in New York City.
Between 1849 and 1861, Charles Dickens ' prolific creative outpouring gave us David Copperfield (1849 -- 1850), Bleak House (1852 -- 1853), Hard Times (1854), Little Dorrit (1855 -- 1857), A Tale of Two Cities (11 July 1859) and Great Expectations (1860 -- 1861).
In 1850, Alfred Lord Tennyson became Poet Laureate and Robert Louis Stevenson was born 13 November.
In 1851, Sheridan Le Fanu published Ghost Stories and Tales of Mystery, Herman Melville published Moby - Dick and James Fenimore Cooper died 14 September.
In 1852, Ivan Turgenev published A Sportsman 's Sketches. Leo Tolstoy published Childhood.
In 1854, Oscar Wilde was born 16 October.
In 1859 George Eliot published her first novel Adam Bede. Dostoyevsky published The Village of Stepanchikovo (or The Friend of the Family). Arthur Conan Doyle was born 22 May; Knut Hamsun was born 4 August; and Washington Irving died 28 November.
1860 Anton Pavlovich Chekhov (Анто́н Па́влович Че́хов) was born 29 January.
In 1861 Robert Goldsmith died. Bliss Carman was born. E. Pauline Johnson was born. Fyodor Dostoevsky published Humiliated and Insulted.
In 1862 Victor Hugo published Les Misérables. Ivan Turgenev published Fathers and Sons. Henry David Thoreau died. Edith Wharton was born. Dostoyevsky published The House of the Dead and A Nasty Story. Christina Rossetti published Goblin Market and Other Poems.
In 1863 Jules Verne published Cinq semaines en ballon (Five Weeks in a Balloon). (Verne 's Paris au XXe siècle (Paris in the 20th Century) was written, but was not published until 1994). Voyage au centre de la Terre (Journey to the Center of the Earth) came out in 1864 and De la Terre à la Lune (From the Earth to the Moon) in 1865. Verne had by then fully established the "scientific romance '' as a genre. Charles Dickens published Our Mutual Friend in installments from 1864 to 1865. Literature by this time was becoming increasingly popular. Well - educated European and North American middle - classes read more than ever before. At the same time authors tended toward plainer language and more broadly understood themes. People read about detectives, ghosts, machines, wonders, adventures, tricky situations, unusual turns of fate and romances. Love stories and grudges, explorations and wars, ideas based on scientific positivism and ideas based on nonsense and gibberish were all being published and enjoyed by a readership which could now be termed "the masses ''.
In 1864 Nathaniel Hawthorne died. Dostoyevski published Notes from Underground (or Letters from the Underworld). Dostoyevski 's concerns and style were singularly original and allow the reader entry to a claustrophobic interior world of the psyche. It is probably correct to describe Dostoyevski as the first Existentialist author.
In 1865 Lewis Carroll published Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland, combining social satire with nonsense writing and presenting the two of them in the guise of a children 's story. Thomas Chandler Haliburton died. Edith Maude Eaton was born.
1866 Dostoyevsky published Crime and Punishment, followed by The Gambler (1867). Mark Twain published The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County.
Jules Verne published Les enfants du Capitaine Grant (In Search of the Castaways) 1867 -- 1868 and Vingt mille lieues sous les mers (Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea) in 1870.
In 1868 Dostoyevsky published The Idiot dedicated to Ivanov Dumitru.
In 1869 Leo Tolstoy published War and Peace. Mark Twain published Innocents Abroad. Matthew Arnold set a cultural agenda in his book Culture and Anarchy. His views represented one of two polar opposites which would be in struggle against each other for many years to come. The other side of the struggle would be represented by the Aesthetic, Symbolist or Decadent movement. The chief participants in the cultural opposition at this time included, on the so - called decadent side French poets like Jean Moréas, Paul Verlaine, Tristan Corbière, Arthur Rimbaud, Charles Baudelaire, Stéphane Mallarmé and, in Britain, the Irish writer Oscar Wilde. On the other side were Matthew Arnold, John Ruskin and the tendency amongst the arts toward a utilitarian, constructive and educational ethic. The views of Matthew Arnold and John Ruskin inspired the Arts and Crafts movement and William Morris. This dispute (art for art 's sake versus art for the common good) would continue throughout the remainder of the 19th century and much of the 20th.
The Decadent movement was a transitional stage between romanticism and modernism.
In 1870 Charles Dickens died aged 58. Before his death he was working on The Mystery of Edwin Drood (published unfinished). John McCrae was born. Hilaire Belloc was born (27 July).
In 1872 Dostoevsky published The Possessed (or Demons or The Devils). Lewis Carroll published Through the Looking - Glass and what Alice Found There. Samuel Butler published Erewhon, an early science fiction novel. Jules Verne published Le tour du monde en quatre - vingt jours (Around the World in Eighty Days).
In 1873 Alfred Jarry was born (8 September).
In 1874 Jules Verne published L'île mystérieuse (The Mysterious Island).
In 1875 Carmen, a French opera by Georges Bizet, with text by Henri Meilhac and Ludovic Halévy, reached the stage. Dostoevsky published The Raw Youth (or The Adolescent).
In 1876 Lewis Carroll published The Hunting of the Snark. Mark Twain published The Adventures of Tom Sawyer.
In 1877 Leo Tolstoy published Anna Karenina.
In 1878 Gilbert and Sullivan 's operetta HMS Pinafore, or, The Lass That Loved a Sailor was staged.
In 1879 Octave Crémazie died. Gilbert and Sullivan 's operetta The Pirates of Penzance, or, The Slave of Duty was staged.
In 1880 Dostoevsky published The Brothers Karamazov. Norwegian writer Knut Hamsun published Hunger.
In 1881 Dostoevsky died. Oscar Wilde published his first book of poems. Gilbert and Sullivan 's operetta Patience, or, Bunthorne 's Bride was staged. Mark Twain published The Prince and the Pauper.
In 1882 Gilbert and Sullivan 's operetta Iolanthe, or, The Peer and the Peri was staged. Ralph Waldo Emerson died. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow died.
In 1883 Wilhelm Richard Wagner died 13 February. Franz Kafka was born 3 July. Ivan Turgenev died 3 September.
In 1884 Mark Twain published The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.
Gilbert and Sullivan 's operettas Princess Ida, or, Castle Adamant (1884) and The Mikado, or, The Town of Titipu (1885) arrive on the London stage.
In 1885 H. Rider Haggard published King Solomon 's Mines.
In 1886 Emily Dickinson died. Leo Tolstoy published The Death of Ivan Ilyich.
In 1887 Oscar Wilde published The Canterville Ghost. Gilbert and Sullivan 's operetta Ruddigore, or, The Witch 's Curse was staged. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle published A Study in Scarlet, the first Sherlock Holmes story and the beginning of crime fiction as a genre. H. Rider Haggard published She first serialized in The Graphic from October 1886 to January 1887.
In 1888 Oscar Wilde published The Happy Prince and Other Stories. Gilbert and Sullivan 's operetta The Yeomen of the Guard, or, The Merryman and his Maid was staged.
Gilbert and Sullivan 's operettas The Gondoliers, or, The King of Barataria (1889), Utopia, Limited, or, The Flowers of Progress (1893) and The Grand Duke, or, The Statutory Duel (1896) were all staged.
Lewis Carroll 's last novel, the two - volume Sylvie and Bruno, was published in 1889 and 1893 respectively. In 1889 Oscar Wilde published The Portrait of Mr. W.H..
In 1890 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle published The Sign of the Four. H. Rider Haggard published The Saga of Eric Brighteyes an epic viking novel. Oscar Wilde published The Picture of Dorian Gray.
In 1891 Herman Melville died. Oscar Wilde published Lord Arthur Savile 's Crime and Other Stories, Intentions and House of Pomegranates.
In 1892 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle published The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes.
In 1893 Oscar Wilde staged two plays: Salomé (French version) and Lady Windermere 's Fan. His A Woman of No Importance and the English version of Salomé followed in 1894.
In 1894 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle published The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes. Robert Louis Stevenson died 3 December. Mark Twain published Tom Sawyer Abroad and Pudd'n'head Wilson.
Oscar Wilde was in prison for "gross indecency '' from 1895 to 1897.
In 1896 Giacomo Puccini 's opera La Bohème was staged, as was Chekov 's play The Seagull. H.G. Wells published The Time Machine and The Island of Dr. Moreau. William Morris died 3 October. Mark Twain published Tom Sawyer, Detective. Alfred Jarry, only 23 years old, wrote his highly influential play Ubu Roi, which is often cited as a forerunner to the Theatre of the Absurd.
In 1897 Bram Stoker published Dracula. H.G. Wells published The Invisible Man.
In 1898 Henry James published The Turn of the Screw. H.G. Wells publishes The War of the Worlds. Oscar Wilde published The Ballad of Reading Gaol.
In 1899 Chekov 's play Uncle Vanya was staged. Mark Twain published A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur 's Court. H.G. Wells published When The Sleeper Wakes. Grant Allen died. Oscar Wilde staged his plays The Importance of Being Earnest and An Ideal Husband one year before his death in 1900.
When the 19th century ended the genres of horror, ghost stories, westerns, children 's literature, crime fiction, science fiction, historical novels and fantasy had all been established.
See also: List of years in literature:
1800s - 1810s - 1820s - 1830s - 1840s - 1850s - 1860s - 1870s - 1880s - 1890s - 1900s -
Modernist poetry is a mode of writing characterised by technical innovation in the mode of versification (sometimes referred to as free verse) and by the dislocation of the ' I ' of the poet as a means of subverting the notion of an unproblematic poetic ' self ' directly addressing an equally unproblematic ideal reader or audience. In English, it is generally considered to have emerged in the early years of the 20th century.
These two facets of modernist poetry are intimately connected with each other. The dislocation of the authorial presence is achieved through the application of such techniques as collage, found poetry, visual poetry, the juxtaposition of apparently unconnected materials, etc. In the best examples of modernist writing, these techniques are used not for their own sake but to open up questions in the mind of the reader.
Modernist poetry in English is often viewed as an American phenomenon in origin, with leading exponents including Ezra Pound, T.S. Eliot, Marianne Moore, William Carlos Williams, H.D., and Louis Zukofsky, but there were a number of important British modernist poets, including David Jones, Hugh MacDiarmid, Mina Loy, and Basil Bunting.
The influence of modernism can be seen in such later poetic groups and movements as the Objectivists, the Beat generation, the Black Mountain poets, the deep image group, the L = A = N = G = U = A = G = E poets and the British Poetry Revival. -_-
The Modernist form of prose began from the styles of writing popular in the mid-to - late 19th century: The nonsense books of Edward Lear and Lewis Carroll were one influence. Another was the dark gothic brooding of Mary Shelley, Bram Stoker, Edgar Allan Poe and Dostoyevski. These tendencies toward rebellious nonsense and morose introspection were, to some extent, reactions against the science and positivism of the Victorian era mindset. At the same time, however, science continued to influence writers to adopt a spirit there are three parts of this book like hi and by experimentalism.
In 1902 Joseph Conrad published Heart of Darkness, which threw representations of civilised society into sharp contrast with representations of the jungle and played both of them in relation to the human heart and soul.
In the first half of the 20th century writers such as Franz Kafka and James Joyce experimented with dislocations of conventional wisdom in their creations of distorted characters, locations and narrative styles. Literary experiments in form, matching those taking place in modernist painting and sculpture of the same period, challenged the reader to re-examine and deconstruct preconceptions about the world. Bertholt Brecht created modernist theatrical productions according to his theory of the alienation effect which was supposed to make the audience think and feel in new and critical ways by removing comfortable assumptions and not permitting the narrative to appear too much like reality.
Hypertext fiction is a genre of electronic literature, characterized by the use of hypertext links which provide a new context for non-linearity in literature and reader interaction. (1) The reader typically chooses links to move from one node of text to the next, and in this fashion arranges a story from a deeper pool of potential stories. Its spirit can also be seen in interactive fiction.
The term can also be used to describe traditionally - published books in which a nonlinear narrative and interactive narrative is achieved through internal references. James Joyce 's Ulysses (1922), Mark Z. Danielewski 's House of Leaves (2000), Enrique Jardiel Poncela 's La Tournée de Dios (1932), Jorge Luis Borges ' The Garden of Forking Paths (1941), Vladimir Nabokov 's Pale Fire (1962) and Julio Cortázar 's Rayuela (1963; translated as Hopscotch) are early examples predating the word "hypertext '', while a common pop - culture example is the Choose Your Own Adventure series in young adult fiction and other similar gamebooks. The Garden of Forking Paths is both a hypertext story and a description of a fictional hypertext work.
Argentine literature, Literature of Canada, Category: Colombian literature, Mexican literature
See Australian literature, New Zealand literature
1900s - 1910s - 1920s - 1930s - 1940s - 1950s - 1960s - 1970s - 1980s - 1990s - 2000s
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who sang the song take me to church | Take Me to Church - wikipedia
"Take Me to Church '' is a song by Irish musician Hozier from his debut extended play (EP) Take Me to Church (2013) -- -- originally released as a free download in September 2013, featuring original recordings & mixes of songs "Take Me To Church, '' "Like Real People Do, '' "Angel Of Small Death And The Codeine Scene, '' and "Cherry Wine '' -- -- as well as his later self - titled debut album (2014). The song was released as his debut single September 13, 2013. Hozier, a struggling musician at the time of its writing, wrote & recorded the song in the attic of his parents ' home in Bray, County Wicklow, Ireland. A mid-tempo soul song, its lyrics detail Hozier 's frustration with the Catholic Church and its stance on homosexuality. The song first caught the attention of independent label Rubyworks, where producer Rob Kirwan overdubbed the original demo with live instruments. Only two musicians feature on the track: Andrew Hozier - Byrne (Hozier) and drummer Fiachra Kinder.
The song 's music video has contributed to its widespread popularity. The clip, directed by Brendan Canty and Conal Thomson of small production company Feel Good Lost, follows the relationship between two men and the subsequent violent homophobic backlash. Upon its YouTube release in September 2013, the video quickly began to go viral, leading to Hozier 's subsequent license with Columbia Records US and Island Records UK.
In 2014, the song achieved widespread global popularity, topping the charts in 12 countries and reaching the top 10 in 21 other territories. Aided by music platforms Shazam and Spotify to become a rock radio hit in the US, the song spent 23 consecutive weeks at the top of the Hot Rock Songs chart, tied with Imagine Dragons ' "Radioactive '' as the longest - running # 1 in its chart - history (at the time), later crossing over to the all - genre Billboard Hot 100, where it peaked at # 2 in December 2014. The song was nominated for the Grammy Award for Song of the Year at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards. The song has been certified five times platinum in the US.
April 16, 2016, Hozier released the original Take Me To Church EP on special edition 12 - inch vinyl picture disc for Record Store Day UK; this was the first time the EP was available as a physical release.
In 2013, Hozier was a struggling musician, often seen in Dublin - area open mic nights. During this period, he penned "Take Me to Church '' at his parents ' home in Bray, County Wicklow, Ireland, and recorded a rough demo in their attic with a programmed backing track. He wrote the song after a bad breakup. "The vocals were recorded in my attic at 2 o'clock in the morning. So it 's a real homemade job '', he later remarked.
It caught the attention of independent label Rubyworks, who paired him with producer Rob Kirwan. The song was overdubbed with live instrumentation, but the original demo vocals remained, as Kirwan found them "powerful '' enough to remain.
Lyrically, "Take Me to Church '' is a metaphor, with the protagonist comparing his lover to religion. The song grew out of Hozier 's frustration with the Catholic Church 's teachings which, although he himself was raised in the Protestant Quaker faith, dominated the social and political outlook of the Irish state. "Growing up, I always saw the hypocrisy of the Catholic church '', Hozier said in an interview with Rolling Stone. "The history speaks for itself and I grew incredibly frustrated and angry. I essentially just put that into my words. ''
In an interview with The Irish Times, Hozier stated,
I found the experience of falling in love or being in love was a death, a death of everything. You kind of watch yourself die in a wonderful way, and you experience for the briefest moment -- if you see yourself for a moment through their eyes -- everything you believed about yourself gone. In a death - and - rebirth sense.
In an interview with New York magazine, he elaborated:
Sexuality, and sexual orientation -- regardless of orientation -- is just natural. An act of sex is one of the most human things. But an organization like the church, say, through its doctrine, would undermine humanity by successfully teaching shame about sexual orientation -- that it is sinful, or that it offends God. The song is about asserting yourself and reclaiming your humanity through an act of love.
The song draws inspiration from atheist author Christopher Hitchens and paraphrases the poet Fulke Greville 's verse "Created sick, commanded to be sound. ''
The song rose in prominence alongside its viral music video, attracting A&R representatives from major labels in a bidding war to sign Hozier. He was signed by Justin Eshak of Columbia Records, who later opined that the song became a hit due to a shift on pop radio, spearheaded by Sam Smith: "The music is connecting because when it gets on the air it 's such a sharp juxtaposition to the existing material on top 40 radio. '' The song first experienced chart success in his native Ireland, climbing the charts in October 2013 and eventually reached number 2 on Irish Singles Chart.
In May 2014, Hozier performed the song on the Late Show with David Letterman. It was sent to US modern rock radio on 24 June 2014 by Columbia Records. It eventually reached number 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 for three consecutive weeks in December 2014 and January 2015, behind Taylor Swift 's "Blank Space '', while becoming his first top - five single there. As of July 2015, the song has sold 4,270,000 copies in the US. The track has since reached top 5 in many other countries including peaking at number 2 in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.
The song initially attracted US attention in Nashville via an adult album alternative radio station. From there, it became the top song for the area on music identification application Shazam, which led to its appearance on a local top 40 station. "Take Me to Church '' achieved widespread popularity in the United States between the summer and fall of 2014.
Despite the song 's popularity on YouTube, the song achieved more listens on Spotify, becoming the service 's most - streamed song of 2014, achieving 87 million listens.
The concept for the "Take Me to Church '' music video was the result of a collaboration between Hozier, Brendan Canty and his writing partner Emmet O'Brien. It was directed by Brendan Canty and Conal Thomson of Feel Good Lost and was released on 25 September 2013. The video, shot in grayscale on location at Inniscarra Dam in Cork, Ireland, follows a same - sex relationship and the violently homophobic backlash that ensues when the community learns of one of the men 's sexuality. The song went viral following its release. "I remember someone texting me to say it was getting 10,000 views an hour '', he recalled. The song achieved 230,000 YouTube views within two weeks.
Hozier stated, "The song was always about humanity at its most natural, and how that is undermined ceaselessly by religious organizations and those who would have us believe they act in its interests. What has been seen growing in Russia is no less than nightmarish. I proposed bringing these themes into the story and Brendan liked the idea. ''
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Since May 2013, RIAA certifications for digital singles include on - demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads.
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when does ex on the beach series 7 start | Ex on the beach (series 7) - wikipedia
The seventh series of Ex on the Beach, a British television programme is expected to begin on 20 June 2017 on MTV. The series was confirmed on 26 February 2017. The group of cast for this series include Geordie Shore stars Chloe Ferry and Marty McKenna, Love Island contestants Max Morley and Josh Ritchie, as well as Beauty School Cop Outs cast member Savannah Kemplay. Star of series five David Hawley also featured in this series. Marty and Josh had also previously appeared in the third and sixth series of the show respectively.
The official list of cast members were released on 23 May 2017. They include four boys; Dean Ralph, Jordan Wright, Marty McKenna and Max Morley, and four girls: Che McSorley, Fatima Rull, Nicole Dutt and Savannah Kemplay. Marty has previously appeared in the third series of the show as well as featuring as a cast member on Geordie Shore, whereas Max won the first series of Love Island. Savannah also previously appeared in Beauty School Cop Outs. With the announcement of the line - up it was also confirmed that Marty 's fellow Geordie Shore star Chloe Ferry would be arriving on the beach as an ex as well as Josh Ritchie, who is returning from the sixth series of the show. He also appeared alongside Max on Love Island. Star of the fifth series David Hawley will also be returning to the series.
All original cast members arrived at the beach during the first episode and were immediately told to prepare for the arrival of their exes. Lee Moran became the first ex to turn up on the beach looking to get revenge on his ex-girlfriend Che, whilst Geordie Shore s Chloe Ferry also arrived as the ex-girlfriend of Marty hoping to win him back. Nicole was removed from the villa during the second episode after a violent altercation with Fatima, just missing out on Brad 's arrival, her ex-boyfriend who also arrived during this episode. The third episode featured the debut of Georgia Crone, the ex-girlfriend of Max who arrived with a score to settle. Stevie Colley was the fifth ex to arrive, making her debut in episode five. She was the ex-girlfriend of Dean, who arrived wanting to potentially rekindle things. The fifth episode included the arrival of Chloe 's ex-boyfriend Sam Scott. Che 's twin sister Leonie McSorley also debuted during this episode despite not having an ex in the villa. During the sixth episode, Sydney Longmuir became the next human wrecking ball to arrive on the beach. She arrived as Jordan 's ex-girlfriend wanting painful revenge. Georgia 's next ex-boyfriend John Speed turned up during the seventh episode in a bid to win her back, and Brad was sent home after the Tablet of Terror gave her the option to send one of the boys home. Star of series 5, David Hawley returned to the beach during the eighth episode as the ex-boyfriend of Fatima, whilst Marty was given the option to send one couple home. He chose Jordan and Sydney. Sam Reece made his debut during the ninth episode where he arrived determined to get revenge on his ex-one night stand Georgia. The final ex to enter the villa was Love Island contestant and star of series 6, Josh Ritchie, the ex of both Che and Georgia. The Tablet of Terror also delivered its final blow to the cast, forcing Georgia to send one boy back into the sea. She chose Sam Reece.
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who wrote the perks of being a wallflower | The Perks of Being a Wallflower - wikipedia
The Perks of Being a Wallflower is a coming - of - age epistolary novel by American writer Stephen Chbosky which was first published on February 1, 1999, by Pocket Books. Set in the early 1990s, the novel follows Charlie, an introverted teenager, through his freshman year of high school in a Pittsburgh suburb. The novel details Charlie 's unconventional style of thinking as he navigates between the worlds of adolescence and adulthood, and attempts to deal with poignant questions spurred by his interactions with both his friends and family.
Chbosky took five years to develop and publish The Perks of Being a Wallflower, creating the characters and other aspects of the story from his own memories. The novel addresses themes permeating adolescence, including introversion, sexuality, drug use, and mental health, while also making several references to other literary works, films, and pop culture in general. Because of the mentioned themes, it was banned in some American schools for its content.
In 2012, he adapted and directed a film version starring Logan Lerman, Ezra Miller and Emma Watson. The film boosted the novel 's sales, and the book reached The New York Times Best Seller list.
In parallel, Charlie witnesses his sister 's boyfriend hit her across the face, but she forbids him from telling their parents. He eventually mentions the occurrence to Bill, who tells Charlie 's parents about it. Charlie 's relationship with his sister rapidly deteriorates and she continues to see her boyfriend against her parents ' wishes. Eventually, he discovers that his sister is pregnant and agrees to bring her to an abortion clinic without telling anyone. His sister breaks up with her boyfriend, after which her and Charlie 's relationship begins to improve significantly.
Charlie is accepted by Sam and Patrick 's group of friends and begins experimenting with tobacco, alcohol and other drugs. At a party Charlie trips on LSD. He can not control his flashbacks of Aunt Helen, who died in a car crash on her way to buy him a birthday gift. He ends up in the hospital after falling asleep in the snow. At a Rocky Horror Picture Show performance, Charlie is asked to fill in as Rocky for Sam 's boyfriend Craig, who is unavailable. Their friend Mary Elizabeth is impressed and asks Charlie to the Sadie Hawkins dance and they enter into a desultory relationship. The relationship ends, however, during a game of truth or dare when Charlie is dared to kiss the prettiest girl in the room. He kisses Sam, and Mary Elizabeth storms out of the room in response. Following this, Patrick suggests that Charlie stay away from Sam for a while, and the rest of the friend group shuns him. His flashbacks of Aunt Helen return.
Patrick and Brad 's relationship is discovered by Brad 's abusive father, and Brad disappears from school for a few days. Upon returning, Brad is cold and mean towards Patrick, while Patrick attempts to reconnect with him. However, when Brad derogatorily attacks Patrick 's sexuality in public, Patrick physically attacks Brad until other football players join in and gang up on Patrick. Charlie joins in the fight to help Patrick, and breaks it up, regaining the respect of Sam and her friends. Patrick begins spending much of his time with Charlie and Patrick kisses Charlie impulsively and then apologizes, but Charlie understands that he is recovering from his romance with Brad. Soon Patrick sees Brad engaging with a stranger in the park and Patrick is able to move on from the relationship.
As the school year ends, Charlie is anxious about losing his older friends -- especially Sam, who is leaving for a summer college - preparatory program and has learned that her boyfriend cheated on her. When Charlie helps her pack, they talk about his feelings for her; she is angry that he never acted on them. They begin to engage sexually, but Charlie suddenly grows inexplicably uncomfortable and stops Sam. Charlie begins to realize that his sexual contact with Sam has stirred up repressed memories of him being molested by his Aunt Helen as a little boy. Charlie shows signs of PTSD from the incident and the revelation of his abuse helps the reader understand his view of relationships and love.
In an epilogue, Charlie is discovered by his parents in a catatonic state and does not show any movement despite being hit reluctantly by his father. After being admitted to a mental hospital, it is revealed that Helen actually sexually abused him when he was young, and his love for her (and empathy for her troubled youth) caused him to repress his traumatic memories. This psychological damage explains his flashbacks and derealization phases throughout the book. In two months Charlie is released, and Sam and Patrick visit him. In the epilogue, Sam, Patrick and Charlie go through the tunnel again and Charlie stands up and exclaims that he felt infinite.
Charlie eventually comes to terms with his past: "Even if we do n't have the power to choose where we come from, we can still choose where we go from there ''. Charlie decides to "participate '' in life, and his letter - writing ends.
Chbosky incorporated both fictional ideas and personal experiences to the novel. After five years with these elements in mind, he had the idea of writing the novel during a difficult period in his life. He was experiencing an unpleasant breakup of his own, which led him to ask, "Why good people let themselves get treated so badly? '' The author tried to answer the question with the sentence "we accept the love we think we deserve ''. This quoted references the struggle of finding self love, encompassing one 's life and hope for the future, and not just romantic love.
The story began when Chbosky was in school, evolving from another book on which he was working. In that book he wrote the sentence, "I guess that 's just one of the perks of being a wallflower '', which led him to realize "that somewhere in that... was the kid I was really trying to find. '' Chbosky began writing the novel in the summer of 1996 while he was in college, and within ten weeks he completed the story. He rewrote it into two more drafts, concluding the published version in the summer of 1998.
Charlie was loosely based on Chbosky himself. In the novel, Chbosky included much of his own memories from the time he lived in Pittsburgh. The other characters were manifestations of people Chbosky had known throughout his life; Chbosky focused on people 's struggles and what they are passionate about, attempting to pin down the very nature of each of the characters The characters of Sam and Patrick were an "amalgamate and celebration '' of several people Chbosky has met; Sam was based on girls who confided in him, and Patrick was "all the kids I knew who were gay and finding their way to their own identity. ''
The idea of anonymous letters came from a real experience; during his senior year in high school, Chbosky wrote an anonymous letter to Stewart Stern about how Rebel Without a Cause had influenced him. A year and a half later, Stern found Chbosky and became his mentor. By using a series of letters from Charlie to an anonymous character, Chbosky found "the most intimate way '' to talk directly to the reader. He thought the letters would help him keep the story cohesive, "to convey the highs and lows of being young -- one day, you 're on top of the world and you 've had the greatest of times ''.
Read by all ages, The Perks of Being a Wallflower is targeted at a teenage audience. The book addresses a range of themes dispassionately. These themes include drugs, friendship, body image, first love, suicide, eating disorders and sexuality. Chbosky appreciates the importance of entertainment in adolescence: "Books, songs, and movies are more than entertainment when we 're young. They help all of us discover who we are, what we believe, and what we hope our life can be. '' As such, the book contains several cultural references across all mediums: musically the book references The Smiths and Fleetwood Mac, literarily the book references This Side of Paradise, On the Road, To Kill a Mockingbird and theatrically the book references The Rocky Horror Picture Show.
The Perks of Being a Wallflower was first published on February 1, 1999 by Pocket Books through its MTV Books imprint. It became the subsidiary 's best - selling book with 100,000 copies in print as of 2000, and was included on school reading lists and gathered a cult following. By 2012, the novel had been published in 16 countries in 13 languages, and that same year it placed at number 16 on NPR 's list of the "100 Best - Ever Teen Novels ''.
Critics have identified primary themes of teenage reality and nostalgia. According to David Edelstein of the New York Magazine, Chbosky captures the "feeling you belong when among friends, yet you 'd soon be alone '' and notes that "the pain of loss... (is) almost as intense as the bliss... it 's nostalgia with an emphasis on nostos, pain (sic). '' Marty Beckerman of Word Riot said that The Perks of Being a Wallflower connects with young people because its scenes are "so universal and happen to so many teenagers. '' Chbosky wanted to convey respect for teenagers, to "validate and respect and celebrate what (teenagers) are going through every day '', and said the novel is for "anyone who 's felt like an outcast. ''
Critical response was mixed; Publishers Weekly called the novel "trite '', dealing with "standard teenage issues '' in which "Chbosky infuses a droning insistence on Charlie 's supersensitive disposition. '' Although Kirkus Review said it had "the right combination of realism and uplift '', the reviewer criticized Chbosky 's "rip - off '' of J.D. Salinger 's The Catcher in the Rye. Although other reviewers made similar comparisons, Chbosky said he "was not trying to mimic (Salinger 's) style as a writer ''; he saw "how readers could compare Charlie to Salinger 's Holden Caulfield '', but "they are very different people with unique problems and perspectives ''. More positive was Francisca Goldsmith of the School Library Journal, who said the novel "cleverly '' makes the readers the recipients of Charlie 's letters, and it "will engage teen readers for years to come. '' Common Sense Media 's Kate Pavao praised its relevant themes for teenagers: "Readers will find themselves quickly feeling sorry for the protagonist and worrying about him throughout his transformative journey. '' For The A.V. Club, Marah Eakin wrote that although for an adult "Perks suffers from an overabundance of pure, raw angst... unlike some more arrested development - friendly young adult fare like Harry Potter, Perks speaks to a more specific age range and does it well. ''
The Perks of Being a Wallflower has appeared six times on the American Library Association 's list of 10 most - frequently - challenged books for its content. A Wisconsin school board refused to ban the book, angering local parents. The Glen Ellyn District 41 school board in suburban Chicago unanimously voted to reinstate the novel after it was removed from eighth - grade classrooms at Hadley Junior High School because of a parent 's objection to its sexual content. Further objections to the book include the use of "profanity '', "drug abuse '', "sexually explicit '' scenes, and "torture ''. Groups like PABBIS (Parents Against Bad Books in School) work to restrict literature considered "controversial '' from being accessed by younger children. The group believes these "bad books '' should be moved to the adult section. In 2009, Perks was repeatedly challenged for descriptions of masturbation, sexually explicit conduct, drug use, and talk of suicide and there have been multiple pushes across the United States to move this literary work from the children and young adults section to the adult section. Parents have raised issues with the novel for its "pornographic '' content and "vulgarity '', but others have argued that the book deals with real and common teen issues concerned with growing up, so it presents a truthful viewpoint. Issues are also raised surrounding the books themes of homosexuality, as well as a "glorification '' of the use of drugs and alcohol. In an interview, Chbosky said that he knew of two school boards which have banned the book (in Massachusetts and on Long Island). Since he "did n't write it to be a controversial book, '' he was "surprised '' by the bans.
Since he wrote The Perks of Being a Wallflower, Chbosky aspired to adapt it into a film, calling this "a lifelong dream of mine ''. After the publication of the novel, the author said he received film offers, refusing them because he "owed the fans a movie that was worthy of their love for the book ''. In 2010 Mr. Mudd began developing a film version, and the author was signed to write and direct the film by producers John Malkovich, Lianne Halfon and Russell Smith. The film, shot in the Pittsburgh area from May 9 to June 29, 2011, starred Logan Lerman as Charlie, Emma Watson as Sam, Ezra Miller as Patrick, and Nina Dobrev as Charlie 's sister, Candace.
With the announcement of a film adaptation, the novel received more attention; it sales increased from 88,847 copies in 2011 to 425,933 in 2012, and it reached the New York Times bestseller lists. It entered the Children 's Paperback Books category on the June 23, 2012 list, and had 1.5 million copies in print in November 2012. As of May 11, 2014 it appeared on The New York Times top 10 list for the 71st non-consecutive week, and was in the top 15 on the November 23 list.
It premiered on September 8, 2012 at the Toronto International Film Festival, and was released theatrically in the United States by Summit Entertainment on September 21. According to Metacritic it has received "generally favorable reviews '', with an average of 67 out of 100 based on 36 reviews. Rotten Tomatoes reported an 85 % approval rate, based on 151 reviews. The film grossed over $33 million worldwide from a $13 million production budget.
Even though the movie was directed and scripted by the author himself, some scenes were omitted from the film adaptation. In the book, Charlie 's parents are notified by Bill that Candace is being abused by her boyfriend, to which his parents take direct intervention in the abusive relationship in the book. In addition, Candace gets pregnant by her abusive boyfriend and is accompanied by Charlie to the abortion clinic, a scene that is also omitted from the movie. In addition, one of the more important pieces of the book, the poem, was also one of the many deleted scenes. In the DVD, there is a special features section to watch scenes that were originally deleted from the movie.
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who lived in the tower of london in the middle ages | Tower of London - wikipedia
Coordinates: 51 ° 30 ′ 29 '' N 00 ° 04 ′ 34 '' W / 51.50806 ° N 0.07611 ° W / 51.50806; - 0.07611
The Tower of London, officially Her Majesty 's Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, is a historic castle located on the north bank of the River Thames in central London. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the eastern edge of the square mile of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill. It was founded towards the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest of England. The White Tower, which gives the entire castle its name, was built by William the Conqueror in 1078 and was a resented symbol of oppression, inflicted upon London by the new ruling elite. The castle was used as a prison from 1100 (Ranulf Flambard) until 1952 (Kray twins), although that was not its primary purpose. A grand palace early in its history, it served as a royal residence. As a whole, the Tower is a complex of several buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and a moat. There were several phases of expansion, mainly under Kings Richard I, Henry III, and Edward I in the 12th and 13th centuries. The general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site.
The Tower of London has played a prominent role in English history. It was besieged several times, and controlling it has been important to controlling the country. The Tower has served variously as an armoury, a treasury, a menagerie, the home of the Royal Mint, a public record office, and the home of the Crown Jewels of England. From the early 14th century until the reign of Charles II, a procession would be led from the Tower to Westminster Abbey on the coronation of a monarch. In the absence of the monarch, the Constable of the Tower is in charge of the castle. This was a powerful and trusted position in the medieval period. In the late 15th century, the castle was the prison of the Princes in the Tower. Under the Tudors, the Tower became used less as a royal residence, and despite attempts to refortify and repair the castle, its defences lagged behind developments to deal with artillery.
The peak period of the castle 's use as a prison was the 16th and 17th centuries, when many figures who had fallen into disgrace, such as Elizabeth I before she became queen, Sir Walter Raleigh, and Elizabeth Throckmorton, were held within its walls. This use has led to the phrase "sent to the Tower ''. Despite its enduring reputation as a place of torture and death, popularised by 16th - century religious propagandists and 19th - century writers, only seven people were executed within the Tower before the World Wars of the 20th century. Executions were more commonly held on the notorious Tower Hill to the north of the castle, with 112 occurring there over a 400 - year period. In the latter half of the 19th century, institutions such as the Royal Mint moved out of the castle to other locations, leaving many buildings empty. Anthony Salvin and John Taylor took the opportunity to restore the Tower to what was felt to be its medieval appearance, clearing out many of the vacant post-medieval structures. In the First and Second World Wars, the Tower was again used as a prison and witnessed the executions of 12 men for espionage. After the Second World War, damage caused during the Blitz was repaired, and the castle reopened to the public. Today, the Tower of London is one of the country 's most popular tourist attractions. Under the ceremonial charge of the Constable of the Tower, it is cared for by the charity Historic Royal Palaces and is protected as a World Heritage Site.
The Tower was orientated with its strongest and most impressive defences overlooking Saxon London, which archaeologist Alan Vince suggests was deliberate. It would have visually dominated the surrounding area and stood out to traffic on the River Thames. The castle is made up of three "wards '', or enclosures. The innermost ward contains the White Tower and is the earliest phase of the castle. Encircling it to the north, east, and west is the inner ward, built during the reign of Richard I (1189 -- 1199). Finally, there is the outer ward which encompasses the castle and was built under Edward I. Although there were several phases of expansion after William the Conqueror founded the Tower of London, the general layout has remained the same since Edward I completed his rebuild in 1285. The castle encloses an area of almost 12 acres (4.9 hectares) with a further 6 acres (2.4 ha) around the Tower of London constituting the Tower Liberties -- land under the direct influence of the castle and cleared for military reasons. The precursor of the Liberties was laid out in the 13th century when Henry III ordered that a strip of land adjacent to the castle be kept clear. Despite popular fiction, the Tower of London never had a permanent torture chamber, although the basement of the White Tower housed a rack in later periods. Tower Wharf was built on the bank of the Thames under Edward I and was expanded to its current size during the reign of Richard II (1377 -- 1399).
The White Tower is a keep (also known as a donjon), which was often the strongest structure in a medieval castle, and contained lodgings suitable for the lord -- in this case, the king or his representative. According to military historian Allen Brown, "The great tower (White Tower) was also, by virtue of its strength, majesty and lordly accommodation, the donjon par excellence ''. As one of the largest keeps in the Christian world, the White Tower has been described as "the most complete eleventh - century palace in Europe ''.
The White Tower, not including its projecting corner towers, measures 36 by 32 metres (118 by 105 ft) at the base, and is 27 m (90 ft) high at the southern battlements. The structure was originally three storeys high, comprising a basement floor, an entrance level, and an upper floor. The entrance, as is usual in Norman keeps, was above ground, in this case on the south face, and accessed via a wooden staircase which could be removed in the event of an attack. It was probably during Henry II 's reign (1154 -- 1189) that a forebuilding was added to the south side of the tower to provide extra defences to the entrance, but it has not survived. Each floor was divided into three chambers, the largest in the west, a smaller room in the north - east, and the chapel taking up the entrance and upper floors of the south - east. At the western corners of the building are square towers, while to the north - east a round tower houses a spiral staircase. At the south - east corner there is a larger semi-circular projection which accommodates the apse of the chapel. As the building was intended to be a comfortable residence as well as a stronghold, latrines were built into the walls, and four fireplaces provided warmth.
The main building material is Kentish rag - stone, although some local mudstone was also used. Caen stone was imported from northern France to provide details in the Tower 's facing, although little of the original material survives as it was replaced with Portland stone in the 17th and 18th centuries. As most of the Tower 's windows were enlarged in the 18th century, only two original -- albeit restored -- examples remain, in the south wall at the gallery level.
The tower was terraced into the side of a mound, so the northern side of the basement is partially below ground level. As was typical of most keeps, the bottom floor was an undercroft used for storage. One of the rooms contained a well. Although the layout has remained the same since the tower 's construction, the interior of the basement dates mostly from the 18th century when the floor was lowered and the pre-existing timber vaults were replaced with brick counterparts. The basement is lit through small slits.
The entrance floor was probably intended for the use of the Constable of the Tower, Lieutenant of the Tower of London and other important officials. The south entrance was blocked during the 17th century, and not reopened until 1973. Those heading to the upper floor had to pass through a smaller chamber to the east, also connected to the entrance floor. The crypt of St John 's Chapel occupied the south - east corner and was accessible only from the eastern chamber. There is a recess in the north wall of the crypt; according to Geoffrey Parnell, Keeper of the Tower History at the Royal Armouries, "the windowless form and restricted access, suggest that it was designed as a strong - room for safekeeping of royal treasures and important documents ''.
The upper floor contained a grand hall in the west and residential chamber in the east -- both originally open to the roof and surrounded by a gallery built into the wall -- and St John 's Chapel in the south - east. The top floor was added in the 15th century, along with the present roof. St John 's Chapel was not part of the White Tower 's original design, as the apsidal projection was built after the basement walls. Due to changes in function and design since the tower 's construction, except for the chapel little is left of the original interior. The chapel 's current bare and unadorned appearance is reminiscent of how it would have been in the Norman period. In the 13th century, during Henry III 's reign, the chapel was decorated with such ornamentation as a gold - painted cross, and stained glass windows that depicted the Virgin Mary and the Holy Trinity.
The innermost ward encloses an area immediately south of the White Tower, stretching to what was once the edge of the River Thames. As was the case at other castles, such as the 11th - century Hen Domen, the innermost ward was probably filled with timber buildings from the Tower 's foundation. Exactly when the royal lodgings began to encroach from the White Tower into the innermost ward is uncertain, although it had happened by the 1170s. The lodgings were renovated and elaborated during the 1220s and 1230s, becoming comparable with other palatial residences such as Windsor Castle. Construction of Wakefield and Lanthorn Towers -- located at the corners of the innermost ward 's wall along the river -- began around 1220. They probably served as private residences for the queen and king respectively. The earliest evidence for how the royal chambers were decorated comes from Henry III 's reign: the queen 's chamber was whitewashed, and painted with flowers and imitation stonework. A great hall existed in the south of the ward, between the two towers. It was similar to, although slightly smaller than, that also built by Henry III at Winchester Castle. Near Wakefield Tower was a postern gate which allowed private access to the king 's apartments. The innermost ward was originally surrounded by a protective ditch, which had been filled in by the 1220s. Around this time, a kitchen was built in the ward. Between 1666 and 1676, the innermost ward was transformed and the palace buildings removed. The area around the White Tower was cleared so that anyone approaching would have to cross open ground. The Jewel House was demolished, and the Crown Jewels moved to Martin Tower.
The inner ward was created during Richard the Lionheart 's reign, when a moat was dug to the west of the innermost ward, effectively doubling the castle 's size. Henry III created the ward 's east and north walls, and the ward 's dimensions remain to this day. Most of Henry 's work survives, and only two of the nine towers he constructed have been completely rebuilt. Between the Wakefield and Lanthorn Towers, the innermost ward 's wall also serves as a curtain wall for the inner ward. The main entrance to the inner ward would have been through a gatehouse, most likely in the west wall on the site of what is now Beauchamp Tower. The inner ward 's western curtain wall was rebuilt by Edward I. The 13th - century Beauchamp Tower marks the first large - scale use of brick as a building material in Britain, since the 5th - century departure of the Romans. The Beauchamp Tower is one of 13 towers that stud the curtain wall. Clockwise from the south - west corner they are: Bell, Beauchamp, Devereux, Flint, Bowyer, Brick, Martin, Constable, Broad Arrow, Salt, Lanthorn, Wakefield, and the Bloody Tower. While these towers provided positions from which flanking fire could be deployed against a potential enemy, they also contained accommodation. As its name suggests, Bell Tower housed a belfry, its purpose to raise the alarm in the event of an attack. The royal bow - maker, responsible for making longbows, crossbows, catapults, and other siege and hand weapons, had a workshop in the Bowyer Tower. A turret at the top of Lanthorn Tower was used as a beacon by traffic approaching the Tower at night.
As a result of Henry 's expansion, St Peter ad Vincula, a Norman chapel which had previously stood outside the Tower, was incorporated into the castle. Henry decorated the chapel by adding glazed windows, and stalls for himself and his queen. It was rebuilt by Edward I at a cost of over £ 300 and again by Henry VIII in 1519; the current building dates from this period, although the chapel was refurbished in the 19th century. Immediately west of Wakefield Tower, the Bloody Tower was built at the same time as the inner ward 's curtain wall, and as a water-gate provided access to the castle from the River Thames. It was a simple structure, protected by a portcullis and gate. The Bloody Tower acquired its name in the 16th century, as it was believed to be the site of the murder of the Princes in the Tower. Between 1339 and 1341, a gatehouse was built into the curtain wall between Bell and Salt Towers. During the Tudor period, a range of buildings for the storage of munitions was built along the inside of the north inner ward. The castle buildings were remodelled during the Stuart period, mostly under the auspices of the Office of Ordnance. In 1663 just over £ 4,000 was spent building a new storehouse (now known as the New Armouries) in the inner ward. Construction of the Grand Storehouse north of the White Tower began in 1688, on the same site as the dilapidated Tudor range of storehouses; it was destroyed by fire in 1841. The Waterloo Block, a former barracks in the castellated Gothic Revival style with Domestic Tudor details, was built on the site and remains to this day, housing the Crown Jewels on the ground floor.
A third ward was created during Edward I 's extension to the Tower, as the narrow enclosure completely surrounded the castle. At the same time a bastion known as Legge 's Mount was built at the castle 's north - west corner. Brass Mount, the bastion in the north - east corner, was a later addition. The three rectangular towers along the east wall 15 metres (49 ft) apart were dismantled in 1843. Although the bastions have often been ascribed to the Tudor period, there is no evidence to support this; archaeological investigations suggest that Legge 's Mount dates from the reign of Edward I. Blocked battlements (also known as crenellations) in the south side of Legge 's Mount are the only surviving medieval battlements at the Tower of London (the rest are Victorian replacements). A new 50 - metre (160 ft) moat was dug beyond the castle 's new limits; it was originally 4.5 metres (15 ft) deeper in the middle than it is today. With the addition of a new curtain wall, the old main entrance to the Tower of London was obscured and made redundant; a new entrance was created in the south - west corner of the external wall circuit. The complex consisted of an inner and an outer gatehouse and a barbican, which became known as the Lion Tower as it was associated with the animals as part of the Royal Menagerie since at least the 1330s. The Lion Tower itself no longer survives. Edward extended the south side of the Tower of London onto land that had previously been submerged by the River Thames. In this wall, he built St Thomas 's Tower between 1275 and 1279; later known as Traitors ' Gate, it replaced the Bloody Tower as the castle 's water-gate. The building is unique in England, and the closest parallel is the now demolished water-gate at the Louvre in Paris. The dock was covered with arrowslits in case of an attack on the castle from the River; there was also a portcullis at the entrance to control who entered. There were luxurious lodgings on the first floor. Edward also moved the Royal Mint into the Tower; its exact location early on is unknown, although it was probably in either the outer ward or the Lion Tower. By 1560, the Mint was located in a building in the outer ward near Salt Tower. Between 1348 and 1355, a second water-gate, Cradle Tower, was added east of St Thomas 's Tower for the king 's private use.
Victorious at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066, the invading Duke of Normandy, William the Conqueror, spent the rest of the year securing his holdings, by fortifying key positions. He founded several castles along the way, but took a circuitous route toward London; only when he reached Canterbury did he turn towards England 's largest city. As the fortified bridge into London was held by Saxon troops, he decided instead to ravage Southwark before continuing his journey around southern England. A series of Norman victories along the route cut the city 's supply lines and in December 1066, isolated and intimidated, its leaders yielded London without a fight. Between 1066 and 1087, William established 36 castles, although references in the Domesday Book indicate that many more were founded by his subordinates. The new ruling elite undertook what has been described as "the most extensive and concentrated programme of castle - building in the whole history of feudal Europe ''. They were multi-purpose buildings, serving as fortifications (used as a base of operations in enemy territory), centres of administration, and residences.
William sent an advance party to prepare the city for his entrance, to celebrate his victory and found a castle; in the words of William 's biographer, William of Poitiers, "certain fortifications were completed in the city against the restlessness of the huge and brutal populace. For he (William) realised that it was of the first importance to overawe the Londoners ''. At the time, London was the largest town in England; the foundation of Westminster Abbey and the old Palace of Westminster under Edward the Confessor had marked it as a centre of governance, and with a prosperous port it was important for the Normans to establish control over the settlement. The other two castles in London -- Baynard 's Castle and Montfichet 's Castle -- were established at the same time. The fortification that would later become known as the Tower of London was built onto the south - east corner of the Roman town walls, using them as prefabricated defences, with the River Thames providing additional protection from the south. This earliest phase of the castle would have been enclosed by a ditch and defended by a timber palisade, and probably had accommodation suitable for William.
Most of the early Norman castles were built from timber, but by the end of the 11th century a few, including the Tower of London, had been renovated or replaced with stone. Work on the White Tower -- which gives the whole castle its name -- is usually considered to have begun in 1078, however the exact date is uncertain. William made Gundulf, Bishop of Rochester, responsible for its construction, although it may not have been completed until after William 's death in 1087. The White Tower is the earliest stone keep in England, and was the strongest point of the early castle. It also contained grand accommodation for the king. At the latest, it was probably finished by 1100 when Bishop Ranulf Flambard was imprisoned there. Flambard was loathed by the English for exacting harsh taxes. Although he is the first recorded prisoner held in the Tower, he was also the first person to escape from it, using a smuggled rope secreted in a butt of wine. He was held in luxury and permitted servants, but on 2 February 1101 he hosted a banquet for his captors. After plying them with drink, when no one was looking he lowered himself from a secluded chamber, and out of the Tower. The escape came as such a surprise that one contemporary chronicler accused the bishop of witchcraft.
The Anglo - Saxon Chronicle records that in 1097 King William II ordered a wall to be built around the Tower of London; it was probably built from stone as a replacement for the timber palisade that arced around the north and west sides of the castle, between the Roman wall and the Thames. The Norman Conquest of London manifested itself not only with a new ruling class, but in the way the city was structured. Land was confiscated and redistributed amongst the Normans, who also brought over hundreds of Jews, for financial reasons. The Jews arrived under the direct protection of the Crown, as a result of which Jewish communities were often found close to castles. The Jews used the Tower as a retreat, when threatened by anti-Jewish violence.
The death in 1135 of Henry I left England with a disputed succession; although the king had persuaded his most powerful barons to swear support for the Empress Matilda, just a few days after Henry 's death Stephen of Blois arrived from France to lay claim to the throne. The importance of the city and its Tower is marked by the speed at which he secured London. The castle, which had not been used as a royal residence for some time, was usually left in the charge of a Constable, a post held at this time by Geoffrey de Mandeville. As the Tower was considered an impregnable fortress in a strategically important position, possession was highly valued. Mandeville exploited this, selling his allegiance to Matilda after Stephen was captured in 1141 at the Battle of Lincoln. Once her support waned, the following year he resold his loyalty to Stephen. Through his role as Constable of the Tower, Mandeville became "the richest and most powerful man in England ''. When he tried the same ploy again, this time holding secret talks with Matilda, Stephen had him arrested, forced him to cede control of his castles, and replaced him with one of his most loyal supporters. Until then the position had been hereditary, originally held by Geoffrey de Mandeville (a friend of William the Conqueror 's and ancestor of the Geoffrey that Stephen and Matilda dealt with), but the position 's authority was such that from then on it remained in the hands of an appointee of the monarch. The position was usually given to someone of great importance, who might not always be at the castle due to other duties. Although the Constable was still responsible for maintaining the castle and its garrison, from an early stage he had a subordinate to help with this duty: the Lieutenant of the Tower. Constables also had civic duties relating to the city. Usually they were given control of the city and were responsible for levying taxes, enforcing the law and maintaining order. The creation in 1191 of the position of Lord Mayor of London removed many of the Constable 's civic powers, and at times led to friction between the two.
The castle probably retained its form as established by 1100 until the reign of Richard I (1189 -- 1199). The castle was extended under William Longchamp, King Richard 's Lord Chancellor and the man in charge of England while he was on crusade. The Pipe Rolls record £ 2,881 1s 10d spent at the Tower of London between 3 December 1189 and 11 November 1190, from an estimated £ 7,000 spent by Richard on castle building in England. According to the contemporary chronicler Roger of Howden, Longchamp dug a moat around the castle and tried in vain to fill it from the Thames. Longchamp was also Constable of the Tower, and undertook its expansion while preparing for war with King Richard 's younger brother, Prince John, who in Richard 's absence arrived in England to try to seize power. As Longchamp 's main fortress, he made the Tower as strong as possible. The new fortifications were first tested in October 1191, when the Tower was besieged for the first time in its history. Longchamp capitulated to John after just three days, deciding he had more to gain from surrender than prolonging the siege.
John succeeded Richard as king in 1199, but his rule proved unpopular with many of his barons, who in response moved against him. In 1214, while the king was at Windsor Castle, Robert Fitzwalter led an army into London and laid siege to the Tower. Although under - garrisoned, the Tower resisted and the siege was lifted once John signed the Magna Carta. The king reneged on his promises of reform, leading to the outbreak of the First Barons ' War. Even after the Magna Carta was signed, Fitzwalter maintained his control of London. During the war, the Tower 's garrison joined forces with the barons. John was deposed in 1216 and the barons offered the English throne to Prince Louis, the eldest son of the French king. However, after John 's death in October 1216, many began to support the claim of his eldest son, Henry III. War continued between the factions supporting Louis and Henry, with Fitzwalter supporting Louis. Fitzwalter was still in control of London and the Tower, both of which held out until it was clear that Henry III 's supporters would prevail.
In the 13th century, Kings Henry III (1216 -- 1272) and Edward I (1272 -- 1307) extended the castle, essentially creating it as it stands today. Henry was disconnected from his barons, and a mutual lack of understanding led to unrest and resentment towards his rule. As a result, he was eager to ensure the Tower of London was a formidable fortification; at the same time Henry was an aesthete and wished to make the castle a comfortable place to live. From 1216 to 1227 nearly £ 10,000 was spent on the Tower of London; in this period, only the work at Windsor Castle cost more (£ 15,000). Most of the work was focused on the palatial buildings of the innermost ward. The tradition of whitewashing the White Tower (from which it derives its name) began in 1240.
Beginning around 1238, the castle was expanded to the east, north, and north - west. The work lasted through the reign of Henry III and into that of Edward I, interrupted occasionally by civil unrest. New creations included a new defensive perimeter, studded with towers, while on the west, north, and east sides, where the wall was not defended by the river, a defensive ditch was dug. The eastern extension took the castle beyond the bounds of the old Roman settlement, marked by the city wall which had been incorporated into the castle 's defences. The Tower had long been a symbol of oppression, despised by Londoners, and Henry 's building programme was unpopular. So when the gatehouse collapsed in 1240, the locals celebrated the setback. The expansion caused disruption locally and £ 166 was paid to St Katherine 's Hospital and the prior of Holy Trinity in compensation.
Henry III often held court at the Tower of London, and held parliament there on at least two occasions (1236 and 1261) when he felt that the barons were becoming dangerously unruly. In 1258, the discontented barons, led by Simon de Montfort, forced the King to agree to reforms including the holding of regular parliaments. Relinquishing the Tower of London was among the conditions. Henry III resented losing power and sought permission from the pope to break his oath. With the backing of mercenaries, Henry installed himself in the Tower in 1261. While negotiations continued with the barons, the King ensconced himself in the castle, although no army moved to take it. A truce was agreed with the condition that the King hand over control of the Tower once again. Henry won a significant victory at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, allowing him to regain control of the country and the Tower of London. Cardinal Ottobuon came to England to excommunicate those who were still rebellious; the act was deeply unpopular and the situation was exacerbated when the cardinal was granted custody of the Tower. Gilbert de Clare, 6th Earl of Hertford, marched on London in April 1267 and laid siege to the castle, declaring that custody of the Tower was "not a post to be trusted in the hands of a foreigner, much less of an ecclesiastic ''. Despite a large army and siege engines, Gilbert de Clare was unable to take the castle. The Earl retreated, allowing the King control of the capital, and the Tower experienced peace for the rest of Henry 's reign.
Although he was rarely in London, Edward I undertook an expensive remodelling of the Tower, costing £ 21,000 between 1275 and 1285, over double that spent on the castle during the whole of Henry III 's reign. Edward I was a seasoned castle builder, and used his experience of siege warfare during the crusades to bring innovations to castle building. His programme of castle building in Wales heralded the introduction of the widespread use of arrowslits in castle walls across Europe, drawing on Eastern influences. At the Tower of London, Edward filled in the moat dug by Henry III and built a new curtain wall along its line, creating a new enclosure. A new moat was created in front of the new curtain wall. The western part of Henry III 's curtain wall was rebuilt, with Beauchamp Tower replacing the castle 's old gatehouse. A new entrance was created, with elaborate defences including two gatehouses and a barbican. In an effort to make the castle self - sufficient, Edward I also added two watermills. Six hundred Jews were imprisoned in the Tower of London in 1278, charged with coin clipping. Persecution of the country 's Jewish population under Edward began in 1276 and culminated in 1290 when he issued the Edict of Expulsion, forcing the Jews out of the country.
During Edward II 's reign (1307 -- 1327) there was relatively little activity at the Tower of London. However, it was during this period that the Privy Wardrobe was founded. The institution was based at the Tower and responsible for organising the state 's arms. In 1321, Margaret de Clare, Baroness Badlesmere became the first woman imprisoned in the Tower of London after she refused Queen Isabella admittance to Leeds Castle and ordered her archers to fire upon Isabella, killing six of the royal escort. Generally reserved for high - ranking inmates, the Tower was the most important royal prison in the country. However it was not necessarily very secure, and throughout its history people bribed the guards to help them escape. In 1323 Roger Mortimer, Baron Mortimer, was aided in his escape from the Tower by the Sub-Lieutenant of the Tower who let Mortimer 's men inside. They hacked a hole in his cell wall and Mortimer escaped to a waiting boat. He fled to France where he encountered Edward 's Queen. They began an affair and plotted to overthrow the King. One of Mortimer 's first acts on entering England in 1326 was to capture the Tower and release the prisoners held there. For four years he ruled while Edward III was too young to do so himself; in 1330, Edward and his supporters captured Mortimer and threw him in the Tower. Under Edward III 's rule (1312 -- 1377) England experienced renewed success in warfare after his father 's reign had put the realm on the backfoot against the Scots and French. Amongst Edward 's successes were the battles of Crécy and Poitiers where King John II of France was taken prisoner, and the capture of the King David II of Scotland at Neville 's Cross. During this period, the Tower of London held many noble prisoners of war. Edward II had allowed the Tower of London to fall into a state of disrepair, and by the reign of Edward III the castle was an uncomfortable place. The nobility held captive within its walls were unable to engage in activities such as hunting which were permissible at other royal castles used as prisons, for instance Windsor. Edward III ordered that the castle should be renovated.
When Richard II was crowned in 1377, he led a procession from the Tower to Westminster Abbey. This tradition began in at least the early 14th century and lasted until 1660. During the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 the Tower of London was besieged with the King inside. When Richard rode out to meet with Wat Tyler, the rebel leader, a crowd broke into the castle without meeting resistance and looted the Jewel House. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Simon Sudbury, took refuge in St John 's Chapel, hoping the mob would respect the sanctuary. However, he was taken away and beheaded on Tower Hill. Six years later there was again civil unrest, and Richard spent Christmas in the security of the Tower rather than Windsor as was more usual. When Henry Bolingbroke returned from exile in 1399, Richard was imprisoned in the White Tower. He abdicated and was replaced on the throne by Bolingbroke, who became King Henry IV. In the 15th century, there was little building work at the Tower of London, yet the castle still remained important as a place of refuge. When supporters of the late Richard II attempted a coup, Henry IV found safety in the Tower of London. During this period, the castle also held many distinguished prisoners. The heir to the Scottish throne, later King James I of Scotland, was kidnapped while journeying to France in 1406 and held in the Tower. The reign of Henry V (1413 -- 1422) renewed England 's fortune in the Hundred Years ' War against France. As a result of Henry 's victories, such as the Battle of Agincourt, many high - status prisoners were held in the Tower of London until they were ransomed.
Much of the latter half of the 15th century was occupied by the Wars of the Roses between the claimants to the throne, the houses of Lancaster and York. The castle was once again besieged in 1460, this time by a Yorkist force. The Tower was damaged by artillery fire but only surrendered when Henry VI was captured at the Battle of Northampton. With the help of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick (nicknamed "the Kingmaker '') Henry recaptured the throne for a short time in 1470. However, Edward IV soon regained control and Henry VI was imprisoned in the Tower of London, where he was probably murdered. During the wars, the Tower was fortified to withstand gunfire, and provided with loopholes for cannons and handguns: an enclosure was created for this purpose to the south of Tower Hill, although it no longer survives.
Shortly after the death of Edward IV in 1483, the notorious murder of the Princes in the Tower is traditionally believed to have taken place. The incident is one of the most infamous events associated with the Tower of London. Edward V 's uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester was declared Lord Protector while the prince was too young to rule. Traditional accounts have held that the 12 - year - old Edward was confined to the Tower of London along with his younger brother Richard. The Duke of Gloucester was proclaimed King Richard III in June. The princes were last seen in public in June 1483; it has traditionally been thought that the most likely reason for their disappearance is that they were murdered late in the summer of 1483. Bones thought to belong to them were discovered in 1674 when the 12th - century forebuilding at the entrance to the White Tower was demolished; however, the reputed level at which the bones were found (10 ft or 3 m) would put the bones at a depth similar to that of the recently discovered Roman graveyard found 12 ft (4 m) underneath the Minories a few hundred yards to the north. Opposition to Richard escalated until he was defeated at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 by the Lancastrian Henry Tudor, who ascended to the throne as Henry VII.
The beginning of the Tudor period marked the start of the decline of the Tower of London 's use as a royal residence. As 16th - century chronicler Raphael Holinshed said the Tower became used more as "an armouries and house of munition, and thereunto a place for the safekeeping of offenders than a palace roiall for a king or queen to sojourne in ''. The Yeoman Warders have been the Royal Bodyguard since at least 1509. During the reign of Henry VIII, the Tower was assessed as needing considerable work on its defences. In 1532, Thomas Cromwell spent £ 3,593 on repairs and imported nearly 3,000 tons of Caen stone for the work. Even so, this was not sufficient to bring the castle up to the standard of contemporary military fortifications which were designed to withstand powerful artillery. Although the defences were repaired, the palace buildings were left in a state of neglect after Henry 's death. Their condition was so poor that they were virtually uninhabitable. From 1547 onwards, the Tower of London was only used as a royal residence when its political and historic symbolism was considered useful, for instance each of Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I briefly stayed at the Tower before their coronations.
In the 16th century, the Tower acquired an enduring reputation as a grim, forbidding prison. This had not always been the case. As a royal castle, it was used by the monarch to imprison people for various reasons, however these were usually high - status individuals for short periods rather than common citizenry as there were plenty of prisons elsewhere for such people. Contrary to the popular image of the Tower, prisoners were able to make their life easier by purchasing amenities such as better food or tapestries through the Lieutenant of the Tower. As holding prisoners was originally an incidental role of the Tower -- as would have been the case for any castle -- there was no purpose - built accommodation for prisoners until 1687 when a brick shed, a "Prison for Soldiers '', was built to the north - west of the White Tower. The Tower 's reputation for torture and imprisonment derives largely from 16th - century religious propagandists and 19th - century romanticists. Although much of the Tower 's reputation is exaggerated, the 16th and 17th centuries marked the castle 's zenith as a prison, with many religious and political undesirables locked away. The Privy Council had to sanction the use of torture, so it was not often used; between 1540 and 1640, the peak of imprisonment at the Tower, there were 48 recorded cases of the use of torture. The three most common forms used were the infamous rack, the Scavenger 's daughter, and manacles. The rack was introduced to England in 1447 by the Duke of Exeter, the Constable of the Tower; consequentially it was also known as the Duke of Exeter 's daughter. One of those tortured at the Tower was Guy Fawkes, who was brought there on 6 November 1605; after torture he signed a full confession to the Gunpowder Plot.
Among those held and executed at the Tower was Anne Boleyn. Although the Yeoman Warders were once the Royal Bodyguard, by the 16th and 17th centuries their main duty had become to look after the prisoners. The Tower was often a safer place than other prisons in London such as the Fleet, where disease was rife. High - status prisoners could live in conditions comparable to those they might expect outside; one such example was that while Walter Raleigh was held in the Tower his rooms were altered to accommodate his family, including his son who was born there in 1605. Executions were usually carried out on Tower Hill rather than in the Tower of London itself, and 112 people were executed on the hill over 400 years. Before the 20th century, there had been seven executions within the castle on Tower Green; as was the case with Lady Jane Grey, this was reserved for prisoners for whom public execution was considered dangerous. After Lady Jane Grey 's execution on 12 February 1554, Queen Mary I imprisoned her sister Elizabeth, later Queen Elizabeth I, in the Tower under suspicion of causing rebellion as Sir Thomas Wyatt had led a revolt against Mary in Elizabeth 's name.
The Office of Ordnance and Armoury Office were founded in the 15th century, taking over the Privy Wardrobe 's duties of looking after the monarch 's arsenal and valuables. As there was no standing army before 1661, the importance of the royal armoury at the Tower of London was that it provided a professional basis for procuring supplies and equipment in times of war. The two bodies were resident at the Tower from at least 1454, and by the 16th century they had moved to a position in the inner ward. The Board of Ordnance (successor to these Offices) had its headquarters in the White Tower and used surrounding buildings for storage. In 1855 the Board was abolished; its successor (the Military Store Department of the War Office) was also based there until 1869, after which its headquarters staff were relocated to the Royal Arsenal in Woolwich (where the recently closed Woolwich Dockyard was converted into a vast ordnance store).
Political tensions between Charles I and Parliament in the second quarter of the 17th century led to an attempt by forces loyal to the King to secure the Tower and its valuable contents, including money and munitions. London 's Trained Bands, a militia force, were moved into the castle in 1640. Plans for defence were drawn up and gun platforms were built, readying the Tower for war. The preparations were never put to the test. In 1642, Charles I attempted to arrest five members of parliament. When this failed he fled the city, and Parliament retaliated by removing Sir John Byron, the Lieutenant of the Tower. The Trained Bands had switched sides, and now supported Parliament; together with the London citizenry, they blockaded the Tower. With permission from the King, Byron relinquished control of the Tower. Parliament replaced Byron with a man of their own choosing, Sir John Conyers. By the time the English Civil War broke out in November 1642, the Tower of London was already in Parliament 's control.
The last monarch to uphold the tradition of taking a procession from the Tower to Westminster to be crowned was Charles II in 1661. At the time, the castle 's accommodation was in such poor condition that he did not stay there the night before his coronation. Under the Stuart kings the Tower 's buildings were remodelled, mostly under the auspices of the Office of Ordnance. Just over £ 4,000 was spent in 1663 on building a new storehouse, now known as the New Armouries in the inner ward. In the 17th century there were plans to enhance the Tower 's defences in the style of the trace italienne, however they were never acted on. Although the facilities for the garrison were improved with the addition of the first purpose - built quarters for soldiers (the "Irish Barracks '') in 1670, the general accommodations were still in poor condition.
When the Hanoverian dynasty ascended the throne, their situation was uncertain and with a possible Scottish rebellion in mind, the Tower of London was repaired. Gun platforms added under the Stuarts had decayed. The number of guns at the Tower was reduced from 118 to 45, and one contemporary commentator noted that the castle "would not hold out four and twenty hours against an army prepared for a siege ''. For the most part, the 18th - century work on the defences was spasmodic and piecemeal, although a new gateway in the southern curtain wall permitting access from the wharf to the outer ward was added in 1774. The moat surrounding the castle had become silted over the centuries since it was created despite attempts at clearing it. It was still an integral part of the castle 's defences, so in 1830 the Constable of the Tower, the Duke of Wellington, ordered a large - scale clearance of several feet of silt. However this did not prevent an outbreak of disease in the garrison in 1841 caused by poor water supply, resulting in several deaths. To prevent the festering ditch posing further health problems, it was ordered that the moat should be drained and filled with earth. The work began in 1843 and was mostly complete two years later. The construction of the Waterloo Barracks in the inner ward began in 1845, when the Duke of Wellington laid the foundation stone. The building could accommodate 1,000 men; at the same time, separate quarters for the officers were built to the north - east of the White Tower. The building is now the headquarters of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers. The popularity of the Chartist movement between 1828 and 1858 led to a desire to refortify the Tower of London in the event of civil unrest. It was the last major programme of fortification at the castle. Most of the surviving installations for the use of artillery and firearms date from this period.
During the First World War, eleven men were tried in private and shot by firing squad at the Tower for espionage. During the Second World War, the Tower was once again used to hold prisoners of war. One such person was Rudolf Hess, Adolf Hitler 's deputy, albeit just for four days in 1941. He was the last state prisoner to be held at the castle. The last person to be executed at the Tower was German spy Josef Jakobs who was shot on 15 August 1941. The executions for espionage during the wars took place in a prefabricated miniature rifle range which stood in the outer ward and was demolished in 1969. The Second World War also saw the last use of the Tower as a fortification. In the event of a German invasion, the Tower, together with the Royal Mint and nearby warehouses, was to have formed one of three "keeps '' or complexes of defended buildings which formed the last - ditch defences of the capital.
The Tower of London has become established as one of the most popular tourist attractions in the country. It has been a tourist attraction since at least the Elizabethan period, when it was one of the sights of London that foreign visitors wrote about. Its most popular attractions were the Royal Menagerie and displays of armour. The Crown Jewels also garner much interest, and have been on public display since 1669. The Tower steadily gained popularity with tourists through the 19th century, despite the opposition of the Duke of Wellington to visitors. Numbers became so high that by 1851 a purpose - built ticket office was erected. By the end of the century, over 500,000 were visiting the castle every year.
Over the 18th and 19th centuries, the palatial buildings were slowly adapted for other uses and demolished. Only the Wakefield and St Thomas 's Towers survived. The 18th century marked an increasing interest in England 's medieval past. One of the effects was the emergence of Gothic Revival architecture. In the Tower 's architecture, this was manifest when the New Horse Armoury was built in 1825 against the south face of the White Tower. It featured elements of Gothic Revival architecture such as battlements. Other buildings were remodelled to match the style and the Waterloo Barracks were described as "castellated Gothic of the 15th century ''. Between 1845 and 1885 institutions such as the Mint which had inhabited the castle for centuries moved to other sites; many of the post-medieval structures left vacant were demolished. In 1855, the War Office took over responsibility for manufacture and storage of weapons from the Ordnance Office, which was gradually phased out of the castle. At the same time, there was greater interest in the history of the Tower of London.
Public interest was partly fuelled by contemporary writers, of whom the work of William Harrison Ainsworth was particularly influential. In The Tower of London: A Historical Romance he created a vivid image of underground torture chambers and devices for extracting confessions that stuck in the public imagination. Harrison also played another role in the Tower 's history, as he suggested that Beauchamp Tower should be opened to the public so they could see the inscriptions of 16th - and 17th - century prisoners. Working on the suggestion, Anthony Salvin refurbished the tower and led a further programme for a comprehensive restoration at the behest of Prince Albert. Salvin was succeeded in the work by John Taylor. When a feature did not meet his expectations of medieval architecture Taylor would ruthlessly remove it; as a result, several important buildings within the castle were pulled down and in some cases post-medieval internal decoration removed.
Although only one bomb fell on the Tower of London in the First World War (it landed harmlessly in the moat), the Second World War left a greater mark. On 23 September 1940, during the Blitz, high - explosive bombs damaged the castle, destroying several buildings and narrowly missing the White Tower. After the war, the damage was repaired and the Tower of London was reopened to the public.
In 1974, there was a bomb explosion in the Mortar Room in the White Tower, leaving one person dead and 35 injured. No one claimed responsibility for the blast, but the police investigated suspicions that the IRA was behind it.
In the 21st century, tourism is the Tower 's primary role, the remaining routine military activities, under the Royal Logistic Corps, having wound down in the latter half of the 20th century and moved out of the castle. However, the Tower is still home to the ceremonial regimental headquarters of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers, and the museum dedicated to it and its predecessor, the Royal Fusiliers. Also, a detachment of the unit providing the Queen 's Guard at Buckingham Palace still mounts a guard at the Tower, and with the Yeomen Warders, takes part in the Ceremony of the Keys each day. On several occasions through the year gun salutes are fired from the Tower by the Honourable Artillery Company, these consist of 62 rounds for royal occasions, and 41 on other occasions.
Since 1990, the Tower of London has been cared for by an independent charity, Historic Royal Palaces, which receives no funding from the Government or the Crown. In 1988, the Tower of London was added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites, in recognition of its global importance and to help conserve and protect the site. However, recent developments, such as the construction of skyscrapers nearby, have pushed the Tower towards being added to the United Nations ' Heritage in Danger List. The remains of the medieval palace have been open to the public since 2006. Visitors can explore the chambers restored to their former glory, once used by past kings and queens. Although the position of Constable of the Tower remains the highest position held at the Tower, the responsibility of day - to - day administration is delegated to the Resident Governor. At least six ravens are kept at the Tower at all times, in accordance with the belief that if they are absent, the kingdom will fall. They are under the care of the Yeomen Warders. The earliest known reference to a Tower raven is a picture from 1883. As well as having ceremonial duties, the Yeoman Warders provide guided tours around the Tower. Over 2.8 million people visited the Tower of London in 2017.
The tradition of housing the Crown Jewels in the Tower of London probably dates from the reign of Henry III (1216 -- 1272). The Jewel House was built specifically to house the royal regalia, including jewels, plate, and symbols of royalty such as the crown, sceptre, and sword. When money needed to be raised, the treasure could be pawned by the monarch. The treasure allowed the monarch independence from the aristocracy, and consequently was closely guarded. A new position for "keeper of the jewels, armouries and other things '' was created, which was well rewarded; in the reign of Edward III (1327 -- 1377) the holder was paid 12d a day. The position grew to include other duties including purchasing royal jewels, gold, and silver, and appointing royal goldsmiths and jewellers.
In 1649, during the English Civil War, the contents of the Jewel House were disposed of along with other royal properties, as decreed by Cromwell. Metal items were sent to the Mint to be melted down and re-used, and the crowns were "totallie broken and defaced ''.
When the monarchy was restored in 1660, the only surviving items of the coronation regalia were a 12th - century spoon and three ceremonial swords. (Some pieces that had been sold were later returned to the Crown.) Detailed records of old regalia survived, and replacements were made for the coronation of Charles II in 1661 based on drawings from the time of Charles I. For the coronation of Charles II, gems were rented because the treasury could not afford to replace them.
In 1669, the Jewel House was demolished and the Crown Jewels moved into Martin Tower (until 1841). They were displayed here for viewing by the paying public. This was exploited two years later when Colonel Thomas Blood attempted to steal them. Blood and his accomplices bound and gagged the Jewel House keeper. Although they laid their hands on the Imperial State Crown, Sceptre and Orb, they were foiled when the keeper 's son turned up unexpectedly and raised the alarm.
Since 1994, the Crown Jewels have been on display in the Jewel House in the Waterloo Block. Some of the pieces are used regularly by the Queen. The display includes 23,578 gemstones, the 800 - year - old Coronation Spoon, St. Edward 's Crown (worn during all crownings at Westminster Abbey) and the Imperial State Crown.
There is evidence that King John (1166 -- 1216) first started keeping wild animals at the Tower. Records of 1210 -- 1212 show payments to lion keepers.
The Royal Menagerie is frequently referenced during the reign of Henry III. Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II presented Henry with three leopards, circa 1235, which were kept in the Tower. In 1251, the sheriffs were ordered to pay fourpence a day towards the upkeep of the King 's polar bear, a gift from Haakon IV of Norway in the same year; the bear attracted a great deal of attention from Londoners when it went fishing in the Thames while tied to the land by a chain. In 1254 or 1255, Henry III received an African elephant from Louis IX of France depicted by Matthew Paris in his Chronica Majora. A wooden structure was built to house the elephant, 12.2 m (40 ft) long by 6.1 m (20 ft) wide. The animal died in 1258, possibly because it was given red wine, but also perhaps because of the cold climate of England.
In 1288, Edward I added a lion and a lynx and appointed the first official Keeper of the animals. Edward III added other types of animals, two lions, a leopard and two wildcats. Under subsequent kings, the number of animals grew to include additional cats of various types, jackals, hyenas, and an old brown bear, Max, gifted to Henry VIII by Emperor Maximilian. In 1436, during the time of Henry V, all the lions died and the employment of Keeper William Kerby was terminated.
Historical records indicate that a semi-circular structure or barbican was built by Edward I in 1277; this area was later named the Lion Tower, to the immediate west of the Middle Tower. Records from 1335 indicate the purchase of a lock and key for the lions and leopards, also suggesting they were located near the western entrance of the Tower. By the 1500s that area was called the Menagerie. Between 1604 and 1606 the Menagerie was extensively refurbished and an exercise yard was created in the moat area beside the Lion Tower. An overhead platform was added for viewing of the lions by the royals, during lion baiting, for example in the time of James I. Reports from 1657 include mention of six lions, increasing to 11 by 1708, in addition to other types of cats, eagles, owls and a jackal.
By the 18th century, the menagerie was open to the public; admission cost three half - pence or the supply of a cat or dog to be fed to the lions. By the end of the century, that had increased to 9 pence. A particularly famous inhabitant was Old Martin, a large grizzly bear given to George III by the Hudson 's Bay Company in 1811. An 1800 inventory also listed a tiger, leopards, a hyena, a large baboon, various types of monkeys, wolves and "other animals ''. By 1822, however, the collection included only a grizzly bear, an elephant and some birds. Additional animals were then introduced. In 1828 there were over 280 representing at least 60 species as the new keeper Alfred Copps was actively acquiring animals.
After the death of George IV in 1830, a decision was made to close down the Menagerie. In 1831, most of the stock was moved to the London Zoo which had opened in 1828. The last of the animals left in 1835, relocated to Regent 's Park. This decision was made after an incident, although sources vary as to the specifics: either a lion was accused of biting a soldier, or a sailor, Ensign Seymour, had been bitten by a monkey. The Menagerie buildings were removed in 1852 but the Keeper of the Royal Menagerie was entitled to use the Lion Tower as a house for life. Consequently, even though the animals had long since left the building, the tower was not demolished until the death of Copps, the last keeper, in 1853.
In 1999, physical evidence of lion cages was found, one being 3x3 meters (6.5 x10 feet) in size, very small for a lion that can grow to be 2.5 meters (approximately 8 feet) long. In 2008, the skulls of two male Barbary lions (now extinct in the wild) from northwest Africa were found in the moat area of the Tower. Radiocarbon tests dated them from 1280 -- 1385 and 1420 -- 1480. During 2011 an exhibition was hosted at the Tower with fine wire sculptures by Kendra Haste.
Anne Boleyn was beheaded in 1536 for treason against Henry VIII; her ghost supposedly haunts the Church of St Peter ad Vincula in the Tower, where she is buried, and has been said to walk around the White Tower carrying her head under her arm. This haunting is commemorated in the 1934 comic song "With Her Head Tucked Underneath Her Arm ''. Other reported ghosts include Henry VI, Lady Jane Grey, Margaret Pole, and the Princes in the Tower. In January 1816, a sentry on guard outside the Jewel House claimed to have witnessed an apparition of a bear advancing towards him, and reportedly died of fright a few days later. In October 1817, a tubular, glowing apparition was claimed to have been seen in the Jewel House by the Keeper of the Crown Jewels, Edmund Lenthal Swifte. He said that the apparition hovered over the shoulder of his wife, leading her to exclaim: "Oh, Christ! It has seized me! '' Other nameless and formless terrors have been reported, more recently, by night staff at the Tower.
Notes
Footnotes
Bibliography
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how many tributaries does the yenisei river have | Yenisei river - wikipedia
The Yenisei (Russian: Енисе́й, Jeniséj; Mongolian: Енисей мөрөн, Yenisei mörön; Buryat: Горлог мүрэн, Gorlog müren; Tyvan: Улуг - Хем, Uluğ - Hem; Khakas: Ким суг, Kim sug) also Romanised Yenisey, Enisei, Jenisej, is the largest river system flowing to the Arctic Ocean. It is the central of the three great Siberian rivers that flow into the Arctic Ocean (the other two being the Ob and the Lena). Rising in Mongolia, it follows a northerly course to the Yenisei Gulf in the Kara Sea, draining a large part of central Siberia, the longest stream following the Yenisei - Angara - Selenga - Ider river system.
The maximum depth of the Yenisei is 24 metres (80 ft) and the average depth is 14 metres (45 ft). The depth of river outflow is 32 metres (106 ft) and inflow is 31 metres (101 ft).
The river flows through Tuva, Khakassia and the city of Krasnoyarsk.
Its tributaries include the Angara, Nizhnyaya Tunguska, Podkamennaya Tunguska and Tuba rivers.
The 320 - kilometre (200 mi), partly navigable Upper Angara River feeds into the northern end of Lake Baikal from the Buryat Republic but the largest inflow is from the Selenga which forms a delta on the southeastern side.
The Yenisei River basin (excluding Lake Baikal and lakes of the Khantayka River headwaters) is home to 55 native fish species, including two endemics: Gobio sibiricus (a gobionine cyprinid) and Thymallus nigrescens (es) (a grayling). The grayling is restricted to Khövsgöl Nuur and its tributaries. Most fish found in the Yenisei River basin are relatively widespread Euro - Siberian or Siberian species, such as northern pike (Esox lucius), common roach (Rutilus rutilus), common dace (Leuciscus leuciscus), Siberian sculpin (Cottus poecilopus), European perch (Perca fluviatilis) and Prussian carp (Carassius gibelio). The basin is also home to many salmonids (trout, whitefish, charr, graylings, taimen and relatives) and the Siberian sturgeon (Acipenser baerii).
The Yenisei River valley is habitat for numerous flora and fauna, with Siberian pine and Siberian larch being notable tree species. In prehistoric times Scots pine, Pinus sylvestris, was abundant in the Yenisei River valley circa 6000 BC. There are also numerous bird species present in the watershed, including, for example, the hooded crow, Corvus cornix.
The Taimyr reindeer herd, a migrating tundra reindeer (R.t. sibiricus), the largest reindeer herd in the world, migrated to winter grazing ranges along the Yenisei River.
River steamers first came to the Yenesei River in 1864 and were brought in from Holland and England across the icy Kara Sea. One was the SS Nikolai. The SS Thames attempted to explore the river, overwintered in 1876, but was damaged in the ice and eventually wrecked in the river. Success came with the steamers Frazer, Express in 1878, and the next year, Moscow hauling supplies in and wheat out. The Dalman reached Yeneisisk in 1881.
Imperial Russian placed river steamers on the massive river as an attempt to free up communication to land locked Siberia. One boat was the SS St. Nicholas which conveyed the future Tsar Nicholas II in his trip to Siberia, and later Vladimir Lenin arriving to prison.
Engineers attempted to place river steamers on regular service on the river during the building of the Trans - Siberian Railway. The boats were needed to bring in the rails, engines and supplies. Captain Joseph Wiggins sailed the Orestes with rail and parted out river steamers in 1893. However, the sea and river route proved very difficult with several ships lost at sea and on the river. Both the Ob and Yenisei mouths feed into very long inlets, several hundred miles in length, which are shallow, ice bound and prone to high winds and thus treacherous for navigation. After the completion of the railway, river traffic reduced only to local service as the Arctic route and long river proved much too indirect a route.
The first recreation team to navigate the Yenisei 's entire length, including its violent upper tributary in Mongolia, was an Australian - Canadian effort completed in September 2001. Ben Kozel, Tim Cope, Colin Angus and Remy Quinter were on this team. Both Kozel and Angus wrote books detailing this expedition, and a documentary was produced for National Geographic Television.
A canal inclined plane was built on the river in 1985 at the Krasnoyarsk Dam.
Nomadic tribes such as the Ket people and the Yugh people have lived along the banks of the Yenisei river since ancient times, and this region is the location of the Yeniseian language family. The Ket, numbering about 1000, are the only survivors today of those who originally lived throughout central southern Siberia near the river banks. Their extinct relatives included the Kotts, Assans, Arins, Baikots, and Pumpokols who lived further upriver to the south. The modern Ket lived in the eastern middle areas of the river before being assimilated politically into Russia during the 17th through 19th centuries.
Wheat from the Yenisei was sold by Muslims and Uighurs during inadequate harvests to Bukhara and Soghd during the Tahirid era.
Russians first reached the upper Yenisei in 1605, travelling from the Ob River, up the Ket River, portaging and then down the Yenisei as far as the Sym River.
During World War II, Nazi Germany and the Japanese Empire agreed to divide Asia along a line that followed the Yenisei River to the border of China, and then along the border of China and the Soviet Union.
Studies have shown that the Yenisei suffers from contamination caused by radioactive discharges from a factory that produced bomb - grade plutonium in the secret city of Krasnoyarsk - 26, now known as Zheleznogorsk.
The bridge over the Yenisei in Krasnoyarsk, Russia, viewed from the left bank.
Vinogradovsky most, the bridge in Krasnoyarsk, Russia, viewed from the left bank
The Yenisei (left) and the Ob flow into Kara Sea.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Yenisei ''. Encyclopædia Britannica. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Coordinates: 71 ° 50 ′ 0 '' N 82 ° 40 ′ 0 '' E / 71.83333 ° N 82.66667 ° E / 71.83333; 82.66667
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